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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigabyte

Gigabyte

The gigabyte () is a multiple of the unit byte for digital information. The prefix giga means 109 in the International System of Units (SI). Therefore, one gigabyte is one billion bytes. The unit symbol for the gigabyte is GB. This definition is used in all contexts of science (especially data science), engineering, business, and many areas of computing, including storage capacities of hard drives, solid state drives, and tapes, as well as data transmission speeds. However, the term is also used in some fields of computer science and information technology to denote (10243 or 230) bytes, particularly for sizes of RAM. Thus some usage of gigabyte has been ambiguous. To resolve this difficulty, IEC 80000-13 clarifies that a gigabyte (GB) is 109 bytes and specifies the term gibibyte (GiB) to denote 230 bytes. These differences are still readily seen for example, when a 400 GB drive's capacity is displayed by Microsoft Windows as 372 GB instead of 372 GiB. Analogously, a memory module that is labeled as having the size "" has one gibibyte () of storage capacity. Definition The term gigabyte has a standard definition of 10003 bytes, as well as a discouraged meaning of 10243 bytes. The latter binary usage originated as compromise technical jargon for byte multiples that needed to be expressed in a power of 2, but lacked a convenient name. As 1024 (210) is approximately 1000 (103), roughly corresponding to SI multiples, it was used for binary multiples as well. In 1998 the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) published standards for binary prefixes, requiring that the gigabyte strictly denote 10003 bytes and gibibyte denote 10243 bytes. By the end of 2007, the IEC Standard had been adopted by the IEEE, EU, and NIST, and in 2009 it was incorporated in the International System of Quantities. Nevertheless, the term gigabyte continues to be widely used with the following two different meanings: Base 10 (decimal) 1 GB = bytes (= 10003 B = 109 B) Based on powers of 10, this definition uses the prefix giga- as defined in the International System of Units (SI). This is the recommended definition by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). This definition is used in networking contexts and most storage media, particularly hard drives, flash-based storage, and DVDs, and is also consistent with the other uses of the SI prefix in computing, such as CPU clock speeds or measures of performance. The file manager of Mac OS X version 10.6 and later versions are a notable example of this usage in software, which report files sizes in decimal units. Base 2 (binary) 1 GiB = bytes (= 10243 B = 230 B). The binary definition uses powers of the base 2, as does the architectural principle of binary computers. This usage is widely promulgated by some operating systems, such as Microsoft Windows in reference to computer memory (e.g., RAM). This definition is synonymous with the unambiguous unit gibibyte. Consumer confusion Since the first disk drive, the IBM 350, disk drive manufacturers expressed hard drive capacities using decimal prefixes. With the advent of gigabyte-range drive capacities, manufacturers based most consumer hard drive capacities in certain size classes expressed in decimal gigabytes, such as "500 GB". The exact capacity of a given drive model is usually slightly larger than the class designation. Practically all manufacturers of hard disk drives and flash-memory disk devices continue to define one gigabyte as , which is displayed on the packaging. Some operating systems such as OS X express hard drive capacity or file size using decimal multipliers, while others such as Microsoft Windows report size using binary multipliers. This discrepancy causes confusion, as a disk with an advertised capacity of, for example, (meaning , equal to 372 GiB) might be reported by the operating system as "". The JEDEC memory standards use IEEE 100 nomenclature which quote the gigabyte as (230 bytes). The difference between units based on decimal and binary prefixes increases as a semi-logarithmic (linear-log) function—for example, the decimal kilobyte value is nearly 98% of the kibibyte, a megabyte is under 96% of a mebibyte, and a gigabyte is just over 93% of a gibibyte value. This means that a 300 GB (279 GiB) hard disk might be indicated variously as "300 GB", "279 GB" or "279 GiB", depending on the operating system. As storage sizes increase and larger units are used, these differences become more pronounced. US lawsuits A lawsuit decided in 2019 that arose from alleged breach of contract and other claims over the binary and decimal definitions used for "gigabyte" have ended in favor of the manufacturers, with courts holding that the legal definition of gigabyte or GB is 1 GB = 1,000,000,000 (109) bytes (the decimal definition). Specifically, the courts held that "the U.S. Congress has deemed the decimal definition of gigabyte to be the 'preferred' one for the purposes of 'U.S. trade and commerce' .... The California Legislature has likewise adopted the decimal system for all 'transactions in this state'." Earlier lawsuits had ended in settlement with no court ruling on the question, such as a lawsuit against drive manufacturer Western Digital. Western Digital settled the challenge and added explicit disclaimers to products that the usable capacity may differ from the advertised capacity. Seagate was sued on similar grounds and also settled. Other contexts Because of their physical design, the capacity of modern computer random access memory devices, such as DIMM modules, is always a multiple of a power of 1024. It is thus convenient to use prefixes denoting powers of 1024, known as binary prefixes, in describing them. For example, a memory capacity of is conveniently expressed as 1 GiB rather than as 1.074 GB. The former specification is, however, often quoted as "1 GB" when applied to random access memory. Software allocates memory in varying degrees of granularity as needed to fulfill data structure requirements and binary multiples are usually not required. Other computer capacities and rates, like storage hardware size, data transfer rates, clock speeds, operations per second, etc., do not depend on an inherent base, and are usually presented in decimal units. For example, the manufacturer of a "300 GB" hard drive is claiming a capacity of , not 300 × 10243 (which would be ) bytes. Examples of gigabyte-sized storage One hour of SDTV video at 2.2 Mbit/s is approximately 1 GB. Seven minutes of HDTV video at 19.39 Mbit/s is approximately 1 GB. 114 minutes of uncompressed CD-quality audio at 1.4 Mbit/s is approximately 1 GB. A single layer DVD+R disc can hold about 4.7 GB. A dual-layered DVD+R disc can hold about 8.5 GB. A single layer Blu-ray can hold about 25 GB. A dual-layered Blu-ray can hold about 50 GB. Unicode character The "gigabyte" symbol is encoded by Unicode at code point . See also Orders of magnitude (data) Binary prefix References External links http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/binary.html http://www.quinion.com/words/turnsofphrase/tp-kib1.htm https://www.nist.gov/public_affairs/techbeat/tb9903.htm Units of information

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-board%20diagnostics

On-board diagnostics

On-board diagnostics (OBD) is an automotive term referring to a vehicle's self-diagnostic and reporting capability. OBD systems give the vehicle owner or repair technician access to the status of the various vehicle sub-systems. The amount of diagnostic information available via OBD has varied widely since its introduction in the early 1980s versions of on-board vehicle computers. Early versions of OBD would simply illuminate a malfunction indicator light or "idiot light" if a problem was detected but would not provide any information as to the nature of the problem. Modern OBD implementations use a standardized digital communications port to provide real-time data in addition to a standardized series of diagnostic trouble codes, or DTCs, which allow a person to rapidly identify and remedy malfunctions within the vehicle. History 1968: Volkswagen introduces the first on-board computer system, in their fuel-injected Type 3 models. This system is entirely analog with no diagnostic capabilities. 1975: Bosch and Bendix EFI systems are adopted by major automotive manufacturers in an effort to improve tail pipe emissions. These systems are also analog in nature, though some provide rudimentary diagnostic capability through factory tools, such as the Kent Moore J-25400, compatible with the Datsun 280Z, and the Cadillac Seville. 1980: General Motors introduces the first digital OBD system on their 1980 Eldorado and Seville models. A proprietary 5-pin ALDL interfaces with the Engine Control Module (ECM) to initiate a diagnostic request and provide a serial data stream. The protocol communicates at 160 baud with Pulse-width modulation (PWM) signaling and monitors all engine management functions. Real-time sensor data, component overrides, and Diagnostic Trouble Codes (DTC's) are also displayed through the electronic climate control system's digital readout when in diagnostic mode. 1982: RCA defines an analog STE/ICE vehicle diagnostic standard used in the CUCV, M60 tank and other military vehicles of the era for the US Army. 1986: An upgraded version of the ALDL protocol appears which communicates at 8192 baud with half-duplex UART signaling. This protocol is defined in GM XDE-5024B. 1988: The California Air Resources Board (CARB) requires that all new vehicles sold in California in 1988 and newer vehicles have some basic OBD capability. These requirements are generally referred to as "OBD-I", though this name is not applied until the introduction of OBD-II. The data link connector and its position are not standardized, nor is the data protocol. The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) recommends a standardized diagnostic connector and set of diagnostic test signals. ~1994: Motivated by a desire for a state-wide emissions testing program, the CARB issues the OBD-II specification and mandates that it be adopted for all cars sold in California starting in model year 1996 (see CCR Title 13 Section 1968.1 and 40 CFR Part 86 Section 86.094). The DTCs and connector suggested by the SAE are incorporated into this specification. 1996: The OBD-II specification is made mandatory for all cars sold in the United States. 2001: The European Union makes EOBD mandatory for all gasoline (petrol) vehicles sold in the European Union, starting in MY2001 (see European emission standards Directive 98/69/EC). 2004: The European Union makes EOBD mandatory for all diesel vehicles sold in the European Union 2006: All vehicles manufactured in Australia and New Zealand are required to be OBD-II compliant after January 1, 2006. 2008: All cars sold in the United States are required to use the ISO 15765-4 signaling standard (a variant of the Controller Area Network (CAN) bus). 2008: Certain light vehicles in China are required by the Environmental Protection Administration Office to implement OBD (standard GB18352) by July 1, 2008. Some regional exemptions may apply. 2010: HDOBD (heavy duty) specification is made mandatory for selected commercial (non-passenger car) engines sold in the United States. Standard interfaces ALDL GM's ALDL (Assembly Line Diagnostic Link) is sometimes referred as a predecessor to, or a manufacturer's proprietary version of, an OBD-I diagnostic. This interface was made in different varieties and changed with power train control modules (aka PCM, ECM, ECU). Different versions had slight differences in pin-outs and baud rates. Earlier versions used a 160 baud rate, while later versions went up to 8192 baud and used bi-directional communications to the PCM. OBD-I The regulatory intent of OBD-I was to encourage auto manufacturers to design reliable emission control systems that remain effective for the vehicle's "useful life". The hope was that by forcing annual emissions testing for California, and denying registration to vehicles that did not pass, drivers would tend to purchase vehicles that would more reliably pass the test. OBD-I was largely unsuccessful, as the means of reporting emissions-specific diagnostic information was not standardized. Technical difficulties with obtaining standardized and reliable emissions information from all vehicles led to an inability to implement the annual testing program effectively. The Diagnostic Trouble Codes (DTC's) of OBD-I vehicles can usually be found without an expensive scan tool. Each manufacturer used their own Diagnostic Link Connector (DLC), DLC location, DTC definitions, and procedure to read the DTC's from the vehicle. DTC's from OBD-I cars are often read through the blinking patterns of the 'Check Engine Light' (CEL) or 'Service Engine Soon' (SES) light. By connecting certain pins of the diagnostic connector, the 'Check Engine' light will blink out a two-digit number that corresponds to a specific error condition. The DTC's of some OBD-I cars are interpreted in different ways, however. Cadillac (gasoline) fuel-injected vehicles are equipped with actual on-board diagnostics, providing trouble codes, actuator tests and sensor data through the new digital Electronic Climate Control display. Holding down 'Off' and 'Warmer' for several seconds activates the diagnostic mode without the need for an external scan tool. Some Honda engine computers are equipped with LEDs that light up in a specific pattern to indicate the DTC. General Motors, some 1989-1995 Ford vehicles (DCL), and some 1989-1995 Toyota/Lexus vehicles have a live sensor data stream available; however, many other OBD-I equipped vehicles do not. OBD-I vehicles have fewer DTC's available than for OBD-II equipped vehicles. OBD-1.5 OBD 1.5 refers to a partial implementation of OBD-II which General Motors used on some vehicles in 1994, 1995, & 1996. (GM did not use the term OBD 1.5 in the documentation for these vehicles — they simply have an OBD and an OBD-II section in the service manual.) For example, the 94–95 Corvettes have one post-catalyst oxygen sensor (although they have two catalytic converters), and have a subset of the OBD-II codes implemented. For a 1994 Corvette the implemented OBD-II codes are P0116-P0118, P0131-P0135, P0151-P0155, P0158, P0160-P0161, P0171-P0175, P0420, P1114-P1115, P1133, P1153 and P1158. This hybrid system was present on the GM H-body cars in 94–95, W-body cars (Buick Regal, Chevrolet Lumina ('95 only), Chevrolet Monte Carlo ('95 only), Pontiac Grand Prix, Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme) in 94–95, L-body (Chevrolet Beretta/Corsica) in 94–95, Y-body (Chevrolet Corvette) in 94–95, on the F-body (Chevrolet Camaro and Pontiac Firebird) in 95 and on the J-Body (Chevrolet Cavalier and Pontiac Sunfire) and N-Body (Buick Skylark, Oldsmobile Achieva, Pontiac Grand Am) in 95 and 96 and also on '94-'95 Saab vehicles with the naturally aspirated 2.3. The pinout for the ALDL connection on these cars is as follows: For ALDL connections, pin 9 is the data stream, pins 4 and 5 are ground, and pin 16 is battery voltage. An OBD 1.5 compatible scan tool is required to read codes generated by OBD 1.5. Additional vehicle-specific diagnostic and control circuits are also available on this connector. For instance, on the Corvette there are interfaces for the Class 2 serial data stream from the PCM, the CCM diagnostic terminal, the radio data stream, the airbag system, the selective ride control system, the low tire pressure warning system, and the passive keyless entry system. An OBD 1.5 has also been used in the Ford Scorpio since 95. OBD-II OBD-II is an improvement over OBD-I in both capability and standardization. The OBD-II standard specifies the type of diagnostic connector and its pinout, the electrical signalling protocols available, and the messaging format. It also provides a candidate list of vehicle parameters to monitor along with how to encode the data for each. There is a pin in the connector that provides power for the scan tool from the vehicle battery, which eliminates the need to connect a scan tool to a power source separately. However, some technicians might still connect the scan tool to an auxiliary power source to protect data in the unusual event that a vehicle experiences a loss of electrical power due to a malfunction. Finally, the OBD-II standard provides an extensible list of DTCs. As a result of this standardization, a single device can query the on-board computer(s) in any vehicle. This OBD-II came in two models OBD-IIA and OBD-IIB. OBD-II standardization was prompted by emissions requirements, and though only emission-related codes and data are required to be transmitted through it, most manufacturers have made the OBD-II Data Link Connector the only one in the vehicle through which all systems are diagnosed and programmed. OBD-II Diagnostic Trouble Codes are 4-digit, preceded by a letter: P for powertrain (engine and transmission), B for body, C for chassis, and U for network. OBD-II diagnostic connector The OBD-II specification provides for a standardized hardware interface—the female 16-pin (2x8) J1962 connector. Unlike the OBD-I connector, which was sometimes found under the hood of the vehicle, the OBD-II connector is required to be within of the steering wheel (unless an exemption is applied for by the manufacturer, in which case it is still somewhere within reach of the driver). SAE J1962 defines the pinout of the connector as: The assignment of unspecified pins is left to the vehicle manufacturer's discretion. EOBD The European on-board diagnostics (EOBD) regulations are the European equivalent of OBD-II, and apply to all passenger cars of category M1 (with no more than 8 passenger seats and a Gross Vehicle Weight rating of 2500 kg or less) first registered within EU member states since January 1, 2001 for petrol (gasoline) engined cars and since January 1, 2004 for diesel engined cars. For newly introduced models, the regulation dates applied a year earlier - January 1, 2000 for petrol and January 1, 2003 for diesel. For passenger cars with a Gross Vehicle Weight rating of greater than 2500 kg and for light commercial vehicles, the regulation dates applied from January 1, 2002 for petrol models, and January 1, 2007 for diesel models. The technical implementation of EOBD is essentially the same as OBD-II, with the same SAE J1962 diagnostic link connector and signal protocols being used. With Euro V and Euro VI emission standards, EOBD emission thresholds are lower than previous Euro III and IV. EOBD fault codes Each of the EOBD fault codes consists of five characters: a letter, followed by four numbers. The letter refers to the system being interrogated e.g. Pxxxx would refer to the powertrain system. The next character would be a 0 if complies to the EOBD standard. So it should look like P0xxx. The next character would refer to the sub system. P00xx - Fuel and Air Metering and Auxiliary Emission Controls. P01xx - Fuel and Air Metering. P02xx - Fuel and Air Metering (Injector Circuit). P03xx - Ignition System or Misfire. P04xx - Auxiliary Emissions Controls. P05xx - Vehicle Speed Controls and Idle Control System. P06xx - Computer Output Circuit. P07xx - Transmission. P08xx - Transmission. The following two characters would refer to the individual fault within each subsystem. EOBD2 The term "EOBD2" is marketing speak used by some vehicle manufacturers to refer to manufacturer-specific features that are not actually part of the OBD or EOBD standard. In this case "E" stands for Enhanced. JOBD JOBD is a version of OBD-II for vehicles sold in Japan. ADR 79/01 & 79/02 (Australian OBD standard) The ADR 79/01 (Vehicle Standard (Australian Design Rule 79/01 – Emission Control for Light Vehicles) 2005) standard is the Australian equivalent of OBD-II. It applies to all vehicles of category M1 and N1 with a Gross Vehicle Weight rating of 3500 kg or less, registered from new within Australia and produced since January 1, 2006 for petrol (gasoline) engined cars and since January 1, 2007 for diesel engined cars. For newly introduced models, the regulation dates applied a year earlier - January 1, 2005 for petrol and January 1, 2006 for diesel. The ADR 79/01 standard was supplemented by the ADR 79/02 standard which imposed tighter emissions restrictions, applicable to all vehicles of class M1 and N1 with a Gross Vehicle Weight rating of 3500 kg or less, from July 1, 2008 for new models, July 1, 2010 for all models. The technical implementation of this standard is essentially the same as OBD-II, with the same SAE J1962 diagnostic link connector and signal protocols being used. OBD-II signal protocols There are five signaling protocols that are permitted with the OBD-II interface. Most vehicles implement only one of the protocols. It is often possible to deduce the protocol used based on which pins are present on the J1962 connector: SAE J1850 PWM (pulse-width modulation — 41.6 kB/sec, standard of the Ford Motor Company) pin 2: Bus+ pin 10: Bus– High voltage is +5 V Message length is restricted to 12 bytes, including CRC Employs a multi-master arbitration scheme called 'Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Non-Destructive Arbitration' (CSMA/NDA) SAE J1850 VPW (variable pulse width — 10.4/41.6 kB/sec, standard of General Motors) pin 2: Bus+ Bus idles low High voltage is +7 V Decision point is +3.5 V Message length is restricted to 12 bytes, including CRC Employs CSMA/NDA ISO 9141-2. This protocol has an asynchronous serial data rate of 10.4 kbps. It is somewhat similar to RS-232; however, the signal levels are different, and communications happen on a single, bidirectional line without additional handshake signals. ISO 9141-2 is primarily used in Chrysler, European, and Asian vehicles. pin 7: K-line pin 15: L-line (optional) UART signaling K-line idles high, with a 510 ohm resistor to Vbatt The active/dominant state is driven low with an open-collector driver. Message length is Max 260Bytes. Data field MAX 255. ISO 14230 KWP2000 (Keyword Protocol 2000) pin 7: K-line pin 15: L-line (optional) Physical layer identical to ISO 9141-2 Data rate 1.2 to 10.4 kBaud Message may contain up to 255 bytes in the data field ISO 15765 CAN (250 kbit/s or 500 kbit/s). The CAN protocol was developed by Bosch for automotive and industrial control. Unlike other OBD protocols, variants are widely used outside of the automotive industry. While it did not meet the OBD-II requirements for U.S. vehicles prior to 2003, as of 2008 all vehicles sold in the US are required to implement CAN as one of their signaling protocols. pin 6: CAN High pin 14: CAN Low All OBD-II pinouts use the same connector, but different pins are used with the exception of pin 4 (battery ground) and pin 16 (battery positive). OBD-II diagnostic data available OBD-II provides access to data from the engine control unit (ECU) and offers a valuable source of information when troubleshooting problems inside a vehicle. The SAE J1979 standard defines a method for requesting various diagnostic data and a list of standard parameters that might be available from the ECU. The various parameters that are available are addressed by "parameter identification numbers" or PIDs which are defined in J1979. For a list of basic PIDs, their definitions, and the formula to convert raw OBD-II output to meaningful diagnostic units, see OBD-II PIDs. Manufacturers are not required to implement all PIDs listed in J1979 and they are allowed to include proprietary PIDs that are not listed. The PID request and data retrieval system gives access to real time performance data as well as flagged DTCs. For a list of generic OBD-II DTCs suggested by the SAE, see Table of OBD-II Codes. Individual manufacturers often enhance the OBD-II code set with additional proprietary DTCs. Mode of operation/OBD services Here is a basic introduction to the OBD communication protocol according to ISO 15031. In SAE J1979 these "modes" were renamed to "services", starting in 2003. Service / Mode $01 is used to identify what powertrain information is available to the scan tool. Service / Mode $02 displays Freeze Frame data. Service / Mode $03 lists the emission-related "confirmed" diagnostic trouble codes stored. It displays exact numeric, 4 digit codes identifying the faults. Service / Mode $04 is used to clear emission-related diagnostic information. This includes clearing the stored pending/confirmed DTCs and Freeze Frame data. Service / Mode $05 displays the oxygen sensor monitor screen and the test results gathered about the oxygen sensor. There are ten numbers available for diagnostics: $01 Rich-to-Lean O2 sensor threshold voltage $02 Lean-to-Rich O2 sensor threshold voltage $03 Low sensor voltage threshold for switch time measurement $04 High sensor voltage threshold for switch time measurement $05 Rich-to-Lean switch time in ms $06 Lean-to Rich switch time in ms $07 Minimum voltage for test $08 Maximum voltage for test $09 Time between voltage transitions in ms Service / Mode $06 is a Request for On-Board Monitoring Test Results for Continuously and Non-Continuously Monitored System. There are typically a minimum value, a maximum value, and a current value for each non-continuous monitor. Service / Mode $07 is a Request for emission-related diagnostic trouble codes detected during current or last completed driving cycle. It enables the external test equipment to obtain "pending" diagnostic trouble codes detected during current or last completed driving cycle for emission-related components/systems. This is used by service technicians after a vehicle repair, and after clearing diagnostic information to see test results after a single driving cycle to determine if the repair has fixed the problem. Service / Mode $08 could enable the off-board test device to control the operation of an on-board system, test, or component. Service / Mode $09 is used to retrieve vehicle information. Among others, the following information is available: VIN (Vehicle Identification Number): Vehicle ID CALID (Calibration Identification): ID for the software installed on the ECU CVN (Calibration Verification Number): Number used to verify the integrity of the vehicle software. The manufacturer is responsible for determining the method of calculating CVN(s), e.g. using checksum. In-use performance counters Gasoline engine : Catalyst, Primary oxygen sensor, Evaporating system, EGR system, VVT system, Secondary air system, and Secondary oxygen sensor Diesel engine : NMHC catalyst, NOx reduction catalyst, NOx absorber Particulate matter filter, Exhaust gas sensor, EGR system, VVT system, Boost pressure control, Fuel system. Service / Mode $0A lists emission-related "permanent" diagnostic trouble codes stored. As per CARB, any diagnostic trouble codes that is commanding MIL on and stored into non-volatile memory shall be logged as a permanent fault code. See OBD-II PIDs for an extensive list of this information. Applications Various tools are available that plug into the OBD connector to access OBD functions. These range from simple generic consumer level tools to highly sophisticated OEM dealership tools to vehicle telematic devices. Hand-held scan tools A range of rugged hand-held scan tools is available. Simple fault code readers/reset tools are mostly aimed at the consumer level. Professional hand-held scan tools may possess more advanced functions Access more advanced diagnostics Set manufacturer- or vehicle-specific ECU parameters Access and control other control units, such as air bag or ABS Real-time monitoring or graphing of engine parameters to facilitate diagnosis or tuning Mobile device-based tools and analysis Mobile device applications allow mobile devices such as cell phones and tablets to display and manipulate the OBD-II data accessed via USB adaptor cables or Bluetooth adapters plugged into the car's OBD II connector. Newer devices on the market are equipped with GPS sensors and the ability to transmit vehicle location and diagnostics data over a cellular network. Modern OBD-II devices can therefore nowadays be used to for example locate vehicles, monitor driving behavior in addition to reading Diagnostics Trouble Codes (DTC). Even more advanced devices allow users to reset engine DTC codes, effectively turning off engine lights in the dashboard, however resetting the codes does not address the underlying issues and can in worst case scenarios even lead to engine breakage where the source issue is serious and left unattended for long periods of time. OBD2 Software An OBD2 software package when installed in a computer (Windows, Mac, or Linux) can help diagnose the onboard system, read and erase DTCs, turn off MIL, show real-time data, and measure vehicle fuel economy. To use OBD2 software, one needs to have a Bluetooth or WIFI OBD2 adapter plugged in the OBD2 port to enable the vehicle to connect with the computer where the software is installed. PC-based scan tools and analysis platforms A PC-based OBD analysis tool that converts the OBD-II signals to serial data (USB or serial port) standard to PCs or Macs. The software then decodes the received data to a visual display. Many popular interfaces are based on the ELM327 or STN OBD Interpreter ICs, both of which read all five generic OBD-II protocols. Some adapters now use the J2534 API allowing them to access OBD-II Protocols for both cars and trucks. In addition to the functions of a hand-held scan tool, the PC-based tools generally offer: Large storage capacity for data logging and other functions Higher resolution screen than handheld tools The ability to use multiple software programs adding flexibility The identification and clearance of fault code Data shown by intuitive graphs and charts The extent that a PC tool may access manufacturer or vehicle-specific ECU diagnostics varies between software products as it does between hand-held scanners. Data loggers Data loggers are designed to capture vehicle data while the vehicle is in normal operation, for later analysis. Data logging uses include: Engine and vehicle monitoring under normal operation, for the purposes of diagnosis or tuning. Some US auto insurance companies offer reduced premiums if OBD-II vehicle data loggers or cameras are installed - and if the driver's behaviour meets requirements. This is a form of auto insurance risk selection Monitoring of driver behaviour by fleet vehicle operators. Analysis of vehicle black box data may be performed on a periodic basis, automatically transmitted wirelessly to a third party or retrieved for forensic analysis after an event such as an accident, traffic infringement or mechanical fault. Emission testing In the United States, many states now use OBD-II testing instead of tailpipe testing in OBD-II compliant vehicles (1996 and newer). Since OBD-II stores trouble codes for emissions equipment, the testing computer can query the vehicle's onboard computer and verify there are no emission related trouble codes and that the vehicle is in compliance with emission standards for the model year it was manufactured. In the Netherlands, 2006 and later vehicles get a yearly EOBD emission check. Driver's supplementary vehicle instrumentation Driver's supplementary vehicle instrumentation is instrumentation installed in a vehicle in addition to that provided by the vehicle manufacturer and intended for display to the driver during normal operation. This is opposed to scanners used primarily for active fault diagnosis, tuning, or hidden data logging. Auto enthusiasts have traditionally installed additional gauges such as manifold vacuum, battery current etc. The OBD standard interface has enabled a new generation of enthusiast instrumentation accessing the full range of vehicle data used for diagnostics, and derived data such as instantaneous fuel economy. Instrumentation may take the form of dedicated trip computers, carputer or interfaces to PDAs, smartphones, or a Garmin navigation unit. As a carputer is essentially a PC, the same software could be loaded as for PC-based scan tools and vice versa, so the distinction is only in the reason for use of the software. These enthusiast systems may also include some functionality similar to the other scan tools. Vehicle telematics OBD II information is commonly used by vehicle telematics devices that perform fleet tracking, monitor fuel efficiency, prevent unsafe driving, as well as for remote diagnostics and by Pay-As-You-Drive insurance. Although originally not intended for the above purposes, commonly supported OBD II data such as vehicle speed, RPM, and fuel level allow GPS-based fleet tracking devices to monitor vehicle idling times, speeding, and over-revving. By monitoring OBD II DTCs a company can know immediately if one of its vehicles has an engine problem and by interpreting the code the nature of the problem. It can be used to detect reckless driving in real time based on the sensor data provided through the OBD port. This detection is done by adding a complex events processor (CEP) to the backend and on the client's interface. OBD II is also monitored to block mobile phones when driving and to record trip data for insurance purposes. OBD-II diagnostic trouble codes OBD-II diagnostic trouble codes (DTCs) contain 1 letter and 4 numbers, and are divided into the following categories: B – Body (includes air conditioning and airbag) (1164 codes) C – Chassis (includes ABS) (486 codes) P – Powertrain (engine and transmission) (1688 codes) U – Network (wiring bus) (299 codes) Standards documents SAE standards documents on OBD-II J1962 – Defines the physical connector used for the OBD-II interface. J1850 – Defines a serial data protocol. There are 2 variants: 10.4 kbit/s (single wire, VPW) and 41.6 kbit/s (2 wire, PWM). Mainly used by US manufacturers, also known as PCI (Chrysler, 10.4K), Class 2 (GM, 10.4K), and SCP (Ford, 41.6K) J1978 – Defines minimal operating standards for OBD-II scan tools J1979 – Defines standards for diagnostic test modes J2012 – Defines standards trouble codes and definitions. J2178-1 – Defines standards for network message header formats and physical address assignments J2178-2 – Gives data parameter definitions J2178-3 – Defines standards for network message frame IDs for single byte headers J2178-4 – Defines standards for network messages with three byte headers* J2284-3 – Defines 500K CAN physical and data link layer J2411 – Describes the GMLAN (Single-Wire CAN) protocol, used in newer GM vehicles. Often accessible on the OBD connector as PIN 1 on newer GM vehicles. SAE standards documents on HD (Heavy Duty) OBD J1939 – Defines a data protocol for heavy duty commercial vehicles ISO standards ISO 9141: Road vehicles – Diagnostic systems. International Organization for Standardization, 1989. Part 1: Requirements for interchange of digital information Part 2: CARB requirements for interchange of digital information Part 3: Verification of the communication between vehicle and OBD II scan tool ISO 11898: Road vehicles – Controller area network (CAN). International Organization for Standardization, 2003. Part 1: Data link layer and physical signalling Part 2: High-speed medium access unit Part 3: Low-speed, fault-tolerant, medium-dependent interface Part 4: Time-triggered communication ISO 14230: Road vehicles – Diagnostic systems – Keyword Protocol 2000, International Organization for Standardization, 1999. Part 1: Physical layer Part 2: Data link layer Part 3: Application layer Part 4: Requirements for emission-related systems ISO 15031: Communication between vehicle and external equipment for emissions-related diagnostics, International Organization for Standardization, 2010. Part 1: General information and use case definition Part 2: Guidance on terms, definitions, abbreviations and acronyms Part 3: Diagnostic connector and related electrical circuits, specification and use Part 4: External test equipment Part 5: Emissions-related diagnostic services Part 6: Diagnostic trouble code definitions Part 7: Data link security ISO 15765: Road vehicles – Diagnostics on Controller Area Networks (CAN). International Organization for Standardization, 2004. Part 1: General information Part 2: Network layer services ISO 15765-2 Part 3: Implementation of unified diagnostic services (UDS on CAN) Part 4: Requirements for emissions-related systems Security issues Researchers at the University of Washington and University of California examined the security around OBD, and found that they were able to gain control over many vehicle components via the interface. Furthermore, they were able to upload new firmware into the engine control units. Their conclusion is that vehicle embedded systems are not designed with security in mind. There have been reports of thieves using specialist OBD reprogramming devices to enable them to steal cars without the use of a key. The primary causes of this vulnerability lie in the tendency for vehicle manufacturers to extend the bus for purposes other than those for which it was designed, and the lack of authentication and authorization in the OBD specifications, which instead rely largely on security through obscurity. See also OBD-II PIDs ("Parameter IDs") Unified Diagnostic Services Engine control unit Immobiliser References Notes Birnbaum, Ralph and Truglia, Jerry. Getting to Know OBD II. New York, 2000. . SAE International. On-Board Diagnostics for Light and Medium Duty Vehicles Standards Manual. Pennsylvania, 2003. . External links Directive 98/69/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 October 1998. National OBD Clearing House Center for Automotive Science and Technology at Weber State University OBD-II Codes Definition OBD-II codes definition, description and repair information. OBD2 Codes Guides OBD2 trouble codes meaning, fixes, lookup, and full list for free download United States Environmental Protection Agency OBD information for repair technicians, vehicle owners, and manufacturers OBD2 Vehicle Plug Pinouts including compatibility lists Manufacturer Specific OBD-II diagnostics pinouts and compatibility information. Automotive technologies Industrial computing Vehicle security systems

7628927

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20V.%20Tucker

John V. Tucker

John Vivian Tucker (born 4 February 1952) is a British computer scientist and expert on computability theory, also known as recursion theory. Computability theory is about what can and cannot be computed by people and machines. His work has focused on generalising the classical theory to deal with all forms of discrete/digital and continuous/analogue data; and on using the generalisations as formal methods for system design; based on abstract data types and on the interface between algorithms and physical equipment. Biography Born in Cardiff, Wales, he was educated at Bridgend Boys' Grammar School, where he was taught mathematics, logic and computing. He read mathematics at University of Warwick (BA in 1973), and studied mathematical logic and the foundations of computing at University of Bristol (MSc in 1974, PhD in 1977). He has held posts at Oslo University, the CWI Amsterdam, and at Bristol and Leeds Universities, before returning to Wales as Professor of Computer Science at Swansea University in 1989. In addition to theoretical computer science, Tucker also lectures on the history of computing and on the history of science and technology and Wales. Tucker founded the British Colloquium for Theoretical Computer Science in 1985 and served as its president from its inception until 1992. He is a Fellow of the British Computer Society and editor of several international scientific journals and monograph series. At Swansea, he has been Head of Computer Science (1994–2008), Head of Physical Sciences (2007–11) and Deputy Pro Vice Chancellor (2011–2019). He is Member of Academia Europaea. Outside of Computer Science, Tucker has been a Trustee of the Welsh think-tank, the Institute of Welsh Affairs and the chair of the Swansea Bay branch. He is also a Trustee of the South Wales Institute of Engineers Educational Trust, and the Gower Society. Professor Tucker is married to Dr. T.E. Rihll, formerly a Reader in Ancient History at Swansea University. In the early 1990s, he began to lobby for a national academy for Wales. In 2008 a process to create such an academy began sponsored by the then University of Wales. Professor Tucker is a Founding Fellow of the Learned Society of Wales and in July 2010 he was appointed as its inaugural General Secretary, a post he held until May 2017. Work on computability and data types Classical computability theory is based on the data types of strings or natural numbers. In general, data types, both discrete and continuous, are modelled by universal algebras, which are sets of data equipped with operations and tests. Tucker's theoretical work tackles the problems of: how to define or specify properties of the operations and tests of data types; how to program and reason with them; and how to implement them. In a series of theorems and examples, starting in 1979, Jan Bergstra and Tucker established the expressive power of different types of equations and other algebraic formulae on any discrete data type, guided by theorems of the form: On any discrete data type, functions are definable as the unique solutions of small finite systems of equations if, and only if, they are computable by algorithms. Their program comprehensively classified specification methods for data types. The results combined techniques of universal algebra and recursion theory, including term rewriting and Matiyasevich's theorem. For the other problems, he and his co-workers have developed two independent disparate generalisations of classical computability/recursion theory, which are equivalent for many continuous data types. The first generalisation, created with Jeffrey Zucker, focuses on imperative programming with abstract data types and covers specifications and verification using Hoare logic. For example, they showed that: All computable functions on the real numbers are the unique solutions to a single finite system of algebraic formulae. The second generalisation, created with Viggo Stoltenberg-Hansen, focuses on implementing data types using approximations contained in the ordered structures of domain theory. The general theories have been applied as formal methods in microprocessor verifications, data types, and tools for volume graphics and modelling excitable media including the heart. Work on computability and physics Since 2003, Tucker has worked with Edwin Beggs and Felix Costa on a general theory analysing the interface between algorithms and physical equipment. The theory answers various questions concerning: how algorithms can be boosted by special purpose physical devices acting as "oracles"; how algorithms control physical experiments that are designed to make measurements. By transforming the idea of oracle in computability theory, they combine algorithmic models with precisely specified models of physical processes. For example, they ask the question: If a physical experiment were to be completely controlled by an algorithm, what effect would the algorithm have on the physical measurements made possible by the experiment?Their central idea is that, just as Turing modelled the human computer in 1936 by a Turing machine, they model a technician, performing an experimental procedure that governs an experiment, by a Turing machine. They show that the mathematics of computation imposes fundamental limits on what can be measured in classical physics:There is a simple Newtonian experiment to measure mass, based upon colliding particles, for which there are uncountably many masses m such that for every experimental procedure governing the equipment it is only possible to determine finitely many digits of m, even allowing arbitrary long run times for the procedure. In particular, there are uncountably many masses that cannot be measured. Work on history of science and technology In 2007 Tucker founded the History of Computing Collection at Swansea University. He has lectured on the history of computation since 1994, with interests in computing before computers, and theories of data and computation. He is a founding member of the editorial board of the Springer book series History of Computing. He also lectures on the history of science and technology in Wales and is a founding member of the editorial board of the University of Wales Press book series Scientists of Wales. References J A Bergstra and J V Tucker, Equational specifications, complete term rewriting systems, and computable and semicomputable algebras, Journal of the ACM, Volume 42 (1995), pp1194–1230. V Stoltenberg-Hansen and J V Tucker, Effective algebras, in S Abramsky, D Gabbay and T Maibaum (eds.), Handbook of Logic in Computer Science, Volume IV: Semantic Modelling, Oxford University Press (1995), pp357–526. V Stoltenberg-Hansen and J V Tucker, Computable rings and fields, in E Griffor (ed.), Handbook of Computability Theory, Elsevier (1999), pp363–447. J V Tucker and J I Zucker, Computable functions and semicomputable sets on many sorted algebras, in S Abramsky, D Gabbay and T Maibaum (eds.), Handbook of Logic in Computer Science, Volume V: Logic and Algebraic Methods, Oxford University Press (2000), pp317–523. J V Tucker and J I Zucker, Abstract computability and algebraic specification, ACM Transactions on Computational Logic, Volume 5 (2004), pp611–668. J A Bergstra, Y Hirschfeld and J V Tucker, Meadows and the equational specification of division, Theoretical Computer Science, 410 (2009), 1261–1271. E J Beggs, J F Costa, B Loff and J V Tucker, Computational complexity with experiments as oracles, Proceedings Royal Society Series A, 464 (2008) 2777–2801. E J Beggs, J F Costa, B Loff and J V Tucker, Computational complexity with experiments as oracles II: Upper bounds, Proceedings Royal Society Series A, 465 (2009) 1453–1465. E J Beggs, J F Costa and J V Tucker, Limits to measurement in experiments governed by algorithms, Mathematical Structures in Computer Science, 20 (2010) 1019–1050. J V Tucker, Robert Recorde: data, computation and the Tudor knowledge economy, in G Roberts and F Smith (ed), Robert Recorde: Life and Work, University of Wales Press, 2012, 165–187. J V Tucker, Richard Price and the History of Science,'' Transactions of the Honourable Society of the Cymmrodorion, New Series 21 (2017), 69–86. External links Home page Interview with John Tucker The Learned Society of Wales History of Computing Collection History of Computing Book University of Wales Press History of Computing Collection Main Page Images from The HOCC HOCC Youtube Channel 1952 births Living people Academics of Swansea University Scientists from Cardiff Fellows of the British Computer Society Fellows of the Learned Society of Wales Welsh computer scientists Formal methods people Alumni of the University of Warwick Alumni of the University of Bristol People educated at Ysgol Brynteg

61341822

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019%E2%80%932021%20Persian%20Gulf%20crisis

2019–2021 Persian Gulf crisis

The 2019–2022 Persian Gulf crisis is the ongoing state of heightened military tensions between the Islamic Republic of Iran and the United States of America, along with their respective allies, in the Persian Gulf region. Starting in early May 2019, the U.S. began a buildup of its military presence in the region to deter an alleged planned campaign by Iran and its non-state allies to attack American forces and interests in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf and Iraq. This followed a rise in political tensions between the two countries during the Trump administration, which included the withdrawal of the U.S. from the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA), the imposition of new sanctions against Iran, and the designation of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) as a terrorist organization. In response, Iran designated the United States Central Command as a terrorist organization. The crisis is a concern for maritime security as the increased warlike risks present challenges for commercial shipping. Several merchant ships in the Persian Gulf were damaged in two incidents in May and June 2019. Western nations blamed Iran, while Iran denied involvement. In June 2019, Iran shot down an American RQ-4A surveillance drone flying over the Strait of Hormuz, sharply increasing tensions and nearly resulting in an armed confrontation. In July 2019, an Iranian oil tanker was seized by Britain in the Strait of Gibraltar on the grounds that it was shipping oil to Syria in violation of European Union sanctions. Iran later captured a British oil tanker and its crew members in the Persian Gulf. Both Iran and the UK later released the ships. Meanwhile, the U.S. created the International Maritime Security Construct (IMSC), which sought to increase "overall surveillance and security in key waterways in the Middle East", according to the United States Department of Defense. The crisis escalated in late 2019 and early 2020 when alleged members of the Kata'ib Hezbollah militia, part of Iraq's Popular Mobilization Forces, killed an American contractor in an attack on an Iraqi base hosting U.S. personnel. In retaliation, the U.S. conducted airstrikes against Kata'ib Hezbollah's facilities in Iraq and Syria, killing 25 militiamen. Kata'ib Hezbollah responded with an attack on the U.S. embassy in Baghdad, which prompted the U.S. to deploy hundreds of new troops to the Middle East and announce that it would preemptively target Iran's "proxies" in Iraq. Days later, the commander of IRGC's Quds Force Qasem Soleimani and PMF commander Abu Mahdi al-Muhandis were both killed in a U.S. drone strike, resulting in Iran's Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei pledging to exact revenge on U.S. forces. The U.S. deployed nearly 4,000 troops in response to the tensions, and Israel heightened its security levels. On 5 January 2020, Iran ended its commitments to the JCPOA nuclear deal, and the Iraqi parliament passed a non-binding resolution to expel all foreign troops from its territory. The U.S. and Iran nearly entered into an open conflict on 8 January 2020 when the IRGC launched ballistic missile attacks against two military bases in Iraq housing U.S. soldiers in retaliation for the killing of Soleimani, a rare direct Iran–U.S. confrontation and the closest to the brink of war between the two nations in decades. Upon initial assessments of no U.S. casualties, the Trump administration curtailed tensions by temporarily ruling out a direct military response but announcing new sanctions. It was later revealed that more than a hundred U.S. troops sustained injuries during the attacks. During the crisis, Ukraine International Airlines Flight 752 was shot down after departing from Tehran Imam Khomeini International Airport, and Western officials said the plane had been brought down by an Iranian SA-15 surface-to-air missile. On 11 January 2020, the Iranian military admitted in a statement that they had mistakenly shot down the plane due to human error. The crisis re-emerged in July 2021 after a third incident targeting merchant ships, in which two crew members were killed. An additional tanker, the MV Asphalt Princess, was captured, and subsequently released hours later. Background On 8 May 2018, the United States withdrew from the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) nuclear deal, reinstating sanctions against Iran. Iran's oil production hit a historic low as a result of these sanctions. According to the BBC in April 2019, United States sanctions against Iran "led to a sharp downturn in Iran's economy, pushing the value of its currency to record lows, quadrupling its annual inflation rate, driving away foreign investors, and triggering protests". Iranian officials have accused the U.S. of waging hybrid warfare against the country. Tensions between Iran and the U.S. escalated in May 2019, with the U.S. deploying more military assets to the Persian Gulf region after receiving intelligence reports of an alleged "campaign" by Iran and its "proxies" to threaten U.S. forces and Strait of Hormuz oil shipping. U.S. officials cited intelligence reports that included photographs of missiles on dhows and other small boats in the Persian Gulf, supposedly put there by Iranian paramilitary forces. The U.S. feared the missiles could be fired at its Navy. Belligerents Iran and allies Follwing the 2003 invasion of Iraq by the United States and allies, The Coalition Provisional Authority disbanded the Iraqi military, security, and intelligence infrastructure of former President Saddam Hussein and began a process of "de-Baathification". This move became an object of controversy, cited by some critics as the biggest American mistake made in the immediate aftermath of the fall of Saddam Hussein, and as one of the main causes of the rise of the Islamic State which in turn led to the Iranian intervention in Iraq. Several Iraqi militias who fought alongside Iran in the Iran-Iraq war, was seen as a U.S. assets in the fight against Baathist partisans because of their opposition to Saddam Hussein. Shortly after the fall of Baghdad, Badr forces and other militias with close ties to Tehran reportedly joined the newly reconstituted army, police, and Interior Ministry in significant numbers. The Interior Ministry was controlled by SCIRI, and many Badr members became part of the Interior Ministry run Wolf Brigade. Former Iraqi Interior Minister, Bayan Jabr, was a former leader of Badr Brigade militia. The U.S. began a buildup of its military presence in the region to deter what it regards as a planned campaign of belligerency by Iran and its non-state allies to attack American forces and interests in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf and Iraq. PMF and Kata'ib Hezbollah were targeted by U.S. airstrikes, claiming their proxy belligerent role on the orders of Iran. International Maritime Security Construct The International Maritime Security Construct (IMSC), formerly known as Operation Sentinel or the Sentinel Program, is a multinational maritime effort established by the U.S. to ensure gulf security following Iranian seizures of commercial tankers. Following Iran's shoot-down of a U.S. surveillance drone on 20 June 2019, the U.S. bolstered its efforts to establish a coalition to deter Iranian attacks in the Persian Gulf. On 19 July, U.S. Central Command acknowledged what it called Operation Sentinel which had the stated goal of de-escalating tensions and promoting maritime stability in international waters "throughout the Persian Gulf, Strait of Hormuz, the Bab el-Mandeb Strait (BAM) and the Gulf of Oman". Sentinel called for participating nations to provide escorts to their flagged commercial vessels in the region and for coordinating surveillance capabilities. U.S. Secretary of Defense Mark Esper later commented on the nature of the operation, stating "My view is... we would want to prevent the Iranians seizing or stopping a ship, certainly, for any arbitrary reason whatsoever". Some U.S. allies, particularly European allies, were reportedly reticent towards the Sentinel Program due to qualms associated with signing on to a U.S.-led naval effort that could potentially drag them into a confrontation with Iran; this was coupled with reports of a potential European-led naval security effort separate from the U.S. By September 2019, the U.S. had "rebranded" Operation Sentinel as the "International Maritime Security Construct", reportedly to attract more participation. In early August 2019, the United Kingdom agreed to join the U.S. in its maritime program, abandoning the idea of a European-led naval protection force. On 21 August, Australia announced it would join the U.S.-led naval coalition, with plans to deploy a P-8A Poseidon surveillance aircraft to the Middle East for one month before the end of 2019, a frigate in January 2020 for six months, and Australian Defence Force personnel to the IMSC headquarters in Bahrain. Australia ended its participation in the IMSC on 28 December 2020 after defense minister Linda Reynolds announced a shifting of naval resources to the Indo-Pacific. On 16 September, IMSC members held a Main Planning Conference aboard along with representatives from 25 additional countries where they reaffirmed commitments to the operation and discussed their efforts to enhance maritime security throughout key waterways in the region. Saudi Arabia joined the coalition on 18 September and the United Arab Emirates joined on 20 September. In November 2019, Albania became the seventh nation to join the IMSC. Lithuania joined the coalition in March 2020. Member countries Current members (Headquarters) . Former members (2019–2020) Allies and supporters On 6 August 2019, Israeli Foreign Minister Israel Katz reportedly said Israel would participate in the coalition, providing intelligence and other unspecified assistance. Japan announced on 18 October 2019 that it would not join the IMSC but would instead send its own separate naval assets to the region to guard merchant vessels "related to Japan" while still closely cooperating with the United States. A senior Japanese official said the contingency force would likely include warships and aircraft that will patrol the Gulf of Oman, the Northern Arabian Sea and other regional waters. In February 2020, as part of efforts by the Japanese government to protect the lanes that provide all the oil the Japanese economy depends on, a Japanese warship departed for the Gulf of Oman. Kuwait and Qatar expressed the intention to join in November 2019. Timeline May 2019 On 5 May 2019, then-U.S. National Security Advisor John Bolton announced that the U.S. was deploying the carrier strike group and four B-52 bombers to the Middle East to "send a clear and unmistakable message" to Iran following Israeli intelligence reports of an alleged Iranian plot to attack U.S. forces in the region. Bolton said, "The United States is not seeking war with the Iranian regime, but we are fully prepared to respond to any attack." The USS Abraham Lincoln was deployed to the Arabian Sea, outside the Persian Gulf. On 7 May, U.S. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo made a surprise midnight visit to Baghdad after canceling a meeting with German Chancellor Angela Merkel. Pompeo told Iraqi President Barham Salih and Prime Minister Adil Abdul-Mahdi they had a responsibility to protect Americans in Iraq. On 8 May, an advisor to Ayatollah Ali Khamenei said Iran was confident the U.S. was both unwilling and unable to start a war with Iran. On the same day, Iran announced that it would reduce its commitment to the JCPOA nuclear deal which the U.S. had withdrawn from. Iranian President Hassan Rouhani set a 60-day deadline for the EU and world powers to rescue the current deal before it resumed higher uranium enrichment. The United States Air Forces Central Command announced that F-15C Eagle fighter jets were repositioned within the region to "defend U.S. forces and interests in the region". On 10 May, the U.S. deployed the Marine transport ship and a Patriot surface-to-air missile (SAM) battery to the Middle East. The Pentagon said the buildup was in response to "heightened Iranian readiness to conduct offensive operations". May 2019 Gulf of Oman ship attacks On 12 May, four commercial ships, including two Saudi Aramco oil tankers, were damaged near the port of Fujairah in the Gulf of Oman. The United Arab Emirates (UAE) claimed the incident was a "sabotage attack", while a U.S. assessment reportedly blamed Iran or Iranian "proxy" elements for the attack. On 13 May, the U.S. embassy in Baghdad said U.S. citizens should not travel to Iraq and for those who were already there to keep a low profile. On the same day, The New York Times reported that Acting U.S. Defense Secretary Patrick Shanahan had presented a military plan to send as many as 120,000 troops to the Middle East if Iran attacked American forces or took steps toward developing nuclear weapons. U.S. president Donald Trump later discredited this, saying he would instead "send a hell of a lot more" than 120,000 troops if necessary. On 14 May, both Iranian and U.S. officials said they were not seeking war, even as threats and counter-threats continued. Ayatollah Khamenei downplayed the escalation, saying in comments carried on state television that "no war is going to happen," while Mike Pompeo said while on a visit to Russia, "We fundamentally do not seek a war with Iran." On the same day, Houthi rebels—which have alleged ties to Iranian elements—in Yemen carried out multiple drone attacks on a Saudi oil pipeline deep in Saudi territory. The U.S. said it believed Iran sponsored the attack, though it was unclear if the attack was particularly related to the Iran–U.S. tensions or related to the Yemeni Civil War that began in 2015 and the U.S.-backed Saudi Arabian-led intervention there. On 15 May, the U.S. State Department announced that all non-emergency staff had been ordered to leave the U.S. Embassy in Baghdad. On 19 May, President Trump warned that in the event of a conflict, it would be "the official end of Iran". Iranian Foreign Minister Mohammad Javad Zarif responded that Trump's "genocidal taunts" would not "end Iran". On the same day, a rocket exploded inside the heavily fortified Green Zone sector of Baghdad, landing less than a mile from the U.S. Embassy. On 24 May, the U.S. deployed 1,500 additional troops to the Persian Gulf region as a "protective" measure against Iran. The deployment included reconnaissance aircraft, fighter jets and engineers; 600 of the troops were given extended deployments, meaning 900 would be fresh troops. U.S. Navy vice admiral and Director of the Joint Staff Michael Gilday said the U.S. had a high degree of confidence that Iran's Revolutionary Guard was responsible for the 12 May explosions on four tankers and that it was Iranian proxies in Iraq who fired rockets into Baghdad's Green Zone. On 20 May, Trump said: "We have no indication that anything's happened or will happen" in Iran. However, on 25 May, Trump invoked a rarely used legal loophole to approve the sale of $8 billion worth of weapons to Saudi Arabia, declaring that ongoing tensions with Iran amounted to a national emergency. Weapons would also reportedly be sold to the UAE and Jordan. On 28 May, the International Atomic Energy Agency certified that Iran was abiding by the main terms of the JCPOA, although questions were raised on how many advanced centrifuges Iran was allowed to have, as that was only loosely defined in the 2015 deal. June 2019 On 1 June, President Hassan Rouhani suggested Iran would be willing to hold talks but asserted that it would not be pressured by sanctions and American military posturing. On 2 June, Mike Pompeo said the U.S. was ready for unconditional discussions with Iran on its nuclear program, but affirmed that it would not relent on pressuring Iran until it starts behaving like a "normal country". "We are prepared to engage in a conversation with no pre-conditions. We are ready to sit down," Pompeo said, while also saying Trump had always been willing to seek dialogue with Iranian leadership. Iran's foreign ministry responded stating, "The Islamic Republic of Iran does not pay attention to word-play and expression of hidden agenda in new forms. What matters is the change of U.S. general approach and actual behavior toward the Iranian nation," which it said needed "reform". The softening dialogue came amid U.S. military exercises in the Arabian Sea, which saw various aircraft "simulating strike operations"; Yahya Rahim Safavi, top military aide to Ayatollah Khamenei, said U.S. military vessels in the Persian Gulf were within range of Iranian missiles and warned that any clash between the two countries would push oil prices above $100 a barrel. On 6 June, the Houthis in Yemen shot down an American MQ-9 Reaper (Predator B) drone. The U.S. military claimed the attack was performed with Iranian assistance. U.S. Central Command commander, General Kenneth F. McKenzie Jr., warned that Iran and its "proxy" forces still posed an "imminent" threat to U.S. forces: "I think we're still in the period of what I would call tactical warning ... The threat is very real." Also on 6 June, the UAE, supported by Norway and Saudi Arabia, told the United Nations Security Council the 12 May attacks had the marks of a "sophisticated and coordinated operation", and were most likely performed by a "state actor". Video of the damage to the tankers Amjad, Al Marzoqah, A Michel and Andrea Victory was released to broadcasters. June 2019 Gulf of Oman ship attacks On 13 June 2019 two oil tankers caught fire after allegedly being attacked by limpet mines or flying objects in another incident in the Gulf of Oman. As in the May incident, the U.S. blamed Iranian forces for the attacks. On 17 June, the U.S. announced the deployment of 1,000 more soldiers to the Middle East. Sanctions and Iranian shoot-down of U.S. drone Tensions reached a new high when, on 20 June, the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps shot down a U.S. RQ-4A Global Hawk surveillance drone, saying the drone had violated Iranian airspace. IRGC commander Hossein Salami called the shoot-down a "clear message" to the U.S. while also warning that, though they were not seeking war, Iran was "completely ready" for it. U.S. Central Command later confirmed that the drone was shot down by Iranian surface-to-air missiles but denied that it violated Iranian airspace, calling it an "unprovoked attack", and that it was in international airspace over the Strait of Hormuz. Iran and the U.S. provided conflicting GPS coordinates for the drone's location, making it unclear whether the drone was within Iran's 12-mile territorial boundary. The U.S. requested a 24 June closed-door United Nations Security Council meeting to address the regional tensions with Iran, according to diplomats. Trump ordered a retaliatory military strike on Iran on 20 June, but withdrew the order minutes before the operation began. Trump said he had decided to halt the operation after being told that as many as 150 Iranians would be killed, although some administration officials said Trump had been advised of the potential casualties before he ordered the operation to be prepared. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo and National Security Adviser John Bolton reportedly objected to the reversal. On 22 June, it was reported that Trump had approved cyber attacks that disabled IRGC computer systems used to control rocket and missile launches the night of the drone-downing. The cyber strikes were handled by U.S. Cyber Command in conjunction with U.S. Central Command. It represented the first offensive show of force since Cyber Command was elevated to a full combatant command in May 2018. Also on 22 June, the U.S. Department of Homeland Security issued a warning to U.S. industries that Iran was stepping up cyber attacks on critical industries—particularly oil, gas and other energy sectors—and government agencies, and has the potential to disrupt or destroy systems. On 23 June, Iranian President Rouhani blamed the United States' "interventionist military presence" for the high tensions. Iranian Major General Gholam Ali Rashid warned the U.S. of "uncontrollable" consequences should a conflict break out. Meanwhile, during a speech in Israel, U.S. security advisor John Bolton said Iran should not "mistake U.S. prudence and discretion for weakness", emphasizing that future military options are not ruled out and that Trump had only stopped the strike from going forward "at this time". Mike Pompeo visited the Persian Gulf region for talks with Saudi Arabia and the UAE in a bid to build a coalition to combat perceived Iranian nuclear and "terror" ambitions. On 24 June, the Trump administration announced new sanctions against the Iranian government and IRGC leadership, including Supreme Leader Khamenei and his office. U.S. Treasury Secretary Steven Mnuchin said the sanctions were to block "billions" in assets. On the same day, Trump told reporters he did not need congressional consent for an initial strike on Iran. On 25 June, Iran said the new sanctions prompted a "permanent closure" of their diplomatic ties, and the regime refused to negotiate with Washington until the sanctions were lifted. On 27 June, Javad Zarif tweeted that sanctions are not an "alternative to war; they ARE war" and argued that Trump's usage of the term "obliteration" against Iran is a reference to genocide, a war crime. He also said negotiations and threats are "mutually exclusive" and called the concept of only a short war with Iran an "illusion". In classified briefings, Pompeo and other U.S. State Department and Pentagon officials reportedly advised members of the U.S. Congress on what they described as alarming ties between Iran and al-Qaeda—including giving the terrorist organization safe haven in the country. The New York Times reported that lawmakers were leery of assertions of Iranian links to al-Qaeda, notably due to concerns that the administration may be using specious assertions to build a case for military action against Iran based on the 2001 Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists—supposed links between Saddam Hussein and al-Qaeda were used as partial justification to invade Iraq in 2003. On 27 June, Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense Michael Mulroy sharply denied that Pentagon officials linked al-Qaeda to Iran during congressional meetings. "In these briefings, none of the officials mentioned al-Qa'ida or the 2001 Authorization to Use Military Force," Mulroy said, adding that he and the Defense Intelligence Agency instead "described the historical ties between Iran and the Taliban, and I explained that these ties are widely and publicly known and referenced in articles and books". Following the drone shoot-down, the U.S. continued unabated to deploy military assets to the region. By 28 June, the U.S. had deployed nearly a dozen F-22 Raptor fighter jets to Al Udeid Air Base in Qatar—the first ever deployment of F-22s to the base—to "defend American forces and interests". July 2019 Alleged U.S. downing of Iranian drones On 18 July, according to the Pentagon, took defensive action against an Iranian drone that had closed in within approximately of the ship in the Persian Gulf; U.S. forces jammed the drone, causing it to crash. Iran's Deputy Foreign Minister Abbas Araghchi denied any of the country's drones had been brought down. U.S. General Kenneth F. McKenzie Jr., commander of the U.S. Central Command, subsequently claimed that USS Boxer may have downed a second Iranian drone. British and Iranian tanker seizures On 3 July, Gibraltar enacted "Sanctions Regulations 2019" after the March 2019 Sanctions Act, referring to the EU sanctions for Syria (EU No. 36/2012). It also specified the Panama-flagged Iranian tanker Grace 1 as a ship under those regulations. On 4 July, the ship was seized by British authorities while carrying out an off-port limited logistics stop near Gibraltar, on suspicion that the vessel was carrying oil to Syria in breach of the European Union sanctions. A force of 30 Royal Marines boarded the ship from a helicopter and speedboat, accompanied by Royal Gibraltar Police officers and HM Customs Gibraltar officers. Four of the ship's crew, including the captain and chief officer, were arrested but subsequently released on bail without charge. The Spanish Foreign Office lodged a complaint with its British counterpart. Iran demanded the ship's release and denied the vessel was violating sanctions, and an official of the IRGC issued a threat to seize a British ship in retaliation. Ayatollah Khamenei described the incident as a British act of "piracy" which has been given a "legal appearance". Britain offered to release the ship in exchange for an Iranian guarantee that it would not proceed to the Syrian port of Baniyas to deliver oil to the refinery there. On 11 July, the Royal Navy frigate foiled an Iranian attempt to capture the BP-owned British oil tanker British Heritage as it transited through the Strait of Hormuz. Three boats believed to be from the IRGC approached the tanker and tried to halt it, after which HMS Montrose, which had been shadowing the tanker, moved between the boats and the tanker and trained guns on the boats, warning them to back off. The Iranian boats then turned away. The Royal Navy subsequently deployed the destroyer to the Persian Gulf to reinforce HMS Montrose. On 14 July, a Panamanian-flagged oil tanker, MT Riah, which was operating in the UAE, disappeared from ship tracking maps near Iran after crossing the Strait of Hormuz. Adding to the mystery, no entity claimed ownership of the tanker. On 20 July, the British-flagged tanker Stena Impero was seized in a raid by IRGC forces. Four small boats and a helicopter stopped the ship and Iranian commandos rappelled on board from the helicopter. The ship was taken to Bandar Abbas and its crew of 23 detained on board. On 4 September, Iran decided to free only seven crew members of the detained British tanker. A second British-owned and Liberian-flagged ship was also seized but later allowed to continue its journey. In a letter to the UN, Iran said the Stena Impero had collided with and damaged an Iranian vessel, and ignored warnings by Iranian authorities. The ship's seizure sparked a diplomatic crisis between the United Kingdom and Iran. The British government condemned the seizure of the ship and demanded its release, warning of "serious consequences". Iraqi Prime Minister Adil Abdul-Mahdi visited Iran to negotiate the release of Stena Impero at the request of the British government. Iran confirmed that it seized the ship as retaliation over the British seizure of Grace 1 in Gibraltar and hinted that it would be willing to release Stena Impero in exchange for the release of Grace 1. On 31 July, the United States sanctioned the Iranian Foreign Minister Mohammad Javad Zarif, complicating the chances of a diplomatic resolution of the crisis. August 2019: Seizure of Iraqi tanker and Grace 1 controversy On 4 August 2019, Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps seized an Iraqi tanker for allegedly smuggling oil to other Arab countries. The seven crew members on board were detained, further heightening tensions in the Persian Gulf. Three days later, Britain joined the U.S.-led International Maritime Security Construct (IMSC)—then known as the "Sentinel Program"—to protect oil tankers in the gulf and surrounding seas. On 15 August, Gibraltar released Grace 1 after receiving assurances the oil would not be sold to an EU-sanctioned entity, and after rejecting a request from the United States Department of Justice to allow them to seize the ship. The Iranian government later said it had issued no assurances that the oil would not be delivered to Syria and reasserted its intention to continue supplying oil to the Arab nation. On 16 August, the Department of Justice issued a warrant in Washington, D.C. to seize Grace 1, the cargo of oil, and $995,000 on the grounds that the profit from the ship's voyage was intended to enrich the IRGC, which the U.S. had previously designated a terrorist organization. On 18 August, Gibraltar announced that its Justice Ministry had rejected the U.S. warrant, as U.S. sanctions against Iran did not apply in the European Union, and the ship, renamed Adrian Darya 1 and registered under the Iranian flag, was expected to sail imminently from Gibraltar. After releasing the ship, the U.S. Office of Foreign Assets Control sanctioned the tanker and its captain and inputted them in the blacklist. Some days later, Brian Hook, the U.S. Special Representative for Iran, sent emails to the Indian captain of the ship and offered some million dollars in U.S. cash to steer the Adrian Darya 1 to a country where it could be seized by U.S. forces; but he rejected these offers. September–November 2019: Saudi Aramco attacks, release of Stena Impero, IMSC launches operations On 3 September, Iran announced that the oil tanker Adrian Darya 1 had delivered its cargo, defying U.S. threats. Satellite imagery had shown the tanker near Syria. On 9 September, Britain's foreign minister accused Iran of selling the oil that was carried in Adrian Darya 1 to Syria. Iran said the oil had been sold to a private company which is not an EU-sanctioned entity, so its assurance to Gibraltar had not been breached. On 14 September, the 2019 Abqaiq–Khurais attack took place—a coordinated cruise missile and drone attack that targeted the state-owned Saudi Aramco oil processing facilities at Abqaiq and Khurais in eastern Saudi Arabia. The Houthi movement in Yemen claimed responsibility, tying it to events surrounding the Saudi Arabian intervention in the Yemeni Civil War. However, claims made by some U.S. officials that the attacks originated in Iran, despite Iran's denial, further escalated the current gulf crisis. On 16 September, the IRGC seized another vessel near Iran's Greater Tunb island in the Persian Gulf. It was reported that the vessel was allegedly smuggling 250,000 litres of diesel fuel to the UAE. On 23 September, the Iranian president criticized the IMSC, the new U.S.-led maritime coalition set to patrol the region's waterways, and asked the western powers to leave the security of the Persian Gulf to them. On 27 September, the British oil tanker Stena Impero departed from Iranian waters after around two months in Iranian detention. The remainder of the ship's 23 crew members who were detained in Iran were released as well, with seven crew members already released on 4 September. On 28 September, Stena Impero, which was also able to transmit signals, docked at Port Rashid, Dubai. The same day, HMS Duncan returned to her homeport, Portsmouth naval base. On 7 November 2019, International Maritime Security Construct (IMSC) launched official operations in Bahrain to protect the shipping lanes near the troubled Iranian territorial waters. The coalition opened its command center in the kingdom, to ward off the perceived threat to the global oil supply amid the crisis. December 2019: U.S. airstrikes on Iraqi militia and attack on Baghdad embassy In early December, the Pentagon considered sending reinforcements to the Middle East to deal with escalating tensions due to attacks against international shipping through the Persian Gulf, a missile strike against a Saudi oil facility, violent crackdown of protests in Iran, and heightened Iranian activities in the region. The number of people dead in Iranian demonstrations remained disputed, though Iran had not released any official estimates. U.S. special representative for Iran Brian Hook announced that his country was offering $15 million for information concerning the whereabouts of Abdulreza Shahlai, a senior Iranian commander accused of orchestrating numerous attacks against U.S. forces in Iraq and a foiled attempt to assassinate the Saudi Arabian ambassador to the United States. On 27 December, Iran, Russia, and China began a four-day naval exercise in the Indian Ocean and the Gulf of Oman. The exercise was launched from Chabahar Port near Pakistan, and included the Chinese Type 051 destroyer Xining. The Russian Defense Ministry confirmed it had deployed ships from the Baltic Fleet in its official newspaper Krasnaya Zvezda. According to Iranian government and military officials over its state news channel Press TV, the exercise was a response to U.S.–Saudi regional maneuvers and was meant to demonstrate that Iran was not isolated despite U.S. sanctions. In contrast, the spokesman of the Chinese Ministry of National Defense, Senior Colonel Wu Qian, claimed the exercise was a "normal military exchange" unconnected to the international tensions. Also on 27 December, K-1 Air Base in Iraq's Kirkuk Governorate was attacked with Katyusha rockets, injuring several Iraqi Security Forces personnel, four U.S. soldiers, and killing a U.S. civilian military contractor. U.S. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo condemned the attacks, blaming Iranian-backed Shi'ite Muslim militias. On 29 December, U.S. airstrikes targeted Kata'ib Hizbollah facilities in Iraq and Syria killing 25 militants and injuring at least 55 others. The Department of Defense said the operation was in retaliation for repeated attacks on Iraqi military bases hosting Operation Inherent Resolve (OIR) coalition forces, particularly the K-1 Air Base attack. About 5,000 U.S. troops were present in Iraq to deal with Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant remnants and to assist the Iraqi military. Kata'ib Hezbollah denied responsibility for the attacks. On 31 December, Iran-backed militiamen under the Popular Mobilization Forces attacked the outer perimeter of the U.S. Embassy in Baghdad, prompting American diplomats to evacuate to safe rooms. The militiamen later withdrew. An additional 100 U.S. Marines were sent to reinforce the embassy. January 2020 Assassination of Qasem Soleimani and reduced Iranian nuclear commitments A major flashpoint in the crisis occurred on 3 January 2020, when President Donald Trump approved the targeted killing of Iranian Major General Qasem Soleimani in Baghdad. Iraqi paramilitary leader Abu Mahdi al-Muhandis and other IRGC and Iraqi paramilitary personnel were also killed in the drone attack. Shortly after the attack, the U.S. deployed an additional 3,000 ground troops to the Middle East, in addition to 14,000 already stationed there since May the previous year. President Trump defended the move, claiming in an interview with The Ingraham Angle on the Fox News Channel that General Soleimani was planning further attacks against four U.S. Embassies across the Middle East. This was later challenged by U.S. Defense Secretary Mark Esper in interviews on Face the Nation on CBS and State of the Union on CNN, who claimed that President Trump was not embellishing that there was an Iranian threat but that he had seen no evidence that U.S. embassies were to be targeted. As the funeral procession for Soleimani and al-Muhandis was ongoing in Baghdad, several rockets hit near the U.S. embassy and the Balad Air Base without any casualties. Amid international fears of a direct confrontation between the two nations, Trump warned Iran on 4January against attacking U.S. assets or any Americans in the region. He threatened that in the event of an Iranian attack, the U.S. would target 52 Iranian sites, including cultural sites, which represented the 52 hostages taken by Iran in 1979, and would strike "very fast and very hard". The White House officially notified the U.S. Congress about the killing of Qasem Soleimani, in accordance with the 1973 War Powers Resolution, a day after the fact. Meanwhile, thousands of people in 70 cities across the U.S. participated in antiwar demonstrations against a new conflict in the Middle East. On the same day, the UK sent two warships, HMS Kent and HMS Defender, to the Persian Gulf to protect their ships and citizens. The Royal Navy was deployed to accompany British-flagged ships through the Strait of Hormuz. On 5 January, Iran announced that it would not continue to abide by the limitations mentioned in the 2015 nuclear deal. An Iranian government statement on state television said "If the sanctions are lifted ... the Islamic Republic is ready to return to its obligations." Iran also demanded the Iraqi parliament to get rid of the American presence in their country. The Iraqi parliament passed a resolution to expel all foreign, particularly U.S., troops from Iraqi territory through a vote boycotted by Sunni and Kurdish representatives. The media initially reported that the U.S. would comply with the resolution after a draft letter from Brigadier General William H. Seely III addressed to the Iraqi Defense Ministry emerged claiming as such, but Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Mark A. Milley and Secretary of Defense Mark Esper soon clarified that the letter had been sent in error and the U.S. Armed Forces would not withdraw from Iraq. In response to the Iraqi parliament situation, Trump threatened to impose sanctions on Iraq "like they've never seen before". On 10 January, Acting Prime Minister Adil Abdul-Mahdi placed a telephone call to Secretary of State Pompeo demanding that the U.S. send a delegation "to prepare a mechanism to carry out the parliament's resolution regarding the withdrawal of foreign troops from Iraq". Pompeo rejected Prime Minister Abdul-Mahdi's requests. Shortly afterwards Iraq's highest-ranking Shia cleric, Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani, condemned the U.S.–Iran crisis. In response to Iran's violations of the 2015 nuclear deal, the United Kingdom, France, and Germany threatened to activate the deal's dispute mechanism reenacting European Union and United Nations sanctions on Iran, a move supported by the U.S. State Department. In response, the Iranian Foreign Ministry threatened a "serious and strong response", and President Rouhani made a televised Cabinet address on Iranian state television directly threatening European troops while blaming U.S. escalation for the crisis. Soon afterwards, Rouhani claimed the country was enriching uranium at a higher rate per day than before the ratification of the deal, though experts questioned the logistical reality of that claim. Meanwhile, the legality of the Baghdad Airport strike was brought into question in the U.S. and abroad. The U.S. Congress was not consulted before the attack and some congress members sought to restrict the president's ability to attack Iran. Senate Minority Leader Chuck Schumer condemned the strike, and declared that Congress needed to be consulted in advance for any such military actions. House Speaker Nancy Pelosi announced she would introduce a resolution to limit Trump's ability to take actions against Iran. On 10 January, the House ratified the resolution by a vote of 224–194. The vote was mostly conducted among party lines, with eight Democrats opposing the resolution and three Republicans favoring it. Following the killing of Soleimani, a classified intelligence briefing to the U.S. Senate by CIA Director Gina Haspel was heavily scrutinized by many congressmembers and caused many legislators to question the Trump administration's rationale for the attacks. Shortly afterwards the U.S. State Department cancelled four further briefings on the crisis to the Senate Foreign Relations Committee without rescheduling them. Representative Eliot Engel, the Chairman of the House Foreign Affairs Committee, invited Mike Pompeo to a 29 January hearing to testify on the crisis and threatened to issue a subpoena against him. IRGC ballistic missile attack and new sanctions On 8 January 2020, Iraq's Al Asad Airbase, which hosted U.S.-led coalition troops, was attacked with ballistic missiles as a part of Iran's "Operation Martyr Soleimani", named for general Qasem Soleimani. It was reported that the airbase in Erbil in Iraqi Kurdistan was attacked as well. During the attack, the IRGC declared that "fierce revenge by the Revolutionary Guards had begun", indicating it was the official response to the killing of Soleimani. Although among the facilities struck were troop sleeping quarters, some analysts suggested the strike was deliberately designed to avoid causing any fatalities to dissuade an American response. While the U.S. initially assessed that none of its service members were injured or killed, the U.S. Department of Defense ultimately said that 110 service members had been diagnosed and treated for traumatic brain injuries from the attack. During his White House address hours after the attack, Trump ruled out a direct military response, urged rapprochement with Iran, demanded NATO be more involved in regional affairs, and demanded a new Iran nuclear deal be arranged. Trump, however, also announced new sanctions on Iran and affirmed his position that Iran could not be allowed to develop nuclear weapons. On 9January, U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations Kelly Craft sent a letter to the U.N. Security Council announcing that the United States was willing to negotiate with Iran to prevent further escalation. Ayatollah Khamenei rejected the possibility of talks at any level between U.S. and Iranian officials unless the United States returned to the JCPOA; Iranian Permanent Representative to the United Nations Majid Takht-Ravanchi likewise rejected the option. Both ambassadors justified their countries' military actions under Article 51 of the United Nations Charter. On 14 January, British Prime Minister Boris Johnson encouraged the negotiation of a new nuclear deal between the Trump administration and the Iranian government, which President Trump expressed agreement with. On 10 January, the Trump administration imposed new economic sanctions targeting Iran's metals industry and eight senior officials who were involved in the prior missile attacks. According to U.S. Secretary of the Treasury Steven Mnuchin, the sanctions would affect "billions" in revenue. The U.S. also warned Iraq that it would freeze its account at the Federal Reserve Bank of New York if it continued to urge the withdrawal of American troops, which would prevent the Iraqi government from accessing oil revenues, damage the Iraqi economy, and devalue the Iraqi dinar. On 15 January, the United States and Iraq resumed joint military operations against the Islamic State after a ten-day suspension following the drone strike on Soleimani. Shoot-down of Ukrainian passenger plane Hours after the ballistic missile attacks, Ukraine International Airlines Flight 752 crashed just after taking off from Tehran International Airport, killing all 176 passengers and crew, including 82 Iranian and 63 Canadian citizens. An investigation was launched to decipher the reason for the crash. On 9January, U.S. officials said they believed the aircraft had been shot down in error by an Iranian Tor missile, based on evidence from reconnaissance satellite imagery and radar data. Iranian officials initially denied the allegations but, on 11 January, admitted to accidentally shooting down the plane. Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau urged deescalation and claimed that the United States' escalation of the conflict was partially to blame for the accident, saying "If there was no escalation recently in the region, those Canadians would be right now home with their families. This is something that happens when you have conflict and the war. Innocents bear the brunt of it." Trudeau's partial blame of the U.S. slightly worsened Canada–United States relations. The airline shoot-down also reignited anti-government protests within Iran that had previously become dormant during the massive public outcry against the death of Soleimani. Foreign ministers from the countries who lost citizens in the crash—Canada, Ukraine, Sweden, Afghanistan, and the United Kingdom—met at the Canadian High Commission in London and demanded that Iran provide compensation for families of the victims. On 3 January 2022, the Ontario Superior Court of Justice ordered Iran to pay CA$107 million (US$84 million), plus interest to the families of six individuals who died on Ukraine International Airlines Flight 752 after it was mistakenly shot down by the Iranian Revolutionary Guard after takeoff. Edward Belobaba, the judge in the case, said as part of his decision, "This court well understands that damage awards are a poor substitute for the lives that were lost. But a monetary award is the only remedy that a civil court can provide." The decision is considered to be "unprecedented in Canadian law." Further tensions and controversies On 12 January, Hezbollah Secretary-General Hassan Nasrallah called for Iran's allies in the Axis of Resistance—including Iran, the Syrian Arab Republic, Hezbollah, the Popular Mobilization Forces, and the Houthi movement in Yemen—to intensify its military campaigns against the U.S. to expel U.S. forces from the Middle East. During a state visit by Emir Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani of Qatar to Iran, Ayatollah Khamenei called for regional cooperation against the U.S. However, following discussions between Sheikh Tamim and President Rouhani, Tamim concluded that de-escalation and dialogue were the only means to resolve the regional crises. In response to the increased tensions, the U.S. Department of Homeland Security and many U.S. states released advisories warning of Iranian cyberattacks, while the Texas Department of Information Resources said Iranian cyberattacks had reached a rate of 10,000 per minute. On 17 January, Ayatollah Khamenei personally led Friday prayers in Tehran for the first time since February 2012, speaking at the Imam Khomeini Grand Mosque. During his televised sermon, Khamenei lamented the shootdown of the Ukrainian airliner, sought to present the image that the country was unified despite protests and the international crisis, and lashed out at the UK, France, and Germany, referring to them as "servants" of the "villainous" United States. Khamenei denounced the Trump administration as "clowns" and insisted that the "real punishment" for General Soleimani's assassination would be forcing American forces out of the Middle East. In response Trump, who was vacationing at Mar-a-Lago resort in Palm Beach, Florida, at the time, made posts on Twitter urging Iranian leadership to stop "killing" Iranian protesters and that it "should abandon terror and Make Iran Great Again!" One of the posts was written in both English and Persian. On the same day, the Asian Football Confederation banned Iran from hosting international football matches. On 18 January, the U.S. sanctioned Brigadier General Hassan Shahvarpour, an IRGC commander in Khuzestan Province, after security personnel fired into protesters without warning during anti-government demonstrations in Mahshahr County. On 26 January, three rockets were fired on the U.S. embassy in Baghdad, wounding at least one staff member present at the cafeteria at dinner time, with the nationality of the wounded still undisclosed, other sources reported three wounded. February–March 2020: Camp Taji attacks and reduction of coalition forces in Iraq On 9 February, during routine maritime patrols, U.S. forces aboard the (CG-60) interdicted and seized a cache of Iranian-made weapons aboard a dhow in the Arabian Sea that was purportedly en route to supply Houthi rebels in Yemen. According to the U.S., the shipment consisted of 358 weapons components, including 150 Dehlavieh anti-tank missiles, three Iranian-made SAMs, thermal imaging weapon scopes, and other components for manned and unmanned aerial and surface vessels, such as bomb boats and weaponized drones. On 10 February, the Pentagon confirmed that more than a hundred U.S. service members were injured from the 8January IRGC ballistic missile attacks, with 109 personnel diagnosed with traumatic brain injuries. On 13 February, the U.S. Senate voted 55–45 to constrain Trump's ability to wage war on Iran without congressional approval. The bipartisan vote for the Iran War Powers Resolution included eight Republican senators. Trump threatened to veto the resolution. On the same day, a rocket hit an Iraqi base in Kirkuk that housed U.S. forces. No casualties were reported. On 11 March, Qasem Soleimani's birthday, 15 Katyusha rockets struck Camp Taji, Iraq, killing two U.S. soldiers and one British soldier from the Royal Army Medical Corps. The attack left 12 other American soldiers, contractors and OIR coalition personnel (including a Polish soldier) injured, five critically. On 13 March after midnight, after a previous retaliatory operation, the U.S. launched air raids against Kata'ib Hezbollah facilities in Karbala and the Babylon area near the Karbala International Airport; the strikes reportedly killed at least three Iraqi soldiers, two policemen and one civilian. 11 Iraqi soldiers were wounded as well as five Popular Mobilization Forces fighters. On 14 March, before 11:00 AM, another rocket attack struck Camp Taji; more than 24 107mm caliber rockets struck the coalition compound and the Iraqi Air defenses installation there, injuring three coalition soldiers and two Iraqi soldiers. Iraqi forces subsequently found seven Katyusha rocket launchers with 25 rockets armed but not launched nearby. On 16 March, the U.S. announced it would pull out from three of its eight bases on Iraq, amid continued tensions with the Iraqi government and Iran. In the border crossing of al-Qaim, the U.S. handed over equipment to the Iraqi security forces to ensure border security with Syria, a significant move that effectively ended any significant U.S. presence along the Iraqi side of the border. The other two military bases later transferred to the Iraqis were the Qayyarah Airfield and the K-1 Air Base. CJTF-OIR said the base transfers and repositioning of forces were pre-planned in coordination with the Iraqi government in response to progress in the ongoing operation against ISIL and unrelated to the recent base attacks or the COVID-19 viral pandemic situation in the country. The coalition added it would relocate and consolidate personnel and equipment from several Iraqi bases throughout 2020. On 17 March, two rockets struck the Besmaya Range Complex, south of Baghdad, where Spanish troops were stationed; no casualties were reported. The gradual reduction of NATO and coalition presence in Iraq continued on 24 March when the Czech Republic withdrew troops citing security threats, the global COVID-19 pandemic, and a planned mission restructuring. 30 Czech soldiers participating in Operation Inherent Resolve and the NATO Training Mission in Iraq returned to Prague. On 25 March, France announced it would withdraw its forces from training duties in Iraq, mostly trainers to local armed forces, largely because of the COVID-19 pandemic. Iraq's military halted all training in early March to minimize the risk of the illness spreading among its forces, including from the OIR coalition. April–June 2020 On 3 April, the Chief of Staff of the Iranian Armed forces Mohammad Bagheri said, "Iran will respond severely if the United States does anything to undermine security of Iran". On 7 April, in Iraq, the coalition withdrew from the Abu Ghraib operating base, the al-Sqoor base inside Nineveh Operations Command, and the Al-Taqaddum Air Base, handing control to the Iraqi security forces. However, amidst the force consolidation, by 13 April the U.S. had also installed and activated Patriot air defense systems, an Army C-RAM system, and an AN/TWQ-1 Avenger at Al Asad Airbase and the base at Erbil (the two bases attacked by Iran in January), and at Camp Taji, after gradually moving the systems piece-by-piece into Iraq since January. CENTCOM commander Gen. Frank McKenzie said the Patriots and other systems were taken from another location where they were also needed, without saying where. U.S. Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Mark Milley also added that hundreds of troops from the 1st Brigade Combat Team, 82nd Airborne Division, which deployed to Iraq in January as an Immediate Response Force following the embassy attack, would remain until "... the situation with the Shia militia groups and Iran ... 100 percent settled down". On 14 April, an oil tanker named SC Taipei sailing under the flag of Hong Kong was seized and released the same day by armed men while anchored 3 nm off Iran's Ras Al Kuh coast. Gulf tensions remained high in mid-April between Iranian and U.S. vessels. On 15 April, during U.S. Army AH-64E Apache deck landing qualifications with the Navy in the northern Persian Gulf, 11 NEDSA speed boats began circling six U.S. vessels partaking in the exercise, including coming within 10 yards of the U.S. Coast Guard's Island-class cutter Maui (WPB-1304) and within 50 yards of the USS Lewis B. Puller (ESB-3). According to the U.S. Navy, "The IRGCN vessels repeatedly crossed the bows and sterns of the U.S. vessels at extremely close range and high speeds ... the U.S. crews issued multiple warnings via bridge-to-bridge radio, five short blasts from the ships' horns and long range acoustic noise maker devices, but received no response." The incident lasted almost an hour, until the Iranian vessels departed, and occurred about two weeks after the U.S. moved a carrier strike group out of the region. The Harry S. Truman Carrier Strike Group had departed the Middle East earlier in the month after operating in the region with the Dwight D. Eisenhower Carrier Strike Group, a rare occurrence for the Navy which has not had multiple strike groups in the region for years. On 19 April, the IRGC acknowledged that an incident took place, but dismissed the U.S. version of events. On 22 April, in response to the 15 April incident, U.S. president Trump tweeted that he instructed the U.S. Navy to "shoot down and destroy any and all Iranian gunboats" if they harassed U.S. ships. Senior Pentagon officials said the tweet reflected a lawful order that would be implemented, though it did not mark a change in the rules of engagement. President Trump vetoed a Senate resolution on 6 May that would have required him to seek congressional authorization before taking military action against Iran. On 7 May, the United States removed four Patriot missile batteries, two jet fighter squadrons and dozens of military personnel from Saudi Arabia while considering a reduction in the U.S. Navy presence in the Persian Gulf. The U.S. decision may have been related to the Russia–Saudi Arabia oil price war as it affected the U.S. oil prices. On 10 May, the Iranian frigate Jamaran accidentally launched a Noor anti-ship missile at its support vessel, the Konarak, while the latter was deploying practice targets for a naval exercise. It was later determined that 19 sailors were killed and 15 injured. Some observers concluded that the Iranian friendly fire incident typified the ongoing instability in the Persian Gulf. Fabian Hinz of the California-based Middlebury Institute of International Studies, an expert on Iran's military, said the incident "... really showed that the situation with Iran is still dangerous because accidents and miscalculations can happen". On 12 June, the United Nations concluded that the cruise missiles that struck the Saudi Aramco oil complex in September 2019 likely came from Iran. Meanwhile, on 19 June, the board of the UN's atomic watchdog agency adopted a resolution calling for Iran to provide inspectors access to sites where the country is thought to have stored or used undeclared nuclear material. On 24 June, the U.S. imposed sanctions on five Iranian tanker captains for their links to the export of Iranian gasoline and gasoline components to Venezuela. On 29 June, Iran issued an arrest warrant for U.S. president Donald Trump and 35 other individuals on "murder and terrorism charges" for the January drone strike on General Qasem Soleimani and requested international assistance in detaining him. Responding to Iran's request to issue a red notice, Interpol issued a statement that it could not comply as its charter prohibits "intervention or activities of a political, military, religious or racial character." U.S. Special Representative for Iran Brian Hook dismissed the warrant as "a propaganda stunt that no one takes seriously and makes the Iranians look foolish." Analysts and commentators identified the issuance of the warrant as symbolic rather than a genuine attempt to arrest Trump. Also on 29 June, a report by Al Arabiya released photo evidence of a wooden dhow carrying hundreds of reportedly Iranian weapons and other material bearing Persian language that was intercepted on 17 April. The dhow was found off the coast of Mocha, Yemen. Special representative Brian Hook visited Israel and Saudi Arabia and stated "Israel and the U.S. 'see eye to eye' on the need to extend the UN conventional arms embargo [against Iran], warning that its expiration would allow it to export more arms to its regional proxies." On 30 June, Chinese ambassador to the UN Zhang Jun said during a virtual UN Security Council meeting the Trump administration could not initiate a Security Council mechanism to nullify the 2015 Iran nuclear deal by re-invoking the arms embargo, saying "Having quit the JCPOA, the U.S. is no longer a participant and has no right to trigger the snapback" of sanctions. Notably, German ambassador Christoph Heusgen concurred with the Chinese stance, though echoed the U.S. concern about "the expiration of these limitations" on Iran's ability to purchase weapons. July 2020: Mahan Air intercept and Great Prophet XIV On 1 July, a fire and explosion hit a centrifuge production plant at a nuclear enrichment facility in Natanz, Iran. No deaths or injuries were reported. Israeli Defense Minister Benny Gantz denied Israeli involvement, saying "Not every incident that transpires in Iran necessarily has something to do with us." "All those systems are complex, they have very high safety constraints and I'm not sure they always know how to maintain them," Gantz told Israel Radio. On 6 July, NEDSA commander Admiral Alireza Tangsiri claimed Iran had built offshore missile facilities and underground speedboat and "missile cities" along its southern coast. Also on 6 July, the Mossad spy agency reportedly said it recently foiled planned or attempted Iranian attacks on Israeli diplomatic missions in Europe and elsewhere. On 7 July, the United Nations Human Rights Council, led by special rapporteur Agnès Callamard, concluded that the killing of General Qasem Soleimani in January 2020 by U.S. forces was "unlawful". Callamard said that based on U.S. evidence, the killing was "arbitrary" and "violated the UN charter." "No evidence has been provided that General Soleimani specifically was planning an imminent attack against U.S. interests, particularly in Iraq, for which immediate action was necessary and would have been justified," Callamard wrote. On 21 July, Ayatollah Khamenei threatened that Iran would eventually conduct a reciprocal strike against the U.S. as further vengeance for the killing of Soleimani. On 8 July, U.S. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo hinted at Iranian-links in the 6 July assassination of prominent Iraqi counter-terrorism expert Hisham al-Hashimi, highlighting threats made against him by Iranian-linked groups. On 16 July, CNN reported the U.S. had "several" intelligence indications that Iran had put portions of its air defense system on "high alert" in recent days, following unexplained explosions at key facilities tied to the country's military and nuclear programs. On 18 July, according to Iranian media, a large explosion was heard in Ahvaz; further reports linked the explosion to an oil pipeline, though this was not officially confirmed. On 24 July, two U.S. F-15 fighter jets briefly intercepted a Mahan Air passenger aircraft flying near a U.S. coalition garrison in Syria while en route from Tehran to Beirut. According to Iranian media and government officials, the intercepting F-15 made "provocative" and "dangerous" maneuvers, causing the airliner's pilot to abruptly lower altitude to avoid collision, injuring several passengers on board, with at least two taken to the hospital upon emergency landing. According to the U.S., however, the F-15s followed proper international procedure and were conducting a standard visual inspection of the airliner after it appeared "to have deviated from" an established commercial air corridor. The intercepting F-15 flew within 1,000-1,500 meters of the aircraft and then departed after identification, a U.S. official added. Iran demanded an international investigation in response to the incident and foreign minister Javad Zarif condemned the intercept and the American "occupation" in Syria as "lawlessness upon lawlessness". On 26 July, satellite imagery revealed the IRGC Navy (IRGCN) had towed a replica U.S. Nimitz-class aircraft carrier, first revealed in 2014, from a naval base in Bandar Abbas to the Strait of Hormuz a day prior in preparation for annual live-fire drills similar to the 2015 Great Prophet IX exercise. Iranian officials and state media had yet to publicly acknowledge the development. The actual USS Nimitz entered the region the week prior to replace the USS Dwight D. Eisenhower in the Arabian Sea after the latter's seven-month deployment. A spokeswoman for the United States Fifth Fleet, headquartered in Bahrain, commented that the fleet remained vigilant and questioned the "... tactical value they would hope to gain by using such a mock-up in a training or exercise scenario." U.S. special representative Brian Hook demanded Iran "spend more time on diplomacy and less time on military stunts". On 28 July, the IRGCN released footage of the drills, dubbed Great Prophet 14 (Great Prophet XIV), which included the mock carrier being assailed by commandos and a range of weaponry including limpet mines, anti-ship cruise missiles, truck-launched ballistic missiles, fast-attack speedboats, glide bombs, and, notably, Shahed 181 and 191 drones reportedly reverse engineered from the American RQ-170 drone captured by Iran in 2011. Iranian media also claimed the exercise was observed by its Nour military satellite launched in April 2020. On 31 July, Pléiades commercial satellite imagery revealed Iran's mock carrier had inadvertently capsized while being towed on its way back to port in Bandar Abbas, listing at about 90 degrees with the starboard side facing upwards and "nearly half of the flight deck submerged" in shallow water just outside the harbor entrance, posing a navigation hazard near the main approach channel. Though regional U.S. forces detected the launch of ballistic missiles during Great Prophet XIV, according to Forbes, the satellite imagery did not appear to show extensive ballistic missile damage and, in fact, revealed less overall damage to the vessel than in Great Prophet IX, leaving "the impression that the IRGCN wanted to keep the mock carrier in better condition so it could be reused more easily in future exercises." August 2020: MT Wila incident and UN arms embargo expiration On 2 August, the Iranian foreign ministry announced they would put a sanction on Richard Goldberg, a member of the Foundation for Defense of Democracies, citing Iran's Law of "confrontation with human-rights violations and USA adventuresome and terrorist measures in the region". On 6 August, China confirmed its support for United Nations Security Council Resolution 2231 and affirmed it would veto any council proposal to extend the international Iran nuclear arms embargo, stopping a U.S.-led effort to do so. On 9 August, the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) asked the UN to extend the arms embargo on Iran while, on 13 August, Saudi ambassador to the UN Abdul Aziz al-Wasel called for an embargo extension, arguing that Iran "smuggles weapons to militias to disturb the peace in the Middle East". On 15 August, the UNSC voted to deny extending the international arms embargo on Iran. Of the 15-member body, 11 members abstained while Russia and China opposed extension. Late on 12 August, the U.S. accused Iran of briefly seizing Liberian-flagged oil tanker MT Wila in the Gulf of Oman, with U.S. Central Command releasing video of apparent armed Iranian naval forces fast-roping from a Sea King helicopter and boarding the vessel. According to Coalition Task Force Sentinel, the operational arm of the IMSC maritime coalition, along with statements from an unidentified U.S. official, the seizure took place in international waters off the coast of the UAE's Khor Fakkan and the tanker was held for five hours before being released. The Wila did not make any distress calls before, during, or after the seizure and it was not immediately clear what cargo it carried or why it was seized. By 13 August, Iranian officials and state media had not publicly acknowledged the incident. On 13 August, the UAE and Israel establish full bilateral diplomatic relations. The same day, the U.S. seized Iranian fuel cargo for the first time. On 14 August, Ayatollah Khamenei again threatened retaliation against the U.S. for the assassination of General Qasem Soleimani. Also on 14 August, U.S. President Trump told reporters, "We'll be doing a snapback (trigger for sanctions)" in the UNSC. On 17 August, CNN reported that U.S. intelligence agencies assessed that Iran had offered bounties to Taliban fighters for targeting American and coalition troops in Afghanistan, identifying payments linked to at least six attacks carried out by the militant group in 2019. On 20 August, Iran summoned the UAE's chargé d'affaires in Tehran and seized a UAE ship in their territorial waters after the UAE coastguard killed two Iranian fishermen crossing into their territory northwest of Sir Abu Nuʽayr island. On 21 August, U.S. imposed sanctions on two UAE-based companies for aiding Iran's Mahan Air, stating the airliner had assisting the Syrian and Venezuelan regimes. On 22 August, U.S. State Department spokesperson Morgan Ortagus called Iran's nuclear deal "just a failed political document". On 26 August, the UNSC blocked a bid by the U.S. to trigger the snapback of all sanctions on Iran lifted by the JCPOA. An Indonesian representative said many of the 15 member states contested the move because the U.S. withdrew from the accord two years ago. September–October 2020: Alleged Iranian political meddling and UN embargoes expire Iran condemned the Arab-Israeli normalization agreements of September 2020. On 1 September, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei said that the United Arab Emirates had betrayed the Muslim world and the Palestinians in reaching a deal toward normalizing relations with Israel. On 14 September, Khamenei's top advisor Ali Akbar Velayati threatened Bahrain and Israel for normalizing relations. On 12 September, the IRGC "strongly condemned" the normalization of relations between Bahrain and Israel, referring to it as a "conspiracy organized by the White House" and threatened Bahrain with "harsh revenge." On 21 September, Bahrain's interior ministry stated that, in early 2020, they uncovered a militant attack plot after finding a planted explosive on a street believed to have been targeting a "foreign delegation" and made 9 arrests; Bahraini authorities blamed the IRGC, according to the pro-government Bahraini newspaper Akhbar Al Khaleej. On 6 September the vice president of Iran's Supreme National Defense University, General Alireza Afshar, alleged that the United States, via Oman, had confidentially threatened retaliatory missile strikes after Iran attacked Al Asad Airbase in Iraq in January 2020. The Iranian Army conducted the Joint Exercise Zolfaghar 99 military exercise between 10 and 12 September. The U.S. did not comment on the war game, nor respond to Iranian allegations of warnings to American aircraft. On 11 September, the Iranian Ministry of Foreign Affairs responded to Microsoft's allegation that Iranians were trying to influence the 2020 United States elections through spreading disinformation, stating "It does not matter who goes into the White House." Media reports emerged alleging that Ayatollah Khamenei was hoping for a less antagonistic U.S. administration in January 2021 and held the belief that increasing tensions during the U.S. presidential elections would increase Trump's chances of reelection. On 21 October, U.S. Director of National Intelligence John Ratcliffe announced that Iran and Russia had undertaken efforts to influence public opinion related to the 2020 United States presidential election. On 30 October, the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI) and Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency released an advisory warning of an Iranian advanced persistent threat that targeted U.S. voter registration data. On 14 September, a Politico report cited an anonymous U.S. intelligence community report alleging that "The Iranian government is considering an assassination attempt against the American ambassador to South Africa Lana Marks." At around 11:00 p.m., President Trump tweeted "Any attack by Iran, in any form, against the United States will be met with an attack on Iran that will be 1,000 times greater in magnitude!" Following the threat, Iran reportedly warned against making a "strategic mistake", saying "the U.S. will witness Iran's decisive response". On 16 September, U.S. special envoy to Iran and Venezuela, Elliott Abrams, said "virtually all UN sanctions on Iran will come back into place this weekend at 8:00 PM EDT on Saturday, 19 September. The arms embargo will now be re-imposed indefinitely and other restrictions will return, including the ban on Iran engaging in enrichment and reprocessing-related activities, the prohibition on ballistic missile testing and development, and sanctions on the transfer of nuclear and missile-related technologies to Iran." It was reported on 23 September that the NEDSA had built a new navy base in Sirik, Iran for full access to Hormuz Strait shipping. On 24 September, the U.S. placed sanctions on some Iranian judges, prisons, and the Shiraz Islamic Revolutionary Court for the execution of Iranian wrestler Navid Afkari on 12 September, alleging gross violations of human rights. The Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) projected that Iran's real GDP will soon collapse 12 percent, adding that the authorities' belated response "will also fuel popular anger and a humanitarian crisis." On 18 October, UN arms embargoes that barred Iran from purchasing and exporting military armaments expired, despite insistence by U.S. officials that they were still effective. On 25 October, Rotax announced they would no longer sell UAV engines to the IRGC. November–December 2020: Assassination of Mohsen Fakhrizadeh Reports emerged on 14 November that Israeli Mossad agents, at the behest of the United States, killed al-Qaeda's second-in-command, Muhammad al-Masri and his daughter in Tehran on 7 August 2020, the anniversary of the 1998 United States embassy bombings. The agents were members of Mossad's secretive Kidon unit. Iran's foreign ministry denied the reports, accusing Israel and the U.S. of deliberately attempting to portray Iran as a haven for terrorists. On 16 November, The New York Times reported that President Donald Trump inquired about military options to strike the primary Iranian nuclear enrichment facility at Natanz, but was dissuaded from further pursuing the matter by senior officials, including Vice President Mike Pence and Secretary of State Mike Pompeo, who warned it could trigger a regional conflict. On 23 November, Israeli media reported that Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, Mossad director Yossi Cohen, Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman and Mike Pompeo held a secret meeting in Neom on 22 November to discuss the normalization of relations, and Iran, but failed to reach an agreement on the former. On the same day, Houthis claimed they attacked a big oil facility north of Jeddah and southeast of Jeddah's King Abdulaziz International Airport with a Quds 2 cruise missile and damaged a distribution station. Saudi Aramco confirmed the attack and added the missile strike occurred at 3:50 a.m. and that there were no injuries or casualties. The facility is less crucial to the kingdom's oil infrastructure than the oil-processing hub of Abqaiq, which was damaged by a drone attack in 2019. Saudi brigadier general Turki Al-Maliki condemned any Iranian involvement in the attack. On 25 November, Axios reported that the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) had been ordered to prepare for possible U.S. military action against Iran before the end of President Trump's term as a precautionary measure, although no intelligence suggested this was imminent. Mohsen Fakhrizadeh-Mahabadi, a top Iranian nuclear scientist supposedly leading the country's nuclear program, was assassinated in Absard, Iran on 27 November. Fakhrizadeh's convoy was ambushed either by gunmen or by an AI-controlled lethal autonomous weapon as he was driving on a road from Tehran to his weekend villa. According to an in-depth New York Times report released in September 2021, the assassination was an operation carried out by Mossad agents, and that it had been in development since late 2019 or early 2020; the U.S. government was reportedly aware of the operation. Both Iranian and American media said Iranian citizens working for Mossad participated in the assassination. Fakhrizadeh's successful assassination and the failure of Iranian authorities to capture the assassins was seen by analysts and observers as a major failure by Iran's intelligence apparatus and a showcase of the country's inability to protect some of its important officials. An Iranian government official and state newspaper Kayhan wrote that Iran should launch a military strike on Haifa in retaliation. In the meantime, Iranian MPs proposed repealing the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons and passed a law for 20% nuclear enrichment. On 30 November, Reuters reported that Iraqi and local officials said that a senior IRGC commander, Muslim Shahdan, and three others had been killed in a drone strike near the al-Qa'im border crossing, but was unable to independently verify the claims. Iran denied the reports, with the foreign ministry stating, "We have not received any report in this regard, and it seems more like media propaganda." On 20 December, just two weeks before the one-year anniversary of the killing of Iranian general Qasem Soleimani, reports emerged that the U.S. embassy in Baghdad had come been under a rocket attack. At least eight Katyusha rockets were said to have been fired at the Green Zone, which resulted in some damage on the compound, the U.S. embassy and Iraqi military disclosed. According to CNN, at least one Iraqi soldier was wounded when one of the rockets landed close to a security checkpoint. The embassy's C-RAM defense system was said to have been activated during the attack in order to intercept the rockets January–March 2021: MT Hankuk Chemi incident and new U.S. administration On 4 January 2021, Iran seized the MT Hankuk Chemi, a South Korean oil tanker, citing "environmental reasons" and demanding money for its alleged damage to the environment. In response, South Korea dispatched anti-piracy troops. After negotiations, South Korea agreed to unfreeze billions of Iran's assets held in two South Korea banks in February 2021. The Hankuk Chemi was released on 9 April 2021. On 20 January, former U.S. vice president Joe Biden assumed office as the new president of the United States after defeating incumbent president Donald Trump in the 2020 presidential election. Iran's Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei previously warned against hopes that the new administration would be less antagonistic to Iran. On 22 January, a Twitter user claiming to be the Supreme Leader of Iran threatened former president Donald Trump with "revenge". Twitter suspended the account the same day. On 9 February, Iran's intelligence minister Mahmoud Alavi said that Iran may develop a nuclear weapon if sanctions continued. On 11 February, Iran began producing uranium metal in and violating JCPOA accords, announcing they will deny IAEA inspectors access to atomic sites. The Houthis reportedly used kamikaze drones to attack Saudi Arabia's Abha Airport on 10 February, damaging a parked airplane belonging to flyadeal. On 15 February, rocket fire targeted a military airbase in Erbil in Iraqi Kurdistan; one Combined Joint Task Force – Operation Inherent Resolve (CJTF–OIR) coalition civilian contractor was killed and eight others, including a U.S. soldier, were wounded in the attack. According to a CJTF-OIR spokesman, at 21:30, fourteen 107mm rockets were launched, with three of them landing on the Erbil base. An Iraqi civilian injured in the attack died from the wounds six days later. On 20 February, another rocket attack targeted Balad Air Base in Iraq's Saladin Governorate, wounding one South African civilian contractor working for the coalition. On 26 February, U.S. president Joe Biden ordered airstrikes against Kata'ib Hezbollah facilities in the town of Abu Kamal, Syria in retaliation for the 15 February Erbil rocket attack. The U.S. airstrikes left casualties among Kata'ib Hezbollah and Kata'ib Sayyid al-Shuhada, with the dead ranging from 1 to 17 or as high as 22 militants. Later that day, in a separate incident, an Israeli-owned Bahamas-flagged vehicle carrier, the MV Helios Ray, was hit by an explosion in the Gulf of Oman resulting in holes in both sides of the ship's hull. No injuries were reported and the ship was forced to turn back to port. On 3 March, Iraq's Al Asad Airbase was struck with rockets from east of the base; no group claimed responsibility One U.S. civilian contractor suffered a heart attack as a result of the attack. On 19 March, Israeli and American news channels reported that since 2019, Israel had attacked dozens of Iranian vessels en route to Syria. On 25 March, Israel's Channel 12 reported that the Liberian-flagged cargo ship Lori, owned by the Haifa-based company XT Management Ltd., was allegedly targeted by Iranian forces on its way between Dar es Salaam, Tanzania and Mundra, India. On 21 March, an Associated Press report cited U.S. intelligence officials as saying that the IRGC had discussed threats against Fort McNair. April–May 2021: The JCPOA Vienna talks begin On 6 April, Iran and the Biden administration agreed via intermediaries in Vienna to establish two working groups to try to get both countries back into compliance with JCPOA rules. The first working group was to focus on lifting the 1,600 sanctions imposed by the Trump administration, and the second group was to work towards getting Iran to comply with the accord's limitations on uranium stockpiles and nuclear enrichment. Iran also met with the other current members of the deal — Britain, China, France, Germany and Russia, under the chairmanship of the European Union. Iran was represented by Abbas Araghchi, the deputy foreign minister, and refused to meet directly with the U.S. for talks, with the European representatives partaking in shuttle diplomacy. On the same day, IRGC Navy (NEDSA) reconnaissance vessel Saviz was struck with several limpet mines off the coast of Eritrea in the Red Sea. A Pentagon spokesperson denied any U.S. involvement; Israel later notified the U.S. that it had carried out the attack. On 11 April, an explosion caused a power outage at Iran's Natanz nuclear facility in what Iranian authorities said was an act of "nuclear terrorism" by Israel. On 13 April, a suspected Iranian missile hit the Israel-owned Hyperion Ray cargo ship docked off Fujairah. No injuries were reported, and the ship sustained minor damage. On 14 April a drone dropped explosives on a U.S.-Iraqi base near Erbil Airport, with no reported injuries. Though an Iranian-aligned group praised the attack, no one claimed responsibility. On 18 April, three Iraqi soldiers and two foreign contractors were injured when Balad Airbase's canteen and dormitory were struck by rockets. Four rockets again struck Balad, with no casualties, on 3 May. Two rockets hit Al Asad airbase with no casualties the day after that. On 17 April, the IAEA reported that Iran's 60% uranium enrichment had begun. On 24 April, an Iranian oil tanker was set on fire after being targeted by a suspected drone strike outside the Baniyas refinery off Syria's coast. On 28 April, the USS Firebolt fired warning shots after three NEDSA fast-attack vessels came within 200 feet of it in the Persian Gulf. On 2 May, a rocket was shot down by a C-RAM defense system near Baghdad International Airport while a second rocket struck near a U.S. base in the area without causing casualties. Also on 2 May, Iran released a video depicting an attack on the United States Capitol. The video was denounced by U.S. Senator Pat Toomey who urged the Biden administration to ensure that Iran does not carry out any attacks, and to not remove sanctions. On 6 May, the US Navy cruiser USS Monterey captured an alleged Iranian weapons shipment en route to Yemen in the Arabian Sea. On 10 May, in the Strait of Hormuz, the USCGC Maui fired 30 warning shots at a squadron of 13 Iranian Revolutionary Guard fast attack craft that were harassing a flotilla of six US Navy warships escorting the guided missile submarine USS Georgia. June–August 2021 On 2 June, Iranian vessel IRIS Kharg sank near the port of Jask in the Gulf of Oman after a fire broke out. The crew was able to disembark. On 6 June, the U.S. Army C-RAM air defense system at Ain al-Assaad airbase shot down two drones which had flown over the base. Several hours earlier a rocket had been shot down at Baghdad International Airport. On 18 June, the Biden administration began to remove eight Patriot anti-missile batteries from Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Kuwait, and Iraq, in addition to the THAAD anti-missile defense system from Saudi Arabia, and announced that most jet squadrons and hundreds of American troops would be withdrawn from the region. The changes came in light of both de-escalating tensions with Iran and the new administration changing its focus to countering China. However, on 27 June, President Biden directed airstrikes against Iranian backed militia forces in Iraq and Syria, leaving at least 4 militiamen killed. The groups mounted more rocket and drone attacks against U.S. bases in retaliation. In July, Iran denied the IAEA access to the Natanz nuclear facility. On 3 July, a formerly-Israeli cargo vessel, CSAV Tyndall, which docked in Jeddah and was heading towards Jebel Ali, UAE, was struck by an "unknown weapon" and damaged while traveling in the northern Indian Ocean. No one claimed responsibility for the attack, but Iran was blamed by Israeli officials. No injuries were reported. On 5 July, three rockets landed in Al Asad Airbase, without causing casualties. On 6 July, a drone targeted the U.S. base near Erbil airport; no casualties or damage reported. On 8 July, 14 rockets struck Al Asad Airbase and its perimeter, leaving two U.S. servicemen with minor injuries. On 14 July, the Biden administration created a sanctions exemption on Iranian-seized capital in South Korea and Japan, allowing Iran to use its frozen funds to compensate the two countries. Meanwhile, it was announced that the U.S. Department of Justice had recently charged ten people over an attempted kidnapping of Brooklyn resident journalist and Iranian government critic Masih Alinejad, and others, by alleged Iranian agents in the U.S. and Canada. On 29 July, Ayatollah Khamenei said that despite the new administration, the "cowardly" U.S. could not be trusted. July 2021 Gulf of Oman ship attack On the night of 30 July, the Liberian-flagged oil tanker MT Mercer Street reportedly came under attack off the coast of Oman in the Arabian Sea. The ship was operated by the London-based Zodiac Maritime, part of Israeli billionaire Eyal Ofer's Zodiac Group. Two crew members, a British and Romanian national, were killed in the attack. The Royal Navy's United Kingdom Maritime Trade Operations (UKMTO) said the attack happened at a location just northeast of the Omani island of Masirah. Israeli officials did not immediately acknowledge the attack, but Israel's Channel 13 quoted a senior Israeli official saying that the attack was "carried out by Iran with the help of a UAV." Later, the U.S. 5th fleet said explosive experts believed a "drone strike" targeted the tanker. American, European, and Israeli officials blamed the attack on Iran and Israeli Prime Minister Naftali Bennett said that Israel would retaliate. Iran's Al-Alam News Network quoted unidentified sources who said the attack was a response for the "latest Israeli airstrikes on 'Dabaa airport' in Syria," which the outlet said resulted in two unspecified fatalities, but the Iranian government formally denied involvement in the attack and said it would respond to any retaliation. August 2021 Gulf of Oman hijacking incident On 3 August, four oil tankers named Queen Ematha, Golden Brilliant, Jag Pooja, and Abyss, which were sailing in the Gulf of Oman, announced around the same time that they were "not under command." Around the same time, the UK Maritime Trade Operations reported an incident off the coast of the UAE, which it described as a "potential hijack" of a tanker named Asphalt Princess, where a group of eight or nine armed individuals were believed to have boarded the vessel without authorisation and ordered the ship to sail to Iran. On 4 August, the UKMTO said that the hijackers had left the vessel and the incident was "complete". On 10 August, an oil tanker, Wisdom, which had been used to transfer oil from Iran to Syria, was hit by a mysterious explosion while being moored at the port of Latakia, which left two people injured. The attack raised suspicion that it may have been a retaliatory strike for alleged Iranian attacks on shipping in the region. September–December 2021 On 9 September, the U.S. 5th Fleet commissioned Task Force 59, a first-of-its-kind task force with the aim of rapidly integrating "unmanned systems and artificial intelligence with maritime operations" in the fleet's area of operations—which encompasses nearly 2.5 million square miles of water area and includes the Arabian Gulf, Gulf of Oman, Red Sea and parts of the Indian Ocean—and would cooperate with Bahrain and other regional partners. "When you scale quickly, you can start to close those maritime domain awareness gaps, and then you can … deter the illicit and malign activity that's happening over here, whether it's on the low end, illegal fishing [or] on the high end, weapons transfers supporting the Houthis in the southern Red Sea," Captain Michael D. Brasseur, the task force's first commodore, would later say. The task force began taking inventory of unmanned systems in the region for potential reinvigoration with the help of new AI and machine learning tools, as well as commercial robotics that could be acquired and repurposed for military missions. On 13 October, the Israeli minister of foreign affairs, Yair Lapid, announced all options were being considered in coercing Iran to terminate their enrichment of uranium. Meanwhile, on 19 October, the Israeli defence minister cited Iran as a threat while asking for a higher budget; NIS ₪5 billion (US$1.5 billion) was allocated for procuring more weapons, including bolstered funding for aircraft, communications technology, UAVs, and unique offensive armaments. On 26 October, Iranian fuel stations and road electronic billboards were hit by a cyber attack. On 3 November, the IRGC stated they thwarted an attempt by the U.S. to capture and detain a tanker carrying Iranian oil in the Gulf of Oman by carrying out a heliborne operation and directing the ship back to Iran's territorial waters. The Pentagon rejected the Iranian claims and stated that Iranian forces had actually seized a Vietnamese-flagged oil tanker earlier in October. Vietnam later verified its tanker vessel, the MV Sothys, was captured by Iranian forces and that its ministry of foreign affairs had held talks with Iranian authorities to settle the incident. On 15 November, the Iranian Navy flew a helicopter within 23 meters of the American amphibious assault ship USS Essex, circling the ship three times. The Israeli defence minister said on 18 December that he presented the U.S. defense secretary with a timeline for a strike on Iranian soil. Iranian commander Major General Gholam Ali Rashid threatened Israel with a full counterattack. In an operation that began on 20 December, the U.S. Navy interdicted and seized a large cache of weapons and ammunition from a "stateless fishing vessel" in the North Arabian Sea. Sailors found 1,400 Kalashnikov-style rifles and 226,600 rounds of ammunition along with five Yemeni crew members. The cache was transferred to the USS O'Kane (DDG-77), the boat was sunken, and the Yemenis were set to be repatriated. The Bahrain-based U.S. Fifth Fleet accused Iran of smuggling weapons to Yemen, saying the boat was sailing on a route "historically used to traffic weapons unlawfully to the Houthis in Yemen" and added that Iran's alleged "direct or indirect supply, sale or transfer of weapons to the Houthis" violated UN Security Council resolutions and U.S. sanctions. Iran's mission to the UN did not immediately respond to the accusations. The Fifth fleet said it had thus far confiscated around 8,700 illicit weapons in 2021 across the 2.5 million-square-mile area it patrols. An Iranian military maneuver on 24 December involved a tactical ballistic missile test that was condemned by Britain. The test was reportedly a warning to Israel. January 2022 On 5 January 2022, the U.S 'Green Village' military base, near the town of Mayadin, Syria, was attacked by Iranian-backed militias, who fired 8 rockets at the military base causing minor damage only. Several suspected launch sites were destroyed by U.S forces shortly after the attack. The attack comes shortly after the 2nd anniversary of the U.S assassination of an Iranian General in 2020. On 13 January 2022, unidentified militants launched several rockets at the US Embassy in Baghdad, Iraq. A woman and a child were wounded in the attacks. On 17 January, Yemenite Houthis attacked industrial targets in the United Arab Emirates with missiles and drones, setting fuel trucks on fire and killing three foreign workers. The Saudi-led coalition responded with airstrikes on a detention centre in Yemen, killing at least 70 and injuring others. On 24 January, Patriot interceptors shot down missiles fired by Houthi forces at a base hosting US troops in Abu Dhabi. February 2022 NEHSA, Iranian developed ballistic missile. Reactions International : Foreign Minister Wang Yi said regarding the ongoing situation between the U.S. and Iran, "China resolutely opposes the U.S. implementation of unilateral sanctions and so-called 'long arm jurisdiction', understands the current situation and concerns of the Iranian side, and supports the Iranian side to safeguard its legitimate rights and interests." : Foreign Minister Jean-Yves Le Drian said, regarding the nation's stance on tensions between the U.S. and Iran, that France does not need American approval to negotiate with Iran, and he criticized Trump's approach on the tensions alongside other French diplomats calling it "Twitter Diplomacy". : On 26 September 2019, Prime Minister Narendra Modi met with Iranian President Rouhani at the UN General Assembly in New York City, the Indian government said about the meeting that Modi had "reiterated India's support for giving priority to diplomacy, dialogue and confidence-building in the interest of maintaining peace, security and stability in the Gulf region". : The Omani Foreign Ministry released a statement calling upon Iran to release the British oil tanker Stena Impero, which was captured by Iran in response to the British capture of an Iranian tanker in Gibraltar. The ministry also called upon Iran and the United Kingdom to resolve the dispute with diplomacy. : The Foreign Office strongly condemned the drone attacks on Saudi oil facilities, reiterating its full support and solidarity to Saudi Arabia against any threat to its security and territorial integrity. "Such acts to sabotage and disrupt commercial activities causing fear and terror cannot be condoned we hope that such attacks will not be repeated given the potential damage they can cause to the existing peaceful environment in the region." On 17 September, Prime Minister of Pakistan Imran Khan phoned Saudi crown prince, Mohammad Bin Salman condemns attack on oil facilities, during the conversation with MBS vowed to full support and solidarity with the brotherly country Kingdom of Saudi Arabia against any terrorist attack and reiterated that Pakistan will stand with Saudi Arabia in case of any threat to sanctity or security of Harmain Shareefain. Following the targeted killing of Qasem Soleimani Pakistan, Pakistani Army spokesman announced that "Pakistan will not allow their soil to be used against any of the conflicting parties". Pakistani Foreign Minister Shah Medmood also indicated that "Pakistan will not take sides in the escalating confrontation between neighboring Iran and the United States". : Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov questioned American claims about the shootdown of an Iranian drone, saying the evidence was vague, and saying the U.S. had no "intelligent data" to prove the drone was Iranian. : Saudi crown prince Mohammad bin Salman said: "We do not want a war in the region... But we won't hesitate to deal with any threat to our people, our sovereignty, our territorial integrity, and our vital interests." : UAE officials met with their Iranian counter-parts including Iran's border police force and its head General Qasem Rezaee to discuss naval traffic in the Strait of Hormuz. According to Iranian state-run media, after the meeting the head of the UAE's coast guard was quoted as saying "the intervention of some governments on the front lines of navigations is causing problems in a region that has good relations," while adding "we need to establish security in the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman." : In response to Gibraltar, the U.K. released the Iranian oil tanker Grace1, which was suspected to be headed towards Syria with Iranian oil. The U.S. has threatened to sanction anyone who has dealings with Grace1 and also expressed disappointment with the United Kingdom for allowing the ship to be released. Other Mullah Krekar, the former leader of the Iraq-based insurgent group Ansar al-Islam, said that in a war between the U.S. and Iran, should the crisis evolve into one, he would support Iran—it would be similar to supporting Hezbollah in a war against Israel. Muqtada al-Sadr, a Shia cleric and leader of Peace Companies, in response to the ongoing tensions posted on Twitter, "War between Iran and the U.S. will be an end of Iraq," and in another instance said, "Any party that would drag Iraq into the war and turn it into a scene for conflict will be an enemy to the Iraqi people," and further stated his view of excluding Iraq from a potential war between the U.S. and Iran saying, "I'm against dragging Iraq into this war and making it a scene for the Iranian-U.S. conflict" In ISIL's weekly online newspaper al-Naba the group's stance on the tensions between the U.S. and Iran was published, the group said it equally opposes both sides and criticized al-Qaeda for its alleged reliance on Iran and stated had it not been for al-Qaeda's past orders not to attack Iran while ISIL was part of al-Qaeda it would have attacked Iran earlier, and that ISIL would carry out attacks against the U.S. and Iran equally, the article ended with a supplication asking God to incite a war between Iran and the U.S. so it could bring victory for ISIL. refused U.S. requests to hold an Iranian oil tanker stating it would contradict the law of the European Union. In a statement the government said, "The EU sanctions regime against Iran—which is applicable in Gibraltar—is much narrower than that applicable in the U.S.," adding "The Gibraltar Central Authority is unable seek an Order of the Supreme Court of Gibraltar to provide the restraining assistance required by the United States of America." On 21 September 2019, the Syrian National Coalition which represents the Syrian Opposition and Syrian Interim Government released a statement after the Abqaiq–Khurais attack saying: "The Syrian National Coalition once again warns of the dangers of the inaction towards Iran's actions in Syria, Lebanon, and Yemen and the wars it manages in the region directly or indirectly as well as its latest aggression against the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia." Adding "The coalition reaffirms it will continue to stand by the leadership and people of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in its fight against terrorism as it extends its thanks and appreciation for the Kingdom's efforts and positions in support of the rights of the Syrian people and their legitimate demands." On the 18th anniversary of the 11 September attacks, al-Qaeda's leader Ayman al-Zawahiri in a video commemorating the attacks claimed America had empowered Iran and that the two work together, saying, "It is ironic that Shi'a militias were fighting in Iraq against the self-proclaimed Caliph, [Islamic State leader] Ibrahim al-Badri, with American air and artillery cover, and under the leadership and planning of American advisors. From the battlefield..." adding "The point is that Iran has an understanding with the Americans in Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria, and Yemen. It only differs with them on the returns of this arrangement. At times it signs accords with them; when it is unsuitable for them, it continues its policy of blackmail." Reza Pahlavi, heir to the defunct Empire of Iran, who is exiled in the U.S. said that he supported pressure on Iran and supported the killing of Soleimani "as a breakthrough that is positive for the region". He also said that the Iranian government would collapse "within months" due to the protests. See also 2020s in political history 2020 Iran explosions Iran–United Kingdom relations Iran–United States relations Related issues War in Iraq (2014–2017) American-led intervention in Iraq (2014–2021) Iranian intervention in Iraq (2014–present) Iraqi protests (2019–2021) Syrian Civil War American-led intervention in the Syrian Civil War Yemeni Civil War (2014–present) Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen Regional conflicts Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988) Tanker War Gulf War (1990–1991) Iraq War (2003) List of modern conflicts in the Middle East Second Cold War References External links Gulf crisis. BBC Mathias Hartwig, Tanker Games—The Law Behind the Action, EJIL:Talk (Blog of the European Journal of International Law), 20 August 2019 Pirate Party Germany: Der Iran und die Straße von Hormuz—Analysis by Foreign Policy Group of German Pirate Party about the incident Timeline of tanker events A nasty, brutal fight; what a U.S.–Iran war would look like. The bottom line: It'd be hell on earth. By Alex Ward. 3 January 2020 Ongoing conflicts Conflicts in 2019 Conflicts in 2020 Conflicts in 2021 Conflicts in 2022 2010s conflicts 2020s conflicts 2019 in Iraq 2020 in Iraq 2021 in Iraq 2022 in Iraq 2019 in Iran 2020 in Iran 2021 in Iran 2022 in Iran 2019 in Saudi Arabia 2020 in Saudi Arabia 2021 in Saudi Arabia 2022 in Saudi Arabia 2019 in the United Arab Emirates 2020 in the United Arab Emirates 2021 in the United Arab Emirates 2022 in the United Arab Emirates 2019 in Oman 2020 in Oman 2021 in Oman 2022 in Oman 2019 in Yemen 2020 in Yemen 2021 in Yemen 2022 in Yemen 21st-century military history of the United Kingdom 21st-century military history of the United States Drone warfare History of the Persian Gulf History of the Red Sea Arabian Sea Gulf of Oman Strait of Hormuz Strait of Gibraltar History of the Royal Navy International maritime incidents Iran–Israel proxy conflict Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict Iran–Saudi Arabia military relations Iran–United Arab Emirates relations Iran–United States military relations Iran–United States proxy conflict Iran–United Kingdom military relations Presidency of Donald Trump Presidency of Joe Biden

28891010

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Core%20Security%20Technologies

Core Security Technologies

Core Security by HelpSystems is an American computer and network security company provides cyber threat prevention and identity access management software products and services, including penetration testing, network traffic analysis, threat detection, privileged access management, and identity governance The company’s research arm, CoreLabs, identifies new IT security vulnerabilities, publishes public vulnerability advisories, and works with vendors to assist in eliminating the exposures they find. In February 2019, HelpSystems acquired the Core Security products from SecureAuth. HelpSystems is a global enterprise software company working in the areas automation and cybersecurity. History In 1996, Core Security was founded in Buenos Aires, Argentina. One year later, the CoreLabs Research group was established and published their first advisory. Core conducted its first penetration test for a U.S. company in 1998. In the same year, Core Security was recognized as an "Endeavor Entrepreneur" by the Endeavor Foundation, a foundation that supports entrepreneurial projects in emerging markets. In 2000, the company's first U.S. office opened in New York, NY. Two years later, Core released the first and second versions of their flagship penetration testing product, Core Impact Pro. In 2002, Morgan Stanley became a shareholder in Core, investing USD 1.5 million and retaining a seat on the board. In 2003, the company's U.S. headquarters was relocated from New York to Boston, MA. Five years later, Mark Hatton became the CEO of Core Security. In 2009, Core adds development sites in Boston and India. One year later, Core announced the beta of its new security testing and measurement product, Core Insight. In 2012, Core announces partnership with nCircle. In the same year, Core announces partnership with NT Objectives. In 2013, Core Security is named to the 2013 Inc. 500/5000 List. The firm, at the time, employed 180 people, 150 of whom are based in Buenos Aires. In 2014, Core Security Adds Intrinium to its Partner Program and extends its reach to the Pacific Northwest. In the same year, Core Security announced the latest version of its Core Attack Intelligence Platform. Also in 2014, Core Security won the Information Security Magazine and SearchSecurity.com 2014 Readers' Choice Awards for "Excellence in Vulnerability Management." In December 2015, Core Security was acquired by identity and access management (IAM) company Courion; in May 2016, Courion rebranded itself with the Core Security name. In July 2016, Core Security Technologies acquired Damballa for $US 9 million. In 2017, Core Security merged with SecureAuth. In 2019, HelpSystems acquired the Core Security solutions from SecureAuth. On March 4, 2020, Core Security by Helpsystems acquired Cobalt Strike. Research and advisories According to its website, Core Security's research department, Core Labs, conducts research in system vulnerabilities, cyber attack planning and simulation, source code auditing and cryptography. Core Labs publishes security advisories, technical papers, project information and shared software tools for public use, with its researchers participating in IT security research conferences including the Black Hat Briefings. See also Security testing Vulnerability Management References External links Computer security software companies Computer security companies Data analysis software Software testing Technology companies based in the Boston area Companies based in Buenos Aires Technology companies established in 1996

4676956

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DePaul%20University%20College%20of%20Law

DePaul University College of Law

The DePaul University College of Law is the professional graduate law school of DePaul University. The College of Law’s facilities encompass nine floors across two buildings, with features such as the Vincent G. Rinn Law Library and Leonard M. Ring Courtroom. The law school is located within two blocks of state and federal courts, as well as numerous law firms, corporations and government agencies. The 2021 edition of U.S. News & World Report ranked DePaul Law 118 among U.S. law schools and placed its health law and intellectual property programs among the top 25% of all U.S. law schools. History DePaul College of Law started in 1897 as Illinois College of Law, founded by Howard N. Ogden. It was the only law school not on the East Coast to offer both day and evening classes. DePaul University acquired Illinois College of Law in 1912. This purchase benefited both institutions and saw the law school’s enrollment double to approximately 400 students. Ogden stayed on as the College of Law’s dean, and he became the first non-Catholic trustee of the University. Three years later, upon Ogden’s death, DePaul obtained full ownership of the law school. Originally housed at 64 East Lake Street, DePaul Law moved to its current home in the Lewis Center at 25 East Jackson Boulevard in 1958. Formerly known as the Kimball Building, it was gifted to DePaul in 1955 by the Frank J. Lewis Foundation. At that time, it was the largest gift received by the University. In 1972, DePaul purchased the Finchley Building next door and would later rename it Comerford J. O'Malley Place (commonly known as “O’Malley Place”) in honor of the former president and chancellor of DePaul. Also that year, DePaul Law opened its first legal clinic. Rankings and Accolades U.S. News & World Report (2022 Edition) rankings: Best Law Schools: #111 out of 198 law schools Health Law Program: #23 of 181 law schools (top 20%) Intellectual Property Law Program: #30 of 187 law schools (top 25%) Legal Writing Program: #41 out of 176 law schools (top 25%) Part-Time Law: #26 out of 70 law schools In 2019 and 2020, preLaw magazine awarded “A” ratings to College of Law programs in: Business Law Family Law Health Law Human Rights Law Intellectual Property Law International Law Princeton Review named DePaul College of Law a Top Law School in 2019 and 2020. Illinois Super Lawyers selected 592 DePaul Law alumni as Illinois Super Lawyers in 2020. In 2019, Illinois Super Lawyers named 390 DePaul Law alumni as Illinois Super Lawyers (the most from any Illinois law school) and selected 168 as Rising Stars. Statistics Student body For the 2020 entering class, DePaul Law had 147 full-time students and 24 part-time students with a median LSAT of 155. Ages for all students ranged from 19-54 with a median age of 24 for full-time students and 28 for part-time students. Inclusiveness and Diversity Its 2020 entering class was 29% minority students and 56% female students. The College has a full-time director of "diversity, inclusion and student life" and has created a "Diversity Council" as one of its primary alumni boards. Costs For the 2020-2021 academic year, full-time tuition is $48,670 and part-time is $31,620. Bar Passage Based on the most recent ABA Bar Passage report, in 2019, DePaul Law had a total of 213 graduates. The total first-time Bar takers in any jurisdiction was 192, and the total who passed the Bar in any jurisdiction was 133. Employment Based on the ABA Employment Summary for the Class of 2020, a total of 89.2% of the Class of 2020 obtained employment within 10 months of graduation. Academics and Curriculum DePaul Law offers students the opportunity to earn several different degrees, including LLMs and joint degrees with other colleges within the University. DePaul Law has 38 full-time faculty members and 109 part-time faculty members, many of whom have experience in various areas of law, business and other professional sectors. Degree Programs DePaul Law offers a wide variety of certificate and degree programs: 12 Juris Doctor (JD) certificates: Art & Museum Law; Business Law; Criminal Law; Family Law; Health Law; Health Care Compliance; Information Technology, Cybersecurity & Data Privacy Law; Intellectual Property; International and Comparative Law; Patent Law; Public Interest Law; and Taxation Seven Joint Degrees: BA/JD (3+3 program with College of Liberal Arts and Social Sciences and College of Communication); JD/Master of Arts in International Studies; JD/Master in International & European Business Law; JD/Master of Business Administration; JD Master of Science in Computer Science; JD/Master of Science in Public Service Management; JD/LLM Five Master of Law (LLM) degrees: Health Law; Intellectual Property Law; International Law; Taxation Law; and U.S. Legal Studies Six Master of Jurisprudence (MJ) concentrations: Business Law & Taxation; Criminal Law; Health Care Compliance; Health Law; International & Comparative Law; and Public Interest Law Programs of Excellence DePaul Law has six "Programs of Excellence". Business Law & Tax Law Family Law (Schiller DuCanto & Fleck Family Law Center) Health Law (Mary and Michael Jaharis Health Law Institute) Immigration Law & Human Rights Law (International Human Rights Law Institute) Intellectual Property Law & Information Technology Law (Center for Intellectual Property Law & Information Technology (CIPLIT®); Center for Art, Museum & Cultural Heritage Law) Public Interest Law & Public Service (Center for Public Interest Law) Other Centers and Institutes include the Center for Animal Law and the Center for Jewish Law & Judaic Studies Annual Events Throughout the year, DePaul College of Law hosts many symposia and programs covering legal topics. Annual events include: The Clifford Symposium on Tort Law and Social Policy is not only DePaul Law’s longest running program but also is the longest running civil justice symposium in the country. Established in 1994 by Robert Clifford (JD ’76), this two-day event looks at real world legal issues and provides real world solutions. Recent topics have included the opioid crisis, dark money and judicial elections, and patient safety. The Enlund Scholar-In-Residence Program was established in 1988 by alum E. Stanley Enlund, and the lecture provides unique perspectives on law and social justice. Recent topics have included immigration enforcement during the Trump Administration, the emotional root of law, and Puerto Rican statehood. The Jaharis Symposium on Health Law and Intellectual Property is an interdisciplinary symposium that focuses on the legal, technological and social ramifications of the changing medical landscape. Recent topics have included genetics, biohacking, and telehealth. The Family Law Symposium is hosted by the Schiller DuCanto & Fleck Family Law Center, and this annual day-long event looks at relevant issues involving family law such as elder law, public benefits, and guardianship. The Intellectual Property Scholars Conference (IPSC) was founded by DePaul Law in 2000. IPSC brings together intellectual property scholars from across the world to present their works-in-progress and benefit from the feedback of colleagues. Held at DePaul Law every four years (most recently in 2019), the conference is co-sponsored by the IP programs at UC Berkeley School of Law, Benjamin N. Cardozo School of Law at Yeshiva University, and Stanford Law School. The DePaul Law Review Symposium and the DePaul Business & Commercial Law Journal Symposium are hosted by two of the school’s law journals and cover timely legal issues and topics while also providing journal content. Campus and Facilities As part of the DePaul University Loop Campus, DePaul Law occupies nine floors of the Lewis Center and O’Malley Place buildings, which are located on the corner of Jackson Boulevard and Wabash Avenue. They include smart, technology-enabled classrooms, as well as student lounges and meeting areas. The Leonard M. Ring Courtroom offers a simulated space to practice advocacy skills, while the three floors of the Vincent G. Rinn Law Library contain an extensive collection of legal texts and places for study and research. The DePaul University Loop Campus also includes the DePaul Center, which houses the University’s main Loop library, a Barnes & Noble, University Ministry, and shops and restaurants. DePaul’s Colleges of Business, Communications, Continuing and Professional Studies, and Computing and Digital Media are also located on the Loop Campus. Student Opportunities Experiential Learning Clinics The College of Law’s legal clinics allow students to assist clients who are facing real legal issues. Available to second- and third-year students, DePaul Law offers nine in-house and field clinics. Asylum & Refugee Business Law Civil Litigation & Health Law Civil Rights Criminal Appeals Croak Community Legal Clinic Family Law Immigration Law Technology/Intellectual Property Legal Writing DePaul Law’s Legal Analysis, Research & Communication (LARC) Program begins with a three-semester sequence of classes that culminates in a legal writing course. Beginning Fall 2020, students will be placed in one of six specialized Legal Writing sections: Business Law, Family Law, Health Law, Intellectual Property Law, Litigation or Public Interest Law. Third Year in Practice Program (3YP) One of DePaul Law’s offerings is the Third Year in Practice (3YP) Program. 3YP provides qualifying students with the opportunity to engage in the actual and simulated practice of law by employing a combination of select courses and field placements to facilitate a student’s transition into the practice of law based on their professional interests. Student Organizations Organizations and affinity groups include the Asian Pacific American Law Students Association, the Black Law Student Association, OUTlaws, the Public Interest Law Association, and the Society for Asylum & Immigration Law, among many others. Journals DePaul Law publishes five academic journals: Law Review Business and Commercial Law Journal Journal of Art, Technology & Intellectual Property Law Journal of Health Care Law Journal for Social Justice The DePaul Law Review and the DePaul Business and Commercial Law Journal also host annual symposia. Notable alumni The following are some of DePaul Law's most notable alumni. Government Albert E. Bennett, Illinois State Senator Michael A. Bilandic, former mayor of Chicago and Chief Justice of the Illinois Supreme Court Richard J. Daley, former mayor of Chicago Richard M. Daley, former mayor of Chicago Kirk Dillard, Chairman, Regional Transportation Authority; former Illinois State Senator Benjamin L. Hooks, American civil rights leader, executive director of the NAACP (1977 to 1992) J. Elmer Lehr, former Wisconsin State Senator Erica MacDonald, United States Attorney for the District of Minnesota Richard A. Napolitano, Illinois State Representative John Stroger, former president of the Cook County Board of Commissioners; namesake of Stroger Hospital Samuel Skinner, former U.S. federal prosecutor for the Northern District of Illinois and U.S. Treasury Secretary and Chief of Staff under President George H.W. Bush Juliana Stratton, Lieutenant Governor of Illinois Charles E. Tucker, Jr., retired U.S. Air Force major general and executive director of the World Engagement Institute (WEInstitute) Judiciary The Honorable William J. Bauer, senior judge, United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit The Honorable Thomas Durkin, U.S. District Judge, Northern District of Illinois The Honorable Lee M. Jackwig, United States Bankruptcy Judge, Southern District of Iowa The Honorable Franklin Valderrama, U.S. District Judge, Northern District of Illinois Business Jack M. Greenberg, former chairman and CEO of McDonald’s Corporation Michael Jaharis, founder of Kos Pharmaceuticals and Vatera Healthcare Partners LLC, and co-founder of Arisaph Pharmaceuticals Andrew J. McKenna, chairman emeritus of McDonald’s Corporation Harry Nicholas Pritzker, entrepreneur and philanthropist, patriarch of the Pritzker Family Law Robert A. Clifford, prominent Chicago trial attorney Gerald D. Hosier, intellectual property attorney and patent litigator Perry Wilbon Howard, attorney and Republican civil rights activist from Mississippi Sidney Korshak (1908–1996), an attorney best known as a liaison between the Chicago Outfit crime syndicate and corporate Hollywood, was a DePaul College of Law graduate. He is the subject of numerous biographies and articles. Korshak, was widely considered to be a power broker in Hollywood and was reportedly one of the inspirations for Robert Duvall's character in The Godfather. James Lyons, prominent Denver attorney and former federal judicial nominee to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit George Remus, notorious Chicago criminal defense attorney and, later, bootlegger in Cincinnati, Ohio, known as the “King of the Bootleggers,” was an Illinois College of Law graduate. Arts Chaz Ebert, CEO and publisher of Ebert Digital, which runs RogerEbert.com Dennis Shere, author Jody Weiner, novelist, non-fiction author, film producer and lawyer Notable faculty Former M. Cherif Bassiouni (professor 1964–2012) held the title of distinguished research professor of law at DePaul and was nominated for a Nobel Peace Prize in 1999 for his work on behalf of the International Criminal Court. He taught international criminal law and served as the president of DePaul's International Human Rights Law Institute. In 2007, he was awarded the Hague Prize for International Law for his "distinguished contribution in the field of international law". Susan Bandes is Centennial Distinguished Professor Emeritus at DePaul Law. She is one of the most widely cited law professors in the field of criminal law and procedure, and one of the founders of the field of Law and Emotion. Her book The Passions of Law is referred to as a "groundbreaking anthology" and a "high water mark" of the emerging discipline of the study of law and emotion." Erwin Chemerinsky (assistant professor, 1980–83; associate professor, 1983–1984) is a nationally known professor of constitutional law and federal civil procedure, currently dean of the University of California, Berkeley School of Law. At DePaul, he taught courses in administrative law, constitutional law, federal courts, and a seminar on law and the mass media. He was recognized by DePaul as an "Outstanding Teacher" in 1983. Clarence Darrow, a criminal defense attorney known for the Scopes Trial and the Leopold and Loeb case, among others, was an early adjunct professor at the College. James Fleissner (visiting professor 2003–2005) served as deputy to Special Counsel Patrick Fitzgerald in the Justice Department investigation into allegations that one or more government officials illegally disclosed the identity of a CIA agent. He is a professor at Mercer University's Walter F. George School of Law in Macon, Georgia. While at DePaul, he taught criminal law, criminal procedure and evidence. Current Roberta Kwall is the Raymond P. Niro Professor at DePaul Law; the founder of the Center for Intellectual Property Law & Information Technology (CIPLIT) at DePaul Law; and the author of several books, including Remix Judaism: Preserving Tradition in a Diverse World, (Rowman & Littlefield, 2020) and The Soul of Creativity (Stanford U. Press, 2010.) References External links Official website Catholic law schools in the United States College of Law Educational institutions established in 1912 Law schools in Illinois 1912 establishments in Illinois

40862159

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gladiators%20%281992%20British%20TV%20series%29

Gladiators (1992 British TV series)

Gladiators is a British television sports entertainment game show. An adaptation of the American programme and its format, American Gladiators, and was produced by LWT for ITV from 10 October 1992 to 1 January 2000, with a revival made for Sky 1 between 2008 and 2009. The programme's format sees four contestants, two male and two female, compete in a series of physical events against the show's "Gladiators", eventually competing in one final event, with contestants aiming to secure a place in the grand final and be crowned champion for their respective series. There were no prizes awarded to the winner in any episode, until the final. The show was presented by Ulrika Jonsson throughout its original run, alongside John Fashanu (1992–96, 1999–2000) and Jeremy Guscott (1997–98), with John Sachs providing commentary on each event, and John Anderson refereeing the contests. A group of cheerleaders also accompanied the show, known as the "G-Force". The success of the British series spawned further adaptations in Australia and other countries, while a children's version for the UK, entitled Gladiators: Train 2 Win, was also created and broadcast on CITV between 1995 and 1998. Format The series involves contestants battling against a 'Gladiator' in a number of events to secure points for the final event, The Eliminator. Typically, four contenders would appear in each episode, two male (Red and Blue) and two female (Pink and Yellow), and each contender would compete in five or six events, depending on the series or time constraints. In each event, the contenders will score a number of points, usually ten for a win. Typically, both male and female contenders would compete in the same events; however, during series six, this format was removed, and female contenders would play easier games, whilst the male contenders would play more difficult games. Once all five or six games are played, the number of points is totalled and the contestant with the highest number of points gets a headstart in The Eliminator assault course with every point ahead of their competitor worth half a second. The winner of The Eliminator then goes on to compete in the next round. A typical series contains fifteen episodes – eight heats, four quarter finals, two semi-finals and the grand final. Occasionally, a celebrity or charity special will be broadcast after the grand final. Mini series, such as the final season (series 8), would consist of 3 episodes: 2 heats and a grand final. Events Despite being made by London Weekend Television, all episodes of Gladiators, International Gladiators, the second series of The Ashes and the first series of Springbok Challenge were recorded at the National Indoor Arena in Birmingham, whose ITV provider was Central Television. The first series of The Ashes and The Springbok Challenge II were filmed at the locations of the Australian and South African series respectively. After series one, which had 6 events always in the same order; Atlaspheres, The Wall, Danger Zone, Swingshot, Hang Tough and Duel, the line-up changed from series to series, with new events being added every year and randomised. However 2 events never made it onto the televised show (Breakthrough & Conquer and Cyclotron). Over the years some were dropped due to safety reasons (Tilt, Joust, Pole-Axe and Pyramid) although the latter 2 returned with safety modifications and one just disappeared without any explanation despite being both popular with viewers and was not known to have caused any injuries (Pursuit). Cast and crew Presenters Over the course of the 8 domestic series, Gladiators had 3 main presenters. Former TV-am weather presenter Ulrika Jonsson was with the show from the first episode and in many ways was the main anchor due to her TV background. Despite having no hosting experience, footballer John Fashanu was given the role of male host of the series. For Series 6 and 7 he was replaced by rugby player Jeremy Guscott. The Gladiators Notes Both Cobra and Lightning were never originally intended to be Gladiators. Instead, they trained and entered as contestants, and it wasn't until hours before the first recording that it was decided two more Gladiators would be required for the series. This is the reason neither appear on the cover of the music CD that was released to accompany the series. They were both upgraded to full-time participants in show three, and both remained until the very end of the programme. Saracen originally auditioned to be a contestant. After stunning producers in training, he was offered a role on the main Gladiator team. Fox originally appeared as a contestant during the Wembley live shows of 1993. She was hand-picked to be a reserve Gladiator for the sixth series, however, she ended up becoming a full-time participant after Gold injured herself during training. When the British series ended, Fox became a member of the South African Gladiators team, appearing in their final domestic season. Laser originally trained and entered as a contender but was later made into a reserve Gladiator due to several Female Gladiators being unable to compete due to ongoing injury problems. She later ended up becoming a full-time Gladiator, even appearing in the Second Ashes series. Vulcan joined the British Gladiators series after his native Australian edition of the series was cancelled. In international Gladiators 2 and both Ashes competitions, he competed for Australia. Wolf later became the team coach for the new set of Gladiators, who appeared in the 2008 revival of the series. Diesel and Vulcan only participated in the "Battle of the Giants" special in season 8. Contenders Applicants who wanted to take part in the show had to go through rigorous fitness tests before they were selected to take part. Footage of several of the tests was broadcast during behind-the-scenes segments during both the first and second series. Notable competitors on the show include future British 400-metre hurdler Chris Rawlinson, Wales International Rugby Union winger Glen Webbe, female wrestler Non Evans (who appeared only once during the sixth series) and cage fighter Alex Reid during the seventh series. Most competitors achieved brief local fame, but series three women's champion Eunice Huthart earned great recognition, and briefly presented late night television before becoming Angelina Jolie's stunt double in Hollywood films. Several competitors from the show's history later went on to appear on Total Wipeout, the most notable being series seven contestants Colm Curran and Micah Hudson. Series 5 winner Mark Mottram went on to become a professional stuntman and was Pierce Brosnan's stunt double in the James Bond films. He appeared in Batman (as Heath Ledger's double). He is married to Debbie Carpeter Mottram, who was a cheerleader he met on Gladiators. Series 1 winner Weininger Irwin appeared in the BBC Two series Back in Time for Brixton in November 2016, in which a family experience 50 years of black British history; in one episode, he and his family watched his victory in the first series final. Champions Sam Codjoe reached the series 3 final. However he was injured at the beginning of Powerball, the fourth game of the night, as a result of a mistimed tackle from Shadow and was replaced by Phil Campbell (whom he defeated in his semi-final). The £2,000 runner up cheque was equally split between the two as both were deemed to have competed in three games. John Anderson John Anderson has been the head official. Before every event he called: "Contender ready! Gladiator ready!. " similar to his American counterpart, Larry Thompson, but he added a countdown, "Three! Two! One!" before starting the game. During celebrity specials Anderson took a more light-hearted attitude to the show such as adapting his call to "Little contender ready!" when Willie Carson took part. John had an assistant on the show, known as the "Official Timekeeper". The role was predominately filled by Andrew Norgate, who was also an associate producer, from the second series on 18 September 1993 to the eighth series on 1 January 2000. Norgate was replaced by athlete Derek Redmond for series 3 (1994) and Eugene Gilkes for series 6 (1997) and also for the 1998 Springbok Challenge series; his arch-nemesis is male gladiator Wolf. Spin-off In the late 1990s, when the popularity of the programme began to wane, a spin-off entitled Gladiators: Train 2 Win was produced and was broadcast on CITV in 1996, based on Gladiators 2000, the children's version of American Gladiators. The show featured two teams of children, each captained by a gladiator (varying each week) which sought to gain the most points. Some of the games differed from those on the parent show; for example, the "Eliminator" round was more similar to the "Pursuit" round (though it still featured the famous "Travelator"). Controversies During the first season in 1992, on the first game of The Wall, Contender Nicola Bawden slipped away from Scorpio (Nikki Diamond). Scorpio had managed to get hold of her, but she slipped off moments later and dropped to the floor. It turned out that Bawden had greased her legs. It also turned out that Bawden had undone her laces so that Scorpio could not hold onto her trainers. Although this wasn't explored on the actual programme, the incident was given a mention on the show's first home video release, Into the Arena, as Scorpio made a complaint. After reviewing the footage, referee John Anderson ruled that while Bawden did use excessive grease on her legs there was no actual rule prohibiting this therefore she was allowed to retain the points she had earned. However Anderson also said that Bawden's actions were not in the spirit of competition, and so new rules were immediately put in place to prevent her or any other contestants from trying the same trick. Scorpio was shown to be unhappy with the referee's ruling and with Bawden's apparent lack of sportsmanship, but when Bawden advanced to the semi-final Scorpio would get another chance to pull her off the wall and was successful on her second attempt. After the Wembley live shows in 1993, Phoenix (Sandy Young), Flame (Kimbra LeAnne Standish) and Hawk (Aleks Georgijev) were sacked from the show, having received the lowest number of votes from fans in a magazine poll. Series director Nigel Lythgoe was heavily criticised for the decision and was slammed by TV critics for such ruthlessness. For reasons unknown, Bullit (Mike Harvey), who also appeared at the live shows, was never transferred to the television series. He was dropped for unknown reasons, and despite many press articles regarding the incident, no reason for his departure was ever given. During the third season in 1994, Panther (Helen O'Reilly) suffered one of the worst injuries seen on the show when she fell from her platform during Tilt and severely injured her back. She returned to the show later in the season and remained with the show for a further two years before retiring permanently. After the third season in 1994, a newspaper uncovered evidence that Shadow (Jefferson King) had taken steroids. King later confirmed the rumours were true and was sacked shortly afterwards. In 2021 he was jailed for 6 years for the kidnapping, beating, and false imprisonment of Aaron Ali. Season five became known as the "season of injury". Before filming started Jet (Diane Youdale) retired after being injured during a live show in Sheffield on Pyramid. This led to the event being dropped for the upcoming season five. Amazon (Sharron Davies) severely injured her knee during training and had to retire from the show (she did however appear on all publicity material for this season). Laser was brought in as a replacement and even used the same costume but with minor changes. Laser made her debut in the fifth episode. Zodiac's (Kate Staples) appearances were limited to only 2, both on Danger Zone, due to an injury on Pole Axe during training. She retired permanently the following year. Nightshade (Judy Simpson) made only sparse outings during the season due to a severe virus picked up the previous year in Australia during filming for the first Ashes series. She had to be helped off after a game of Skytrak by the training team and her final appearance came when beaten on her speciality event, Duel, the only defeat she suffered during domestic competition. Also during the fifth series in 1996, it was reported by the media that Hunter (James Crossley) and presenter Ulrika Jonsson were in a relationship. Although heavily denied at the time, Jonsson later admitted it in her 2003 biography. After the sixth season in 1997, Warrior (Michael Ahearne) was sacked from the show. Format changes Season seven (1998) saw an overhaul: two new male Gladiators joined the team, Diesel and Vulcan. Vulcan was the "bad boy" of the Australian version of the show. He was brought in to be a rival for Wolf. Behind the scenes aspects were added including clips of the contenders selections and training as well as clips showing the contenders choosing which Gladiator they would face on a certain game via coin toss. Three new games were introduced: Catapult, Dogfight and Vertigo. This was the most new events introduced in a single season since 1994. However, all three failed to go down well with viewers. As well as the three new games, three established events (Powerball, Pendulum and Gauntlet) had rule changes. Another change was the Gladiators' costumes; the emblems (bow for Hunter, playing cards for Ace etc.) were removed and a standardised outfit was brought in: red for females and blue for males. The actual "cut" of each gladiator costume remained the same from the previous season. The basic design was part of the word "Gladiators" written in black on each outfit. Despite the changes, viewing figures continued to drop and the series was axed on 11 February 1999. However, ITV agreed to film another four episodes. These episodes were filmed in spring 1999 at the National Indoor Arena, Birmingham, consisting of a three-part mini-series which saw previous winners compete to be crowned "Champion of Champions" and a one off special entitled "Battle of the Giants" where male gladiators competed against each other for the title of "Ultimate Gladiator". The honour went to Hunter (James Crossley). These 3 episodes attracted good ratings for the time slot with the series making it into a new millennium, finally bowing out on New Year's Day 2000. Transmissions Domestic International The Ashes Springbok Challenge Live shows For four years a series of 'live' shows were played in the Spring ahead of the recording of the televised series. These shows were used to roadtest new event concepts and new Gladiators. 1993 Venue: Wembley Arena, London, England Presenters: John Fashanu and Ulrika Jonsson Female Gladiators: Flame, Jet, Lightning, Panther, Phoenix, Scorpio, Zodiac Male Gladiators: Bullit, Cobra, Hawk, Saracen, Shadow, Trojan, Warrior, Wolf Referee: John Anderson Timekeeper: Andrew Norgate Dates: 26–28 March The first set of live shows was used to roadtest three new potential events ahead of the televised series. One of the events, Tilt, would be used in the televised series with little modification. Joust was also roadtested in this series with pugil sticks being used but the sybikes were much larger and lower to the ground than the events ultimate appearance in the televised series. A third new event taken from the American series, Breakthrough And Conquer, was also roadtested but would not be taken forward. An 'updated version' of Duel on a rocking suspension bridge using pugil sticks was also played and this format would be modified and played as a new game called Suspension Bridge in the 1993 televised series. Atlaspheres, The Wall and the Eliminator were also played. Three new Gladiators, Bullit, Trojan and Zodiac were included in these shows. For unknown reasons Bullit did not appear in the televised series (though would finally appear in a Legends episode of the 2008 revival series). These shows would be the last to feature Flame, Phoenix and Hawk who were dropped before the 1993 televised series. Some of the contenders from these shows went on to be in the televised shows. One of the contenders, Tammy Baker, would later become a Gladiator, Fox, from 1997 onwards. Highlights from these shows were shown in a preview episode to the 1993 series and whilst footage of him playing was included, there was no specific reference to Bullit (or Flame, Phoenix and Hawk). 1994 Venue: Wembley Arena, London, England Presenters: John Fashanu and Ulrika Jonsson Female Gladiators: Falcon, Jet, Lightning, Nightshade, Panther, Scorpio, Zodiac Male Gladiators: Cobra, Hunter, Saracen, Shadow, Trojan, Warrior, Wolf Referee: John Anderson Timekeeper: Derek Redmond This set of live shows saw the entire 1993 team return. Cobra suffered an ankle injury during the shows and had to be sidelined. Only one new event was roadtested in this series, Cannonball Run, which was later used in the 1994 televised series under the name Hit & Run. Atlaspheres, The Wall, Powerball, Hang Tough, Duel and The Eliminator were also played. Some of the contenders from these shows went on to be in the televised shows. 1995 Venue: Sheffield Arena, Sheffield, South Yorkshire, England Presenters: John Fashanu and Ulrika Jonsson Female Gladiators: Blaze, Falcon, Jet, Lightning, Nightshade, Panther, Vogue, Zodiac Male Gladiators: Cobra, Hunter, Raider, Rhino, Saracen, Trojan, Warrior, Wolf Referee: John Anderson Timekeeper: Andrew Norgate Four new Gladiators were introduced in these shows over Easter 1995, with Raider, Rhino and Vogue going on to take part in The Ashes series in Brisbane shortly afterwards before taking part in the 1995 televised series. The third new Gladiator, Blaze, was the 1994 female champion and International Gladiators 1 champion Eunice Huthart. However following these shows, Huthart wanted to compete as a UK challenger for The Ashes series and stepped down as a Gladiator. Unlike the other live shows, these shows took place in Sheffield Arena which was smaller than Wembley Arena. Pendulum had been intended to be roadtested in these shows but the arena was too small to fit the safety net. Instead Joust was played despite it being one of the least used events in the televised series and only making one appearance in the 1995 televised series before being axed. Powerball, Pyramid and Atlaspheres were also played, with Saracen injuring his knee during Powerball. 1996 Venue: Wembley Arena, London, England Presenters: John Fashanu and Ulrika Jonsson Female Gladiators: Amazon, Falcon, Jet, Lightning, Nightshade, Panther, Rebel, Rio, Vogue, Zodiac Male Gladiators: Ace, Cobra, Hunter, Rhino, Saracen, Trojan, Warrior, Wolf Referee: John Anderson Timekeeper: Andrew Norgate Dates: 11–14 April Number of shows:7 The final set of live shows saw the introduction of Ace, Rebel and Rio as Gladiators – all of whom would go on to appear in that years televised series. Jet would suffer an injury during Pyramid in which she fell awkwardly trapping nerves in her neck and she retired from competition after this event. Amazon, who herself had picked up an injury on Pyramid to her knee, would quit between these shows and the 1996 televised series. Pyramid itself would be axed following both these injuries and a leg injury to Rhino during filming of the event on International Gladiators 2 the year before. Sumo Ball was roadtested in these shows and would feature as the only new event of the 1996 televised series. Other events played were Atlaspheres, Powerball, Gauntlet, Hang Tough and the Eliminator. Royal Tournaments In 1997 and 1998 a short segment of Gladiators was introduced to the Royal Tournament event at Earls Court after London Weekend Television won the broadcasting rights from the BBC. Duel would feature in the 1997 Royal Tournament and Pursuit featured in the 1998 Royal Tournament despite it having been axed after the 1996 series. For its Royal Tournament appearance, Pursuit saw a ten-second headstart (rather than three) for the contenders with the course being a sprint round a cone, web trap (over), low wall, web trap (under), hand ladder, high wall, sprint round a cone, spaghetti junction (used in the Eliminator in 1996) and sprint finish. The balance beam and wire bridge from the televised series course were not used. Fox, Rocket, Khan and Hunter took part in the shows despite Rocket and Khan not appearing in the 1998 series and the Gladiators (except Hunter) not having had chance to play Pursuit in the televised series. Merchandise During the show's first three seasons, popular model makers Hornby made a selection of action figures and playsets based on the show. The first wave of figures consisted of Jet (B800), Shadow (B801), Wolf (B802), Saracen (B803), Cobra (B804), Warrior (B805) and generic figures of a Male Contender (B806) and Female Contender (B807). The first wave of playsets included Duel (B821, which contained American-style Ramrods), Atlasphere Attack (B822, which contained a yellow Atlasphere and a Wolf figure), Danger Zone (B823, with Warrior figure), Atlasphere Challenge (B824, blue and red Atlaspheres with Cobra and Male Contender figures), Super Duel (B825, with Shadow and Male Contender figures), and The Ultimate Challenge (B826, which contains all of the above). B823 was due to include a Hawk Action figure, but due to his departure from the show, a figure was never released. The second wave of figures included Trojan (B815), Hunter (B816), Zodiac (B817) and Panther (B818), as well as revised versions of Jet (B800) and Wolf (B802). A second wave of playsets included The Wall (B827). A final wave of figures were released for the first International Gladiators series. These consisted of a revised version of Hunter, and figures of Hawk (United States), Terminator (Finland) and Dynamite (Russia). In 1995, McDonald's gave away an exclusive range of figures through a Happy Meal promotion. These consisted of new models of Trojan, Wolf, Jet, Lightning, and the previously unreleased Rhino. Notably, many of the moulds for the Hornby series were shipped over to Australia, and reused for a range of Australian Gladiators figures. While the Male Contender remained the same, Taipan has an identical head to Wolf, and Vulcan shares an identical head to Saracen. Figures of Tower, Commander, Condor and Hammer were also released, along with an identical 'Duel' playset. Along with these popular models and play sets everything from plates to clocks were released. Two CD and Audio Tape compilations were released during the early years of the show, containing tracks such as Holding Out for a Hero, We Are Family & The Boys Are Back in Town, as well as the instrumental music used during events and a 3 Minute version of the programme’s opening theme song. VHS releases During the show's first four series, a number of VHSes were released by Clear Vision (with some released through their Silver Vision label). These contained episodes, specials or other material exclusive for home release. Many quickly sold out and are rare. The following VHS releases are available: GL001 – Into the Arena – Contains Heats 1 and 2 from Series 1 (1992) GL002 – Powerplay – Contains Heats 3 and 4 from Series 1 (1992) GL003 – The Conflict – Contains Heats 5 and 6 from Series 1 (1992) GL004 – Countdown – Contains Semi-finals 1 and 2 from Series 1 (1992) GL005 – The Ultimate Challenge – Contains the Grand Final from Series 1 (1992) GL006 – The Very Best of Gladiators – Contains the special episode "The Challenge of the Gladiators" (1993) GL007 – Gladiators Return – Contains the special episode "Return of the Gladiators" (1993) GL008 – Contenders Ready, Gladiators Ready – Contains Heats 1 and 2 from Series 2 (1993) GL009 – Arena Attack – Contains Heats 3, 4 and 5 from Series 2 (1993) GL010 – Battleground – Contains Heats 6, 7 and 8 from Series 2 (1993) GL011 – Combat – Contains Quarter Finals 1–4 from Series 2 (1993) GL012 – The Ultimate Challenge '93 – Contains Semi-finals 1 and 2 and the Grand Final from Series 2, plus the special episode "The Battle of the Gladiators" (1993) GL013 – The Climax – Contains Semi-finals 1 and 2 plus the Grand Final from Series 3 (1994), plus footage from the "International Challenge of Champions I" (1993) GL014 – The Gladiators Challenge '94–'95 – Contains the special episodes "The Return", "The Celebrity Challenge" and "The Fighting Forces Challenge" (1994) GL015 – International Gladiators: The Showdown – Contains Semi Finals 1 and 2 plus the Grand Final from International Gladiators I (1994) GL016 – The Power To Win – Contains the special episode "The Power To Win" (1995) SV001 – Jet: A Video Profile – Contains the special episode "Jet: A Video Profile" (1995) References External links Gladiators at BFI International Gladiators at BFI Gladiators – The Ashes at BFI 1992 British television series debuts 2000 British television series endings 1990s British reality television series 2000s British reality television series British game shows Gladiators (1992 British TV series) Gladiators (franchise) ITV game shows English-language television shows London Weekend Television shows Television series by ITV Studios Television series by MGM Television 1990s British game shows 2000s British game shows British television series based on American television series

31520192

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abhaya%20Induruwa

Abhaya Induruwa

Abhaya Induruwa () is the inaugural Professor V K Samaranayake Endowed Professor of Computing, University of Colombo School of Computing, Sri Lanka. Having served as the Director of Cyber Innovation Hub he recently retired from the Canterbury Christ Church University in the United Kingdom where he researched into security and forensic investigation of Internet of Things (IoT). Currently he is engaged in promoting IoT in digital agriculture as a disruptive technology, primarily in developing countries, leading to smart agriculture resulting in higher yields in food production. Induruwa is considered the father of Internet in Sri Lanka. Education After spending three years of his early primary education at Kahagolla Madya Maha Vidyalaya, Diyatalawa, he was admitted to Nalanda College, Colombo from where he proceeded to the University of Sri Lanka, Katubedda Campus. He is the first student to graduate with a First Class Honours degree in Electrical or Electronics Engineering since the inception of the University of Sri Lanka, Katubedda Campus, and is the recipient of the Prof Om Prakash Kulshreshtha award for the Best Electrical and Electronic Engineering student in 1975. In September 1976 he proceeded to Imperial College London and in January 1980 he was awarded PhD from the University of London for his research on Computer Simulation Techniques in Power Systems Planning. His research supervisor was Emeritus Professor Brian J. Cory. Professional career Induruwa founded the Department of Computer Science and Engineering at the University of Moratuwa in 1985, the first and the only department of its kind in a Sri Lankan university, and served as its Head until 1998. In 1989 he pioneered and served as the Principal Investigator of project LEARN (Lanka Education and Research Network), which he developed into the academic Internet in Sri Lanka . He obtained funds from the Sri Lankan government and other well wishers, commissioned staff and resources, provided technical and managerial leadership, and led the project LEARN to completion in 1995. He also administered the .LK domain since its first registration in 1990 until 1998. Induruwa is a founding member of the Internet Society (ISOC - Kobe, 1992) and a member of the Internet Society Sri Lanka Chapter. He serves as a Member of the Advisory Group of the Asia Internet History project, and is a contributing author. He is a Chartered Engineer, a Chartered Fellow of the Institution of Engineering and Technology, UK, Chartered Fellow of the Institution of Engineers, Sri Lanka, and a Chartered Fellow of the British Computer Society. Induruwa is a founding member of the Computer Society of Sri Lanka (1976). In recognition of his services to computer education and IT industry in Sri Lanka the Honorary Fellowship of the Computer Society of Sri Lanka was conferred on him in 2003. In recognition of his signal contribution to the growth, connectivity, and use of the Internet in Sri Lanka, and for pioneering LEARN - the first IP WAN in Sri Lanka Induruwa was inducted to the Internet Hall of Fame 2014, an honorary lifetime achievement award administered by the Internet Society. Recognising his significant contribution to the development of networking and Internet in Sri Lanka Induruwa was honoured by the Internet Society Sri Lanka Chapter with an Internet Pioneers Award at the celebration of 20 years of Internet in Sri Lanka in June 2015. For his exceptional contribution to the digital arena Prof Induruwa received a Life Time Achievement Award from Sri Lanka Telecom in June 2017. In October 2019, at the 30th anniversary celebrations of LEARN, he received the LEARN Founder Award from H E Maithripala Sirisena, the President of Sri Lanka, for proposing in 1989 the conceptual design for an academic and research network in Sri Lanka, and implementing the same between 1990-1995, finally connecting to the Internet in 1996. Prof Induruwa served on the Internet Hall of Fame Advisory Board from 2016 until 2018. From 2016 to 2019 he served as a Member of the General Assembly of the European Cybercrime Education and Training Group (ECTEG) of the Europol. In 2018 he served as an Expert on Cybercrime to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) on their Education for Justice (E4J) project. In 2019 he served as an Expert to the Belgian Federal Science Policy Office (BelSPO) to evaluate project proposals under BRAIN-BE 2.0 (Belgian Research Action Through Interdisciplinary Networks). Life Time Achievement Awards 2003 - Honorary Fellow of the Computer Society of Sri Lanka recognizing the distinguished services to the ICT education and ICT profession in Sri Lanka 2014 - Internet Hall of Fame Lifetime Achievement Award of the Internet Society (ISOC) for pioneering IP networking and Internet in Sri Lanka 2015 - Internet Pioneers Award of the Internet Society-Sri Lanka (ISOC-LK) Chapter celebrating 20 years of Internet in Sri Lanka 2017 - Sri Lanka Telecom Zero-One Lifetime Achievement Award for exceptional contribution to the digital arena 2019 - LEARN Founder Award for proposing, designing and implementing academic and research networking, and pioneering Internet in Sri Lanka Recent published work "Hybrid Intrusion Detection System for Smart Home Applications" (Chapter 12) in Developing and Monitoring Smart Environments for Intelligent Cities (Edited by Zaigham Mahmood), IGI Global, October 2020. "Snapshot of Internet in Sri Lanka around 2020" in Asia Internet History - Fourth Decade (2011-2020) (Edited by Kilnam Chon), Published in April 2021. "COVID-19 track & trace apps and their data governance issues" in Asia Internet History - Fourth Decade (2011-2020) (Edited by Kilnam Chon), Published in April 2021. "Security Vulnerabilities of Popular Smart Home Appliances", Conf. Proc. ICN 2021: The Twentieth International Conference on Networks, IARIA NexComm 2021 Congress, 18–21 April 2021, Porto, Portugal Keynotes and public lectures "LEARN: Its Journey from 1989", Keynote address at the 30th Anniversary of Lanka Experimental Academic & Research Network (LEARN), 7 October 2019, Hotel Shangri-la, Sri Lanka. "Emerging Cyberspace Challenges and the Role of Cyber-intelligence", Main keynote address at the inauguration of the 12th International Research Conference of the General Sir John Kotelawala Defence University (KDU), 11 September 2019, Ratmalana, Sri Lanka. "Realising the Internet of Things (IoT): Can we afford to miss the opportunity?", Plenary keynote address at the 12th International Research Conference of the General Sir John Kotelawala Defence University (KDU), 11 September 2019, Ratmalana, Sri Lanka. () "Computer Science & Smart Currencies", Plenary Keynote address at the 11th International Research Conference of the General Sir John Kotelawala Defence University (KDU), 14 September 2018, Ratmalana, Sri Lanka. () "Sri Lanka 3CENTRE - A National Initiative for Capacity Building in Cybercrime Forensics, Cybersecurity & Cyber Intelligence", Keynote Speech delivered at the Cyber Security Industry Forum, 31 May 2017, Colombo, Sri Lanka. "Internet - the Next Wave of Disruption: Opportunities and Threats", Keynote Speech delivered at the 34th National IT Conference (NITC 2016) of the Computer Society of Sri Lanka, 9–10 August 2016, Colombo, Sri Lanka. "Internet of Everything: How secure should it be?", Keynote Speech delivered at the 2015 IEEE International Conference on Research in Computational Intelligence and Communication Networks (), 20–22 November 2015, Kolkata, India. "A (brief) Moment in Internet History", Address delivered at the 20 Years of Internet in Sri Lanka, 8 June 2015, Colombo, Sri Lanka. "Making and Breaking the Internet", Guest Speaker at the , 18 December 2014, Perth, Australia. "Distributed Computation: Its impact on Network Security and Forensics", Keynote Speech delivered at the 2014 IEEE International Conference on Computational Intelligence and Communication Networks, 14–16 November 2014, Kolkata, India. "ICT for Inclusive Development of Sri Lanka beyond 2020", Keynote Speech delivered at the 32nd National IT Conference of the Computer Society of Sri Lanka, 26–27 August 2014, Colombo, Sri Lanka. "Intelligent Future", Seventh Annual Professor V K Samaranayake Memorial Oration delivered at the University of Colombo School of Computing, 23 July 2014, Colombo, Sri Lanka. "Hidden in the Clouds: Impact on Data Security and Forensic Investigation", Keynote Speech delivered at the International Conference on ICT for Emerging Regions, 1–2 September 2011, Colombo, Sri Lanka. "Cyberwar - How Real is the Threat?", Keynote Speech delivered at the 29th National IT Conference of the Computer Society of Sri Lanka, 24–25 August 2011, Colombo, Sri Lanka. Interviews References Sources Interview with Prof Abhaya Induruwa, Father of Internet in Sri Lanka Sinhalese engineers Sinhalese academics Alumni of Nalanda College, Colombo Academics of Canterbury Christ Church University 1950 births Living people Sri Lankan computer scientists Sri Lankan expatriate academics Fellows of the British Computer Society Fellows of the Institution of Engineering and Technology

14300657

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luigi%20Dadda

Luigi Dadda

Luigi Dadda (April 29, 1923 – October 26, 2012) was an Italian computer engineer, best known for the design of the Dadda multiplier and as one of the first researchers on modern computers in Italy. He was rector at the Politecnico di Milano technical university from 1972 to 1984, collaborating on research at the same university until 2012. He was a Life Fellow of the IEEE. He studied electrical engineering at the Politecnico di Milano and graduated in 1947 with a thesis on signal transmission, a microwave radio bridge between the cities of Turin and Trieste. His research interests then turned to models and analog computers as an assistant professor, and in 1953 he received a grant from the National Science Foundation in order to study at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena. In the interim, the Politecnico di Milano requested funding for a digital computer under the Marshall Plan; the request was granted in the sum of US$120,000, and the rector of the time, Prof. Cassinis, invited him to join the design team at the Computer Research Corporation of San Diego, since the machine, a Computer Research Company model CRC 102A, would not be maintained by the vendor after delivery to Italy, and it therefore needed to have in-house expertise on it. Dadda complied, thus forfeiting the NSF grant and transferring to San Diego. He would travel to Italy on an old Liberty merchant ship along with the precious machine, packed in cotton balls in order to protect its valves from dangerous vibrations. Upon disembarkation in Genoa, the machine was declared with customs as an "electrical appliance", as the only computer machine in the taxonomy of goods used at the time was a "punchcard machine", but a punched card reader was not supplied with the computer, so it didn't fit the categorisation. An additional problem was that, at the time, Italy's taxation imposed the application of a small paper slip similar to a stamp (proving payment of duties) on each and every valve used in the machine. Since dismantling the machine to apply the slips was out of question, the customs allowed Dadda to pay the tax as a forfeit, and gave him a pack of slips to apply on the machine "as soon as possible". Those slips remained in a drawer in Dadda's desk. The machine reached, at last, the Politecnico di Milano in September 1954, where it was activated in the 2SUD back room, and became the first working digital computer in Italy and continental Europe. In the following years, the research activity of Dadda focused on the use of the machine for scientific and industrial applications, and training researchers and students of the Politecnico in Computer Science, where he created and taught the first courses on the subject. Notably, he studied how to enhance the ALUs of the machines, proposing solutions such as the Dadda multiplier, which significantly enhanced performance of those circuits. He reached the status of a full professor at the Politecnico in 1960, and was assigned the Electrical Engineering chair from 1962. He then moved to studying Petri net as a paradigm for the design of complex control systems. In signal processing he proposed new systems for convolution. He has served as the director of the Computing Center and then of the Computer Architectures Lab of the "Dipartimento di Elettronica ed Informazione" of the Politecnico di Milano university. He was a founding member of the Italian Association for Computing in 1961 (and President between 1967 and 1970) and a co-founder and director of the distinguished Italian journal of computer science: Rivista di Informatica. He was the proposer of the European Information Network, realized by CEE under the project COST 11. Between 1980 and 1982 he chaired the committee for science and technology of the President of the Council of Ministers of Italy. He served as the president of the ALARI Institute at the Università della Svizzera Italiana in the Italian-speaking canton of Switzerland for over a decade. He was member of the Technical Committee and advisor in the Board of directors of CSELT. He died on October 26, 2012 in Milano, Italy at the age of 89. In 2016 the prestigious "IEEE Milestone award" has been assigned to his memory in recognition of his contributions. References Further reading 1923 births People from Lodi, Lombardy Polytechnic University of Milan alumni Italian computer scientists 2012 deaths Polytechnic University of Milan faculty

46343729

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C.%20William%20Gear

C. William Gear

C. William Gear (Charles William "Bill" Gear; born 1 February 1935, London) is a British-American mathematician, who specializes in numerical analysis and computer science. Gear is an American citizen. Gear studied at the University of Cambridge with a bachelor's degree in 1957 and an M.A. in 1960 and at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign with an M.S. in 1957 and a Ph.D. in 1960 under Abraham H. Taub with thesis Singular Shock Intersections in Plane Flow. From 1960 to 1962 he worked as an engineer for IBM. From 1962 to 1990 he was a professor of computer science at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, where he was from 1985 to 1990 head of the computer science department. From 1992 to 2000 he was president of the NEC Research Institute in Princeton. From 1966 to 1971 he was a consultant at Argonne National Laboratory. Gear works on numerical analysis, computer graphics, and software development. He is known for the development of BDF methods (originally introduced by the chemists Charles Francis Curtiss and Joseph Oakland Hirschfelder in 1952), a multi-step method for solving stiff systems of differential equations. Gear first published on BDF methods in 1966. Since his retirement from NEC he has collaborated with Prof. Kevrekidis at Princeton on equation-free methods. Gear was elected as a member into the National Academy of Engineering in 1992 for seminal work in methods and software for solving classes of differential equations and differential-algebraic equations of significance in applications. He is also a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the IEEE and the. In 1987 he received an honorary doctorate from the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm. Selected works Computer Organization and Programming. McGraw Hill, 1969; 4th edition: 1985 (with emphasis on the personal computer) Introduction to Computer Science. Science Research Associates, Chicago 1973 Programming in Pascal. Science Research Associates, 1983 Numerical Initial Value Problems in Ordinary Differential Equations. Prentice Hall, 1971 Backward Differentiation Formulas. Scholarpedia References External links C. W. Gear homepage, Princeton University 20th-century American mathematicians American computer scientists Alumni of the University of Cambridge Presidents of the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign alumni University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign faculty 1935 births Living people Scientists from London Fellow Members of the IEEE Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Members of the United States National Academy of Engineering Argonne National Laboratory people 20th-century American engineers NEC people

3570616

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPS%20for%20the%20visually%20impaired

GPS for the visually impaired

Since the Global Positioning System (GPS) was introduced in the late 1980s there have been many attempts to integrate it into a navigation-assistance system for blind and visually impaired people. Software Android RightHear RightHear was first released in December 2015. It uses data from OpenStreetMap alongside their own databases and with this information, RightHear provides their users with multilingual audio-descriptions of the environment, indoors and outdoors. RightHear main features are as follow: Informing the user about their current location on request and automatically in predefined intervals. Also, providing the user with a link to a relevant online destination (if applicable) like the menu at restaurants and description of exhibits at monuments. Saving user points of interest as recordings. Users can be notified when they approach these points and hear their personal recordings. Automatic announcements of public points of interest, street intersections, and points saved by the user. Supporting third-party public transportation apps like Moovit, Uber, Lyft, Gett, and many more. RightHear users can create their journey from their current location to their destination and can look up schedules and routes to their destination. Simulation of locations, letting users explore distant places before traveling there. Announcing public and user points of interest and intersections located in the direction the user points their device in. RightHear also provides 3D sounds which allow the user to hear the information from the relevant direction when his headphones are on. Announcing the Sky direction that the user is facing by holding the device vertically. Indoor navigation via Bluetooth beacons. RightHear support the open Wayfindr standard. Calling for a local assistant if needed from the relevant person at the RightHear enabled building (like receptions at hotels). Corsair GPS Corsair is a GPS for pedestrians. It allows you to discover places around you and take you there. A new way of guidance has been developed by using the smartphone's vibration feature to indicate the direction to follow. This solution is particularly useful for people with visual impairments. Cydalion Cydalion is a navigation aid for people with visual impairments for Tango-enabled devices. Cydalion detects objects (including their height), offers custom sounds, and has a personalized user interface. Lazarillo Lazarillo is based on Google Maps, OpenStreetMap and Foursquare alongside they own databases and with this information, Lazarillo collects the necessary data about the surroundings of the user to support the following features: Exploration: Can provide you guidance through voice notifications/warnings. It will tell you where you are and what services are around you Specific Searches: By the "search" tab you can obtain search a specific location. Search by categories: Look for places around you, using categories; such as restaurants, health centers and services of transportation. Save favorites: In order to quickly access your favorite spots in the city, click on "save" so they become immediately available. Customize: Modify the voice that will pilot you through the city. Routing or guiding from one point to another: By walking, car, bus or subway, you will get from one point to other by the guidance service. Following the place you want to reach, an alarm will announce if you are getting closer to the spot. This feature also works if the scan mode is paused. ANGEO Was designed in France to compensate for the limitations of traditional GPS and smartphone applications for the blind and visually impaired . The fruit of 8 years of research in collaboration with the CNRS, ANGEO is the only device capable of discretely, reliably guiding you when crossing areas where GPS satellites are masked. iOS When Apple introduced the iPhone 3GS in 2009, it was the first ever touch screen device accessible to the blind. iOS device usage has steadily increased among the blind and visually impaired population and numerous GPS apps targeting this user group have been developed since. Ariadne GPS Ariadne GPS, developed by Luca Giovanni Ciaffoni, was released in June 2011 and was one of the first GPS apps specifically designed for blind and visually impaired users. It is based on Google map data and has the following features: Informing the user about their location on request and in configurable intervals. Letting the user save points that are important to them. The app will alert the user when they approach the point. The users can define the alert distance separately for each point. Accessible map: The user can slide their finger on the screen and the app will announce the area or street address (depending on zoom) under their finger. Ciaffoni has developed his own accessible map for Ariadne GPS. His solution was available before Apple's accessible maps came out in iOS 6. Import and export of points of interest. BlindSquare BlindSquare is developed by MIPsoft and was first released in May 2012. It uses data from Foursquare and OpenStreetMap and offers a large feature set covering the needs of blind and visually impaired travelers. It is based on Foursquare, Open Street Map, and Apple Maps data and supports the following features: Informing the user about their current location on request and automatically in predefined intervals. Saving user points of interest. Users can be notified when they approach these points at a distance of their choice, which can be defined individually for each point. Automatic announcement of public points of interest, street intersections, and points saved by the user. Sending coordinates of destinations to third-party navigation apps. BlindSquare works in conjunction with more than nine third-party navigation apps. Supporting third-party public transportation apps, BlindSquare lets users send the coordinates of their current location and their destination to several apps so they can look up schedules and routes to their destination. Audio menu allowing users to activate many BlindSquare functions by pressing buttons on their headsets instead of using the touch screen of their iOS device. Simulation of places, letting users explore distant places before traveling there. Integrated accessible map. Announcing public and user points of interest and intersections located in the direction the user points their device in. Indoor navigation via Bluetooth beacons. It uses its own system BlindSquare Beacon Positioning System (BPS), but also the open Wayfindr standard. iMove iMove has been developed by EveryWare Technologies and was first released in January 2013. It is unique, because it lets users record sound clips and associate them with saved locations. iMove offers the following features: Reporting public points of interest as the user walks. Saving user points and alerting the user when these points are approached. Recording of short sound clips, which are linked to saved locations and are played back when approaching the location. MyWay Classic MyWay Classic was first released in January 2012 and is developed by the Swis Federation of the Blind. It has evolved into an app with a large set of features covering the needs of blind and visually impaired travelers. It uses Open Street Map data and includes the following features: Inform users about their current location on request and automatically. Users can record their own points of interest and be alerted when they approach them. Users can record their own routes and be guided by the app when they walk one of the recorded routes. Once the necessary Open Street Map data has been downloaded and imported into the app, MyWay can announce street intersections and public points of interest as the user approaches them. Once the necessary Open Street Map files have been downloaded and imported into the app, the user can filter the categories of public points of interest to be announced by editing the files or by creating their own files and pasting the required data into the newly created files. Using Open Street Map data, MyWay offers turn-by-turn navigation. Import and export of points of interest. Support of indoor navigation using Bluetooth beacons. Seeing Assistant Move Seeing Assistant move is developed by Transition Technologies S.A. and was first released in March 2013. It is the only GPS app designed for blind and visually impaired people that lets the user operate the app through predefined speech commands. It is based on Open Street Map and supports the following features: Announcing current location of user Automatic announcement of public points of interest, provided the necessary Open Street Map files have been downloaded. Saving user points of interest and announcing these points when they are approached. Announcing points of interest located in the direction the user points their device in. Simulation of places, letting users explore distant places before traveling there. Recording of user-defined routes and walking of these routes. Integrated accessible map. App operation through predefined speech commands. Sending coordinates of point to Apple Maps or Google Maps to initiate turn-by-turn navigation. Sendero Seeing Eye GPS Sendero Seeing Eye GPS is developed by the Sendero Group in collaboration with several organizations for the blind (Seeing Eye, RNIB, Guide Dogs NSW ACT) and was first released in July 2013. The Seeing Eye GPS is a fully accessible turn-by-turn GPS iPhone app developed by Sendero Group. It has all the normal navigation features plus features unique to blind users, such as simple menu structure, automatic announcements of intersections and points of interest, and routes for both pedestrian and vehicle with heads-up announcements for approaching turns. It uses Foursquare and Google Places for points of interest and Google Maps for street info. Seeing Eye is not available globally and is offered under various names: Seeing Eye GPS (subscription, North America) Seeing Eye XT (onetime purchase, North America) RNIB Navigator (subscription, UK, Ireland, Germany, France) Guide Dogs NSW ACT (subscription, Australia) The Sendero apps include the following features: Turn-by-turn navigation. Saving of user points of interest. Automatic announcement of public and user points of interest and intersections. Description of intersections. Announcing public and user points of interest and intersections located in the direction the user points their device in. ViaOpta Nav ViaOpta Nav is developed by Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corporation and was first released in August 2014. It is available for both IOS and Android devices. It is the only GPS app targeting blind and visually impaired users that offers the possibility to search for accessibility information for example information about intersections, tactile paving, and audible traffic signals. Although Open Street Map supports respective categories, this information is not very widely available yet in the map data itself. ViaOpta Nav uses Apple Maps (on iOS devices) and Google Maps (on Android devices) for address retrieval, and Open Street Map for route calculation, intersection information, and public points of interest. ViaOpta Nav supports the following main features: Announcing user's current location. Spoken turn-by-turn navigation. Automatic announcement of intersections. Saving of user points of interest. Exploring of public points of interest nearby and selecting them as a destination. However, these points are not announced as the user walks. Headset support lets users request some information by pressing buttons on their headset. Symbian OS Loadstone GPS The Loadstone project is developing an open source software for satellite navigation for blind and visually impaired users. The software is free and runs currently on many different Nokia devices with the S60 platform under all versions of the Symbian operating system. A GPS receiver must be connected to the cell phone by Bluetooth. Many blind people around the world are using Nokia cell phones because there are two screen reader products for the S60 Symbian platform; Talks from Nuance Communications and Mobile Speak from the Spanish company Code Factory. This makes these devices accessible by output of synthetic speech and also allow the use of third-party software, such as Loadstone GPS. The Loadstone developers, who are blind, are from Vancouver, Glasgow, and Amsterdam. Many users from around the world have contributed improvement proposals as they know exactly what functionality helps to increase their pedestrian mobility. Monty Lilburn and Shawn Kirkpatrick started the project in 2004. After the first development successes, they made it public in May 2006. Since then, other volunteers have found their way to this project of global self-help. The program is under the GNU General Public License (GPL), and was financed entirely by the private developers and by donations of users. This product provides blind people with more independence from the trading policy and prices of the few global vendors of accessible satellite navigation solutions. In large rural regions and developing or newly industrializing countries, nearly no exact map data is available in common map databases. As such, the Loadstone software provides users an option to create and store their own waypoints for navigation and share them with others. The Loadstone community is working on importing coordinates from free sources, such as the OpenStreetMap project. In addition they are searching for a sponsor of licenses for commercial map data, such as is offered by the company Tele Atlas. The other major supplier is Navteq, which belongs to Nokia. Lodestone is the name of a natural magnetic iron that was used throughout history in the manufacturing of compasses. Sighted owners of S60 devices can use Loadstone for leisure-time activities geocaching. JavaME LoroDux LoroDux was a project by Fachhochschule Hannover. Like in Loadstone the user is led by direction and distance information. The text on the screen is read out by a screenreader. Vibration-Only navigation is possible. Data can be imported from the OpenStreetMap project. The development is discontinued because the team prefers to use Java on Android for the future. Windows Mobile Mobile Geo Mobile Geo is Code Factory's GPS navigation software for Windows Mobile-based Smartphones, Pocket PC phones and personal digital assistants (PDAs). Powered by GPS and mapping technology from the Sendero Group, Mobile Geo is the first solution specifically designed to serve as a navigation aid for people with a visual impairment which works with a wide range of mainstream mobile devices. Though it is a separately licensed product, Mobile Geo is seamlessly integrated with Code Factory's popular screen readers – Mobile Speak for Pocket PCs and Mobile Speak for Windows Mobile Smartphones. Standalone Devices Trekker The Victor Trekker, designed and manufactured by HumanWare (previously known as VisuAide), was launched in March 2003. It is a personal digital assistant (PDA) application operating on a Dell Axim 50/51 or later replaced by HP IPAQ 2490B Pocket PC, adapted for the blind and visually impaired with talking menus, talking maps, and GPS information. Fully portable (weight 600g), it offered features enabling a blind person to determine position, create routes and receive information on navigating to a destination. It also provided search functions for an exhaustive database of point of interests, such as restaurants, hotels, etc. The PDA's touch screen is made accessible by a tactile keypad with buttons that is held in place with an elastic strap. It is fully upgradeable, so it can expand to accommodate new hardware platforms and more detailed geographic information. Trekker and Maestro, which is the first off-the-shelf accessible PDA based on Windows Mobile Pocket PC, are integrated and available since May 2005. The Trekker is no longer sold by Humanware; the successor "Trekker Breeze" is a standalone unit. The software has fewer features than the original Trekker. Trekker Breeze The Trekker Breeze is standalone hardware. Routes need to be recorded before they can be used. POIs are supported. BrailleNote GPS The BrailleNote GPS device is developed by Sendero Group, LLC, and Pulse Data International, now called HumanWare, in 2002. It is like a combination of a personal digital assistant, Map-quest software and a mechanical voice. With a receiver about the size of a small cell phone, the BrailleNote GPS utilizes the GPS network to pinpoint a traveler's position on earth and nearby points of interest. The BrailleNote receives radio signals from satellites to chart the location of users and direct them to their destination with spoken information from the speech synthesizer. The system uses satellites to triangulate the carrier's position, much like a ship finding its location at sea. Users can record points of interest such as local restaurants or any other location into the PDA's database. Afterward, they can use keyboard commands on the unit's keyboard to direct themselves to a specific point of interest. Navigation systems that are not designed for blind people, but are accessible Kapsys Kapten The French company Kapsys offers a navigation system without a display, that works with speech input and output, called Kapten. It was originally developed for cyclists but soon became a favourite in blind communities because of its low price compared to other accessible navigation solutions. Later Versions took feedback about accessibility into account. Historical or research projects Trinetra The Trinetra project aims to develop cost-effective, independence-enhancing technologies to benefit blind people. One such system addresses accessibility concerns of blind people using public transportation systems. Using GPS receivers and staggered Infrared sensors, information is relayed to a centralized fleet management server via a cellular modem. Blind people, using common text-to-speech enabled cell phones can query estimated time of arrival, locality, and current bus capacity using a web browser. Trinetra, spearheaded by Professor Priya Narasimhan, is an ongoing project at the Electrical and Computer Engineering department of Carnegie Mellon University. Additional research topics include item-level UPC and RFID identification while grocery shopping and indoor navigation in retail settings. MoBIC MoBIC means Mobility of Blind and Elderly people Interacting with Computers, which was carried out from 1994 to 1996 supported by the Commission of the European Union. It was developing a route planning system which is designed to allow a blind person access to information from many sources such as bus and train timetables as well as electronic maps of the locality. The planning system helps blind people to study and plan their routes in advance, indoors. With the addition of devices to give the precise current position and orientation of the blind pedestrian, the system could then be used outdoors. The outdoor positioning system is based on signals and satellites which give the longitude and latitude to within a metre; the computer converts this data to a position on an electronic map of locality. The output from the system is in the form of spoken messages. Drishti Drishti is a wireless pedestrian navigation system. It integrates several technologies including wearable computers, voice recognition and synthesis, wireless networks, geographic information system (GIS) and GPS. It augments contextual information to the visually impaired and computed optimized routes based on user preference, temporal constraints (e.g. traffic congestion), and dynamic obstacles (e.g. ongoing ground work, road blockade for special events). The system constantly guides the blind user to navigate based on static and dynamic data. Environmental conditions and landmark information queries from a spatial database along their route are provided on the fly through detailed explanatory voice cues. The system also provides capability for the user to add intelligence, as perceived by the blind user, to the central server hosting the spatial database. UCSB Personal Guidance System In 1985, Jack Loomis, a Professor of Psychology at the University of California, Santa Barbara, came up with the idea of a GPS-based navigation system for the visually impaired. A short unpublished paper (Loomis, 1985) outlined the concept and detailed some ideas for implementation, including the idea of a virtual sound interface. Loomis directed the project for over 20 years, in collaboration with Reginald Golledge (1937–2009), Professor of Geography at UCSB, and Roberta Klatzky, Professor of Psychology (now at Carnegie Mellon University). Their combination of development and applied research was supported by three multi-year grants from the National Eye Institute (NEI) and another multi-year consortium grant from the National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research (NIDRR), headed by Michael May of Sendero Group. In 1993, the UCSB group first publicly demonstrated the Personal Guidance System (PGS) using a bulky prototype carried in a backpack. Since then, they created several versions of the PGS, one of which was carried in a small pack worn at the waist. Their project mostly focused on the user interface and the resulting research has defined the legacy of the project. As indicated earlier in this entry, several wearable systems are now commercially available. These systems provide verbal guidance and environmental information via speech and braille displays. But just as drivers and pilots want pictorial information from their navigation systems, survey research by the UCSB group has shown that visually impaired people often want direct perceptual information about the environment. Most of their R&D has dealt with several types of "spatial display", with researchers Jim Marston and Nicholas Giudice contributing to the recent efforts. The first is a virtual acoustic display, which provides auditory information to the user via earphones (as proposed in the 1985 concept paper). With this display, the user hears important environmental locations, such as turn points along the route and points of interest. The labels of these locations are converted to synthetic speech and then displayed using auditory direction and distance cues, such that the spoken labels appear in the auditory space of the user. A second type of display, which the group calls a "haptic pointer interface", was inspired by the hand-held receiver used in the Talking Signs© system of remote signage. The user holds a small wand, to which are attached an electronic compass and a small loudspeaker or vibrator. When the hand is pointing toward some location represented in the computer database, the user hears a tone or feels a vibration. Supplementary verbal information can be provided by synthetic speech. The user moves toward the desired location by aligning the body with the hand while maintaining the "on-course" auditory or vibratory signal. Other variants of the pointer interface involve putting the compass on the body or head and turning the body or head until the on-course signal is perceived. Six published route-guidance studies indicate that spatial displays provide effective route guidance, entail less cognitive load than speech interfaces, and are generally preferred by visually impaired users. Brunel navigation system for the blind Prof. W. Balachandran is the pioneer and the head of GPS research group at Brunel University. He and his research team are pursuing research on navigation system for blind and visually impaired people. The system is based on the integration of state of the art current technologies, including high-accuracy GPS positioning, GIS, electronic compass and wireless digital video transmission (remote vision) facility with an accuracy of 3~4m. It provides an automated guidance using the information from daily updated digital map datasets e.g. roadworks. If required the remote guidance of visually impaired pedestrians by a sighted human guide using the information from the digital map and from the remote video image provides flexibility. The difficulties encountered include the availability of up to date information and what information to offer including the navigation protocol. Levels of functionality have been created to tailor the information to the user's requirements. NOPPA NOPPA navigation and guidance system was designed to offer public transport passenger and route information using GPS technology for the visually impaired. This was a three-year (2002~2004) project in VTT Industrial Systems in Finland. The system provides an unbroken trip chain for a pedestrian using buses, commuter trains and trams in three neighbor cities’ area. It is based on an information server concept, which has user-centered and task oriented approach for solving information needs of special needs groups. In the system, the Information Server is an interpreter between the user and Internet information systems. It collects, filters and integrates information from different sources and delivers results to the user. The server handles speech recognition and functions requiring either heavy calculations or data transfer. The data transfer between the server and the client is minimized. The user terminal holds speech synthesis and most of route guidance. NOPPA can currently offer basic route planning and navigation services in Finland. In practice, map data can have outdated information or inaccuracies, positioning can be unavailable or inaccurate, or wireless data transmission is not always available. Navig NAVIG is a multidisciplinary project, with fundamental and applied aspects. The main objective is to increase the autonomy of blind people in their navigation capabilities. Reaching a destination while avoiding obstacles is one of the most difficult issue that blind individuals have to face. Achieving autonomous navigation will be pursued indoor and outdoor, in known and unknown environments. The project consortium is composed by two research centers in computer sciences specialized in human-machine interaction (IRIT) for handicapped people and in auditory perception, spatial cognition, sound design and augmented reality (LIMSI). Another research center is specialized in human and computer vision (CERCO), and two industrial partners are active in artificial vision (Spikenet Technology) and in pedestrian geolocalisation (Navocap). The last member of the consortium is an educational research center for the visually impaired (CESDV – IJA, Institute of Blind Youth). TANIA TANIA is a project founded at the University of Stuttgart, Germany. The hardware is based on GPS and RFID. It allows navigation for blind and deafblind persons with step accuracy. It only works where special maps have been created for the system. Wayfinder access Wayfinder Access was a GPS solution from the Swedish company Wayfinder Systems AB. This application for Symbian phones was designed especially to work with screen readers, such as Mobile Speak from Code Factory or TALKS from Nuance Communications and offers text-to-speech technology. It is able to take the special needs of the blind and visually impaired into consideration. Symbian screen reader software offers more than just the reading of the application's screens, but also supports braille devices. Highlights of Wayfinder Access include, but are not limited to: Information provided for both pedestrian and vehicular navigation. A database of 20 million points of interest. Online maps that are regularly updated. The "Where am I?" feature that readily gives information about your current location. The "What is in my surrounding?" feature that initiates a scan of the immediate area to inform you of street names, intersections and nearby points of interest such as restaurants, banks, and much more. The new "Vicinity View" feature that allows you to hear audible references for an area with a scope that you can later adjust based on the radius of the scanned vicinity. Feedback on points of Interest (POI), crossings or favorites that can be restricted, prioritized, and presented according to their distance from your location. The Wayfinder Access Service was shut down in 2011 after the company was taken over by Vodafone. References External links Loadstone project Wayfinder Access (discontinued) Trekker Breeze (Humanware) Sendero Group Sense Nav (GW Micro) Mobile Geo LoroDux, an OpenStreetMap subproject Kapsys BlindSquare Research Jack Loomis Personal Website Trinetra BNSB (Brunel navigation system for the blind) Summary of related research references CASBlip (cognitive aid system for the blind people) Mobile Sorcery (Sweden) Navig (France) Collection of accessible Navigation Systems (German) Global Positioning System Blindness equipment

21768640

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California%20Department%20of%20Technology

California Department of Technology

The Department of Technology of the state of California, formerly named the California Technology Agency (CTA) is a Department in the Government Operations Agency with statutory authority over information technology (IT) strategic vision and planning, enterprise architecture, policy, and project approval and oversight. The current director of the department, also known as the chief information officer of the state, is Amy Tong. They operate Calinfo, a peer-to-peer e-Government website for the state's IT employees. It was created by the State of California's IT Manager's Academy, part of the CTA. History The Department of Technology Services (DTS) was a department within the California State and Consumer Services Agency established by the Governor's Reorganization Plan No. 2 effective 9 July 2005. The Office of the Chief Information Officer (OCIO) was authorized by S.B. 834 in 2006 (Chapter 533, Statutes of 2006). The Governor reorganized the office with the Governor's Reorganization Plan No. 1 of 2009, which was approved by the Little Hoover Commission and the Legislature, and took effect 10 May 2009. In the reorganization, the office subsumed the Office of Information Security within the Office of Information Security and Privacy Protection, the Department of Technology Services, and the Department of General Services' Telecommunications Division. The office was similarly reorganized as the California Technology Agency and the Secretary of California Technology by A.B. 2408 (Chapter 404, Statutes of 2010) which took effect 1 January 2011. Under Governor Jerry Brown's government reorganization of 2013, the CTA became the state Department of Technology, and was moved into the Government Operations Agency. Organization By law, there is within the department the following offices and officers: Office of Technology Services, managed by a Director Office of Information Security, managed by a Director Public Safety Communications Division, managed by a Director As well as several others including: Assistant Secretary for Geospatial Information Systems (GIO) Assistant Secretary for Health Information Systems References External links Government agencies established in 2006 Technology

4447075

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FlightAware

FlightAware

FlightAware is an American multi-national technology company that provides real-time, historical, and predictive flight tracking data and products. It is currently the world's largest flight tracking platform with a network of over 32,000 ADS-B ground stations in 200 countries. FlightAware also provides aviation data and predicted ETAs to airlines, airport operators, and software developers. FlightAware is privately held, with headquarters in Eleven Greenway Plaza in Houston and sales offices in New York City, Austin, Singapore, and London. History In 2004, CEO, Daniel Baker, started exploring the idea of creating a free flight tracking service as he wanted a way for his family to track his private flights around the country. At the time, there were few enterprise solutions that offered this kind of service. Baker recruited friends Karl Lehenbauer and David McNett to help create a free public flight tracking service. On March 17, 2005, FlightAware was officially founded and began processing live flight data. FlightAware earned over one million dollars in revenue in its first 18 months. FlightAware has been profitable since 2006 and is growing at the rate of 40-50% per year, as of April 2014. On August 30th, 2021, Collins Aerospace announced the intent to acquire FlightAware, financial details were not disclosed. Website The company's web site provides flight tracking information and notifications of private and commercial flights as well as airport activity, flight and airport maps with weather, aviation statistics, flight planning and instrument flight rules procedures for airports in the United States and Australia. In addition, the site includes pilot services such as flight planning, aviation news, photos, and an aviation discussion forum. Users can register with the site for free, which adds features and functionality as well as the ability to participate in community features. Registration allows users to upload photos, submit aviation-related news (squawks), participate in discussion forums, and set up aircraft alerts in addition to numerous other features. FlightAware reports over ten million registered users. FlightAware serves over 500 million flight tracking pages to over 12 million users per month . Commercial products and services FlightAware provides various paid commercial services designed to support aviation-related businesses, consumers, and FBOs. These services provide a significant portion of FlightAware's revenue. FlightAware Global "FlightAware Global" makes worldwide flight tracking available for aircraft operators via satellite or VHF data-link (VDL) through the FlightAware website. This service requires data service with a participating data-link provider and combines this data with existing FlightAware ANSP data feeds in 50+ countries and FlightAware's ADS-B data in 100+ countries. FlightAware integrates with all major aircraft datalink services using ACARS or similar protocols via SATCOM or VDL including: ARINC Garmin Honeywell Global Data Center (GDC) Satcom Direct SITA Spidertracks Universal Weather and Aviation UVdatalink DeLorme For aircraft with cockpit datalink services, FlightAware can provide real-time worldwide flight tracking and status as well as text messaging and other operational dispatch services in some cases. Selective unblocking A selective unblocking service is available for aircraft owners and operators to selectively choose friends, family, employees, and business associates that are allowed to track an aircraft's movements. However, when a selective unblocking is used, the aircraft movements remained blocked to the general public. An owner or operator can opt to do this for privacy or security reasons. FlightAware TV FlightAware TV is a web-based aircraft situational display scaled for an HDTV. FlightAware TV can be customized to show a "fleet view" to monitor an entire fleet or in "airport" view to monitor airport activity such as departures and arrivals. FBO ToolBox FBO ToolBox is a Web-based, market-analysis and flight-tracking application that allows FBO managers insight into their customers. Primary features include competitive fuel price analysis, airport traffic analysis, AMSTAT operator information, airport history reports, and top origins/destinations. A proprietary fuel-burn calculator estimates the number of gallons necessary to complete a filed flight plan, and can deliver FBO managers a picture of potential fuel sales on any given day. In May 2012, FlightAware launched "FBO ToolBox Europe" for airport operators in Europe. Custom reports Custom reports can be generated with a variety of parameters to aid aircraft owners, operators, airports, and business owners in planning decisions. For example, a historical report can be compiled to analyze air traffic frequency at a particular airport. Premium accounts Premium user accounts allow members access to unlimited flight alerts, increased visibility of historical flight data, European weather, tail number data, full screen HDTV maps, fleet tracking, and the ability to view more flights per page. There are three levels of premium accounts that are available for a monthly fee. ADS-B Automatic dependent surveillance – broadcast (ADS-B) is a technology for tracking aircraft. FlightAware operates a network of ADS-B receivers for tracking ADS-B equipped aircraft. FlightAware offers that professional operators of existing ADS-B sites can connect their receivers to FlightAware and, in exchange, receive additional account features/privileges. , FlightAware's network consists of over 1,000 sites, predominately in Europe, North America, and Australia. FlightAware produces FlightFeeder, a small ADS-B receiver that receives and processes ADS-B data, then sends it to FlightAware over the Internet and also makes the data available locally. FlightAware provides this unit free of charge to individuals in areas where FlightAware's ADS-B network does not have sufficient coverage. The company deploys 75-100 new FlightFeeders per month. As of October 31, 2020, FlightAware has 24,350 ADS-B sites in 192 countries, an increase of 4,651 sites since October 22, 2018. In September 2016, Aireon and FlightAware announced a partnership to provide this global space-based ADS-B data to airlines for flight tracking of their fleets and, in response to Malaysia Airlines Flight 370, for compliance with the ICAO Global Aeronautical Distress and Safety System (GADSS) requirement for airlines to track their fleets. APIs AeroAPI FlightAware has a query-based flight tracking API called AeroAPI (formerly FlightXML). Functionality includes flight status, airline data, maps, and push call-backs. AeroAPI can be accessed via Representational state transfer or Simple Object Access Protocol and the API can be accessed from any programming language that supports JSON or XML, including Python, Ruby, Java, Tcl, Perl, ASP, and other languages. Push notifications allow an app to be alerted about flight plans, schedule changes, departures, arrivals, cancellations, diversions, and more. AeroAPI users can also receive airline information such as gate assignments, gate times, seat information, aircraft tail number, and codeshare details. Firehose FlightAware has a live data feed called Firehose for third parties to incorporate live FlightAware positions around the world into their applications. Data is available as live snapshots or a streaming data feed. Other ARINC partnered with FlightAware and uses the FlightAware web application for ARINC Direct business aircraft operators. SITA, Rockwell Collins, and IBM's The Weather Company partnered with FlightAware to use FlightAware's worldwide data in their products for airlines. See also Aireon Flightradar24 References External links FlightAware Live Air Traffic Companies established in 2005 Companies based in Houston Online companies of the United States American travel websites Aviation websites Internet properties established in 2005 IOS software Privately held companies based in Texas Android (operating system) software BlackBerry software Symbian software Windows Phone software Aerospace companies of the United States

2971844

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Link%20state%20packet

Link state packet

Link State Packet (LSP) is a packet of information generated by a network router in a link state routing protocol that lists the router's neighbors. Link state packet can also be further defined as special datagrams that determine the names of and the cost or distance to any neighboring routers and associated networks. They are used to efficiently determine what the new neighbor is, if a link failure occurs, and the cost of changing a link if the need arises. LSPs are queued for transmission, and must time out at about the same time. They must be acknowledged, and can be distributed throughout the network, but cannot use the routing database. Developing Link State Packets When Information needed for exchange is collected, a router then builds a packet containing all the data. The packet starts with the identity of the sender, followed by a sequence number and age, and a list of neighbors. For each neighbor, the delay to that neighbor is given. Building a link state packet is usually easy, the complex part is determining when to build them. One way to reduce this problem is to build them periodically, that is, at regular intervals, or when some significant event occurs, such as a line or neighbor going down or coming back up again, or changing its properties appreciatively. A major procedure called flooding which is used for distributing link state algorithms throughout the routing domain can be implemented with link state packets. However, ordinary flooding may result in problems, because it generates exponential behavior. Smart flooding, on the other hand, recognizes link state packets appropriately. Types of Link State packets Link state packets are usually implemented with Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) protocol. OSPF's reliable flooding mechanism is implemented by Link State Update and Link State Acknowledgment packets. Link state update packet Link State Update packets are OSPF packet type 4. These packets implement the flooding of link state advertisements. Each Link State Update packet carries a collection of link state advertisements one hop further from its origin. Several link-state advertisement may be included in a single packet. Link State Update packets are multicast on those physical networks that support multicast/broadcast. In order to make the flooding procedure reliable, flooded advertisements are acknowledged in Link State Acknowledgment packets. If retransmission of certain advertisements is necessary, the retransmitted advertisements are always carried by unicast Link State Update packets. Link state acknowledgment packet Link State Acknowledgment Packets are OSPF packet type 5. To make the flooding of link state advertisements reliable, flooded advertisements are explicitly acknowledged. This acknowledgment is accomplished through the sending and receiving of Link State Acknowledgment packets. Multiple link state advertisements can be acknowledged in a single Link State Acknowledgment packet. Depending on the state of the sending interface and the source of the advertisements being acknowledged, a Link State Acknowledgment packet is sent either to the multicast address AllSPFRouters, to the multicast address AllDRouters, or as a unicast. See also Link-state routing protocol Flooding algorithm Computer network Open Shortest Path First References FireWire system architecture : IEEE 1394a / MindShare, Inc. ; Don Anderson Anderson, Don, 1953- Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, c1999 Routing in communications networks / editor, Martha Steenstrup Englewood Cliffs, NJ : Prentice Hall, 1995 Radia Perlman “Rbridges: Transparent Routing”, Infocom 2004. Packets (information technology)

7431

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counter-Strike%20%28video%20game%29

Counter-Strike (video game)

Counter-Strike (also known as Half-Life: Counter-Strike or Counter-Strike 1.6) is a first-person shooter game developed by Valve. It was initially developed and released as a Half-Life modification by Minh "Gooseman" Le and Jess Cliffe in 1999, before Le and Cliffe were hired and the game's intellectual property acquired. Counter-Strike was released by Valve for Microsoft Windows in 2000, and is the first installment in the Counter-Strike series. Several remakes and ports were released on Xbox, as well as OS X and Linux. Set in various locations around the globe, players assume the roles of counter-terrorist forces and terrorist militants opposing them. During each round of gameplay, the two teams are tasked with defeating the other by the means of either achieving the map's objectives or eliminating all of the enemy combatants. Each player may customize their arsenal of weapons and accessories at the beginning of every match, with currency being earned after the end of each round. Gameplay Counter-Strike is a first-person shooter game in which players join either the terrorist team, the counter-terrorist team, or become spectators. Each team attempts to complete their mission objective and/or eliminate the opposing team. Each round starts with the two teams spawning simultaneously. All players have only one life by default and start with a pistol as well as a knife. The objectives vary depending on the type of map, and these are the most usual ones: Bomb defusal: To win, the terrorists must carry a bomb, plant it on one of the designated spots and protect it from being disarmed by the counter-terrorists before it explodes. The counter-terrorists win if the time runs out with no conclusion. Hostage rescue: The counter-terrorists must rescue a group of hostages held by the terrorists to win. The terrorists win if the time runs out with no conclusion. Assassination: One of the counter-terrorists is chosen to act as a VIP and the team must escort this player to a designated spot on the map to win the game. The terrorists win if the VIP is killed or if the time runs out with no conclusion. A player can choose to play as one of eight different default character models (four for each side, although Counter-Strike: Condition Zero added two extra models, bringing the total to ten). Players are generally given a few seconds before the round begins (known as "freeze time") to prepare and buy equipment, during which they cannot attack or move. They can return to the buy area within a set amount of time to buy more equipment (some custom maps included neutral "buy zones" that could be used by both teams). Once the round has ended, surviving players retain their equipment for use in the next round; players who were killed begin the next round with the basic default starting equipment. Standard monetary bonuses are awarded for winning a round, losing a round, killing an enemy, being the first to instruct a hostage to follow, rescuing a hostage, planting the bomb (Terrorist) or defusing the bomb (Counter-Terrorist). The scoreboard displays team scores in addition to statistics for each player: name, kills, deaths, and ping (in milliseconds). The scoreboard also indicates whether a player is dead, carrying the bomb (on bomb maps), or is the VIP (on assassination maps), although information on players on the opposing team is hidden from a player until their death, as this information can be important. Killed players become "spectators" for the duration of the round; they cannot change their names before their next spawn, text chat cannot be sent to or received from live players, and voice chat can only be received from live players and not sent to them. Spectators are generally able to watch the rest of the round from multiple selectable views, although some servers disable some of these views to prevent dead players from relaying information about living players to their teammates through alternative media (most notably voice in the case of Internet cafes and Voice over IP programs such as TeamSpeak or Ventrilo). This form of cheating is known as "ghosting." Development Counter-Strike began as a mod of Half-Lifes engine GoldSrc. Minh Le, the mod's co-creator, had started his last semester at university, and wanted to do something in game development to help give him better job prospects. Throughout university, Le had worked on mods with the Quake engine, and on looking for this latest project, wanted to try something new and opted for GoldSrc. At the onset, Valve had not yet released the software development kit (SDK) for GoldSrc but affirmed it would be available in a few months, allowing Le to work on the character models in the interim. Once the GoldSrc SDK was available, Le estimated it took him about a month and a half to complete the programming and integrate his models for "Beta One" of Counter-Strike. To assist, Le had help from Jess Cliffe who managed the game's website and community, and had contacts within level map making community to help build some of the levels for the game. The theme of countering terrorists was inspired by Le's own interest in guns and the military, and from games like Rainbow Six and Spec Ops. Le and Cliffe continued to release Betas on a frequent basis for feedback. The initial few Betas, released starting in June 1999, had limited audiences but by the fifth one, interest in the project dramatically grew. The interest in the game drew numerous players to the website, which helped Le and Cliffe to make revenue from ads hosted on the site. Around 2000 at the time of Beta 5's release, the two were approached by Valve, offering to buy the Counter-Strike intellectual property and offering both jobs to continue its development. Both accepted the offer, and by September 2000, Valve released the first non-beta version of the game. While Cliffe stayed with Valve, Le did some additional work towards a Counter-Strike 2.0 based on Valve's upcoming Source engine, but left to start his own studio after Valve opted to shelve the sequel. Counter-Strike itself is a mod, and it has developed its own community of script writers and mod creators. Some mods add bots, while others remove features of the game, and others create different modes of play. Some mods, often called "admin plugins", give server administrators more flexible and efficient control over their servers. There are some mods which affect gameplay heavily, such as Gun Game, where players start with a basic pistol and must score kills to receive better weapons, and Zombie Mod, where one team consists of zombies and must "spread the infection" by killing the other team (using only the knife). There are also Superhero mods which mix the first-person gameplay of Counter-Strike with an experience system, allowing a player to become more powerful as they continue to play. The game is highly customizable on the player's end, allowing the user to install or even create their own custom skins, HUDs, spray graphics, sprites, and sound effects, given the proper tools. Valve Anti-Cheat Counter-Strike has been a target for cheating in online games since its release. In-game, cheating is often referred to as "hacking" in reference to programs or "hacks" executed by the client. Valve has implemented an anti-cheat system called Valve Anti-Cheat (VAC). Players cheating on a VAC-enabled server risk having their account permanently banned from all VAC-secured servers. With the first version of VAC, a ban took hold almost instantly after being detected and the cheater had to wait two years to have the account unbanned. Since VAC's second version, cheaters are not banned automatically. With the second version, Valve instituted a policy of 'delayed bans,' the theory being that if a new hack is developed which circumvents the VAC system, it will spread amongst the 'cheating' community. By delaying the initial ban, Valve hopes to identify and ban as many cheaters as possible. Like any software detection system, some cheats are not detected by VAC. To remedy this, some servers implement a voting system, in which case players can call for a vote to kick or ban the accused cheater. VAC's success at identifying cheats and banning those who use them has also provided a boost in the purchasing of private cheats. These cheats are updated frequently to minimize the risk of detection, and are generally only available to a trusted list of recipients who collectively promise not to reveal the underlying design. Even with private cheats however, some servers have alternative anticheats to coincide with VAC itself. This can help with detecting some cheaters, but most paid for cheats are designed to bypass these alternative server-based anticheats. Release When Counter-Strike was published by Sierra Studios, it was bundled with Team Fortress Classic, Opposing Force multiplayer, and the Wanted, Half-Life: Absolute Redemption and Firearms mods. On March 24, 1999, Planet Half-Life opened its Counter-Strike section. Within two weeks, the site had received 10,000 hits. On June 19, 1999, the first public beta of Counter-Strike was released, followed by numerous further "beta" releases. On April 12, 2000, Valve announced that the Counter-Strike developers and Valve had teamed up. In January 2013, Valve began testing a version of Counter-Strike for OS X and Linux, eventually releasing the update to all users in April 2013. Reception Upon its retail release, Counter-Strike received highly favorable reviews. In 2003, Counter-Strike was inducted into GameSpot's list of the greatest games of all time. The New York Times reported that E-Sports Entertainment ESEA League started the first professional fantasy e-sports league in 2004 with the game Counter-Strike. Some credit the move into professional competitive team play with prizes as a major factor in Counter-Strike longevity and success. Global retail sales of Counter-Strike surpassed 250,000 units by July 2001. The game sold 1.5 million by February 2003 and generated $40 million in revenue. In the United States, its retail version sold 550,000 copies and earned $15.7 million by August 2006, after its release in November 2000. It was the country's 22nd best-selling PC game between January 2000 and August 2006. The Xbox version sold 1.5 million copies in total. Brazilian sale ban On January 17, 2008, a Brazilian federal court order prohibiting all sales of Counter-Strike and EverQuest began to be enforced. The federal Brazilian judge Carlos Alberto Simões de Tomaz ordered the ban in October 2007 because, as argued by the judge, the games "bring imminent stimulus to the subversion of the social order, attempting against the democratic state and the law and against public security." As of June 18, 2009, a regional federal court order lifting the prohibition on the sale of Counter-Strike was published. The game is now being sold again in Brazil. Competitive play The original Counter-Strike has been played in tournaments since 2000 with the first major being hosted in 2001 at the Cyberathlete Professional League Winter Championship. The first official sequel was Counter-Strike: Source, released on November 1, 2004. The game was criticized by the competitive community, who believed the game's skill ceiling was significantly lower than that of CS 1.6. This caused a divide in the competitive community as to which game to play competitively. Sequels Following the success of the first Counter-Strike, Valve went on to make multiple sequels to the game. Counter-Strike: Condition Zero, a game using Counter-Strikes GoldSrc engine, was released in 2004. Counter-Strike: Source, a remake of the original Counter-Strike, was the first in the series to use Valve's Source engine and was also released in 2004, eight months after the release of Counter-Strike: Condition Zero. The next game in the Counter-Strike series to be developed primarily by Valve was Counter-Strike: Global Offensive, released for Windows, OS X, Linux, PlayStation 3, and Xbox 360 in 2012. The game spawned multiple spin-offs for the Asian gaming market. The first, Counter-Strike Neo, was an arcade game developed by Namco and released in Japan in 2003. In 2008, Nexon Corporation released Counter-Strike Online, a free-to-play instalment in the series monetized via microtransactions. Counter-Strike Online was followed by Counter-Strike Online 2 in 2013. In 2014, Nexon released Counter-Strike Nexon: Zombies worldwide via Steam. See also List of video games derived from modifications Notes References External links Counter-Strike at MobyGames 2000 video games Asymmetrical multiplayer video games Censored video games Counter-Strike Esports games First-person shooters GoldSrc games Linux games MacOS games Microsoft games Multiplayer online games Terrorism in fiction Valve Corporation games Video games about bomb disposal Video games about police officers Video games about the Special Air Service Video games about terrorism Video games about the United States Navy SEALs Video games developed in the United States Video games set in Cuba Video games set in Italy Video games set in Mexico War video games set in the United States Windows games Xbox games Sierra Entertainment games

18123708

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SE-Explorer

SE-Explorer

SE-Explorer is a freeware portable file manager for Windows which can be used as alternative to Windows Explorer. It is sharply different from FAR Manager and Norton Commander because it is GUI-based application with tabbed interface which made it possible to manipulate more than one directory or file view at the time and it has both types of file managers: orthodox two-panelled manager with two file windows side by side and native explorer emulator. The application key features are: Clear tabbed interface Different file browsers: dual panel, classic windows explorer, command prompt Enhanced file search function and embedded size scanner Media player for audio and video files: MP3, WAV, AVI, MPEG, WMV, SWF, MOV, etc. Picture viewer which supports most popular image file formats Archive explorer for ZIP, RAR, ISO, 7z, MSI, CAB, etc. Resource view for executable files and icon libraries PDF, DjVu, DOC, WRI, Html Help and RTF document view Text viewer with syntax highlighting Folder comparison Text file compare (difference) Hex viewer for binary files Dll Inspector with resources/dependencies/objects views for executable files Web Browser for web and email files TrueType TTF font files view XML structure view The application is written in .NET, so the Microsoft .NET Framework 2.0 is required. Main executable file can be easily copied onto USB flash drive and used as a portable application. Licensing SE-Explorer is a freeware and requires no registration or activation. You can download and use it for your own needs for free. History The first version of SE-Explorer was uploaded to the site on 20 June 2008. At present the latest version is 1.31.1.610 which now has "Folder Comparison" feature. See also SE-Explorer home page File managers Comparison of file managers File managers for Microsoft Windows Windows-only freeware Year of introduction missing

42765215

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N.B.K.R.%20Institute%20of%20Science%20and%20Technology

N.B.K.R. Institute of Science and Technology

NBKR Institute of Science and Technology (NBKRIST) is an autonomous engineering college established in 1979 located at Vidyanagar, Kota, Nellore, Andhra Pradesh. It is the aamdest private institution in Andhra Pradesh. History Established in 1979, NBKR Institute of Science & Technology is an Autonomous Institute affiliated to JNT University Anantapur. This Institute is reaccredited by NAAC (UGC) for the second cycle with "A" grade. All B.Tech. courses are accredited by National Board of Accreditation (NBA) under Tier 1. UGC awarded the status of "College with Potential for Excellence (CPE)" to our Institute. The institute offers B.Tech. programmes in Computer Science & Engineering,Electronics & Communication Engineering, Electrical & Electronics Engineering, Mechanical Engineering,Civil Engineering and Information Technology. M.Tech. programmes are offered in Power Systems, Computer Science & Engineering, Digital Electronics & Communication Systems, Advanced Manufacturing Systems. The institute has an R&D Cell and recognised research centres of JNT University Ananthpur offering Ph.D. programmes. Guest lectures are regularly organized on latest trends by eminent industry experts, Entrepreneurs and HR managers. The institute is spread across a lush green 184 acre campus that houses academic blocks, Boys and Girls hostels, Open air auditorium, sports complex, staff quarters etc. The Institute focuses on skill and professional development of the graduates through student run clubs, technical associations. Professional chapters like IEEE, ISTE, IETE, CSI exist in our Institute. Department laboratories and Computer Centre has state-of-the-art equipment to fulfil the needs of the researchers, students and faculty. The central library is well-stocked with books, journals, magazines and news papers. It subscribes thousands of e-journals, e-books. The e-resources can be accessed through the campus network. There are adequate opportunities for co-curricular and extra-curricular activities helping students gain overall skills. Industrial visits and relevant field visits expose the students to hands-on learning experience. Industry Institute Partnership Cell (IIP Cell) caters the needs of the Institute and Industry by way of internships, consultancy. I Gopal Reddy, Founder Principal, Former Vice Chancellor, JNTU is the current chairman. Dr Pokkuluri Kiran Sree is the former principal of the institute.V Vijaya Kumar Reddy is the director of the institute. Spread over , the college is a fully residential college and is located on the bank of river Swarnamukhi and is on the coastal line of Andhra Pradesh. The college was accredited by NBA four times. It is reaccredited by NAAC with A Grade. It was given Autonomous status by UGC, New Delhi from the Academic Year 2012–2013. There are four boys hostels (Venus, Jupiter, Mercury, and Neptune) and two girls hostels and 72 residential quarters for the staff. Departments The B.Tech. Programs offered are: Civil Engineering (Civil) Computer Science and Engineering (CSE) Electrical and Electronics Engineering (EEE) Electronics and Communication Engineering (ECE) Mechanical Engineering (ME) Information Technology (IT) Artificial Intelligence & Data Science (AI&DS) The M.Tech. Programs offered are: Computer Science and Engineering (CSE) Power Systems (EEE) Digital Electronics and Communication Systems (ECE) Advanced Manufacturing Systems (ME) Governing Body Members Educational institutions established in 1979 1979 establishments in Andhra Pradesh Universities and colleges in Nellore district

13215593

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lp0%20on%20fire

Lp0 on fire

lp0 on fire (also known as Printer on Fire) is an outdated error message generated on some Unix and Unix-like computer operating systems in response to certain types of printer errors. lp0 is the Unix device handle for the first line printer, but the error can be displayed for any printer attached to a Unix or Linux system. It indicates a printer error that requires further investigation to diagnose, but not necessarily that it is on fire. Printer flammability In the late 1950s, high speed computerized printing was still a somewhat experimental field. The first documented fire-starting printer was a Stromberg-Carlson 5000 xerographic printer (similar to a modern laser printer, but with a CRT as the light source instead of a laser), installed around 1959 at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and modified with an extended fusing oven to achieve a print speed of one page per second. In the event of a printing stall, and occasionally during normal operation, the fusing oven would heat paper to combustion. This fire risk was aggravated by the fact that if the printer continued to operate, it would essentially stoke the fire with fresh paper at high speed. However there is no evidence of the "lp0 on fire" message appearing in any software of the time. As the technology matured, most large printer installations were drum printers, a type of impact printer which could print an entire line of text at once through the use of a high speed rotary printing drum. It was thought that in the event of a severe jam, the friction of paper against the drum could ignite either the paper itself, or, in a dirty machine, the accumulated paper and ink dust in the mechanism. Whether this ever happened is not known; there are no reports of friction-related printer fires. The line printer employed a series of status codes, specifically ready, online, and check. If the online status was set to "off" and the check status was set to "on," the operating system would interpret this as the printer running out of paper. However, if the online code was set to "on" and the check code was also set to "on", it meant that the printer still had paper, but was suffering an error (and may still be attempting to run). Due to the potentially hazardous conditions which could arise in early line printers, Unix displayed the message "on fire" to motivate any system operator viewing the message to go and check on the line printer immediately. In the early 1980s, Xerox created a prototype laser printer engine and provided units to various computer companies. To fuse the toner, the paper path passed a glowing wire. If paper jammed anywhere in the path, the sheet in the fuser caught fire. The prototype UNIX driver reported paper jams as "on fire." Later print engine models used a hot drum in place of the wire. Phrase origins Michael K. Johnson ("mkj" of Red Hat and Fedora fame) wrote the first Linux version of this error message in 1992, however he as well as Herbert Rosmanith and Alan Cox (all Linux developers) have acknowledged that the phrase existed in Unix in different forms prior to his Linux printer implementation. Since then, the lp printer code has spread across all sorts of POSIX-compliant operating systems, which often still retain this legacy message. Modern printer drivers and support have improved and hidden low-level error messages from users, so most Unix/Linux users today have never seen the "on fire" message. However, a few people still run into it today with varying levels of amusement or confusion. The "on fire" message remains in the Linux source code as of version 5.14-rc6. The message is also present in other software modules, often to humorous effect. For example, in some kernels' CPU code, a CPU thermal failure could result in the message "CPU#0: Possible thermal failure (CPU on fire ?)" and similar humor can be found in the phrase halt and catch fire. See also Halt and Catch Fire HTTP 418 Not a typewriter PC LOAD LETTER References Computer errors Computer humor Computer printers Fire

58205

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector%20processor

Vector processor

In computing, a vector processor or array processor is a central processing unit (CPU) that implements an instruction set where its instructions are designed to operate efficiently and effectively on large one-dimensional arrays of data called vectors. This is in contrast to scalar processors, whose instructions operate on single data items only, and in contrast to some of those same scalar processors having additional single instruction, multiple data (SIMD) or SWAR Arithmetic Units. Vector processors can greatly improve performance on certain workloads, notably numerical simulation and similar tasks. Vector processing techniques also operate in video-game console hardware and in graphics accelerators. Vector machines appeared in the early 1970s and dominated supercomputer design through the 1970s into the 1990s, notably the various Cray platforms. The rapid fall in the price-to-performance ratio of conventional microprocessor designs led to a decline in vector supercomputers during the 1990s. History Early work Vector processing development began in the early 1960s at Westinghouse in their "Solomon" project. Solomon's goal was to dramatically increase math performance by using a large number of simple math co-processors under the control of a single master CPU. The CPU fed a single common instruction to all of the arithmetic logic units (ALUs), one per cycle, but with a different data point for each one to work on. This allowed the Solomon machine to apply a single algorithm to a large data set, fed in the form of an array. In 1962, Westinghouse cancelled the project, but the effort was restarted at the University of Illinois as the ILLIAC IV. Their version of the design originally called for a 1 GFLOPS machine with 256 ALUs, but, when it was finally delivered in 1972, it had only 64 ALUs and could reach only 100 to 150 MFLOPS. Nevertheless, it showed that the basic concept was sound, and, when used on data-intensive applications, such as computational fluid dynamics, the ILLIAC was the fastest machine in the world. The ILLIAC approach of using separate ALUs for each data element is not common to later designs, and is often referred to under a separate category, massively parallel computing. Around this time Flynn categorised this type of processing as an early form of SIMT. A computer for operations with functions was presented and developed by Kartsev in 1967. Supercomputers The first vector supercomputers are the Control Data Corporation STAR-100 and Texas Instruments Advanced Scientific Computer (ASC), which were introduced in 1974 and 1972, respectively. The basic ASC (i.e., "one pipe") ALU used a pipeline architecture that supported both scalar and vector computations, with peak performance reaching approximately 20 MFLOPS, readily achieved when processing long vectors. Expanded ALU configurations supported "two pipes" or "four pipes" with a corresponding 2X or 4X performance gain. Memory bandwidth was sufficient to support these expanded modes. The STAR-100 was otherwise slower than CDC's own supercomputers like the CDC 7600, but at data-related tasks they could keep up while being much smaller and less expensive. However the machine also took considerable time decoding the vector instructions and getting ready to run the process, so it required very specific data sets to work on before it actually sped anything up. The vector technique was first fully exploited in 1976 by the famous Cray-1. Instead of leaving the data in memory like the STAR-100 and ASC, the Cray design had eight vector registers, which held sixty-four 64-bit words each. The vector instructions were applied between registers, which is much faster than talking to main memory. Whereas the STAR-100 would apply a single operation across a long vector in memory and then move on to the next operation, the Cray design would load a smaller section of the vector into registers and then apply as many operations as it could to that data, thereby avoiding many of the much slower memory access operations. The Cray design used pipeline parallelism to implement vector instructions rather than multiple ALUs. In addition, the design had completely separate pipelines for different instructions, for example, addition/subtraction was implemented in different hardware than multiplication. This allowed a batch of vector instructions to be pipelined into each of the ALU subunits, a technique they called vector chaining. The Cray-1 normally had a performance of about 80 MFLOPS, but with up to three chains running it could peak at 240 MFLOPS and averaged around 150 – far faster than any machine of the era. Other examples followed. Control Data Corporation tried to re-enter the high-end market again with its ETA-10 machine, but it sold poorly and they took that as an opportunity to leave the supercomputing field entirely. In the early and mid-1980s Japanese companies (Fujitsu, Hitachi and Nippon Electric Corporation (NEC) introduced register-based vector machines similar to the Cray-1, typically being slightly faster and much smaller. Oregon-based Floating Point Systems (FPS) built add-on array processors for minicomputers, later building their own minisupercomputers. Throughout, Cray continued to be the performance leader, continually beating the competition with a series of machines that led to the Cray-2, Cray X-MP and Cray Y-MP. Since then, the supercomputer market has focused much more on massively parallel processing rather than better implementations of vector processors. However, recognising the benefits of vector processing, IBM developed Virtual Vector Architecture for use in supercomputers coupling several scalar processors to act as a vector processor. Although vector supercomputers resembling the Cray-1 are less popular these days, NEC has continued to make this type of computer up to the present day with their SX series of computers. Most recently, the SX-Aurora TSUBASA places the processor and either 24 or 48 gigabytes of memory on an HBM 2 module within a card that physically resembles a graphics coprocessor, but instead of serving as a co-processor, it is the main computer with the PC-compatible computer into which it is plugged serving support functions. GPU Modern graphics processing units (GPUs) include an array of shader pipelines which may be driven by compute kernels, and can be considered vector processors (using a similar strategy for hiding memory latencies). As shown in Flynn's 1972 paper the key distinguishing factor of SIMT-based GPUs is that it has a single instruction decoder-broadcaster but that the cores receiving and executing that same instruction are otherwise reasonably normal: their own ALUs, their own register files, their own Load/Store units and their own independent L1 data caches. Thus although all cores simultaneously execute the exact same instruction in lock-step with each other they do so with completely different data from completely different memory locations. This is significantly more complex and involved than "Packed SIMD", which is strictly limited to execution of parallel pipelined arithmetic operations only. Although the exact internal details of today's commercial GPUs are proprietary secrets, the MIAOW team was able to piece together anecdotal information sufficient to implement a subset of the AMDGPU architecture. Comparison with modern architectures most commodity CPUs implement architectures that feature fixed-length SIMD instructions. On first inspection these can be considered a form of vector processing because they operate on multiple (vectorized, explicit length) data sets, and borrow features from vector processors. However by definition the addition of SIMD cannot by itself qualify a processor as an actual Vector Processor because SIMD is fixed-length and Vectors are variable. The difference is illustrated below with examples, showing and comparing the three categories: Pure SIMD, Predicated SIMD, and Pure Vector Processing. Pure (fixed) SIMD - also known as "Packed SIMD", SIMD within a Register (SWAR), and Pipelined Processor in Flynn's Taxonomy. Common examples using SIMD with features inspired by Vector processors include Intel x86's MMX, SSE and AVX instructions, AMD's 3DNow! extensions, ARM NEON, Sparc's VIS extension, PowerPC's AltiVec and MIPS' MSA. In 2000, IBM, Toshiba and Sony collaborated to create the Cell processor, which is also SIMD. Predicated SIMD - also known as associative processing. Two notable examples which have per-element (lane-based) predication are ARM SVE2 and AVX-512 Pure Vectors - as categorised in Duncan's taxonomy -these include the original Cray-1, RISC-V RVV and SX-Aurora TSUBASA. Although memory-based the STAR-100 was also a Vector Processor. Other CPU designs include some multiple instructions for vector processing on multiple (vectorised) data sets, typically known as MIMD (Multiple Instruction, Multiple Data) and realized with VLIW (Very Long Instruction Word). The Fujitsu FR-V VLIW/vector processor combines both technologies. Difference between SIMD and vector processor SIMD instruction sets lack crucial features when compared to vector processor instruction sets. The most important of these is that vector processors, inherently by definition and design, have always been variable-length since their inception. Where pure (fixed-width, no predication) SIMD is commonly mistakenly claimed to be "vectors" (because SIMD is used to process data which happens to be vectors), through close analysis and comparison of historic and modern ISAs, actual vector processors may be observed to have the following features that no SIMD ISA has: a way to set the vector length (such as the instruction in RISCV RVV) or providing a (instruction repeating) feature in some form, without limiting repeats to a power of two Iteration and reduction over elements within vectors. RISC-V vectors as of version 0.10 have reduction only, whilst the SX-Aurora and later Cray systems have iteration as well as reduction. Predicated SIMD (part of Flynn's taxonomy) which is comprehensive individual element-level predicate masks on every vector instruction as is now available in ARM SVE2. and AVX-512, almost qualifies as a vector processor. Predicated SIMD uses fixed-width SIMD ALUs but allows locally controlled (predicated) activation of units to provide the appearance of variable length vectors. Examples below help explain these categorical distinctions. SIMD, due to it being fixed width batch processing, is unable by design to cope with iteration and reduction. This is illustrated further with examples, below. Additionally, vector processors can be more resource-efficient (use slower hardware, saving power, but still achieving throughput) and have less latency than SIMD, through vector chaining. Consider both a SIMD processor and a vector processor working on 4 64-bit elements, doing a LOAD, ADD, MULTIPLY and STORE sequence. If the SIMD width is 4, then the SIMD processor must LOAD four elements entirely before it can move on to the ADDs, must complete all the ADDs before it can move on to the MULTIPLYs, and likewise must complete all of the MULTIPLYs before it can start the STOREs. This is by definition and by design. Having to perform 4-wide simultaneous 64-bit LOADs and 64-bit STOREs is very costly in hardware (256 bit data paths to memory). Having 4x 64 -bit ALUs, especially MULTIPLY, likewise. To avoid these high costs, a SIMD processor would have to have 1-wide 64-bit LOAD, 1-wide 64-bit STORE, and only 2-wide 64-bit ALUs. As shown in the diagram, which assumes a multi-issue execution model, the consequences are that the operations now take longer to complete. If multi-issue is not possible, then the operations take even longer because the LD may not be issued (started) at the same time as the first ADDs, and so on. If there are only 4-wide 64-bit SIMD ALUs, the completion time is even worse: only when all four LOADs have completed may the SIMD operations start, and only when all ALU operations have completed may the STOREs begin. A vector processor by contrast, even if it is single-issue and uses no SIMD ALUs, only having 1-wide 64-bit LOAD, 1-wide 64-bit STORE (and, as in the Cray-1, the ability to run MULTIPLY simultaneously with ADD), may complete the four operations faster than a SIMD processor with 1-wide LOAD, 1-wide STORE, and 2-wide SIMD. This more efficient resource utilisation, due to vector chaining, is a key advantage and difference compared to SIMD. SIMD by design and definition cannot perform chaining except to the entire group of results. Description In general terms, CPUs are able to manipulate one or two pieces of data at a time. For instance, most CPUs have an instruction that essentially says "add A to B and put the result in C". The data for A, B and C could be—in theory at least—encoded directly into the instruction. However, in efficient implementation things are rarely that simple. The data is rarely sent in raw form, and is instead "pointed to" by passing in an address to a memory location that holds the data. Decoding this address and getting the data out of the memory takes some time, during which the CPU traditionally would sit idle waiting for the requested data to show up. As CPU speeds have increased, this memory latency has historically become a large impediment to performance; see Memory wall. In order to reduce the amount of time consumed by these steps, most modern CPUs use a technique known as instruction pipelining in which the instructions pass through several sub-units in turn. The first sub-unit reads the address and decodes it, the next "fetches" the values at those addresses, and the next does the math itself. With pipelining the "trick" is to start decoding the next instruction even before the first has left the CPU, in the fashion of an assembly line, so the address decoder is constantly in use. Any particular instruction takes the same amount of time to complete, a time known as the latency, but the CPU can process an entire batch of operations, in an overlapping fashion, much faster and more efficiently than if it did so one at a time. Vector processors take this concept one step further. Instead of pipelining just the instructions, they also pipeline the data itself. The processor is fed instructions that say not just to add A to B, but to add all of the numbers "from here to here" to all of the numbers "from there to there". Instead of constantly having to decode instructions and then fetch the data needed to complete them, the processor reads a single instruction from memory, and it is simply implied in the definition of the instruction itself that the instruction will operate again on another item of data, at an address one increment larger than the last. This allows for significant savings in decoding time. To illustrate what a difference this can make, consider the simple task of adding two groups of 10 numbers together. In a normal programming language one would write a "loop" that picked up each of the pairs of numbers in turn, and then added them. To the CPU, this would look something like this: ; Hypothetical RISC machine ; add 10 numbers in a to 10 numbers in b, storing results in c ; assume a, b, and c are memory locations in their respective registers move $10, count ; count := 10 loop: load r1, a load r2, b add r3, r1, r2 ; r3 := r1 + r2 store r3, c add a, a, $4 ; move on add b, b, $4 add c, c, $4 dec count ; decrement jnez count, loop ; loop back if count is not yet 0 ret But to a vector processor, this task looks considerably different: ; assume we have vector registers v1-v3 ; with size equal or larger than 10 move $10, count ; count = 10 vload v1, a, count vload v2, b, count vadd v3, v1, v2 vstore v3, c, count ret Note the complete lack of looping in the instructions, because it is the hardware which has performed 10 sequential operations: effectively the loop count is on an explicit per-instruction basis. Cray-style vector ISAs take this a step further and provide a global "count" register, called vector length (VL): ; again assume we have vector registers v1-v3 ; with size larger than or equal to 10 setvli $10 # Set vector length VL=10 vload v1, a # 10 loads from a vload v2, b # 10 loads from b vadd v3, v1, v2 # 10 adds vstore v3, c # 10 stores into c ret There are several savings inherent in this approach. only three address translations are needed. Depending on the architecture, this can represent a significant savings by itself. Another saving is fetching and decoding the instruction itself, which has to be done only one time instead of ten. The code itself is also smaller, which can lead to more efficient memory use, reduction in L1 instruction cache size, reduction in power consumption. With the program size being reduced branch prediction has an easier job. With the length (equivalent to SIMD width) not being hard-coded into the instruction, not only is the encoding more compact, it's also "future-proof" and allows even embedded processor designs to consider using vectors purely to gain all the other advantages, rather than go for high performance. Additionally, in more modern vector processor ISAs, "Fail on First" or "Fault First" has been introduced (see below) which brings even more advantages. But more than that, a high performance vector processor may have multiple functional units adding those numbers in parallel. The checking of dependencies between those numbers is not required as a vector instruction specifies multiple independent operations. This simplifies the control logic required, and can further improve performance by avoiding stalls. The math operations thus completed far faster overall, the limiting factor being the time required to fetch the data from memory. Not all problems can be attacked with this sort of solution. Including these types of instructions necessarily adds complexity to the core CPU. That complexity typically makes other instructions run slower—i.e., whenever it is not adding up many numbers in a row. The more complex instructions also add to the complexity of the decoders, which might slow down the decoding of the more common instructions such as normal adding. (This can be somewhat mitigated by keeping the entire ISA to RISC principles: RVV only adds around 190 vector instructions even with the advanced features.) Vector processors were traditionally designed to work best only when there are large amounts of data to be worked on. For this reason, these sorts of CPUs were found primarily in supercomputers, as the supercomputers themselves were, in general, found in places such as weather prediction centers and physics labs, where huge amounts of data are "crunched". However, as shown above and demonstrated by RISC-V RVV the efficiency of vector ISAs brings other benefits which are compelling even for Embedded use-cases. Vector instructions The vector pseudocode example above comes with a big assumption that the vector computer can process more than ten numbers in one batch. For a greater quantity of numbers in the vector register, it becomes unfeasible for the computer to have a register that large. As a result, the vector processor either gains the ability to perform loops itself, or exposes some sort of vector control (status) register to the programmer, usually known as a vector Length. The self-repeating instructions are found in early vector computers like the STAR-100, where the above action would be described in a single instruction (somewhat like ). They are also found in the x86 architecture as the prefix. However, only very simple calculations can be done effectively in hardware this way without a very large cost increase. Since all operands have to be in memory for the STAR-100 architecture, the latency caused by access became huge too. Interestingly, though, Broadcom included space in all vector operations of the Videocore IV ISA for a field, but unlike the STAR-100 which uses memory for its repeats, the Videocore IV repeats are on all operations including arithmetic vector operations. The repeat length can be a small range of power of two or sourced from one of the scalar registers. The Cray-1 introduced the idea of using processor registers to hold vector data in batches. The batch lengths (vector length, VL) could be dynamically set with a special instruction, the significance compared to Videocore IV (and, crucially as will be shown below, SIMD as well) being that the repeat length does not have to be part of the instruction encoding. This way, significantly more work can be done in each batch; the instruction encoding is much more elegant and compact as well. The only drawback is that in order to take full advantage of this extra batch processing capacity, the memory load and store speed correspondingly had to increase as well. This is sometimes claimed to be a disadvantage of Cray-style vector processors: in reality it is part of achieving high performance throughput, as seen in GPUs, which face exactly the same issue. Modern SIMD computers claim to improve on early Cray by directly using multiple ALUs, for a higher degree of parallelism compared to only using the normal scalar pipeline. Modern vector processors (such as the SX-Aurora TSUBASA) combine both, by issuing multiple data to multiple internal pipelined SIMD ALUs, the number issued being dynamically chosen by the vector program at runtime. Masks can be used to selectively load and store data in memory locations, and use those same masks to selectively disable processing element of SIMD ALUs. Some processors with SIMD (AVX-512, ARM SVE2) are capable of this kind of selective, per-element ("predicated") processing, and it is these which somewhat deserve the nomenclature "vector processor" or at least deserve the claim of being capable of "vector processing". SIMD processors without per-element predication (MMX, SSE, AltiVec) categorically do not. Modern GPUs, which have many small compute units each with their own independent SIMD ALUs, use Single Instruction Multiple Threads (SIMT). SIMT units run from a shared single broadcast synchronised Instruction Unit. The "vector registers" are very wide and the pipelines tend to be long. The "threading" part of SIMT involves the way data is handled independently on each of the compute units. In addition, GPUs such as the Broadcom Videocore IV and other external vector processors like the NEC SX-Aurora TSUBASA may use fewer vector units than the width implies: instead of having 64 units for a 64-number-wide register, the hardware might instead do a pipelined loop over 16 units for a hybrid approach. The Broadcom Videocore IV is also capable of this hybrid approach: nominally stating that its SIMD QPU Engine supports 16-long FP array operations in its instructions, it actually does them 4 at a time, as (another) form of "threads". Vector instruction example This example starts with an algorithm ("IAXPY"), first show it in scalar instructions, then SIMD, then predicated SIMD, and finally vector instructions. This incrementally helps illustrate the difference between a traditional vector processor and a modern SIMD one. The example starts with a 32-bit integer variant of the "DAXPY" function, in c: void iaxpy(size_t n, int a, const int x[], int y[]) { for (size_t i = 0; i < n; i++) y[i] = a * x[i] + y[i]; } In each iteration, every element of y has an element of x multiplied by a and added to it. The program is expressed in scalar linear form for readability. Scalar assembler The scalar version of this would load one of each of x and y, process one calculation, store one result, and loop: loop: load32 r1, x ; load one 32bit data load32 r2, y mul32 r1, a, r1 ; r1 := r1 * a add32 r3, r1, r2 ; r3 := r1 + r2 store32 r3, y addl x, x, $4 ; x := x + 4 addl y, y, $4 subl n, n, $1 ; n := n - 1 jgz n, loop ; loop back if n > 0 out: ret The STAR-like code remains concise, but because the STAR-100's vectorisation was by design based around memory accesses, an extra slot of memory is now required to process the information. Two times the latency is also needed due to the extra requirement of memory access. ; Assume tmp is pre-allocated vmul tmp, a, x, n ; tmp[i] = a * x[i] vadd y, y, tmp, n ; y[i] = y[i] + tmp[i] ret Pure (non-predicated, packed) SIMD A modern packed SIMD architecture, known by many names (listed in Flynn's taxonomy), can do most of the operation in batches. The code is mostly similar to the scalar version. It is assumed that both x and y are properly aligned here (only start on a multiple of 16) and that n is a multiple of 4, as otherwise some setup code would be needed to calculate a mask or to run a scalar version. It can also be assumed, for simplicity, that the SIMD instructions have an option to automatically repeat scalar operands, like ARM NEON can. If it does not, a "splat" (broadcast) must be used, to copy the scalar argument across a SIMD register: splatx4 v4, a ; v4 = a,a,a,a The time taken would be basically the same as a vector implementation of described above. vloop: load32x4 v1, x load32x4 v2, y mul32x4 v1, a, v1 ; v1 := v1 * a add32x4 v3, v1, v2 ; v3 := v1 + v2 store32x4 v3, y addl x, x, $16 ; x := x + 16 addl y, y, $16 subl n, n, $4 ; n := n - 4 jgz n, vloop ; go back if n > 0 out: ret Note that both x and y pointers are incremented by 16, because that is how long (in bytes) four 32-bit integers are. The decision was made that the algorithm shall only cope with 4-wide SIMD, therefore the constant is hard-coded into the program. Unfortunately for SIMD, the clue was in the assumption above, "that n is a multiple of 4" as well as "aligned access", which, clearly, is a limited specialist use-case. Realistically, for general-purpose loops such as in portable libraries, where n cannot be limited in this way, the overhead of setup and cleanup for SIMD in order to cope with non-multiples of the SIMD width, can far exceed the instruction count inside the loop itself. Assuming worst-case that the hardware cannot do misaligned SIMD memory accesses, a real-world algorithm will: first have to have a preparatory section which works on the beginning unaligned data, up to the first point where SIMD memory-aligned operations can take over. this will either involve (slower) scalar-only operations or smaller-sized packed SIMD operations. Each copy implements the full algorithm inner loop. perform the aligned SIMD loop at the maximum SIMD width up until the last few elements (those remaining that do not fit the fixed SIMD width) have a cleanup phase which, like the preparatory section, is just as large and just as complex. Eight-wide SIMD requires repeating the inner loop algorithm first with four-wide SIMD elements, then two-wide SIMD, then one (scalar), with a test and branch in between each one, in order to cover the first and last remaining SIMD elements (0 <= n <= 7). This more than triples the size of the code, in fact in extreme cases it results in an order of magnitude increase in instruction count! This can easily be demonstrated by compiling the iaxpy example for AVX-512, using the options to gcc. Over time as the ISA evolves to keep increasing performance, it results in ISA Architects adding 2-wide SIMD, then 4-wide SIMD, then 8-wide and upwards. It can therefore be seen why AVX-512 exists in x86. Without predication, the wider the SIMD width the worse the problems get, leading to massive opcode proliferation, degraded performance, extra power consumption and unnecessary software complexity. Vector processors on the other hand are designed to issue computations of variable length for an arbitrary count, n, and thus require very little setup, and no cleanup. Even compared to those SIMD ISAs which have masks (but no instruction), Vector processors produce much more compact code because they do not need to perform explicit mask calculation to cover the last few elements (illustrated below). Predicated SIMD Assuming a hypothetical predicated (mask capable) SIMD ISA, and again assuming that the SIMD instructions can cope with misaligned data, the instruction loop would look like this: vloop: # prepare mask. few ISAs have min though min t0, n, $4 ; t0 = min(n, 4) shift m, $1, t0 ; m = 1<<t0 sub m, m, $1 ; m = (1<<t0)-1 # now do the operation, masked by m bits load32x4 v1, x, m load32x4 v2, y, m mul32x4 v1, a, v1, m ; v1 := v1 * a add32x4 v3, v1, v2, m ; v3 := v1 + v2 store32x4 v3, y, m # update x, y and n for next loop addl x, t0*4 ; x := x + t0*4 addl y, t0*4 subl n, n, t0 ; n := n - t0 # loop? jgz n, vloop ; go back if n > 0 out: ret Here it can be seen that the code is much cleaner but a little complex: at least, however, there is no setup or cleanup: on the last iteration of the loop, the predicate mask wil be set to either 0b0000, 0b0001, 0b0011, 0b0111 or 0b1111, resulting in between 0 and 4 SIMD element operations being performed, respectively. One additional potential complication: some RISC ISAs do not have a "min" instruction, needing instead to use a branch or scalar predicated compare. It is clear how predicated SIMD at least merits the term "vector capable", because it can cope with variable-length vectors by using predicate masks. The final evolving step to a "true" vector ISA, however, is to not have any evidence in the ISA at all of a SIMD width, leaving that entirely up to the hardware. Pure (true) vector ISA For Cray-style vector ISAs such as RVV, an instruction called "" (set vector length) is used. The hardware first defines how many data values it can process in one "vector": this could be either actual registers or it could be an internal loop (the hybrid approach, mentioned above). This maximum amount (the number of hardware "lanes") is termed "MVL" (Maximum Vector Length). Note that, as seen in SX-Aurora and Videocore IV, MVL may be an actual hardware lane quantity or a virtual one. (Note: As mentioned in the ARM SVE2 Tutorial, programmers must not make the mistake of assuming a fixed vector width: consequently MVL is not a quantity that the programmer needs to know. This can be a little disconcerting after years of SIMD mindset). On calling with the number of outstanding data elements to be processed, "" is permitted (essentially required) to limit that to the Maximum Vector Length (MVL) and thus returns the actual number that can be processed by the hardware in subsequent vector instructions, and sets the internal special register, "VL", to that same amount. ARM refers to this technique as "vector length agnostic" programming in its tutorials on SVE2. Below is the Cray-style vector assembler for the same SIMD style loop, above. Note that t0 (which, containing a convenient copy of VL, can vary) is used instead of hard-coded constants: vloop: setvl t0, n # VL=t0=min(MVL, n) vld32 v0, x # load vector x vld32 v1, y # load vector y vmadd32 v1, v0, a # v1 += v0 * a vst32 v1, y # store Y add y, t0*4 # advance y by VL*4 add x, t0*4 # advance x by VL*4 sub n, t0 # n -= VL (t0) bnez n, vloop # repeat if n != 0 This is essentially not very different from the SIMD version (processes 4 data elements per loop), or from the initial Scalar version (processes just the one). n still contains the number of data elements remaining to be processed, but t0 contains the copy of VL – the number that is going to be processed in each iteration. t0 is subtracted from n after each iteration, and if n is zero then all elements have been processed. A number of things to note, when comparing against the Predicated SIMD assembly variant: The instruction has embedded within it a instruction Where the SIMD variant hard-coded both the width (4) into the creation of the mask and in the SIMD width (load32x4 etc.) the vector ISA equivalents have no such limit. This makes vector programs both portable, Vendor Independent, and future-proof. Setting VL effectively creates a hidden predicate mask that is automatically applied to the vectors Where with predicated SIMD the mask bitlength is limited to that which may be held in a scalar (or special mask) register, vector ISA's mask registers have no such limitation. Cray-I vectors could be just over 1,000 elements (in 1977). Thus it can be seen, very clearly, how vector ISAs reduce the number of instructions. Also note, that just like the predicated SIMD variant, the pointers to x and y are advanced by t0 times four because they both point to 32 bit data, but that n is decremented by straight t0. Compared to the fixed-size SIMD assembler there is very little apparent difference: x and y are advanced by hard-coded constant 16, n is decremented by a hard-coded 4, so initially it is hard to appreciate the significance. The difference comes in the realisation that the vector hardware could be capable of doing 4 simultaneous operations, or 64, or 10,000, it would be the exact same vector assembler for all of them and there would still be no SIMD cleanup code. Even compared to the predicate-capable SIMD, it is still more compact, clearer, more elegant and uses less resources. Not only is it a much more compact program (saving on L1 Cache size), but as previously mentioned, the vector version can issue far more data processing to the ALUs, again saving power because Instruction Decode and Issue can sit idle. Additionally, the number of elements going in to the function can start at zero. This sets the vector length to zero, which effectively disables all vector instructions, turning them into no-ops, at runtime. Thus, unlike non-predicated SIMD, even when there are no elements to process there is still no wasted cleanup code. Vector reduction example This example starts with an algorithm which involves reduction. Just as with the previous example, it will be first shown in scalar instructions, then SIMD, and finally vector instructions, starting in c: void (size_t n, int a, const int x[]) { int y = 0; for (size_t i = 0; i < n; i++) y += x[i]; return y; } Here, an accumulator (y) is used to sum up all the values in the array, x. Scalar assembler The scalar version of this would load each of x, add it to y, and loop: set y, 0 ; y initialised to zero loop: load32 r1, x ; load one 32bit data add32 y, y, r1 ; y := y + r1 addl x, x, $4 ; x := x + 4 subl n, n, $1 ; n := n - 1 jgz n, loop ; loop back if n > 0 out: ret y ; returns result, y This is very straightforward. "y" starts at zero, 32 bit integers are loaded one at a time into r1, added to y, and the address of the array "x" moved on to the next element in the array. SIMD reduction This is where the problems start. SIMD by design is incapable of doing arithmetic operations "inter-element". Element 0 of one SIMD register may be added to Element 0 of another register, but Element 0 may not be added to anything other than another Element 0. This places some severe limitations on potential implementations. For simplicity it can be assumed that n is exactly 8: addl r3, x, $16 ; for 2nd 4 of x load32x4 v1, x ; first 4 of x load32x4 v2, r3 ; 2nd 4 of x add32x4 v1, v2, v1 ; add 2 groups At this point four adds have been performed: - First SIMD ADD: element 0 of first group added to element 0 of second group - Second SIMD ADD: element 1 of first group added to element 1 of second group - Third SIMD ADD: element 2 of first group added to element 2 of second group - Fourth SIMD ADD: element 3 of first group added to element 2 of second group but with 4-wide SIMD being incapable by design of adding for example, things go rapidly downhill just as they did with the general case of using SIMD for general-purpose IAXPY loops. To sum the four partial results, two-wide SIMD can be used, followed by a single scalar add, to finally produce the answer, but, frequently, the data must be transferred out of dedicated SIMD registers before the last scalar computation can be performed. Even with a general loop (n not fixed), the only way to use 4-wide SIMD is to assume four separate "streams", each offset by four elements. Finally, the four partial results have to be summed. Other techniques involve shuffle: examples online can be found for AVX-512 of how to do "Horizontal Sum" Aside from the size of the program and the complexity, an additional potential problem arises if floating-point computation is involved: the fact that the values are not being summed in strict order (four partial results) could result in rounding errors. Vector ISA reduction Vector instruction sets have arithmetic reduction operations built-in to the ISA. If it is assumed that n is less or equal to the maximum vector length, only three instructions are required: setvl t0, n # VL=t0=min(MVL, n) vld32 v0, x # load vector x vredadd32 y, v0 # reduce-add into y The code when n is larger than the maximum vector length is not that much more complex, and is a similar pattern to the first example ("IAXPY"). set y, 0 vloop: setvl t0, n # VL=t0=min(MVL, n) vld32 v0, x # load vector x vredadd32 y, y, v0 # add all x into y add x, t0*4 # advance x by VL*4 sub n, t0 # n -= VL (t0) bnez n, vloop # repeat if n != 0 ret y The simplicity of the algorithm is stark in comparison to SIMD. Again, just as with the IAXPY example, the algorithm is length-agnostic (even on Embedded implementations where maximum vector length could be only one). Implementations in hardware may, if they are certain that the right answer will be produced, perform the reduction in parallel. Some vector ISAs offer a parallel reduction mode as an explicit option, for when the programmer knows that any potential rounding errors do not matter, and low latency is critical. This example again highlights a key critical fundamental difference between true vector processors and those SIMD processors, including most commercial GPUs, which are inspired by features of vector processors. Insights from examples Compared to any SIMD processor claiming to be a vector processor, the order of magnitude reduction in program size is almost shocking. However, this level of elegance at the ISA level has quite a high price tag at the hardware level: From the IAXPY example, it can be seen that unlike SIMD processors, which can simplify their internal hardware by avoiding dealing with misaligned memory access, a vector processor cannot get away with such simplification: algorithms are written which inherently rely on Vector Load and Store being successful, regardless of alignment of the start of the vector. Whilst from the reduction example it can be seen that, aside from permute instructions, SIMD by definition avoids inter-lane operations entirely (element 0 can only be added to another element 0), vector processors tackle this head-on. What programmers are forced to do in software (using shuffle and other tricks, to swap data into the right "lane") vector processors must do in hardware, automatically. Overall then there is a choice to either have complex software and simplified hardware (SIMD) simplified software and complex hardware (vector processors) These stark differences are what distinguishes a vector processor from one that has SIMD. Vector processor features Where many SIMD ISAs borrow or are inspired by the list below, typical features that a vector processor will have are: Vector Load and Store – Vector architectures with a register-to-register design (analogous to load–store architectures for scalar processors) have instructions for transferring multiple elements between the memory and the vector registers. Typically, multiple addressing modes are supported. The unit-stride addressing mode is essential; modern vector architectures typically also support arbitrary constant strides, as well as the scatter/gather (also called indexed) addressing mode. Advanced architectures may also include support for segment load and stores, and fail-first variants of the standard vector load and stores. Segment loads read a vector from memory, where each element is a data structure containing multiple members. The members are extracted from data structure (element), and each extracted member is placed into a different vector register. Masked Operations – predicate masks allow parallel if/then/else constructs without resorting to branches. This allows code with conditional statements to be vectorized. Compress and Expand – usually using a bit-mask, data is linearly compressed or expanded (redistributed) based on whether bits in the mask are set or clear, whilst always preserving the sequential order and never duplicating values (unlike Gather-Scatter aka permute). These instructions feature in AVX-512. Register Gather, Scatter (aka permute) – a less restrictive more generic variation of the compress/expand theme which instead takes one vector to specify the indices to use to "reorder" another vector. Gather/scatter is more complex to implement than compress/expand, and, being inherently non-sequential, can interfere with vector chaining. Not to be confused with Gather-scatter Memory Load/Store modes, Gather/scatter vector operations act on the vector registers, and are often termed a permute instruction instead. Splat and Extract – useful for interaction between scalar and vector, these broadcast a single value across a vector, or extract one item from a vector, respectively. Iota – a very simple and strategically useful instruction which drops sequentially-incrementing immediates into successive elements. Usually starts from zero. Reduction and Iteration – operations that perform mapreduce on a vector (for example, find the one maximum value of an entire vector, or sum all elements). Iteration is of the form x[i] = y[i] + x[i-1] where Reduction is of the form x = y[0] + y[1]… + y[n-1] Matrix Multiply support – either by way of algorithmically loading data from memory, or reordering (remapping) the normally linear access to vector elements, or providing "Accumulators", arbitrary-sized matrices may be efficiently processed. IBM POWER10 provides MMA instructions although for arbitrary Matrix widths that do not fit the exact SIMD size data repetition techniques are needed which is wasteful of register file resources. NVidia provides a high-level Matrix CUDA API although the internal details are not available. The most resource-efficient technique is in-place reordering of access to otherwise linear vector data. Advanced Math formats – often includes Galois field arithmetic, but can include binary-coded decimal or decimal fixed-point, and support for much larger (arbitrary precision) arithmetic operations by supporting parallel carry-in and carry-out Bit manipulation – including vectorised versions of bit-level permutation operations, bitfield insert and extract, centrifuge operations, population count, and many others. GPU vector processing features With many 3D shader applications needing trigonometric operations as well as short vectors for common operations (RGB, ARGB, XYZ, XYZW) support for the following is typically present in modern GPUs, in addition to those found in vector processors: Sub-vectors – elements may typically contain two, three or four sub-elements (vec2, vec3, vec4) where any given bit of a predicate mask applies to the whole vec2/3/4, not the elements in the sub-vector. Sub-vectors are also introduced in RISC-V RVV (termed "LMUL"). Subvectors are a critical integral part of the Vulkan SPIR-V spec. Sub-vector Swizzle – aka "Lane Shuffling" which allows sub-vector inter-element computations without needing extra (costly, wasteful) instructions to move the sub-elements into the correct SIMD "lanes" and also saves predicate mask bits. Effectively this is an in-flight mini-permute of the sub-vector, heavily features in 3D Shader binaries, and is sufficiently important as to be part of the Vulkan SPIR-V spec. The Broadcom Videocore IV uses the terminology "Lane rotate" where the rest of the industry uses the term "swizzle". Transcendentals – trigonometric operations such as sine, cosine and logarithm obviously feature much more predominantly in 3D than in many demanding HPC workloads. Of interest, however, is that speed is far more important than accuracy in 3D for GPUs, where computation of pixel coordinates simply do not require high precision. The Vulkan specification recognises this and sets surprisingly low accuracy requirements, so that GPU Hardware can reduce power usage. The concept of reducing accuracy where it is simply not needed is explored in the MIPS-3D extension. Fault (or Fail) First Introduced in ARM SVE2 and RISC-V RVV is the concept of speculative sequential Vector Loads. ARM SVE2 has a special register named "First Fault Register", where RVV modifies (truncates) the Vector Length (VL). The basic principle of is to attempt a large sequential Vector Load, but to allow the hardware to arbitrarily truncate the actual amount loaded to either the amount that would succeed without raising a memory fault or simply to an amount (greater than zero) that is most convenient. The important factor is that subsequent instructions are notified or may determine exactly how many Loads actually succeeded, using that quantity to only carry out work on the data that has actually been loaded. Contrast this situation with SIMD, which is a fixed (inflexible) load width and fixed data processing width, unable to cope with loads that cross page boundaries, and even if they were they are unable to adapt to what actually succeeded, yet, paradoxically, if the SIMD program were to even attempt to find out in advance (in each inner loop, every time) what might optimally succeed, those instructions only serve to hinder performance because they would, by necessity, be part of the critical inner loop. This begins to hint at the reason why is so innovative, and is best illustrated by memcpy or strcpy when implemented with standard 128-bit non-predicated SIMD. For IBM POWER9 the number of hand-optimised instructions to implement strncpy is in excess of 240. By contrast, the same strncpy routine in hand-optimised RVV assembler is a mere 22 instructions. The above SIMD example could potentially fault and fail at the end of memory, due to attempts to read too many values: it could also cause significant numbers of page or misaligned faults by similarly crossing over boundaries. In contrast, by allowing the vector architecture the freedom to decide how many elements to load, the first part of a strncpy, if beginning initially on a sub-optimal memory boundary, may return just enough loads such that on subsequent iterations of the loop the batches of vectorised memory reads are optimally aligned with the underlying caches and virtual memory arrangements. Additionally, the hardware may choose to use the opportunity to end any given loop iteration's memory reads exactly on a page boundary (avoiding a costly second TLB lookup), with speculative execution preparing the next virtual memory page whilst data is still being processed in the current loop. All of this is determined by the hardware, not the program itself. Performance and speed up Let r be the vector speed ratio and f be the vectorization ratio. If the time taken for the vector unit to add an array of 64 numbers is 10 times faster than its equivalent scalar counterpart, r = 10. Also, if the total number of operations in a program is 100, out of which only 10 are scalar (after vectorization), then f = 0.9, i.e., 90% of the work is done by the vector unit. It follows the achievable speed up of: So, even if the performance of the vector unit is very high () there is a speedup less than , which suggests that the ratio f is crucial to the performance. This ratio depends on the efficiency of the compilation like adjacency of the elements in memory. See also SX architecture Duncan's taxonomy on pipelined vector processors GPGPU Compute kernel Stream processing Automatic vectorization Chaining (vector processing) Computer for operations with functions RISC-V, an open ISA standard with an associated variable width vector extension. Barrel processor Tensor processing unit History of supercomputing Supercomputer architecture External links The History of the Development of Parallel Computing (from 1955 to 1993) Vector Computing, Past Present and Future, by Steve Scott, Cray Inc. NEC SX-Aurora ISA guide Broadcom VideoCore IV resources RISC-V Vectors, CS152, Spring 2020 Cray-i Hardware Reference Manual Chapters 1-3 1977 Cray-I Hardware Reference Manual Carnegie University Course on GPUs and Vector ISAs References Central processing unit Coprocessors Parallel computing

78768

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proxy%20server

Proxy server

In computer networking, a proxy server is a server application that acts as an intermediary between a client requesting a resource and the server providing that resource. Instead of connecting directly to a server that can fulfill a requested resource, such as a file or web page, the client directs the request to the proxy server, which evaluates the request and performs the required network transactions. This serves as a method to simplify or control the complexity of the request, or provide additional benefits such as load balancing, privacy, or security. Proxies were devised to add structure and encapsulation to distributed systems. A proxy server thus functions on behalf of the client when requesting service, potentially masking the true origin of the request to the resource server. Types A proxy server may reside on the user's local computer, or at any point between the user's computer and destination servers on the Internet. A proxy server that passes unmodified requests and responses is usually called a gateway or sometimes a tunneling proxy. A forward proxy is an Internet-facing proxy used to retrieve data from a wide range of sources (in most cases anywhere on the Internet). A reverse proxy is usually an internal-facing proxy used as a front-end to control and protect access to a server on a private network. A reverse proxy commonly also performs tasks such as load-balancing, authentication, decryption and caching. Open proxies An open proxy is a forwarding proxy server that is accessible by any Internet user. In 2008, network security expert Gordon Lyon estimates that "hundreds of thousands" of open proxies are operated on the Internet. Anonymous proxy – This server reveals its identity as a proxy server but does not disclose the originating IP address of the client. Although this type of server can be discovered easily, it can be beneficial for some users as it hides the originating IP address. Transparent proxy – This server not only identifies itself as a proxy server but with the support of HTTP header fields such as X-Forwarded-For, the originating IP address can be retrieved as well. The main benefit of using this type of server is its ability to cache a website for faster retrieval. Reverse proxies A reverse proxy (or surrogate) is a proxy server that appears to clients to be an ordinary server. Reverse proxies forward requests to one or more ordinary servers that handle the request. The response from the proxy server is returned as if it came directly from the original server, leaving the client with no knowledge of the original server. Reverse proxies are installed in the neighborhood of one or more web servers. All traffic coming from the Internet and with a destination of one of the neighborhood's web servers goes through the proxy server. The use of reverse originates in its counterpart forward proxy since the reverse proxy sits closer to the web server and serves only a restricted set of websites. There are several reasons for installing reverse proxy servers: Encryption/SSL acceleration: when secure websites are created, the Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) encryption is often not done by the web server itself, but by a reverse proxy that is equipped with SSL acceleration hardware. Furthermore, a host can provide a single "SSL proxy" to provide SSL encryption for an arbitrary number of hosts, removing the need for a separate SSL server certificate for each host, with the downside that all hosts behind the SSL proxy have to share a common DNS name or IP address for SSL connections. This problem can partly be overcome by using the SubjectAltName feature of X.509 certificates. Load balancing: the reverse proxy can distribute the load to several web servers, each web server serving its own application area. In such a case, the reverse proxy may need to rewrite the URLs in each web page (translation from externally known URLs to the internal locations). Serve/cache static content: A reverse proxy can offload the web servers by caching static content like pictures and other static graphical content. Compression: the proxy server can optimize and compress the content to speed up the load time. Spoon feeding: reduces resource usage caused by slow clients on the web servers by caching the content the web server sent and slowly "spoon feeding" it to the client. This especially benefits dynamically generated pages. Security: the proxy server is an additional layer of defense and can protect against some OS and web-server-specific attacks. However, it does not provide any protection from attacks against the web application or service itself, which is generally considered the larger threat. Extranet publishing: a reverse proxy server facing the Internet can be used to communicate to a firewall server internal to an organization, providing extranet access to some functions while keeping the servers behind the firewalls. If used in this way, security measures should be considered to protect the rest of your infrastructure in case this server is compromised, as its web application is exposed to attack from the Internet. Uses Monitoring and filtering Content-control software A content-filtering web proxy server provides administrative control over the content that may be relayed in one or both directions through the proxy. It is commonly used in both commercial and non-commercial organizations (especially schools) to ensure that Internet usage conforms to acceptable use policy. Content filtering proxy servers will often support user authentication to control web access. It also usually produces logs, either to give detailed information about the URLs accessed by specific users or to monitor bandwidth usage statistics. It may also communicate to daemon-based and/or ICAP-based antivirus software to provide security against virus and other malware by scanning incoming content in real-time before it enters the network. Many workplaces, schools, and colleges restrict web sites and online services that are accessible and available in their buildings. Governments also censor undesirable content. This is done either with a specialized proxy, called a content filter (both commercial and free products are available), or by using a cache-extension protocol such as ICAP, that allows plug-in extensions to an open caching architecture. Websites commonly used by students to circumvent filters and access blocked content often include a proxy, from which the user can then access the websites that the filter is trying to block. Requests may be filtered by several methods, such as a URL or DNS blacklists, URL regex filtering, MIME filtering, or content keyword filtering. Blacklists are often provided and maintained by web-filtering companies, often grouped into categories (pornography, gambling, shopping, social networks, etc..). Assuming the requested URL is acceptable, the content is then fetched by the proxy. At this point, a dynamic filter may be applied on the return path. For example, JPEG files could be blocked based on fleshtone matches, or language filters could dynamically detect unwanted language. If the content is rejected then an HTTP fetch error may be returned to the requester. Most web filtering companies use an internet-wide crawling robot that assesses the likelihood that content is a certain type. The resultant database is then corrected by manual labor based on complaints or known flaws in the content-matching algorithms. Some proxies scan outbound content, e.g., for data loss prevention; or scan content for malicious software. Filtering of encrypted data Web filtering proxies are not able to peer inside secure sockets HTTP transactions, assuming the chain-of-trust of SSL/TLS (Transport Layer Security) has not been tampered with. The SSL/TLS chain-of-trust relies on trusted root certificate authorities. In a workplace setting where the client is managed by the organization, devices may be configured to trust a root certificate whose private key is known to the proxy. In such situations, proxy analysis of the contents of an SSL/TLS transaction becomes possible. The proxy is effectively operating a man-in-the-middle attack, allowed by the client's trust of a root certificate the proxy owns. Bypassing filters and censorship If the destination server filters content based on the origin of the request, the use of a proxy can circumvent this filter. For example, a server using IP-based geolocation to restrict its service to a certain country can be accessed using a proxy located in that country to access the service. Web proxies are the most common means of bypassing government censorship, although no more than 3% of Internet users use any circumvention tools. Some proxy service providers allow businesses access to their proxy network for rerouting traffic for business intelligence purposes. In some cases, users can circumvent proxies which filter using blacklists using services designed to proxy information from a non-blacklisted location. Logging and eavesdropping Proxies can be installed in order to eavesdrop upon the data-flow between client machines and the web. All content sent or accessed – including passwords submitted and cookies used – can be captured and analyzed by the proxy operator. For this reason, passwords to online services (such as webmail and banking) should always be exchanged over a cryptographically secured connection, such as SSL. By chaining the proxies which do not reveal data about the original requester, it is possible to obfuscate activities from the eyes of the user's destination. However, more traces will be left on the intermediate hops, which could be used or offered up to trace the user's activities. If the policies and administrators of these other proxies are unknown, the user may fall victim to a false sense of security just because those details are out of sight and mind. In what is more of an inconvenience than a risk, proxy users may find themselves being blocked from certain Web sites, as numerous forums and Web sites block IP addresses from proxies known to have spammed or trolled the site. Proxy bouncing can be used to maintain privacy. Improving performance A caching proxy server accelerates service requests by retrieving the content saved from a previous request made by the same client or even other clients. Caching proxies keep local copies of frequently requested resources, allowing large organizations to significantly reduce their upstream bandwidth usage and costs, while significantly increasing performance. Most ISPs and large businesses have a caching proxy. Caching proxies were the first kind of proxy server. Web proxies are commonly used to cache web pages from a web server. Poorly implemented caching proxies can cause problems, such as an inability to use user authentication. A proxy that is designed to mitigate specific link related issues or degradation is a Performance Enhancing Proxy (PEPs). These are typically used to improve TCP performance in the presence of high round-trip times or high packet loss (such as wireless or mobile phone networks); or highly asymmetric links featuring very different upload and download rates. PEPs can make more efficient use of the network, for example, by merging TCP ACKs (acknowledgements) or compressing data sent at the application layer. Translation A translation proxy is a proxy server that is used to localize a website experience for different markets. Traffic from the global audience is routed through the translation proxy to the source website. As visitors browse the proxied site, requests go back to the source site where pages are rendered. The original language content in the response is replaced by the translated content as it passes back through the proxy. The translations used in a translation proxy can be either machine translation, human translation, or a combination of machine and human translation. Different translation proxy implementations have different capabilities. Some allow further customization of the source site for the local audiences such as excluding the source content or substituting the source content with the original local content. Repairing errors A proxy can be used to automatically repair errors in the proxied content. For instance, the BikiniProxy system instruments JavaScript code on the fly in order to detect and automatically repair errors happening in the browser. Another kind of repair that can be done by a proxy is to fix accessibility issues. Accessing services anonymously An anonymous proxy server (sometimes called a web proxy) generally attempts to anonymize web surfing. Anonymizers may be differentiated into several varieties. The destination server (the server that ultimately satisfies the web request) receives requests from the anonymizing proxy server and thus does not receive information about the end user's address. The requests are not anonymous to the anonymizing proxy server, however, and so a degree of trust is present between the proxy server and the user. Many proxy servers are funded through a continued advertising link to the user. Access control: Some proxy servers implement a logon requirement. In large organizations, authorized users must log on to gain access to the web. The organization can thereby track usage to individuals. Some anonymizing proxy servers may forward data packets with header lines such as HTTP_VIA, HTTP_X_FORWARDED_FOR, or HTTP_FORWARDED, which may reveal the IP address of the client. Other anonymizing proxy servers, known as elite or high-anonymity proxies, make it appear that the proxy server is the client. A website could still suspect a proxy is being used if the client sends packets that include a cookie from a previous visit that did not use the high-anonymity proxy server. Clearing cookies, and possibly the cache, would solve this problem. QA geotargeted advertising Advertisers use proxy servers for validating, checking and quality assurance of geotargeted ads. A geotargeting ad server checks the request source IP address and uses a geo-IP database to determine the geographic source of requests. Using a proxy server that is physically located inside a specific country or a city gives advertisers the ability to test geotargeted ads. Security A proxy can keep the internal network structure of a company secret by using network address translation, which can help the security of the internal network. This makes requests from machines and users on the local network anonymous. Proxies can also be combined with firewalls. An incorrectly configured proxy can provide access to a network otherwise isolated from the Internet. Cross-domain resources Proxies allow web sites to make web requests to externally hosted resources (e.g. images, music files, etc.) when cross-domain restrictions prohibit the web site from linking directly to the outside domains. Proxies also allow the browser to make web requests to externally hosted content on behalf of a website when cross-domain restrictions (in place to protect websites from the likes of data theft) prohibit the browser from directly accessing the outside domains. Malicious usages Secondary market brokers Secondary market brokers use web proxy servers to buy large stocks of limited products such as limited sneakers or tickets. Implementations of proxies Web proxy servers Web proxies forward HTTP requests. The request from the client is the same as a regular HTTP request except the full URL is passed, instead of just the path. GET https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proxy_server HTTP/1.1 Proxy-Authorization: Basic encoded-credentials Accept: text/html This request is sent to the proxy server, the proxy makes the request specified and returns the response. HTTP/1.1 200 OK Content-Type: text/html; charset UTF-8 Some web proxies allow the HTTP CONNECT method to set up forwarding of arbitrary data through the connection; a common policy is to only forward port 443 to allow HTTPS traffic. Examples of web proxy servers include Apache (with mod_proxy or Traffic Server), HAProxy, IIS configured as proxy (e.g., with Application Request Routing), Nginx, Privoxy, Squid, Varnish (reverse proxy only), WinGate, Ziproxy, Tinyproxy, RabbIT and Polipo. For clients, the problem of complex or multiple proxy-servers is solved by a client-server Proxy auto-config protocol (PAC file). SOCKS proxy SOCKS also forwards arbitrary data after a connection phase, and is similar to HTTP CONNECT in web proxies. Transparent proxy Also known as an intercepting proxy, inline proxy, or forced proxy, a transparent proxy intercepts normal application layer communication without requiring any special client configuration. Clients need not be aware of the existence of the proxy. A transparent proxy is normally located between the client and the Internet, with the proxy performing some of the functions of a gateway or router. (Hypertext Transfer Protocol—HTTP/1.1) offers standard definitions: "A 'transparent proxy' is a proxy that does not modify the request or response beyond what is required for proxy authentication and identification". "A 'non-transparent proxy' is a proxy that modifies the request or response in order to provide some added service to the user agent, such as group annotation services, media type transformation, protocol reduction, or anonymity filtering". TCP Intercept is a traffic filtering security feature that protects TCP servers from TCP SYN flood attacks, which are a type of denial-of-service attack. TCP Intercept is available for IP traffic only. In 2009 a security flaw in the way that transparent proxies operate was published by Robert Auger, and the Computer Emergency Response Team issued an advisory listing dozens of affected transparent and intercepting proxy servers. Purpose Intercepting proxies are commonly used in businesses to enforce acceptable use policy, and to ease administrative overheads since no client browser configuration is required. This second reason however is mitigated by features such as Active Directory group policy, or DHCP and automatic proxy detection. Intercepting proxies are also commonly used by ISPs in some countries to save upstream bandwidth and improve customer response times by caching. This is more common in countries where bandwidth is more limited (e.g. island nations) or must be paid for. Issues The diversion/interception of a TCP connection creates several issues. First, the original destination IP and port must somehow be communicated to the proxy. This is not always possible (e.g., where the gateway and proxy reside on different hosts). There is a class of cross-site attacks that depend on certain behavior of intercepting proxies that do not check or have access to information about the original (intercepted) destination. This problem may be resolved by using an integrated packet-level and application level appliance or software which is then able to communicate this information between the packet handler and the proxy. Intercepting also creates problems for HTTP authentication, especially connection-oriented authentication such as NTLM, as the client browser believes it is talking to a server rather than a proxy. This can cause problems where an intercepting proxy requires authentication, then the user connects to a site that also requires authentication. Finally, intercepting connections can cause problems for HTTP caches, as some requests and responses become uncacheable by a shared cache. Implementation methods In integrated firewall/proxy servers where the router/firewall is on the same host as the proxy, communicating original destination information can be done by any method, for example Microsoft TMG or WinGate. Interception can also be performed using Cisco's WCCP (Web Cache Control Protocol). This proprietary protocol resides on the router and is configured from the cache, allowing the cache to determine what ports and traffic is sent to it via transparent redirection from the router. This redirection can occur in one of two ways: GRE tunneling (OSI Layer 3) or MAC rewrites (OSI Layer 2). Once traffic reaches the proxy machine itself interception is commonly performed with NAT (Network Address Translation). Such setups are invisible to the client browser, but leave the proxy visible to the web server and other devices on the internet side of the proxy. Recent Linux and some BSD releases provide TPROXY (transparent proxy) which performs IP-level (OSI Layer 3) transparent interception and spoofing of outbound traffic, hiding the proxy IP address from other network devices. Detection Several methods may be used to detect the presence of an intercepting proxy server: By comparing the client's external IP address to the address seen by an external web server, or sometimes by examining the HTTP headers received by a server. A number of sites have been created to address this issue, by reporting the user's IP address as seen by the site back to the user on a web page. Google also returns the IP address as seen by the page if the user searches for "IP". By comparing the result of online IP checkers when accessed using HTTPS vs HTTP, as most intercepting proxies do not intercept SSL. If there is suspicion of SSL being intercepted, one can examine the certificate associated with any secure web site, the root certificate should indicate whether it was issued for the purpose of intercepting. By comparing the sequence of network hops reported by a tool such as traceroute for a proxied protocol such as http (port 80) with that for a non-proxied protocol such as SMTP (port 25). By attempting to make a connection to an IP address at which there is known to be no server. The proxy will accept the connection and then attempt to proxy it on. When the proxy finds no server to accept the connection it may return an error message or simply close the connection to the client. This difference in behavior is simple to detect. For example, most web browsers will generate a browser created error page in the case where they cannot connect to an HTTP server but will return a different error in the case where the connection is accepted and then closed. By serving the end-user specially programmed Adobe Flash SWF applications or Sun Java applets that send HTTP calls back to their server. CGI proxy A CGI web proxy accepts target URLs using a Web form in the user's browser window, processes the request, and returns the results to the user's browser. Consequently, it can be used on a device or network that does not allow "true" proxy settings to be changed. The first recorded CGI proxy, named "rover" at the time but renamed in 1998 to "CGIProxy", was developed by American computer scientist James Marshall in early 1996 for an article in "Unix Review" by Rich Morin. The majority of CGI proxies are powered by one of CGIProxy (written in the Perl language), Glype (written in the PHP language), or PHProxy (written in the PHP language). As of April 2016, CGIProxy has received about 2 million downloads, Glype has received almost a million downloads, whilst PHProxy still receives hundreds of downloads per week. Despite waning in popularity due to VPNs and other privacy methods, there are still a few hundred CGI proxies online. Some CGI proxies were set up for purposes such as making websites more accessible to disabled people, but have since been shut down due to excessive traffic, usually caused by a third party advertising the service as a means to bypass local filtering. Since many of these users don't care about the collateral damage they are causing, it became necessary for organizations to hide their proxies, disclosing the URLs only to those who take the trouble to contact the organization and demonstrate a genuine need. Suffix proxy A suffix proxy allows a user to access web content by appending the name of the proxy server to the URL of the requested content (e.g. "en.wikipedia.org.SuffixProxy.com"). Suffix proxy servers are easier to use than regular proxy servers but they do not offer high levels of anonymity and their primary use is for bypassing web filters. However, this is rarely used due to more advanced web filters. Tor onion proxy software Tor is a system intended to provide online anonymity. Tor client software routes Internet traffic through a worldwide volunteer network of servers for concealing a user's computer location or usage from someone conducting network surveillance or traffic analysis. Using Tor makes tracing Internet activity more difficult, and is intended to protect users' personal freedom, privacy. "Onion routing" refers to the layered nature of the encryption service: The original data are encrypted and re-encrypted multiple times, then sent through successive Tor relays, each one of which decrypts a "layer" of encryption before passing the data on to the next relay and ultimately the destination. This reduces the possibility of the original data being unscrambled or understood in transit. I2P anonymous proxy The I2P anonymous network ('I2P') is a proxy network aiming at online anonymity. It implements garlic routing, which is an enhancement of Tor's onion routing. I2P is fully distributed and works by encrypting all communications in various layers and relaying them through a network of routers run by volunteers in various locations. By keeping the source of the information hidden, I2P offers censorship resistance. The goals of I2P are to protect users' personal freedom, privacy, and ability to conduct confidential business. Each user of I2P runs an I2P router on their computer (node). The I2P router takes care of finding other peers and building anonymizing tunnels through them. I2P provides proxies for all protocols (HTTP, IRC, SOCKS, ...). Comparison to network address translators The proxy concept refers to a layer 7 application in the OSI reference model. Network address translation (NAT) is similar to a proxy but operates in layer 3. In the client configuration of layer-3 NAT, configuring the gateway is sufficient. However, for the client configuration of a layer 7 proxy, the destination of the packets that the client generates must always be the proxy server (layer 7), then the proxy server reads each packet and finds out the true destination. Because NAT operates at layer-3, it is less resource-intensive than the layer-7 proxy, but also less flexible. As we compare these two technologies, we might encounter a terminology known as 'transparent firewall'. Transparent firewall means that the proxy uses the layer-7 proxy advantages without the knowledge of the client. The client presumes that the gateway is a NAT in layer 3, and it does not have any idea about the inside of the packet, but through this method, the layer-3 packets are sent to the layer-7 proxy for investigation. DNS proxy A DNS proxy server takes DNS queries from a (usually local) network and forwards them to an Internet Domain Name Server. It may also cache DNS records. Proxifiers Some client programs "SOCKS-ify" requests, which allows adaptation of any networked software to connect to external networks via certain types of proxy servers (mostly SOCKS). Residential proxy A residential proxy is an intermediary that uses a real IP address provided by an Internet Service Provider (ISP) with physical devices such as mobiles and computers of end-users. Instead of connecting directly to a server, residential proxy users connect to the target through residential IP addresses. The target then identifies them as organic internet users. It does not let any tracking tool identify the reallocation of the user. Any residential proxy can send any number of concurrent requests and IP addresses are directly related to a specific region. Unlike regular residential proxies, which hide user's real IP address behind another IP address, rotating residential proxies, also known as backconnect proxies, conceal user's real IP address behind a pool of proxies. These proxies switch between themselves with every session or at regular intervals. See also References External links Computer networking Network performance Internet architecture Internet privacy Computer security software

61729434

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PROMIS%20%28software%29

PROMIS (software)

PROMIS (Prosecutors Management Information System) was a case management software developed by Inslaw (formerly the Institute for Law and Social Research), a non-profit organization established in 1973 by Bill and Nancy Hamilton. The software program was developed with aid from the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration to aid prosecutors' offices in tracking; in 1982 (by which time Inslaw became a for-profit entity) Inslaw received a $10 million contract by the Justice Department to develop an improved PROMIS application for U.S. attorneys' offices. Having previously developed a 16-bit version of PROMIS, Inslaw developed a 32-bit version, for various operating systems, specifically VAX/VMS, Unix, OS/400, and (in the 1990s) Windows NT. The Hamiltons and the Justice Department engaged in an "unusually bitter contract dispute" over the software, and Inslaw entered bankruptcy. The Hamiltons sued the federal government, alleging that the Justice Department had dishonestly conspired to "drive Inslaw out of business 'through trickery, fraud and deceit'" by withholding payments to Inslaw and then pirating the software. A bankruptcy court and federal district court agreed with the Hamiltons, although these rulings were later vacated by a court of appeals for jurisdictional reasons. Hamilton and others asserted that the Justice Department had done so in order to modify PROMIS, originally created to manage legal cases, to become a monitoring software for intelligence operations. Affidavits created over the course of the Inslaw affair stated that "PROMIS was then given or sold at a profit to Israel and as many as 80 other countries by Dr. Earl W. Brian, a man with close personal and business ties to then-President Ronald Reagan and then-Presidential counsel Edwin Meese." In September 1992, a House Judiciary Committee report raised "serious concerns" that Justice Department officials had schemed "to destroy Inslaw and co-opt the rights to its PROMIS software" and had misappropriated the software. The report was the outgrowth of a three-year investigation led by Jack Brooks, the committee's chairman, who had launched in investigation in 1989. The report faulted the Justice Department for a lack of cooperation in the investigation and found that "There appears to be strong evidence, as indicated by the findings in two Federal Court proceedings as well as by the committee investigation, that the Department of Justice 'acted willfully and fraudulently,' and 'took, converted and stole,' Inslaw's Enhanced PROMIS by 'trickery fraud and deceit.'" A book written in 1997 by Fabrizio Calvi and Thierry Pfister claimed that the National Security Agency (NSA) had been "seeding computers abroad with PROMIS-embedded SMART (Systems Management Automated Reasoning Tools) chips, code-named Petrie, capable of covertly downloading data and transmitting it, using electrical wiring as an antenna, to U.S. intelligence satellites" as part of an espionage operation. In the early 1980s, Manucher Ghorbanifar and Adnan Khashoggi both had facilitated the transaction of PROMIS software to Khalid bin Mahfouz, a prominent Saudi billionaire. The media mogul and alleged Israeli spy Robert Maxwell was involved in selling the PROMIS software. Further reading Ryan Gallagher, Dirtier than Watergate: The Reagan-era espionage system that has managed to stay under the radar., New Statesman (April 20, 2011). James J. Kilpatrick, Odor of a Situation Needing a Probe, Baltimore Sun (August 29, 1991). Kenn Thomas, Jim Keith: The Octopus: Secret Government and the Death of Danny Casolaro. Feral House 2005, Elizabeth Tucker, Inslaw back in business, but loses crucial battle, Washington Post (December 28, 1988). Cheri Seymour: The Last Circle - Danny Casolaro's Investigation into the Octopus and the PROMIS Software Scandal. Trine Day, 2010. Googel Books See also PRISM (surveillance program) References National Security Agency 1970s software Computer surveillance Reagan administration controversies

15096337

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenCity

OpenCity

OpenCity is a free and open-source software 3D city-building game started in 2003 by France-based Vietnamese programmer Duong-Khang Nguyen. The game mechanics are similar to Simcity, while the game developers don't strive to make it a direct Simcity clone. Gameplay In the game, the player builds a city by marking land as commercial, industrial or residential zones. Those zones depend on each other to grow. The player is also required to supply the city with power and connect the different zones by building roads. Origins and development OpenCity is the product of programmer Duong-Khang Nguyen and 3D artist Frédéric Rodrigo. Nguyen was inspired by the open source game FreeReign; when he realized that the FreeReign project was abandoned and the source code was not in the condition to be improved, he began development on his own city-building simulator. The work in project started in 2003 with the registration on SourceForge. OpenCity is Free and open-source software due to the licensing as GPLv2. Contributions to the game came from the game's community in form of translation and quality testing. OpenCity is built on cross platform libraries and APIs like Simple DirectMedia Library and OpenGL, which allows porting to various OSes and platforms, like Windows, OS X and many Linux distributions. Latest stable release branch is 0.0.62 with updates from 2011, while the unstable development branch 0.0.7 has updates until 2015. Reception OpenCity achieved a broad spread as free and open-source and freeware video game, and was downloaded directly from SourceForge between 2003 and May 2017 over 190,000 times according to the SF download statistic. OpenCity was also directly integrated in many Linux distributions: Fedora, Debian, Arch Linux, SuSE, Slackware, Ubuntu, Pardus, Frugalware. OpenCity has been reviewed as "well made 3D remake" of SimCity by Chip.de in 2013. Gallery See also List of open source games Lincity SimCity Simutrans References External links OpenCity homepage OpenCity tutorial 2009 video games Business simulation games Open-source video games City-building games Linux games Free software programmed in C++ Video games developed in France

39063199

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%20Marti

Don Marti

Don Marti is a writer and advocate for free and open source software, writing for LinuxWorld and Linux Today. Marti was educated at New York University, receiving a master's degrees in science and environmental reporting. He co-founded a Linux International member company, Electric Lichen L.L.C., which is an open-source Internet development firm. Don was the Vice-President and President of the Silicon Valley Linux Users Group from 2000 to 2004 and a Technical Editor for the Linux Journal, the leading Linux publication at the time, from 2000 to 2002 and then the Editor in Chief from 2002-2005 editor for LinuxWorld 2006–2008. He was the Conference Chair for the LinuxWorld Conference and Expo from 2005 to 2009 (in 2009, its last year, it was renamed to OpenSource World). Marti was a participation strategist at the Mozilla Corporation until 2020, when he joined CafeMedia as VP Ecosystem Innovation. References External links Articles by Don Marti at Linux Today Living people Year of birth missing (living people) Open source advocates Mozilla people

8324012

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junger%20v.%20Daley

Junger v. Daley

Junger v. Daley is a court case brought by Peter Junger challenging restrictions on the export of encryption software outside of the United States. The case was first brought in 1996 (as Junger v. Christopher), when Junger was a professor at Case Western Reserve University and wanted to teach a class on computer law. Because of the restrictions, he was unable to accept non-US citizens into his class. Following a district court victory in the Bernstein v. United States case on the same matter, Junger amended his complaint to ask for an injunction on enforcement of the regulations prohibiting his publication of encryption course materials on the Internet. The case led to an important ruling in 2000, with the Sixth Circuit holding that software source code is protected by the First Amendment. See also Export of cryptography Bernstein v. United States References Junger v. Daley, 8 F. Supp. 2d 708 (N.D. Ohio 1998) (district court opinion ruling against Junger) Junger v. Daley, 209 F.3d 481 (6th Cir. 2000) (Appellate court opinion that encryption code is protected by the First Amendment) External links Cryptography law United States Internet case law

16986024

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platform%20as%20a%20service

Platform as a service

Platform as a service (PaaS) or application platform as a service (aPaaS) or platform-based service is a category of cloud computing services that allows customers to provision, instantiate, run, and manage a modular bundle comprising a computing platform and one or more applications, without the complexity of building and maintaining the infrastructure typically associated with developing and launching the application(s); and to allow developers to create, develop, and package such software bundles. Development and uses PaaS can be delivered in three ways: As a public cloud service from a provider, where the consumer controls software deployment with minimal configuration options, and the provider provides the networks, servers, storage, operating system (OS), middleware (e.g. Java runtime, .NET runtime, integration, etc.), database and other services to host the consumer's application. As a private service (software or appliance) behind a firewall. As software deployed on public infrastructure as a service. The first public platform as a service was Zimki, launched by Fotango, a London-based company owned by Canon Europe. It was developed in 2005, had a beta launch in March 2006 and a public launch at EuroOSCON in 2006. At the time of its closure, Zimki had several thousand developer accounts. It had demonstrated the technical viability of Platform as a Service, but also provided the first example of the perils of being dependent on a single provider. This was highlighted when the CEO (Simon Wardley, known for Wardley maps) announced at OSCON 2007 that Zimki would no longer be open-sourced and discussed the future of what was then called framework-as-a-service (later called platform-as-a-service) covering the importance of a market of providers based on an open-source reference model. The original intent of PaaS was to simplify the writing of code, with the infrastructure and operations handled by the PaaS provider. Originally, all PaaSes were in the public cloud. Because many companies did not want to have everything in the public cloud, private and hybrid PaaS options (managed by internal IT departments) were created. PaaS provides an environment for developers and companies to create, host and deploy applications, saving developers from the complexities of infrastructure (setting up, configuring and managing elements such as servers and databases). PaaS can improve the speed of developing an app, and allow its user to focus on the application itself. With PaaS, the customer manages applications and data, while the provider (in public PaaS) or IT department (in private PaaS) manages runtime, middleware, operating system, virtualization, servers, storage and networking. Development tools provided by the vendor are customized according to the needs of the user. The user can choose to maintain the software, or have the vendor maintain it. PaaS offerings may also include facilities for application design, application development, testing and deployment, as well as services such as team collaboration, web service integration, and marshalling, database integration, security, scalability, storage, persistence, state management, application versioning, application instrumentation, and developer community facilitation. Besides the service engineering aspects, PaaS offerings include mechanisms for service management, such as monitoring, workflow management, discovery and reservation. Advantages and disadvantages The advantages of PaaS are primarily that it allows for higher-level programming with dramatically reduced complexity; the overall development of the application can be more effective, as it has built-in/self up-and-down ramping infrastructure resources; and maintenance and enhancement of the application is thus easier. Disadvantages of various PaaS providers as cited by their users include increased pricing at larger scales, lack of operational features, reduced control, and the difficulties of traffic routing systems. Types Public, private and hybrid There are several types of PaaS, including public, private and hybrid. PaaS was originally intended for applications on public cloud services, before expanding to include private and hybrid options. Public PaaS is derived from software as a service (SaaS), and is situated in cloud computing between SaaS and infrastructure as a service (IaaS). SaaS is software hosted in the cloud so that it does not take up hard drive space on the computers of users. IaaS provides virtual hardware from a provider with adjustable scalability. With IaaS, the user still has to manage the server, whereas with PaaS the server management is done by the provider. A private PaaS can typically be downloaded and installed either in a company's on-premises data center, or in a public cloud. Once the software is installed on one or more machines, the private PaaS arranges the application and database components into a single hosting platform. Hybrid PaaS is typically a deployment consisting of a mix of public and private deployments. Communications platform as a service A communications platform as a service (CPaaS) is a cloud-based platform that enables developers to add real-time communications features (voice, video, and messaging) in their own applications without building back-end infrastructure and interfaces. Also, CPaaS and hardware and software specifications are specifically designed to support (tele)communications applications. These applications and their usage are much more sensitive to jitter, latency and packet losses. Hosted PBX, cellular networks, (near real-time) applications typically are deployed on CPaaS platforms. Mobile platform as a service Initiated in 2012, mobile PaaS (mPaaS) provides development capabilities for mobile app designers and developers. The Yankee Group identified mPaaS as one of its themes for 2014. Open PaaS Open PaaS does not include hosting but provides open-source software allowing a PaaS provider to run applications in an open-source environment, such as Google App Engine. Some open platforms let the developer use any programming language, database, operating system or server to deploy their applications. Providers There are various types of PaaS providers. All offer application hosting and a deployment environment, along with various integrated services. Services offer varying levels of scalability and maintenance. Developers can write an application and upload it to a PaaS that supports their software language of choice, and the application runs on that PaaS. See also Infrastructure as a service Mobile Backend as a service Network as a service Serverless computing Software as a service References As a service Cloud platforms es:Computación en la nube#Plataforma como servicio

11493669

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handle%20%28computing%29

Handle (computing)

In computer programming, a handle is an abstract reference to a resource that is used when application software references blocks of memory or objects that are managed by another system like a database or an operating system. A resource handle can be an opaque identifier, in which case it is often an integer number (often an array index in an array or "table" that is used to manage that type of resource), or it can be a pointer that allows access to further information. Common resource handles include file descriptors, network sockets, database connections, process identifiers (PIDs), and job IDs. PIDs and job IDs are explicitly visible integers; while file descriptors and sockets (which are often implemented as a form of file descriptor) are represented as integers, they are typically considered opaque. In traditional implementations, file descriptors are indices into a (per-process) file descriptor table, thence a (system-wide) file table. Comparison to pointers While a pointer contains the address of the item to which it refers, a handle is an abstraction of a reference which is managed externally; its opacity allows the referent to be relocated in memory by the system without invalidating the handle, which is impossible with pointers. The extra layer of indirection also increases the control that the managing system has over the operations performed on the referent. Typically the handle is an index or a pointer into a global array of tombstones. A handle leak is a type of software bug that occurs when a computer program asks for a handle to a resource but does not free the handle when it is no longer used; this is a form of resource leak, similar to a memory leak for a pointer to memory. Security In secure computing terms, because access to a resource via a handle is mediated by another system, a handle functions as a capability: it not only identifies an object, but also associates access rights. For example, while a filename is forgeable (it is just a guessable identifier), a handle is given to a user by an external system, and thus represents not just identity, but also granted access. For example, if a program wishes to read the system password file (/etc/passwd) in read/write mode (O_RDWR), it could try to open the file via the following call: int fd = open("/etc/passwd", O_RDWR); This call asks the operating system to open the specified file with the specified access rights. If the OS allows this, then it opens the file (creates an entry in the per-process file descriptor table) and returns a handle (file descriptor, index into this table) to the user: the actual access is controlled by the OS, and the handle is a token of that. Conversely, the OS may deny access, and thus neither open the file nor return a handle. In a capability-based system, handles can be passed between processes, with associated access rights. Note that in these cases the handle must be something other than a systemwide-unique small integer, otherwise it is forgeable. Such an integer may nevertheless be used to identify a capability inside a process; e.g., file descriptor in Linux is unforgeable because its numerical value alone is meaningless, and only in the process context may refer to anything. Transferring such a handle requires special care though, as its value often has to be different in the sending and receiving processes. In non-capability-based systems, on the other hand, each process must acquire its own separate handle, by specifying the identity of the resource and the desired access rights (e.g., each process must open a file itself, by giving the filename and access mode). Such usage is more common even in modern systems that do support passing handles, but it is subject to vulnerabilities like the confused deputy problem. Examples Handles were a popular solution to memory management in operating systems of the 1980s, such as Mac OS and Windows. The FILE data structure in the C standard I/O library is a file handle, abstracting from the underlying file representation (on Unix these are file descriptors). Like other desktop environments, the Windows API heavily uses handles to represent objects in the system and to provide a communication pathway between the operating system and user space. For example, a window on the desktop is represented by a handle of type HWND (handle, window). Doubly indirect handles (where the handle is not necessarily a pointer but might be, for example, an integer) have fallen out of favor in recent times, as increases in available memory and improved virtual memory algorithms have made the use of the simpler pointer more attractive. However, many operating systems still apply the term to pointers to opaque, "private" data structures—opaque pointers—or to indexes into internal arrays passed from one process to its client. See also Memory pool Weak reference References External links Pushing the Limits of Windows: Handles Data types

60518960

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workplace%20safety%20standards

Workplace safety standards

Workplace safety standards are sets of standards, aimed at safety at workplaces and to reduce occupational risk from occupational illnesses. History The Russian scientist Mikhail Lomonosov in 1763 first describes the dangers of mining in his book The First Foundations of Metallurgy, or Ore Affairs (). The history of human safety in the workplace began in 1802 with the Health and Morals of Apprentices Act. In 1893 in the United States, Railroad Safety Appliance Act was formed. In 1911 were introduced Coal Mines Act. In 1947, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was signed and published by a collaborative group of 23 countries working to establish smooth international trade. In the United States the first Federal Safety Standards for cars become effective 1 January 1968. These new standards help protect drivers against unreasonable risk of crashes occurring as a result of the design, construction or performance of motor vehicles. In 2015 was created EFM scientist against EMF radiation. On 11 May 2015, Dr. Martin Blank in a three-minute video makes an appeal to pay attention for dangerous magnetic fields from our communication devices. Human safety organizations International Non-Ionizing Radiation Committee (INIRC) International Radiation Protection Association (IRPA) Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA). The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 mandates that all nongovernment employers provide a safe and healthful workplace for their employees. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP) (Organization of Health and Safety Activities) (OSHE Georgia) European Agency for Safety and Health at Work China Occupational Safety and Health Association (COSHA) Ministry of Labor and Health OSH India Standards БДС(Български Държавен Стандарт) (Bulgarian state standard) – ISO 45001:2018 (БДС ISO 45001:2018) Bulgaria GB/CCC – China CHN-1974-L-37879 Protection against particular hazards NF () NF EN 358 France BS (British standard) BS EN 1005-3:2002+A1:2008 – United Kingdom IS (India Standardization) – India – IS-5216, IS-5571, IS-6665 PN (Polska Norma) – Poland – PN-93/N-01256/03 Znaki BHP w miejscu pracy OSHA – United States; IAEA safety standards – nuclear, radiation waste safety standards REAL DECRETO 486/1997 Classification Standard protection from radio frequency electromagnetic fields Continuous exposure to high frequency or high intensity electromagnetic fields can lead to instantaneous health problems or over time to develop a variety of illnesses, such as nervous disorders and others. Low frequency fields with frequencies between 0 and 10 megahertz that are strong enough can stimulate sensory organs or nerves and cause magnetophosphenes (light flashes), vertigo, nausea or muscle twitches and pain. The standards are drawn up with a set of rules for protection from to limit human exposure to electric fields, magnetic fields and electromagnetic fields. Frequency bands of danger EMF, Zones of danger EMF, types of risks, safety and shielding equipment are categorized in the standards. (0 Hz - 300 GHz) GB 8702-88 1999/519/CE Council Recommendation of 12 July 1999 on the limitation of exposure of the general public to electromagnetic fields (0 Hz to 300 GHz) NF EN 50360 (300 MHz - 3 GHz) DGUV V15 CEI EN 62209-1 PN-EN ISO/IEC 17025:2005 ANSI/IEEE C95.1–1992 IEEE Standard for Safety Levels with Respect to Human Exposure to Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Fields, 3 kHz to 300 GHz EMF medical devices A high frequency electromagnetic field can cause negative effects on the nervous system. Also, high intensity fields can cause serious damage to some organs. The health of people with implanted pacemakers and other electronic devices can be seriously harmed. Such irradiation can lead to death. DGUV V15 BS EN 45502-1: 1998 Active implantable medical devices Part 1. General requirements for safety, marking and information to be provided by the manufacturer CEI EN 62209-1 PN-EN ISO/IEC 17025:2005 C95.1-2345-2014 IEEE Standard for Military Workplaces—Force Health Protection Regarding Personnel Exposure to Electric, Magnetic, and Electromagnetic Fields, 0 Hz to 300 GHz Laser protection standard Laser damage can be fatal to human vision. In the standards are defined the types of the laser equipment and its application. Safe distances from the laser equipment to the visual apparatus are also categorized. GB 10320-1995 CEI 1381G IS 14624 (Part 2) : 2012 PN-91/T-06700 EN 60825 (IEC 825) Protection from dangerous substances and preparations These standards are set of rules and describe dangerous substances in machine oils, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in extender oils and other chemical materials used in workplace. The Russian standard describes the physical and chemical properties of dangerous oils. DIRECTIVE 2005/69/EC IS 1446: Classification of Dangerous Goods PN-EN 589 CC 813.11 Ordinance on Protection against Dangerous Substances and Preparations Welding safety The standards are made up of the following chapters:General Provision - sanitary rules for welding, surfacing and metal cutting, concentrations of harmful substances in the air of the work area;Requirements for technological process:organization of technological processes of welding and surrounding electrical installations, welding of medium and small size products in stationary conditions;Industrial space requirements. AQ 4214-2011 NTP 494: NF An 85-002 DIN EN 1011-1 Is 818 Code of Practice for Safety and Health for Welding PN-EN 1598:2004 AWS D17.1/D17.1M:2017 Vibration safety NTP 839 NF EN ISO 13090 IS 13276-1: Mechanical Vibration 2002/44/WE AS2670 - 2001 Evaluation of human exposure to whole-body vibration. AS ISO 5349.1-2013 Mechanical vibration - Measurement and evaluation of human exposure to hand-transmitted vibration - General requirements Noise safety IS 3483-1965 IEEE 656-2018 - IEEE Standard for the Measurement of Audible Noise from Overhead Transmission Lines PN-EN 352-5:2005/A1:2007 NF EN 61310-1 DIN 4109 Ultrasound safety Working with ultrasound can damage the nervous and auditory systems. IEEE 790-1989 - IEEE Guide for Medical Ultrasound Field Parameter Measurements NF C74-335 DIN EN 60601-2-5 Air This European Standard provides guidance on the selection of procedures and installations for the use and maintenance of devices for determining concentrations of chemical and biological agents in the workplace air. BS EN ISO 16017-1:2001, Indoor, ambient and workplace air NF EN ISO 16017-2 Microclimatic parameters of the work environment Thermal environment ISO 7726 Ergonomics of the thermal environment – Instruments for measuring physical quantities ISO 8896 Ergonomics of the thermal environment – Determination of metabolic rate DIN EN ISO 7730 Nanotechnology safety ISO/TS 12901-1:2012(en) Nanotechnologies - Occupational risk management applied to engineered nanomaterials - Part 1: Principles and approaches Artificial light on workplace The use of artificial light as the sole source of light or mixing artificial and daylight might cause ill-health effects, both physical and mental, such as eye strain, headaches, or fatigue. The standards address the types of light that negatively affect vision, angles of light in different environments, illumination standards per square meter, and protection methods such as the UGR method. GB50034-2013 EN 12464 “Lighting of indoor workplaces” Hazardous Area Classification BS EN 60079 Hazardous Area Classification and Control of Ignition Sources IS 5572-1994 Hazardous Area Classification IS 5572-1994 National Electrical Code(NEC) Article 505 IEC 60079-10.2 Classification of areas Protection devices EMF meter – an instrument for measuring danger EMF fields, which affects human health (EMF measurement) Environmental meter – an instrument for measuring hazardous materials response EMF shield protection materials Supporting software There are thousands of software products today which can simulate workplace hazards. Narda EFC-400EP – software for calculation dangerous magnetic fields Sphera – software for Integrated Risk Management software and information services with a focus on Environmental Health & Safety (EHS) MY Compliance Management ALOHA Software – details can be entered about a real or potential chemical release and it will generate threat zone estimates for various types of hazards WeldZone Simulator – simulates the effect of electromagnetic fields on welders, providing a 3D visual representation of exposure levels and highlighting the associated risks Congress and Conferences for health and safety work World Congress on Safety and Health The forum is organized by the International Labour Organization. The first World Congress on Safety and Health was held in Rome in 1955. 2020 Canada XXII 2017 Singapore XXI 2014 Germany XX Workplace Safety Conference The forum is organized by OSHA. American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists Workplace safety symbols Workplace safety symbols are classified in several categories: European hazard pictograms ADR European hazard signs GHS hazard pictograms Green Emergency – emergency exits, escape routes, and on first aid kits ISO 7010 Blue Mandatory – instructions to wash hands, use a safety harness, or wear safety glasses for example Red Prohibition – instruction to not touch, not enter, no access, and even evacuation Gallery See also Occupational safety and health References Alexey Alexiev Influence of electromagnetic field on the human body Маринела Йорданова Управление на трудовите условия и производствения риск Georgi Tsurov Analysis of Workplace safety standards TU-GO,2016 Найден Йорданов,Божидар Кибаров,Анатоли Малев Правилник по безопасността на труда при експлоатацията на електрическите уредби и съоръжения,Държавно издателство "Техника"1986 Edvard Csanyi Dangerous magnetic field exposure near transformer substation in the building Marinko Stojkov,Damir Šljivac,Damir ŠljivacLajos Jozsa Electric and Magnetic Field Computation of 35 kV Voltage Level of Transformer Substation 35/10 kV Using CDEGS Software Binay Kumar Oil and Lubricant Hazard Effects on Human Health Occupational safety and health Safety codes Lists of standards

18456326

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art%20of%20Chaos

Art of Chaos

Art of Chaos is an alternative rock band from Los Angeles, California. Art of Chaos has toured extensively throughout California, headlining shows up and down the coast. The band took part in the southwest leg of Linkin Park's Projekt Revolution tour after winning MTV2's "L.A. Battle Projekt" competition. The band was also voted “Modern Rock Band of Year” and “Performer of the Year” at the 2007 Los Angeles Music Awards. Touring Most of the band's touring has been around the Los Angeles and the American Southwest area, opening for or providing direct support for the following bands: Linkin Park My Chemical Romance Taking Back Sunday H.I.M. Julien-K Placebo Saosin Mindless Self Indulgence Cute Is What We Aim For Bullets and Octane Helmet Madina Lake The Bled Full Scale Yesterdays Rising Sick Puppies Notable shows Projekt Revolution tour Hyundai Pavilion (San Bernardino, California) Shoreline Amphitheater (Mountain View, California) Coors Amphitheater (Chula Vista, California) Cricket Amphitheater (Phoenix, Arizona) Verizon Amphitheater (Selma, Texas) Smirnoff Music Center (Dallas) Woodlands Pavilion (Houston). Los Angeles area shows Angel Stadium (Anaheim, CA) House of Blues (Hollywood, CA) The Troubadour (Hollywood, CA) The Key Club (Hollywood, CA) The Roxy Theatre (Hollywood, CA) The Viper Room (Hollywood, CA) Chain Reaction (Anaheim, CA) Henry Fonda Theatre (Los Angeles, CA) In the media Music, interviews, and live performances featured on MTV2 ON DEMAND Multichannel News, MTV2, Time Warner Experience Art of Chaos - Rock band Wins ‘LA Battle Projekt’ Contest Roadrunner Records, Blabbermouth.net news article "Linkin Park Selects Battle of the Bands Winner for 'Revolution' - July 27, 2007 LA Music Awards Nominee for 2005 Rock Album of the Year USC Daily Trojan Newspaper - Article/Interview 3/7/05 – 750 Words All Access Rock Magazine, Puerto Rico, Lucid album reviewed by Emmanuel Sick Filthy Rock Magazine, Puerto Rico, Lucid album reviewed by Emmanuel The Beach Reporter, 9/15/05 “Local bands Battle it out” Rampage Newspaper, Marshfield, MA Issue VI February/March ‘06 “Music Influencing Teens, In the Spotlight Art of Chaos” by Christina Holt Daily Trojan, Vol. CXLVI, No.36, March 7, 2005 “Upstart coalition of Trojan talent” by Courtney Lear Music Connection, Los Angeles, CA Vol. XXX, No. 19 - Demo Critique Issue 19, 2006 Music Connection, Los Angeles, CA – “CHAOS ON DEMAND” by Michael Mollura . Concert Review: Projekt Revolution – Dallas - MonstesAndCritics.com By Ben Rhudy Aug 9, 2007 IMG Music Promotions Inc, Music Review Interlude Magazine, Music Review by Caryl Rogers 2006 Awards Winner of MTV2 / Time-Warner Cable’s “L.A. Battle Projekt” “Modern Rock Artist of the Year” and “Performer of the Year” at 2007 Los Angeles Music Awards Band members Brian Torres - Vocals, Guitar, Bass, Drums (2005–present) Matt Ardisson - Guitar (2005–present) Jeff Sutton - Bass (2006–2009) Miles Knowles - Lead guitar (2007–2009) Brian Sumwalt - Drums (2008–2009) Tim Galvin - Drums (2008) Dave Feldman - Drums (2006–2008) Discography References 1. Official site 2. https://web.archive.org/web/20090207065936/http://blogs.myspace.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=blog.view Alternative rock groups from California

964652

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto%20Computer%20Leasing%20Inquiry

Toronto Computer Leasing Inquiry

The Toronto Computer Leasing Inquiry was a judicial inquiry into allegations of conflict of interest, bribery and misappropriation of funds around computer leasing contracts entered into by the City of Toronto government in 1998 and 1999. It was held concurrently with the Toronto External Contracts Inquiry. Background On January 1, 1998, the Municipality of Metropolitan Toronto and its six lower-tier cities (Toronto, Scarborough, North York, Etobicoke, East York and York) were amalgamated into the single "megacity" of Toronto. In one of the new city's first official acts of business, computer equipment was leased for city councillors' offices from MFP Financial Services, at a value of $1,093,731. City staff have not been able to produce any documentation to prove that this contract was awarded through proper procedures. In May, 1999, the city issued a Request For Quotations for its new computer acquisition needs. MFP was one of the bidders, and was awarded the contract in July of that year. MFP was contracted to provide $43 million of computer equipment to the city on a three-year lease agreement. However, the final lease agreement was not signed until after the 90-day price guarantee had expired. That fall, the city sold its owned computer equipment to MFP, and then leased it back as well. Over the duration of the agreement, the city paid $85 million to MFP, rather than the original $43 million approved by city council. As well, many of the equipment schedules were for five-year leases rather than three. Some of these leases were later restructured to extend the lease terms even further, resulting in additional costs. In December of that year, the city acquired 10,000 Oracle database licenses, again through an MFP lease. This turned out to be a serious overestimate of the city's actual needs. These issues came to light in late 2001, after an investigation by Toronto city councillors David Miller and Bas Balkissoon. In February, 2002, the Toronto Computer Leasing Inquiry was established by city council. The commissioner of the inquiry is Madam Justice Denise Bellamy of the Ontario Superior Court of Justice. The Inquiry MFP's lead salesman on the city contract was Dash Domi, the brother of former Toronto Maple Leafs player Tie Domi. Much of the testimony presented to the inquiry alleged an improper financial relationship between Domi and former city councillor Tom Jakobek, the city's budget chief at the time of the contracts. The inquiry was presented with evidence that Jakobek's name, along with other city staff, was on the passenger manifest for a flight, paid for by MFP, to a Leafs game in Philadelphia. For several weeks, witnesses testified that they could not recall whether Jakobek was actually on the flight, but Jakobek eventually admitted that he had been present, and apologized for lying under oath. Some of Jakobek's office staff have testified that Dash Domi was granted special access to Jakobek's office, although other staff members have denied this. The inquiry also investigated possible connections between a $25,000 withdrawal from Domi's bank account on November 1, 1999 and $21,000 in payments on Jakobek's credit card two days later. Witnesses have testified that Domi called Jakobek and then parked for thirteen minutes in the underground parking garage at Toronto City Hall barely minutes after the bank withdrawal, although Jakobek has testified that he was not at city hall at all that day. Both Dash and Tie Domi testified that the $25,000 withdrawal was a birthday gift for Tie (whose birthday is on November 1), and Jakobek has testified that the $21,000 payment on his credit card came from his father-in-law, former Metro Toronto councillor Ken Morrish, to cover a family trip to Disney World. A forensic review of Jakobek's financial statements found that only a portion of the money actually came from Morrish, and the remainder in fact came from several family accounts Jakobek controlled, all of which had unexplained patterns of deposits in denominations of $100. This also included $11,000 from Jakobek's grandmother, who has a declared income of less than $15,000 per year. Members of Jakobek's family testified that the money they deposited in his bank accounts was connected to a real estate investment Jakobek and his brother Joseph made in the 1990s. Due to Joe Jakobek's financial circumstances, the money was being repaid to Tom Jakobek through an arrangement in which the brothers' parents made regular payments to Tom and were subsequently reimbursed by Joe whenever he could afford it. They have also testified that family members, including the grandmother, regularly kept unusually large amounts of money in their homes due to their mistrust of banks. Ontario Provincial Police launched an investigation in 2005 at the request of the City of Toronto. The OPP decided there are no reasonable grounds to lay any criminal charges. Follow-up On October 1, 2002, an additional inquiry was authorized to investigate a related matters regarding other city consulting contracts. The Toronto External Contracts Inquiry convened on October 18, 2004, after the Computer Leasing Inquiry ended. Final Report Justice Bellamy released her final report on September 12, 2005. She found that the testimony of Jakobek and Domi was not convincing. She made 241 specific recommendations, which included the following: The city should set out its own code of conduct for lobbyists and identify mandatory minimum standards. The city should have a gift registry for items received by staff and councillors and the information should be available on a searchable database. City staff who leave the public service should not be permitted to become lobbyists for the city for at least 12 months after they leave. Politicians who leave office should not be allowed to lobby on matters they worked on. The city should expand its current code of conduct for councillors and its conflict of interest policy for staff to include broader ethical considerations. Establish a full-time integrity commissioner. City staff should have more latitude to speak at council meetings. The mayor should report to the public annually on the city's budget, audited financial statements and major contracts or tenders awarded. In a press conference the same afternoon, Miller (who was later elected the city's mayor) welcomed the findings, and indicated that he would refer the matter to the Ontario Provincial Police for further investigation. In response to a recommendation that that Mayor report one year after the Inquiry's final report on the progress the City is making, Miller submitted a progress report in September 2006. No Criminal Charges On March 15, 2010, the Ontario Provincial Police announced that no criminal charges would be laid over the computer leasing scandal. References External links Toronto Computer Leasing Inquiry City of Toronto's Inquiry website Toronto Star article on the final submissions Computer Leasing Inquiry Ontario political scandals Judicial inquiries Leasing

12289129

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20transistor

History of the transistor

A transistor is a semiconductor device with at least three terminals for connection to an electric circuit. In the common case, the third terminal controls the flow of current between the other two terminals. This can be used for amplification, as in the case of a radio receiver, or for rapid switching, as in the case of digital circuits. The transistor replaced the vacuum-tube triode, also called a (thermionic) valve, which was much larger in size and used significantly more power to operate.The first transistor was successfully demonstrated on December 23, 1947 at Bell Laboratories in Murray Hill, New Jersey. Bell Labs is the research arm of American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T). The three individuals credited with the invention of the transistor were William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain. The introduction of the transistor is often considered one of the most important inventions in history. Transistors are broadly classified into two categories: bipolar junction transistor (BJT) and field-effect transistor (FET). The principle of a field-effect transistor was proposed by Julius Edgar Lilienfeld in 1925. John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley invented the first working transistors at Bell Labs, the point-contact transistor in 1947. Shockley introduced the improved bipolar junction transistor in 1948, which entered production in the early 1950s and led to the first widespread use of transistors. The MOSFET (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor), also known as the MOS transistor, was invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959. MOSFETs use even less power, which led to the mass-production of MOS transistors for a wide range of uses. The MOSFET has since become the most widely manufactured device in history. Origins of transistor concept The first patent for the field-effect transistor principle was filed in Canada by Austrian-Hungarian physicist Julius Edgar Lilienfeld on October 22, 1925, but Lilienfeld published no research articles about his devices, and his work was ignored by industry. In 1934 German physicist Dr. Oskar Heil patented another field-effect transistor. There is no direct evidence that these devices were built, but later work in the 1990s show that one of Lilienfeld's designs worked as described and gave substantial gain. Legal papers from the Bell Labs patent show that William Shockley and a co-worker at Bell Labs, Gerald Pearson, had built operational versions from Lilienfeld's patents, yet they never referenced this work in any of their later research papers or historical articles. The Bell Lab's work on the transistor emerged from war-time efforts to produce extremely pure germanium "crystal" mixer diodes, used in radar units as a frequency mixer element in microwave radar receivers. UK researchers had produced models using a tungsten filament on a germanium disk, but these were difficult to manufacture and not particularly robust. Bell's version was a single-crystal design that was both smaller and completely solid. A parallel project on germanium diodes at Purdue University succeeded in producing the good-quality germanium semiconducting crystals that were used at Bell Labs. Early tube-based circuits did not switch fast enough for this role, leading the Bell team to use solid-state diodes instead. After the war, Shockley decided to attempt the building of a triode-like semiconductor device. He secured funding and lab space, and went to work on the problem with Bardeen and Brattain. John Bardeen eventually developed a new branch of quantum mechanics known as surface physics to account for the "odd" behavior they saw, and Bardeen and Walter Brattain eventually succeeded in building a working device. The key to the development of the transistor was the further understanding of the process of the electron mobility in a semiconductor. It was realized that if there was some way to control the flow of the electrons from the emitter to the collector of this newly discovered diode (discovered 1874; patented 1906), one could build an amplifier. For instance, if one placed contacts on either side of a single type of crystal, the current would not flow through it. However, if a third contact could then "inject" electrons or holes into the material, the current would flow. Actually doing this appeared to be very difficult. If the crystal were of any reasonable size, the number of electrons (or holes) required to be injected would have to be very large, making it less useful as an amplifier because it would require a large injection current to start with. That said, the whole idea of the crystal diode was that the crystal itself could provide the electrons over a very small distance, the depletion region. The key appeared to be to place the input and output contacts very close together on the surface of the crystal on either side of this region. Brattain started working on building such a device, and tantalizing hints of amplification continued to appear as the team worked on the problem. Sometimes the system would work, but then stop working unexpectedly. In one instance a non-working system started working when placed in water. The electrons in any one piece of the crystal would migrate about due to nearby charges. Electrons in the emitters, or the "holes" in the collectors, would cluster at the surface of the crystal, where they could find their opposite charge "floating around" in the air (or water). Yet they could be pushed away from the surface with the application of a small amount of charge from any other location on the crystal. Instead of needing a large supply of injected electrons, a very small number in the right place on the crystal would accomplish the same thing. Their understanding solved the problem of needing a very small control area to some degree. Instead of needing two separate semiconductors connected by a common, but tiny, region, a single larger surface would serve. The emitter and collector leads would both be placed very close together on the top, with the control lead placed on the base of the crystal. When current was applied to the "base" lead, the electrons or holes would be pushed out, across the block of semiconductor, and collect on the far surface. As long as the emitter and collector were very close together, this should allow enough electrons or holes between them to allow conduction to start. An early witness of the phenomenon was Ralph Bray, a young graduate student. He joined the germanium effort at Purdue University in November 1943 and was given the tricky task of measuring the spreading resistance at the metal–semiconductor contact. Bray found a great many anomalies, such as internal high-resistivity barriers in some samples of germanium. The most curious phenomenon was the exceptionally low resistance observed when voltage pulses were applied. This effect remained a mystery because nobody realised, until 1948, that Bray had observed minority-carrier injection the effect that was identified by William Shockley at Bell Labs and made the transistor a reality. Bray wrote: "That was the one aspect that we missed, but even had we understood the idea of minority carrier injection... we would have said, 'Oh, this explains our effects.' We might not necessarily have gone ahead and said, 'Let's start making transistors,' open up a factory and sell them... At that time the important device was the high back voltage rectifier". Shockley's research team initially attempted to build a field-effect transistor (FET), by trying to modulate the conductivity of a semiconductor, but was unsuccessful, mainly due to problems with the surface states, the dangling bond, and the germanium and copper compound materials. In the course of trying to understand the mysterious reasons behind their failure to build a working FET, this led them to instead inventing the bipolar point-contact and junction transistors. First working transistor The Bell team made many attempts to build such a system with various tools, but generally failed. Setups where the contacts were close enough were invariably as fragile as the original cat's whisker detectors had been, and would work briefly, if at all. Eventually they had a practical breakthrough. A piece of gold foil was glued to the edge of a triangular plastic wedge, and then the foil was sliced with a razor at the tip of the triangle. The result was two very closely spaced contacts of gold. When the plastic was pushed down onto the surface of a crystal and voltage applied to the other side (on the base of the crystal), current started to flow from one contact to the other as the base voltage pushed the electrons away from the base towards the other side near the contacts. The point-contact transistor had been invented. On 15 December 1947, "When the points were, very close together got voltage amp about 2 but not power amp. This voltage amplification was independent of frequency 10 to 10,000 cycles". On 16 December 1947, "Using this double point contact, contact was made to a germanium surface that had been anodized to 90 volts, electrolyte washed off in H2O and then had some gold spots evaporated on it. The gold contacts were pressed down on the bare surface. Both gold contacts to the surface rectified nicely... The separation between points was about 4x10−3 cm. One point was used as a grid and the other point as a plate. The bias (D.C.) on the grid had to be positive to get amplification... power gain 1.3 voltage gain 15 on a plate bias of about 15 volts". Brattain and H. R. Moore made a demonstration to several of their colleagues and managers at Bell Labs on the afternoon of 23 December 1947, often given as the birth date of the transistor. The "PNP point-contact germanium transistor" operated as a speech amplifier with a power gain of 18 in that trial. In 1956 John Bardeen, Walter Houser Brattain, and William Bradford Shockley were honored with the Nobel Prize in Physics "for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect". Twelve people are mentioned as directly involved in the invention of the transistor in the Bell Laboratory. At the same time some European scientists were led by the idea of solid-state amplifiers. The German physicist Herbert F. Mataré (1912–2011) had conducted experiments at Telefunken with what he called "" (double diode) since 1942 already, when he first observed transconductance effects with silicon diodes manufactured for German radar equipment for WWII. Finally on 13 August 1948, Mataré and Heinrich Welker (1912–1981), working at Compagnie des Freins et Signaux Westinghouse in Aulnay-sous-Bois, France applied for a patent on an amplifier based on the minority carrier injection process which they called the "Transistron". The device was shown publicly on 18 May 1949. Transistrons were commercially manufactured for the French telephone company and military, and in 1953 a solid-state radio receiver with four transistrons was demonstrated at the Düsseldorf Radio Fair. As Bell Labs did not made a public announcement of their transistor before June 1948, the transistron was an independent parallel discovery and development. Etymology Bell Telephone Laboratories needed a generic name for the new invention: "Semiconductor Triode", "Surface States Triode", "Crystal Triode", "Solid Triode" and "Iotatron" were all considered, but "Transistor," coined by John R. Pierce, was the clear winner of an internal ballot (owing in part to the affinity that Bell engineers had developed for the suffix "-istor"). The rationale for the name is described in the following extract from the company's Technical Memorandum calling for votes: Pierce recalled the naming somewhat differently: The Nobel Foundation states that the term is a combination of the words "transfer" and "resistor". Early conflict Shockley was upset about the device being credited to Brattain and Bardeen, who he felt had built it "behind his back" to take the glory. Matters became worse when Bell Labs lawyers found that some of Shockley's own writings on the transistor were close enough to those of an earlier 1925 patent by Julius Edgar Lilienfeld that they thought it best that his name be left off the patent application. Improvements in transistor design Switch to silicon Germanium was difficult to purify and had a limited operational temperature range. Scientists theorized that silicon would be easier to fabricate, but few bothered to investigate this possibility. Morris Tanenbaum et al. at Bell Laboratories were the first to develop a working silicon transistor on January 26, 1954. A few months later, Gordon Teal, working independently at Texas Instruments, developed a similar device. Both of these devices were made by controlling the doping of single silicon crystals while they were grown from molten silicon. A superior method was developed by Morris Tanenbaum and Calvin S. Fuller at Bell Laboratories in early 1955 by the gaseous diffusion of donor and acceptor impurities into single crystal silicon chips. Up until the late 1950s, however, germanium remained the dominant semiconductor material for transistors and other semiconductor devices. Germanium was initially considered the more effective semiconductor material, as it was able to demonstrate better performance due to higher carrier mobility. The relative lack of performance in early silicon semiconductors was due to electrical conductivity being limited by unstable quantum surface states, preventing electricity from reliably penetrating the surface to reach the semiconducting silicon layer. Silicon surface passivation In 1955, Carl Frosch and Lincoln Derick at Bell Telephone Laboratories (BTL) accidentally discovered that silicon dioxide (SiO2) could be grown on silicon. They showed that oxide layer prevented certain dopants into the silicon wafer, while allowing for others, thus discovering the passivating effect of oxidation on the semiconductor surface. In the 1950s, Mohamed Atalla, picked up Frosch's work on oxidation, investigated the surface properties of silicon semiconductors at Bell Labs, where he proposed a new method of semiconductor device fabrication, coating a silicon wafer with an insulating layer of silicon oxide so that electricity could reliably penetrate to the conducting silicon below, overcoming the surface states that prevented electricity from reaching the semiconducting layer. This is known as surface passivation, a method that became critical to the semiconductor industry as it later made possible the mass-production of silicon integrated circuits. He presented his findings in 1957. He studied the passivation of p-n junctions by oxide, and published his experimental results in 1957 BTL memos. Atalla's surface passivation method was later the basis for two inventions in 1959: the MOS transistor by Atalla and Dawon Kahng, and the planar process by Jean Hoerni. Planar process At a 1958 Electrochemical Society meeting, Atalla presented a paper about the surface passivation of PN junctions by oxide (based on his 1957 BTL memos), and demonstrated silicon dioxide's passivating effect on a silicon surface. Jean Hoerni attended the same meeting, and was intrigued by Atalla's presentation. Hoerni came up with a "planar idea" one morning while thinking about Atalla's device. Taking advantage of silicon dioxide's passivating effect on the silicon surface, Hoerni proposed to make transistors that were protected by a layer of silicon dioxide. The planar process was developed by Jean Hoerni while working at Fairchild Semiconductor, with a first patent issued in 1959. The planar process used to make these transistors made mass-produced monolithic silicon integrated circuits possible. MOSFET In 1959 the MOSFET was introduced and in 2020 it is still the dominant transistor type in use, with an estimated total of 13sextillion () MOSFETs manufactured between 1960 and 2018. The key advantages of a MOSFET transistors over BJTs are that they consume no current except when switching states and they have faster switching speed (ideal for digital signals). Early commercialization The world's first commercial transistor production line was at the Western Electric plant on Union Boulevard in Allentown, Pennsylvania. Production began on Oct. 1, 1951 with the point contact germanium transistor. The first commercial application of transistors in telecommunication was in the Fall of 1952 in tone generators for multifrequency signaling of the No. 5 Crossbar switching system in the Englewood, NJ installation, used for the first field trial of direct distance dialing (DDD). By 1953, the transistor was being used in some products, such as hearing aids and telephone exchanges, but there were still significant issues preventing its broader application, such as sensitivity to moisture and the fragility of the wires attached to germanium crystals. Donald G. Fink, Philco's director of research, summarized the status of the transistor's commercial potential with an analogy: "Is it a pimpled adolescent, now awkward, but promising future vigor? Or has it arrived at maturity, full of languor, surrounded by disappointments?" Semiconductor companies initially focused on junction transistors in the early years of the semiconductor industry. However, the junction transistor was a relatively bulky device that was difficult to manufacture on a mass-production basis, which limited it to a number of specialised applications. Transistor radios Prototypes of all-transistor AM radio receivers were demonstrated, but were really only laboratory curiosities. However, in 1950 Shockley developed a radically different type of solid-state amplifier which became known as the bipolar junction transistor, which works on a completely different principle to the point-contact transistor. Morgan Sparks made the bipolar junction transistor into a practical device. These were also licensed to a number of other electronics companies, including Texas Instruments, who produced a limited run of transistor radios as a sales tool. Early transistors were chemically unstable and only suitable for low-power, low-frequency applications, but as transistor design developed, these problems were slowly overcome. There are numerous claimants to the title of the first company to produce practical transistor radios. Texas Instruments had demonstrated all-transistor AM radios as early as 1952, but their performance was well below that of equivalent battery tube models. A workable all-transistor radio was demonstrated in August 1953 at the Düsseldorf Radio Fair by the German firm Intermetall. It was built with four of Intermetall's hand-made transistors, based upon the 1948 invention of Herbert Mataré and Heinrich Welker. However, as with the early Texas units (and others) only prototypes were ever built; it was never put into commercial production. The first transistor radio is often incorrectly attributed to Sony (originally Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo), which released the TR-55 in 1955. However, it was predated by the Regency TR-1, made by the Regency Division of I.D.E.A. (Industrial Development Engineering Associates) of Indianapolis, Indiana, which was the first practical transistor radio. The TR-1 was announced on October 18, 1954 and put on sale in November 1954 for US$49.95 (the equivalent of about US$500 in year-2020 dollars) and sold about 150,000 units. The TR-1 used four Texas NPN transistors and had to be powered by a 22.5-volt battery, since the only way to get adequate radio frequency performance out of early transistors was to run them close to their collector-to-emitter breakdown voltage. This made the TR-1 very expensive to run, and it was far more popular for its novelty or status value than its actual performance, rather in the fashion of the first MP3 players. Still, aside from its indifferent performance, the TR-1 was a very advanced product for its time, using printed circuit boards, and what were then considered micro-miniature components. Masaru Ibuka, co-founder of the Japanese firm Sony, was visiting the United States when Bell Labs announced the availability of manufacturing licenses, including detailed instructions on how to manufacture junction transistors. Ibuka obtained special permission from the Japanese Ministry of Finance to pay the $50,000 license fee, and in 1955 the company introduced their own five-transistor "coatpocket" radio, the TR-55, under the new brand name Sony. This product was soon followed by more ambitious designs, but it is generally regarded as marking the commencement of Sony's growth into a manufacturing superpower. The TR-55 was quite similar to the Regency TR-1 in many ways, being powered by the same sort of 22.5-volt battery, and was not much more practical. Note: according to the schematic, the TR-55 used a 6 volt supply. Very few were distributed outside Japan. It was not until 1957 that Sony produced their ground-breaking "TR-63" shirt pocket radio, a much more advanced design that ran on a standard 9-volt battery and could compete favorably with vacuum tube portables. The TR-63 was also the first transistor radio to use all miniature components. (The term "pocket" was a matter of some interpretation, as Sony allegedly had special shirts made with oversized pockets for their salesmen.) In the April 28th 1955 edition of the Wall Street Journal, Chrysler and Philco announced that they had developed and produced the world's first all-transistor car radio. Chrysler made the all-transistor car radio, Mopar model 914HR, available as an "option" in Fall 1955 for its new line of 1956 Chrysler and Imperial cars, which hit the showroom floor on October 21, 1955. The all-transistor car radio was a $150 option. The Sony TR-63, released in 1957, was the first mass-produced transistor radio, leading to the mass-market penetration of transistor radios. The TR-63 went on to sell seven million units worldwide by the mid-1960s. With the visible success of the TR-63, Japanese competitors such as Toshiba and Sharp Corporation joined the market. Sony's success with transistor radios led to transistors replacing vacuum tubes as the dominant electronic technology in the late 1950s. Hobby use The first low-cost junction transistor available to the general public was the CK722, a PNP germanium small signal unit introduced by Raytheon in early 1953 for $7.60 each. In the 1950s and 1960s, hundreds of hobbyist electronics projects based around the CK722 transistor were published in popular books and magazines. Raytheon also participated in expanding the role of the CK722 as a hobbyist electronics device by publishing "Transistor Applications" and "Transistor Applications- Volume 2" during the mid-1950s. Transistor computers The world's first transistor computer was built at the University of Manchester in November 1953. The computer was built by Richard Grimsdale, then a research student in the Department of Electrical Engineering and later a Professor of Electronic Engineering at Sussex University. The machine used point-contact transistors, made in small quantities by STC and Mullard. These consisted of a single crystal of germanium with two fine wires, resembling the crystal and cat's whisker of the 1920s. These transistors had the useful property that a single transistor could possess two stable states. ... The development of the machine was severely hampered by the unreliability of the transistors. It consumed 150 watts. Metropolitan Vickers Ltd rebuilt the full 200 transistor (& 1300 diode) design in 1956 using junction transistors (for internal use). The IBM 7070 (1958), IBM 7090 (1959), and CDC 1604 (1960) were the first computers (as products for sale) based on transistors. MOSFET (MOS transistor) Building on his silicon surface passivation method, Mohamed Atalla developed the metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) process in the late 1950s. He proposed the MOS process could be used to build the first working silicon field-effect transistor (FET), which he began working on building with the help of Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs. The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) was invented by Atalla and Kahng at Bell Labs. They fabricated the device in November 1959, and presented it as the "silicon-silicon dioxide field induced surface device" in early 1960. With its high scalability, and much lower power consumption and higher density than bipolar junction transistors, the MOSFET made it possible to build high-density integrated circuits (ICs), allowing the integration of more than 10,000 transistors in a single IC. The first gallium-arsenide Schottky-gate field-effect transistor (MESFET) was made by Carver Mead and reported in 1966. The first report of a floating-gate MOSFET (FGMOS) was made by Dawon Kahng and Simon Sze in 1967. The MOSFET has since become the most widely manufactured device in history. As of 2018, an estimated total of 13sextillion MOS transistors have been manufactured. PMOS and NMOS There were originally two types of MOSFET logic, PMOS (p-type MOS) and NMOS (n-type MOS). Both types were developed by Atalla and Kahng when they originally invented the MOSFET, fabricating both PMOS and NMOS devices with a 20µm process. CMOS A new type of MOSFET logic, CMOS (complementary MOS), was invented by Chih-Tang Sah and Frank Wanlass at Fairchild Semiconductor, and in February 1963 they published the invention in a research paper. Self-aligned gate The self-aligned gate (silicon-gate) MOSFET transistor was invented by Robert Kerwin, Donald Klein and John Sarace at Bell Labs in 1967. Fairchild Semiconductor researchers Federico Faggin and Tom Klein later used self-aligned gate MOSFETs to develop the first silicon-gate MOS integrated circuit. MOSFET commercialization The MOSFET, also known as the MOS transistor, was the first truly compact transistor that could be miniaturised and mass-produced for a wide range of uses. It revolutionized the wider electronics industry, including power electronics, consumer electronics, control systems, and computers. The MOSFET has since become the most common type of transistor in the world, with uses including computers, electronics, and communications technology (such as smartphones). The MOS transistor has been described as the "workhorse of the electronics industry" due to being the building block of every microprocessor, memory chip and telecommunication circuit in use. Billions of MOS transistors are manufactured every day, as of 2013. Integrated circuits General Microelectronics introduced the first commercial MOS integrated circuits in 1964, consisting of 120 p-channel transistors. It was a 20-bit shift register, developed by Robert Norman and Frank Wanlass. In 1967, Bell Labs researchers Robert Kerwin, Donald Klein and John Sarace developed the self-aligned gate (silicon-gate) MOS transistor, which Fairchild Semiconductor researchers Federico Faggin and Tom Klein used to develop the first silicon-gate MOS IC. By 1972, MOS LSI (large-scale integration) circuits were commercialized for numerous applications, including automobiles, trucks, home appliances, business machines, electronic musical instruments, computer peripherals, cash registers, calculators, data transmission and telecommunication equipment. Semiconductor memory The first modern memory cells were introduced in 1965, when John Schmidt designed the first 64-bit MOS SRAM (static RAM). In 1967, Robert H. Dennard of IBM filed a patent for a single-transistor DRAM (dynamic RAM) memory cell, using a MOSFET. The earliest practical application of floating-gate MOSFET (FGMOS) was floating-gate memory cells, which Dawon Kahng and Simon Sze proposed could be used to produce reprogrammable ROM (read-only memory). Floating-gate memory cells later became the basis for non-volatile memory (NVM) technologies including EPROM (erasable programmable ROM), EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable ROM) and flash memory. Microprocessors The MOSFET is the basis of every microprocessor. The earliest microprocessors were all MOS microprocessors, built with MOS LSI circuits. The first multi-chip microprocessors, the Four-Phase Systems AL1 in 1969 and the Garrett AiResearch MP944 in 1970, were developed with multiple MOS LSI chips. The first commercial single-chip microprocessor, the Intel 4004, was developed by Federico Faggin, using his silicon-gate MOS IC technology, with Intel engineers Marcian Hoff and Stan Mazor, and Busicom engineer Masatoshi Shima. With the arrival of CMOS microprocessors in 1975, the term "MOS microprocessors" began to refer to chips fabricated entirely from PMOS logic or fabricated entirely from NMOS logic, contrasted with "CMOS microprocessors" and "bipolar bit-slice processors". Pocket calculators One of the earliest influential consumer electronic products enabled by MOS transistors was the electronic pocket calculator. In 1965, the Victor 3900 desktop calculator was the first MOS LSI calculator, with 29 MOS LSI chips. In 1967 the Texas Instruments Cal-Tech was the first prototype electronic handheld calculator, with three MOS LSI chips, and it was later released as the Canon Pocketronic in 1970. The Sharp QT-8D desktop calculator was the first mass-produced LSI MOS calculator in 1969, and the Sharp EL-8 which used four MOS LSI chips was the first commercial electronic handheld calculator in 1970. The first true electronic pocket calculator was the Busicom LE-120A HANDY LE, which used a single MOS LSI calculator-on-a-chip from Mostek, and was released in 1971. Personal computers In the 1970s, the MOS microprocessor was the basis for home computers, microcomputers (micros) and personal computers (PCs). This led to the start of what is known as the personal computer revolution or microcomputer revolution. Power electronics The power MOSFET is the most widely used power device in the world. Advantages over bipolar junction transistors in power electronics include MOSFETs not requiring a continuous flow of drive current to remain in the ON state, offering higher switching speeds, lower switching power losses, lower on-resistances, and reduced susceptibility to thermal runaway. The power MOSFET had an impact on power supplies, enabling higher operating frequencies, size and weight reduction, and increased volume production. The power MOSFET, which is commonly used in power electronics, was developed in the early 1970s. The power MOSFET enables low gate drive power, fast switching speed, and advanced paralleling capability. Patents References Books and literature A history of Bell Laboratories and its technological innovations The invention of the transistor & the birth of the information age Out of the Crystal Maze Chapters from The History of Solid State Physics (728s) Electronic Genie: THE TANGLED HISTORY OF SILICON (304s) The INVENTION THAT CHANGED THE WORLD: HOW A SMALL GROUP OF RADAR PIONEERS WON THE SECOND WORLD WAR AND LAUNCHED A TECH (576s) External links The Bell Systems Memorial on Transistors. IEEE Global History Network, The Transistor and Portable Electronics. All about the history of transistors and integrated circuits. Transistorized''. Historical and technical information from the Public Broadcasting Service This Month in Physics History: November 17 to December 23, 1947: Invention of the First Transistor. From the American Physical Society 50 Years of the Transistor. From Science Friday, December 12, 1997 Jack Ganssle "The transistor: 60 years old and still switching". EEtimes article, November 28, 2007 John Markoff "Parallel Inventor of the Transistor Has His Moment." New York Times, 24 February 2003 Michael Riordan "How Europe Missed The Transistor". IEEE Spectrum, Vol. 42, Issue 11 S. 52 - 57 November 2005 Armand Van Dormael " The 'French' Transistor". Mark P D Burgess (2008) "Semiconductor History: Faraday to Shockley" Transistors Transistor Transistor

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20iTunes

History of iTunes

The iTunes media platform was first released by Apple in 2001 as a simple music player for Mac computers. Over time, iTunes developed into a sophisticated multimedia content manager, hardware synchronization manager and e-commerce platform. iTunes was finally discontinued for new Mac computers in 2019, but is still available and supported for Macs running older operating systems and for Windows computers. iTunes enables users to manage media content, create playlists, synchronize media content with handheld devices including the iPod, iPhone, and iPad, re-image and update handheld devices, stream Internet radio and purchase music, films, television shows, and audiobooks via the iTunes Store. History Apple based the initial release of iTunes on SoundJam MP, a program developed by Bill Kincaid and released by Casady & Greene in 1999. Apple purchased the program from Casady & Greene in 2000. At the time of the purchase, Kincaid, Jeff Robbin and Dave Heller left Casady & Greene to continue development of the program as Apple employees. At Apple, the developers simplified SoundJam's user interface, added the ability to burn CDs, and removed the program's recording feature and skin support. Apple released version 1.0 of the program under a new name "iTunes" on January 9, 2001 at Macworld San Francisco. Macintosh users immediately began poking through iTunes's resource fork, where they discovered numerous strings and other resources that indicated that iTunes was a re-engineered Sound Jam MP. Casady & Greene ceased distribution of SoundJam MP on June 1, 2001 at the request of the developers. Originally a Mac OS 9-only application, iTunes began to support Mac OS X with the release of version 1.1 in March 2001. Release 2.0 added support for the new iPod. Version 3 dropped Mac OS 9 support but added smart playlists and a ratings system. In April 2003, version 4.0 introduced the iTunes Store; in October, version 4.1 added support for Microsoft Windows 2000 and Windows XP. Introduced at Macworld 2005 with the new iPod Shuffle, Version 4.7.1 introduced the ability to convert higher-bitrate songs to 128kbit/s AAC automatically, as these devices did not natively support audio encoded in AIFF or Apple Lossless formats, also improving the value proposition of the Shuffle's limited flash-only storage. Version 7.0 introduced gapless playback and Cover Flow in September 2006. In March 2007, iTunes 7.1 added support for Windows Vista, and 7.3.2 was the last Windows 2000 version. iTunes lacked support for 64-bit versions of Windows until the 7.6 update on January 16, 2008. iTunes is currently supported under any 64-bit version of Windows, although the iTunes executable was still 32-bit until version 12.1. The 64-bit versions of Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 are not supported by Apple, but a workaround has been devised for both operating systems. Version 8.0 added Genius playlists, grid view, and a new default visualizer. iTunes 9 added "Home Share" enabling automatic updating of purchased items across other computers on the same subnet and offers a new iTunes Store . Genius Mixes were added, as well as improved App synchronization abilities, extending the iPod Shuffle 128 kbit/s down-convert feature to all of Apple's AAC-capable devices. It also adds iTunes LPs to the store, which gives additional media with an album. Apple added iTunes Extras as well to the store, which adds content usually reserved for films on DVD and Blu-ray discs. Both iTunes LPs and Extras use web-standards HTML, JavaScript, and CSS. On September 1, 2010, Apple held their annual music press event where they unveiled an updated version: iTunes 10. The new version was available for download later that day. One major feature includes the integration of "iTunes Ping", which brings a social factor to the iTunes experience. Apple CEO Steve Jobs also announced a new logo, one without a CD in the background because of the increasing popularity of iTunes digital downloads. In October 2012, Apple announced the launch of the iPhone 5 and iPad Mini, the refresh of the iPod and Mac lines, and the upcoming release of iTunes 11. Slated for release by the end of October, the launch was pushed back to November 29, 2012. This version included tighter integration with iCloud, and a new user interface. Users' libraries now include all media they have stored in their iCloud account, along with any media unique to the device they are using. Media files stored in the cloud don't need to be downloaded before playing, allowing a larger collection to be accessible without increased disk usage. The new user interface includes a refreshed grid view, which replaces Cover Flow as the default layout method. With this change, Cover Flow is no longer available within the application. With the release of this software, the iTunes Store was redesigned to remain consistent with the new interface, and the stores available on iOS devices. The social element Ping was also removed and replaced by increased Twitter and Facebook integration. Other minor changes included disabling the sidebar by default, and slightly altering the icon to match that of the Mac App Store better. On October 16, 2014, Apple released iTunes 12, with a redesigned icon and interface, inspired by OS X Yosemite. With iTunes 12.1 and later, there is a new widget for notification center in OS X Yosemite, which allows the user to see what's playing, skip ahead, and even buy songs from iTunes Radio, right from notification center. It also improves performance when syncing to an iOS device. iTunes has been credited with accelerating shifts within the music industry. The pricing structure of iTunes encouraged the sale of single songs, allowing users to abandon the purchase of more expensive albums. This hastened the end of the Album Era in popular music. On April 26, 2018, Apple released iTunes 12 for Windows 10 via the Windows Store. The Universal Windows Platform app retains all features available in the desktop version, but will be updated and available through the Windows Store. On June 3, 2019, Apple stated that they would no longer include iTunes with future Mac computers. Starting with the operating system macOS Catalina, Apple instead split iTunes into separate apps: Apple Music, Apple TV, and Apple Podcasts. iTunes continues to be available on Windows and on macOS operating systems prior to Catalina. Users can also still install iTunes versions 10, 11, and 12 on macOS Catalina and macOS Big Sur using the Retroactive app. Compatibility Operating system versions iTunes Store requires at least version 11, dropping support for earlier versions. On May 25, 2018, Apple dropped support for Windows XP and Vista, no longer allowing new purchases or re-downloading of previous purchases. On June 30, 2018, TLS 1.0 was discontinued, affecting devices on iOS 4.3.5, OS X 10.8.5 Mountain Lion and earlier. The minimum version able to manage accounts & edit payment information are iTunes 12.6.4 (released in April 2018) and 12.7.5 (released in May 2018). Although new versions of iTunes have not been released for macOS since May 2019, compatibility with new iOS releases (iOS 13, 14) have been backported to iTunes 12.8.2 (for OS X 10.11 El Capitan, macOS 10.12 Sierra, 10.13 High Sierra) and 12.9.5 (for macOS 10.14 Mojave). iTunes on Windows Home Server may cause data corruption, which Microsoft fixed in an update. iTunes usually requires latest service pack or point release to function. a. Mac OS 9.1 is required to burn CDs. b. iTunes supports both 32-bit and 64-bit editions for Windows Vista, 7, 8, 8.1, and 10. iTunes does not support 64-bit editions of Windows XP. Devices Version history iTunes 1 iTunes 2 iTunes 3 iTunes 4 iTunes 5 iTunes 6 iTunes 7 iTunes 8 iTunes 9 iTunes 10 iTunes 11 iTunes 12 See also iTunes iTunes Store iOS version history Safari version history References External links  – official site at Apple Timeline iTunes

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stardock%20Central

Stardock Central

Stardock Central was a software content delivery and digital rights management system used by Stardock customers to access components of the Object Desktop, TotalGaming.net and ThinkDesk product lines, as well as products under the WinCustomize brand. Introduced in 2001 to access games on TotalGaming.net (then known as the Drengin Network), Stardock Central was later expanded to cover all Stardock products, replacing Component Manager (1999). As of 2010, Stardock Central had been phased out in favour of its successor, Impulse. However, in March 2011 Impulse was sold to GameStop and Stardock soon reopened their own online store. As of April 2012, the Stardock Central software has been revived and released as a Beta to once again provide a proprietary platform for Stardock's digital product downloads. Features Software on Stardock Central was divided into components, and further divided into packages. When users purchased a product or a subscription, they gained access to it via Stardock Central. The program had the ability to break products into components so that users on slower connections could start using the main portion of the software as soon as possible, and download extras — such as in-game movies or music — at a later date. To cater for the various frequent updates provided for many products, once a package has been downloaded and installed Stardock Central only downloaded updated files for new versions. A product archiving and restore function was available to back up components and to allow their transfer to other computers. Users could also use the program to interact on Stardock's discussion boards or access the Stardock IRC server via a built-in IRC client. WinCustomize subscribers could use the Skins and Themes section to browse and download the WinCustomize library. Stardock Central was similar in concept to the later-developed Steam content delivery system; unlike Steam, it did not require a permanent connection to the Internet, only being required when a user wanted to install or update a product (or when needed for its chatting, content libraries, or forum support). History While Stardock Central started development in 2001, it got its biggest test in March 2003 when Galactic Civilizations was launched simultaneously at retail and online — the first commercial PC game to debut in both venues at once. Those who had purchased Galactic Civilizations at retail could also enter their serial number and download updates to the game. In 2004, Stardock Central began to deliver third party content as well such as games from Take 2, Strategy First, and Ubisoft. The Political Machine was released in 2004, and in 2005, TotalGaming.net phase 2 was released, adding over a dozen new third-party games. See also Digital distribution References External links Stardock Central Homepage Stardock Central at the WinCustomize Wiki DRM for Windows Windows-only software Digital rights management systems Online content distribution Stardock software

153998

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-voltage%20differential%20signaling

Low-voltage differential signaling

Low-voltage differential signaling, or LVDS, also known as TIA/EIA-644, is a technical standard that specifies electrical characteristics of a differential, serial signaling standard, but it is not a protocol. LVDS operates at low power and can run at very high speeds using inexpensive twisted-pair copper cables. LVDS is a physical layer specification only; many data communication standards and applications use it and add a data link layer as defined in the OSI model on top of it. LVDS was introduced in 1994, and has become popular in products such as LCD-TVs, automotive infotainment systems, industrial cameras and machine vision, notebook and tablet computers, and communications systems. The typical applications are high-speed video, graphics, video camera data transfers, and general purpose computer buses. Early on, the notebook computer and LCD display vendors commonly used the term LVDS instead of FPD-Link when referring to their protocol, and the term LVDS has mistakenly become synonymous with Flat Panel Display Link in the video-display engineering vocabulary. Differential vs. single-ended signaling LVDS is a differential signaling system, meaning that it transmits information as the difference between the voltages on a pair of wires; the two wire voltages are compared at the receiver. In a typical implementation, the transmitter injects a constant current of 3.5 mA into the wires, with the direction of current determining the digital logic level. The current passes through a termination resistor of about 100 to 120 ohms (matched to the cable's characteristic impedance to reduce reflections) at the receiving end, and then returns in the opposite direction via the other wire. From Ohm's law, the voltage difference across the resistor is therefore about 350 mV. The receiver senses the polarity of this voltage to determine the logic level. As long as there is tight electric- and magnetic-field coupling between the two wires, LVDS reduces the generation of electromagnetic noise. This noise reduction is due to the equal and opposite current flow in the two wires creating equal and opposite electromagnetic fields that tend to cancel each other. In addition, the tightly coupled transmission wires will reduce susceptibility to electromagnetic noise interference because the noise will equally affect each wire and appear as a common-mode noise. The LVDS receiver is unaffected by common mode noise because it senses the differential voltage, which is not affected by common mode voltage changes. The fact that the LVDS transmitter consumes a constant current also places much less demand on the power supply decoupling and thus produces less interference in the power and ground lines of the transmitting circuit. This reduces or eliminates phenomena such as ground bounce which are typically seen in terminated single-ended transmission lines where high and low logic levels consume different currents, or in non-terminated transmission lines where a current appears abruptly during switching. The low common-mode voltage (the average of the voltages on the two wires) of about 1.2 V allows using LVDS with a wide range of integrated circuits with power supply voltages down to 2.5 V or lower. In addition, there are variations of LVDS that use a lower common mode voltage. One example is sub-LVDS (introduced by Nokia in 2004) that uses 0.9 V typical common mode voltage. Another is Scalable Low Voltage Signaling for 400 mV (SLVS-400) specified in JEDEC JESD8-13 October 2001 where the power supply can be as low as 800 mV and common mode voltage is about 400 mV. The low differential voltage, about 350 mV, causes LVDS to consume very little power compared to other signaling technologies. At 2.5 V supply voltage the power to drive 3.5 mA becomes 8.75 mW, compared to the 90 mW dissipated by the load resistor for an RS-422 signal. Logic levels: LVDS is not the only low-power differential signaling system in use, others include the Fairchild Current Transfer Logic serial I/O. Applications In 1994, National Semiconductor introduced LVDS, which later became a de facto standard for high-speed data transfer. LVDS became popular in the mid 1990s. Before that, computer monitor resolutions were not large enough to need such fast data rates for graphics and video. However, in 1992 Apple Computer needed a method to transfer multiple streams of digital video without overloading the existing NuBus on the backplane. Apple and National Semiconductor (NSC) created QuickRing, which was the first integrated circuit using LVDS. QuickRing was a high speed auxiliary bus for video data to bypass the NuBus in Macintosh computers. The multimedia and supercomputer applications continued to expand because both needed to move large amounts of data over links several meters long (from a disk drive to a workstation for instance). The first commercially successful application for LVDS was in notebook computers transmitting video data from graphics processing units to the flat panel displays using the Flat Panel Display Link by National Semiconductor. The first FPD-Link chipset reduced a 21-bit wide video interface plus the clock down to only 4 differential pairs (8 wires), which enabled it to easily fit through the hinge between the display and the notebook and take advantage of LVDS's low-noise characteristics and fast data rate. FPD-Link became the de facto open standard for this notebook application in the late 1990s and is still the dominant display interface today in notebook and tablet computers. This is the reason IC vendors such as Texas Instruments, Maxim, Fairchild, and Thine produce their versions of the FPD-Link chipset. The applications for LVDS expanded to flat panel displays for consumer TVs as screen resolutions and color depths increased. To serve this application, FPD-Link chipsets continued to increase the data-rate and the number of parallel LVDS channels to meet the internal TV requirement for transferring video data from the main video processor to the display-panel's timing controller. FPD-Link (commonly called LVDS) became the de facto standard for this internal TV interconnect and remains the dominant interface for this application in 2012. The next target application was transferring video streams through an external cable connection between a desktop computer and display, or a DVD player and a TV. NSC introduced higher performance follow-ons to FPD-Link called the LVDS Display Interface (LDI) and OpenLDI standards. These standards allow a maximum pixel clock of 112 MHz, which suffices for a display resolution of 1400 × 1050 (SXGA+) at 60 Hz refresh. A dual link can boost the maximum display resolution to 2048 × 1536 (QXGA) at 60 Hz. FPD-Link works with cable lengths up to about 5 m, and LDI extends this to about 10 m. However, Digital Visual Interface (DVI) using TMDS over CML signals won the standards competition and became the standard for externally connecting desktop computers to monitors, and HDMI eventually became the standard for connecting digital video sources such as DVD players to flat panel displays in consumer applications. Another successful LVDS application is Camera Link, which is a serial communication protocol designed for computer vision applications and based on the NSC chipset called Channel Link that uses LVDS. Camera Link standardizes video interfaces for scientific and industrial products including cameras, cables, and frame grabbers. The Automated Imaging Association (AIA) maintains and administers the standard because it is the industry's global machine vision trade group. More examples of LVDS used in computer buses are HyperTransport and FireWire, both of which trace their development back to the post-Futurebus work, which also led to SCI. In addition, LVDS is the physical layer signaling in SCSI standards (Ultra-2 SCSI and later) to allow higher data rates and longer cable lengths. Serial ATA (SATA), RapidIO, and SpaceWire use LVDS to allow high speed data transfer. Intel and AMD published a press release in December 2010 stating they would no longer support the LVDS LCD-panel interface in their product lines by 2013. They are promoting Embedded DisplayPort and Internal DisplayPort as their preferred solution. However, the LVDS LCD-panel interface has proven to be the lowest cost method for moving streaming video from a video processing unit to a LCD-panel timing controller within a TV or notebook, and in February 2018 LCD TV and notebook manufacturers continue to introduce new products using the LVDS interface. LVDS was originally introduced as a 3.3 V standard. Scalable low voltage signaling (SLVS) has a lower common-mode voltage of 200 mV and a reduced p-p swing, but is otherwise the same as LVDS. Comparing serial and parallel data transmission LVDS works in both parallel and serial data transmission. In parallel transmissions multiple data differential pairs carry several signals at once including a clock signal to synchronize the data. In serial communications, multiple single-ended signals are serialized into a single differential pair with a data rate equal to that of all the combined single-ended channels. For example, a 7-bit wide parallel bus serialized into a single pair that will operate at 7 times the data rate of one single-ended channel. The devices for converting between serial and parallel data are the serializer and deserializer, abbreviated to SerDes when the two devices are contained in one integrated circuit. As an example, FPD-Link actually uses LVDS in a combination of serialized and parallel communications. The original FPD-Link designed for 18-bit RGB video has 3 parallel data pairs and a clock pair, so this is a parallel communication scheme. However, each of the 3 pairs transfers 7 serialized bits during each clock cycle. So the FPD-Link parallel pairs are carrying serialized data, but use a parallel clock to recover and synchronize the data. Serial data communications can also embed the clock within the serial data stream. This eliminates the need for a parallel clock to synchronize the data. There are multiple methods for embedding a clock into a data stream. One method is inserting 2 extra bits into the data stream as a start-bit and stop-bit to guarantee bit transitions at regular intervals to mimic a clock signal. Another method is 8b/10b encoding. LVDS transmission with 8b/10b encoding LVDS does not specify a bit encoding scheme because it is a physical layer standard only. LVDS accommodates any user-specified encoding scheme for sending and receiving data across an LVDS link, including 8b/10b encoded data. An 8b/10b encoding scheme embeds the clock signal information and has the added benefit of DC balance. DC balance is necessary for AC-coupled transmission paths (such as capacitive or transformer-coupled paths). There are also DC-balance encoding methods for the start bit/stop bit embedded clock, which usually include a data scrambling technique. The key point in LVDS is the physical layer signaling to transport bits across wires. It is compatible with almost all data encoding and clock embedding techniques. LVDS for very high data-throughput applications When a single differential pair of serial data is not fast enough there are techniques for grouping serial data channels in parallel and adding a parallel clock channel for synchronization. This is the technique used by FPD-Link. Other examples of parallel LVDS using multiple LVDS pairs and a parallel clock to synchronize are Channel Link and HyperTransport. There is also the technique to increase the data throughput by grouping multiple LVDS-with-embedded-clock data channels together. However, this is not parallel LVDS because there is no parallel clock and each channel has its own clock information. An example of this technique is PCI Express where 2, 4, or 8 8b/10b encoded serial channels carry application data from source to destination. In this case the destination must employ a data synchronization method to align the multiple serial data channels. Multipoint LVDS The original LVDS standard only envisioned driving a digital signal from one transmitter to one receiver in a point-to-point topology. However, engineers using the first LVDS products soon wanted to drive multiple receivers with a single transmitter in a multipoint topology. As a result, NSC invented Bus LVDS (BLVDS) as the first variation of LVDS designed to drive multiple LVDS receivers. It uses termination resistors at each end of the differential transmission line to maintain the signal integrity. Double termination is necessary because it is possible to have one or more transmitters in the center of the bus driving signals toward receivers in both directions. The difference from standard LVDS transmitters was increasing the current output in order to drive the multiple termination resistors. In addition, the transmitters need to tolerate the possibility of other transmitters simultaneously driving the same bus. Point-to-point LVDS typically operate at 3.5 mA. Multi-point LVDS or bus LVDS (B-LVDS) can operate up to 12 mA. Bus LVDS and LVDM (by TI) are de facto multipoint LVDS standards. Multipoint LVDS (MLVDS) is the TIA standard (TIA-899). The AdvancedTCA standard specified MLVDS for clock distribution across the backplane to each of the computing module boards in the system. MLVDS has two types of receivers. Type-1 is compatible with LVDS and uses a +/− 50 mV threshold. Type-2 receivers allow Wired-Or signalling with M-LVDS devices. For M-LVDS: SCI-LVDS The present form of LVDS was preceded by an earlier standard initiated in Scalable Coherent Interconnect (SCI). SCI-LVDS was a subset of the SCI family of standards and specified in the IEEE 1596.3 1995 standard. The SCI committee designed LVDS for interconnecting multiprocessing systems with a high-speed and low power interface to replace positive emitter-coupled logic (PECL). Standards The ANSI/TIA/EIA-644-A (published in 2001) standard defines LVDS. This standard originally recommended a maximum data rate of 655 Mbit/s over twisted-pair copper wire, but data rates from 1 to 3 Gbit/s are common today on high quality transmission mediums. Today, technologies for broadband digital video signal transmission such as LVDS are also used in vehicles, in which the signal transmitted as a differential signal helps for EMC reasons. However, high-quality shielded twisted pair cables must be used together with elaborate connector systems for cabling. An alternative is the use of coaxial cables. Studies have shown that it is possible in spite of the simplified transfer medium dominate both emission and immunity in the high frequency range. Future high-speed video connections can be smaller, lighter and cheaper to realize. Serial video transmission technologies are widely used in the automobile for linking cameras, displays and control devices. The uncompressed video data has some advantages for certain applications. Serial communication protocols now allow the transfer of data rates in the range of 3 to 4 Gbit/s and thus the control of displays with up to full HD resolution. The integration of the serializer and deserializer components in the control unit due to low demands on additional hardware and software simple and inexpensive. In contrast, require bus solutions for video transmission connection to a corresponding network controller and, if necessary resources for data compression. Since for many applications a full function network is not required throughout the video architecture and for some compounds, data compression is not feasible due to image quality loss and additional latency, bus oriented video transmission technologies are currently only partially attractive. See also Current-mode logic, another differential signaling standard FPD-Link, a similar but different LVDS List of interface bit rates Positive emitter-coupled logic (PECL and LVPECL) Display controller, an IC that produces the signal References External links M-LVDS Application Reports LVDS Application and Data Book, SLLD009, Texas Instruments, November 2002. An Overview of LVDS Technology, AN-971, Texas Instruments, July 1998. LVDS Owner's Manual, 4th Edition, Texas Instruments, 2008. Introduction to M-LVDS (TIA/EIA-899), SLLA108, Texas Instruments, February 2002. Scalable Low-Voltage Signaling SLVS-400, JEDEC Standard, JESD8-13, October 2001. LVDS circuits testing LVDS Compatibility with RS422 and RS485 Interface Standards, AN-5023, Fairchild Semiconductor, July 2002. Computer buses

24564858

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1979%20Rose%20Bowl

1979 Rose Bowl

The 1979 Rose Bowl was a college football bowl game played in Pasadena, California, on January 1, 1979. It was the 65th Rose Bowl Game. The USC Trojans, champions of the Pacific-10 Conference, defeated the Michigan Wolverines, (co) champions of the Big Ten Conference, Charles White and Michigan quarterback Rick Leach were named the Players of the Game. Teams Michigan Michigan came into the game ranked fifth in both major polls with a 10–1 record, with their only loss to Michigan State. The Wolverines tied for the Big Ten title with Michigan State, and earned the Rose Bowl berth because the Spartans were on probation. Michigan had been to the previous two Rose Bowls, USC USC came into the game ranked third in both major polls with an 11–1 record. In September, USC decisively defeated then #1 ranked Alabama 24–14 in Birmingham, but subsequently suffered their lone defeat to new Pac-10 member Arizona State, falling 20–7 in Tempe in mid-October. USC defeated UCLA 17–10 to win the Pac-10, and then closed out the regular season by defeating defending national champion Notre Dame USC had also defeated Big-10 regular season co-champion Michigan State in late September. The Trojans entered the game as five-point Charles White's "Phantom Touchdown" USC had driven deep into Michigan territory in the second quarter. At the three-yard line in a dive over the middle towards the goal-line, Charles White was hit hard by Michigan's great middle linebacker Ron Simpkins and fumbled the ball before he entered the end-zone. The officials for this game were made up of a Pac-10/Big Ten crew. Upon White's fumble, the umpire (a Pac-10 official) immediately and correctly marked the ball around the one-yard line and signaled that there had been a change of possession. Then the line judge, a Big Ten official, came running in raising his hands signaling that White had scored This touchdown has become known as White's "Phantom Touchdown" as he was awarded the score after first fumbling, and entered the end-zone without the ball. This has been confirmed by White himself. The touchdown put USC up 14–3 and they added a field goal before halftime. The only score in the second half was an extended play by Michigan in the third quarter that resulted in a 44-yard touchdown pass. Earthquake A mild earthquake, 4.6 on the Richter scale, took place shortly before halftime but caused Scoring First quarter USC - Hoby Brenner, 9-yard pass from Paul McDonald (Frank Jordan kick) Second quarter Michigan - Gregg Willner, 36-yard field goal USC - Charles White, 3-yard run (Frank Jordan kick) USC - Frank Jordan, 35-yard field goal Third quarter Michigan - Roosevelt Smith, 44-yard pass from Rick Leach (Gregg Willner kick) Fourth quarter No scoring Aftermath Earlier in the day at the Sugar Bowl in New Orleans, #2 Alabama upset #1 Penn State, 14–7. USC vaulted into the #1 spot in the UPI poll, while Alabama was first in the AP poll. The loss was Michigan's third straight in the Rose Bowl and fourth consecutive in major bowls; their most recent postseason win was in January 1965. Two years later, they returned to Pasadena and won the Rose Bowl. This was the fifth straight win for the Pac-10 in the Rose Bowl and ninth in the last ten. USC returned the following year and successfully defended their title. This was the final Rose Bowl for television broadcaster Curt Gowdy; Dick Enberg took over play-by-play duties the following year. References External links Summary at Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan Athletics History Pac-12 Conference – 1979 Rose Bowl – video YouTube – Michigan's 44-yard touchdown pass Rose Bowl Rose Bowl Game Michigan Wolverines football bowl games USC Trojans football bowl games January 1979 sports events in the United States Rose Bowl

717813

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence%20Technological%20University

Lawrence Technological University

Lawrence Technological University (LTU) (Lawrence Tech) is a private university in Southfield, Michigan. It was founded in 1932 in Highland Park, Michigan, as the Lawrence Institute of Technology (LIT) by Russell E. Lawrence. The university moved to Southfield in 1955 and has since expanded to . The campus also includes the Frank Lloyd Wright designed Affleck House in Bloomfield Hills and the Detroit Center for Design + Technology in Midtown Detroit. The university offers undergraduate, masters, and doctoral programs in science, technology, engineering, architecture and design, and mathematics fields through its four colleges: Architecture and Design, Arts and Sciences, Business and Information Technology, and Engineering. LTU's athletic teams are the Blue Devils. They compete in the NAIA and joined the Wolverine Hoosier Athletic Conference in 2012. History In 1932, at the height of the Great Depression, Lawrence Tech’s founding president Russell E. Lawrence envisioned a new model of higher education that could serve both traditional students as well as working adults, and combined a teaching philosophy espousing both theory and practice. Lawrence Tech was founded on the principle that every person should have the opportunity for a college education. From the beginning, there were no restrictions on entering students relating to race, sex, color, creed, or national or ethnic origin – only the requirement that students qualify for admission and have the desire to succeed. Working students could earn a baccalaureate degree by attending evening programs, day programs, or a combination of the two – a feature unique in 1932 and still remarkable today. Lawrence believed engineering and technological achievements would be what would spur economic recovery, both for the region and the nation. Henry and Edsel Ford agreed to lease their former Henry Ford Trade School building, a part of their Model-T assembly complex in Highland Park, to the new university, which began operations with a few hundred students. The intuition's enrollment dropped during World War II but surged immediately thereafter as veterans enjoyed the education benefits of the G.I. Bill. In 1955, Lawrence Institute of Technology (LIT) moved to a campus in then rural Southfield, on what had been a General Mills research farm. Since the University was founded as an engineering school, it is fitting that the first building constructed on the Southfield campus was the Engineering building. The campus master plan was created by professor Earl W. Pellerin, who also led the teams that designed the Architecture and Science Buildings, the University’s first residence hall on Ten Mile Road, University Housing-South, and what was originally the president’s residence on nearby Circle Drive. LIT began offering multiple Master's degree programs through its colleges, and in recognition of these post-baccalaureate programs LIT changed it name to Lawrence Technological University (LTU) on 1st January 1989. LTU continued its transformation from a primarily commuter institution to offering a full campus life with the construction of more residence halls—Donley Hall, Reuss Hall, and the award-winning East Residence Hall, the latter for all first-year students. The University now has the capacity for more than 1,000 residential students. Academics Lawrence Tech offers nearly 100 programs in four colleges, with a total enrollment of nearly 3,500 students, and employs over 400 full-time and part-time faculty. The University is organized into four Colleges: Architecture and Design, Arts and Sciences, Business and Information Technology, and Engineering. In 1962, Lawrence Tech’s College of Architecture and Design was founded, evolving from the former architectural engineering department, and the College of Arts and Sciences was established in 1967. In 1950 Associate degree programs were added to LTU’s baccalaureate programs and in 1952, what is today the College of Business and Information Technology was established, having its origins in an earlier industrial engineering curriculum. LTU started offering multiple masters degree programs from the early 1990s. Master’s degree programs in business were created in 1989, engineering in 1990, Architecture in 1993 and arts and sciences in 1997. The College of Business and Information Technology is one of only 5 percent of the world’s 16,000 institutions of higher learning offering business degrees to earn accreditation from AACSB International, the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business. In its 2021 rankings, U.S. News & World Report ranked Lawrence Tech as tied for #37 in Regional Universities Midwest. Athletics Lawrence Tech teams are known as the Blue Devils. The university is a member of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA), primarily competing in the Wolverine–Hoosier Athletic Conference (WHAC) while the university's second men's ice hockey team is a member of the American Collegiate Hockey Association (ACHA) at the Division III level as a member of the Michigan Collegiate Hockey Conference (MCHC). Men's sports include basketball, bowling, cross country, ice hockey, lacrosse and soccer; while women's sports include basketball, bowling, cross country, lacrosse, soccer and volleyball. Lawrence Tech fielded athletic teams throughout its history from 1930 to 1962. The 1950–51 men's basketball team played the 1951 National Invitation Tournament, held at Madison Square Garden in New York. Lawrence Tech was defeated by Dayton, 71-77 in the opening round of the tournament. Blaine Denning, an alumnus from the 1951 team, went on to play professional basketball with the Baltimore Bullets of the NBA. Lawrence Tech re-instated athletic programs in 2011 and joined the NAIA. Men's soccer and bowling, along with women's volleyball, joined the already established men's ice hockey team for the university's athletic offerings during the 2011–12 academic year. During its fifth season in the NAIA, the university fielded teams in men's baseball, basketball, bowling, cross country, golf, hockey, volleyball, lacrosse, soccer and tennis, and women's basketball, bowling, cross country, golf, lacrosse, soccer, softball, tennis and volleyball. Thanks to a $1 million gift from an anonymous donor, during the summer of 2016 Lawrence Tech constructed an AstroTurf surface athletic field at the Point, the part of campus at the intersection of Northwestern Highway and 10 Mile Road. LTU's men's and women's soccer and lacrosse teams began playing on this field in August 2016. The project also includes a 40-car parking lot. In the summer of 2018, lighting for night games, a new scoreboard with a video replay display, temporary seating for 2,000 fans and a press box were constructed in preparation for the inaugural 2018 season of LTU's football team. The first football game, held Sept. 1, 2018, drew an overflow crowd of more than 3,800 fans. Future plans for the site include permanent stadium seating for 4,000 fans, a two-story team building with locker rooms, a weight room, and offices for trainers and coaches, and a concession and restroom building. In January 2017, Lawrence Tech announced that it would resume intercollegiate football competition, after a hiatus of more than 70 years dating back to just after World War II. The university has admitted two recruiting classes of about 90 student-athletes for a team that competed as an independent squad in the fall of 2018, and which will begin playing a full varsity schedule in the Mid-States Football Association of the NAIA in the fall of 2019. LTU hired Jeff Duvendeck, former head coach at Culver-Stockton (Mo.) College and a former assistant at Michigan State University, Northern Michigan University, Michigan Technological University, Grand Valley State University, and Tiffin (Ohio) University, as its head coach. The Blue Devils finished 5-3 in their abbreviated first season, and attracted nearly 4,000 fans to their first game on Sept. 1, 2018. The 2021 LTU football squad finished 7-4 overall, 3-4 in the Mid-States Football Association. In 2021, the University added more teams, including eSports, women’s hockey, cheerleading and men’s volleyball, and adding to existing programs in women’s bowling and track and field. LTU now supports over 30 varsity men's and women's teams in baseball, basketball, bowling, cross country, eSports, football, golf, ice hockey, lacrosse, soccer, softball, tennis, track and field, and volleyball—along with a pep band, a marching band, and cheer and dance teams. Student life Student organizations On campus extracurricular activities include leadership opportunities and more than 60 student clubs and organizations. Student Government represents all organizations on campus. The university generally allows new student clubs in any interest area if they are supported by a student petition with at least 30 signatures. Fraternities and sororities The university is also home to chapters of fraternities, including Alpha Sigma Phi, Theta Tau, Sigma Pi, Sigma Phi Epsilon, Phi Kappa Upsilon, and Phi Beta Sigma. The sororities represented on campus include Chi Omega Rho, Delta Tau Sigma, Delta Phi Epsilon, Kappa Beta Gamma, and Delta Sigma Theta. Notable alumni Steven A. Ballmer, while still simultaneously enrolled in high school, participated in Lawrence Tech's Summer Science Institute, then spent a year at the university, excelling in six of Lawrence Tech's top mathematics classes. Ballmer is the former CEO of Microsoft and current owner of the NBA's Los Angeles Clippers. John Z. DeLorean, B.S. Industrial engineering 1948 – Former GM executive who created the first muscle car and an American businessman who founded the DeLorean Motor Company based in Northern Ireland. Harvey Ferrero, B.S. Architectural Engineering 1955 - American architect, architectural illustration expert, the founder of Ferrero Architects, and a former adjunct professor of Lawrence Technological University. Alfred Taubman, former Lawrence Tech architecture student – was one of the nation's leading real estate developers, innovators, and owners of shopping malls throughout the U.S. He also owned Sotheby's auctioneers and the A&W restaurant chain. Lewis Veraldi, B.S. Mechanical Engineering 1948 – late father of the original Ford Taurus and Sable. As Ford Motor Company vice president in charge of car development, Veraldi pioneered cross-disciplinary personnel teams that led to the launch of these cars. The "team" development process he innovated has become the industry standard. George W. Sierant, B.S. Mechanical Engineering 1947 - General Motors, developed the first viable child safety seat in 1966. Photo gallery See also Association of Independent Technological Universities References External links Official website [http://www.ltuathletics.com/ LTU athletics website} Private universities and colleges in Michigan Southfield, Michigan Educational institutions established in 1932 Universities and colleges in Oakland County, Michigan Technological universities in the United States 1932 establishments in Michigan

1027403

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G-code

G-code

G-code (also RS-274) is the most widely used computer numerical control (CNC) programming language. It is used mainly in computer-aided manufacturing to control automated machine tools, and has many variants. G-code instructions are provided to a machine controller (industrial computer) that tells the motors where to move, how fast to move, and what path to follow. The two most common situations are that, within a machine tool such as a lathe or mill, a cutting tool is moved according to these instructions through a toolpath cutting away material to leave only the finished workpiece and/or an unfinished workpiece is precisely positioned in any of up to nine axes around the three dimensions relative to a toolpath and, either or both can move relative to each other. The same concept also extends to noncutting tools such as forming or burnishing tools, photoplotting, additive methods such as 3D printing, and measuring instruments. Implementations The first implementation of a numerical control programming language was developed at the MIT Servomechanisms Laboratory in the late 1950s. In the decades since, many implementations have been developed by many (commercial and noncommercial) organizations. G-code has often been used in these implementations. The main standardized version used in the United States was settled by the Electronic Industries Alliance in the early 1960s. A final revision was approved in February 1980 as RS-274-D. In other countries, the standard ISO 6983 is often used, but many European countries use other standards. For example, DIN 66025 is used in Germany, and PN-73M-55256 and PN-93/M-55251 were formerly used in Poland. Extensions and variations have been added independently by control manufacturers and machine tool manufacturers, and operators of a specific controller must be aware of differences of each manufacturer's product. One standardized version of G-code, known as BCL (Binary Cutter Language), is used only on very few machines. Developed at MIT, BCL was developed to control CNC machines in terms of straight lines and arcs. During the 1970s through 1990s, many CNC machine tool builders attempted to overcome compatibility difficulties by standardizing on machine tool controllers built by Fanuc. Siemens was another market dominator in CNC controls, especially in Europe. In the 2010s, controller differences and incompatibility are not as troublesome because machining operations are usually developed with CAD/CAM applications that can output the appropriate G-code for a specific machine through a software tool called a post-processor (sometimes shortened to just a "post"). Some CNC machines use "conversational" programming, which is a wizard-like programming mode that either hides G-code or completely bypasses the use of G-code. Some popular examples are Okuma's Advanced One Touch (AOT), Southwestern Industries' ProtoTRAK, Mazak's Mazatrol, Hurco's Ultimax and Winmax, Haas' Intuitive Programming System (IPS), and Mori Seiki's CAPS conversational software. G-code began as a limited language that lacked constructs such as loops, conditional operators, and programmer-declared variables with natural-word-including names (or the expressions in which to use them). It was unable to encode logic, but was just a way to "connect the dots" where the programmer figured out many of the dots' locations longhand. The latest implementations of G-code include macro language capabilities somewhat closer to a high-level programming language. Additionally, all primary manufacturers (e.g., Fanuc, Siemens, Heidenhain) provide access to programmable logic controller (PLC) data, such as axis positioning data and tool data, via variables used by NC programs. These constructs make it easier to develop automation applications. Specific codes G-codes, also called preparatory codes, are any word in a CNC program that begins with the letter G. Generally it is a code telling the machine tool what type of action to perform, such as: Rapid movement (transport the tool as quickly as possible in between cuts) Controlled feed in a straight line or arc Series of controlled feed movements that would result in a hole being bored, a workpiece cut (routed) to a specific dimension, or a profile (contour) shape added to the edge of a workpiece Set tool information such as offset Switch coordinate systems There are other codes; the type codes can be thought of like registers in a computer. It has been pointed out over the years that the term "G-code" is imprecise because "G" is only one of many letter addresses in the complete language. It comes from the literal sense of the term, referring to one letter address and to the specific codes that can be formed with it (for example, G00, G01, G28), but every letter of the English alphabet is used somewhere in the language. Nevertheless, "G-code" is metonymically established as the common name of the language. Letter addresses Some letter addresses are used only in milling or only in turning; most are used in both. Bold below are the letters seen most frequently throughout a program. Sources: Smid 2008; Smid 2010; Green et al. 1996. List of G-codes commonly found on FANUC and similarly designed controls for milling and turning Sources: Smid 2008; Smid 2010; Green et al. 1996. Note: Modal means a code stays in effect until replaced, or cancelled, by another permitted code. Non-Modal means it executes only once. See, for example, codes G09, G61 & G64 below. List of M-codes commonly found on FANUC and similarly designed controls for milling and turning Sources: Smid 2008; Smid 2010; Green et al. 1996. Some older controls require M codes to be in separate blocks (that is, not on the same line). Example program This is a generic program that demonstrates the use of G-Code to turn a part that is 1" diameter by 1" long. Assume that a bar of material is in the machine and that the bar is slightly oversized in length and diameter and that the bar protrudes by more than 1" from the face of the chuck. (Caution: This is generic, it might not work on any real machine! Pay particular attention to point 5 below.) Several points to note: There is room for some programming style, even in this short program. The grouping of codes in line N06 could have been put on multiple lines. Doing so may have made it easier to follow program execution. Many codes are modal, meaning they remain in effect until cancelled or replaced by a contradictory code. For example, once variable speed cutting (CSS) had been selected (G96), it stays in effect until the end of the program. In operation, the spindle speed increases as the tool near the center of the work to maintain constant surface speed. Similarly, once rapid feed is selected (G00), all tool movements are rapid until a feed rate code (G01, G02, G03) is selected. It is common practice to use a load monitor with CNC machinery. The load monitor stops the machine if the spindle or feed loads exceed a preset value that is set during the set-up operation. The jobs of the load monitor are various: Prevent machine damage in the event of tool breakage or a programming mistake. This is especially important because it allows safe "lights-out machining", in which the operators set up the job and start it during the day, then go home for the night, leaving the machines running and cutting parts during the night. Because no human is around to hear, see, or smell a problem such as a broken tool, the load monitor serves an important sentry duty. When it senses overload condition, which semantically suggests a dull or broken tool, it commands a stop to the machining. Technology is available nowadays to send an alert to someone remotely (e.g., the sleeping owner, operator, or owner-operator) if desired, which can allow them to come to intercede and get production going again, then leave once more. This can be the difference between profitability or loss on some jobs because lights-out machining reduces labor hours per part. Warn of a tool that is becoming dull and must be replaced or sharpened. Thus, an operator tending multiple machines is told by a machine, essentially, "Pause what you're doing over there, and come attend to something over here." It is common practice to bring the tool in rapidly to a "safe" point that is close to the part—in this case, 0.1" away—and then start feeding the tool. How close that "safe" distance is, depends on the preference of the programmer and/or operator and the maximum material condition for the raw stock. If the program is wrong, there is a high probability that the machine will crash, or ram the tool into the part, vice, or machine under high power. This can be costly, especially in newer machining centers. It is possible to intersperse the program with optional stops (M01 code) that let the program run piecemeal for testing purposes. The optional stops remain in the program but are skipped during normal running. Fortunately, most CAD/CAM software ships with CNC simulators that display the movement of the tool as the program executes. Nowadays the surrounding objects (chuck, clamps, fixture, tailstock, and more) are included in the 3D models, and the simulation is much like an entire video game or virtual reality environment, making unexpected crashes much less likely. Many modern CNC machines also allow programmers to execute the program in a simulation mode and observe the operating parameters of the machine at a particular execution point. This enables programmers to discover semantic errors (as opposed to syntax errors) before losing material or tools to an incorrect program. Depending on the size of the part, wax blocks may be used for testing purposes as well. Additionally, many machines support operator overrides for both rapid and feed rate that can be used to reduce the speed of the machine, allowing operators to stop program execution before a crash occurs. The line numbers that have been included in the program above (i.e. ) are usually not necessary for the operation of a machine and increase file sizes, so they are seldom used in the industry. However, if branching or looping statements are used in the code, then line numbers may well be included as the target of those statements (e.g. ). Some machines do not allow multiple M codes in the same line. Programming environments G-code's programming environments have evolved in parallel with those of general programming—from the earliest environments (e.g., writing a program with a pencil, typing it into a tape puncher) to the latest environments that combine CAD (computer-aided design), CAM (computer-aided manufacturing), and richly featured G-code editors. (G-code editors are analogous to XML editors, using colors and indents semantically [plus other features] to aid the user in ways that basic text editors can't. CAM packages are analogous to IDEs in general programming.) Two high-level paradigm shifts have been toward: abandoning "manual programming" (with nothing but a pencil or text editor and a human mind) for CAM software systems that generate G-code automatically via postprocessors (analogous to the development of visual techniques in general programming) abandoning hardcoded constructs for parametric ones (analogous to the difference in general programming between hardcoding a constant into an equation versus declaring it a variable and assigning new values to it at will; and to the object-oriented approach in general). Macro (parametric) CNC programming uses human-friendly variable names, relational operators, and loop structures, much as general programming does, to capture information and logic with machine-readable semantics. Whereas older manual CNC programming could only describe particular instances of parts in numeric form, macro programming describes abstractions that can easily apply in a wide variety of instances. The tendency is comparable to a computer programming evolution from low-level programming languages to high-level ones. STEP-NC reflects the same theme, which can be viewed as yet another step along a path that started with the development of machine tools, jigs and fixtures, and numerical control, which all sought to "build the skill into the tool." Recent developments of G-code and STEP-NC aim to build the information and semantics into the tool. This idea is not new; from the beginning of numerical control, the concept of an end-to-end CAD/CAM environment was the goal of such early technologies as DAC-1 and APT. Those efforts were fine for huge corporations like GM and Boeing. However, small and medium enterprises went through an era of simpler implementations of NC, with relatively primitive "connect-the-dots" G-code and manual programming until CAD/CAM improved and disseminated throughout the industry. Any machine tool with a great number of axes, spindles, and tool stations is difficult to program well manually. It has been done over the years, but not easily. This challenge has existed for decades in CNC screw machine and rotary transfer programming, and it now also arises with today's newer machining centers called "turn-mills", "mill-turns", "multitasking machines", and "multifunction machines". Now that CAD/CAM systems are widely used, CNC programming (such as with G-code) requires CAD/CAM (as opposed to manual programming) to be practical and competitive in the market segments these classes of machines serve. As Smid says, "Combine all these axes with some additional features, and the amount of knowledge required to succeed is quite overwhelming, to say the least." At the same time, however, programmers still must thoroughly understand the principles of manual programming and must think critically and second-guess some aspects of the software's decisions. Since about the mid-2000s, it seems "the death of manual programming" (that is, of writing lines of G-code without CAD/CAM assistance) may be approaching. However, it is currently only in some contexts that manual programming is obsolete. Plenty of CAM programming takes place nowadays among people who are rusty on, or incapable of, manual programming—but it is not true that all CNC programming can be done, or done as well or as efficiently, without knowing G-code. Tailoring and refining the CNC program at the machine is an area of practice where it can be easier or more efficient to edit the G-code directly rather than editing the CAM toolpaths and re-post-processing the program. Making a living cutting parts on computer-controlled machines has been made both easier and harder by CAD/CAM software. Efficiently written G-code can be a challenge for CAM software. Ideally, a CNC machinist should know both manual and CAM programming well so that the benefits of both brute-force CAM and elegant hand programming can be used where needed. Many older machines were built with limited computer memory at a time when memory was very expensive; 32K was considered plenty of room for manual programs whereas modern CAM software can post gigabytes of code. CAM excels at getting a program out quickly that may take up more machine memory and take longer to run. This often makes it quite valuable to machining a low quantity of parts. But a balance must be struck between the time it takes to create a program and the time the program takes to machine a part. It has become easier and faster to make just a few parts on the newer machines with much memory. This has taken its toll on both hand programmers and manual machinists. Given natural turnover into retirement, it is not realistic to expect to maintain a large pool of operators who are highly skilled in manual programming when their commercial environment mostly can no longer provide the countless hours of deep experience it took to build that skill; and yet the loss of this experience base can be appreciated, and there are times when such a pool is sorely missed because some CNC runs still cannot be optimized without such skill. Abbreviations used by programmers and operators This list is only a selection and, except for a few key terms, mostly avoids duplicating the many abbreviations listed at engineering drawing abbreviations and symbols. See also 3D printing Canned cycle LinuxCNC - a free CNC software with many resources for G-code documentation Drill file HP-GL Extended developments Direct Numerical Control (DNC) STEP-NC MTConnect Similar concepts Gerber file Concerns during application Cutter location, cutter compensation, offset parameters Coordinate systems References Bibliography External links CNC G-Code and M-Code Programming Tutorial for G-code http://museum.mit.edu/150/86 Has several links (including history of MIT Servo Lab) Complete list of G-code used by most 3D printers Fanuc and Haas G-code Reference Fanuc and Haas G-code Tutorial Haas Milling Manual G Code For Lathe & Milling M Code for Lathe & Milling Computer-aided engineering Domain-specific programming languages Encodings Metalworking

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics%20card

Graphics card

A graphics card (also called a video card, display card, graphics adapter,vga card/vga, video adapter, or display adapter) is an expansion card which generates a feed of output images to a display device (such as a computer monitor). Frequently, these are advertised as discrete or dedicated graphics cards, emphasizing the distinction between these and integrated graphics. At the core of both is the graphics processing unit (GPU), which is the main component that performs computations, but should not be confused with the graphics card as a whole, although "GPU" is often used as a metonymic shorthand to refer to graphics cards. Most graphics cards are not limited to simple display output. Their integrated graphics processor can perform additional processing, removing this task from the central processor of the computer. For example, Nvidia and AMD (previously ATI) produced cards that render the graphics pipelines OpenGL and DirectX on the hardware level. In the later 2010s, there has also been a tendency to use the computing capabilities of the graphics processor to solve non-graphic tasks, which can be done through the use of OpenCL and CUDA. Graphics cards are used extensively for AI training, cryptocurrency mining and molecular simulation. Usually, the graphics card is made in the form of a printed circuit board (expansion board) and inserted into an expansion slot, universal or specialized (AGP, PCI Express). Some have been made using dedicated enclosures, which are connected to the computer via a docking station or a cable. These are known as eGPUs. Discrete GPUs (dGPUs) usually come in the form of graphics cards, while integrated GPUs (iGPUs) are usually in the form of APUs, an AMD marketing term for 'fusing' a GPU and CPU onto the same die. iGPUs are usually less powerful than dGPUs as they share memory and power draw with the CPU, while dGPUs have their own vRAM and power draw via PCIe adaptors. dGPUs are usually what gamers, content creators, cryptominers and professionals use as they are much more powerful than iGPUs and can process complex 3d renders and visual lighting/shadow effects (sometimes by Ray Tracing). iGPUs are orientated for casual people, for office use and/or light streaming of video content and/or light 3d rendering. iGPUs cannot do Ray Tracing. History Standards such as MDA, CGA, HGC, Tandy, PGC, EGA, VGA, MCGA, QuickDraw, 8514 or XGA were introduced from 1982 to 1990 and supported by a variety of hardware manufacturers. In the late 1980s the like of Radius offered discrete 2D QuickDraw Graphic accelerator cards for the Apple Macintosh II. 3dfx Interactive was one of the first companies to develop a consumer-facing GPU with 3D acceleration (with the Voodoo series) and the first to develop a graphical chipset dedicated to 3D, but without 2D support (which therefore required the presence of a 2D card to work). Now the majority of modern graphics cards are built with either AMD-sourced or Nvidia-sourced graphics chips. Until 2000, 3dfx Interactive was also an important, and often groundbreaking, manufacturer. Most graphics cards offer various functions such as the accelerated rendering of 3D scenes and 2D graphics, MPEG-2/MPEG-4 decoding, TV output, or the ability to connect multiple monitors (multi-monitor). Graphics cards also have sound card capabilities to output sound along with the video for connected TVs or monitors with integrated speakers. Within the industry, graphics cards are sometimes called graphics add-in-boards, abbreviated as AIBs, with the word "graphics" usually omitted. Discrete vs integrated graphics As an alternative to the use of a graphics card, video hardware can be integrated into the motherboard, CPU, or a system-on-chip. Both approaches can be called integrated graphics. Motherboard-based implementations are sometimes called "on-board video". Almost all desktop computer motherboards with integrated graphics allow the disabling of the integrated graphics chip in BIOS, and have a PCI or PCI Express (PCI-E) slot for adding a higher-performance graphics card in place of the integrated graphics. The ability to disable the integrated graphics sometimes also allows the continued use of a motherboard on which the on-board video has failed. Sometimes both the integrated graphics and a discrete (sometimes called dedicated) graphics card can be used simultaneously to feed separate displays. The main advantages of integrated graphics include cost, compactness, simplicity and low energy consumption. The performance disadvantage of integrated graphics arises because the graphics processor shares system resources with the CPU. A discrete graphics card has its own random access memory (RAM), its own cooling system, and dedicated power regulators, with all components designed specifically for processing video images. Upgrading to a discrete graphics card offloads work from the CPU and system RAM, so not only will graphics processing be faster, but the computer's overall performance will significantly improve. This is often necessary for playing videogames, working with 3D animation or editing video. Both AMD and Intel have introduced CPUs and motherboard chipsets which support the integration of a GPU into the same die as the CPU. AMD markets CPUs with integrated graphics under the trademark Accelerated Processing Unit (APU), while Intel markets similar technology under the "Intel HD Graphics and Iris" brands. With the 8th Generation Processors, Intel announced the Intel UHD series of Integrated Graphics for better support of 4K Displays. Although they are still not equivalent to the performance of discrete solutions, Intel's HD Graphics platform provides performance approaching discrete mid-range graphics, and AMD APU technology has been adopted by both the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One video game consoles. Power demand As the processing power of graphics cards has increased, so has their demand for electrical power. Current high-performance graphics cards tend to consume large amounts of power. For example, the thermal design power (TDP) for the GeForce Titan RTX is 280 watts. When tested while gaming, the GeForce RTX 2080 Ti Founder's Edition averaged 300 watts of power consumption. While CPU and power supply makers have recently moved toward higher efficiency, power demands of GPUs have continued to rise, so graphics cards may have the largest power consumption of any individual part in a computer. Although power supplies are increasing their power too, the bottleneck is due to the PCI-Express connection, which is limited to supplying 75 watts. Modern graphics cards with a power consumption of over 75 watts usually include a combination of six-pin (75 W) or eight-pin (150 W) sockets that connect directly to the power supply. Providing adequate cooling becomes a challenge in such computers. Computers with multiple graphics cards may require power supplies over 750 watts. Heat extraction becomes a major design consideration for computers with two or more high-end graphics cards. As of the Nvidia GeForce RTX 30 series, Ampere architecture, a custom flashed HOF RTX 3090 has been recorded to reach as high as 630 watts peak power draw. A standard 3090 can peak at up to 450 watts. The RTX 3080 can reach up to 350 watts, while a 3070 can reach similar, if not slightly lower peak power draw. Ampere cards are the first cards to feature a pass through cooler design to dissipate as much heat as possible, especially with power consumption that can be double that of the 20 series, Turing, cards. Size Graphics cards for desktop computers come in one of two size profiles, which can allow a graphics card to be added even to small-sized PCs. Some graphics cards are not of the usual size, and are thus categorized as being low profile. Graphics card profiles are based on height only, with low-profile cards taking up less than the height of a PCIe slot, some can be as low as "half-height". Length and thickness can vary greatly, with high-end cards usually occupying two or three expansion slots, and with dual-GPU cards -such as the Nvidia GeForce GTX 690- generally exceeding in length. Generally, most users will prefer a lower profile card if the intention is to fit multiple cards or they run into clearance issues with other motherboard components like the DIMM or PCIE slots. This can be fixed with a larger case that comes in sizes like a mid-tower and full tower. Full towers can usually fit larger motherboards in sizes like ATX and micro ATX. The larger the case, the larger the motherboard, the larger the graphics card or multiple other components that will acquire case real-estate. Multi-card scaling Some graphics cards can be linked together to allow scaling of the graphics processing across multiple cards. This is done using either the PCIe bus on the motherboard or, more commonly, a data bridge. Generally, the cards must be of the same model to be linked, and most low power cards are not able to be linked in this way. AMD and Nvidia both have proprietary methods of scaling, CrossFireX for AMD, and SLI (since the Turing generation, superseded by NVLink) for Nvidia. Cards from different chipset manufacturers or architectures cannot be used together for multi-card scaling. If a graphics card has different sizes of memory, the lowest value will be used, with the higher values being disregarded. Currently, scaling on consumer-grade cards can be done using up to four cards. The use of four cards requires a large motherboard with a proper configuration. Nvidia's GeForce GTX 590 graphics card can be configured in this four-card configuration. As stated above, users will want to stick to the same performance card for optimal use. Motherboards like ASUS Maximus 3 Extreme and Gigabyte GA EX58 Extreme are certified to work with this configuration. A certificated large power supply is necessary to run the cards in SLI or CrossFireX. Power demands must be known before a proper supply is installed. For the four card configuration, a 1000+ watt supply is needed. AcBel PC8055-000G and Corsair AX1200 supplies are examples. With any relatively powerful graphics card, thermal management can not be overlooked. Graphics cards require a well-vented chassis and thermal solution. Air or water cooling are usually required, though low power GPUs can use passive cooling, larger configurations use water solutions or immersion cooling to achieve proper performance without thermal throttling. SLI and Crossfire, are increasingly uncommon, as most games do not fully utilize multiple GPUs, as most users cannot afford them. Multiple GPUs are still used on supercomputers (like in Summit), on workstations to accelerate video and 3D rendering, for VFX and for simulations, and in AI to expedite training, as is the case with Nvidia's lineup of DGX workstations and servers. 3D graphics APIs A graphics driver usually supports one or multiple cards by the same vendor and has to be specifically written for an operating system. Additionally, the operating system or an extra software package may provide certain programming APIs for applications to perform 3D rendering. Usage specific GPU Some GPUs are designed with specific usage in mind: Gaming GeForce GTX GeForce RTX Nvidia Titan Radeon HD Radeon RX Cloud gaming Nvidia Grid Radeon Sky Workstation Nvidia Quadro AMD FirePro Radeon Pro Cloud Workstation Nvidia Tesla AMD FireStream Artificial Intelligence Cloud Nvidia Tesla Radeon Instinct Automated/Driverless car Nvidia Drive PX Industry As of 2016, the primary suppliers of the GPUs (graphics chips or chipsets) used in graphics cards are AMD and Nvidia. In the third quarter of 2013, AMD had a 35.5% market share while Nvidia had a 64.5% market share, according to Jon Peddie Research. In economics, this industry structure is termed a duopoly. AMD and Nvidia also build and sell graphics cards, which are termed graphics add-in-board (AIBs) in the industry. (See Comparison of Nvidia graphics processing units and Comparison of AMD graphics processing units.) In addition to marketing their own graphics cards, AMD and Nvidia sell their GPUs to authorized AIB suppliers, which AMD and Nvidia refer to as "partners". The fact that Nvidia and AMD compete directly with their customer/partners complicates relationships in the industry. AMD and Intel being direct competitors in the CPU industry is also noteworthy, since AMD-based graphics cards may be used in computers with Intel CPUs. Intel's integrated graphics may weaken AMD, which derives a significant portion of its revenue from its APUs. As of the second quarter of 2013, there were 52 AIB suppliers. These AIB suppliers may market graphics cards under their own brands, produce graphics cards for private label brands, or produce graphics cards for computer manufacturers. Some AIB suppliers such as MSI build both AMD-based and Nvidia-based graphics cards. Others, such as EVGA, build only Nvidia-based graphics cards, while XFX, now builds only AMD-based graphics cards. Several AIB suppliers are also motherboard suppliers. Most of the largest AIB suppliers are based in Taiwan and they include ASUS, MSI, GIGABYTE, and Palit. Palit also owns Gainward, which sells graphics cards with Nvidia GPUs exclusively. Hong-Kong-based AIBs include Sapphire and Zotac, the latter of which is subsidiary to PC Partner. Sapphire and Zotac also sell graphics cards exclusively for AMD and Nvidia GPUs respectively. The United States is also home to EVGA, and XFX. XFX parent company is Pine Technology Holdings Limited in Hong Kong. Similar to Zotac and Sapphire, EVGA and XFX sell graphics cards for Nvidia and AMD respectively. Market Graphics card shipments peaked at a total of 114 million in 1999. By contrast, they totaled 14.5 million units in the third quarter of 2013, a 17% fall from Q3 2012 levels, and 44 million total in 2015. The sales of graphics cards have trended downward due to improvements in integrated graphics technologies; high-end, CPU-integrated graphics can provide performance competitive with low-end graphics cards. At the same time, graphics card sales have grown within the high-end segment, as manufacturers have shifted their focus to prioritize the gaming and enthusiast market. Beyond the gaming and multimedia segments, graphics cards have been increasingly used for general-purpose computing, such as big data processing. The growth of cryptocurrency has placed a severely high demand on high-end graphics cards, especially in large quantities, due to their advantages in the process of mining. In January 2018, mid-to-high-end graphics cards experienced a major surge in price, with many retailers having stock shortages due to the significant demand among this market. Graphics card companies released mining-specific cards designed to run 24 hours a day, seven days a week, and without video output ports. The graphics card industry took a setback due to 2020-21 chip shortage. Parts A modern graphics card consists of a printed circuit board on which the components are mounted. These include: Graphics Processing Unit A graphics processing unit (GPU), also occasionally called visual processing unit (VPU), is a specialized electronic circuit designed to rapidly manipulate and alter memory to accelerate the building of images in a frame buffer intended for output to a display. Because of the large degree of programmable computational complexity for such a task, a modern graphics card is also a computer unto itself. Heat sink A heat sink is mounted on most modern graphics cards. A heat sink spreads out the heat produced by the graphics processing unit evenly throughout the heat sink and unit itself. The heat sink commonly has a fan mounted as well to cool the heat sink and the graphics processing unit. Not all cards have heat sinks, for example, some cards are liquid-cooled and instead have a water block; additionally, cards from the 1980s and early 1990s did not produce much heat, and did not require heatsinks. Most modern graphics cards need a proper thermal solution. This can be the liquid solution or heatsinks with an additional connected heat pipe usually made of copper for the best thermal transfer. The correct case; either Mid-tower or Full-tower or some other derivative, has to be properly configured for thermal management. This can be ample space with a proper push-pull or opposite configuration as well as liquid with a radiator either in lieu or with a fan setup. Video BIOS The video BIOS or firmware contains a minimal program for the initial set up and control of the graphics card. It may contain information on the memory timing, operating speeds and voltages of the graphics processor, RAM, and other details which can sometimes be changed. The modern Video BIOS does not support all the functions of the graphics card, being only sufficient to identify and initialize the card to display one of a few frame buffer or text display modes. It does not support YUV to RGB translation, video scaling, pixel copying, compositing or any of the multitude of other 2D and 3D features of the graphics card, which must be accessed by other software. Video memory The memory capacity of most modern graphics cards ranges from 2 GB to 24 GB. But with up to 32 GB as of the last 2010s, the applications for graphics use is becoming more powerful and widespread. Since video memory needs to be accessed by the GPU and the display circuitry, it often uses special high-speed or multi-port memory, such as VRAM, WRAM, SGRAM, etc. Around 2003, the video memory was typically based on DDR technology. During and after that year, manufacturers moved towards DDR2, GDDR3, GDDR4, GDDR5, GDDR5X, and GDDR6. The effective memory clock rate in modern cards is generally between 2 GHz to 15 GHz. Video memory may be used for storing other data as well as the screen image, such as the Z-buffer, which manages the depth coordinates in 3D graphics, textures, vertex buffers, and compiled shader programs. RAMDAC The RAMDAC, or random-access-memory digital-to-analog converter, converts digital signals to analog signals for use by a computer display that uses analog inputs such as cathode ray tube (CRT) displays. The RAMDAC is a kind of RAM chip that regulates the functioning of the graphics card. Depending on the number of bits used and the RAMDAC-data-transfer rate, the converter will be able to support different computer-display refresh rates. With CRT displays, it is best to work over 75 Hz and never under 60 Hz, to minimize flicker. (With LCD displays, flicker is not a problem.) Due to the growing popularity of digital computer displays and the integration of the RAMDAC onto the GPU die, it has mostly disappeared as a discrete component. All current LCD/plasma monitors and TVs and projectors with only digital connections, work in the digital domain and do not require a RAMDAC for those connections. There are displays that feature analog inputs (VGA, component, SCART, etc.) only. These require a RAMDAC, but they reconvert the analog signal back to digital before they can display it, with the unavoidable loss of quality stemming from this digital-to-analog-to-digital conversion. With VGA standard being phased out in favor of digital, RAMDACs are beginning to disappear from graphics cards. Output interfaces The most common connection systems between the graphics card and the computer display are: Video Graphics Array (VGA) (DE-15) Also known as D-sub, VGA is an analog-based standard adopted in the late 1980s designed for CRT displays, also called VGA connector. Some problems of this standard are electrical noise, image distortion and sampling error in evaluating pixels. Today, the VGA analog interface is used for high definition video including 1080p and higher. While the VGA transmission bandwidth is high enough to support even higher resolution playback, the picture quality can degrade depending on cable quality and length. How discernible this quality difference is depends on the individual's eyesight and the display; when using a DVI or HDMI connection, especially on larger sized LCD/LED monitors or TVs, quality degradation, if present, is prominently visible. Blu-ray playback at 1080p is possible via the VGA analog interface, if Image Constraint Token (ICT) is not enabled on the Blu-ray disc. Digital Visual Interface (DVI) Digital-based standard designed for displays such as flat-panel displays (LCDs, plasma screens, wide high-definition television displays) and video projectors. In some rare cases, high-end CRT monitors also use DVI. It avoids image distortion and electrical noise, corresponding each pixel from the computer to a display pixel, using its native resolution. It is worth noting that most manufacturers include a DVI-I connector, allowing (via simple adapter) standard RGB signal output to an old CRT or LCD monitor with VGA input. Video In Video Out (VIVO) for S-Video, Composite video and Component video Included to allow connection with televisions, DVD players, video recorders and video game consoles. They often come in two 10-pin mini-DIN connector variations, and the VIVO splitter cable generally comes with either 4 connectors (S-Video in and out + composite video in and out), or 6 connectors (S-Video in and out + component PB out + component PR out + component Y out [also composite out] + composite in). High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI) HDMI is a compact audio/video interface for transferring uncompressed video data and compressed/uncompressed digital audio data from an HDMI-compliant device ("the source device") to a compatible digital audio device, computer monitor, video projector, or digital television. HDMI is a digital replacement for existing analog video standards. HDMI supports copy protection through HDCP. DisplayPort DisplayPort is a digital display interface developed by the Video Electronics Standards Association (VESA). The interface is primarily used to connect a video source to a display device such as a computer monitor, though it can also be used to transmit audio, USB, and other forms of data. The VESA specification is royalty-free. VESA designed it to replace VGA, DVI, and LVDS. Backward compatibility to VGA and DVI by using adapter dongles enables consumers to use DisplayPort fitted video sources without replacing existing display devices. Although DisplayPort has a greater throughput of the same functionality as HDMI, it is expected to complement the interface, not replace it. USB-C Other types of connection systems Motherboard interfaces Chronologically, connection systems between graphics card and motherboard were, mainly: S-100 bus: Designed in 1974 as a part of the Altair 8800, it is the first industry-standard bus for the microcomputer industry. ISA: Introduced in 1981 by IBM, it became dominant in the marketplace in the 1980s. It is an 8- or 16-bit bus clocked at 8 MHz. NuBus: Used in Macintosh II, it is a 32-bit bus with an average bandwidth of 10 to 20 MB/s. MCA: Introduced in 1987 by IBM it is a 32-bit bus clocked at 10 MHz. EISA: Released in 1988 to compete with IBM's MCA, it was compatible with the earlier ISA bus. It is a 32-bit bus clocked at 8.33 MHz. VLB: An extension of ISA, it is a 32-bit bus clocked at 33 MHz. Also referred to as VESA. PCI: Replaced the EISA, ISA, MCA and VESA buses from 1993 onwards. PCI allowed dynamic connectivity between devices, avoiding the manual adjustments required with jumpers. It is a 32-bit bus clocked 33 MHz. UPA: An interconnect bus architecture introduced by Sun Microsystems in 1995. It is a 64-bit bus clocked at 67 or 83 MHz. USB: Although mostly used for miscellaneous devices, such as secondary storage devices and toys, USB displays and display adapters exist. AGP: First used in 1997, it is a dedicated-to-graphics bus. It is a 32-bit bus clocked at 66 MHz. PCI-X: An extension of the PCI bus, it was introduced in 1998. It improves upon PCI by extending the width of bus to 64 bits and the clock frequency to up to 133 MHz. PCI Express: Abbreviated as PCIe, it is a point-to-point interface released in 2004. In 2006 provided double the data-transfer rate of AGP. It should not be confused with PCI-X, an enhanced version of the original PCI specification. The following table is a comparison between a selection of the features of some of those interfaces. See also List of computer hardware List of graphics card manufacturers Computer display standards – a detailed list of standards like SVGA, WXGA, WUXGA, etc. AMD (ATI), Nvidia – quasi duopoly of 3D chip GPU and graphics card designers GeForce, Radeon – examples of popular graphics card series GPGPU (i.e.: CUDA, AMD FireStream) Framebuffer – the computer memory used to store a screen image Capture card – the inverse of a graphics card References Sources Mueller, Scott (2005) Upgrading and Repairing PCs. 16th edition. Que Publishing. External links Large image of graphic card history tree Graphics hardware

17855586

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wienux

Wienux

WIENUX is a Debian-based Linux distribution developed by the City of Vienna in Austria. Its main purpose is to replace proprietary operating systems and applications on the municipality's thousands of desktop computers with free and open source alternatives based on KDE, OpenOffice.org and Firefox. WIENUX was released 2005 under the General Public License and was available for free download from the distribution's web site until 2008 when the download page was taken offline. In 2009 the migration to Linux as operating system was stopped and most desktop computers were equipped with a Windows operating system again. See also Canaima (operating system) GendBuntu Inspur LiMux Nova (operating system) Ubuntu Kylin VIT, C.A. References Debian-based distributions Linux distributions

9031857

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAD/CAM%20dentistry

CAD/CAM dentistry

CAD/CAM dentistry is a field of dentistry and prosthodontics using CAD/CAM (computer-aided-design and computer-aided-manufacturing) to improve the design and creation of dental restorations, especially dental prostheses, including crowns, crown lays, veneers, inlays and onlays, fixed dental prostheses bridges, dental implant supported restorations, dentures (removable or fixed), and orthodontic appliances. CAD/CAM technology allows the delivery of a well-fitting, aesthetic, and a durable prostheses for the patient. CAD/CAM complements earlier technologies used for these purposes by any combination of increasing the speed of design and creation; increasing the convenience or simplicity of the design, creation, and insertion processes; and making possible restorations and appliances that otherwise would have been infeasible. Other goals include reducing unit cost and making affordable restorations and appliances that otherwise would have been prohibitively expensive. However, to date, chairside CAD/CAM often involves extra time on the part of the dentist, and the fee is often at least two times higher than for conventional restorative treatments using lab services. Like other CAD/CAM fields, CAD/CAM dentistry uses subtractive processes (such as CNC milling) and additive processes (such as 3D printing) to produce physical instances from 3D models. Some mentions of "CAD/CAM" and "milling technology" in dental technology have loosely treated those two terms as if they were interchangeable, largely because before the 2010s, most CAD/CAM-directed manufacturing was CNC cutting, not additive manufacturing, so CAD/CAM and CNC were usually coinstantiated; but whereas this loose/imprecise usage was once somewhat close to accurate, it no longer is, as the term "CAD/CAM" does not specify the method of production except that whatever method is used takes input from CAD/CAM, and today additive and subtractive methods are both widely used. History Although CAD/CAM dentistry was used in the mid-1980s, early efforts were considered a cumbersome novelty, requiring an inordinate amount of time to produce a viable product. This inefficiency prevented its use within dental offices and limited it to labside use (that is, used within dental laboratories). As adjunctive techniques, software, and materials improved, the chairside use of CAD/CAM (use within dental offices/surgeries) increased. For example, the commercialization of Cerec by Sirona made CAD/CAM available to dentists who formerly would not have had avenues for using it. The article CEREC CAD/CAM in Dentistry original dissertation Data capture stabilizing device for the CEREC CAD/CAM chairside camera fully explains all pros and cons of the system and is detailed in (materials, fit, software, hardware, etc.). Difference from conventional restoration Chairside CAD/CAM restoration typically creates and lutes(bonds) the prosthesis the same day. Conventional prostheses, such as crowns, have temporaries placed for one to several weeks while a dental laboratory or in-house dental lab produces the restoration. The patient returns later to have the temporaries removed and the laboratory-made crown cemented or bonded in place. An in-house CAD/CAM system enables the dentist to create a finished inlay in as little as one hour. CAD/CAM systems use an optical camera to take a virtual impression by creating a 3D image which is imported into a software program and results in a computer-generated cast on which the restoration is designed. Bonded veneer CAD/CAM restorations are more conservative in their preparation of the tooth. As bonding is more effective on tooth enamel than the underlying dentin, care is taken not to remove the enamel layer. Though one-day service is a benefit that is typically claimed by dentists offering chairside CAD/CAM services, the dentist's time is commonly doubled and the fee is therefore doubled. Process All CAD/CAM systems contain An optical scanner that captures the intraoral or extraoral condition Software that can turn the captured images into a digital model to produce and design the prosthesis Technology that changes the data into a product As in other fields, additive manufacturing (3D printing) first entered CAD/CAM dentistry in the form of laboratory experiments, but its use has since expanded; and chairside use, although not yet widespread, is advancing Typically CAD/CAM dental restorations are milled from solid blocks of ceramic or composite resin that closely match the basic shade of the restored tooth. Metal alloys, including zirconia, can also be milled. Several of these materials require processing such as baking or sintering following their milling. The system can be used chair-side, in a laboratory setting, or in a production centre. For a single unit prosthesis, after decayed or broken areas of the tooth are corrected by the dentist, an optical impression is made of the prepared tooth and the surrounding teeth. These images are then turned into a digital model by proprietary software within which the prosthesis is created virtually. The software sends this data to a milling machine where the prosthesis is milled. Stains and glazes can be added to the surfaces of the milled ceramic crown or bridge to correct the otherwise monochromatic appearance of the restoration. The restoration is then adjusted in the patient’s mouth and luted or bonded in place. Integrating optical scan data with cone beam computed tomography datasets within implantology software also enables surgical teams to digitally plan implant placement and fabricate a surgical guide for precise implementation of that plan. Combining CAD/CAM software with 3D images from a 3D imaging system means greater safety and security from any kind of intraoperative mistakes. Advantages and drawbacks CAD/CAM has improved the quality of prostheses in dentistry and standardised the production process. It has increased productivity and the opportunity to work with new materials with a high level of accuracy. It has decreased chair time for the patient by the use of intra-oral scanning systems which allow the dentist to send electronic impressions to the lab. The restorations are milled from a block of ceramic which has fewer flaws. However, CAD/CAM requires a large initial investment. Occlusal detail isn't always the best and has to be amended by hand. Most doctors that use chair side technology find the level of detail to be more than adequate in a clinical setting. Though CAD/CAM is a major technological advancement, it is important that the dentists’ technique is suited to CAD/CAM milling. This includes: correct tooth preparation with a continuous preparation margin (which is recognisable to the scanner e.g. in the form of a chamfer); avoiding the use of shoulderless preparations and parallel walls and the use of rounded incisor and occlusal edges to prevent the concentration of tension. Depending on the material, CAD/CAM treatments may have aesthetic drawbacks, whether they are created at the dental practice or outsourced to a dental laboratory. Depending on the dentist or technician, CAD/CAM restorations can be layered to give a deeper more natural look. Just like traditional restorations, CAD/CAM restorations also vary in aesthetic value. Many are monochrome. In some hand-layered crowns and bridges, feldspathic porcelain is fused to glass-infiltrated aluminum oxide (alumina) or zirconium-oxide (zirconia) creating a high-strength, highly aesthetic, metal-free crown or bridge. In other traditional restorations, the porcelain is layered onto a metal substructure and often display colour brightness, an opaque "headlight", and dark oxide lines (a "black line" in the vicinity of the gum line). As these dark metal substructures are not conducive to a natural appearance, metal-free restorations are typically more aesthetically pleasing to the patient. There are also different medical repercussions for each restorative technique. If the CAD/CAM restorative material is zirconia, the restoration becomes "radio-opaque", just as metal restorations are, blocking x-rays. Only alumina, lithium disilicate materials are "radio-lucent", allowing dentists to track potential decay. Zirconia, conventional porcelain-to-metal, and traditional gold and other all-metal crowns block x-ray radiation, disallowing evaluation over time. Therefore, doctors have to examine restorations visually and with a dental explorer to diagnose decay. Crowns and bridges require a precise fit on tooth abutments or stumps. Fit accuracy varies according to the CAD/CAD system utilized and from user to user. Some systems are designed to attain higher standards of accuracy than others and some users are more skilled than others. It is estimated that 20 new systems are expected to become available by 2020. Further research is needed to evaluate CAD/CAM technology compared to the other attachment systems (such as ball, magnetic and telescopic systems), as an option for attaching overdentures to implants. References Computer-aided design Computer-aided manufacturing Dentistry branches

42400900

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banana%20Pi

Banana Pi

Banana Pi () is a line of single-board computers produced by the Chinese company Shenzhen SINOVOIP Co., Ltd. () and its spin-off Guangdong BiPai Technology Co., Ltd. (). The hardware design of the Banana Pi computers was influenced by the Raspberry Pi and both lines use the same 40 pin I/O connector. Banana Pi also can run NetBSD, Android, Ubuntu, Debian, Arch Linux, Raspbian operating systems, though the CPU complies with the requirements of the Debian armhf port. Most models use a MediaTek or Allwinner SoC (system on chip) with two or four ARM Cortex cores. Banana Pi BPI-M1 The Banana Pi BPI-M1 is a single-board computer featuring a Allwinner dual-core SoC at 1 GHz, 1GB of DDR3 SDRAM, Gigabit Ethernet, SATA, USB, and HDMI connections, and built-in 3.7V Li-ion battery charging circuit. It can run a variety of operating systems including Android, Lubuntu, Ubuntu, Debian, and Raspbian. Key Features: Allwinner A20 Dual-core 1.0 GHz CPU Mali-400 MP2 with Open GL ES 2.0/1.1. 1 GB DDR3 memory. 1x SATA interface. 1x Gigabit LAN 1x USB otg and 2x USB 2.0 1X MIC Composite video out HDMI out IR CSI camera interface DSI display interface 26 PIN GPIO BPI official Wiki Banana Pi BPI-M1 wiki page Neither Banana Pi nor Shenzhen SINOVOIP Co., Ltd. have a direct relationship to the Raspberry Pi Foundation, though its similarities are clear. "Linux User & Developer" does not consider it a "direct clone, but a considerable evolution," whilst linux.com similarly sees it as a clone with improved performance. The board layout is very similar to the Raspberry Pi board, though it is about 10% larger and the relative spacing of some connectors varies. Not all Raspberry Pi accessories will fit as a result. Banana Pi BPI-M1+ The Banana BPI-M1+ is a credit-card-sized and low-power single-board computer. Note: The Banana Pi M1+ (Plus) Board BPI wiki page Banana Pi BPI-M1+ (Plus) wiki Page Banana Pi BPI-M2+(BPI-M2 Plus) The Banana PI BPI-M2+ was released in April 2016. It has an Allwinner H3 SoC with a quad-core CPU and an on-board Wi-Fi module. It runs Android, Debian, Ubuntu, and Raspbian images for the Raspberry Pi. Banana Pi PBI-M2 hardware: 1Ghz ARM7 quad-core processor, 1GB DDR3 SDRAM, 8GB eMMC flash on board, and SDIO Wi-Fi module on board. Note: The Banana Pi M2+ (Plus) Board BPI wiki page Banana Pi M2+ (Plus) wiki Page Banana Pi BPI-M2 Zero The Banana Pi BPI-M2 Zero is a low-power single-board computer featuring a high-performance Allwinner quad-core SoC at 1.2 GHz, 512MB of DDR3 SDRAM, USB, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth and mini HDMI. The BPI-M2 Zero PCB is the same size as the Raspberry Pi Zero W PCB, but it has extra parts on the back, so it may or may not fit Raspberry Pi Zero W cases depending on their exact dimensions. Key Features CPU: Allwinner H2+, Quad-core Cortex-A7. 512MB DDR3 SDRAM. Wi-Fi (AP6212) & Bluetooth on board. Mini HDMI. 40 PIN GPIO, It includes UART, SPI, I2C, IO etc. The Banana Pi has the same GPIO headers as the Raspberry Pi 1 Model A & B, as seen below. The Banana Pi BPI-M2 Zero Board BPI wiki page Banana Pi BPI-M2 Zero wiki Page Banana Pi BPI-P2 Zero The Banana Pi BPI-P2 Zero is a low-power single-board computer featuring a high-performance Allwinner quad-core SoC at 1.2 GHz, 512 MB of DDR3 SDRAM, USB, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth and mini HDMI. Key Features: CPU: Allwinner H2+, Quad-core Cortex-A7. 512 MB DDR3 SDRAM. Wi-Fi (AP6212) & Bluetooth on board. Mini HDMI. 40 PIN GPIO, including UART, SPI, I2C, IO etc. 10/100 Ethernet IEEE 802.3af PoE standard PoE module support 8GB eMMC flash on board. There are just 3 differences from the BPI-M2 Zero. The rest of the hardware design is the same as the BPI-M2 Zero, so all the software is the same. added 8 GB eMMC flash memory on board, which can be used as an IoT gateway. BPI-P2 Zero with 10/100 Ethernet interface, BPI-M2 Zero with PIN define for 10/100 Ethernet, usage is the same. PoE function support on board. The Banana Pi BPI-P2 Zero Board BPI wiki page Banana Pi BPI-P2 Zero wiki Page BPI-P2 Zero PoE module wiki :BPI-9600 IEEE 802.3af PoE module Banana Pi BPI-M2 Ultra Banana PI BPI-M2 Ultra (BPI-M2U) is an open source hardware platform, it uses Allwinner R40 system-on-chip, it supports Wi-Fi+BT on board, and supports SATA interface on board. Banana PI PBI-M2 Ultra hardware: Quad Core ARM Cortex-A7, ARMv7 CPU, 2GB DDR3 SDRAM, 8GB eMMC flash on board, Gigabit Ethernet port, built-in 3.7V Li-ion battery charging circuit. It can run Android smoothly, it supports 1080P video, and the 40 pin GPIO header is pin-compatible with the Raspberry Pi. Note: The Banana Pi M2 Ultra Board BPI wiki page Banana Pi M2 (Ultra) wiki Page using a 3.5" HDD may require external power source for the disk; on-board power can not provide enough current. Banana Pi BPI-M2 Berry Banana PI BPI-M2 Berry (BPI-M2B) is an open source hardware platform, it uses Allwinner V40 system-on-chip and it supports Wi-Fi and Bluetooth on board. Banana PI M2 Berry hardware: 32 Bit Quad Core ARM Cortex-A7 1.2 GHz CPU, 1GB DDR3 SDRAM, No eMMC, Gigabit Ethernet port. Banana PI M2 Berry series can run Android, Debian, Ubuntu, Raspbian and other OS. It can run Android when resolution is under HD or GPU is not needed. Since R40 and V40 chips are pin-to-pin compatible, they can be swapped in BPI-M2 Ultra and BPI-M2 Berry versions resulting in two hybrid products. Note: The Banana Pi M2 (Berry) Board BPI wiki page:Banana Pi M2 (Berry) wiki Page Banana Pi BPI-M2 Magic Banana PI BPI-M2 Magic (BPI-M2M) is an single-board computer designed for internet-of-things applications, It uses Allwinner R16 System on a Chip, also can use Allwinner A33 chip on board, it can be used for home entertainment, home automation, and high wireless performance, etc. Note: 1. BPI-M2 Magic not HDMI interface. 2. Does not support RJ45 interface. The Banana Pi M2 (Magic) Board BPI wiki: Banana Pi BPI-M2 Magic wiki Page Banana Pi BPI-M3 Banana Pi M3 is an open source hardware platform, it is an octa-core version of Banana Pi, it supports onboard Wi-Fi and SATA Port. Banana Pi M3 is able to run Android 5.1.1, Debian, Ubuntu, Raspberry Pi and other OS. Banana PI M3 hardware: 2Ghz ARM7 octa-core processor, 2GB LPDDR3 SDRAM, Gigabit ethernet port and the GPIO is compatible with Raspberry Pi B+. Note: The Banana Pi M3 Board BPI wiki page: Banana Pi M3 wiki Page The Banana Pi M3 Board detailed document on Banana Pi M3 Gitbook Page Banana Pi BPI-M4 Banana Pi BPI-M4 uses the Realtek RTD1395 System on a Chip. It features 1 GB of RAM and 8 GB eMMC. It also has onboard Wi-Fi for 802.11b/g/n/ac and BT 4.2. On the ports side, the BPI-M4 has 4 USB 2.0 ports, 1 USB Type C port, 1 HDMI port, 1 audio jack. Supports M.2 Key E PCIE 2.0 interface. The RTD1395 is equipped with a high-performance quad-core CPU, ARM cortex-A53, with 512K L2 cache embedded. the RTD1395 also integrates the ARM Mali-470 Graphic Processing Unit (GPU) to accelerate 2D and 3D graphics processing. For acceleration of this OSD and 2K user interface, the built-in Streaming Engine of the RTD1395 provides commonly used drawing functions. the CPU is dedicated to applications, while most of the functions of the RTD1395 is dedicated to manipulating, decoding video streams in various formats.e.g. decoding 4Kx2K H.265, Full HD MPEG1/2/4/H.264/H.264 MVC, AVC/VC-1, VP8, VP9, AVS, AVS plus, HD JPEG, etc. Video DSP can also handle encoding of up to Full HD with H.264 format. Video decoding and encoding can run simultaneously. Note: The Banana Pi M4 Board BPI wiki page : Banana Pi M4 wiki Page Banana Pi BPI-M64 Note: The Banana Pi M64 Board BPI wiki page : Banana Pi M64 wiki Page Banana Pi BPI-F2 Banana Pi BPI-F2 uses the Freescale i.MX6 System on a Chip. i.MX6 with ARM Cortex-A9 MPCore 4×CPU processor (with TrustZone), this is the first Banana Pi board design with a Freescale SoC. Note: The Banana Pi BPI-F2 BPI wiki page : Banana Pi BPI-F2 wiki Page Banana Pi BPI-S64 core Banana Pi BPI-S64 core uses the Actions S700 System on a Chip. S700 SoC with ARM Cortex-A53 Quad-Core CPU, Mali450 MP4 GPU. BPI-S64 core with 2GB LPDDR3 and 8GB eMMC flash on board. BPI-S64 core modules are small enough to fit all kinds of hardware. In addition, S64 core also provides I/O boards with GPIO ports, as well as USB, Micro USB, CSI, DSI, HDMI, and MicroSD and many other interfaces. BPI-S64 core development kit spec Note: The Banana Pi S64 core Board BPI wiki page : Banana Pi S64 core wiki Page Banana Pi BPI-R1 The Banana Pi R1 is a 300Mbit/s Wireless 802.11n Router with both wired and wireless network connections is designed specifically for smart home networking use. With 2T2R MIMO technology and two detachable antennas, the R1 is a dual core system that runs smoothly with Android 4.2.2 and has five Gigabit ethernet ports, SATA socket, supports games and 1080p high definition video output. Note: The Banana Pi R1 Board BPI wiki page: Banana Pi R1 wiki Page The Banana Pi R1 Board detailed document on Banana Pi R1 Gitbook Page Banana Pi BPI-R2 Banana PI BPI-R2 is a highly integrated multimedia network router; it can be used for high wireless performance, home entertainment, home automation, etc. BPI-R2 integrates a Quad-code ARM Cortex-A7 MPcore operating up to 1.3 GHz, The Router also includes a variety of peripherals, including HDMI TX, MIPI DSI, PCIe2.0, USB2.0 OTG, USB3.0 Port, SATA port，5 Gbit/s Port Gigabit Ethernet port, 802.11a/b/g/n Wi-Fi & BT4.1 on board, also supports 802.11ac/n WLAN connection through mini PCI-e port BPI-R2can run with Android 5.1 smoothly, while as of the time of this entry this board does not work properly with any known linux distribution. The size of Banana Pi BPI-R2 same as BPI-R1, it can easily run with games as it supports 1080p high definition video output. Note: The Banana Pi R2 Board BPI wiki page: Banana Pi R2 wiki Page Banana Pi BPI-R64 Banana PI BPI-R64 is a highly integrated multimedia network router; it can be used for high wireless performance, home entertainment, home automation, etc. The Banana Pi R64 is a router based development board, which can run on a variety of open source operating systems including OpenWRT and Linux. It has 4 Gigabit LAN ports, 1 Gigabit WAN, and AC Wi-Fi AP function. Key Features MediaTek MT7622, 1.35GHZ 64 bit dual-core ARM Cortex-A53 1GB DDR3 SDRAM Mini PCIE interface supports 4G module built-in 4x4n 802.11n/Bluetooth 5.0 system-on-chip MediaTek MTK7615 4x4ac Wi-Fi on board supports 1 SATA interface MicroSD slot supports up to 256GB expansion 8GB eMMC flash (option 16/32/64G) 5 port 10/100/1000 Mb Ethernet port (1) USB 3.0 Slow I/O:ADC, Audio Amplifier, GPIO, I2C, I2S, IR, PMIC I/F, PWM, RTC, SPI, UART POE function support Note: The Banana Pi BPI-R64 Board BPI wiki page: Banana Pi BPI-R64 wiki Page BPI-R64 PoE module wiki page: BPI-7402 IEEE 802.3at PoE module Banana Pi BPI-W2 The Banana PI BPI-W2 is a highly integrated multimedia network router; it can be used for high wireless performance, home entertainment, home automation, etc. The BPI-W2 integrates a quad-core ARM Cortex-A53 MPcore operating up to 1.5 GHz. The Router also includes a variety of peripherals, including HDMI RX/TX, Mini DP, PCIe2.0, PCIe1.1 & SDIO, M.2 interface, USB2.0, USB3.0 Port, SATA port，2 Gbit/s Gigabit Ethernet port; it also supports a 802.11ac/n WLAN connection thru a PCI-e port. The BPI-W2 can run with Android 6.0 smoothly, and also can run OpenWRT, Debian, Raspbian and other OSes. The size of the Banana Pi BPI-W2 is the same as the BPI-R2, and can easily run with 1080P high-definition video output. The GPIO is compatible with the Raspberry Pi 3. Note: The Banana Pi w2 Board BPI wiki page : Banana Pi BPI-W2 wiki Page Banana Pi BPI-D1 The BPI-D1 is one of the smallest open-source development boards currently on the market, with a built-in HD mini camera. At 36mm (w) x36mm (l) and weighing in at 10g, it is claimed to be much smaller than other boards with comparable features. The board is specially suited to mini-cam applications, providing high-resolution image quality: both video and still capture at 1280x720p with a video capture rate of 30 fps. The Banana Pi-D1 is designed to provide a set of multimedia tools in one small package, that can be run from an external battery source. The features of the D1 include: HD mini-cam, audio sensor, microphone, CPU, GPIO, and Wi-Fi. Note: The Banana Pi D1 Board documentation: Banana Pi D1 Gitbook Page Banana Pi BPI-G1 Banana Pi-G1 is an integrated IEEE 802.11 b/g/n (Wi-Fi wireless network), IEEE 802.15.4 (Zigbee), IEEE 802.11-2007 Standard (Bluetooth Low Energy 4.0) development board. All three wireless protocols can be used together, you can exchange any different transport protocols, and each wireless protocol is supported by its own single-chip SOC, which can facilitate Internet of Things (IoT) projects. The Wi-Fi uses TI CC3200, which is a high-performance ARM Cortex-M4 wireless SOC, internally integrated TCP/IP protocol stack. This allows simple connection to the Internet using the BSD Socket. The Zigbee uses TI CC2530, which integrates wireless capabilities and enhanced 8051 core SOC. After years of improvement, it is quite mature and stable. TI's Z-stack has achieved Zigbee 2007/Pro, you can use the 16's short address, you can use the 64-bit long address communication, face large local interconnect systems, providing advanced security encryption and mesh network structure support. The Bluetooth 4.0 (BLE) uses TI CC2540/1, an integrated BLE stack and enhanced 8051 core, low-power wireless SOC. At present, most mobile phones have support for Bluetooth 4.0, both as a wearable device, or mobile interactive accessories, CC2540 can be easily completed. Meanwhile, BPI G1 also incorporates a high-performance STM32 ARM Cortex-M3 microcontroller, which help in dealing with time-consuming data or transit, the three wireless SOC coordinated. Therefore, the Banana Pi G1 supports a wide range of Internet of Things DIY wireless projects. Note: The Banana Pi G1 Board detailed document on Banana Pi G1 Gitbook Page Powered by AXP209 power management unit, Banana Pi is able to output up to 1.6A, which means users can drive an external HDD without an extra power supply. The Banana Pi board is similar to Cubieboard2. Banana Pi BPI-M2 The Banana Pi M2 (BPI-M2) is a credit card-sized and low-power single-board computer. It is a quad core version of Banana Pi, and supports on board Wi-Fi. The Banana Pi M2 series runs Android, Debian, Ubuntu, Raspberry Pi images and other images. Banana PI M2 hardware: 1Ghz ARM7 quad-core processor, 1GB DDR3 SDRAM, Gigabit ethernet port. The Banana PI M2 is the same size as the Banana Pi M1. It supports 1080p video output, and the GPIO is compatible with Raspberry Pi B+. Note: Since June 2017, BPI-M2 is the first product that stopped production in Banana PI series. Allwinner A31S chip stopped production since 2016, and the company ran out of stock of the chip. The Banana Pi M2 Board detailed document on Banana Pi M2 Gitbook Page Banana Pi Pro The Banana Pi Pro is a credit card-sized and low-power single-board computer developed in China by the LeMaker Team, with the goal of promoting STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) education in schools. Like its smaller sibling the Banana Pi, the Pro concept is heavily influenced by the Raspberry Pi, however the Banana Pro provides various enhancements over prior designs. The Banana Pro has an Allwinner A20 system on a chip (SoC), which includes an ARM Cortex-A7 Dual-core (ARMv7-A) 1 GHz, Mali-400 MP2 GPU and 1GB DDR3 SDRAM. The Banana Pro uses a microSD card for booting an OS, but also includes a SATA 2.0 interface to allow connection of a hard disk for additional storage, however you cannot boot from the hard disk. Other differences from the Banana Pi include on-board Wi-Fi 802.11b/g/n AP6181, integrated composite video and audio output into a 3.5 mm TRRS jack. This makes space for a 40-pin extension header. Specifications Available operating systems Banana Pi Android 4.2.2 & 4.4 for Banana Pi (Linux kernel 3.4.39+, 4.4 doesn't support Wi-Fi and has many bugs, 4.2.2 doesn't support all apps in Korea) Archlinux for Banana Pi (Linux kernel 3.4.103; 2014-12-26) Armbian stable, with more kernel options, Debian or Ubuntu userland (3.4.113, 4.9.7, 4.11.0; 5.5.2017) Bananian Linux (Debian based; Linux kernel 3.4.111; 2016-04-23) CentOS 7 (1511) Fedora for Banana Pi (Linux kernel 3.4.103; 2014-12-26) Kali Linux for Banana Pi (Linux kernel 3.4.103) Kano for Banana Pi (Linux kernel 3.4.103) Lubuntu for Banana Pi (Linux kernel 3.4.103; 2014-12-26) NetBSD 7.0 OpenMediaVault OpenWrt openSUSE for Banana Pi (openSUSE v1412; Linux kernel 3.4.103; 2014-12-26) Raspbian for Banana Pi (Linux kernel 3.4.103; 2014-12-26) ROKOS for Banana Pi (Linux kernel 3.4.103; 2014-12-26) Scratch for Banana Pi (Boot to Scratch directly) (Linux kernel 3.4.103) The Banana Pi BPI-M1 is a business card-sized and low-power single-board computer featuring a high performance Allwinner dual-core SoC at 1 GHz, 1GB of DDR3 SDRAM, Gigabit Ethernet, SATA, USB, and HDMI connections. It can run a variety of operating systems including Android, Lubuntu, Ubuntu, Debian, and Raspbian. See also List of open-source hardware projects References External links Official forum Official wiki Single-board computers ARM architecture Educational hardware Linux-based devices Microcontrollers

901635

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM%204300

IBM 4300

The IBM 4300 series were mid-range systems compatible with System/370 that were sold from 1979 through 1992. They featured modest electrical and cooling requirements, and thus did not require a data center environment. They had a disruptive effect on the market, allowing customers to provide internal IBM computing services at a cost point lower than commercial time-sharing services. All 4300 processors used a 3278-2A, 3279-C or 3205 display console rather than a 3210 or 3215 keyboard/printer console. Models Each model - 4331, 4341, 4361, and 4381 - had various sub-models, such as the 4341 model 1 (or 4341-1) and 4341 model 2 (4341-2). The 4381-13 through 4381-24 (announced in 1987) were entry-level machines for the 370-XA architecture. They were positioned between the IBM 9370 and IBM 3090 in performance at the time of announcement. The 4381-3, 4381-14, 4381-24 and 4381-92 are dual-CPU models. Other models included 1, 2, 11, 12, 13, 21, 22, 23, 90 and 91. IBM 4321 The IBM 4321 was announced on 18 November 1981. IBM 4331 The IBM 4331 (and the 4341) were announced on 30 January 1979. It came with an integrated adapter that permitted attaching up to 16 of two newly introduced direct-access storage devices (DASD): The IBM 3310, described as having "a storage capacity of 64.5 million characters", was to be used with "Storage disks .. sealed to reduce the possibility of damage, loss, misuse or contamination". The IBM 3370 with up to 571 million characters could also be used with an IBM 4341. The 4331 was withdrawn on 18 November 1981. IBM 4341 The IBM 4341 (and the 4331) were announced on 30 January 1979. Like the 4331, it came with an integrated adapter that permitted attaching up to 16 of the newly introduced IBM 3370 DASD. The 4341 did not support the much lower capacity IBM 3310. The 4341 Introduced the Extended Control Program Support:VM (ECPS:VM) and Extended Control Program Support:VS1 (ECPS:VS1) features. The 4341-2 introduced the Extended Control Program Support (ECPS:MVS) option, a subset of System/370 extended facility. On 20 October 1982, IBM announced a new entry-level 4341 model, Model Group 9 and a new top-of-the-line 4341, Model Group 12. Model Group 12 included the Dual Address Space (DAS) facility. The 4341 was withdrawn on 11 February 1986. IBM 4361 The IBM 4361 Model Groups 4 & 5 were announced on 15 September 1983. Model Group 3 was announced the following year on 12 September 1984. New features Among the new/optional features for the 4361 were: Auto-Start—automatically turns on the processor by telephone via the Remote Operator Control Facility or at a predetermined time and day of the week. The processor powers on and proceeds with initial microcode load, sets the clock and loads the system. APL keyboard A Workstation Adapter that includes support for terminals with APL keyboards, supporting the APL syntax and symbols. High-Accuracy Arithmetic Facility While Floating-Point Arithmetic capability has long been part of computing history, and was present in System/360, this feature's advancement, conceptualization of which, as Karlsruhe Accurate Arithmetic, had been under development for decades, was implemented as an optional feature on the 4361. The 4361 was withdrawn on 17 February 1987. IBM 4381 The IBM 4381 had a greater longevity than any of the above systems. Model Groups 1 & 2 were announced Sep 15, 1983 and withdrawn on 11 February 1986. Model Group 3 was announced on 25 October 1984 and withdrawn on 11 February 1986. Model Groups 11, 12, 13 & 14 were announced on 11 February 1986. Model Groups 21, 22, 23 & 24 were announced on 19 May 1987 and withdrawn on 19 August 1992. Operating systems New releases of: Disk Operating System/Virtual Storage Extended (DOS/VSE) Virtual Machine Facility/370 (VM/370) Release 6 Operating System/Virtual Storage 1 (OS/VS1) Release 7 supported the 4300 series as well as other System/370-compatible processors. For the 4321 and 4331: Small Systems Executive/Virtual Storage Extended (SSX/VSE), a simplified version of the DOS/VSE operating system for the IBM 4321 and IBM 4331 processors. Other Hughes Aircraft Company was the first IBM customer to install Endicott's initial IBM 4341 processor The IBM 4331 Model 2 was developed by the Boeblingen lab and manufactured in Endicott. The IBM 4341 Model 2 was developed by the intermediate systems group, and manufactured by SPD, in Endicott. Subsequent processors had development and manufacturing activities in Endicott, Havant, Boeblingen, Valencia, and Sumare. See also List of IBM products IBM System/360 IBM System/370 Karlsruhe Accurate Arithmetic (KAA) for the IBM 4361 Molly-guard Notes References Further reading (NB. Describes the 4381.) External links IBM Archives: Mainframes product profiles Request a login to Living Computers: Museum + Labs IBM 4361. 4300 series 32-bit computers

37242195

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F2FS

F2FS

F2FS (Flash-Friendly File System) is a flash file system initially developed by Samsung Electronics for the Linux kernel. The motive for F2FS was to build a file system that, from the start, takes into account the characteristics of NAND flash memory-based storage devices (such as solid-state disks, eMMC, and SD cards), which are widely used in computer systems ranging from mobile devices to servers. F2FS was designed on a basis of a log-structured file system approach, which is adapted to newer forms of storage. Jaegeuk Kim, the principal F2FS author, has stated that it remedies some known issues of the older log-structured file systems, such as the snowball effect of wandering trees and high cleaning overhead. In addition, since a NAND-based storage device shows different characteristics according to its internal geometry or flash memory management scheme (such as the Flash Translation Layer or FTL), it supports various parameters not only for configuring on-disk layout, but also for selecting allocation and cleaning algorithms. Features Multi-head logging Multi-level hash table for directory entries Static/dynamic hot and cold data separation Adaptive logging scheme Configurable operational units Dual checkpoint Roll-back and roll-forward recovery Heap-style block allocation TRIM/FITRIM support Online fs defragmentation/file defragmentation Inline xattrs/data/dir Offline filesystem check (Check and fix inconsistency) Atomic operations Filesystem-level encryption Offline resizing (shrinking not supported.) Inner periodically data flush Extent cache Transparent file compression using LZO or LZ4 (with Linux 5.6), or zstd (with Linux 5.7) Design On-disk layout F2FS divides the whole volume into a number of segments, each of which is fixed at 2 MB. A section is composed of consecutive segments, and a zone consists of a set of sections. By default, section and zone sizes are set to the same size, but users can easily modify the size with mkfs. F2FS splits the entire volume into six areas, and all except the superblock area consist of multiple segments as described below. Superblock (SB) The SB is located at the beginning of the partition. There are two copies to avoid file-system corruption. It contains basic partition information and some default F2FS parameters. Checkpoint (CP) The CP contains file system information, bitmaps for valid NAT/SIT sets, orphan inode lists, and summary entries of current active segments. Segment Information Table (SIT) The SIT contains the valid block count and validity bitmap of all the Main Area blocks. Node Address Table (NAT) The NAT is an address table for the Main Area node blocks. Segment Summary Area (SSA) The SSA contains entries which contain the owner information of the Main Area data and node blocks. Main Area The main area contains file and directory data and their indices. In order to avoid misalignment between file system and flash storage, F2FS aligns the start block address of the CP with the segment size. It also aligns the Main Area start block address with the zone size by reserving some segments in the SSA area. Metadata structure F2FS uses the checkpoint scheme to maintain file system integrity. At mount time, F2FS first tries to find the last valid checkpoint data by scanning the CP area. In order to reduce the scanning time, F2FS uses only two copies of the CP. One of them always indicates the last valid data, which is called a shadow copy mechanism. In addition to the CP, the NAT and SIT also use the shadow copy mechanism. For file system consistency, each CP points to which NAT and SIT copies are valid. Index structure The key data structure is the "node". Similar to traditional file structures, F2FS has three types of nodes: inode, direct node, indirect node. F2FS assigns 4 KB to an inode block which contains 923 data block indices, two direct node pointers, two indirect node pointers, and one double indirect node pointer as described below. A direct node block contains 1018 data block indices, and an indirect node block contains 1018 node block indices. Thus, one inode block (i.e., a file) covers: 4 KB × (923 + 2×1018 + 2×10182 + 10183) = 3.94 TB Note that all the node blocks are mapped by the NAT, which means that the location of each node is translated by the NAT. To mitigate the wandering tree problem, F2FS is able to cut off the propagation of node updates caused by leaf data writes. Directory structure A directory entry (dentry) occupies 11 bytes, which consists of the following attributes. A dentry block consists of 214 dentry slots and file names. A bitmap is used to represent whether each dentry is valid or not. A dentry block occupies 4 KB and has the following composition: Dentry Block (4 K) = bitmap (27 bytes) + reserved (3 bytes) + dentries (11 * 214 bytes) + file name (8 * 214 bytes) F2FS implements multi-level hash tables for the directory structure. Each level has a hash table with a dedicated number of hash buckets as shown below. Note that "A(2B)" means a bucket includes 2 data blocks. Term A indicates bucket B indicates block N indicates MAX_DIR_HASH_DEPTH level #0 A(2B) level #1 A(2B) - A(2B) level #2 A(2B) - A(2B) - A(2B) - A(2B) ... level #N/2 A(2B) - A(2B) - A(2B) - A(2B) - A(2B) - ... - A(2B) ... level #N A(4B) - A(4B) - A(4B) - A(4B) - A(4B) - ... - A(4B) When F2FS finds a file name in a directory, first a hash value of the file name is calculated. Then, F2FS scans the hash table in level #0 to find the dentry consisting of the file name and its inode number. If not found, F2FS scans the next hash table in level #1. In this way, F2FS scans hash tables in each level incrementally from 1 to N. In each level F2FS needs to scan only one bucket determined by the following equation, which shows O(log(# of files)) complexity. bucket number to scan in level #n = (hash value) % (# of buckets in level #n) In the case of file creation, F2FS finds empty consecutive slots that cover the file name. F2FS searches the empty slots in the hash tables of whole levels from 1 to N in the same way as the lookup operation. Default block allocation At runtime, F2FS manages six active logs inside the "Main Area:" Hot/Warm/Cold node and Hot/Warm/Cold data. LFS has two schemes for free space management: threaded log and copy-and-compaction. The copy-and-compaction scheme which is known as cleaning, is well-suited for devices showing very good sequential write performance, since free segments are served all the time for writing new data. However, it suffers from cleaning overhead during high utilization. Conversely, the threaded log scheme suffers from random writes, but no cleaning process is needed. F2FS adopts a hybrid scheme where the copy-and-compaction scheme is adopted by default, but the policy is dynamically changed to the threaded log scheme according to the file system status. In order to align F2FS with underlying flash-based storage, F2FS allocates a segment in a unit of a section. F2FS expects the section size to be the same as the garbage collection unit size in FTL. With respect to the mapping granularity in FTL, F2FS allocates each section of the active logs to as many different zones as possible. FTL can write the active log data into one allocation unit according to its mapping granularity. Cleaning process F2FS does cleaning both on demand, and in the background. On-demand cleaning is triggered when there are not enough free segments to serve VFS calls. The background cleaner is executed by a kernel thread, and triggers the cleaning job when the system is idle. F2FS supports two victim selection policies: greedy, and cost-benefit algorithms. In the greedy algorithm, F2FS selects a victim segment having the smallest number of valid blocks. In the cost-benefit algorithm, F2FS selects a victim segment according to the segment age and the number of valid blocks in order to address the log block thrashing problem present in the greedy algorithm. F2FS uses the greedy algorithm for on-demand cleaning, the background cleaner uses the cost-benefit algorithm. In order to identify whether the data in the victim segment are valid or not, F2FS manages a bitmap. Each bit represents the validity of a block, and the bitmap is composed of a bit stream covering whole blocks in the Main Area. Adoption Motorola Mobility has used F2FS in their Moto G/E/X and Droid phones since 2012. Google first used F2FS in their Nexus 9 in 2014. However Google's other products didn't adopt F2FS until the Pixel 3 when F2FS was updated with inline crypto hardware support. Huawei has used F2FS since the Huawei P9 in 2016. OnePlus has used F2FS in the OnePlus 3T. ZTE has used F2FS since the ZTE Axon 10 Pro in 2019. Arch Linux and Gentoo Linux support F2FS, Debian supports it from version 10 upwards as well. See also Comparison of file systems List of flash file systems References External links FAST '15 - F2FS: A New File System for Flash Storage (2015-02-17) WHAT IS Flash-Friendly File System (F2FS) documentation for Linux Flash Friendly File System (F2FS), Embedded Linux Conference (2013-02-22) LWN.net: An f2fs teardown (2012-10-10) eMMC/SSDFile SystemTuningMethodology (2013-05-24) Embedded Linux Flash file systems supported by the Linux kernel Free special-purpose file systems Compression file systems

214176

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCII%20%28magazine%29

ASCII (magazine)

was a monthly released microcomputer magazine in Japan, published by ASCII Corporation from 1977. It targeted business users who used a personal computer in their home and office, but it sometimes introduced computer games and computer music. It was also known as the written along with the title from Vol. 2 No. 4, and distinguish with the founded in 1997. The ASCII was rebranded as the in 2008, and ceased in 2010. Its news website and the Weekly ASCII are continuing as in 2016. The , a computer game magazine, was first published as an extra issue of the ASCII in 1982, and the was branched from the LOGiN. Foundation In 1976, NEC released the TK-80, a single-board computer kit, and it became popular among hobbyists in Japan. joined foundation of the first Japanese microcomputer magazine I/O (ja) as an editor when he was a student at the Waseda University. The I/O initially served information for assembled microcomputer systems with a few video game columns. Growing the video game market, it was shifted to a video game magazine. Against it, Nishi considered that personal computers must have far more potential than video games. In April 1977, Nishi left the company, borrowed money from his grandmother and visited the West Coast Computer Faire held in San Francisco. Then, he realized the difference between Japan and the United States. "In Japan, the TK-80 just caused a microcomputer craze. While in the United States, it seems the beginning of the personal computer revolution. Each persons try to face a personal computer, based on their own identity," he said. On May 24, 1977, Nishi founded with his friends, and . They published the ASCII as a microcomputer magazine for business, while the I/O was for hobbyists. The first issue was sold 5,000 copies. It became one of the most popular computer magazine in 1980s in Japan. In 1999, the magazine reached its largest circulation of 170,000 copies. References External links ASCII.jp Defunct computer magazines Defunct magazines published in Japan Magazines established in 1977 Magazines disestablished in 2008 Magazines published in Tokyo Monthly magazines published in Japan

55034399

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBoot

IBoot

iBoot is the stage 2 bootloader for all Apple products. It replaces the old bootloader, BootX. Compared with its predecessor, iBoot improves authentication performed in the boot chain. For x86 macOS, the boot process starts by running code stored in secured UEFI Boot ROM (first stage). Boot ROM has two primary responsibilities: to initialize system hardware and to select an operating system to run (the POST and UEFI component). For ARM macOS, the Boot ROM is not UEFI component. For iOS, the boot process starts by running the device's Boot ROM code. In systems with S1 processors or A9 or earlier A-series processors, the Boot ROM loads the Low-Level Bootloader (LLB), which loads iBoot. In systems with newer processors, the Boot ROM loads iBoot itself. If all goes well, iBoot will then proceed to load the iOS kernel as well as the rest of the operating system. If the LLB or iBoot fails to load iOS, or fails to verify iOS, the bootloader jumps to DFU (Device Firmware Update) mode; otherwise it loads the remaining kernel modules. On x86 macOS, iBoot is located in /System/Library/CoreServices/boot.efi. Once the kernel and all drivers necessary for booting are loaded, the boot loader starts the kernel’s initialization procedure. At this point, enough drivers are loaded for the kernel to find the root device. References External links Mac OS X at osxbook.com MacOS Boot loaders

5977314

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karlsruhe%20Institute%20of%20Technology

Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

The Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT; ) is an elite public research university in the german state Baden-Württemberg and a national research center in the Helmholtz Association that is one of the largest educational institutions and the largest research institution by funding in Germany. KIT was created in 2009 when the University of Karlsruhe (), founded in 1825 as a public research university and also known as the "Fridericiana", merged with the Karlsruhe Research Center (), which had originally been established in 1956 as a national nuclear research center (, or KfK). KIT is a member of the TU9, an incorporated society of the largest and most notable German institutes of technology. As part of the German Universities Excellence Initiative KIT was one of three universities which were awarded excellence status in 2006. In the following "German Excellence Strategy" KIT was awarded as one of eleven "Excellence Universities" in 2019. KIT is among the leading technical universities in Germany and Europe and established the first German faculty for computer science in 1972. According to different bibliometric rankings, KIT is the German university with the strongest research in engineering and natural sciences. In the university part of today's KIT, science-based mechanical engineering was founded in the mid-19th century under the direction of Ferdinand Redtenbacher, which influenced the foundation of other technical universities, such as ETH Zurich in 1855. On 2 August 1984, the University of Karlsruhe received the first-ever German e-mail. , six Nobel laureates are affiliated with KIT. The Karlsruhe Institute of Technology is well known for many inventors and entrepreneurs who studied or taught there, including Heinrich Hertz, Karl Friedrich Benz and the founders of SAP SE. History The University of Karlsruhe was founded as a polytechnical school () on 7 October 1825. It was modelled on the École polytechnique in Paris. In 1865, Grand Duke Friedrich I of Baden raised the school to the status of a , an institution of higher education. Since 1902 the university has also been known as the Fridericiana in his honour. In 1885, it was declared a , or institute of technology, and in 1967, it became an , a full university, which gave it the right to award regular doctorate degrees. It had hitherto been allowed to award doctorates only in engineering, identified as , a right bestowed on all technical institutes in 1899. The University of Karlsruhe is one of the leading German institutions in computer science. A central computer laboratory was founded in 1966. The department of informatics was established three years later, along with the first regular course in informatics. On 2 August 1984, the university received Germany's first email. The (Institute of Meteorology and Climate Research) was founded at the university in 1985. The university also cooperated extensively with the Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe (Karlsruhe Research Centre), and this relationship was formalised on 6 April 2006 when Professor Horst Hippler and Dr. Dieter Ertmann from the University of Karlsruhe, and Professor Manfred Popp and Assistant Jur. Sigurd Lettow from Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe signed a contract for the foundation of the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT). The name was inspired by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), the leading technical university in the United States. In February 2008, the merger of the university and the research centre to form KIT was agreed by the state of Baden-Württemberg and Germany's federal government. The necessary state law was passed on 8 July 2009. KIT was formally established on 1 October 2009. The main reason for establishing KIT was to strengthen Karlsruhe's position in the German Universities Excellence Initiative, which offered elite universities grants of up to 50 million euros per annum. This aim was not achieved. While the University of Karlsruhe was chosen for the initiative in 2006/2007, KIT failed to secure a place in 2012. It did, however, attract funds from other sources. In 2008, Hans-Werner Hector, co-founder of SAP, raised 200 million euros to support researchers at the institute. (Hector is the only founder of SAP who did not graduate from the University of Karlsruhe; he was given an honorary doctorate for his support of intellectually gifted children in 2003.) Campus Campus Nord The (Campus North), the former , was founded in 1956 as (Karlsruhe Nuclear Research Centre). Initial activities focused on Forschungsreaktor 2 (FR2), the first nuclear reactor built by Germany. With the decline of nuclear energy activities in Germany, Kernforschungszentrum Karlsruhe directed its work increasingly towards alternative areas of basic and applied sciences. This change is reflected in the change of name from to with the subheading (technology and environment) added in 1995. This subheading was replaced by (in the Helmholtz Association of German Research Centers) in 2002. Campus Nord is the site of the main German national nuclear engineering research centre and the Institute for Transuranium Elements. Also at the site is a nanotechnology research centre and the neutrino experiment KATRIN. Campus Nord also hosts a 200-metre-tall guyed mast for meteorological measurements. Organization and administration Faculties The university has eleven faculties: Mathematics Physics Chemistry and Biology Humanities and Social sciences Architecture Civil engineering, Geology, and Ecological Sciences Mechanical Engineering Chemical and Process Engineering Electrical engineering and Information Technology Computer Science Economics and Management Academic profile Education The university offers a great range of education options with such possibilities as cross studies and work-study programs. A studium generale (general studies) program was established in 1949, allowing students to attend lectures not directly pertaining their study field. In the first semesters of a course, education tends to be theoretically oriented at KIT, with a high concentration on mathematics for engineering and natural science courses. It is possible to choose between practical and theoretical topics in later semesters. Since the winter semester of 2008/2009, KIT has completed the transition from Diplom degrees to bachelor's degrees and master's degrees. Students already enrolled for a Diplom degree when the transition began were allowed to finish their studies, but new students are allowed to apply only for a bachelor's or master's degree. Admission policies differ among the departments. While students are chosen by the quality of their school degree and their extracurricular activities for courses such as industrial engineering and management (27% of admissions in 2008), other departments do not preselect for their courses, including physics, informatics, and meteorology. All courses require a minimum number of passed exams, called or orientation assessments, in the first three semesters before students are allowed to complete their course. There is a substantial drop-out rate in some engineering courses due to the immense study required to meet the prerequisites. The Zentrum für Angewandte Kulturwissenschaft und Studium Generale (Centre for Applied Culture and General Studies) was founded in 1989 as a central institution to support students engaged in interdisciplinary study. Nowadays, it offers specialised qualifications in the fields of "Leadership and Entrepreneurship", "Media – Culture – Communication", "Internationalisation and Intercultural Decision-making and Responsibility", "Diversity Management", and "European Integration and Identity Studies", as well as the classical studium generale. There is also the possibility of concomitant study in applied culture science. Research In 1979, the Interfakultatives Institut für Anwendungen der Informatik (Interfaculty Institute for Informatics Applications) was founded. It brings together research in physics, mathematics, and engineering based on computer science. Its mathematical pendant is the Institut für Wissenschaftliches Rechnen und Mathematische Modellbildung (Institute for Scientific Calculations and Mathematical Modelling). Its aim is to enhance the exchange between mathematics and engineering in the fields of scientific calculations. The Interfakultatives Institut für Entrepreneurship (Interfaculty Institute for Entrepreneurship) was established with SAP funding. Its teaching professors were entrepreneurs on their own. Before being shut down in 2010, a former professor of this faculty was Götz Werner, founder of dm-drogerie markt. In 2001, the Centre for Functional Nanostructures (CFN) was established. It merges the fields within material sciences, biology, chemistry, engineering, and physics which are related to nanotechnology. CFN is one of the three Exzellenzzentren (English: Excellence Institutions) of the University of Karlsruhe. Another interdisciplinary institution is the Centre for Disaster Management and Risk Reduction Technology (CEDIM). The Karlsruhe School of Optics and Photonics (KSOP) was established in 2006 as a publicly funded project by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft under the German Universities Excellence Initiative. KSOP was the first graduate school at the University of Karlsruhe and covers the fields of photonic materials and devices, advanced spectroscopy, biomedical photonics, optical systems and solar energy. It is supported by several of the university's institutes and professors. It is also a partner in the EUROPHOTONICS consortium, which provides scholarship for master's and PhD degrees under the European Commission's prestigious Erasmus Mundus cooperation and mobility program. KIT operates several TCCON stations as part of an international collaborative effort to measure greenhouse gases globally. One station is near the campus. KIT is partner of the science project for urban and autonomous freight logistics, efeuCampus in Bruchsal, which is funded by the state of Baden-Württemberg and the European Union. At the Institute for Conveying Technology and Logistics Systems (IFL), conveyor systems for intralogistics are being developed for the research project, which are used for mobile robotics and human-machine interaction. The project develops localization and navigation algorithms for an urban environment, which enable vehicles to navigate independently on the basis of laser and video data. Rankings and reputation In the Nature Index (1 August 2019 – 31 July 2020), which measures the scientific strength of different institutions on the basis of publications in 82 high-quality scientific journals, the KIT ranks first in the field of physical sciences among the universities in Germany, 6th in Europe, and 50th worldwide. Ranks two to five in Germany are followed by TU Munich and LMU Munich, TU Dresden, and University of Erlangen-Nuremberg. According to a 2015 survey, KIT has produced the largest number of top managers among German universities, with 24 board members of the 100 largest German companies. The other places are followed by the University of Cologne (17), the RWTH Aachen (17), the University of Mannheim (13) and the LMU Munich (13). In the CWTS Leiden Ranking of the year 2018, which is based exclusively on bibliometrics to measure the research output of universities, KIT is ranked 39th worldwide in the engineering and natural sciences according to the "Impact" indicator and 35th worldwide according to the "Collaboration" indicator. In Germany, KIT is ranked first ahead of RWTH Aachen University (ranked 80th in each case) and TU Munich (ranked 89th and 79th in each case). Europe-wide, KIT is ranked 5th and 7th respectively. In the 2019 Performance Ranking of Scientific Papers for World Universities released by the National Taiwan University, KIT is ranked 1st in the fields of natural sciences and engineering in Germany. In the ranking of the German magazine Wirtschaftswoche, in which decision-makers of companies are asked about their preferences, KIT regularly occupies a position among the top 3 in the subjects electrical engineering, computer science, mechanical engineering, and industrial engineering in Germany. Especially in the field of computer science, the top position is often achieved. In the QS Graduate Employability Rankings 2017, which follow a similar approach as the Wirtschaftswoche ranking on a global level, KIT is ranked 20th worldwide. Thus, KIT takes first place in Germany and fifth place in Europe. In the same ranking for 2018, KIT was able to defend its top position in Germany and further extend its lead over other German universities. In the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities for the year 2020, KIT ranks fourth among 455 listed universities and scientific institutions in Germany. KIT is a member of the TU9 German Institutes of Technology e.V. As part of the German Universities Excellence Initiative KIT was awarded an excellence status in 2006 and 2019. In the 2011 performance-ranking of scientific papers, Karlsruhe ranked first in Germany and among the top 10 universities in Europe in engineering and natural sciences. In the worldwide ranking U-Multirank funded by the European Union, KIT is ranked 57th out of a total of 1610 universities across all categories in 2019. In Germany, KIT reaches the 1st place out of 99 universities examined. The following state universities are LMU Munich, HU Berlin, and TU Munich. In the Research Ranking of the Association for Information Systems (AIS), KIT is ranked 5th in the Europe / Africa region for the period 2017–2019. KIT is therefore the best university in Germany and the DACH region in terms of research performance in international business informatics. The research performance is quantified by publications in the top journals of the discipline ISR, MISQ, JMIS, and JAIS. Other German universities represented in the top 20 of the list are the University of Mannheim (7th place) and the TU Darmstadt and University of Cologne (both on place 16). In the 2015 QS World University Rankings the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology achieved 93rd place in the global ranking across all disciplines and 62nd and 34th place in engineering and natural sciences, respectively. In the 2013 Taiwan ranking, KIT (world rank 61) retained its position as the best German University in the engineering and natural sciences, ranking in the engineering sciences ahead of the RWTH Aachen (world rank 89), the Technical University of Munich (world rank 94) and the Technical University of Dresden (world rank 108). For the natural sciences KIT (world rank 51) led the domestic comparison against the LMU Munich (world rank 62), the University of Heidelberg (world rank 72) and the Technical University of Munich (world rank 81). Ranked 26th place in computer science in the Times Higher Education Ranking 2016, KIT is one of the leading universities in computer science in Europe as well as worldwide. In the Shanghai Ranking by subject, which is also highly regarded internationally, KIT 2017 takes first place among German universities in the fields of "Chemistry", "Chemical Engineering", "Instruments Science & Technology", "Water Resources", and "Transportation Science & Technology" and second place in Germany in the fields of "Biotechnology", "Nanoscience & Nanotechnology", "Materials Science & Engineering", "Energy Science & Engineering", "Environmental Science & Engineering", and "Metallurgical Engineering". A place among the top three German universities is also achieved in the subjects "Mechanical Engineering", "Physics", "Telecommunication Engineering" and "Remote Sensing". In all of these subjects, with the exception of "Environmental Science & Engineering" and "Telecommunication Engineering", KIT is among the 100 best universities in the world, some even among the top 50. In addition, KIT has achieved a top 5 position in Germany in the subjects "Computer Science & Engineering" (4th place), "Electrical & Electronic Engineering", and "Food Science & Technology". In the 2018 edition of the Shanghai Ranking, KIT was ranked among the best 100 universities in the world in 13 subjects. The three subjects Atmospheric Science (16th place), Metallurgical Engineering (25th place), and Energy Science & Engineering (28th place) even achieved a place among the world's top 30 universities. In 2018, KIT improved, among other things, from 4th to 2nd place in the field of computer science, from 2nd to 1st place in the field of energy science & engineering, and from 5th to 4th place in the field of electrical & electronic engineering throughout Germany. In the 2019 edition of the Shanghai Ranking, KIT achieved and maintained its top position in the field of computer science. In the 2019 edition of the Shanghai Ranking, the KIT was ranked 8th worldwide in atmospheric research, making it one of the leading institutions in this field of research worldwide, ahead of renowned universities such as the Columbia University University (9th place), the Princeton University (17th place) and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (20th place), the universities in University of Oxford (29th place) and University of Cambridge (place 32) or the Stanford University (place 47). In the Shanghai Ranking 2019, KIT was able to achieve further first places in Germany in the subjects energy sciences, computer science, material sciences, nanotechnology, and transport sciences. In the University Ranking by Academic Performance (URAP) 2017/2018, KIT is ranked first in Germany in the subjects "Chemical Sciences" (world rank: 49), "Technology" (world rank: 54), "Nanoscience & Nanomaterials" (world rank: 58), "Materials Engineering" (world rank: 48), Chemical Engineering (ranked 43), Mechanical Engineering (ranked 58), Civil Engineering (ranked 76), Environmental Engineering (ranked 98), Meteorology & Atmospheric Sciences (ranked 15) and Transportation Science & Technology (ranked 123) Further top rankings are also achieved in "Physical Sciences" (rank Germany: 3; world rank: 55); "Mathematical Sciences" (rank Germany: 2; world rank: 66); "Engineering" (rank Germany: 3 (after rank 1 last year); world rank 107); "Electrical & Electronics Engineering" (rank Germany: 2; world rank: 70), "Information & Computing Sciences" (rank Germany: 2; world rank: 63), "Earth Sciences" (rank Germany: 2; world rank: 54), "Geology" (rank Germany: 5; world rank: 111), "Metallurgy Engineering" (rank Germany: 2; world rank: 34) and "Architecture" (rank Germany: 2; world rank: 71). According to the Ranking of Scientific Impact of Leading European Research Universities, an official document compiled by the European Commission, in 2004 Karlsruhe ranks second nationally and sixth in Europe in terms of scholarly impact. With the exception of the department of biology, in 2003 the university received more funding from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft than any other university specializing in the natural sciences in Germany. In the engineering sciences (computer science, electrical and mechanical engineering), the university is in the top three together with the University of Stuttgart and RWTH Aachen. In 2005, more than 20% of its students come from other nations and 0.6% of its students receive grants from the German Studienstiftung (German National Academic Foundation). Computer facilities The Steinbuch Centre for Computing (SCC), named after Karl Steinbuch, was formed in 2008 when the main computer facilities of the University of Karlsruhe merged with those at Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe. It is responsible for the university's IP connectivity and provides central services (Mail, Web, campus management) for students and employees. It supplies students with 10 fully equipped computer rooms, one professional print office and a wireless network providing access to the whole campus area. Some departments, like computer science, physics, and mathematics, run their own computer facilities as well. The SCC operates some of the fastest computers in Germany: HP XC3000 (334 nodes with 8 cores each, 27.04 TFLOPS) HP XC4000 (750 nodes with 4 cores each, 15.77 TFLOPS) a cluster purchased by a corporation of institutes representing different disciplines (200 nodes with 8 cores each, 17.57 TFLOPS) the two vector parallel calculators NEC SX-8R and NEC SX-9 On 2 August 1984, Michael Rotert, a research fellow at University of Karlsruhe, received the first email ever sent to Germany, at his address rotert%[email protected]. GridKa runs the Rocks Cluster Distribution Linux distribution for supercomputers. Libraries The KIT Library with its two branches on Campus South and Campus North provides literature for research and study for about 25,000 students and 8000 scientists with a widespread, interdisciplinary book stock of over 2 million volumes, reports and 28,000 periodicals in print and electronic form. The emphasis of the collection lies in natural and engineering sciences. KIT Library South The 24-hour library at Campus South was extended in 2006. It offers many workplaces and an area for relaxing, and is now open around the clock. The combination of a special book security system and an automated issue desk makes it possible to use the 1000 workplaces anytime, day or night. Current and contemporary literature is freely accessible in four specialised reading rooms, each providing cross-linked, modern and well-equipped study and work stations as well as printers, scanners and copy machines. KIT Library North The research library at Campus North provides a large specialised book stock (especially reports and primary reports) on energy and nuclear energy. All literature is freely accessible to the user. Thirty modern workplaces, as well as printers, scanners, copy machines and cubicles for individual work are available. Further libraries at KIT Additional literature is located in two specialised reading rooms for chemistry and physics, as well as in the Library of the University of Applied Sciences at the Campus at Moltkestrasse, which is administrated by the KIT Library. The faculty of physics, the faculty of mathematics, the faculty of computer science, the faculty of architecture and the faculty of economics and management have their own libraries to supply students and researchers with topic-related literature. Notable people Professors Karl Ferdinand Braun (1850–1918), who developed the cathode ray tube in 1897, which is widely used in televisions; in 1909 he received the Nobel Prize for the invention Wolfgang Gaede (1878–1945), who founded vacuum technology Franz Grashof (1826–1893), who significantly contributed to the understanding of free convection; the Grashof Number was named after him Fritz Haber (1868–1934), who developed the high-pressure synthesis of ammonia in 1909 and won a Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1918 Heinrich Hertz (1857–1894) discovered electromagnetic waves in 1887, which are the basis for radio transmission, and after whom the SI unit of frequency, hertz is named Karl Heun (1859–1929), who is known for his work on numerical integration and solutions to differential equations. He discovered the Heun method. Otto Lehmann (1855–1922), the founder of liquid crystal research Wilhelm Nusselt (1882–1957), the co-founder of technical thermodynamics Ferdinand Redtenbacher (1809–1863), founder of science-based mechanical engineering in Germany Roland Scholl (1865–1945), discovered coronene and contributed significantly to the field of organic chemistry in general Hermann Staudinger (1881–1965), who won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1953 for his discoveries in the field of macromolecular chemistry Karl Steinbuch (1917–2005), a pioneer of computer science in Germany who coined the German term for the field, Informatik, and made early contributions to machine learning and artificial neural networks Ulrich Lemmer (born 1964), a pioneer of organic semiconductors in Germany Alumni Johann Jakob Balmer (1825–1898), Swiss mathematician and mathematical physicist Karl Benz (1844–1929), the inventor of the automobile, a graduate who also received an honorary doctorate in 1914 Martin Brudermüller (born 1961), German businessman, CEO of BASF Franz Fehrenbach (born 1949), chairman of Robert Bosch GmbH Robert Gerwig (1820–1885), civil engineer responsible for the Black Forest Railway, the Gotthard Railway, and the Höllental Railway Hans Kollhoff (born 1946), Postmodernist and New Classical architect Ludwig Levy (1854–1907), Historicist architect Sergey Padyukov (1922–1993), architect Wilhelm Steinkopf (1879–1949), University of Karlsruhe alumni and professor, co-developer of a method for the mass production of mustard gas during World War I Edward Teller (1908–2003), who is known as the originator of the hydrogen bomb Roland Mack (born 1949), co-founder of Europa-Park, one of the most popular theme parks in Europe Oswald Mathias Ungers (1926–2007), rationalist architect Fritz Noether (1884–1941), mathematician and brother of Emmy Noether Hasso Plattner (born 1944), Dietmar Hopp (born 1940), Klaus Tschira (1940–2015), three of five co-founders of SAP Stefan Quandt (born 1966), businessman and major BMW shareholder Franz Reuleaux (1829–1905), a pioneer of kinematics and rector of the Berlin University of Technology Leopoldo Rother (1894–1978), architect who designed the campus of National University of Colombia in Bogotá Leopold Ružička (1887–1976), winner of the 1939 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Peter Sanders (born 1967), computer scientist who won the Leibniz Prize in 2012 Amin Shokrollahi (born 1964), Iranian mathematician Emil Škoda (1839–1900), the founder of the industrial conglomerate Škoda Works Albert Speer (1905–1981), Adolf Hitler's chief architect Carsten Spohr (born 1966), CEO of Lufthansa August Thyssen (1842–1926), industrialist who founded the steel producer Thyssen AG, a predecessor of ThyssenKrupp, and co-founded RWE, one of the largest German electric utilities companies today Ivan Vasilyov (1893–1979), architect of the Bulgarian National Bank headquarters and the Ministry of Defence Herbert Wetterauer (born 1957), painter, sculptor, and author Rolf Wideröe (1902–1996), Norwegian accelerator physicist Alvis Johnsen (born 1980), Norwegian [Engineer and Contractor] Dieter Zetsche (born 1953), chairman of Daimler AG and head of Mercedes-Benz Cars Other Georg von Hevesy (1886–1966), winner of the 1943 Nobel Prize for his key role in the development of radioactive tracers to study chemical processes such as in the metabolism of animals, worked with Fritz Haber at University of Karlsruhe without formal appointment Rectors 1968 – 1983 Heinz Draheim 1983 – 1994 Heinz Kunle 1994 – 2002 Sigmar Wittig 2002 – 2009 Horst Hippler 2009–2012: Horst Hippler and Eberhard Umbach 2012–2013: Eberhard Umbach since 1 October 2013: Holger Hanselka Points of interest Botanischer Garten der Universität Karlsruhe, the university's botanical garden Notes and references External links Official website of the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology Universities and colleges in Karlsruhe Multidisciplinary research institutes Educational institutions established in 1825 Educational institutions established in 2009 Architecture schools in Germany 2009 establishments in Germany Creative Commons books publishing companies Universities and colleges formed by merger in Germany

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LG%20Intuition

LG Intuition

The LG Intuition is a cell phone manufactured by LG Electronics. It is Verizon's version of the LG Optimus Vu. It is considered by some to be a phablet due to its 5-inch screen size. Its operating system is Android 4.0.4. The phone is rootable. CyanogenMod, an operating system is as of yet incompatible with the phone. References LG Electronics mobile phones Smartphones Android (operating system) devices Discontinued smartphones

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video%20game%20culture

Video game culture

Video game culture is a worldwide new media subculture formed by video gamers. As video games have exponentially increased in popularity over time, they have had a significant influence on popular culture. Video game culture has also evolved with Internet culture and the increasing popularity of mobile games. Many people who play video games identify as gamers, which can mean anything from someone who enjoys games to someone passionate about it. As video games become more social with multiplayer and online capability, gamers find themselves in growing social networks. Playing video games can both be entertainment as well as competition, as the trend known as electronic sports has become more widely accepted. Definition Video game culture is broadly considered a description of the subculture of those who play video games. This not only includes gamers, players that frequently dedicate time and effort to playing video games, but also those players that participate less frequently and often through more casual games. Because of the interactive nature of video games, the video game culture differs from other subculture as there is interest not only in who plays video games (the demographics), but the types of video games they play, and how they play them. The concept that video games had its own subculture was first suggested in 1996, but became more predominate as an area of academic study since the 2010s. Demographics , the average age for a video game player is 31, a number slowly increasing as people who were children playing the first arcade, console and home computer games continue playing now on current systems. The gender distribution of gamers is reaching equilibrium, according to a 2016 study showing that 59% of gamers are male and 41% female; however, research has also shown that women are less likely to self-identify as gamers out of fear of stigmatization. ESA reported that 71% of people age six to forty-nine in the U.S. played video games, with 55% of gamers playing on their phones or mobile devices. The average age of players across the globe is mid to late 20s, and is increasing as older players grow in numbers. One possible reason for the increase in players could be attributed to the growing number of genres that require less of a specific audience. For example, the Wii console has widened its audience with games such as Wii Sports and Wii Fit. Both require more activity from the user and provide more reasons to play including family competition or exercise. It could also be because people who played video games when they were young are now growing older and still have that interest in video games. Currently, the largest entertainment industry for children is gaming. According to a 2008 telephone survey with a sample size of 1,102 respondents, 97% of children living in the United States and between the ages of 12 and 17 play video games. LAN gaming Video games are played in a variety of social ways, which often involve domestic gatherings or even in public places. A popular method of accomplishing this is a LAN (Local Area Network) party, which is hosted at a home and involves family and friends, creating a social event for people-friendly with each other. LAN parties are often held in large-scale events conducted in public spaces and have a great number of participants who might not usually socialize. The Everquest Fan Faires for instance, provide weekends of socializing and playing, at a large gathering (an event of several thousand) of dedicated game fans. Terry Flew in his book Games: Technology, Industry, Culture also emphasizes the Online Gaming Communities – "where players aren't physically located in the same space, but still socializing together". This raises the notion of McLuhan's "Global Village", as people can transcend their physical limitations and communicate with people, possessing a similar interest, from all around the world. Shapiro also stresses the possibility of "Using technology to enhance one's social life", as friendships no longer have to be structured by physical proximity (e.g. neighbors, colleagues). Shapiro states that "the net (Online Gaming Communities) allows individuals to extend their social network in a novel way, to communicate and share life experiences with people regardless of where they live and form online relationships". Thus, such online communities satisfy a genuine need for affiliation with like-minded others. Online gaming Online gaming has drastically increased the scope and size of video game culture. Online gaming grew out of games on bulletin board systems and on college mainframes from the 1970s and 1980s. MUDs offered multiplayer competition and cooperation, but on a scope more geographically limited than on the Internet. The Internet allowed gamers from all over the world – not just within one country or state – to play games together with ease. With the advent of Cloud Gaming high-performance games can now be played from low-end client systems and even TVs. One of the most groundbreaking titles in the history of online video games is Quake, which offered the ability to play with sixteen and eventually up to thirty-two players simultaneously in a 3D world. Gamers quickly began to establish their organized groups, called clans. Clans established their own identities, their marketing, their form of internal organization, and even their looks. Some clans had friendly or hostile rivalries, and there were often clans who were allied with other clans. Clan interaction took place on both professionally set competition events, and during normal casual playing where several members of one clan would play on a public server. Clans would often do their recruiting this way; by noticing the best players on a particular server, they would send invitations for that player to either try out or accept membership in the clan. Gamers of all ages play online games, with the average age being 33 years old. 'Clan'- or 'guild'-based play has since become an accepted (and expected) aspect of multiplayer video games, with several games offering cash-prize tournament-style competition to their players. Many clans and guilds also have active fan-bases, which, when combined with the 'tournament' aspect, contribute to turning clan-based gaming into a semi-professional sport. Clans also allow players to assist each other in simulated combat and quests in-game advancement, as well as providing an online family for friendly socializing. From Quake, online video games grew beyond first-person shooters and have impacted every genre. Real-time strategy, racing games, card games, sports games can all be played online. Online gaming has spread from its initial computer roots to console video games as well. Today, every major video game console available offers degrees of online gaming, some limited by particular titles, some even offer up entire virtual communities. Competition - An all-online version of gaming that kids, teens, and even adults are able to create a living and compete to be the best at a video game while making either a decent to an insane salary. Slang and terminology As in other cultures, the community has developed a gamut of slang words or phrases that can be used for communication in or outside of games. Due to their growing online nature, modern video game slang overlaps heavily with Internet slang, as well as Leetspeak, with many words such "pwn", as well as "noob", being direct carry-overs from Leetspeak. There are terms to describe video game events, game genres, gamer demographics, strategies, specific events, situations, and more. It is especially common among online games to encourage the use of neologisms for convenience in communication. While most games have specific terms that a dedicated player base use, some of the most prevalent phrases across all communities include abbreviations such as "lol," meaning "laughing out loud" as well as "noob," which is a derogatory term for a new or unskilled player. Another popular term that stemmed from the video game community is the abbreviation "AFK," meaning "away from the keyboard," to refer to people who are not at the computer or paying attention. Other common abbreviations include "GL HF," which stands for "good luck, have fun," which is often said at the beginning of a match to show good sportsmanship. Likewise, at the end of a game, "GG" or "GG WP" may be said to congratulate the opponent, win or lose, on a "good game, well played." While much of the video game culture language uses abbreviations for convenience, a lot of jargon is used for cyberbullying. In cases of online games with text or voice chat channels, it is not uncommon for players to blame or insult one another using such jargon. Some additional examples of slang and terminology include "rekt" (slang for 'wrecked') is often used to point out the obvious when a player or entity is destroyed. Less commonly, "own", "ownage", "owned" or "pwned" is used similarly. Another commonly used phrase within gaming spheres is use of the term "bot". This term is universally used in multiple games and styles of games to signify players who are not as good as others. Gaming networks The shift from console-based or "shrink-wrap" video games to online games has allowed online games and massively-multiplayer online gaming today to develop highly advanced and comprehensive communication networks. With the freedom of the Internet's architecture, users can become producers of the technology and shapers of the growing networks. Compared to past eras where consumers had little means of communication with game developers and other communities beyond their geographical location, the Internet has created many methods of communication such as through the online bulletin board website, Reddit. Gamers can often develop sub-communities in-game clans and may use third party VOIP programs to communicate while playing games such as Skype, Ventrillo, Teamspeak or Discord. These video game communities may have nothing in common, or instead be designed for dedicated, skilled players, or even clans made for those with shared commonalities such as personality, ethnicity, heritage, language or gender. Another key component of many video game networks is the connection between the player base and the game developers. Many game developers have outlets either through official website forums or social media where gamers can communicate with and provide feedback to the game developers. Likewise, these same places become key locations for game developers to communicate with their fans, were often dedicated employees act as liaisons as a bridge between the company and the community. Some of the most advanced networks take place with massively-multiplayer online gaming where servers of tens of thousands can be present simultaneously in the same instance or environment. In major titles such as World of Warcraft and League of Legends, the player base is in the millions. With so many people, many of these communities may develop virtual economies that may use a barter system or currency system. In some games, the interest in the virtual economies may be so great players will spend real money through auction sites like eBay for virtual property and items, commonly known as RMT (Real Market Trading). Some game developers may ban RMT in their games, especially when it interferes with the equity of the game. That being said, other game developers embrace it with one game, Second Life, with its entire focus on the usage of real-life currency for everything in the game world. Since smartphones became commonplace around 2007, mobile video games have seen rapid increases in popularity. The widespread appeal of simple, "time-killing" games, reminiscent of "social games" such as those found on Facebook, has set the stage for mobile video games to account for almost 35% of video games' total market share by 2017. Because games such as Clash of Clans offer in-game bonuses for referring new players to the game, mobile gamers have turned to social media sites to recruit their friends and family. Some games even offer integrated social media support to provide players with in-game chat or "friends" features for communicating and competing with other players. A large number of mobile game players has led to the creation of devoted forums, blogs, and tip sites similar to those committed to console video games. Popular video game publications, like Ars Technica and TouchArcade are even beginning to give significant coverage to mobile games. Debate over social culture versus antisocial culture There has been much debate among media theorists as to whether video games are an inherently social or anti-social activity. Terry Flew argues that digital games are "increasingly social, a trend that works against the mainstream media's portrayal of players as isolated, usually adolescent boys hidden away in darkened bedrooms, failing to engage with the social world." He asserts that games are played in very social and public settings; for example computers and consoles are often played in living areas of domestic homes, where people play with family or friends. David Marshall argues against the rich source of "effects" based research, finding that games are "deliberating and anti-social forms of behavior". Rather suggesting that "the reality of most games is that they are dynamically social – the elaborate social conversations that emerge from playing games online in massive multi-player formats" (MMOG). Exemplifying 'The Sims Online', he states "has built up entire political and social structures in given communities' that provide an elaborate game life for participants". Gamers in these online worlds participate in many-to-many forms of communication and one-to-one correspondence. The games are not only massive; they are also "intimate and social". Gosney argues that Alternate Reality Gaming is also inherently social, drawing upon Pierre Levy's (Levy 1998) notion of Collective Intelligence. He states that the game relied upon an "unprecedented level of corroboration and collective intelligence to solve the game". The issue of collective and corroborative team play is essential to ARG, thus are anything but a solitary activity. Hans Geser further rejects the mainstream media view that video games as an anti-social activity, asserting "there is considerable empirical evidence that Second Life serves mainly to widen the life experience of individuals who have already a rich 'First Life', not as a compensating device for marginal loners." Thus highlighting the "fantastic social possibilities of Second Life", as the intangible reward of social belongingness is of paramount importance. Bray and Konsynski also argue the ability of the technology "to enrich their lives", as most Millennials report: "No difference between friendships developed in the real world vs. friendships developed online, and most use the Internet to maintain their social networks and plan their social activities". Social implications of video games The advent of video games gave an innovative media technology, that allowed consumers to archive, annotate, appropriate and recirculate media content. Consumers can use this media source as an alternative tool to gain access to information of their interest. The community aspect of video gaming has also had implications for the social interactions and collective behaviors of consumers involved in the activity. Rise of subcultures Contemporary investigations have found that there is a prevailing social framework in place during gatherings of video game enthusiasts or 'gamers'. Mäyrä (2008, p. 25) suggests that gamers who gather together to play possess a shared language, engage in collective rituals and are often interested in cultural artifacts such as video game paraphernalia. Cronin and McCarthy (2011) have also explored a liminal, hedonic food culture to be present among these socially connected actors. The commensal consumption of energy-dense low nutrient foods is considered to be appropriated during long stretches of gameplay to contribute to the community and hedonistic aspects of social gaming. In response to the central importance that food plays in the collective enjoyment of social gaming, various websites have been created which allow gamers to rate their favorite foods to accompany play. The presence of rituals, shared discourse, collective action, and even a liminal food culture among video game communities gives credence to the concept of these cohorts existing as self-defining sub-units within mainstream culture. However, due to the ephemeral and transient nature of their rituals, and also the possibility of virtual interaction through online participation, these cohorts should be considered 'postmodern subcultures'. Video game communities have social elements beyond physical interaction and have come to a stage where online and offline spaces can be seen as 'merged' rather than separate. Along with the culture of the video game itself comes the culture of people who stream video games. With the rise of Twitch (service) in recent years people have began to make a living streaming video games as entertainment. "Twitch is where millions of people come together live every day to chat, interact, and make their own entertainment together. Streamers have cultivated fan bases around not only there personalities but the skill in which they play video games." Now to be a streamer having skill isn't always required but many streamers are at the top of their respective games. This streaming culture has also brought new eyes and attention to the games themselves. Twitch has also emerged in competitive video games with the advent of Twitch Rivals. This extension of the service is the home of the competitive scene of video games in relation to the main Twitch service itself. With the advent of Twitch as a service itself there are generally 3 kinds of users within the service. The competitive streamers are exactly what they sound like. People who are playing and streaming there respective games with the intent of being in the top 1% and making money off of the game. The second kind is what is often referred to as content creators. These streamers are often more variety based in the games they play rather than focusing on one game. These streamers value having fun and sharing there experiences within the game over skill in most cases. These streamers are often some of the most viewed and popular because of there willingness to show there personality and their lives away from video games. The last kind of user is simply the viewer. These are the essential part of any streamers success and the lifeblood of Twitch. The viewers share an often reciprocal relationship with the streamer where chat asks questions and usually gets answers from either the streamer or another viewer. Another subculture that has emerged within the community is that of Discord. Discord is a chat based service that allows gamers to build their own individual communities as well as participate in other communities. Discord itself also has hardware in place to be an essential communication piece for streamers and gaming communities. It has voice and video call capabilities and the ability to designate channels and rooms if you will for the community to participate in. Discord much like stream chat has a moderation system in place as well so that once the rules of the discord group are set they will be enforced by both A.I. and human moderators. This separate platform is another area where streamers can meet there communities and interact on a bit more personal level. MMORPG and identity tourism Terry Flew (2005)(p. 264) suggests that the appeal of the "Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game" lie in the idea of escapism, and the ability to assume the role of someone or something that is a fantasy in real life. He notes that '...for some women, [they] enjoy adopting what they feel to be an image of femininity more acceptable or desirable than their real-world body...' This is what he calls "identity tourism", a form of hopping from one person to another, for which there usually is a stereotypical discourse associated with the protagonist. This is seen in the case of males who assume the personas of the female gender, and the character's representation of her gender being overly sexualized and/or passive, '...this tends to perpetuate and accentuate existing stereotypes of... women...' (Nakamura). Ownership Ownership of video game entities is a major issue in video game culture. On one side, players, especially those who played with avatars for several years, have treated the avatars as their property. On the other hand, publishers claim ownership of all in-game items and characters through the EULA (End User License Agreements). Terry Flew recognized this problem: "Intellectual property is much better suited to conventional 'texts' that are fixed or finished, rather than ongoing collaborative creations like games". He also highlights that these issues will only worsen; as more interactive games emerging, issues of regulation, ownership, and service will only get more problematic. Violence narrative Violent content in video games are often a source of criticism, which according to Terry Flew is related to the subject of 'moral panic'. Terry Flew writes that the 'effects-based' research which gives rise to the 'computer games cause violence' discourse is mostly psychology-based, influenced particularly after horrific events such as the shooting of schoolchildren at Columbine High School in Littleton, Colorado in 1999. He says that the assumption behind such research, cause-effect behaviorist models of communication, is a flawed one. Several studies show a correlation between violent content conveyed through media (including videogames) and violent or aggressive behavior, while others (Vastag 2004) consider that the evidence for such conclusions is thin and highly contestable. Fox News reported that Montreal shooting case in Canada was carried out by the criminal Kimveer Gill, who is a player of Super Columbine Massacre, whose narrative attaches with strong violence sense. On the other hand, some people who hold social determinism theory assert technology is neutral, but it is the way that humans manipulate technology which brings about its social impact. Issues of gender and sexuality In conjunction with the changing demographics of video game creators and players, issues related to women and video games, including sexism in video gaming and gender representation in video games, have received increased attention by academia, the media, the games industry and by gamers themselves. The issue was brought to wider attention as a result of the 2014 Gamergate harassment campaign, in which some gamers, under the pretense of calling out ethical issues in game journalism, harassed and threatened several female developers and those that supported the developers. Gamergate was described by Bob Stuart in The Daily Telegraph as "an unwieldy movement with no apparent leaders, mission statement, or aims beyond calling out..those who want to see more diversity in gaming" Benjamin Paaßen has argued that because video game culture has long been a space dominated by heterosexual men, the video game industry tends to cater to this particularly lucrative audience, producing video games that reflect the desires of the heterosexual male gaze. He further argues that this lack of representation of alternate identities in video games has caused gamers who divert from the dominant demographic to be often relegated to the margins of the culture. This process is thus seen to perpetuate the stereotypical image of the geeky, heterosexual male gamer as the ruler of the video game world. Contrary to popular belief, there are a multitude of communities within video game culture that do not fulfill the typical gamer stereotype. The problem is that they lack visibility. One reason for this is that many people do not want to reveal their association with video game culture out of fear of stigmatization. Past research has shown this to be the case for the female gamer. Because women in video game culture are often ostracized by their male gamer counterparts, female gamers are frequently forced to conceal their gender, only participating in video game culture when they can remain anonymous. When concealing their identities, females gamers try to change their voice when talking online, they will play as a male character instead of a female character followed by some kind of masculine name. Doing this, however, can make video games less fun and exciting and could cause the player just quit the game. On the other hand, it's different for the male gamer. Like girl gamers would choose a male character to play as the male gamer would sometimes choose a girl character to play as. But for the male to pick a girl character is very common in the culture. According to Bosson, Prewitt-Freilino, and Taylor, male gamers who try to be female characters are not harassed as much as girl gamers since the male gamers can simply undo the change or just reveal their true identities as a male which reduces the harassing. When it comes to working into the video game development industry, there is a small minority of women within these industries. With 3% of programmers, 11% game designers, 13% of artists and animators, 13% of QA testers, and 16% of producers, these are low numbers for women in the video game development industry. The reason for this may be partly caused by the lack of encouragement due to the negativity or harassing of females in video game culture. Due to being the minority, women in the video game development industry receive stereotypical threats because of being in a male dominant career. There was a hashtag that was created on Twitter that was #1ReasonWhy in which it was reasons why there was a lack of women in the video game industry. Video game designer Kim Swift stated that "Because I get mistaken for the receptionist or day-hire marketing at trade shows." Additionally, dominant perceptions of gamers as asocial, straight, white men are also challenged by the presence of gamers who do not identify as heterosexual. For instance, it has been shown by past research that the LGBTQ+ community maintains a notable presence within video game culture. For LGBTQ+ gamers, video games provide an alternate reality in which there is the opportunity for sexual expression, identity formation, and community building. Such communities indicate the development of diverse subcultures within the culture of video games as a whole. Gaming and popular culture Games are also advertised on different TV channels, depending on the age demographic they are targeting. Games targeted toward kids and young teenagers are advertised on Disney Channel, Cartoon Network and Nickelodeon, while games targeted toward older teenagers and adults are advertised on MTV, G4, Comedy Central and in NFL Network. Gaming as portrayed by the media From the 1970s through even the 1990s, video game playing was mostly seen as sub-culture hobby activity and as a substitute for physical sports. However, in its early history video gaming had occasionally caught the attention of the mainstream news outlets. In 1972, Pong became the first video game pop-culture phenomenon. This was followed by Pac-Man in 1980. Other video games labeled as pop-culture phenomena include Final Fantasy, Halo, Metal Gear, The Legend of Zelda, Tomb Raider, Grand Theft Auto, Call of Duty, World of Warcraft, Fortnite, Street Fighter, Mortal Kombat, Pokémon, Guitar Hero, Sonic the Hedgehog, and the Mario games. As games became more realistic, issues of questionable content arose. The most notable early example is NARC, which through its use of digitized graphics and sound and its adult-oriented theme quickly became a target of the press. These same issues arose again when Mortal Kombat debuted, particularly with its home video game console released on the Genesis and Super NES platforms; due to Nintendo's strict content-control guidelines, that system's version of Mortal Kombat was substantially re-worked to remove any 'extreme' violence. In response to these issues (and in parallel to similar demands made upon the music and movie industries), the ESRB was established to help guide parents in their purchasing decisions. 1993's Doom caused quite a stir, with its detailed 3D graphics and copious amounts of blood and gore. The 1996 game, Duke Nukem 3D, was accused of promoting pornography and violence; as a result of the criticism, censored versions of the game were released in certain countries. In the 1999 Columbine shootings, violent video games were for a time directly blamed by some for the incident, and labeled as "murder simulators". In 2001, Grand Theft Auto III was released, which started the controversy over again. Television channels The first video game TV show was GamePro TV. The first television channel dedicated to video games and culture, G4, was launched in 2002. However, over the years, the channel has moved away from video game shows, and more towards male-oriented programs. X-Play, one of the channel's most popular shows and the highest-rated video game review show, is still produced at G4 until it was bought by Esquire Magazine, who decided to cease X-Play and focus less on the video game oriented audience of G4 and go with their traditional, more general male audience of their magazine. Ginx TV is an international multi-language video game television channel, managed by the former MTV Networks Europe Managing Director Michiel Bakker. There are also video game shows that appear on other channels, such as Spike TV, Fuel TV, and MTV. In Korea, there are two cable TV channels fully dedicated to video games, Ongamenet and MBCGame, broadcasting professional game leagues that are held in Korea. In Germany, most of the shows and channels dedicated to video games were canceled, although the content was highly appreciated by the video game audience. There was one digital cable and satellite channel with a focus on video games, which was closed in 2009: GIGA Television. Some of the hosts also did their show Game One dedicated to games on the German MTV channel until canceled 2014. The show is quite famous for their sketches on games and video game culture in Germany. The unofficial successor is the YouTube show Game Two, financed by public-service broadcasting program funk and produced by the 24/7 online channel Rocket Beans TV, which is dedicated to video game, nerd and pop culture. A similar show was "Reload"; produced for the public-service channel EinsPlus until the channel was announced to close in 2014. The Franco-German TV network arte has a show dedicated to video game culture: Art of Gaming In Australia, there is one TV show that is based on video games and games. Good Game on the ABC (Australian Broadcasting Corporation) which broadcasts on channel ABC2. The show is also available as a podcast on iTunes. In Russia, there are one satellite, the "Perviy Igrovoy" (Gaming First) and one cable, "Gameplay TV", video game TV channels. Channels have Internet streams. Web series AVGN is a show about a fictional character created by James Rolfe. The character is portrayed as a foul-mouthed, short-tempered retro gamer who reviews old video games usually sarcastically and negatively with frequent use of profanity for comical effect. Pure Pwnage, was a fictional series chronicling the life and adventures of Jeremy, a self-proclaimed "pro gamer". Red vs. Blue (made by Rooster Teeth), is a machinima (machine-cinema) filmed with the Halo series of games. The series consist of hundreds of short episodes taking place in their own Halo based universe. Consolevania, a game review/sketch show produced in Glasgow, Scotland, was developed into a broadcast series, videoGaiden on BBC Scotland. The Guild is a web series, created by Felicia Day, in which the cast are members of a guild that plays an MMORPG similar to World of Warcraft. Game Grumps, a show on YouTube in which the cast plays games sent in by viewers. It has a related show called Steam Train where the cast plays games either on Steam or sent in by independent developers. Influences on music Video game music has been utilized by popular musicians in many ways. The earliest example was the electronic music band Yellow Magic Orchestra's self-titled album, released in 1978, which utilized Space Invaders samples as instrumentation. In turn, the band would have a major influence on much of the video game music produced during the 8-bit and 16-bit eras. During the golden age of arcade video games in the early 1980s, it became common for arcade game sounds and bleeps to be utilized, particularly in early hip hop music, synthpop, and electro music. Buckner & Garcia's Pac-Man Fever, released in 1982, featured songs that were both about famous arcade games like Pac-Man, Donkey Kong and Berzerk, and also used the sound samples from the games themselves as instrumentation. In 1984, former Yellow Magic Orchestra member Harry Hosono produced an album entirely from Namco arcade game samples, entitled Video Game Music. Aphex Twin, an experimental electronic artist, under the name "PowerPill" released the Pacman EP in 1992 that featured a heavy use of Pac-Man sound effects. An entire music genre called chiptunes, or sometimes gamewave, have artists dedicated to using the synthesizer sets that came with past video game consoles and computers, particularly the Commodore 64 and the Nintendo Entertainment System. These bands include Mr. Pacman, 8 Bit Weapon, Goto 80, 50 Hertz and Puss. The influence of retro video games on contemporary music can also be seen in the work of less purist "Bitpop" artists, such as Solemn Camel Crew and Anamanaguchi. Moreover, many gamers collect and listen to video game music, ripped from the games themselves. This music is known by its file extension and includes such formats as: SID (Commodore 64), NSF (NES) and SPC (SNES). Cover bands like Minibosses perform their own instrumentations, and groups like The Protomen have written rock operas inspired by the Mega Man video games, while communities like OverClocked ReMix have released thousands of game music arrangements in a variety of genres and have influenced the careers of several game composers. A comedy subgenre has developed increasing the popularity of several musicians including Jonathan Coulton, famous for the song Still Alive featured in the credits of Valve's Portal, and Jonathan Lewis, songwriter and composer credited with the Half-Life-themed parody album Combine Road. Full orchestras, such as the Symphonic Game Music Concert tour North America, the United States, and Asia performing symphonic versions of video game songs, particularly the Final Fantasy series, the Metal Gear series, and Nintendo themed music, such as the Mario & Zelda Big Band Live Concert. In Japan, Dragon Quest symphonic concerts are performed yearly, ever since their debut in 1987. Video game and film crossovers Films based on video games Examples of films based on video games include Street Fighter, Mortal Kombat, BloodRayne, Doom, House of the Dead, Alone in the Dark, Resident Evil, Silent Hill, Tomb Raider, Assassin's Creed, and Warcraft. Until 2019, films based on video games generally had carried a negative connotation for lackluster quality, typically attributed to the difficulties of translating an interactive work to a passive form of entertainment. The commercial and critical success of the films Detective Pikachu and Sonic the Hedgehog in 2019 led to a turnaround for video game adaptions. Movies about video games Hollywood has also created films that are about video games themselves. The golden age of arcade video games in the early 1980s led to several films based around arcade games, including Tron (1982), WarGames (1983), and The Last Starfighter (1984). The Wizard (1989) was notable for featuring the first look at the upcoming game Super Mario Bros. 3 for the Nintendo Entertainment System. Most films related to video games in the 1990s and 2000s were subsequently adaptions of games, rather than dealing with the medium itself, though the concept of video games remained as a central theme in works like Grandma's Boy (2006), Stay Alive (2006), and Gamer (2009). The 2010s introduced a new way of film which expanded on using video games as virtual world within the film. These include Tron: Legacy (2010, a sequel to the original Tron), Scott Pilgrim vs. the World (2010), Wreck-It Ralph (2012) and its sequel Ralph Breaks the Internet (2018), Pixels (2015), Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle (2017) and its sequel Jumanji: The Next Level (2019), Ready Player One (2018), Free Guy (2021), and Space Jam: A New Legacy (2021). Interactive movies Interactive movies as a computer and video game genre were the result of the multimedia expansion of computers and video game consoles in the mid-1990s, primarily because of the increased capacity offered by the laserdisc format. Interactive movies started on arcade machines in 1983, but quickly expanded to computers and video game consoles such as the Sega CD, the Phillips CD-i and the 3DO Interactive Multiplayer. The games are characterized by more emphasis on cinematic sequences, using full-motion video and voice acting. Interactive movie games have been made in several genres, including adventure games, rail shooters, and role-playing games. The first interactive movie game was Dragon's Lair, originally released in the arcades in 1983, making it the first game to use a laserdisc and animation by Don Bluth, a man who worked for Disney on features like Robin Hood, The Rescuers, and Pete's Dragon, but later worked for other film companies like United Artists (All Dogs Go to Heaven) and Universal Studios (The Land Before Time). In Dragon's Lair, you control the actions of a daring knight named Dirk, to save a princess from an evil dragon, hence the name of the game. Since the dawn of this exact game, more and more companies have influenced the technology used and decided to make their interactive movie games for arcades and consoles. A more recent Interactive movie title is called 'Bandersnatch'. This movie sets you on a plot of a young 80's programmer named Stefan Butler. The movie lets the viewer choose different plot trajectories for the main character questioning reality throughout the way. The birth of the 'interactive movie' genre was studded with unimpressive flops, though the genre later came into its own; at the time, video-capture technology was still in its infancy, with short (and often grainy and low-quality) video segments being the norm for games of any length. Video game and traditional media forms With the rapid convergence of all media types into a digital form, video games are also beginning to affect, and be affected by traditional media forms. In history, the Television engineer Ralph Baer, who conceived the idea of an interactive television while building a television set from scratch created the first video game. Video games are now also being exploited by pay-TV companies which allow you to simply attach your computer or console to the television cable system and you can simply download the latest game. Games act on television, with the player choosing to enter the artificial world. The constructed meanings in video games are more influential than those of traditional media forms. The reason is that 'games interact with the audience in a dialogue of emotion, action, and reaction'. The interactivity means this occurs to a depth that is not possible in the traditional media forms. Computer games have developed in parallel to both the video game and the arcade video game. The personal computer and console machines such as the Dreamcast, Nintendo GameCube, PlayStation 2 and Xbox offered a new dimension to game playing. The consoles have now largely been replaced by the Xbox 360, Wii and, the PlayStation 4, and the personal computer is still a leading gaming machine. Games are the first new computer-based media form to socialize a generation of youth in a way that traditional media forms have in the past. Therefore, the 'MTV generation' has been overtaken by the 'Nintendo generation'; however, some refer to the current generation as the 'iPod Generation'. Because they straddle the technologies of television and computers, electronic games are a channel through which we can investigate the various impacts of new media and the technologies of convergence. See also References Nerd culture

28030975

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20A.%20Freeman

Peter A. Freeman

Peter A. Freeman is the founding dean of Georgia Tech's College of Computing, a position he held from 1990 to 2002. Freeman was assistant director of the National Science Foundation from 2002 to 2007. Freeman has been emeritus dean of the Georgia Tech College of Computing since 2007. He is currently the director of the Washington Advisory Group. Freeman is a Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, the Association for Computing Machinery, and the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Education Freeman received a Bachelor of Arts in physics and mathematics from Rice University in 1963, a Master of Arts in mathematics and psychology from the University of Texas at Austin in 1965, and a Ph.D. in computer science from Carnegie Mellon University in 1970. Early career After graduation from Carnegie Mellon, Freeman was a researcher, professor, and administrator at the University of California, Irvine's Department of Information & Computer Science from 1971 to 1987, where he focused on artificial intelligence and software engineering research, funded primarily by the National Science Foundation. Freeman is one of the founders of software engineering education, starting a course on the subject in 1974. During the course of his career at UC Irvine, Freeman also administered the undergraduate and graduate programs and served as the department chair. In 1987, Freeman became the director of the National Science Foundation's Division of Computer and Computation Research; in this post, he managed about $20 million in grants each year, and helped develop the High Performance Computing and Communications program. For a year after his post at NSF, Freeman served as a Visiting Distinguished Professor at George Mason University (1989–1990) to assist in the creation of a computing program at that university. Recent career From 1992 to 1995, Freeman became the chief information officer of the Georgia Institute of Technology, and oversaw their Office of Information Technology (OIT) as it prepared for the 1996 Summer Olympics. At the time, OIT had an annual budget of $10 million. When Georgia Tech was reorganized in 1988 under the administration of John Patrick Crecine (see History of Georgia Tech), the School of Information and Computer Science was promoted to college status, on the same administrative level as Georgia Tech's mainstay, the College of Engineering. Thus the Georgia Tech College of Computing was created. Freeman was selected as the college's founding dean and oversaw the program's transition and subsequent rapid growth; he would hold this post until 2002. Under his administration, the school added three research centers (including the Georgia Tech Information Security Center), increased research funding from $2 million annually to $10 million annually, hired 55 faculty members, and secured millions in funding for the construction of the College of Computing Building. From 2002 to 2007 Freeman was held the position of Georgia Tech professor while he served as one of seven assistant directors of the National Science Foundation. At NSF, he led the $1 billion Information Technology Research program, helped form the GENI Project, led the Cyber-enabled Discovery and Innovation Initiative, and led initiatives to revitalize computer science education and attract minorities to computing. In 2007, Freeman was named Emeritus Dean of the Georgia Tech College of Computing; in this position he consults with current administrators, faculty, and students; gives lectures and writes op-eds promoting issues in computer science. Since 2007, Freeman has been the director of the Washington Advisory Group, where he advises on policy issues related to secondary education and research in STEM fields to companies, universities, governments, and non-profit organizations. References Living people Rice University alumni University of Texas at Austin alumni Carnegie Mellon University alumni Georgia Tech faculty University of California, Irvine faculty United States National Science Foundation officials George Mason University faculty American computer scientists Fellow Members of the IEEE Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery Fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science 1941 births Chief information officers

16800376

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optware

Optware

Optware is a free software package manager for embedded systems. Originally developed as a distribution mechanism for the Unslung Linux distribution for the Linksys NSLU2, Optware has been adopted by a variety of hobbyist communities and device developers. Optware has been used on a number of platforms, including the webOS community working on the Palm Pre and Pixi, the WL-500g, WL-HDD, WL-500gx, WL-500gP Asus routers, Plug computers (Pogoplug V1, V2, Pro, Biz, Dockstars, etc.), Asustor and Synology NAS devices. In late 2010, the first Optware for Android was released by the Novaports team for the Nook Color. Optware is no longer maintained. The authors have switched to Optware-ng. Supported platforms Optware packages currently run on the following devices: Linksys NSLU2 with Unslung firmware Asus routers with USB and WL-700gE WL-HDD with Oleg's or OpenWrt or DD-WRT firmware Certain Netgear routers with DD-WRT or Tomato firmware Asustor on their entire AS-xxxx range Synology DS-101, DS-101g+ and DS-101j with custom bootstrapping QNAP Turbo NAS Maxtor Shared Storage with OpenMSS firmware Maxtor Shared Storage II (MSSII) with custom bootstrapping Iomega NAS 100d with LudeOS Nokia N800/N810 from cs05q1armel feed (install ipkg-opt) Freecom FSG-3 with custom bootstrapping Palm Pre, Pre Plus, Palm Pixi, Pixi Plus, Palm Pre Emulator and HP TouchPad (with ipkg-opt from Preware) Plug computers (Sheevaplug, Pogoplug V1, V2, Pro, Biz, Dockstar, etc.) WD TV devices running WDLXTV custom firmware (WD TV Gen 1, WD TV Live, etc.) Android devices (Nook Color, etc.) e-ink Kindle devices TP-Link WR1043nd v1 with DD-WRT firmware References External links Optware Feeds Optware source code Optware-ng source code Entware, an alternative to Optware. Linux package management-related software NSLU2-Linux

62921416

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020%20Australia%20Day%20Honours

2020 Australia Day Honours

The 2020 Australia Day Honours are appointments to various orders and honours to recognise and reward good works by Australian citizens. The list was announced on 26 January 2020 by the Governor General of Australia, David Hurley. The Australia Day Honours are the first of the two major annual honours lists, the first announced to coincide with Australia Day (26 January), with the other being the Queen's Birthday Honours, which are announced on the second Monday in June. Order of Australia Companion of the Order of Australia (AC) General Division Her Excellency the Honourable Margaret Joan Beazley, – For eminent service to the people of New South Wales, particularly through leadership roles in the judiciary, and as a mentor of young women lawyers. Professor Margaret Elaine Gardner, – For eminent service to tertiary education through leadership and innovation in teaching and learning, research and financial sustainability. The Hon. Chief Justice Catherine Ena Holmes – For eminent service to the judiciary, notably to criminal, administrative, and mental health law, and to the community of Queensland. Professor Bruce Gregory Robinson, – For eminent service to medical research, and to national healthcare, through policy development and reform, and to tertiary education. Professor Anthony William Thomas – For eminent service to scientific education and research, particularly in the field of nuclear and particle physics, through academic leadership roles. Officer of the Order of Australia (AO) General Division Ilana Rachel Atlas – For distinguished service to the financial and manufacturing sectors, to education, and to the arts. The Hon. Edward Norman Baillieu – For distinguished service to the people and Parliament of Victoria, particularly as Premier, and to international engagement. Professor Larissa Behrendt – For distinguished service to Indigenous education and research, to the law, and to the visual and performing arts. Distinguished Professor Genevieve Bell – For distinguished service to education, particularly to the social sciences and cultural anthropology. Dr John Michael Bennett, – For distinguished service to the law through prolific authorship of biographies of eminent members of the legal profession. Emeritus Professor John Bloomfield, – For distinguished service to higher education in the field of sports science, and to professional sporting organisations. Sarah Bradley – For distinguished service to the law, and to the judiciary, to women in the legal profession, and to the community. Professor Shaun Patrick Brennecke – For distinguished service to medical education and research in the fields of obstetrics and gynaecology, and to professional societies. Professor Rachelle Buchbinder – For distinguished service to medical education in the fields of epidemiology and rheumatology, and to professional associations. Professor Robert Graham Cumming – For distinguished service to medical education and research, particularly to ageing and age-related diseases. Charles Roderick Curwen, – For distinguished service to the Crown, and to public administration in Victoria, to medical research, and to Australia-China business relations. Professor John Kinley Dewar – For distinguished service to education through leadership roles in the universities sector, and to professional organisations. Ian Ross Donges – For distinguished service to primary industry, and to the community of rural New South Wales. Ronald Patrick Dullard – For distinguished service to education in Western Australia, to local government, and to the community. Peter Adalbert Fritz, – For distinguished service to business, particularly to information technology and communications, and to public policy. Graham Burton Goldsmith – For distinguished service to the community through philanthropic foundations, to education, and to the banking and employment sectors. Robert Malcolm Goot, – For distinguished service to the Jewish community through executive roles with educational, cultural and social welfare bodies. James Gorman – For distinguished service to the finance and banking sectors through executive roles at the national and international level. Dr Donald Morrison Grant, – For distinguished service to surveying, particularly through the establishment of a combined public sector mapping agency. Gillian Margaret Groom – For distinguished service to the community through healthcare, medical research, and social welfare organisations, and to the law. Emeritus Professor Jules Mitchell Guss – For distinguished service to education and scientific research in the field of molecular bioscience, and to professional organisations. Jane Caroline Hansen – For distinguished service to the community, to education and cultural institutions, and through philanthropic support for charitable foundations. Ian Andrew Healy – For distinguished service to cricket at the national and international level as a player, to the broadcast media, and to the community. Professor Hal Christopher Hill – For distinguished service to education in the field of economic policy development, and to Australia-Indonesia relations. Commissioner Darren Leigh Hine – For distinguished service to law enforcement as Commissioner of Police in Tasmania, and to the community. Peter John Hood – For distinguished service to business and commerce at the state, national and international level, and to the resources sector. Julie Kantor – For distinguished service to the community through philanthropy, to Indigenous governance initiatives, and to the visual and performing arts. Samuel Lipski, – For distinguished service to the community through the promotion of strategic philanthropy, to education, and to Australia-Israel relations. Dr Linley Margaret Martin – For distinguished service to education, particularly to student equity, educational standards and academic administration. Kevin McCann, – For distinguished service to business, to corporate governance, and as an advocate for gender equity. Professor Peter Joseph McCluskey – For distinguished service to ophthalmology, and to medical education, to eye health organisations, and to the community. Jacqui Elizabeth McGill – For distinguished service to the minerals and mining sector, and to gender equity and workplace diversity. Professor Peter McIntyre – For distinguished service to medicine, and to medical education, to child and adolescent health, and to professional bodies. Major General David John McLachlan, (Mil) (Retd) – For distinguished service to veterans and their families through roles with social welfare and commemoration organisations. Fiona Margaret McLeod – For distinguished service to the law, and to the legal profession, at the national and international level, and to women lawyers. Campbell Kevin Newman – For distinguished service to the people and Parliament of Queensland, particularly as Premier, and to local government. The Hon. Barry Robert O'Farrell – For distinguished service to the people and Parliament of New South Wales, particularly as Premier, and to the community. Professor John (Michael) Holroyd Permezel – For distinguished service to medicine, and to medical education, in the fields of obstetrics and gynaecology, and to professional colleges. Professor John Reginald Piggott – For distinguished service to education, to population ageing research, and to public finance policy development. Michael John Rice – For distinguished service to business and economics, particularly to the actuarial profession, and through advisory roles. Professor Alison Joan Ritter – For distinguished service to education, to drug and alcohol research and social policy, and to professional medical societies. Professor Roy Michael Robins-Browne – For distinguished service to medical education and research in the field of microbiology and immunology, and to professional groups. Professor Matthew Roy Sanders – For distinguished service to education and research in clinical psychology, and to child, parent and family wellbeing. Professor Robert (John) Simes – For distinguished service to education, and to medicine, in the field of cancer research and clinical trials. Emeritus Professor Raymond Louis Specht – For distinguished service to science, and to education, in the fields of botany, plant ecology and conservation. Laureate Professor Geoffrey Wayne Stevens – For distinguished service to education, to chemical engineering and environmental remediation, and as a mentor. Ian Duncan Stewart – For distinguished service to law enforcement as Commissioner of Police in Queensland, and to the community. The late Dr Enrico Taglietti – For distinguished service to architecture, particularly in the Australian Capital Territory, to education, and to professional organisations. Anne Lorraine Trimmer – For distinguished service to the law, and to the legal profession, to healthcare standards and policy, and to education. Keith Lionel Urban – For distinguished service to the performing arts as a singer and songwriter, and to charitable organisations. The Hon. Amanda Eloise Vanstone – For distinguished service to the Parliament of Australia, to the people of South Australia, and to the community. Dr Brian Harrison Walker – For distinguished service to science, particularly to ecosystem ecology and research, and to professional scientific bodies. Professor Rachel Lindsey Webster – For distinguished service to education in the field of astrophysics, to astronomical research, and to young women scientists. Gwen Wetzig – For distinguished service to the international community of the Democratic Republic of Congo through medical support, teaching and training programs. Dr Neil Robert Wetzig – For distinguished service to the international community of the Democratic Republic of Congo through medical support, teaching and training programs. George Bernard Wright – For distinguished service to parliament and politics as National Secretary of the Australian Labor Party, and to business. Professor Jeffrey David Zajac – For distinguished service to medical research and education, particularly in the field of endocrinology, and to professional societies. Military Division Lieutenant General Gregory Charles Bilton, – For distinguished service in the appointments of Deputy Commanding General of the United States Army in the Pacific, Deputy Chief of Joint Operations and Commander Forces Command. Honorary Hugo Wallace Weaving – For distinguished service to the performing arts as an actor, and as a mentor of young writers, directors and film makers. Dr Robyn Williams, – For distinguished service to science as a journalist, radio presenter and author, and to education. Member of the Order of Australia (AM) General Division John Arthur Abbott – For significant service to education, and to the resources sector. Professor Mohamad Abdalla – For significant service to education in the field of Islamic studies.                        Anthony Abrahams – For significant service to Australia-France relations, and to the law. Rosemary Therese Langford Addis – For significant service to social innovation and impact investment, and to the law. Robert Harold Annells – For significant service to the tourism and hospitality sector, and to public administration. Bettina Mary Arndt – For significant service to the community as a social commentator, and to gender equity through advocacy for men. Dr Anne Marie Astin – For significant service to the dairy industry, and to food safety regulations. John Charles Batten – For significant service to orthopaedic medicine, and to professional bodies. Kenneth Peter Baxter – For significant service to public administration, and to agricultural reform. Professor Emerita Joan Errington Beaumont – For significant service to education, particularly to the study of war history. Emeritus Professor Warren Arthur Bebbington – For significant service to education, particularly to the study of music. Faye Lorraine Berryman – For significant service to education, to literacy, and to the community. John David Bevins – For significant service to community health and social welfare organisations. Dr Geoffrey Neville Boughton – For significant service to engineering, and to professional bodies. Emeritus Professor Thomas (John) Boulton – For significant service to medical education, and to paediatric medicine. Dr Stephen James Bourke – For significant service to the international community of Jordan through archaeological projects. Dr Frank Patrick Brennan – For significant service to palliative medicine, and to medical education. Dr David Stewart Briggs – For significant service to community health management, and to education. Emeritus Professor Richard Laurence Broome – For significant service to education in the field of history, and to historical groups. Bruce Richard Brown – For significant service to the pearling industry, and to marine research. Lyndon Mayfield Brown – For significant service to the pearling industry, and to marine research. The Hon. Dr Meredith Anne Burgmann – For significant service to the people and Parliament of New South Wales. Elaine Cafferty Carbines – For significant service to conservation and the environment. Garry Raymond Casey – For significant service to the community through emergency response organisations. Professor Anthony E. Cassimatis – For significant service to education, to the law, and to the community. Melanie Grace Champion De Crespigny – For significant service to youth through charitable organisations. Annabelle Chaplain – For significant service to business through a range of executive roles. Professor Pierre Henri Chapuis – For significant service to medical education, and to colorectal surgery. Lisa Chung – For significant service to the community through charitable and cultural organisations. Dr Christopher John Clements – For significant service to international public health through immunisation programs. The late Dr Stephen Vincent Coles – For significant service to veterinary science, and to professional bodies. Dr John Paxton Collins – For significant service to medicine, particularly to breast cancer treatment. Dr Joseph James Collins – For significant service to the community through charitable initiatives. Shane Owen Colquhoun – For significant service to performing and cultural arts administration. Deborah Anne Conway – For significant service to the performing arts as a singer, songwriter and producer. Glenise Maxine Coulthard – For significant service to Aboriginal health in South Australia, and to emergency response organisations. Jane Selby Covernton – For significant service to the literary arts as a publisher of children's books. Marita Louise Cowie – For significant service to community health in rural and remote areas. Catherine (Emily) Cox – For significant service to the performing arts through choral music. The Hon. Dr Mary Catherine Crawford – For significant service to women, and to the people and Parliament of Australia. Judith Margaret Cross – For significant service to community health through social welfare organisations. Emeritus Professor Brendan Crotty – For significant service to health education, and to the community. Dyan Elizabeth Currie – For significant service to town planning and strategic urban development. Dr Geoffrey Michael Currie – For significant service to nuclear medicine and medical radiation science. David Edmund Curtain, – For significant service to the law, and to professional legal organisations. Henry Gibson Dan – For significant service to music, and to the Indigenous community. Sara Megan David – For significant service to international humanitarian health programs. Sarah Kate Davies – For significant service to the community through a range of executive roles. Professor Karen Patricia Day – For significant service to science education, and to global public health. Professor Richard de Dear – For significant service to education, particularly the design of the built environment. Damian John de Marco – For significant service to the community as a child safety advocate. Dr Leoni Marilyn Degenhardt – For significant service to education through the independent schools sector. Maria Dimopoulos – For significant service to women, to cultural diversity, and to the prevention of domestic violence. Carl John Dowd – For significant service to the community through philanthropic endeavours. Justin Joseph Dowd – For significant service to family law, and to professional associations. Wendy Dowd – For significant service to the community through philanthropic endeavours. The Reverend Ann Bryson Drummond – For significant service to the Uniting Church in Australia, and to women. Dr Gillian Mary Duchesne – For significant service to radiation oncology medicine, and to professional medical organisations. The late Juli Dugdale – For significant service to young women through leadership development organisations. Dr Robert John Edgar – For significant service to the banking and finance sectors, and to medical research organisations. Professor Harriet Edquist – For significant service to architectural history and design, and to higher education. Dr Paul Elias Eliadis – For significant service to medicine as a clinical haematologist, and to charitable initiatives. Allan English – For significant service to the community through philanthropic endeavours. Lynette Gwenyth English – For significant service to mental health and consumer support organisations. Wesley James Enoch – For significant service to the performing arts as an Indigenous director and playwright. Terence Charles Evans – For significant service to higher education, to health organisations, and to the law. Dr Graham John Faichney – For significant service to science in the fields of animal nutrition and physiology. Dr Ian James Fairnie – For significant service to the community, and to veterinary and agricultural organisations. Andrew Charles Farriss – For significant service to the performing arts as a musician, composer and producer. Mary Featherston – For significant service to the arts, particularly to interior and industrial design. Paul James Field – For significant service to the arts, particularly to children's entertainment, and as a supporter of charitable endeavours. Emeritus Professor John Joseph Fitzgerald – For significant service to higher education, particularly in the field of Chinese studies. Diane Mildred Fleming – For significant service to Australia-Africa relations, and to education. Peter Charles Flinn – For significant service to agricultural research through the promotion of near-infrared spectroscopy. The late John Clement Fordham, – For significant service to the community through philanthropic support for a range of foundations. George Cameron Fox – For significant service to the law, to professional legal organisations, and to the community. Professor Raelene Frances – For significant service to history studies as a teacher, researcher and author. Christine Franks – For significant service to the community through social welfare initiatives. Dr Erica Frydenberg – For significant service to psychology as a researcher, educator and adviser. Kim Gillis – For significant service to public administration, and to defence projects. Emeritus Professor Jeffrey Denys Goldsworthy – For significant service to education, particularly to legal history and philosophy. Rachel Ann Griffiths – For significant service to the performing arts as an actor. Johanna Leigh Griggs – For significant service to community health, to television, and to sport. Matthew Thomas Grounds – For significant service to the financial investment sector, and to the community. Dr Sanghamitra Guha – For significant service to medicine, and to medical education. Emeritus Professor Anthony John Guttmann – For significant service to the mathematical sciences, and to education. Allan Thomas Haggarty – For significant service to the community through a range of roles. The Hon. Hartley Roland Hansen, – For significant service to the law, and to professional associations. Dallas Elspeth Hayden – For significant service to the Australian community. Dr Janice Leona Hills – For significant service to veterinary science, and to the community. Dr Vedella May Hinckley – For significant service to medicine as a plastic and reconstructive surgeon. Bella Hirshorn – For significant service to the Jewish community, and to women. Trina Coral Hockley – For significant service to the community, and to business. Grant Donald Hunt – For significant service to the tourism and hospitality sectors. Jennifer Ruth Hurley – For significant service to the community through charitable organisations. Geoffrey Ian Huston – For significant service to science, and through pioneering roles with the internet. Dr Alison Scott Inglis – For significant service to education, and to the museum and galleries sector. Catherine Mary Inglis – For significant service to the building and construction industry. Dr Robyn Rae Iredale – For significant service to people with an intellectual disability, and to education. David Harley Jacobs – For significant service to Australia-Japan relations, and to business. Dr Miles Gareth Jakeman – For significant service to business, to national security, and to the community. Dr Gael Jennings – For significant service to science, and to the broadcast media. Alana Therese Johnson – For significant service to women through leadership and advisory roles. Professor Margaret Anne Jolly – For significant service to education, particularly to gender and Pacific studies. Rabbi Zalman Kastel – For significant service to interfaith and intercultural understanding and acceptance. Barry Leonard Kelly – For significant service to the mining and minerals sectors, and to business. The Hon. Charles Roderick Kemp – For significant service to the Parliament of Australia, and to the people of Victoria. Rae Merlyn Kingsbury – For significant service to the international community of Timor Leste. Christine Elizabeth Kirby – For significant service to the community, and to women. Professor Martin Evald Krygier – For significant service to legal education, and to professional associations. Murray Wayne Lampard APM – For significant service to the community of Western Australia. Douglas Lawrence, – For significant service to the performing arts, particularly to chamber choirs. Helen Louise Leake – For significant service to film, and to professional organisations. Dr David Ronald Leece – For significant service to the environment, and to defence and security studies. Dr Michael Kwok Leung – For significant service to medicine, and to the international community. Rose Lew – For significant service to the community, and to philanthropy. Dorothy Hazel Lipmann – For significant service to the elderly, and to the visual arts. Susan Mary Logie-Smith – For significant service to the decorative and fine arts. The late Eric William Lumsden – For significant service to public administration, and to planning. Kenneth Duncan Macdonald – For significant service to the law, and to the legal profession. Jenni Mack – For significant service to business through consumer advocacy roles. Dr Robert David Macpherson – For significant service to the visual arts. Robin (Bobbi) Mahlab – For significant service to women, to publishing, and to philanthropy. Keelen Marie Mailman – For significant service to the Indigenous community of Queensland. Michael Kevin Malouf – For significant service to local government, and to the community of Victoria. Professor Lenore Hilda Manderson – For significant service to education, particularly medical anthropology, and to public health. Duncan Antony Marshall – For significant service to heritage conservation. Julie Marie Mason – For significant service to the community, and to education. Janet Patricia Matton – For significant service to the information technology and health sectors. Rachael Zoa Maza – For significant service to the performing arts as an artistic director. Kathryn Anne McClymont – For significant service to the print media, and to investigative journalism. Vicki Gayle McDonald – For significant service to librarianship, and to professional associations. Catherine (Ludo) McFerran – For significant service to women and children, and to social justice. Graham Robert McKenzie-Smith – For significant service to military history preservation, and to forestry. Dr Helen Diana McLean – For significant service to dentistry, and to professional associations. Dr Suzanne Bridget McNicol, – For significant service to the law, and to the legal profession. Paul Joseph Mercurio – For significant service to the performing arts, particularly to dance. Janine Louise Middleton – For significant service to the LGBTIQ community, and to marriage equality. Timothy David Minchin – For significant service to the performing arts, and to the community. Heather Lee Mitchell – For significant service to the performing arts, and to the community. Professor Marjory Lucy Moodie – For significant service to education, particularly to health economics. Cathi Moore – For significant service to young women, and to the community. The Reverend Canon Dr John Laurence Morgan – For significant service to education, and to the Anglican Church of Australia. John Patrick Mullen – For significant service to business, and to the community. Patricia Anne Murray – For significant service to the community through family social welfare associations. Dr Anthony Leigh Mylius – For significant service to community health, and to cardiology. Professor Marea Nicholson – For significant service to education, and to professional standards. Melissa Noonan – For significant service to people with a disability. Professor Pauline Margaret Nugent – For significant service to education, and to nursing. Emeritus Professor John Frederick O'Callaghan – For significant service to information technology, and to education. Caroline Ann O'Connor – For significant service to the performing arts, particularly to musical theatre. The late Patricia Maria O'Donnell – For significant service to the community through a range of roles. William Patrick O'Shea – For significant service to the legal profession, and to the community. Dr John William Orchard – For significant service to sports medicine, particularly to cricket. Peter John Overton – For significant service to the broadcast media, and to the community. David Philip Paratz – For significant service to the Jewish community of Queensland, and to the law. Colleen Georgette Pearce – For significant service to the community through public advocacy roles. Dr Peter Andreas Pedersen – For significant service to military history as an author and researcher. Robert Maxwell Penfold – For significant service to the broadcast media, and to journalism. The late Lieutenant Colonel Barry Petersen, (Retd) – For significant service to the international community of Thailand. Sabine Cornelia Phillips – For significant service to aged welfare, and to the legal profession. Peter James Plummer – For significant service to higher education, to health research, and to public administration. Professor Laura Poole-Warren – For significant service to education, and to biomedical engineering. Emeritus Professor Sharman Ellen Pretty – For significant service to music education, and to the performing arts. The late Professor Steven Russell Raine – For significant service to soil science and agriculture, and to education. The late Daniel Leo Reardon – For significant service to the community of Tasmania through social welfare and charitable organisations. Jennifer Mary Richter – For significant service to medical administration, and to community health. Emeritus Professor Staniforth Ricketson – For significant service to legal education, and to intellectual property law. Dr Peter William Riddles – For significant service to science, to biotechnology, and to innovation. The Hon. Fredrick Riebeling – For significant service to the people and Parliament of Western Australia. Gary Phillip Roberts – For significant service to the broadcast media, particularly to radio. David Michael Ross – For significant service to the Indigenous community of Central Australia. Violet Roumeliotis – For significant service to the community, particularly to refugee support. Dr Walter John Russell – For significant service to medicine in the field of anaesthesia, and to medical health standards. Dr Sabar Rustomjee – For significant service to psychotherapy, and to community health. Dr John Dominic Santamaria – For significant service to intensive care medicine. Janine Sargeant – For significant service to medical administration through a range of roles. Marion Albertje Saville – For significant service to women's health through cervical screening initiatives. George Savvides – For significant service to the community, to charitable groups, and to business. Michael James Scott – For significant service to urban development, and to the community. Robyn Margaret Sexton – For significant service to the law, and to the judiciary. Dr Errol Vernon Seymour – For significant service to the oil and gas industry, and to engineering. Emeritus Professor Cindy Shannon – For significant service to Indigenous health, and to medical education. Professor Robert Keith Shepherd – For significant service to biomedical research, and to education. Vianney Shiel – For significant service to electronic engineering, and to education. John A Simpson – For significant service to people who are blind or have low vision. Christine Lois Simpson Stokes – For significant service to the community through cultural organisations. Keith Nichol Slater – For significant service to cricket, Australian rules football, and baseball, in Western Australia. Dr Judith Beryl Smart – For significant service to education, to social research, and to women. Damien John Smith – For significant service to business through a range of roles. Georgina Jane Somerset – For significant service to primary industry, to women, and to the community. Carol (Carlotta) Spencer – For significant service to the performing arts, and to the LGBTIQ community. Claire Elena Spencer – For significant service to arts administration, and to the community. The late Jeremy Mark Spinak – For significant service to the Jewish community, to multicultural relations, and to interfaith dialogue. Julie Anne Steiner – For significant service to business through a range of roles. Emeritus Professor Vivian Bruce Sunderland – For significant service to education, particularly to pharmacy. Dr Robert Jeffrey Sward – For significant service to primary industry, to genetechnology, and to the Jewish community. Professor Acram Momolook Taji – For significant service to education, particularly to horticultural science and plant biotechnology. Dr Peter George Thorne – For significant service to computer science education, and to history. Robert Murray Torrance – For significant service to the building and construction industry. Vincent Tremaine – For significant service to shipping infrastructure and freight transport. Dr Mathew Ansel Trinca Talalin – For significant service to the museums and galleries sector. Professor Kenneth Thomas Trotman – For significant service to education, particularly to accounting. Daniel Philip Tucker – For significant service to mining, and to the Indigenous community. Michael Robert Tyack – For significant service to the performing arts as a musical director. Richard Ashton Warner – For significant service to agricultural research and development. Professor Lea Elizabeth Waters-Scholes – For significant service to education, and to psychology. Emeritus Professor Roderick Tucker Wells – For significant service to education, and to the biological sciences. Dr Ann Felicity Westmore – For significant service to medical history, and to science communication. Emeritus Professor Edward Thomas White – For significant service to higher education, particularly to chemical engineering. Tracey Whiting – For significant service to the museums and galleries sector. Georgina Dulcie Williams – For significant service to the Indigenous community through advocacy roles. John Denis Witheriff – For significant service to business, and to the community of the Gold Coast. Dr Dedee Daryl Woodside – For significant service to animal conservation, and to zoological organisations. Dr Graeme Leonard Worboys – For significant service to conservation and the environment, and to the community. Heathcote McMichael Wright, – For significant service to the law, and to the performing arts. Dr Desiree Swei-Lien Yap – For significant service to women's health, and to medicine. Professor Justin John Yerbury – For significant service to education and research in the field of biological sciences. John Zerunge Young – For significant service to the visual arts, and as a role model. Military Division Brigadier Michael Charles Ashleigh – For exceptional service as Director Logistics - Army, Director General Strategic Logistics and Commander Australian Army Cadets. Lieutenant Colonel Alyson Marie Auliff – For exceptional service to the Australian Defence Force in malaria research. Captain Warren James Bairstow, – For exceptional service to the Royal Australian Navy in the field of command and leadership. Air Commodore Wendy Blyth – For exceptional service to the Australian Defence Force in C-130J Super Hercules sustainment reform; and in P-8A Poseidon capability development and system sustainment. Captain Shane Andrew Craig, – For exceptional performance of duty in Royal Australian Navy command and management positions. Colonel Nicholas James Foxall – For exceptional service in command and leadership and significantly enhancing the operational effects and capabilities of the Australian Defence Force. Major General Andrew William Freeman – For exceptional service to the Australian Defence Force as Commander 17th Brigade, Director General Land Operations, and Director Logistics - Army. Air Commodore Philip Stephen Gordon – For exceptional service in aerospace capability development, air combat preparedness and operations management and control for the Australian Defence Force. Brigadier Stephen John Jobson, – For exceptional service as Commandant Army Recruit Training Centre, Commander 16th Aviation Brigade and Commander Joint Task Force 646. Group Captain Leanne Patricia Lee – For exceptional service in airworthiness practice, F-35 Joint Strike Fighter operational certification, and E-7A Airborne Early Warning and Control sustainment for the Australian Defence Force. Colonel Andrew John McBaron – For exceptional service as the Director of Officer Career Management - Army, Career Adviser for General Service Officer Lieutenant Colonels, and Staff Officer Grade One Establishments. Air Commodore Kenneth John Robinson, – For exceptional service to the Australian Defence Force in international engagement, personnel management and administration, and combat support development and sustainment. Air Commodore Gerald Anthony Van Leeuwen, – For exceptional service to the Australian Defence Force in aerospace capability development, major capital acquisition, and air combat sustainment. Honorary Elisabeth Margaret Newman – For significant service to women at the national and international level. Roland Sylvester Peelman – For significant service to music. Constance Kimberly Seagram – For significant service to tourism, and to business, in Tasmania. Glenn Barrie Shorrock – For significant service to the performing arts as a singer, songwriter and entertainer. Medal of the Order of Australia (OAM) General Division Robert John Abbot – For service to local government, and to the communities of Noosa and the Sunshine Coast. Sandra Gai Ackers – For service to the community through charitable initiatives. Lindsay Mark Adams – For service to the professional speaking industry. Joanna Geraldine Agius – For service to people who are deaf or hard of hearing, and to the Indigenous community. Dr Qazi Ashfaq Ahmad – For service to the Muslim community, and to interfaith relations. Julie Christine Ainsworth – For service to the community of Newcastle. Daryl James Akers – For service to conservation and the environment. Margaret Alice Aldous – For service to nursing. Alison Moorna Alexander – For service to the tourism and hospitality industry. Diana Joy Alexander – For service to education, and to the community of Lockhart. Geoffrey Robert Alexander – For service to the community of Shepparton. Brian Leslie Allen – For service to education in developing countries, and to the community. Ronda May Alterator – For service to netball. Julie Michelle Anderson – For service to veterans and their families. Robyn McDonald Anderson – For service to children through hospital charitable organisations. Rebecca Andrews – For service to the community of West Papua, and to equestrian organisations. Phillip Nicholas Antippa – For service to thoracic surgery, and to music. Lorna Apelt – For service to aged welfare. Joseph (Yossi) Aron – For service to the Jewish community of Victoria. Charles Albert Aronson – For service to the Jewish community of New South Wales. Antonio Arrigo – For service to the community of Bunyip. Julie Ann Arthur – For service to local government, and to the community of the Fraser Coast. Robert Barry Auston – For service to veterans through a range of organisations. Patricia Joyce Bailey – For service to the community of Cairns, and to rugby league. Rosanna Baini – For service to the Lebanese community of Victoria. Glenn McGregor Baker – For service to children through charitable organisations. Jason Paul Baker – For service to rowing. Dianne Ball – For service to the Indigenous community of the Hunter. Laurie Ernest Barber – For service to the community of Port Macquarie. Leonard Robert Barlow – For service to veterans and their families. Eve Barratt – For service to the community through social welfare organisations. Richard Joseph Barry – For service to veterans and their families, and to the community of Narrabri. Patrick Joseph Bartolo – For service to the Maltese community of New South Wales. Nancy Dawn Bates – For service to the community of Maryborough. Joel Becker – For service to literary organisations. Lisa Ann Beehag – For service to netball. Lindsay Gregory Beer – For service to the community through a range of organisations. Neville Dickson Bell – For service to horse racing, and to the community of Caboolture. Richard Palmer Bennett – For service to photography. Albert Bensimon – For service to business, and to the community. Suzanne Bergersen – For service to swimming. Harry Herman Better – For service to the Jewish community of Victoria. Russell (John) Beynon – For service to the community of Bairnsdale. Jocelyn Bignold – For service to the community through social welfare organisations. Richard Beresford Bignold – For service to surf lifesaving. William Hugh Biscoe – For service to the community of the Barossa. Helen Margaret Black – For service to the community of Pittsworth. Lawrence Peter Black – For service to primary industry, and to the community. The Reverend Margaret Jane Blair – For service to the Uniting Church in Australia. Simon Leigh Bloomer – For service to veterans and their families. Brian Stuart Blythe – For service to business, and to the community. Rosalind Bodley – For service to the community through a range of organisations. David Kevin Booth – For service to the community of Gosford. Mark P S Bourchier – For service to the community of South Australia. Dr Michael John Bowden – For service to the Indigenous community of the Northern Territory. Wayne Morris Bowden – For service to music, particularly through brass bands. Lillian Ruth Bowen – For service to the Indigenous community of Cape York. Peter William Boyes – For service to the community of Queensland. Connell Francis Brannelly – For service to the community of Darwin. Coralie Elizabeth Brannelly – For service to the community of Darwin. Eulalie Perry Brewster – For service to the community of Inverloch. Jonathan Ashley Briggs – For service to community history. Rear Admiral Peter Douglas Briggs, (Retd) – For service to the preservation, commemoration and promotion of Australian naval heritage. Darryl Gregory Brohman – For service to rugby league. Aubrey Gordon Brooks – For service to the community of Newcastle. Dr Catherine Janet Brown – For service to the community through charitable organisations. Noeline Mabel Brown – For service to the performing arts as an actor and entertainer. Raymond Brown – For service to conservation and the environment. Thelma June Bryan – For service to youth, and to swimming. Joseph Francis Buhagiar – For service to the community of the Southern Highlands. The late Robert Charles Bulley – For service to the community through charitable organisations. Judy Charlotte Burke – For service to community health. Patricia L Burke – For service to the community through charitable organisations. Robyne Margaret Burridge – For service to people with a disability. Maree Rosalie Byrne – For service to the community of the Southern Highlands. Georgina Byrom – For service to the Anglican Church of Australia, and to education. Kenneth James Callander – For service to horse racing as a journalist and presenter. Dr Donald Graham Campbell – For service to trauma medicine. Donald Percival Cant – For service to the community through a range of organisations. Karen Elizabeth Carey – For service to secondary education. Cedric Lyle Carr – For service to the community of Geelong, and to accountancy. Geoffrey Marc Carr – For service to rugby league. Peter James Carter – For service to canoeing. Mark Caruana – For service to the Maltese community of New South Wales. Sister Monica Mary Cavanagh – For service to the Catholic Church of Australia. Jahna Cedar – For service to the Indigenous community of Western Australia. Umesh Chandra – For service to the multicultural community of Queensland. Kenneth Ray Chapman – For service to the community of Cabramatta. Joy Charlton – For service to equestrian sports. Judith Anne Charnaud – For service to conservation and the environment in Timor Leste. Paulette Dell Cherny – For service to the Jewish community of Victoria. Michael Wan-Man Choi – For service to the people and Parliament of Queensland. Tasneem Chopra – For service to the community through a range of roles. Dr Ian Melvyn Chung – For service to the law, to medicine, and to the community. Dr Adele Chynoweth – For service to public history. Klaus Vilis Cimdins – For service to veterans and their families. Sandra Joan Clark – For service to Indigenous education, and to the community. James Clarke – For service to the community of Jurien Bay. Pamela Nance Clarke – For service to local government, and to the community of Horsham. Robyn Madelon Claydon – For service to education, and to the Anglican Church of Australia. Anthony David Clifford – For service to the Jewish community of Sydney. Roger Alexander Clifford – For service to the Jewish community of Sydney. Susan Gaye Clutterbuck – For service to people who are deaf or hard of hearing. Andrew James Coad – For service to the community through a range of roles. Leif Robert Cocks – For service to the conservation of endangered animals. Dr Phillip Seldon Cocks – For service to medicine, and to medical associations. Robert Andrew Coffey – For service to the community of Warrnambool. Rabbi Dr Jeffrey Cohen – For service to community health, and to interfaith organisations. Marlis Cohen – For service to the Jewish community. Peter Combe – For service to the performing arts, particularly music for children. Dr Michael Thomas Connor – For service to medicine, and to the community. Helen Rosemary Connor-Kendray – For service to people with Parkinson's. Fred Conway – For service to conservation and the environment. Genelle Cook – For service to people who are deaf or hard of hearing. Dallas Antoinette Cooper – For service to badminton, and to the community. John Alan Cootes – For service to the community, particularly to social welfare organisations. Elizabeth Corke – For service to conservation and the environment. Anthony John Corr – For service to cricket. Margaret Mary Cossey – For service to Indigenous literacy and special-needs education. Dr Lynne Maree Coulson Barr – For service to community mental health. Christopher Richard Cox – For service to the performing arts, and to the community. Lindsay Hamilton Crawford – For service to the community of Paynesville. Warren James Cree – For service to youth, and to the community. Joan Winifred Cribb – For service to higher education as a botanist, and to the community. Julie Margaret Cromer – For service to disability support organisations. Peter Crook – For service to the community of Kinglake, and to veterans and their families. William Richard Cruwys – For service to veterans and their families. Simon Charles Cubitt – For service to the community of southern Western Australia. Ashley Alfred Cupitt – For service to the community of Yungaburra, and to boxing. Susan Margaret Cure – For service to swimming. Krystyna Cyron – For service to the Polish community of New South Wales. Robert Philip Dance – For service to waterskiing. Thomas Frank Danos – For service to the law, and to the community. Colin Bruce Darts – For service to veterans and their families. Anna Louise Davey – For service to circus performance and physical theatre. Maude Alice Davey – For service to the performing arts, particularly as an artistic director. Beth Davidson – For service to local government, and to the community. Ivo Douglas Davies – For service to the community of the Wheatbelt region of Western Australia. Ruth Adelaide Daws – For service to netball, and to the community. Barbara May Dawson – For service to veterans and their families. Valerie Josephine Dawson – For service to the performing arts as a singer and songwriter. Gionni Di Gravio – For service to community history, particularly as an archivist. Philip John Dickie – For service to the print media as a journalist. Maxwell Gordon Dingle – For service to the visual arts through curatorial roles. Barry Robert Dobson – For service to athletics. Jennifer Christine Doubell – For service to the community through charitable organisations. Kerrie Anne Dougherty – For service to astronautical history as a curator. Annette Douglass – For service to youth through Scouts. Peter George Doukas – For service to multiculturalism in New South Wales. John Dring – For service to the rail transport industry. Peter James Dunn – For service to community history. John Dyball – For service to education. Carter Edwards – For service to the broadcast media, particularly to radio. Frederick (Gary) Edwards – For service to the community through a range of organisations. Kathryn Margaret Edwards – For service to the community through a range of organisations. Robert John Edwards – For service to the international community of Fiji. Dr Zenaida Sicat Edwards – For service to the community, and to heritage preservation. The late Brian Paul Egan – For service to people in rural areas through social welfare support programs. The late Christine Joyce Egan – For service to the Indigenous community of South Australia. Nerida Egan – For service to people in rural areas through social welfare support programs. Professor Diana Egerton-Warburton – For service to emergency medicine. Faiza El-Higzi – For service to the community through social welfare organisations. Hassib Elias – For service to the Palestinian community of New South Wales. Clinical Associate Professor Nicholas John Evans – For service to neonatal medicine. Richard John Farrant – For service to golf. Judith Feiglin – For service to the Jewish community. Judith Ferber – For service to the performing arts. Mark Leeds Ferguson – For service to veterans and their families. Marie Ann Ficarra – For service to the people and Parliament of New South Wales. Carly Findlay – For service to people with a disability. Robert George Flack – For service to the community of Bendigo, and to finance. Louise Anne Flitcroft Paisley – For service to the community through charitable organisations. Mary Teresa Foley – For service to the community of Redcliffe. Kira Joy Fong – For service to the Indigenous community of the Kimberley. The late Peter Ford – For service to heritage railway organisations. Peter John Forster – For service to conservation and the environment. Simun Franjic – For service to the Croatian community of the Australian Capital Territory. Kerry Lee Franklin – For service to softball. Associate Professor Cecily Jane Freemantle – For service to medical research, particularly to population health. Paul Matthew Freestone – For service to the road transport industry, and to the community. Colleen Debra Furlanetto – For service to community health. Glenise Gale – For service to swimming. Dr Vincent Bernard Gallichio – For service to medicine. Sherryl Maree Garbutt – For service to the people and Parliament of Victoria. Stephen Charles Garbutt – For service to the community through emergency response organisations. Dr Murray John Garde – For service to the Indigenous community of the Northern Territory. Peter Phillip Gash – For service to eco-tourism, and to aviation. Craig Robert Gear – For service to aged welfare and seniors rights. Dennis James Gee – For service to surf lifesaving. Linda George – For service to music education. Stephen (Mark) Gilbert – For service to engineering, and to the community. Eileen Mary Giles – For service to people who are homeless. Annette Massie Gillen – For service to the community of South Australia. Reynold William Gilson – For service to music through brass bands. Ronald Richard Giveen, (Mil) – For service to veterans and their families, and to the community. Dr Hazel Fern Goldberg – For service to respiratory medicine. John Dale Golotta – For service to veterans. Jolyon Bryham Good – For service to the community of Sandringham. William Arthur Goodrem – For service to the communities of the Mornington Peninsula and Southport. James Kevan Goodworth – For service to education. Dr Antony Robert Graham – For service to medicine as a vascular surgeon. Barry Lindsay Grant – For service to veterans and their families. Robyn A Gray – For service to community history. Ian Russell Green – For service to Buddhism, and to interfaith relations. Kerry Isabelle Greenwood – For service to literature as a writer. Richard David Griffiths – For service to the community through social welfare organisations. Geoffrey Ross Grinton – For service to the Uniting Church in Australia. Rodney Eric Grummitt – For service to youth through Scouts. Doreen Patricia Gunn – For service to aged welfare. Promilla Gupta – For service to the Indian community, and to multiculturalism. Annette Jane Guterres – For service to veterans and their families. Paul Anthony Hackett – For service to the community through a range of organisations. George Halvagis – For service to the community, particularly to people affected by crime. Pamela Mary Hamence – For service to the community through emergency response organisations. Colin Hamley – For service to veterans and their families. Denise Hanly – For service to the community of Ipswich. Dr Ian Victor Hansen – For service to the community, and to education. Vivienne Julie Harkness – For service to community health. Pauline Zoe Harris – For service to the community. Donald Leslie Harrison – For service to the community through emergency response organisations. Michael Anthony Hartung – For service to sport for people with a disability. John Francis Harvey – For service to motor sports. Nancye Margaret Hawke – For service to the community of Gerroa. Rosemary Anne Hehir – For service to the community through social welfare organisations. Peter Turnbull Hemery – For service to sailing. Elva Margaret Henderson – For service to veterans and their families. Brian Douglas Hern – For service to the Uniting Church in Australia. Terence Robert Hetherington – For service to community history. Associate Professor Ian Donald Hewson – For service to dentistry. David Colin Hicks – For service to people with a disability. Neil Laurence Hirt – For service to the community. Andrew Paul Hoban – For service to surf lifesaving. Graham William Hobbs – For service to youth, and to lacrosse. Karen Laurel Hones – For service to the community of Bundanoon. Erik Norman Horrie – For service to rowing. Garry Robert Howe – For service to the community of the Cardinia shire. Kenneth John Howes – For service to youth through Scouts. Colin Horace Howlett – For service to local government, and to the community of the Southern Midlands. Tony Humphrey – For service to community health through suicide prevention organisations. Gillian Ruth Hund – For service to charitable organisations. Dr Shane Thomas Huntington – For service to science as a communicator. Ross Hutchison – For service to the community. Mary Julia Hutton – For service to conservation and the environment. Giuseppe (Joe) Ienco – For service to the community through charitable and multicultural organisations. William David Incoll – For service to the environment, and to the community of the Dandenong Ranges. Dr Geoff Lawrence Irvine – For service to the chiropractic profession. Elizabeth Irwin – For service to community health. Noel Stanley Jackling – For service to the community history. Gregory Reginald Jackson – For service to the community of Tasmania. Dr Wesley Sidney Jame – For service to community health. Pauline James – For service to veterans and their families, and to the community. Sandy Jeffs – For service to mental health organisations. Tommy Anthony Jeffs – For service to the hospitality industry. Dr Joseph Vaughan Johnson, – For service to veterans, and to the community. Vaughan Gregory Johnson – For service to the people and Parliament of Queensland. Caroline Johnston – For service to the community. Peter Charles Kahn – For service to community history. Major Terry Kanellos (Retd) – For service to veterans and their families, and to the community. Julie Keamy – For service to the merino wool industry, and to the community. Bronwen Jean Keighery – For service to conservation and the environment. Gregory John Keighery – For service to conservation and the environment. Peter Kelly – For service to veterans and their families. Deborah Kenna – For service to community health. Mary Elizabeth Kenneally – For service to the performing arts. David Leslie Kerr – For service to the community of Bunbury. Russell Humphrey Kerr – For service to education. Marvelle Frances Kerslake – For service to the community of Mitchell. Vicki Lorraine Key – For service to the community, particularly to emergency response personnel. Dorothy Ruth Khoo – For service to the Chinese community of Rockhampton. Brigadier Patrick John Kidd (Retd) – For service to sport for people with a disability. Richard Louis Kidd – For service to the community of Julimar. Bruce Kimberley – For service to cricket. Sandra Lorelle King – For service to the Indigenous community. Dr Stephen Jeffries King – For service to veterinary science. Margaret Knight – For service to veterans, and to community commemorations. Marie Knight – For service to people in rural and remote areas. Kay Frances Lane – For service to music, and to education. Jillian Lange-Mohr – For service to education. Rhonda Margaret Langford – For service to music, and to education. Dr Thomas William Langston – For service to music, and to the community. Diana Betty Laube – For service to conservation and the environment. Dr Robert Lavis – For service to the international community through dental programs. Dr Morris Arthur Lee – For service to the international community of Bangladesh. Murray Stuart Lennon – For service to the community of St Ives. Lilian Selina Leonard – For service to community health. Dr Liang Joo Leow – For service to medicine, and to the community. Christian Lhotka – For service to the community of Widgee. Dr Anthony John Lian-Lloyd – For service to medicine, and to the community. Peter Liefman – For service to veterans and their families. Dr Sadanand Limaye – For service to medicine, and to the multicultural community. James Rodham Lindsay – For service to the community of the Macedon Ranges. John Lindsay – For service to the community of Wonthaggi. Thomas Kelsall Lindsay – For service to the road transport industry, and to the community. John Mitchell Little – For service to the community of the Barossa Valley. Sarah Jane Lloyd – For service to conservation and the environment. John Lo Piccolo – For service to the performing arts. Alan Claude Locke – For service to the community through charitable organisations. Diane Margaret Lopez – For service to local government, and to the community of Brighton. Rafaela Lopez – For service to the Hispanic community of Victoria. June Annette Lowe – For service to the Indigenous community of the Illawarra. Matthew Alan Luther – For service to nursing. John Francis Lynch – For service to the community through emergency response organisations. Russell John Magee – For service to the museums and galleries sector. Patrice Rene Mahoney – For service to the Indigenous community of Victoria. Diana Mahony – For service to the community through charitable initiatives. Richard Treacy Mailey – For service to the community through emergency response organisations. Colleen Mandicos – For service to aged welfare. Peter Maniscalco – For service to the Italian community of Hunters Hill. Colin George Mann – For service to aged welfare. Michael Mannington – For service to the community through a range of organisations. Nicholas James Marchesi – For service to people experiencing homelessness. Jim Ian Markovski – For service to youth. Dr David John Marshall – For service to orthopaedic medicine. Gail Elizabeth Marshall – For service to the community through charitable initiatives. Edward Leigh Maughan – For service to rugby league. Kenneth Barrett McAllister – For service to the community through emergency response organisations. Helen Susanne McCaffrey – For service to local government, and to the community of Canada Bay. Roger Wilfrid McCauley – For service to the Uniting Church in Australia, and to the community. John Leslie McCoy – For service to the broadcast media, and to the community. Sally Anne McCutchan – For service to the community through ethical investment organisations. Peter John McDermott – For service to the transport and tourism sectors. Michael Joseph McDonald – For service to surf lifesaving. The late Carolyn Narelle McDowall – For service to the decorative arts, and to the community. Anne McEwen – For service to the Parliament of Australia, and to the community of South Australia. Barry Patrick McFarlane – For service to cricket. Dianne Joy McGrath – For service to international humanitarian programs, and to the community of Ballarat. Duncan Alexander McInnes – For service to agricultural show societies, to the dairy industry, and to the community. Kenneth Ray McIntyre – For service to veterans and their families. Yvonne McKerrow Jennings – For service to the community of the Swan Hill region. Dr Jennifer Ann McMahon – For service to education, and to sport. Janelle Mary McMillan – For service to the community through charitable fundraising initiatives. Bridget Noreen McNamara – For service to the community of Shepparton. Andrea Joy McNeil – For service to swimming. Peter Charles McPhee – For service to youth, and to the community. Leslie Thomas Meiklejohn – For service to local government, and to the community of Warwick. Naim Melhem – For service to the community through a range of roles. Pastor Lance Gregory Mergard – For service to the community through social welfare organisations. The late Andrew John (Hank) Middleton – For service to Australian rules football in South Australia. Dr Sarah Lavinia Midgley – For service to the LGBTIQ community. Catherine Anne Milgate – For service to the community through a range of roles. Janette May Miller – For service to people who are blind or have low vision. Lawrence Harvey Miller – For service to the community of Geelong. John Douglas Mills – For service to the community of Nambucca Heads. Evelyn Missen – For service to youth, and to the community. Susan Jennifer (Jenny) Mitchell – For service to refugees, and to the community. William John Mitchell – For service to the law in Queensland. Miss Cheryl Lynette Moggs – For service to the Indigenous community of Goondiwindi. John Stephen Molnar – For service to charitable organisations. Gerald Clive Moore – For service to the Indigenous community. Mark Anthony Morrison – For service to vocational education, and to the community. Monica Hilary Morse – For service to local government, and to the community of Bathurst. Daliah Moss – For service to international eye health programs, and to professional organisations. Heather Motteram – For service to the community through a range of roles. Elizabeth Macdonald Mourik – For service to education, and to the community. Barbara Janine Mullan – For service to the creative arts. Neil Mullard – For service to the community of Uraidla. Kate Mulvany – For service to the performing arts. Jodee Paula Mundy – For service to the performing arts. Rosalind Kaye Murree-Allen – For service to the community of Newcastle. Glenn Elliott Muskett – For service to aged welfare. Dr Gunvantrai Premji Naker – For service to the international community, and to medicine. Sandra Kimlin Navalli – For service to international education. Cheung Yin Ng – For service to the Chinese community of Victoria. Phillip Wai-Shing Ng – For service to Chinese language education, and to the community. Dr Meng Chong Ngu – For service to medicine in the fields of gastroenterology and hepatology. James Ingle Nicholson – For service to the community of Tasmania. Elizabeth Nield – For service to the performing and visual arts. Lloyd Alwyn Nielsen – For service to conservation and the environment. Deborah Mary Niland – For service to children's literature. Maree Therese Nutt – For service to the international community through poverty eradication organisations. The Reverend Beth O'Neill – For service to the community of Blackall. Catherine Marie-Claire Oelrichs – For service to the international community of Indonesia. Margaret Owen – For service to conservation and the environment. Marlene Joy Owen – For service to the community of Gympie. Meryl Joy Packer – For service to the Lutheran Church of Australia. Rex William Packer – For service to the Lutheran Church of Australia. Maxwell Arthur Page – For service to the performing arts in Western Australia. Raymond Ernest Palmer – For service to the community of Epping. Dr Stephen George Papas – For service to the community, and to dentistry. Associate Professor Maria Parappilly – For service to science education, and to women. Lucas Brooke Patchett – For service to people experiencing homelessness. Ian Mead Paterson – For service to the community of Tasmania. Andrew Guy Peake – For service to community history. Margaret Rose Pearce – For service to the community of East Gosford. Anthony Lester Pearson – For service to youth, and to the community of Gosford. Ian Kenneth Penny – For service to the community of Warracknabeal. Armando Percuoco – For service to the community, and to the restaurant industry. The late Boniface Pirrimngip Perdjert – For service to the Catholic Church, and to the community. Wasantha Premalal Perera – For service to the Sri Lankan community of Victoria, and to engineering. John Winter Pickup – For service to the community as a regional radio broadcaster. Rosemary Plummer – For service to the Indigenous community of the Northern Territory. Trevor Plymin – For service to veterans and their families. Nigel James Porteous – For service to the community, and to the shipping transport industry. The late Ken Murray Potts – For service to Australian rules football, and to the community. Patricia Lorraine Powell – For service to people who are homeless. Mal Pratt – For service to surf lifesaving. Margaret Ellen Primmer – For service to women, and to the community. Donna Faye Prytulak – For service to veterans and their families. Derek Peter Pugh – For service to education in the Northern Territory. Craig Robert Purdam – For service to sports administration, and to physiotherapy. Dr Christopher John Quinn – For service to research science in the field of plant systemics. Marjorie Anne Quinn – For service to the community through a range of roles. John Graham Rae – For service to the community of Portarlington. Michael Benjamin Rahilly – For service to sport for people with a disability. Edward Peter Ralston – For service to sport for people who are blind or have low vision. Sylvia Shirley Ramsden – For service to the community of Lilydale. Joanna Helen Randell – For service to the community through music. Ronald Kenneth Ray – For service to the community through a range of roles. Carl John Rayner – For service to conservation and the environment. Karen Jeanne Redman – For service to music through concert bands. Nerida Constance Reid – For service to the community of Hay. Annette Gay (Honi) Reifler – For service to community health. Jean-Pierre Reifler – For service to community health. Jose Relunia – For service to the Filipino community of New South Wales. Seri Franceys Renkin – For service to the community through charitable organisations. Douglas Alan Renshaw – For service to the community of Bicheno. John Restuccia – For service to surf lifesaving. Nicholas John Roberts – For service to the community of Mount Martha. Graeme John Robertson – For service to the community of Kulin. Rebekah Sarah Robertson – For service to the trans and gender diverse community. Kerry A Robinson – For service to local government, and to town planning. Dr Andrew Kenneth Rollond – For service to medicine, and to local government. William Henry Romans – For service to the communities of Mansfield and Bonnie Doon. Dr Kim Frances Rooney – For service to medicine. Valerie Mary Rooney – For service to war widows, and to the community of Logan. Ronald Rosenberg – For service to veterans, and to the community. Brian Stephen Rosengarten – For service to community health. The Reverend Albert William Rosier – For service to the Uniting Church of Australia, and to the community. Bradley John Rossiter – For service to community of the Eurobodalla. Tamara Eve (Timmy) Rubin – For service to the Jewish community of Melbourne. Adrian John Rumore – For service to homeless youth, and to physiotherapy. Geraldine Noreen Ryan – For service to Irish dancing. Julie Ryan – For service to secondary education. Patricia Noeline Sabine – For service to the museums and galleries sector. Wendy Anne Saclier – For service to the creative arts, and to women. Michael Francis Said – For service to accountancy, and to public sector governance. Dennis Eric Sales – For service to tennis. Judith Anne Sammut – For service to community health. Tomas Santamaria – For service to volleyball. Barbara Elaine Sax – For service to the community. Gary Schulz – For service to education, and to the community. Eric Ronald Scott – For service to the performing arts in Queensland. Katrina Anne-Marie Sedgwick – For service to performing, screen, and visual arts administration. Robert Peter Selinger – For service to the community, and to education. Terence William Shannon – For service to the community. Sam Michal Sharman – For service to the Jewish community of Melbourne. Paul John Signorelli – For service to the hospitality sector, and to the community. Catherine Mary Simmonds – For service to the performing arts. Dr Meg Simmons – For service to oral health in outback communities. Sheila Ellen Simpson – For service to nursing. Inderjit (Indy) Singh – For service to the international community through eye care programs. Professor Sarva-Daman Singh – For service to tertiary education, and to the community. Lesley Grace Slater – For service to people with a disability. Malcolm George Small – For service to youth, and to veterans. Barry Ronald Smith – For service to local government, and to the community of Hunters Hill. Reginald Norman Smith – For service to youth through intercultural programs. Suzanne Sofarnos – For service to lacrosse. Dr Samiul Joseph Sorrenti – For service to orthopaedic and sports medicine. Gregory Owen Speed – For service to the community through emergency response organisations. Judith Anne Speedy – For service to the community of Mirboo North. Dr John Stanisic – For service to conservation and the environment. Suzanne Stanley – For service to sport, and to the community. Arthur Joseph Stanton – For service to veterans and their families. The Hon. Roger Michael Steele – For service to the people and Legislative Assembly of the Northern Territory. Paul Michael Stewart – For service to the community, and to the performing arts. John Stewart Stoddart – For service to the performing arts as a designer. Peter Telford Stoker – For service to the mining sector. Georgie Robertson Stone – For service to the trans and gender diverse community. Jan Sutherland – For service to sport in South Australia. Khalil Tartak – For service to the Lebanese community of New South Wales. Nenia Helen Tavrou – For service to the community through a range of roles. Brian Keith Taylor – For service to rural and remote communities, and as an author. Allan Garry Tennent – For service to the community through emergency response organisations. Patrick Daniel Tessier – For service to charitable organisations. Gillian Thomas – For service to community health, particularly to people with polio. Janet Iris Thomas – For service to youth through the Girls Brigade. Anthony James Thompson – For service to the community of Marysville. Christine Irene Thompson – For service to local government, and to the community of the Murray shire. Murray Hamilton Thompson – For service to the people and Parliament of Victoria. John Charles Thornton – For service to the performing arts, and to the community. Leslie John Threlfo ESM – For service to the community through emergency response organisations. Phillip Anthony Titterton – For service to rowing. Robert Charles Titterton – For service to music through orchestras and ensembles. Kate Torney – For service to the broadcast media, and to the cultural sector. Malcolm John Towle – For service to the community through emergency response organisations. Dr Mark Tredinnick – For service to literature, and to education. Alfred Robert Tregear – For service to Australian rules football. The Reverend Father Christos Triandafyllou – For service to the Greek Orthodox community of Belmore. Dr Andrew James Tridgell – For service to information technology. Jane Turner – For service to the performing arts as a writer, actor and comedian. The Reverend Dr Jennifer Gibson Turner – For service to the Baptist Church, and to Churches of Christ. Vernon Joseph Turner – For service to hockey. Dr Robin Katherine Uppill – For service to orienteering. David Van Nunen – For service to the visual arts. The late Daniele Velcich – For service to the Italian and Croatian communities of Blacktown. Dorothy Fay Vickery – For service to local government, and to the community of Guyra. Adam Charles Voges – For service to cricket. Joan Rosemary von Bibra – For service to education, and to professional organisations. Peter James Wallace – For service to education, and to the community. Peter James Walsh – For service to the Catholic Church in Victoria, and to business. Robert Richard Walton – For service to education, and to the community. William George Warburton – For service to the community of Tamworth. John Sydney Wareham – For service to aged welfare, and to the community. The late Jacqueline Warner – For service to youth through Scouts. Vicki Warren – For service to softball, and to hockey. Esther Meryl Watson – For service to the community of the Dandenong Ranges. Pastor Francis James Watson – For service to the community of the Dandenong Ranges. Jocelyn Yvonne Watson – For service to the community of Launceston. Miss Beverley (Jean) Weaver – For service to conservation and the environment, and to the community. Christopher John Webb – For service to horticulture, particularly through botanic gardens. Emma Webb – For service to the performing arts, particularly in Port Adelaide. David George Weil – For service to the community through a range of roles. Garry Keith Wellington – For service to veterans and their families. Olive Wellington – For service to the community of Hopetoun. Adira Yael Werdiger – For service to the Jewish community of Victoria. Dr John Milton Wettenhall – For service to the international community through water, sanitation and medical programs. Edmund John Wheeler – For service to the community through road safety initiatives. Alan William Whimp – For service to people with a disability and their carers. Tanya Maree Whitehouse – For service to the community through social welfare initiatives. Robert John Wildermuth – For service to the building and construction industry. Graeme Roy Williams – For service to local government, and to the community of the Strathbogie shire. Gregory Wayne Williams – For service to public administration in Queensland. Dr Peter George Williams – For service to community health, and to medical education. Peter John Williams – For service to maritime history. Dr Treve Williams – For service to veterinary science. Bruce Anthony Wilson – For service to conservation and the environment. Edwin James Wilson – For service to the visual arts, and to the community. Elizabeth Wilson – For service to the community of Lang Lang. Michael John Wilson – For service to community health, particularly to diabetes research. Paul Clifford Wilson – For service to the community of Oatlands. Guy Alan Winship – For service to the community through social welfare organisations. Julie Womersley – For service to lawn bowls. Neville Womersley – For service to lawn bowls. Carole Joy Woods – For service to community history. Dr David Workman – For service to ophthalmology, and to international relations. Professor Clare Alice Wright – For service to literature, and to historical research. Wei Quan Xu – For service to the Chinese community of Melbourne, and to football. Lexie Eileen Young – For service to the community of Deloraine. James Siang-Chung Yu – For service to the Chinese community of New South Wales. Manfred John Zabinskas – For service to animal welfare. Irena Antonina Zdanowicz – For service to the visual arts as a curator. Michael John Zekulich – For service to print journalism, and as an author. Eleftheria (Victoria) Zografos – For service to the multicultural community of Queensland. Toufic Thomas Saadeldine Zreika – For service to the community, to local government, and to the law. Military Division Warrant Officer Class One Joshua Paul Andrews – For meritorious service in achievement and exceptional commitment to the continuous advancement of Army's Geospatial Intelligence capability. Chief Petty Officer Raechelle Nadine Henderson – For meritorious service in leadership, and advancement of the service as a Naval Police Coxswain. Captain John Thomas Land – For meritorious service as the Army Conservator, Australian Army History Unit, in support of the protection of Army's heritage. Warrant Officer Class One Brian Geoffrey Moore – For meritorious performance of duty in personnel management, instructional leadership, executive events coordination, and ceremonial event management in the Australian Defence Force. Warrant Officer Anthony Donald O'Riley – For meritorious service to improving the capability levels and wellbeing of Navy Submarine Force People. Warrant Officer Class One Roger John Read – For meritorious service as the Information Systems Engineer, Force Installation Team 31 from 2017 to 2019. Warrant Officer Class One Andrew Peter Shore, – For meritorious service as the Regimental Sergeant Major of the 3rd Battalion, the Royal Australian Regiment; and the Royal Military College - Duntroon, and as a Career Advisor in the Directorate of Soldier Career Management - Army. Commander Richard John Singleton, – For meritorious service to the Australian Defence Force in the fields of exercise and operational planning and the introduction into service of naval capabilities. Commander Benjamin Brian Spurgin, – For meritorious performance of duty as a Navy Legal Advisor and instructor. Warrant Officer Rudolf William Vitasz – For meritorious service to the Australian Defence Force in leadership and cultural development. Warrant Officer Class One Julie Anne Whittaker – For meritorious service as the Senior Technical Trade Warrant Officer and Career Advisor for Army Ammunition Technicians. Warrant Officer Benjamin Robert Wright – For meritorious service in personnel recognition administration, major public relations initiatives, and organisational development in the Royal Australian Air Force. Honorary Helen Patricia Oxenham – For service to the community through social welfare initiatives and advocacy. Brenda Jean Rayner – For service to music. Fay Patricia Richards – For service to people with a disability. Dr Chaoyi Wei – For service to international relations. Meritorius Service Public Service Medal (PSM) Federal Nguyen Thi Thanh An – For outstanding public service in fostering the Australia-Vietnam bilateral relationship in agricultural research. Karen Jacqueline Binnekamp – For outstanding public service to health, particularly through improvements to listings on the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme, and subsidy of breakthrough medical treatments. Penny Damianakis – For outstanding public service through leading the provision of Centrelink services to vulnerable customers and refugee communities. Michael James Druce – For outstanding public service to nuclear medicine production. David Roland Fredericks – For outstanding public service through supporting the Government in achieving fiscal and budget policy objectives, and significant reforms in the Attorney-General's Department. Associate Professor Matthew Roland Hill – For outstanding public service to materials development for industry and the Australian Defence Force. Dr Dale Austin Lambert – For outstanding public service in the use of artificial intelligence in surveillance and reconnaissance, command and control, intelligence and autonomous platforms. Dr Adam Lewis – For outstanding public service through the application of geospatial information. Helen Maree McDevitt – For outstanding public service through social policy innovation to improve the lives of disadvantaged Australians, particularly young persons and people with a disability. Mark Patrick O'Connell – For outstanding public service through leading engagement with communities affected by PFAS contamination from legacy Defence firefighting activities. Nico Padovan – For outstanding public service in program and policy delivery, including supporting the recovery and reconstruction of the livestock industry in North Queensland. Julie Anne Roberts – For outstanding public service through exceptional delivery of executive support services to the national security community. Dr Albin Frank Smrdel – For outstanding public service in reforming the corporate arrangements of the federal courts, and structural reform for the Australian family courts system. Robert Sturgiss – For outstanding public service through the development of a world class inventory for greenhouse gases, and to accurate measuring and reporting of emissions for Australian companies. Damian John Voltz – For outstanding public service through efforts to protect Australian sport from the threat of match-fixing, corruption and criminal exploitation. Lesley Watson – For outstanding public service through contributions to agency organisation and functioning, and to Australia's national security. New South Wales Christopher Mark Beatson – For outstanding public service to the New South Wales Police Force. Wilma Falcone – For outstanding public service to the social housing sector in New South Wales. Mark David Grant – For outstanding public service to education in New South Wales. Pippinella Wheatcroft Job – For outstanding public service to drought affected communities in New South Wales. Ronald Fredrick Kemsley – For outstanding public service to environmental rehabilitation in the Kempsey Shire. Annette Elizabeth Moehead, – For outstanding public service to mental health care of aged persons in New South Wales. Dr Victor Hutton Oddy – For outstanding public service to the primary industry sector, and to science, in New South Wales. Donna Osland – For outstanding public service to public programs at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney. Raymond John Smith – For outstanding public service to local government in New South Wales. Vicki Telfer – For outstanding public service to industrial relations policy and reform in New South Wales. Katherine Ruth Tollner – For the outstanding public service to people with a disability in New South Wales. Victoria Professor Stephen Moile Cordner, – For outstanding public service to forensic medical and scientific services, training and research in Victoria. Shelagh Donegan-Bragg – For outstanding public service to education, and to people with a disability, in Victoria. Noelene Duff – For outstanding public service to local government in Victoria. Christine Michelle Ferguson – For outstanding public service to policy and program delivery in Victoria. Miss Reegan Odette Key – For outstanding public service to emergency management systems in Victoria. Gabrielle Hedwig Levine – For outstanding public service to community safety projects in Victoria. Dr James Richard Pearson – For outstanding public service to forensic science, particularly to chemistry, in Victoria. Janine Louise Toomey – For outstanding public service to policy design and service delivery in Victoria. Queensland Colin Brian Cassidy – For outstanding public service to economic development, corporate services and town planning in Queensland. Clare Frances Douglas – For outstanding public service to health administration in Queensland. Maureen Elaine Ervine – For outstanding public service to Indigenous families and communities in Queensland. Julie Etchells – For outstanding public service to children and families in Queensland. Helen Francis Ferguson – For outstanding public service to social policy development and implementation in Queensland. Michael Dermot Parker – For outstanding public service to local government administration in Queensland. Janelle Sue Thurlby – For outstanding public service to financial management and planning in Queensland. South Australia Jan Marie Cornish – For outstanding public service to asset management in local government in South Australia. Professor Edward (Ted) Tuckseng Mah – For outstanding public service to public health in South Australia. Deborah Pearce – For outstanding public service to people with a disability, and to South Australia Police. Western Australia Pauline Bagdonavicius – For outstanding public service, particularly through advocacy roles in Western Australia. Noelene Rae Jennings – For outstanding public service, particularly to local government in Western Australia. Lee Musumeci – For outstanding public service to early childhood education in Western Australia. Australian Capital Territory George Abram Cilliers – For outstanding public service to planning and development in the Australian Capital Territory. John Desmond Purcell – For outstanding public service to federal financial relations, and to the development of self-government in the Australian Capital Territory. Northern Territory Kenneth Lindsay Davies – For outstanding public service to children and families in the Northern Territory. Gregory John Shanahan – For outstanding public service to the justice system in the Northern Territory. Australian Police Medal (APM) Australian Federal Police Assistant Commissioner Lesa Jane Gale Superintendent Jared Gordon Taggart Detective Superintendent Danielle Anne Woodward, New South Wales Police Force Detective Chief Inspector Robert Mark Allison Detective Superintendent Anthony John Cooke Detective Superintendent David Caldwell Darcy Detective Superintendent Kerrie Anne Lewis Detective Superintendent Peter James McKenna Sergeant John Francis Rayment Superintendent Daniel Edward Sullivan Detective Superintendent Gavin Kendall Wood Victoria Police Detective Superintendent Peter John Brigham Detective Senior Sergeant Mark William Chrystie Leading Senior Constable Andrew Neil Downes Superintendent David Owen Jones Commander Elizabeth Anne Murphy Leading Senior Constable Patrick Joseph Storer Queensland Police Service Inspector Corey Mathew Allen Detective Senior Sergeant Michelle Therese Clark Detective Senior Sergeant Sasha Naomi Finney Superintendent Craig Andrew Hanlon Chief Superintendent Mark Patrick Wheeler Inspector Nyree Lona Whelan South Australia Police Detective Sergeant Bernard Joseph Farrington Senior Sergeant First Class Tracy McLeod Gentgall Detective Sergeant David Paul Hunt Western Australia Police Deputy Commissioner Colin John Blanch Superintendent Dario Adriano Bolzonella Senior Constable Michelle Deborah Jesney Sergeant David John Johnson Tasmania Police Detective Senior Constable Sharee Simone Maksimovic Commander Ian John Whish-Wilson Northern Territory Police Superintendent Antony Stuart Deutrom Australian Fire Service Medal (AFSM) New South Wales John William Bevan Brett Davies Christopher Charles Goff Robert James Graham Raymond Randolf Hill Dawn Caroline Maynard John Wayne Stuckings Michelle Janine Thornley Owen Leonard Tydd Graham Clifford Williams Victoria Gregory Francis Hitch George Ernest O'Dwyer Graeme John Saunder Peter John Shaw Queensland Steven John Barber Gregory Raymond Duncan Patrick Ross Kraut Bevan James Love Rodger (John) Sambrooks South Australia Kenneth Campbell Shane Mark Heffernan Samual John Sanderson Dennis Robert Taylor Western Australia Mark David Bowen Dr Neil Douglas Burrows Richard Dennis Lawrey Tasmania Mark Henry McDermott Australian Capital Territory Stephen James Angus Russell Edward Goodall Northern Territory Craig Andrew Slack Ambulance Service Medal (ASM) New South Wales Clare Louise Beech Michael John Bray Victoria William Allan Briggs Rain Histen Terrence Patrick Marshall Gail Sharp Lance Francis Simmons Susan Jane Walsh Kenneth John Whittle Queensland Tracey Anne Eastwick Wayne William Sachs Cary Strong South Australia David Mark Jaensch Western Australia Christopher Bradley Oakes David Saunders Austin Shannon Whiteside Tasmania Lorraine Joy Gardiner Han-Wei Lee Emergency Services Medal (ESM) New South Wales Allison May Flaxman Richard (John) Rooke Warren Noel Turner Victoria John William Hooper South Australia Maxwell John Coulson Western Australia Ronald Francis McPherson Tasmania William James Folder Vincent Holthouse Neil Gerard Van Veldhuizen Australian Capital Territory Mubin Shareef Khokhar Australian Corrections Medal (ACM) New South Wales Jean Elizabeth Dally Miss Rebecca Joy Edwards Amandeep Singh Albert William Torrens Victoria Stephen Cadman Steven Douglas Comte Tina Filopoulos Stephen Peter Payne Queensland Robyn Margaret Ernst Simone Elizabeth Lourigan Jenny Lee Lynas South Australia Susan Jane Dighton Bernard John Gelston Western Australia Samuel James Dinah Cassandra Lee Gilbert Benjamin Richard Leadbeatter Gregory Peter Little Leith Thomas Tasmania Elizabeth Moore Australian Capital Territory Jason Paul Stockheim Distinguished and Conspicuous Service Bar to the Distinguished Service Cross (DSC and Bar) Army Brigadier John William Shanahan, – For distinguished command and leadership in warlike operations as the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation Resolute Support Headquarters Chief of Operations and as the Commanding General Train Advise Assist Command – South in Afghanistan from September 2017 to February 2019. Distinguished Service Cross (DSC) Navy Rear Admiral Jaimie Charles Frank Hatcher, – For distinguished command and leadership in warlike operations as the Commander Joint Task Force 633 on Operations OKRA and HIGHROAD from January 2018 to January 2019. Army Lieutenant Colonel R – For distinguished command and leadership in warlike operations while deployed as the Commander of a Special Operations Task Group in Iraq from June to December 2018. Colonel Michael Andrew Say – For distinguished command and leadership in warlike operations while deployed as the Commander of Task Group Taji VII in Iraq during 2018. Distinguished Service Medal (DSM) Army Bombardier Michael Richard Cobb – For distinguished leadership in warlike operations as the Australian Counter Unmanned Aerial Systems Detachment Commander within Headquarters Joint Task Force 633, whilst deployed to the Middle East Region from October 2017 to June 2018. Colonel Stuart Nicholas Kenny, – For distinguished leadership in warlike operations as the Chief of Plans for Train, Advise, Assist Command – South, Operation RESOLUTE SUPPORT, Afghanistan from January 2018 to January 2019. Commendation for Distinguished Service Army Colonel B – For distinguished performance of duties in warlike operations as the Director Strategy and Plans, Headquarters Combined Joint Task Force – Operation INHERENT RESOLVE from January to September 2018. Brigadier Peter James Connor, – For distinguished performance of duties in warlike operations as the Commander of Task Group Afghanistan while deployed on Operation HIGHROAD from November 2017 to September 2018. Captain D – For distinguished performance of duties in warlike operations as the Executive Officer and Operations Officer for a Special Operations Task Group whilst deployed to Iraq on Operation OKRA in 2018. Corporal Daniel David Flynn – For distinguished performance of duties in warlike operations as the Force Protection Section Commander of the Train Advise Assist Command – Air mission in Afghanistan from August 2018 to February 2019. Colonel Stephen John Gliddon, – For distinguished performance of duties in warlike operations as the Chief of Future Operations, North Atlantic Treaty Organisation Resolute Support Mission, Afghanistan from November 2017 to January 2019. Major Joshua Eden Higgins – For distinguished performance of duties in warlike operations as the Officer Commanding Training Team Victor, Task Group Taji Seven in Iraq from May to November 2018. Corporal Lachlan Thomas Mitchell – For distinguished performance of duties in warlike operations as a Force Protection Section Commander for Train Advise Assist Command – Air, Afghanistan whilst assigned to Operation HIGHROAD from February to August 2018. Colonel Gavin Andrew Stanford, – For distinguished performance of duties in warlike operations as the Chief of Future Operations within the Operations Directorate of Headquarters Combined Joint Task Force – Operation INHERENT RESOLVE from November 2017 to November 2018. Brigadier Wade Bradley Stothart, , , – For distinguished performance of duties in warlike operations as the Director Joint Plans and Assessment within the Headquarters Combined Joint Task Force – Operation INHERENT RESOLVE from December 2017 to December 2018. Navy Captain Sands Niall Skinner – For distinguished performance of duties in warlike operations as the Aircraft Maintenance and Engineering Branch Chief within the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation Resolute Support Train Advise Assist Command – Air on Operation HIGHROAD from July 2018 to February 2019. Air Force Flight Lieutenant Brendon Scott Carraro – For distinguished performance of duties in warlike operations as Pilot in Command of MAMBO21, a Royal Australian Air Force C-130J-30, on 7 August 2017 whilst deployed on Operation OKRA. Conspicuous Service Cross (CSC) Army Colonel Michael Rodney Ahern – For outstanding devotion to duty as Commander Australian Contingent, Operation ASLAN and Senior Military Liaison Officer for Juba within the United Nations Mission in South Sudan from June 2018 to January 2019. Lieutenant Colonel Glen Allan Billington – For outstanding achievement as the Commanding Officer and Chief Engineer of the 19th Chief Engineer Works. Lieutenant Colonel Darryl Robert Bridgeman – For outstanding devotion to duty as Commander Australian Contingent, Operation PALADIN, United Nations Truce Supervision Organisation (Israel and Syria) from October 2017 to October 2018. Major Cassandra Campbell – For outstanding devotion to duty as the senior career advisor of the Royal Australian Corps of Signals, Directorate of Soldier Career Management – Army. Lieutenant Colonel Judd Andrew Finger – For outstanding devotion to duty as Commander Joint Task Group 629 on Operation AUGURY from February 2018 to October 2018. Lieutenant Colonel Dianne Grey – For outstanding achievement in the application of exceptional skills, judgement and dedication in the advancement of intelligence collection, analysis and assessment within the Australian Defence Force. Lieutenant Colonel Stuart James Hill – For outstanding achievement as the Staff Officer Cyber Security and Commanding Officer Defence Security Operations Centre over the period 2013 to 2018. Lieutenant Colonel Brendan Mark Hogan – For outstanding achievement as Staff Officer Grade One Land Range Safety, Combined Arms Training Centre. Lieutenant Colonel L – For outstanding devotion to duty as the Command Legal Officer within Special Operations Command. Lieutenant Colonel James Michael Bain Smith – For outstanding devotion to duty as Commander Australian Contingent and Chief of Operations, Operation MAZURKA, Multinational Force and Observers Mission, Sinai, Egypt from February 2018 to February 2019. Navy Captain Michael Bruce Devine – For outstanding achievement in the application of judgement as Commander Task Unit 641.1.1 and Commanding Officer HMAS Anzac in the tactical planning and execution of Maritime South East Asia Deployment from March to June 2018. Commander Bronwyn Adele Ferrier – For outstanding achievement in the management of occupational hygiene and environmental hazards in the Royal Australian Navy. Captain Daniel John Leraye – For outstanding devotion to duty as the inaugural Class Lifecycle Engineering Officer in Collins Class submarines. Commander Jennifer Louise Macklin – For outstanding achievement in the promotion of diversity and inclusion in the Royal Australian Navy. Captain Anthony Bruce Miskelly – For outstanding devotion to duty during the introduction into service of HMAS Hobart. Warrant Officer Christopher John Rowley – For outstanding achievement and dedication in his leadership of the Royal Australian Navy technical workforce. Commander Anita Louise Sellick – For outstanding achievement as Commanding Officer of HMAS Newcastle. Commander Darlene Maree Williams – For outstanding achievement in strategic organisational development as Military Assistant to the Chief of Joint Capabilities in the Australian Defence Force. Air Force Squadron Leader Janine Marie Fetchik – For outstanding achievement in the provision of legal services to the Royal Australian Air Force. Squadron Leader Duncan John Flemington – For outstanding devotion to duty as the Commander of the Joint Task Force 639 Air Component Coordination Element during Operation RESOLUTE from January 2016 to December 2018. Squadron Leader Clare Kathleen Fry – For outstanding achievement in aircrew human factors performance management and air safety accident investigation for the Australian Defence Force. Sergeant William Booth Gill – For outstanding achievements in unmanned aerial system capability enhancement in the Royal Australian Air Force. Squadron Leader Sean Andrew Hamilton – For outstanding achievement in fighter aircraft tactics development and training in the Royal Australian Air Force. Wing Commander Matthew John Harper, – For outstanding achievement in air combat capability management for the Australian Defence Force. Squadron Leader Craig Geoffrey Keane – For outstanding devotion to duty in AP-3C aircraft electronic warfare capability development for the Australian Defence Force. Sergeant Benjamin John Mason – For outstanding achievement in E-7A Wedgetail aircraft communications information systems and security support for the Australian Defence Force. Conspicuous Service Medal (CSM) Army Sergeant Dayne Robert Anderson – For meritorious achievement in developing virtual training systems integrated with existing live, virtual and constructive training that has improved enhanced Australian Army training methods and assisted the capability of international partners. Warrant Officer Class One Craig Cutts – For meritorious devotion to duty in administrative and logistic support to Australian Defence Force operations and training assistance in the Republic of the Philippines. Warrant Officer Class Two Michael John Dixon – For meritorious achievement as the Squadron Sergeant Major at the 171st Special Operations Aviation Squadron, 6th Aviation Regiment from January 2016 to December 2018. Warrant Officer Class One Leanne Marie Iseppi, – For meritorious devotion to duty as the Command Warrant Officer, Joint Task Force 633 whilst deployed on Operation ACCORDION from January 2018 to January 2019. Colonel Craig Anthony Lauder – For meritorious devotion to duty as the Chief of Staff in Headquarters Joint Task Force 633 on Operation ACCORDION from March 2018 to January 2019. Warrant Officer Class One M – For meritorious devotion to duty to the Special Air Service Regiment in the field of Parachute Rigger Supervisor 2008 to 2018. Warrant Officer Class Two Desmond Peter McCoy – For meritorious achievement as the Company Sergeant Major of the Land Mobile Training Team under Joint Task Group 629 during Operation AUGURY from January to May 2018. Warrant Officer Class One Brad James Millen – For meritorious achievement as the Intelligence Warrant Officer of the 51st Battalion, the Far North Queensland Regiment and the Regional Force Surveillance Group Liaison Officer to the Australian Maritime Border Operations Centre from 2017 to 2018. Brigadier Paul Michael Nothard, , – For meritorious devotion to duty as the Deputy Commander of Joint Task Force 633 whilst deployed on Operation ACCORDION from November 2017 to August 2018. Colonel Simon Clive Palmer – For meritorious achievement in leading cultural change and governance reform within Reserve and Youth Division, Joint Capabilities Group. Chaplain Peter Douglas Price – For meritorious achievement as the unit Padre displaying exceptional application of spiritual, pastoral and philosophical care at the Army School of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering. Warrant Officer Class One Christopher Robert Ross – For meritorious achievement as the Personnel Operations Warrant Officer, J1 Directorate, Headquarters Joint Operations Command. Lieutenant Colonel John Charles Sayers – For meritorious achievement as Commanding Officer of the 2nd Force Support Battalion. Lieutenant Colonel Charles Christian Slinger – For meritorious achievement as the Staff Officer Grade One Air and Missile Defence, Combat Support Program, Army Headquarters. Navy Lieutenant Peter Asimakis – For meritorious achievement as a lead member of the Sea Training Unit Defence Cooperation Programme. Petty Officer Victoria Ann Clarke – For meritorious devotion to duty in the field of Navy workforce management. Lieutenant Commander Bernard Roy Dobson – For meritorious devotion to duty during the introduction into service of HMAS Hobart. Chief Petty Officer Melita Leigh English – For meritorious achievement in the performance of duty as the Fleet Legal Assistant. Commander Lindsay Ridgway Gordon – For meritorious achievement as the Deputy Director Submarines – Platform. Commander Robert (Bradley) Halloran – For meritorious achievement in the field of Navy training systems. Leading Seaman N – For meritorious achievement as an Electronic Warfare Instructor within the School of Maritime Warfare. Chief Petty Officer Zulkarnain Shah Naim – For meritorious devotion to duty as the Navy Advisor on Inter-Cultural Affairs. Lieutenant Commander Steven Geoffrey Taragel – For meritorious achievement as the Executive Officer of HMAS Cairns. Air Force Group Captain Robert John Elliott – For meritorious achievement in leading, planning and delivering critical intelligence, surveillance, reconnaissance and targeting effects for Joint Operations Command. Flight Sergeant Tanya Marie Fraser – For meritorious devotion to duty in organisational administration and management as the Administrator for Specialist Legal Reserve Services in the Royal Australian Air Force. Wing Commander Kylie Larrisa Green – For meritorious achievement in logistics employment initiatives, operational preparedness, and force generation development for the Royal Australian Air Force. Corporal Lachlan Walker O'Kane – For meritorious achievement as the Surveillance Technician in Air Task Group 630.1.4 whilst deployed on Operation OKRA from August 2018 to February 2019. Squadron Leader Brayden Joseph Pirlo – For meritorious devotion to duty in development and delivery of the first technical cyber threat intelligence capability for the Australian Defence Force. Sergeant Justin Wayne Regan – For meritorious achievement in air surveillance in the Defence Signals Intelligence and Cyber Command. References External links 2020 awards 2020 in Australia Orders, decorations, and medals of Australia

7343027

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MDC-1200

MDC-1200

MDC (Motorola Data Communications), also known as Stat-Alert, MDC-1200 and MDC-600, is a Motorola two-way radio low-speed data system using audio frequency shift keying, (AFSK). MDC-600 uses a 600 baud data rate. MDC-1200 uses a 1,200 baud data rate. Systems employ either one of the two baud rates. Mark and space tones are 1,200 Hz and 1,800 Hz. The data are sent in bursts over the radio system's voice channel. MDC signaling includes a number of features: unit ID, status buttons, emergency button, selective inhibit, radio check, and selective calling. These features are programmable and could be used in any combination desired by the user. They are typically incorporated in high-end analog FM commercial and public safety radios made by Motorola and other manufacturers. In addition to Motorola, at least two other companies make compatible base station decoders for MDC-1200. Motorola radios with MDC options have an option allowing the radio to filter out data bursts from the receive audio. Instead of hearing the AFSK data, the user hears a short chirp from the radio speaker each time a data burst occurs. (The user must turn on this feature in the radio's option programming settings). A general option setting for all MDC systems is to enable or disable an acknowledgement (ack) data packet. For example, following a selective call, the called radio replies with an ack. This data "handshake" confirms the called radio is powered on, has received and decoded the call. The encoder beeps to confirm the call got through to the target. In computer-aided dispatch, the encoder/decoder may pass the ack to the dispatch computer system, flagging the selective call as having been received by the mobile radio or automatically marking the time of call. The disadvantage of using an ack on busy channels is that more air time is used: roughly double the air time used by the selective call data alone. The ack packet takes roughly the same amount of air time as the selective call itself. Unit ID or push-to-talk ID Many MDC-1200 systems utilize the unit ID option. With each push-to-talk press, the radio sends a data burst identifying the sending radio. Unit IDs are decoded as unique hexadecimal four-digit numbers. Every radio would have a unique four-digit ID, (for example: 0423 or 5990). Unit ID can be sent as leading or trailing a voice message. In the leading option, the data burst is sent at the moment a user presses the radio's push-to-talk button. An option can be set to make the radio's speaker emit a tone for the length of the unit ID data, (about 1-1.5 seconds). This reminds a user to wait until the data has been sent before talking. The leading unit ID takes slightly more air time (is longer) than a trailing ID because of a header tone and the need to delay the data burst to allow time for CTCSS decoders and voting comparators to open an audio path to the decoder. A default delay is defined with the unit ID option. To adjust for time delay variations in each individual system, radios can be programmed to delay the sending of a radio's unit ID data by up to hundreds of milliseconds within a range. In the trailing option, the data packet is sent at the moment the microphone button is released. This avoids timing issues because the audio path to the base station is already open. The standard Motorola encoder-decoder has a display which shows the most recent four-digit, push-to-talk ID. A printer can be connected. It would print the unit ID and the time it was received based on the decoder's internal clock. In computer-aided dispatch (CAD), the four-digit ID is passed to the CAD and may be translated to a local name for the unit. For example, a tow truck with an identifier "Downtown 6" logging on at the beginning of a shift may call the dispatcher and say, "Downtown 6, in service: vehicle radio 0455, hand-held 0771." The CAD computer would translate any push-to-talk ID from either 0771 or 0455 to display "Downtown 6" on the CAD screen. Emergency button The emergency button option designates a button on hand-held or vehicle radios which sends the MDC-1200 unit ID with an emergency flag appended. The decoder notes the unit ID but interprets this data packet as an emergency message rather than a unit ID. Options allow emergency messages to always be sent over a specific channel rather than the channel set by the operator using the channel selector. For example, a system with two channels could be programmed to send all emergency messages on channel 2. This reduces interruption of the primary dispatch channel if an emergency button is pressed. The default setup for emergency buttons is for the sending radio to be completely silent when the emergency button is pressed. The radio will silently send the emergency message, with the four-digit unit ID embedded, three times. In hand-held radios, this increases the probability of at least one packet getting through. In a computer-aided dispatch (CAD) environment, the button press may pop a dialog box or activate some other attention-getting device. For example, on a screen showing status summary of all units, the unit with an activated emergency button may change colors or flash. Status buttons Some MDC-equipped radios have buttons which allow pre-defined status messages to be sent to the base station decoder. The status messages decode as generic messages, (for example: status 1 or status 8). The user defines . Typically, key caps on the status button for status 8 may be marked with the user-defined definition of the status such as available. The base station may respond to a button press with a voice acknowledgment, for example, "Downtown 6, available." In a CAD environment, the message status 8 may be translated by the CAD system to a meaning such as available. Status 1 might mean starting a meal break. Key caps on the radio's status buttons may be engraved with their user-defined status. The unit's status changes at the moment the button press is received. This helps take a load off the dispatcher because the status change is logged automatically. This happens even though the dispatcher may be talking on the telephone. In systems where the dispatcher is often overloaded, the use of status buttons may slightly reduce the work load and may reduce voice message traffic on a channel. If the acknowledgment packets are enabled, every status button press gets a handshake packet in response from the base station encoder-decoder. The radio where a status button was pressed will normally beep to confirm the decoder's ack for a status button press. Selective inhibit In the event a radio is stolen, or a user's permission to access the radio system is revoked, a data packet can be sent to the radio's ID to disable the radio. This prevents the radio from transmitting or receiving until either an un-inhibit packet is sent to the radio or in some cases re-programmed using the appropriate service software. Some literature refers to this feature as 'stunning' and 'un-stunning' the radio, or a 'radiokill'. Radio check A request can be sent to the radio to determine if it is turned on, on a specific frequency, or within range. The radio will respond with an 'ack' if it hears the request containing its individual ID. The radio can also be programmed to ignore these packets and not acknowledge them. It can also be programmed to perform this acknowledgement 'silently' (the radio user never knows that his radio has been 'pinged'). Selective calling MDC-systems have an option for selective calling. By pressing a series of keys on the encoder-decoder, the base station operator can send a data packet that activates a lighted indicator or makes the radio beep. On some radio models with alphanumeric displays, the display may flash CALL until a reset button is pressed. On radio models with ten key pads, mobile radios may be programmed to selectively call one another in this manner. In order to call a radio, the calling party must know the four-digit MDC identity of the radio to be called. In a CAD environment, a tow truck could be automatically called at the moment the driver was dispatched to respond to a call for service. The CAD system could manage the four-digit IDs so that the user did not need to know them. Patent and manufacturers MDC-1200 is patented under U.S. patents 4,457,005; 4,517,561;4,590,473; and 4,517,669. During the patent period, Motorola charged heavy licensing fees for the MDC-1200 protocol. As a result, few other manufacturers produced equipment compatible with the system. This tended to produce a lock-in situation where many companies and public safety agencies were restricted to using mostly Motorola radios, in order to ensure compatibility with existing systems. Manufacturers of third-party MDC-1200 hardware, including in-radio encoder/decoder modules (as aftermarket add-ons for non-Motorola radios), display units for dispatch centers, etc. include Midian Electronics, Control Signal Corporation and Cimarron Technologies. Some of these products have display screens, some are 'black boxes' with inputs for power and receiver audio, and an RS232 serial data output. As of February 2008, there is some discussion as to the status of the above-mentioned patents. While the USPTO still shows them as active patents, a number of other radio manufacturers have begun including MDC-1200 support in their products. Vertex Standard manufactures OEM add-on boards for their mobile and portable Land Mobile Radios that support MDC-1200 ANI (or PTT ID). Icom Incorporated includes built-in MDC-1200 features on some of their newer radios including the IC-F3021/4021 portables and IC-F1721/1821 mobiles, as does Kenwood Electronics. References Quantized radio modulation modes

5224894

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peri%20Tarr

Peri Tarr

Peri Tarr received her BS in Zoology from the University of Massachusetts Amherst in 1986, and her MS and PhD in Computer Science from the University of Massachusetts Amherst (1992 and 1996, respectively). Between her BS and MS/PhD, she worked full-time at the University of Massachusetts Physical Plant, attempting to introduce an automated system to help with the Plant's operations. After receiving her PhD, she joined the IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center as a Research Staff Member in 1996, where she worked on and led various projects relating to issues of software composition, morphogenic software, and aspect-oriented software development. Her work on multi-dimensional separation of concerns was recognized as the Most Influential Paper at the 2009 International Conference on Software Engineering (ICSE). She is chief architect for Governance of Software Development, an IBM Research initiative that ties together the tools for teams of developers with the planning and financial management aspects required by enterprises. Tarr was the 2005 program chair of the Aspect-Oriented Software Development conference and was the 2006 general chair of ACM SIGPLAN's OOPSLA 2006 Conference. References External links Peri Tarr's IBM Research homepage IBM employees Living people Year of birth missing (living people) University of Massachusetts Amherst alumni

37767528

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%20John%20Thackeray

St John Thackeray

St John Thackeray (1778–1824) was a collector and political agent, who was working in south India for British East India Company during the 1820s. Early life St John Thackeray was working as collector and political agent, for Southern Mahratta Doab region of British East India Company and he belonged to Madras Civil Service. Attack on Kittur Background The Kittur Kingdom, founded in 1585 by one Desai, was ruled by Mallasarja, who was childless, with Kittur Chennamma as the queen. Mallasarja died in 1824, and whether he adopted a boy before his death was a fact contested by St John Thackeray. Holding that the adoption was either false or forged, Thackeray marched to Kittur. Upon arriving, Thackeray sought to administer the territory. He sealed the treasury in an attempt to confiscate its treasure and jewels. Kittur Chennamma protested and closed the gates of the fort. Thackeray gave the order to blow up the gates, and in the meantime, one of Chennamma's soldiers shot Thackeray. Death St John Thackeray was killed on 23 October 1824 at Kittur, Karnataka, when he was waging a war against Kittur Chennamma, the Rani (Queen) of Kittur. It was observed that he along with other forces tried to enter into fortified town of Kittur with "inadequate means". First he was shot in the stomach as he rode towards the fort and was later hacked to death by a Kittur swordsman. Amateur Balappa, one of the lieutenants of Kittur Chennamma, was involved in killing Thackeray. Memorial An obelisk was constructed at Dharwar in memory of Thackeray. References Administrators in British India British East India Company people History of Karnataka Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown 1824 deaths 1778 births

62648373

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Institute%20of%20Technology%2C%20Tiruchirappalli

National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli

National Institute of Technology Tiruchirappalli (NIT Tiruchirappalli or NIT Trichy) is a public technical and research university near the city of Tiruchirappalli in Tamil Nadu, India. It was founded as Regional Engineering College Tiruchirappalli in 1964 by the Governments of India and Tamil Nadu under the affiliation of the University of Madras. The college was granted Deemed University status in 2003 with the approval of the University Grants Commission, All India Council for Technical Education and Government of India and renamed as National Institute of Technology Tiruchirappalli. The university was declared as an Institute of National Importance in 2007 by the Government of India under the National Institutes of Technology, Science Education and Research Act and is one of the members of the National Institutes of Technology (NITs) system, a group of premier Indian technical universities governed by the Council of NITSER. NIT Trichy focuses exclusively on engineering, management, science, technology and architecture. The university offers 10 bachelor's, 40 master's and 17 doctoral programmes through its 17 academic departments and awards more than 1700 degrees annually. The National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF) has ranked the university first among the NITs for six years in a row from 2016 to 2021. The NIRF has also ranked the university seventh for architecture, ninth for engineering, 48th for management and 23rd overall in India in 2021. The Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry named the university the 'University of the Year' in 2017. History NIT Trichy was founded as Regional Engineering College (REC) at Tiruchirappalli in 1964 under the affiliation of University of Madras, as a co-operative venture between the Government of India and the Government of Tamil Nadu to cater to the country's need for manpower in technology. The founder of the college was Prof. P.S. Manisundaram, a pioneering educationist in India. He was a graduate of Loyola College, Chennai and the Technical University of Nova Scotia (now known as Faculty of Engineering, Dalhousie University), Canada; he pioneered the formation of Computer Science as a separate educational stream on the Indian scene. He served as the Principal of REC Tiruchirappalli from its formation in 1964 to 1982. In the early 1980s, the State Government began to find the logistics of controlling these colleges from Madras to be tedious and split the aegis into the Bharathidasan and Bharathiar universities for the Tiruchirappalli and Coimbatore areas, respectively. In 1982, the college was thus incorporated under the Bharathidasan University umbrella, of which Dr. P.S. Manisundaram served as the inaugural Vice-Chancellor. The Institute would grant degrees under this name for the next 20 years, except for a brief stint under Anna University in 2001 and 2002. The college continued its progress under Bharathidasan University and introduced a Computer Science Department around 1984, split off the Mechanical Engineering Department's manufacturing stream into a Production Engineering Department and introduced the Instrumentation and Control Engineering Department in 1992. In 2001, Anna University was granted authority over REC Tiruchirappalli. This was temporary, however, as the 40-year collaboration between the Center and the State Governments for all the RECs finally dissolved; the Center upgraded all the RECs to National Institutes of Technology (NITs) and completely took control of them under the Ministry of Human Resource Development. In 2002, former Minister of Human Resource Development Murali Manoher Joshi decided to upgrade the RECs to NITs. At the end of that very same year, the institution was granted Deemed University status with the approval of the University Grants Commission / All India Council for Technical Education; it was renamed the National Institute of Technology Tiruchirappalli and was finally granting degrees under its own name. In 2007, the National Institutes of Technology Act was passed, giving the NITs equal footing to the IITs in terms of pay scales, funding, etc. The institute receives around ₹200 crores (US$31 million) every year from the Government of India which is usually spent for research, improving the infrastructural facilities in the campus and to bring international standards. As part of the golden jubilee plans, a brand new lecture hall complex, sports arena, convention center, computer center, dining messes and several hostels were built in the campus. NIT Trichy celebrated its Golden Jubilee anniversary on July 19 and 20, 2014, with the President of India Shri Pranab Mukherjee presiding over the event as the chief guest. Campus Main Zone The campus spans and is one of the largest academic campuses in India. The main entrance is located on the southern end of the campus, facing National Highway 67. There is one other entrance, popularly called the Staff Gate. The institute's academic facilities are located in the southern half of the campus; these include the department buildings, laboratories and workshops, lecture halls, computer centres and the central library. The campus has separate buildings for the departments of nine engineering, architecture, management, computer applications, energy and environment engineering. Each department has its own library, in addition to the central library, which holds more than one lakh resources including books, periodicals and journals in print and electronic format. A new lecture hall complex named as "Orion" was inaugurated in the year 2014 as a part of the institute's golden jubilee campus development plans, and it currently serves for the undergraduate students. The old lecture hall complex which has forty lecture halls is currently used for the academic classes and lectures for first-year undergraduate, postgraduate and doctoral students. Administrative building The administrative building with its clock tower is one of the institute's landmarks. This building houses the administrative offices and also the offices of the director and deans. The eastern and western wings of this building were occupied by the physics and chemistry departments respectively prior to the opening of new building buildings for the same departments in 2016. Orion The Orion is the lecture hall complex for the undergraduate students and consists of twenty-four large lecture halls. Each hall can accommodate around two hundred students and consists of projectors and televisions to make the lectures interactive. The shape of the Orion building is number eight. A decommissioned MIG-23 jet, presented by the Indian Air Force to the institute, is installed near the Orion building. Central library NIT Trichy has a modern central library with more than two and a half lakh of documents consisting of technical books, reports, standards, compact disks and back volumes of journals. The library subscribes to more than two hundred print periodicals, more than five thousand e-Journals and more than six hundred e-books besides a holding of around eighteen thousand back volumes of journals. The library also contains around two lakh books in the Book Bank scheme. The institute is holding membership with British Council Library, Chennai. They are also holding membership with Developing Library Network, New Delhi and providing Inter-Library Loan services to the users. The library also provides air-conditioned and Wi-Fi enabled reading halls. It is situated opposite to the civil engineering department building. The building also houses the Centre for Entrepreneurial Development and Incubation (CEDI). The old library building temporarily houses the Indian Institute of Management, Tiruchirappalli. Octagon centre The Octagon is the institute's primary computer centre, with eight computer labs, printing facilities and a variety of engineering software for use by students. The Octagon also serves as a central hub for interconnecting the campus-wide LAN. This LAN caters to totally six thousand users across the campus and has a 10 Gbit/s fibre optic backbone. The original facility, opened in 1990, was extended into the second building in 2006; there are plans to further expand the facility in view of the increase in student enrollment. A brand new computer centre was inaugurated in the year 2016 which houses more than three hundred computers. Residential zone Residential facilities are provided on campus for students, faculty and staff of the institute. Most students live on campus in the residential hostels. In all, there are twenty-two boys' and five girls' hostels with a capacity of five thousand students. With the exception of the girls' hostel, all the others are located on the northern side of the campus. Meals are served by two mega messes and two government messes along with a pure vegetarian mess located on campus. There are several cafeterias on campus where food is available for purchase. Other amenities on campus include a guest house, a modern hospital, an Apollo pharmacy, an India Post office, State Bank of India and its two ATMs, one Canara Bank ATM, Cafe Coffee day restaurant, Naturals parlor and one supermarket. The institute has a student activity centre (SAC) and is the hub for most of the major extra-curricular activities. The SAC building was inaugurated in the year 2012. The dance, music and the National Cadet Corps groups carry out all their activities at the SAC. It also houses the Café Coffee Day restaurant. Organisation Academic departments The university has 17 departments. Management School The NIT Trichy's Department of Management Studies (DoMS) is one of the oldest business schools in India, started in 1978 and offers MBA programme. They offered Dual specialisation in Marketing, Finance, Business Analytics and IT Consulting, Human Resources and Operations. Unlike the rest of the courses in the university, DoMS follows a trimester pattern with a two-month compulsory internship at the end of the first year. Governance The President of India is the ex officio visitor of all the NITs. The Council of NITSER (formerly NIT Council) works directly under the president and it includes the minister-in-charge of technical education in Central Government, the chairmen and the directors of all the NITs, the Chairman of University Grants Commission, the Director-General of Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, the Directors of other selected central institutions of repute, members of Parliament, Joint Council Secretary of Ministry of Education, nominees of the Central Government, All India Council for Technical Education and the Visitor. Below the NIT Council is each NIT's Board of Governors. The Board of Governors of each NIT consists of the chairman and ten members, which include government, industry, alumni and faculty representation. The Director serves under the Board of Governors and is the school's chief academic and executive officer. Academic policies are decided by its Senate, which is composed of some professors and other representatives. The Senate controls and approves the curriculum, courses, examinations, and results. Senate committees examine specific academic matters. The teaching, training, and research activities of various departments of the institute are periodically reviewed to maintain educational standards. The Director is the ex officio Chairman of the Senate. The deputy director is subordinate to the Director. Together they manage the Deans, Heads of Departments, Registrar, President of the Students' Council, and Chairman of the Hall Management Committee. Deans and Heads of Departments in NITs are administrative postings rather than career paths. Faculty members serve as Deans and Heads of Departments for limited periods, typically two to three years, then returning to regular faculty duties. The Registrar is the chief administrative officer and overviews day-to-day operations. Below the Head of department, are the various faculty members (professors, assistant professors, and lecturers). The Warden serves under the Chairman of the Hall Management Committee. Academics NIT Trichy offers undergraduate and postgraduate programmes in disciplines spanning engineering, science, arts, architecture and management. The institute has 17 departments with about 250 faculty members and more than 6,000 enrolled students. Admissions Admission to the undergraduate programmes is highly competitive and is based on the rank secured in the Joint Entrance Examination – Main. Candidates must also secure at least 75% marks in the 12th class examination, or be in the top 20 percentile in the 12th class examination conducted by the respective Boards. For Scheduled Castes/Scheduled Tribes students, the qualifying marks would be 65% in the 12th class examination. The examination is considered to be one of the toughest examinations in the world and the high school science students who clear the examination with top ranks generally opt NIT Trichy as their first choice for admissions in undergraduate programmes. NIT Trichy follows the reservation policy declared by the Supreme Court of India, by which 27% of seats are reserved for Other Backward Classes, 15% for Scheduled Castes, and 7.5% for Scheduled Tribes. The institute also accepts foreign nationals through scholarships awarded by the Government of India, and non-resident Indians through an independent scheme known as Direct Admission for Students Abroad (DASA) that uses the rank secured in the Joint Entrance Examination – Main. Admissions to the Master of Technology (M.Tech.) and Master of Science programmes (taught and research) programmes are through the Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering,Master of Computer Applications (M.C.A) programme through the NIT MCA Common Entrance Test, and Master of Arts (M.A.) through the interviews. Admissions for Master of Business Administration (MBA) programme are through the Common Admission Test. Admissions to the Doctorate of Philosophy (Ph.D.) programmes are based on the written tests followed by personal interviews conducted by the university. Undergraduate education The university awards Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech.) degrees in nine engineering disciplines as well as the Bachelor of Architecture (B.Arch.) degree through its architecture discipline. As of 2019, the annual intake for the B.Tech. programmes was 1049, with a student-faculty ratio of 25:1. The B.Tech. and B.Arch. degree programmes are four and five years long respectively. Courses are allotted a number of credits according to their importance. Each academic year is divided into two semesters and teaching programmes are organized around the credit system. Teaching includes lectures, tutorials, practicals, projects, seminars, dissertations, and field and industrial training. The first year of the B.Tech. programme is common across all disciplines, during which students take basic courses in engineering, mathematics and professional communication. From the second year onwards, the students take courses offered by their departments that are known as "depth" courses. At the end of the third year, the B.Tech. and B.Arch. students undertake industrial training for a minimum period of eight working weeks as part of the undergraduate curriculum. In the final year of their studies, most of the students are offered jobs in industries and other organisations through the Training and Placement section of the institute. Some students opt out of this facility in favour of higher studies or by applying to recruit organisations directly. Postgraduate education The university offers 40 graduate programmes, which include 23 programmes in engineering leading to Master of Technology (M.Tech.) degrees, 9 programmes in engineering leading to Master of Science (by research) degrees, 4 programmes in science and computer science leading to Master of Science (M.Sc.) degrees and a programme in architecture, arts, computer applications and business leading to Master of Architecture (M.Arch), Master of Arts (M.A.), Master of Computer Applications (MCA) and Master of Business Administration (MBA) respectively. The Department of Computer Applications offers three full-time post-graduate programmes — three-year MCA programme, two-year M.Sc. programme in Computer Science and M.Tech. in Data Analytics. The university also offers 17 Doctorate of Philosophy (PhD) degrees programmes. Admission to the PhD degree programs is either through industry sponsorship or through an entrance exam conducted by the institute. The doctoral research scholars are given a topic by the professor or work on the consultancy projects sponsored by industry. The duration of the programme is usually unspecified and depends on discipline. PhD scholars submit a dissertation as well as to conduct an oral defence of their thesis. Teaching assistantships (TA) and research assistantships (RA) are provided based on the scholar's profile. After the completion of doctoral studies, the candidates are placed in reputed public or private companies and universities. Also, many of the students after finishing their doctoral studies, do post-doctoral fellowships at research labs and universities in India and abroad. Reputation and rankings International The QS World University Rankings ranked NIT Trichy 251–260 in Asia in 2021 and 126 among BRICS nations in 2019 rankings. The Times Higher Education World University Rankings ranked the university 1001–1200 globally, 301-350 among universities of emerging economies and 251-300 among universities of Asia in 2021 rankings. National NIT Trichy was declared as an institute of national importance by the Government of India in 2007. In 2015, it was titled as the "Best Industry-linked centrally funded technical institution in India" by the Confederation of Indian Industry. In 2017, it was named as the "University of the Year" in the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry awards. The QS World University Rankings ranked NIT Trichy 27 in India in the 2020 ranking. NIT Trichy has been ranked 1 among the National Institutes of Technology for six years in a row from 2016 to 2021, 9 among engineering institutes and 23 overall in India by the National Institutional Ranking Framework in 2021. The Indian magazines such as the Outlook India ranked the institute 8 and The Week ranked the institute 10 among engineering colleges and institutions in India for the year 2019. The Department of Management Studies is ranked 48 by National Institutional Ranking Framework in 2021, 47 by Business Today in 2019 among top management schools in India. In 2012, the department was named as "Outstanding Business School in South India" in the Bloomberg UTV awards. The Department of Architecture is ranked 7 in India for architecture in the 2021 National Institutional Ranking Framework rankings. University collaborations NIT Trichy has academic collaboration with the many universities in India and abroad. The collaborative programmes include student and faculty exchange, internship for students and joint research activities. Some of the major universities which have a Memorandum of Understanding with the institute are Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Institute of Technology, Tamil Nadu National Law University, University of Michigan and Ufa State Aviation Technical University. Centre for Entrepreneurship Development and Incubation Centre for Entrepreneurship Development and Incubation (CEDI) is an independent company promoted by NIT Trichy. CEDI facilitates the incubated companies to access NIT Trichy's common infrastructure facilities, departmental laboratories and other resources of NIT Trichy for their products development purposes. All the necessary mentoring and support for mobilizing funds, creating access to markets, augmenting managerial skills etc., are provided by the CEDI centre. CEDI has implemented a project – Technological Incubation and Development of Entrepreneurs (TIDE) funded by the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology, Government of India aims to enable young entrepreneurs to initiate technology start-up companies for commercial exploitation of technologies developed by them in the areas of information and communication technology and electronics. CEDI has implemented faculty and entrepreneurship development programmes for faculty, students and potential and existing entrepreneurs in the Tiruchirappalli region. These programmes are sponsored by the Department of Science and Technology through the Entrepreneurship Development Institute of India. CEDI has also implemented a project on business and management capacity development of rural women entrepreneurs of India and Sri Lanka by The Asia Foundation. University of Jaffna and South Eastern University of Sri Lanka are the Sri Lankan partners. Women Entrepreneurs' Association of Tamil Nadu (WEAT) is the network partner. Research Research in NIT Trichy is sponsored by major Indian government agencies including the Ministry of Education, Department of Science and Technology, Science and Engineering Research Board, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Defence Research and Development Organisation, Indian Space Research Organisation, Gas Turbine Research Establishment, All India Council for Technical Education, Rajiv Gandhi National Institute of Youth Development, Department of Electronics and Information Technology and Department of Atomic Energy. In conjunction with this, major consultancy projects with agencies like Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited, Central Public Works, Public Works Department, Airport Authority of India, NLC India Limited, Centre for Development of Advanced Computing are also undertaken across different departments of the institute. NIT Trichy also works in collaboration with private industries like Micron Technology, Nvidia Corporation, Larsen & Toubro, Tata Motors and Tata Steel. The American technology company Texas Instruments announced in September 2019 that it will set up a research laboratory at the campus. In May 2020, the university was inducted into the National Supercomputing Mission (NSM), of the Government of India, through which the university will receive a supercomputer worth ₹17 crores ($2.2 million). The supercomputer will be set up by the Centre for Development of Advanced Computing. Space-Technology Incubation Centre The Space Technology Incubation Centre (S-TIC) was set up by the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) at NIT Trichy campus in June 2019. The centre incubates startups to build applications and products in tandem with the industry which would be used for future space missions and it is the first of its kind incubation centre in south India. The S-TIC brings the industry, academia and ISRO under one umbrella contributing towards research and development initiatives relevant to the Indian Space Programme. Centres of Excellence The institute has four centres of excellence and they are: Centre of Excellence in Corrosion and Surface Engineering Centre of Excellence in Transportation Engineering Siemens Centre of Excellence in Manufacturing Centre of Excellence in Artificial Intelligence Siemens Centre of Excellence The Siemens centre for excellence in manufacturing was opened in October 2018 in collaboration with the German company Siemens. The centre has 12 sophisticated Laboratories for Design and Validation, Advanced Manufacturing, Test and Optimization, Automation, Electrical and Energy savings, Process Instrumentation, Mechatronics, CNC Machines, CNC Controller, Robotics, Rapid Prototyping and Internet of Things which provides an opportunity for promising innovations. The centre offers skill development courses, internships, research and development assistance and Industrial consultancy services across various sectors. The centre was built at a cost of ₹190 crores (US$27 million) and was inaugurated by Human Resource Development Minister Prakash Javadekar on 5 October 2018. The centre's technology partner Siemens rendered 90% of the total cost for it as a grant. NIT Trichy is the only institute in India to have such kind of facility. Student life Sports Most of the institute's athletic facilities are located in and around the sports centre which includes indoor badminton courts and a fitness centre for men. The Opal hostel, which is the girl's hostel also includes a gym. Adjoining this building are a swimming pool and an outdoor stadium with a track, which is also used as a cricket field. Other facilities on campus include basketball courts and indoor table tennis tables in the residential hostels. A new indoor sports arena with international standards near to the basketball court was inaugurated in 2014. In 2017, two lawn tennis courts have been built near to basketball court. Clubs and societies NIT Trichy has over 35 student groups spanning a variety of interests, including cultural, social and professional groups, student publications and recreational groups. Undergraduate students participate in one of three national programmes in their first year: the National Cadet Corps, the National Sports Organisation or the National Service Scheme. The college is a host to many academic societies both national and international. These societies organize several workshops, seminars and guest lectures by eminent personalities in their respective fields, from time to time. They are also responsible for providing opportunities for students to take part in various international events too. The academic society includes IEEE, ACM, ISA and SAE. The two very popular computing groups are the Delta Force and Spider. The Delta Force is an active group of developers and programmers who are responsible for the maintenance of the institute website and the development, administration, and updating of most of the content on the institute intranet. The Spider group offers various services such as organizing various courses (c language, web designing etc.), blog hosting, providing short message services and now even the facility to check train reservation status. The hobby groups include RMI, Vox Lumos, Cinema Paradiso and PSI. The RMI (Robotics and Machines Intelligence) is the on-campus robotics group, primarily involved in the development of robotics enthusiasm amongst the students. The group is responsible for holding workshops and organizing competition events in electronics. The fine arts groups include the Dance Troupe (dance club), Music Troupe (music club), Thespians' Society (drama club) and Visual Arts Club. These groups have won various awards in several events conducted in different colleges held around the country. There are several Language Clubs which cater to the needs of native speakers. Aayaam (The Hindi Club of NIT Trichy) conducts many Literary events in all major college fests, the flagship event "Umang" conducted every year for the celebration of "Hindi Divas", It also organizes "Dandiya Night" during Navratri and publishes a yearly magazine called "Pratibimb", It also organizes Hindi learning classes for non-Hindi speakers who show a keen interest in learning the language. Tamil Mandram (Tamil language promoting club) plays a very important role in promoting Tamil amongst the students by organizing various programs, Tamil events in cultural festivals and also book fairs where classics are available at subsidized prices. Annual events Institute's five official annual events, Aaveg, Festember, Nittfest, Pragyan and Sports Fete are organised by the students themselves. Festember is the annual national-level cultural festival of the institute. Held every year since 1975 during the month of September, this event encompasses music, dance and literary competitions, with thousands of participants from colleges all over the country vying for the trophy. The event has seen performances by Indian musicians including Karthik, Srinivas, Naresh Iyer, Kadri Gopalnath, Sivamani and Benny Dayal as well as bands like Indian Ocean, Euphoria and Silk Route. 'ProNites' or 'ProShows', Festember's most anticipated events, usually form the grand finale after the valediction ceremony. Also on the agenda are the various literary competitions split up between English, Hindi and Tamil, along with the cultural and arts events. Festember derives its name from the phrase, "A Fest to Remember" and not from "A-Fest in September" as is popularly believed due to its falling in the month of September every year. Pragyan Pragyan, the ISO 9001 & 20121 certified annual international techno-management organization of the NIT Trichy, ever since its inception in 2005, has served as a golden platform that attracts brilliant and innovative minds every year from nearly 100 colleges across the country to come and showcase their technical and managerial prowess. Since then it has broadened its horizon and forayed into the international arena by bagging the credit of being the first student-run organization in the world to get an ISO 20121:2012 certification for Sustainable Event Management and also by organizing online programming contests that attracts participation from 60 countries. It has more than 47 events spanning across eight genres. The guest lecture series, every year, sees eminent and famous intellectuals from all walks of life ranging from Marshall Strabala (studio architect of “Burj Khalifa”) to Tessy Thomas (Project Director of Agni-IV missile) to Jeff Lieberman (host of the show Time Warp on Discovery Channel) to Jimmy Wales (co-founder of Wikipedia). Nittfest Nittfest is the annual inter-departmental cultural competition of the institute. It is usually conducted in March or generally before Pragyan. During Nittfest, departments square off against each other over four days to battle over various events like quizzes, debates, music, dance, drama, gaming, art etc. Sports Fete Sports Fete is the annual inter-departmental sports competition of the institute. It is usually conducted in September. The competition is among the departments competing in various indoor and outdoor sports. Events like athletics, football, cricket and hockey have more points to score. The department with the highest total points wins the Sports Fete trophy. The Mechanical Engineering Department has won the most titles, beating the Computer Science Department by a marginal difference. Department festivals Every academic department of NIT Trichy conducts a symposium every year which is a kind of technical festival. Spread over two days, the symposiums usually include paper presentations, guest lectures, workshops and various other events pertaining to the central theme each department has decided on for the year. The symposiums conducted by the various academic departments are Alchemy (chemical engineering), Archcult (architecture), Bizzdom (management studies), Currents (electrical and electronics engineering), Inphynitt (Physics), Mettle (metallurgical and materials engineering), Moments (civil engineering), Probe (electronics and communication engineering), Prodigy (production engineering), Sensors (instrumentation and control engineering), Synergy (mechanical engineering), Version (computer applications), Vortex (computer science and engineering). Notable alumni National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli alumni include Chief Executive Officers and top executives of Fortune India 500 and Forbes Global 2000 companies such as Natarajan Chandrasekaran, Chairman of Tata Sons; Rajesh Gopinathan, CEO and managing director of Tata Consultancy Services; T. V. Narendran, Global CEO and managing director of Tata Steel; K. R. Sridhar, CEO and founder of Bloom Energy and R. Ravimohan, former executive director of Reliance Industries. In the academic world, they include deans and chairs of faculties such as Nagi Naganathan, President of Oregon Institute of Technology; Guruswami Ravichandran, Chair of the Division of Engineering and Applied Science and Professor of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, California Institute of Technology; Ramesh R. Rao, Director of California Institute for Telecommunications and Information Technology and Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California, San Diego; Nambirajan Seshadri, Professor of Practice of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California, San Diego; Rajkumar Chellaraj, CFO and Associate Dean, Stanford Graduate School of Business; Venkat Selvamanickam, Professor of Mechanical Engineering and Physics, Director of Texas Center for Superconductivity, University of Houston and Nagarajan Ranganathan, Distinguished Professor of Computer Science and Engineering at University of South Florida. See also National Institutes of Technology References External links National Institutes of Technology Engineering colleges in Tamil Nadu Universities and colleges in Tiruchirappalli Business schools in Tamil Nadu 1964 establishments in Madras State Educational institutions established in 1964 All India Council for Technical Education Technical universities and colleges in India Academic institutions formerly affiliated with the University of Madras

4724047

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOD-STD-2167A

DOD-STD-2167A

DOD-STD-2167A (Department of Defense Standard 2167A), titled "Defense Systems Software Development", was a United States defense standard, published on February 29, 1988, which updated the less well known DOD-STD-2167 published 4 June 1985. This document established "uniform requirements for the software development that are applicable throughout the system life cycle." This revision was written to allow the contractor more flexibility and was a significant reorganization and reduction of the previous revision; e.g.., where the previous revision prescribed pages of design and coding standards, this revision only gave one page of general requirements for the contractor's coding standards; while DOD-STD-2167 listed 11 quality factors to be addressed for each software component in the SRS, DOD-STD-2167A only tasked the contractor to address relevant quality factors in the SRS. Like DOD-STD-2167, it was designed to be used with DOD-STD-2168, "Defense System Software Quality Program". On December 5, 1994 it was superseded by MIL-STD-498, which merged DOD-STD-2167A, DOD-STD-7935A, and DOD-STD-2168 into a single document, and addressed some vendor criticisms. Criticism One criticism of the standard was that it was biased toward the Waterfall Model. Although the document states "the contractor is responsible for selecting software development methods (for example, rapid prototyping)", it also required "formal reviews and audits" that seemed to lock the vendor into designing and documenting the system before any implementation began. Another criticism was the focus on design documents, to the exclusion of Computer-Aided Software Engineering (CASE) tools being used in the industry. Vendors would often use the CASE tools to design the software, then write several standards-required documents to describe the CASE-formatted data. This created problems matching design documents to the actual product. Successors One result of these criticisms was to begin designing a successor standard, which became MIL-STD-498. Another result was a preference for formal industry-designed standards (such as IEEE 12207) and informal "best practice" specifications, rather than trying to determine the best processes and making them formal specifications. MIL-STD-2167A with MIL-STD-498 eventually became the basis for DO-178 in the early 1980s, the latter followed by subsequent revisions. MIL-STD-2167 and MIL-STD-498 together define standard software development life cycle processes that are expected to be implemented and followed as well as defining standard document format and content. In contrast, DO-178B/C defines objectives that should be accomplished as acceptable means of demonstrating airworthiness, permitting relative flexibility in the life cycles and processes employed to accomplish those objectives. References External links The DOD-STD-2167 standard The DOD-STD-2167A standard MIL-HDBK-287 A Tailoring Guide for DOD-STD-2167A Military perspective on replacing DOD-STD-2167A with MIL-STD-498 Military statement together with DOD-STD-2167A with FAM-DRE-231 United States Department of Defense standards 1988 documents Software development

36454073

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid%20UI

Fluid UI

Fluid UI is a browser-based wireframing and prototyping tool developed by Fluid Software and used to design mobile touch interfaces. History Fluid Software is an Irish software development company founded in August 2010 by Dave Kearney and Ian Hannigan. The company began work on its first product Fluid UI in January 2011 and entered private beta on December of the same year. The beta saw over 3000 users trialling the software. Fluid UI was launched on the 4th of July 2012. Overview Fluid UI is an HTML5 mobile interface prototyping tool that helps the user interface designer to rapidly create prototypes by arranging pre-built widgets into a drag-and-drop WYSIWYG editor during the requirements stage of app development. It enables iteration and collaboration between user and client. Platforms supported include Android, Android Tablet, iPhone and iPad. Technology Fluid UI is built with the latest web technologies HTML5, CSS3 and JavaScript. Open source libraries are also integrated into the tool - primarily jQuery. The editor UI uses a fixed Zooming User Interface (ZUI) and an Infinite canvas layout model for content display. The visual linking system is built with a combination of HTML5 canvas and CSS3. See also Rapid Application Development Prototyping Website wireframe Rapid prototyping Software Prototyping Mock-up Human–computer interaction References External links Official Website Fluid UI Editor Rich web applications Web frameworks Mashup (web application hybrid) Software companies of Ireland

783135

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE%20802.11i-2004

IEEE 802.11i-2004

IEEE 802.11i-2004, or 802.11i for short, is an amendment to the original IEEE 802.11, implemented as Wi-Fi Protected Access II (WPA2). The draft standard was ratified on 24 June 2004. This standard specifies security mechanisms for wireless networks, replacing the short Authentication and privacy clause of the original standard with a detailed Security clause. In the process, the amendment deprecated broken Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP), while it was later incorporated into the published IEEE 802.11-2007 standard. Replacement of WEP 802.11i supersedes the previous security specification, Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP), which was shown to have security vulnerabilities. Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) had previously been introduced by the Wi-Fi Alliance as an intermediate solution to WEP insecurities. WPA implemented a subset of a draft of 802.11i. The Wi-Fi Alliance refers to their approved, interoperable implementation of the full 802.11i as WPA2, also called RSN (Robust Security). 802.11i makes use of the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) block cipher, whereas WEP and WPA use the RC4 stream cipher. Protocol operation IEEE 802.11i enhances IEEE 802.11-1999 by providing a Robust Security Network (RSN) with two new protocols: the four-way handshake and the group key handshake. These utilize the authentication services and port access control described in IEEE 802.1X to establish and change the appropriate cryptographic keys. The RSN is a security network that only allows the creation of robust security network associations (RSNAs), which are a type of association used by a pair of stations (STAs) if the procedure to establish authentication or association between them includes the 4-Way Handshake. The standard also provides two RSNA data confidentiality and integrity protocols, TKIP and CCMP, with implementation of CCMP being mandatory since the confidentiality and integrity mechanisms of TKIP are not as robust as those of CCMP. The main purpose to implement TKIP was that the algorithm should be implementable within the capabilities of most of the old devices supporting only WEP. The initial authentication process is carried out either using a pre-shared key (PSK), or following an EAP exchange through 802.1X (known as EAPOL, which requires the presence of an authentication server). This process ensures that the client station (STA) is authenticated with the access point (AP). After the PSK or 802.1X authentication, a shared secret key is generated, called the Pairwise Master Key (PMK). In PSK authentication, the PMK is actually the PSK, which is typically derived from the WiFi password by putting it through a key derivation function that uses SHA-1 as the cryptographic hash function. If an 802.1X EAP exchange was carried out, the PMK is derived from the EAP parameters provided by the authentication server. Four-way handshake The four-way handshake is designed so that the access point (or authenticator) and wireless client (or supplicant) can independently prove to each other that they know the PSK/PMK, without ever disclosing the key. Instead of disclosing the key, the access point (AP) and client encrypt messages to each other—that can only be decrypted by using the PMK that they already share—and if decryption of the messages was successful, this proves knowledge of the PMK. The four-way handshake is critical for protection of the PMK from malicious access points—for example, an attacker's SSID impersonating a real access point—so that the client never has to tell the access point its PMK. The PMK is designed to last the entire session and should be exposed as little as possible; therefore, keys to encrypt the traffic need to be derived. A four-way handshake is used to establish another key called the Pairwise Transient Key (PTK). The PTK is generated by concatenating the following attributes: PMK, AP nonce (ANonce), STA nonce (SNonce), AP MAC address, and STA MAC address. The product is then put through a pseudo-random function. The handshake also yields the GTK (Group Temporal Key), used to decrypt multicast and broadcast traffic. The actual messages exchanged during the handshake are depicted in the figure and explained below (all messages are sent as EAPOL-Key frames): The AP sends a nonce-value (ANonce) to the STA together with a Key Replay Counter, which is a number that is used to match each pair of messages sent, and discard replayed messages. The STA now has all the attributes to construct the PTK. The STA sends its own nonce-value (SNonce) to the AP together with a Message Integrity Code (MIC), including authentication, which is really a Message Authentication and Integrity Code (MAIC), and the Key Replay Counter which will be the same as Message 1, to allow AP to match the right Message 1. The AP verifies Message 2, by checking MIC, RSN, ANonce and Key Replay Counter Field, and if valid constructs and sends the GTK with another MIC. The STA verifies Message 3, by checking MIC and Key Replay Counter Field, and if valid sends a confirmation to the AP. The Pairwise Transient Key (64 bytes) is divided into five separate keys: 16 bytes of EAPOL-Key Confirmation Key (KCK) – Used to compute MIC on WPA EAPOL Key message 16 bytes of EAPOL-Key Encryption Key (KEK) – AP uses this key to encrypt additional data sent (in the 'Key Data' field) to the client (for example, the RSN IE or the GTK) 16 bytes of Temporal Key (TK) – Used to encrypt/decrypt Unicast data packets 8 bytes of Michael MIC Authenticator Tx Key – Used to compute MIC on unicast data packets transmitted by the AP 8 bytes of Michael MIC Authenticator Rx Key – Used to compute MIC on unicast data packets transmitted by the station The Group Temporal Key (32 bytes) is divided into three separate keys: 16 bytes of Group Temporal Encryption Key used to encrypt/decrypt Multicast and Broadcast data packets 8 bytes of Michael MIC Authenticator Tx Key used to compute MIC on Multicast and Broadcast packets transmitted by AP 8 bytes of Michael MIC Authenticator Rx Key currently unused as stations do not send multicast traffic The Michael MIC Authenticator Tx/Rx Keys in both the PTK and GTK are only used if the network is using TKIP to encrypt the data. This four-way handshake has been shown to be vulnerable to KRACK. Group key handshake The Group Temporal Key (GTK) used in the network may need to be updated due to the expiration of a preset timer. When a device leaves the network, the GTK also needs to be updated. This is to prevent the device from receiving any more multicast or broadcast messages from the AP. To handle the updating, 802.11i defines a Group Key Handshake that consists of a two-way handshake: The AP sends the new GTK to each STA in the network. The GTK is encrypted using the KEK assigned to that STA, and protects the data from tampering, by use of a MIC. The STA acknowledges the new GTK and replies to the AP. CCMP overview CCMP is based on the Counter with CBC-MAC (CCM) mode of the AES encryption algorithm. CCM combines CTR for confidentiality and CBC-MAC for authentication and integrity. CCM protects the integrity of both the MPDU Data field and selected portions of the IEEE 802.11 MPDU header. Key hierarchy RSNA defines two key hierarchies: Pairwise key hierarchy, to protect unicast traffic GTK, a hierarchy consisting of a single key to protect multicast and broadcast traffic The description of the key hierarchies uses the following two functions: L(Str, F, L) - From Str starting from the left, extract bits F through F+L–1. PRF-n - Pseudo-random function producing n bits of output, there are the 128, 192, 256, 384 and 512 versions, each of these output these number of bits. The pairwise key hierarchy utilizes PRF-384 or PRF-512 to derive session-specific keys from a PMK, generating a PTK, which gets partitioned into a KCK and a KEK plus all the temporal keys used by the MAC to protect unicast communication. The GTK shall be a random number which also gets generated by using PRF-n, usually PRF-128 or PRF-256, in this model, the group key hierarchy takes a GMK (Group Master Key) and generates a GTK. MAC frame formats Frame Control field Protected Frame field "The Protected Frame field is 1 bit in length. The Protected Frame field is set to 1 if the Frame Body field contains information that has been processed by a cryptographic encapsulation algorithm. The Protected Frame field is set to 1 only within data frames of type Data and within management frames of type Management, subtype Authentication. The Protected Frame field is set to 0 in all other frames. When the bit Protected Frame field is set to 1 in a data frame, the Frame Body field is protected utilizing the cryptographic encapsulation algorithm and expanded as defined in Clause 8. Only WEP is allowed as the cryptographic encapsulation algorithm for management frames of subtype Authentication." See also WLAN Authentication and Privacy Infrastructure (WAPI), China's centralized wireless security method IEEE 802.1AE MACsec References General External links Vulnerability in the WPA2 protocol, hole196 , Cryptographic protocols I

59872034

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FHI-aims

FHI-aims

FHI-aims (Fritz Haber Institute ab initio molecular simulations) is a software package for computational molecular and materials science written in Fortran. It uses density functional theory and many-body perturbation theory to simulate chemical and physical properties of atoms, molecules, nanostructures, solids, and surfaces. Originally developed at the Fritz Haber Institute in Berlin the ongoing development of the FHI-aims source code is now driven by a world-wide community of collaborating research institutions. Overview The FHI-aims software package is an all-electron, full-potential electronic structure code utilizing numeric atom-centered basis functions for its electronic structure calculations. The localized basis set enables the accurate treatment of all electrons on the same footing in periodic and non-periodic systems without relying on approximation for the core states, such as pseudopotentials. Importantly, the basis sets enable high numerical accuracy on par with the best available all-electron reference methods while remaining scalable to system sizes up to several thousands of atoms. In order to achieve this for bulk solids, surfaces or other low-dimensional systems and molecules, the choice of basis functions is crucial. The workload of the simulations is efficiently distributable for parallel computing using the MPI communication protocol. The code is routinely used on platforms ranging from laptops to distributed-parallel supercomputers with ten thousands of CPUs and the scalability of the code has been tested up to 100,000's of CPUs. The primary production methods of FHI-aims are density functional theory as well as many-body methods and higher-level quantum chemistry approaches. For the exchange-correlation treatment, local (LDA), semi-local (e.g., PBE, PBEsol), meta-GGA, and hybrid (e.g., HSE06, B3LYP) functionals have been implemented. The resulting orbitals can be used within the framework of many-body perturbation theory, such as Møller-Plesset perturbation theory or the GW approximation. Moreover, thermodynamic properties of the molecules and solids are accessible via Born-Oppenheimer molecular dynamics and path integral molecular dynamics methods. The first step is to expand the Kohn-Sham orbitals Ψi(r) into a set of basis function {Φj(r)} Ψi(r) = ΣjCijΦj(r). Since FHI-aims is an all electron full-potential code that is computationally efficient without compromising accuracy, the choice of basis function is crucial in order to achieve the said accuracy. Therefore, FHI-aims is based on numerically tabulated atom-centered orbitals (NAOs) of the form: Φj(r) = μj(r)/r Υlm (Ω) As the name implies, the radial shape uj(r) is numerically tabulated and therefore fully flexible. This allows the creation of optimized element-dependent basis sets that are as compact as possible while retaining a high and transferable accuracy in production calculations up to meV-level total energy convergence. To obtain real-valued ϕj(r), Ylm(Ω) here denotes the real parts (m=0,...,l) and imaginary parts (m=−l,...,−1) of complex spherical harmonics, with l an implicit function of the radial function index j. History The first line of code of the actual FHI-aims code was written in late 2004, using the atomic solver employed in the Fritz Haber Institute pseudopotential program package fhi98PP as a foundation to obtain radial functions for use as basis functions. The first developments benefitted heavily from the excellent set of numerical technologies described in several publications by Bernard Delley and coworkers in the context of the DMol3 code, as well as from many broader methodological developments published in the electronic structure theory community over the years. Initial efforts in FHI-aims focused on developing a complete numeric atom-centered basis set library for density-functional theory from "light" to highly accurate (few meV/atom) accuracy for total energies, available for all relevant elements (Z=1-102) across the periodic table. By 2006, work on parallel functionality, support for periodic boundary conditions, total energy gradients (forces) and on exact exchange and many-body perturbation theory had commenced. On May 18, 2009, an initial formal point release of the code, "051809", was made available and laid the foundation for broadening the user and developer base of the code. See also List of quantum chemistry and solid-state physics software References Fortran software Computational chemistry software Computational physics Density functional theory software Physics software

2538139

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filter%20%28software%29

Filter (software)

A filter is a computer program or subroutine to process a stream, producing another stream. While a single filter can be used individually, they are frequently strung together to form a pipeline. Some operating systems such as Unix are rich with filter programs. Windows 7 and later are also rich with filters, as they include Windows PowerShell. In comparison, however, few filters are built into cmd.exe (the original command-line interface of Windows), most of which have significant enhancements relative to the similar filter commands that were available in MS-DOS. OS X includes filters from its underlying Unix base but also has Automator, which allows filters (known as "Actions") to be strung together to form a pipeline. Unix In Unix and Unix-like operating systems, a filter is a program that gets most of its data from its standard input (the main input stream) and writes its main results to its standard output (the main output stream). Auxiliary input may come from command line flags or configuration files, while auxiliary output may go to standard error. The command syntax for getting data from a device or file other than standard input is the input operator (<). Similarly, to send data to a device or file other than standard output is the output operator (>). To append data lines to an existing output file, one can use the append operator (>>). Filters may be strung together into a pipeline with the pipe operator ("|"). This operator signifies that the main output of the command to the left is passed as main input to the command on the right. The Unix philosophy encourages combining small, discrete tools to accomplish larger tasks. The classic filter in Unix is Ken Thompson's , which Doug McIlroy cites as what "ingrained the tools outlook irrevocably" in the operating system, with later tools imitating it. at its simplest prints any lines containing a character string to its output. The following is an example: cut -d : -f 1 /etc/passwd | grep foo This finds all registered users that have "foo" as part of their username by using the cut command to take the first field (username) of each line of the Unix system password file and passing them all as input to grep, which searches its input for lines containing the character string "foo" and prints them on its output. Common Unix filter programs are: cat, cut, grep, head, sort, uniq, and tail. Programs like awk and sed can be used to build quite complex filters because they are fully programmable. Unix filters can also be used by Data scientists to get a quick overview about a file based dataset. List of Unix filter programs awk cat comm cut expand compress fold grep head nl perl paste pr sed sh sort split strings tail tac tee tr uniq wc zcat DOS Two standard filters from the early days of DOS-based computers are find and sort. Examples: find "keyword" < inputfilename > outputfilename sort "keyword" < inputfilename > outputfilename find /v "keyword" < inputfilename | sort > outputfilename Such filters may be used in batch files (*.bat, *.cmd etc.). For use in the same command shell environment, there are many more filters available than those built into Windows. Some of these are freeware, some shareware and some are commercial programs. A number of these mimic the function and features of the filters in Unix. Some filtering programs have a graphical user interface (GUI) to enable users to design a customized filter to suit their special data processing and/or data mining requirements. Windows Windows Command Prompt inherited MS-DOS commands, improved some and added a few. For example, Windows Server 2003 features six command-line filters for modifying Active Directory that can be chained by piping: DSAdd, DSGet, DSMod, DSMove, DSRm and DSQuery. Windows PowerShell adds an entire host of filters known as "cmdlets" which can be chained together with a pipe, except a few simple ones, e.g. Clear-Screen. The following example gets a list of files in the C:\Windows folder, gets the size of each and sorts the size in ascending order. It shows how three filters (Get-ChildItem, ForEach-Object and Sort-Object) are chained with pipes. Get-ChildItem C:\Windows | ForEach-Object { $_.length } | Sort-Object -Ascending References External links http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/f/filter.html Software design patterns Programming paradigms Operating system technology

10999508

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logging%20%28software%29

Logging (software)

In computing, a log file is a file that records either events that occur in an operating system or other software runs, or messages between different users of a communication software. Logging is the act of keeping a log. In the simplest case, messages are written to a single log file. A transaction log is a file (i.e., log) of the communications between a system and the users of that system, or a data collection method that automatically captures the type, content, or time of transactions made by a person from a terminal with that system. For Web searching, a transaction log is an electronic record of interactions that have occurred during a searching episode between a Web search engine and users searching for information on that Web search engine. Many operating systems, software frameworks and programs include a logging system. A widely used logging standard is syslog, defined in Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) RFC 5424). The syslog standard enables a dedicated, standardized subsystem to generate, filter, record, and analyze log messages. This relieves software developers of having to design and code their own ad hoc logging systems. Event logs Event logs record events taking place in the execution of a system in order to provide an audit trail that can be used to understand the activity of the system and to diagnose problems. They are essential to understand the activities of complex systems, particularly in the case of applications with little user interaction (such as server applications). It can also be useful to combine log file entries from multiple sources. This approach, in combination with statistical analysis, may yield correlations between seemingly unrelated events on different servers. Other solutions employ network-wide querying and reporting. Transaction logs Most database systems maintain some kind of transaction log, which are not mainly intended as an audit trail for later analysis, and are not intended to be human-readable. These logs record changes to the stored data to allow the database to recover from crashes or other data errors and maintain the stored data in a consistent state. Thus, database systems usually have both general event logs and transaction logs. Transaction log analysis The use of data stored in transaction logs of Web search engines, Intranets, and Web sites can provide valuable insight into understanding the information-searching process of online searchers. This understanding can enlighten information system design, interface development, and devising the information architecture for content collections. Message logs Internet Relay Chat (IRC), instant messaging (IM) programs, peer-to-peer file sharing clients with chat functions, and multiplayer games (especially MMORPGs) commonly have the ability to automatically save textual communication, both public (IRC channel/IM conference/MMO public/party chat messages) and private chat between users, as message logs. Message logs are almost universally plain text files, but IM and VoIP clients (which support textual chat, e.g. Skype) might save them in HTML files or in a custom format to ease reading or enable encryption. Internet Relay Chat (IRC) In the case of IRC software, message logs often include system/server messages and entries related to channel and user changes (e.g. topic change, user joins/exits/kicks/bans, nickname changes, user status changes), making them more like a combined message/event log of the channel in question, but such a log isn't comparable to a true IRC server event log, because it only records user-visible events for the time frame the user spent being connected to a certain channel. Instant messaging Instant messaging and VoIP clients often offer the chance to store encrypted logs to enhance the user's privacy. These logs require a password to be decrypted and viewed, and they are often handled by their respective writing application.. Server log A server log is a log file (or several files) automatically created and maintained by a server consisting of a list of activities it performed. A typical example is a web server log which maintains a history of page requests. The W3C maintains a standard format (the Common Log Format) for web server log files, but other proprietary formats exist. More recent entries are typically appended to the end of the file. Information about the request, including client IP address, request date/time, page requested, HTTP code, bytes served, user agent, and referrer are typically added. This data can be combined into a single file, or separated into distinct logs, such as an access log, error log, or referrer log. However, server logs typically do not collect user-specific information. These files are usually not accessible to general Internet users, only to the webmaster or other administrative person of an Internet service. A statistical analysis of the server log may be used to examine traffic patterns by time of day, day of week, referrer, or user agent. Efficient web site administration, adequate hosting resources and the fine tuning of sales efforts can be aided by analysis of the web server logs. See also Common Log Format Digital traces Event Viewer Java Logging Frameworks – logging frameworks for Java .NET Logging Frameworks - logging frameworks for .NET List of web analytics software Logbook Log4J Log management and intelligence Logging as a Service (LaaS) Pantheios – logging API library Runtime intelligence Server log Web counter Web log analysis software XML log References Data logging Computer logging

37259730

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kay%20Sievers

Kay Sievers

Kay Sievers is a computer programmer, best known for developing the udev device manager of Linux, systemd and the Gummiboot EFI boot loader. Kay Sievers made major contributions to Linux's hardware hotplug and device management subsystems. In 2012, together with Harald Hoyer, Sievers was the main driving force behind Fedora's merging of the /lib, /bin and /sbin file-system trees into /usr, a simplification which other distributions such as Arch Linux have since adopted. employed by Red Hat, Inc., Sievers previously worked for Novell. Kay Sievers grew up in East Germany and nowadays resides in Berlin, Germany. References Free software programmers Living people Linux people German computer programmers Year of birth missing (living people) Red Hat employees

18431951

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precisely%20%28company%29

Precisely (company)

Precisely, rebranded from Syncsort Incorporated in May 2020, is a software company specializing in big data, high speed sorting products, data integration data quality, data enrichment, and location intelligence offerings, for IBM i, Hadoop, Microsoft Windows, UNIX, Linux, and mainframe computer systems. History Syncsort 1968-1989 In 1968, Duane Whitlow and Stan Rintel started Whitlow Computer Systems to develop software for mainframe computers. The result was a business with a niche product portfolio originally based on high-speed data sorting, but which later moved into Big Data, Hadoop, Cloud, and ETL (extract, transform, load). According to Whitlow, the company's original task was to develop an airlines reservations system for Control Data. In the course of that work, the founders encountered timing charts for IBM's existing sort utility, and thought they could build a sort that was much faster. Sales improved after then-startup Computerworld published a front page story about syncsort's product. That story resulted in openings in Europe, and the company was one of the first to sell an independent software product in Europe. For some customers, syncsort was their first non-IBM software purchase. Advertising for Syncsort (both the company and the software product) was done in-house from 1971, their founding year (as Syncsort), until 1986. 1990-2019 In the 1990s, already known eponymously as Syncsort, the company expanded into client/server environments with a Unix-based sort utility and a backup product. In 2004, Syncsort introduced DMExpress, which added extract, transform and load (ETL) integration capabilities, metadata management and improved job management. In April 2008, Insight Venture Partners, Bessemer Venture Partners, Georgian Partners, Goldman Sachs and other investors bought a majority interest in Syncsort Incorporated. In 2013 Syncsort recruited former CA and IBMer Lonne Jaffe as CEO. Also in 2013, Syncsort acquired Circle Computer Group, whose product DL/2 facilitates migration of mainframe data, especially from IBM IMS instances to IBM's DB2 under z/OS. In October 2013, Syncsort sold its data protection business to an investor group led by Bedford Venture Partners and Windcrest Partners. The spun off data protection business is now called Catalogic Software. In 2015 Syncsort acquired William Data Systems, a network monitoring and security software company, and Clearlake Capital Group acquired Syncsort; Syncsort President Josh Rogers was appointed CEO. In 2017 Centerbridge Partners acquired Syncsort along with Vision Solutions; the two companies combined into one. In 2019 Syncsort acquired the software and data business of Pitney Bowes in a $700 million transaction backed by affiliates of Centerbridge Partners, L.P. and Clearlake Capital Group, L.P. This expanded Syncsort's global presence. Precisely: 2020s In May 2020, Syncsort rebranded itself as Precisely. In March 2021, Clearlake Capital Group, in affiliation with TA Associates re-acquired Precisely in a deal worth $3.5 billion, which it had sold four years before to Centerbridge Partners. Centerbridge Partners retained a minority stake. Products References External links is redireced from http://www.syncsort.com Companies based in Bergen County, New Jersey Software companies based in New Jersey Software companies of the United States

1547968

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GD-ROM

GD-ROM

GD-ROM (an abbreviation of "Gigabyte Disc Read-Only Memory") is a proprietary optical disc format originally used for the Dreamcast video game console, as well as its arcade counterpart, the Sega NAOMI and select Triforce arcade board titles. It was developed by Yamaha to curb piracy common to standard compact discs and to offer increased storage capacity without the expense of the fledgling DVD-ROM. It is similar to the standard CD-ROM except that the pits on the disc are packed more closely together, resulting in a higher storage capacity of 1 gigabyte, a 42% increase over a conventional CD's capacity of 700 megabytes. The Dreamcast ended up being the only sixth-generation console with a disc based on CD technology rather than DVD technology; even the Nintendo GameCube's smaller 8 cm discs held 50% more data due to being based on DVD technology. In addition, GD-ROM proved to be an ineffective anti-piracy measure when it was discovered the Dreamcast's forgotten MIL-CD functionality could be exploited to boot games burned to CD albeit with some content removed. After the discontinuation of the Dreamcast worldwide on March 31, 2001, Sega continued to use the GD-ROM format in arcades with the Sega NAOMI 2, Triforce and Sega Chihiro. With the release of the Sega Lindbergh in 2005, Sega moved on to DVD discs and continued to use satellite and internet technology in the arcade. The last disc-based Naomi 2 and Triforce games were released in 2006 which marked the final releases using the GD-ROM format. History The format was developed for Sega by Yamaha, and first commercially appeared with the Dreamcast's Japanese launch in November 1998. GD-ROM was created because the standard CD-ROM was prone to piracy and reaching the limits of its storage capacity, while implementing the then brand-new DVD-ROM technology would have made console production too costly. However, the Dreamcast did retain the ability to read standard CD-ROM discs, and thus still suffered from software piracy as bootleggers managed to fit certain games on CDs and exploit the Dreamcast console's compatibility with the MIL-CD format. Before the Dreamcast was released, Sega "confirmed that Dreamcast owners will one day be able to upgrade the GD-ROM drive to DVD," as information indicated Sony's upcoming PlayStation 2 would use the DVD format with its much larger capacity 4.7 GB single-layered up to 8.5 GB double-layered discs compared to the 1 GB capacity of the GD-ROM. Despite displaying a Dreamcast DVD display unit at E3 2000, the plans for a DVD add-on or fully separate unit never materialized during the short production run of the Dreamcast. GD-ROM was also made available as an upgrade for the Dreamcast's arcade cousin, Sega NAOMI and the later Sega NAOMI 2, providing alternate media to its cartridge-based software. It is also used as an option on both the Sega Chihiro and Triforce. Regions There are three data areas on a GD-ROM disc. The first is in conventional CD format, and usually contains an audio track with a warning that the disc is for use on a Dreamcast, and can damage CD players. These vary by region. This section is 4 minutes long with the data size of 35 MB. The CD section also contains a data segment, which is only readable in PCs. Although most discs include only text files identifying the game, its copyright and bibliography, some contain bonus material for home computer users (for example, Sonic Adventure contains images of Sonic characters to use on the desktop). There then follows a separator track which contains no data except for the text Produced by or under license from Sega Enterprises LTD Trademark Sega (Similar to the Sega Saturn, it was believed that the security key was stored in this area to prevent piracy). The final (outer) section of the disc contains the game data itself in a higher density format. This section is 112 minutes long (almost two hours), with a data size of 1.0 GB. A normal CD-reader will not read beyond the first track because, according to the CD table of contents (TOC), there is no data there. With modified firmware on a few optical drive models that looks for a second TOC in the high-density region it is possible to read data from the high-density region. One can also utilize a "swap-trick" by first letting the CD-reader read the TOC from an audio CD with a special 99 minute TOC and then swapping that disc with a GD-ROM in a way that avoids alerting the CD-reader that a new disc has been inserted. It is then possible to read as much data from the high-density region as indicated by the TOC from the first disc. The most popular way to access data from GD-ROMs, however, is to use the Dreamcast itself as a drive, and copy the data to a computer by means of a "coder's cable" or a Dreamcast Broadband Adapter. Another alternative is modding the Dreamcast to add a USB connector. Sega has discontinued production of GD-ROM media. Warnings The second section (in conventional CD format) usually contains a message informing users that the disc can damage AV equipment. This is possible because a CD player can interpret the game data track as an audio track, which will result in loud noise being played through the speakers. Different discs, usually varying by region, contain different messages. NTSC-U discs usually contain the message, "Warning: This disc is only for use on Sega Dreamcast.", "This disc is for use only on Sega Dreamcast." or "This is a Dreamcast game disc. The first track contains game data. Please, do not play it on a normal CD player." Some discs contain light-hearted or humorous messages from the game's characters (for example, Skies of Arcadia gives the message, "We can't save the world from a CD player, so just put us back in the Dreamcast so we can do our job!"). This is also common on NTSC-J discs. PAL region discs contain the message, "This is a Dreamcast disc, and is for use only on a Dreamcast unit. Playing this disc on a hi-fi or other audio equipment can cause serious damage to its speakers. Please stop this disc now." The message is also repeated in French, German, Spanish and Italian. Some PAL region games, however, use the NTSC messages. Technical information The GD-ROM in the Dreamcast works in constant angular velocity (CAV) mode, like the majority of modern optical drives. Very old CD-ROM drives read with a constant linear velocity (CLV) design, however (usually 12× or slower). Sega achieved the higher density by decreasing the speed of the disc to half and by letting the standard CD-ROM components read at the normal rate thus nearly doubling the disc's data density. This method allowed Sega to use cheaper off-the-shelf components when building the Dreamcast. The NetBSD project has developed a GDRom driver for NetBSD. A port of that driver for Linux exists, though due to licensing issues and the poor compatibility of that driver with Linux kernel interfaces, a new Linux driver is under development. Linux kernel 2.6.25 comes with support for the GD-ROM drive on the Dreamcast. See also Nintendo Optical Disc Double Density Compact Disc MIL-CD Universal Media Disc References External links Sega's GD-ROM Presentation Computer-related introductions in 1998 120 mm discs Dreamcast Sega hardware Video game distribution

816396

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy%20car

Economy car

Economy car is a term mostly used in the United States for cars designed for low-cost purchase and operation. Typical economy cars are small (compact or subcompact), lightweight, and inexpensive to both produce and purchase. Stringent design constraints generally force economy car manufacturers to be inventive. Many innovations in automobile design were originally developed for economy cars, such as the Ford Model T and the Austin Mini. Gordon Murray, the Formula 1 and McLaren F1 designer, said when designing his new Murray T.25 city car: "I would say that building a car to sell for six thousand pounds and designing that for a high-volume production, where you have all the quality issues under control, is a hundred times more difficult than designing a McLaren F1, or even a racing car. It is certainly the biggest challenge I've ever had from a design point of view." Definition The precise definition of what constitutes an economy car has varied with time and place, based on the conditions prevailing at the time, such as fuel prices, disposable income of buyers, and cultural mores. It typically refers to a car that is designed to be small and lightweight to offer low-cost operation. In any given decade, there has generally been some rough global consensus on what constituted the minimum necessary requirements for a highway-worthy car, constituting the most economical car possible. However, whether that consensus could be a commercial success in any given country depended on local culture. Thus in any given decade, every country has had a rough national consensus on what constituted the minimum necessary requirements for the least expensive car that wasn't undesirable, that is, that had some commercially attractive amount of market demand, making it a mainstream economy car. In many countries at various times, mainstream economy and maximum economy have been one and the same. Background From its inception into the 1920s, the Ford Model T fulfilled both of these roles simultaneously in the U.S. and in many markets around the world. In Europe and Japan in the 1920s and 1930s, this was achieved by the much smaller Austin 7 and its competitors and derivatives. From the 1940s and into the 1960s, the Volkswagen Beetle played both roles throughout much of the world—in Germany and Latin America particularly—but due to high fuel consumption, British, French, Italian, and Japanese models, all with better fuel economy, could capture the maximum-economy position in their home countries. By the 1970s the hatchback had become the standard body type for new economy car models. In 1960-1994 the Soviet Union (and then - Ukraine) was selling economy car Zaporozhets (at the end of the 80s - its successor, ZAZ-1102, and VAZ-1111 made by AvtoVAZ) on the world market. In the mid-1980s, the Yugoslavian Zastava Koral (Yugo) (a rebodied 1971-83 Fiat 127), was sold as the cheapest new car on the U.S. market, South Korea's Hyundai models also sold well in the U.S., and have gone on to be successful around the world. Since the 1990s, the automotive industry has become extensively globalized, with all major manufacturers being multinational corporations using globally sourced raw materials and components, with a trend for moving assembly to the lowest labour cost countries. Today, a majority of major manufacturer offers economy cars, including at least one truly small car that may fall into subclassifications such as subcompact car, supermini, B-segment; city car; microcar; and others. History 1886-1920 The History of the automobile after many experimental models dating back at least a hundred years, started with the first production car - the 1886 Benz Tricycle. This began a period that was later known as the Brass era which is considered to be from 1890 to 1918 in the U.S. In the UK this is split into the pre 1905 Veteran era and Edwardian era to 1918. The U.S. Veteran era is pre-1890. In the 1890s and into the first decade of the twentieth century; the motorized vehicle was considered a replacement for the carriages of the rich, or simply a dangerous toy, that annoyed and inconvenienced the general public. The period children's book Wind in the Willows, pokes fun at early privileged motorists. The Automotive industry in France were the world leaders during this period. The Red Flag Act had obstructed automotive development in the UK until it was mostly repealed in 1896. The high wheeler was an early car body style virtually unique to the United States. It was typified by large-diameter slender wheels, frequently with solid tires, to provide ample ground clearance on the primitive roads in much of the country at the turn of the 20th century. For the same reason, it usually had a wider track than normal automobiles. The first car to be marketed to the (well off but not rich) ordinary person and so the first 'economy car', was the 1901–1907 Oldsmobile Curved Dash - it was produced by the thousands, with over 19,000 built in all. It was inspired by the buckboard type horse and buggy, (used like a small two-seat pickup truck) popular in rural areas of the U.S. It had two seats, but was less versatile than the vehicle that inspired it. It was produced after a fire at the Oldsmobile plant, when the prototype was saved by a nightwatchman named Stebbins, (who later became the Mayor of Detroit), and was the only product available to the company to produce, to get back on their feet. Although cars were becoming more affordable before it was launched, the 1908–1927 Ford Model T is considered to be the first true economy car, because the very few previous vehicles at the bottom of the market were 'horseless carriages' rather than practical cars. The major manufacturers at the time had little interest in low-priced models. The first 'real' cars had featured the FR layout first used by the French car maker Panhard and so did the Model T. Henry Ford declared at the launch of the vehicle - I will build a car for the great multitude. It will be large enough for the family, but small enough for the individual to run and care for. It will be constructed of the best materials, by the best men to be hired, after the simplest designs that modern engineering can devise. But it will be low in price that no man making a good salary will be unable to own one - and enjoy with his family the blessing of hours of pleasure in God's great open spaces. The Ford Model T was a large scale mass-produced car; that very innovation, along with the attributes it required a simple inexpensive design, that allowed it to be the first car to exemplify the ideals of the economy car. Although it followed the Panhard mechanical layout, it used an epicyclic gearbox more like later automatic gearboxes, rather than the Panhard type manual gearbox, which in a developed form is still in common use today. The innovations involved in making it a successful design were in its production and materials technology; particularly the use of new vanadium steel alloys. Model T production was the leading example of the Taylorism school of scientific management, (also known as Fordism), and its production techniques evolved at the Highland Park Ford Plant that opened in 1910, after it outgrew the Piquette Avenue Plant. The River Rouge Plant which opened in 1919, was the most technologically advanced in the world, raw materials entered at one end and finished cars emerged from the other. The innovation of the moving assembly line, was inspired by the 'dis-assembly' plants of the Chicago meat packing industry, reduced production time from twelve and a half hours, to just an hour and thirty-three minutes per car. Black was the only colour available because it was the only paint that would dry in the required production time. The continuous improvement of production methods, and economies of scale from larger and larger scale production, allowed Henry Ford to progressively lower the price of the Model T throughout its production run. It was far less expensive, smaller, and more austere than its hand-built pre-first world war contemporaries. The size of the Model T was arrived at, by making its track to the width of the ruts in the unsurfaced rural American roads of the time, ruts made by horse-drawn vehicles. It was specifically designed with a large degree of axle articulation, and a high ground clearance, to deal with these conditions effectively. It had an under stressed engine. It set the template for American vehicles being larger than comparable vehicles in other countries, which would later on have economy cars scaled to their narrower roads with smaller engines. In 1912 Edward G. Budd founded the Budd Company, which initially specialized in the manufacture of pressed-steel frames for automobiles. This built on his railroad experience. In 1899 he had taken his knowledge of pressed steel to the railroad industry. He worked with the Pullman Company on a contract for Pennsylvania Railroad, building the first all-steel railcar. In 1913 in the UK, the 1018 cc "Bullnose" Morris Oxford was the first model launched by Morris Motors. Only 1302 were made. The Oxford was available as a two-seater, or van but the chassis was too short to allow four-seat bodies to be fitted. It made extensive use of bought in components, including many from the U.S. to reduce costs. The 1915-1919 Morris Cowley (about 1400 produced) powered by a new US Continental engine was a bigger stronger better finished version of the first Oxford. The post–First World War Oxford was a deluxe version of that, now made plainer, 1915-1919 Cowley. They were larger cars with 50% bigger engines than the 1913 Oxford. By 1925 Cowleys and Oxfords were 41 per cent of British private car production and limousine and landaulet bodies for 14/28 Oxfords were supplied ex-factory. Morris then added a commercial vehicle operation and bought Wolseley Motors the following year. Cecil Kimber, a Morris employee, founded MG (Morris Garages) aiming to sell more Morrises. After the Second World War Morris Motors, having swept in Riley, merged with the Austin Motor Company together forming the British Motor Corporation. In 1913 the British Trojan company had its prototype ready for production. It had a two-stroke engine with four cylinders arranged in pairs, and each pair shared a common combustion chamber - a doubled-up version of what would later be called the "split-single" engine. The pistons in each pair drove the crankshaft together as they were coupled to it by a V-shaped connecting rod. For this arrangement to work, it is necessary for the connecting rod to flex slightly, which goes completely against normal practice. The claim was that each engine had only seven moving parts, four pistons, two connecting rods and a crankshaft. This was connected to a two-speed epicyclic gearbox, to simplify gear changing, and a chain to the rear wheels. Solid tyres were used, even though these were antiquated for car use, to prevent punctures and very long springs used to give some comfort. Before production could start war broke out and from 1914 to 1918, the company made tools and gauges for the war effort. In 1914 Ford was producing half a million Model Ts a year, with a sale price of less than . This was more than the rest of the U.S. auto industry combined and ten times the total national car production of 1908, the year of the cars launch. Also in that year Ford made headlines by increasing the minimum wage of his workers from $2.83 for a nine-hour day to $5.00 for an eight-hour day, to combat low workforce morale, and employee turnover problems because of the repetitive and stressful nature of working on the production line, and more radically, to turn his semi-skilled workers into potential customers. The Ford Model T was the first automobile produced in many countries at the same time. It was the first 'World Car', since they were being produced in Canada and in Manchester, England starting in 1911 and were later assembled in Germany, Argentina, France, Spain, Denmark, Norway, Belgium, Brazil, Mexico, and Japan. At the New York Motor Show in January 1915, William C. Durant the head of Chevrolet (and founder of GM), launched the Chevrolet Four-Ninety, a stripped-down version of the Series-H, to compete with Henry Ford's Model T, and went into production in June. To aim directly at Ford, Durant said the new car would be priced at (the source of its name), the same as the Model T touring. Its introductory price was , however, although it was reduced to later when the electric starter and lights were made a option. Henry Ford responded by reducing the Model T to . In 1916 Edward G. Budd's first big order for the Budd Company was from the Dodge brothers, who purchased 70,000 bodies, mounting the steel bodies onto conventional chassis frames. 1920s During the 1920s Edward G. Budd's pressed steel bodies were fast replacing traditional coachbuilt bodies all around the world. These were fully closed roofed bodies, until this time open tourer bodies were the standard body on the market. Budd envisioned pushing his technology even further, and in 1924 he found another visionary in André Citroën. By 1934, they had developed the Citroën Traction Avant, the first unibody, pressed-steel automobile. Budd also pioneered the use of electric arc welding in automobile manufacturing. It would be the 1930s before this technology was generally applied to economy cars. The cyclecar was an attempt in the period before 1922 in the post-First World War austerity period, as a form of "four-wheeled motorcycle", with all the benefits of a motorcycle and side-car, in a more stable package. In 1920 Trojan in Britain made its first series of six cars from a works in Croydon and the final revised production version was shown at the 1922 London Motor Show. An agreement was reached with Leyland Motors to produce the cars at their Kingston upon Thames factory where work on reconditioning ex RAF wartime trucks was running down. This arrangement would continue until 1928 when Leyland wanted factory space for truck production. During the nearly seven years of the agreement 11,000 cars and 6700 vans were made. The car known as the Trojan Utility Car went onto the market at £230, reducing to £125 in 1925, the same as a Model T Ford. Nothing was conventional. Rather than a chassis the car had a punt shaped tray which housed the engine and transmission below the seats. This is a similar idea to the chassis-less design of the contemporary 1922 Italian Lancia Lambda luxury car. The transmission used a chain to drive the solid tyre shod wheels. The 1527-cc engine to the ingenious Hounsfield design was started by pulling a lever on the right of the driver. To prove how economical the car was to run, the company ran the slogan "Can you afford to walk?" and calculated that over it would cost more in shoes and socks than to cover the distance by Trojan car. The astronomical success of the Model T accelerated after the First World War, and by the time Ford made his 10 millionth car, half of all cars in the world were Fords. It was so successful that Ford did not purchase any advertising between 1917 and 1923; more than 15 million Model Ts were manufactured, reaching a rate of 9,000 to 10,000 cars a day in 1925, or 2 million annually, more than any other model of its day, at a price of just $240. The need for constant reductions in price through the 1920s reflected increasing competition from newer designs for the relatively unchanged and increasingly obsolescent Model T. In 1923 Chevrolet developed a new car to compete with the Model T, the Chevrolet Series M 'Copper-Cooled', air-cooled car, designed by General Motors engineer at AC Delco Charles Kettering, (who invented the points/condenser ignition system that was in use until the 1980s). It was a rare failure for him, due to uneven cooling of the inline four-cylinder engine. The most development of small economy cars occurred in Europe. There was less emphasis on long-distance automobile travel, a need for vehicles that could navigate narrow streets and alleys in towns and cities (many were unchanged since medieval times), and the narrow and winding roads commonly found in the European countryside. Ettore Bugatti designed a small car for Peugeot. The 1911 Peugeot Bébé Type 19. It had an 850 cc 4-cylinder engine. The Citroën Type A was the first car produced by Citroën from June 1919 to December 1921 in Paris. Citroën had been established to produce the double bevel gears that its logo resembles, but had ended the First World War with large production facilities, from the production of much needed artillery shells for the French army. Andre Citroën was a keen adopter of U.S. car manufacturing ideas and technology in the 1920s and 1930s. Andre Citroën re-equipped his factory as a scaled down version of the Ford River Rouge Plant, that he had visited in Detroit Michigan. It was advertised as "Europe's first mass production car." The Type A reached a production number of 24,093 vehicles. The Opel 4 PS, Germany's first 'peoples car', popularly known as the Opel Laubfrosch (Opel Treefrog), was a small two-seater car introduced by the then family owned auto maker Opel, early in 1924, which bore an uncanny resemblance to the little Torpedo Citroën 5 CV of 1922. On an even smaller scale, European cars, such as the 747 cc Austin Seven, (which made cyclecars obsolete overnight.) The Austin 7 was considerably smaller than the Ford Model T. The wheelbase was only , and the track only . Equally it was lighter - less than half the Ford's weight at . The engine required for adequate performance was therefore equally reduced and the sidevalve was quite capable with a modest output. It would also start to catch on in Japan during the same time period, as a Datsun Type 11 that may have been pirated, at the start of their own automobile industry. It was also produced as a BMW Dixi and BMW 3/15 in Germany, Rosengart in France with French styled bodywork, and by American Austin Car Company with American styling, (later American Bantam) in the U.S. It displaced the motorcycle and sidecar combination that was popular in Europe in the 1920s. It spawned a whole industry of 'specials' builders. Swallow Sidecars switched to making cars based on Austin Seven chassis during the 1920s, then made their own complete cars in the 1930s as SS. With the advent of Nazi Germany the company changed its name: to Jaguar. The Seven continued to be produced until the late 1930s along with an updated and restyled closed body, known as the "Big Seven" until World War II, but still on the early 1920s running gear, but with a slightly enlarged chassis and widened track. In the late-1920s, General Motors finally overtook Ford, as the U.S. new car market doubled in size, and fragmented into niches on a wave of prosperity, with GM producing a range of cars to match. This included a Chevrolet economy car that was just an entry level model for the range of cars. It was only a small part of the marketing strategy - "A car for every purse and purpose" of GM head Alfred P. Sloan. Harley Earl was appointed as head of the newly formed GM "Art and Color Section" in 1927. Harley Earl and Alfred P. Sloan implemented planned obsolescence and the annual model change to emphasise design as an engine for the success of the company's products.<ref>Richard A. Wright, 1996.First 100 Years of the Auto Industry in the U.S.".</ref> This moved cars from being utilitarian items to fashionable status symbols - that needed regular replacement "to keep up with the Joneses." Later in 1937, the Art and Color Section was renamed the Styling Section, and a few years afterward became one of the GM technical staff operations as the Styling Staff. It was funded by high interest/low regular payments consumer credit, as was the 1920s boom in other consumer durable products. It marked the beginning of mass market consumerism, that had been enabled by the efficiency of mass production and the moving production line. Until this time, manufacturers of consumer goods were concerned, by the possibility that the market would be fulfilled and demand would dry up. Henry Ford was wrong-footed by staying with the production oriented one size fits all, "any colour you like as long as it's black", Model T for far too long. The seller's market in new cars in the U.S. was over. Customers wanted choice. The 'one model' policy had nearly bankrupted the Ford Motor Company. By the end of production in 1927 it looked like a relic from another era. It was replaced by the Model A. The Ford Model T was voted Car of the Century on December 18, 1999 in Las Vegas, Nevada. In 1929 Chevrolet replaced the straight-4 engine that dated from 1913, with the Stovebolt Six engine that was to last until the 1960s as Chevrolet's base engine. A few years later Ford developed the Model 18 with the flathead V8. The same car was available with a slightly reworked Model A engine, marketed until 1933 (in U.S.) as the Model B. In Europe, it remained in the Ford lineup, as the Ford V8 in Britain in the 1930s which was re-styled and relaunched as the post-war Ford Pilot. They were viewed as large cars in Europe. The 1932 Ford V8 (Model 18) coupe became the car of choice for post-war hot rodders. It was the first V8 engine in a low priced car, and along with the Chevrolet 6, showed how the U.S. was diverging from the rest of the world in its ideas about what constituted a basic economy car. In 1928 Morris launched the first Morris Minor (1928) in Britain to compete with the Austin Seven. Also that year German motorcycle manufacturer DKW launched their first car, the P15, a rear-wheel-drive, wood-and-fabric bodied monocoque car, powered by a 600 cc inline two-cylinder two-stroke engine. Also, in the 1920s, Ford (with the Model T in Manchester, England), General Motors (who took over Opel in Germany and Vauxhall in Britain), expanded into Europe. Most Ford and GM European cars, especially economy cars, were technologically conservative and all were rear-wheel-drive to a smaller European size, with improvements focused mainly on styling, (apart from the introduction of the 1935 monocoque Opel Olympia, and the Macpherson strut by Ford in the 1950s), until the late 1970s and early 1980s. 1930s-1945 In 1931 the DKW F1 was launched. This was the first successful mass-produced front-wheel drive car in the world. It was priced at 1,700 Reichsmarks . (The British 1928-30 Alvis cars 'FWD' models had handling problems and only 150 were made. The British 1929 BSA was a three-wheel competitor to Morgan and the motorcycle combination market, the 1931 four-wheeler was very short-lived. The 1929 U.S. Cord L-29 having been seriously flawed, production ended at 4,429. The 1930 U.S. Ruxton made about 500, production lasted for only four months.) The F1 featured a front-engine, front-wheel-drive layout using a water-cooled 494 cc or 584 cc transverse two-cylinder two-stroke engine with chain drive. This was developed through the 1930s into the 1938 F8 model and the F9 that was not put into production because World War II started, 250,000 were made. By this time DKW had become the largest manufacturer of motorcycles in the world. Their two-stroke engine technology was to appear in the postwar products of Harley-Davidson, BSA, Trabant, Wartburg, Saab, Subaru, Piaggio, Puch, Kawasaki, Mitsubishi, Mazda, Daihatsu, Honda, and Suzuki. The DKW type of two stroke engine was replaced with four strokes in western economy cars by the 1960s, but lived on in stagnating and cash strapped Communist East Germany's Trabant and Wartburg and Communist Poland's FSO Syrena until the 1980s. In the late 1920s in Germany, Josef Ganz independent car engineer/inventor and editor of Motor-Kritik magazine had been a fierce opponent of the status quo of car design. He became a consultant engineer to Adler in December 1930. In the first months of 1931, Ganz constructed a lightweight economy car or peoples car, prototype at Adler with a tubular chassis, a mid-mounted engine, and swing axle independent rear suspension. After completion in May 1931, Ganz nicknamed his new prototype Maikäfer (German for cockchafer) which is a species of beetle. In July 1931 he was also consultant engineer to BMW on the 1932-34 BMW 3/20 successor to the BMW 3/15 model. It featured transverse leaf independent front and rear suspension and an updated overhead-valve cylinder head version of the Austin 7 based engine. After a demonstration of the Adler Maikäfer by Ganz, the German Standard Fahrzeugfabrik company (unrelated to the British 'Standard' company), then purchased a license from Ganz to develop and build a small car according to his design. The prototype of this new model, which was to be called Standard Superior, was finished in 1932. It featured a tubular chassis, a mid-mounted engine, and independent wheel suspension with swing-axles at the rear. At about the same time from 1931, two years prior to Hitler's accession to power, Ferdinand Porsche founded Dr. Ing. h. c. F. Porsche GmbH - the Porsche company to offer motor vehicle development work and consulting. Together with Zündapp they developed the prototype Porsche Type 12 "Auto für Jedermann" ("car for everyone"), which was the first time the name "Volkswagen" was used. Porsche preferred a 4-cylinder flat engine, but Zündapp used a water-cooled 5-cylinder radial engine. In 1932 three prototypes were running but were not put into production. All three cars were lost during the war, the last in 1945 in Stuttgart during a bombing raid. In Berlin in February 1933, the first production model of the Standard Superior was introduced at the IAMA (Internationale Automobil- und Motorradausstellung). It had a 396 cc 2-cylinder 2-stroke engine. Because of some criticism of the body design, not in the least by Josef Ganz in Motor-Kritik, it was followed in April 1933 by a slightly altered model. In November 1933, the Standard Fahrzeugfabrik introduced yet another new and improved model for 1934, which was slightly longer with one additional window on each side and had a small seat for children or as luggage space in the back. This car was advertised as the German Volkswagen. During the early 1930s German car manufacturers one by one adopted the progressive ideas published in Motor-Kritik since the 1920s. In the meantime in May 1933, the Jewish Josef Ganz was arrested by the Gestapo on trumped up charges of blackmail of the automotive industry, at the instigation of those that he had ferociously criticized. He was eventually released, but his career was systematically destroyed and his life endangered. He fled Germany in June 1934 – the same month Adolf Hitler gave Ferdinand Porsche the brief for designing a mass-producible car for a consumer price of 1,000 Reichsmark. Production of the Standard Superior ended in 1935. The Standard company was forbidden by the Nazis from using the term 'Volkswagen'. The Volkswagen Beetle would be the longest-lasting icon of this 1930s era. Adolf Hitler admired the ideals exemplified by the Ford Model T, (even though he didn't drive himself), and sought the help of Ferdinand Porsche to create a 'peoples-car' - literally Volks-Wagen, with the same ideals for the people of Germany. This car was to complement the new Autobahns that were to be built. They had been planned under the Weimar Republic, but he stole the credit for them. Many of the design ideas were plagiarised from the work of Hans Ledwinka, the Tatra T97 and Tatra V570 with the Czechoslovakian Tatra (car) company. It was also suspiciously similar in many ways to the Josef Ganz–designed cars, it even looked very similar to the Mercedes-Benz 120H prototype of 1931. The Nazi Kraft durch Freude (German for Strength through Joy, abbreviated KdF) "KdF-Wagen" or "Strength through Joy - Car" project ground to a halt before serious production had started because of World War II. The KdF, was the Nazi state propaganda organisation to promote holiday and leisure activities of the population, approved of, and monitored by, the state. The 'price' of the free or subsidised activities was extensive Nazi ideological indoctrination. When the German car industry was unable to meet Hitler's demand that the Volkswagen be sold at 1,000 Reichsmarks or less, the project was taken over by the German Labour Front (Deutsche Arbeitsfront, DAF). Now working for the DAF, Porsche built a new Volkswagen factory at Fallersleben, called "Stadt des KdF-Wagens bei Fallersleben" (Wolfsburg after 1945), at a huge cost which was partly met by raiding the DAF's accumulated assets and misappropriating the dues paid by DAF members. The Volkswagen was sold to German workers on an installment plan where buyers of the car made payments and posted stamps in a stamp-savings book, which when full, would be redeemed for the car. Due to the shift of wartime production, no consumer ever received a "Kdf-Wagen" (although after the war, Volkswagen did give some customers a 200 DM discount for their stamp-books). The entire project was financially unsound, and only the corruption and lack of accountability of the Nazi regime made it possible. The Beetle factory was primarily converted to produce the Kübelwagen (the German equivalent of the jeep). The few Beetles that were produced went to the diplomatic corps and military officials. After the war, the Volkswagen company would be founded to produce the car in the new democratic West Germany, where it would be a success. From 1936 to 1955, Fiat in Italy produced the advanced and very compact FR layout Fiat 500 "Topolino" or "little mouse", the precursor of the 1950s Fiat 500, it was designed by Dante Giacosa. The inline four cylinder 569 cc  hp engine was placed right at the front of the chassis with the radiator behind it. This allowed for a sloping front and good legroom when combined with lowered seating. This also allowed Fiat to lower the roofline. Although nominally a two-seater more were often squeezed in behind the seats. Initially it had quarter elliptic leaf spring rear suspension, but with an axle locating trailing arm, that was upgraded to stronger semi-elliptic to cope with overloading by customers. The front suspension was independent and was used as the basis of the suspension of the first English Cooper racing cars in the 1940s that became successful in the 1950s. It had a four speed gearbox (when three was common) and all hydraulic brakes. It was a similar size to the Austin Seven but much more advanced. It was exported all over the world and produced at the NSU factory in Germany, Steyr-Puch in Austria and Simca in France. It was facelifted with American influenced 'full width styling' of the frontal panels after the war, with headlights integrated into the wings/fenders. The Fiat 1100 was first introduced in 1937 as an updated version of the 508 "Balilla" (its real name was the 508C) with a look similar to the 1936 Fiat 500 "Topolino" and the larger 1500, with the typical late-thirties heart-shaped front grille, with styling by the emerging designer, Dante Giacosa. It was powered by a 1,089 cc four cylinder overhead-valve engine. Drive was to the rear wheels through a four-speed gearbox, and for the period, its comfort, handling, and performance were prodigious, making it "the only people's car that was also a driver's car". The Steyr 50 streamlined small car was introduced in 1936 by the Austrian manufacturer Steyr-Puch. The car had a water-cooled four-cylinder boxer engine driving the rear wheels through a four-speed transmission. It had a similar engine and radiator layout as the Fiat Topolino that was launched at about the same time. To save room and weight a dynastarter was used, which doubled as the axle of the radiator fan. It was regarded as the "Austrian Peoples' Car" and was affectionately referred to as the Steyr "Baby". Professor Porsche had, despite rumors, not been involved in the design or production of the 50. Moreover, the little Steyr offered better seating and luggage space than Porsche's Volkswagen with shorter overall length, a large sheet metal sliding roof and was available with hydraulic brakes (instead of the early Volkswagens' cable-operated ones). In early 1938, the car was revised. It got a more powerful engine and a longer wheelbase. The new model was called the Steyr 55 and went on sale in 1940. A total of 13,000 Steyr "Babies" were sold. The production of Steyr cars was discontinued during World War II, after bombing of the factory. After the war, the factory was rebuilt and specialized in Austrian versions of the Fiat 500 and Fiat 1500. Today the Steyr factory produces the BMW X models for Europe. The pre-war European car market was not one market. Trade barriers fragmented it into national markets, apart from luxury cars where the extra cost of tariffs could actually make cars more exclusive and desirable. The only way for a car maker to enter another national market of a major European car making country, (and their colonial markets of the time), was to open factories there. For example, Citroën and Renault opened factories in England in this period. This situation only really changed with the post-war growth of the EEC (European Community) and EFTA. The British RAC (Royal Automobile Club) horsepower taxation system had the secondary function of excluding foreign vehicles. It was specifically targeted at the Ford Model T, which the then government feared would wipe out the fledgling indigenous motor industry. It crippled car engine design in Britain in the inter-war period, causing British car makers to produce under-square, low revving, long stroke engines. It was abolished after World War II as part of the British export drive for desperately needed, hard foreign currency, because it made British cars uncompetitive internationally. The technologically conservative 1930s Morris Eight, Ford Eight (Ford Model Y which was related to the German Ford Köln), and Standard Eight (Standard, later became Triumph) were named after their RAC horsepower car tax rating. The Ford Model Y had replaced the Model A in Europe in 1932 and ran until 1937. It was a much smaller and lighter car weighing a third less, with an engine two thirds smaller in capacity than the Model A. The basic Model Y 'Popular' was an important milestone in British economy cars, being the first steel-bodied four-seater saloon to sell for £100; previously the only four-wheeled car to sell for that price had been the two-seater tourer model of the Morris Minor. The Model Y was reworked into the more streamlined Ford 7Y for 1938-1939. This was restyled again into the 1939 launched Ford Anglia. Initial sales in Britain actually began in early 1940. Production was suspended in early 1942, and resumed in mid-1945. Production ceased in 1948 after a total of 55,807 had been built. The Anglia was restyled again in 1948. Including all production, 108,878 were built. When production as an Anglia ceased in October 1953, it continued as the extremely basic Ford Popular entry level car until 1959. The Ford Prefect was a differently styled and slightly more upmarket version of the Anglia launched in October 1938 and remained in production until 1941, returning to the market in 1945. The car was face lifted in 1953 from its original perpendicular or sit-up-and-beg style to a more modern three-box structure. It was sold until 1961. The Anglia, Popular and Prefect sold well for a long time despite their old fashioned technology using transverse leaf springs and beam axles for front and rear suspension, side valve engines and only partly synchromeshed three speed gearboxes. They sold on price because of limited car supply on the used car market due to the Second World War, and new car market because of the British government's post war policy of exporting cars. The Morris Eight, introduced in 1935, was a deliberate close copy of the Ford and served as a lower cost, more profitable replacement for the 1928-vintage Morris Minor which had not achieved the hoped-for success. Prices for the Morris started at £112 and it offered more equipment than the Ford and a much more modern design than the ageing Austin Seven, which meant it became the UK's bestselling car by 1939. Crosley, a U.S. appliance manufacturer, from 1939 (switching to war production in 1942-45) to 1952, produced small economy cars of a European rather than American scale. These featured a variety of innovative in-house designed engines of less than one litre capacity. They were popular in the 1940s due to their high fuel economy during fuel rationing because of the war. There were a wide variety of two-door body styles; Sedan, Convertible Sedan, Coupe, Convertible Coupe, Covered Wagon, and Station Wagon. Also, there was a successful sports car, the Crosley Hotshot. The styling of 1951 Crosley Super Sport is very similar to the 1958 Frogeye/Bugeye Austin-Healey Sprite. Production peaked at 24,871 cars in 1948. Sales began to slip in 1949, as the post war American economy took off, and even adding the Crosley Hotshot and a combination farm tractor-Jeep-like vehicle called the Farm-O-Road in 1950, could not stop the decline. In 1952, only 1522 Crosley vehicles were sold. Production was shut down and the plant was sold to the General Tire and Rubber Company. 1945–1960 In anticipation of a repeat of the post First World War economic recession, GM started the "Chevrolet Cadet" project (a compact car intended to sell for less than ), that ran from 1945 to 1947, to extend the Chevrolet range downwards in the U.S. new car market. Chevrolet head of engineering Earle S. MacPherson was in charge of development. It had a unibody structure, an over-square over head valve engine, a strut-type front suspension, small-diameter road wheels, a three-speed gearbox, brake and clutch pedals suspended from the bulkhead rather than floor-mounted, and integrated fender/body styling. It was light and technically advanced, but GM's management cancelled it, stating that it was not economically viable. The anticipated post Second World War U.S. car market recession hadn't materialised. The MacPherson strut, probably the world's most common form of independent suspension, evolved in the GM Cadet project by combining long tubular shock absorbers with external coil springs, and locating them in tall towers that directed the vertical travel of the wheels and also formed the "king pin" or "swivel pin axis" around which the front wheels could turn. It was elegantly simple, with just three links holding the wheel in place - the strut itself, the single-piece transverse lower arm, and the anti-roll bar that doubled as a drag link for the wheel hub. MacPherson took his ideas to Ford instead. They were first used in the French 1948 Ford Vedette. Next in the 1950 British Ford Consul and Zephyr (British mid-size cars, the same size as the Cadet), which owed more to the Cadet than just the MacPherson strut suspension, and caused a sensation when they were launched. In 1953, a miniaturised economy car version, the Anglia 100E was launched in Britain. These early 1950s British Fords used styling elements from the U.S. 1949 Ford 'Shoebox'. As Europe and Japan rebuilt from the war, their growing economies led to a steady increase in demand for cheap cars to 'motorise the masses'. Emerging technology allowed economy cars to become more sophisticated. Early post-war economy cars like the VW Beetle, Citroën 2CV, Renault 4CV, and Saab 92 looked extremely minimal; however, they were technologically more advanced than most conventional cars of the time. The 4CV was designed covertly by Renault engineers during the World War II German occupation of France, when under strict orders to design and produce only commercial and military vehicles. Between 1941 and 1944, Renault was under the Technical Directorship of a francophile German installed former Daimler Benz engineer called Wilhelm von Urach who turned a blind eye to the small, economy car project suitable for the period of post war austerity. The design team went against the wishes of Louis Renault who in 1940 believed that post-war Renault should concentrate on mid-range cars.Fernand Picard and Charles-Edmond Serre persisted nevertheless. Only after a row in May 1941 did Louis Renault approve the project. In October 1944 after the liberation, Louis Renault who was imprisoned on charges of collaboration, died in suspicious circumstances. In January 1945, newly nationalised Renault had officially acquired a new boss, the former resistance hero Pierre Lefaucheux, (he had been acting administrator since September 1944). Lefaucheux had been arrested by the Gestapo in June 1944, and deported to Buchenwald concentration camp. The Gestapo transferred him to Metz for interrogation, but the city was deserted because of the advancing allied front, the Germans abandoned their prisoner. In November 1945 the French government invited Ferdinand Porsche to France looking to relocate the Volkswagen project as part of war reparations. On 15 December 1945, Porsche was invited to consult with Renault about the Renault 4CV. Lefaucheux was enraged that anyone should think the almost production-ready Renault 4CV was in any way inspired by the German Volkswagen, and that the politicians should presume to send Porsche to advise on it. The government insisted on nine meetings with Porsche which took place in rapid succession. Lefaucheux insisted that the meetings would have absolutely no influence on the design of the Renault 4CV, and Porsche cautiously went on record saying that the car would be ready for large scale production in a year. Lefaucheux was a man with contacts, as soon as the 4CV project meetings had taken place, Porsche was arrested in connection with war crimes allegations involving the use of forced labour including French in the Volkswagen plant in Germany. Ferdinand Porsche, despite never facing any sort of trial, spent the next twenty months in a Dijon jail. The 760 cc rear-mounted four-cylinder engine, three-speed manual transmission 4CV was launched at the 1946 Paris Motor Show and went on sale a year later. Volume production with the help of Marshall Plan aid money, was said to have commenced at the company's Parisian Boulogne-Billancourt plant a few weeks before the Paris Motor Show of October 1947, although the cars were in very short supply for the next year or so. On the 4CV's launch, it was nicknamed "La motte de beurre" (the lump of butter); this was due to the combination of its shape and the use of surplus paint from the German Army vehicles of Rommel's Afrika Korps, which were a sand-yellow color. The VW featured a 1.1-litre, rear engined air-cooled 'boxer' flat four with rear-wheel drive, all round fully independent suspension, semi monocoque construction and the ability to cruise on the autobahn for long periods reliably. This cruising ability and engine durability was gained by high top gearing, and by restricting the engine breathing and performance to well below its maximum capability. Production was restarted after the war by the British Army Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers, under Major Ivan Hirst after it was dismissed as valueless for war reparations by the Western Allies. In 1948 Hirst recruited Heinrich Nordhoff to run Volkswagen GmbH and in 1949 ownership was handed over to the West German government.Curbside Classic: 1946 Volkswagen 1100 (Type 11): The Beetle Crawls Out Of The Rubble The Volkswagen Type 1 'Beetle' was to become the most popular single design in history. Its production surpassed The Ford Model T on February 17, 1972. It was withdrawn from the European market in 1978. The Volkswagen Beetle was an icon of post-war West German reconstruction known as the Wirtschaftswunder. The 375 cc Citroën 2CV had interconnected all round fully independent suspension, rack and pinion steering, radial tyres and front-wheel drive with an air-cooled flat twin engine and four-speed gearbox. It was some 10 to 15 MPG (Imperial) more fuel efficient than any other economy car of its time – but with restricted performance to match. It was designed to motorise rural communities where speed was not a requirement. The original design brief had been issued before the Second World War in the mid-1930s. It had been completely redesigned three times, as its market and materials costs had changed drastically during its development period. Engine size increased over time; from 1970 it was a still tiny 602 cc. It was in production until 1990. The Saab 92 had a transversely mounted, water-cooled two-cylinder, two-stroke based on a DKW design, driving the front wheels. It had aircraft derived monocoque construction, with an aerodynamic (drag coefficient) value of 0.30 – not bettered until the 1980s. It was later developed into the Saab 93, Saab 95, and Saab 96. It was produced until 1980, switching to a V4 four stroke engine in the 1960s. The mechanicals were used in the Saab Sonett sports cars. Also in the immediate postwar period, the monocoque FR layout Morris Minor was launched in 1948. To reduce costs it initially reused the pre-war side-valve Morris 8 engine instead of an intended flat-four. Later, after the 1952 formation of British Motor Corporation it had the Austin designed 948cc and later 1098cc OHV BMC A-Series engine. It had a strong emphasis on good packaging and roadholding, with independent front suspension and rack and pinion steering, and American influenced styling. It was produced in different body styles including a 2-door and 4-door saloon, a 2-door convertible, a 'woody' estate car / station wagon, a van with a rear box and a pick-up truck. 1.3 million had been built by the end of production in 1971. It was designed by Alec Issigonis. The 1947 FR layout Toyota SA was Toyota's first true post war design. Although permission to begin full production of passenger cars in Japan was not granted until 1949, limited numbers of cars were permitted to be built from 1947, and the Toyota SA was one such car. It had a 4-cylinder engine, 4-wheel independent suspension and a smaller, aerodynamic body. The project was driven by Kiichiro Toyoda, but most of the design work was done by Kazuo Kumabe. The two-door body was aerodynamic in a style similar to the Volkswagen Beetle. The doors were hinged at the rear (often called suicide doors). The front window was a single pane of flat glass with a single wiper mounted above the driver. Only right hand drive was offered. Toyota engineers (including Dr Kumabe) had visited Germany before World War II and had studied Porsche and Volkswagen designs (independent suspension, aerodynamic bodies, backbone chassis, rear-mounted air-cooled engines, economical production cost). Many Japanese companies had ties with Germany during the war years. But unlike other Japanese car firms Toyota did not partner with Western companies after the war, so it was free to use German designs. Many features of the prototype Beetle were subsequently put into the SA, although the Beetle's rear-mounted air-cooled engine feature was not used. Later on, Toyota revisited the economic principles exemplified by the Beetle when designing the 1950s successors to the SA and the later Publica and Corolla. In the post war austerity of the late 1940s, when most of the Japanese population could not afford a car, but could afford a motorcycle, the Japanese codified a legal standard for extremely economical small cars, known as the keicar. The aim was to promote the growth of the car industry, as well as to offer an alternative delivery method to small business and shop owners. Originally limited to a mere 150 cc (100 cc for two-strokes) in 1949, dimensions and engine size limitations were gradually increased (in 1950, 1951, and 1955) to tempt more manufacturers to produce kei cars. It wasn't until the 1955 change to 360 cc as the upper limit for two-strokes as well as four-strokes that the class really began taking off, with cars from Suzuki Suzulight (front-wheel drive based on the German Lloyd with a DKW type engine) and then Subaru 360, finally able to fill people's need for basic transportation without being too severely compromised. Early generation keicars on the market were mostly rear-engined, rear drive RR layout cars. From the end of the 1960s Keicars switched to front-engined, front-wheel-drive FF layout. This market has thrived ever since, with the cars increasing in size and engine capacity, including sports cars such as the Honda Beat and Suzuki Cappuccino, and even miniaturised MPVs. In 1953, in Japan Hino entered the private car market, by manufacturing the Renault 4CV under licence. Also, in 1953 the Fiat 1100 in Italy was completely redesigned as a compact four-door sedan, with a modern monocoque bodywork and integrated front lights. While economy cars flourished in Europe and later Japan, the booming postwar American economy combined with the emergence of the suburban and interstate highways in that country led to slow acceptance of small cars. Brief economic recessions saw interest in economical cars wax and wane. During the early 1950s, the independent lower volume American auto manufacturers launched new 'small' cars. They were designed to be smaller than contemporary American cars, but would still have mainstream appeal, because they could still accommodate five passengers comfortably with conventional engineering and FR layout, establishing the American sized 'Compact car'. Nash Motors launched the Nash Rambler and Kaiser-Frazer introduced the Henry J in 1950. Willys-Overland (the designers of the Second World War Jeep MB) the Willys Aero in 1952, and Hudson the 1953 Hudson Jet. This niche market avoiding competition with the 'Big Three' of GM, Ford and Chrysler was not large enough to sustain all these competing models. They were priced too near the cost of a base model full sized car from the big three, that in the 1950s had a price war. US Fuel prices during this period were very low and the maintenance costs of the compacts were almost as much as full sized cars, so total running cost were not that much cheaper. Only the Nash Rambler made it to a second generation. The losses caused to the other car makers initiated the succession of mergers that eventually resulted in the American Motors Corporation (AMC). Nash also contracted with British Motor Corporation to build the American designed Metropolitan using existing BMC mechanical components, (the 1.5 Liter engine is a BMC B-Series engine also used in larger sizes in the MG MGA and MG MGB). Imported cars began to appear on the U.S. market during this time to satisfy the demands for true economy cars. An initial late 1940s–early 1950s success in a small way, was the monocoque Morris Minor launched in 1948, with its miniaturized Chevrolet styling. It was underpowered for the long distance roads of the U.S. and especially the freeways that were starting to spread across the country in the 1950s. The first British Motorway did not open until 1959. BMC preferred to develop the higher profit margin MGs for the American market and also worked with Nash and so passed on the opportunity. From the mid-1950s the Volkswagen Beetle using clever and innovative advertising and capitalising on its very high build quality, durability and reliability, was a spectacular success. Having been designed for cruising the autobahns, freeways were no problem for it. It disproved the scepticism of American buyers as to the usefulness of, by their standards, such small cars. In 1955 VW launched the Beetle-based Italian styled Karmann Ghia coupé, that was developed from a 1953 concept car. Production doubled soon after its introduction, becoming the car most imported into the U.S. More than 445,000 Initially the stylish Renault Dauphine derived from the Renault 4CV, looked like it would follow the VWs footsteps, but then was a failure due to mechanical breakdowns and body corrosion. This failure on the U.S. market in the late 1950s, may have harmed the acceptance of small cars generally in America. In 1955, the Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry set a goal to all Japanese makers to create what was called a "national car" that was larger than the kei car. This influenced Japanese automobile manufacturers to focus their product development efforts for the smaller kei cars, or the larger "national cars". The concept stipulated that the vehicle be able to maintain a maximum speed over 100 km/h (62 mph), weigh below 400 kg (882 lbs), fuel consumption at or more, at an average speed of 60 km/h (37 mph) on a level road, and not require maintenance or significant service for at least . This established a "compact car" class, that is by far the most popular in Japan due to tax benefits stipulated by Japanese government regulations. One of the first compact cars that met those requirements was the FR layout Toyota Publica with a flat twin engine, and the RR layout Mitsubishi 500. The Publica and the Mitsubishi 500 were essentially "kei cars" with engines larger than regulations permitted at the time. In the late 1950s the DDR German Democratic Republic produced its 'peoples car'. The Trabant sold 3 million vehicles in thirty years due to its communist captive market. It had a transverse two-cylinder air-cooled two-stroke engine and front-wheel drive, using DKW technology. In 1957, Fiat in Italy launched the 479 cc 'Nuovo' Fiat 500 designed by Dante Giacosa with frontal styling by Claus Luthe. It was the first real city car. It had a rear-mounted air-cooled vertical twin engine, and all round independent suspension. Its target market was Italian scooter riders who had settled down and had a young family, and needed their first car. It was also produced in Austria as the Puch 500. Fiat had also launched the larger 1955 Fiat 600 with a similar layout but with a water-cooled in-line four-cylinder engine, it even had a six-seater people carrier / MPV / mini-van version called the 'Multipla', even though it was about the same size as a modern supermini. Car body corrosion was a particular problem from the 1950s to the 1980s when cars moved to monocoque or uni-body construction (starting from the 1930s), from a separate Body-on-frame chassis made from thick steel. This relied on the shaped body panels and box sections, like sills/rockers, providing the integrity of the body-shell rather than a separate frame (vehicle) for strength. A light car was a fast and/or economical car. The introduction of newly available computers for structural analysis from the 1960s, with computers like the IBM 360, the thickness of sheet metal in bodyshells was reduced to the minimum needed for structural integrity. However, corrosion prevention / rustproofing, that had not previously been significant because of the thickness of metal and separate chassis, had not kept pace with this new construction technology. The lightest monocoque economy cars would be the most affected by structural corrosion. 1960s The world's first hatchback, the 1958 FR layout Austin A40 Farina Countryman model that was a co-development of BMC and the Italian design house Pininfarina at a time when this was unusual. It had a lift up rear window and drop down boot lid. It was also sold as a two-door saloon. It was built in Italy by Innocenti as well as in the UK. For 1965 Innocenti designed a new single-piece rear door for their Combinata version of the Countryman. This top-hinged door used struts to hold it up over a wide cargo opening and was a true hatchback – a model never developed in the home (United Kingdom) market. The Countryman name has 'estate' type associations, and BMC successor company Rover used the name on estate cars / Station Wagons so it is largely forgotten. The next major advance in small car design was the 1959 848 cc FF layout Austin Mini from the British Motor Corporation, designed by Alec Issigonis as a response to the first oil crisis, the 1956 Suez Crisis, and the boom in bubble cars and Microcars that followed. It was the first front-wheel-drive car with a water-cooled in-line four-cylinder engine mounted transversely - the BMC A-Series engine. This allowed eighty percent of the floor plan for the use of passengers and luggage. The majority of modern cars use this configuration. Its progressive rate rubber sprung independent suspension (Hydrolastic 1964–1971), low centre of gravity, and wheel at each corner with radial tyres, increased the car's grip and handling over all but the most expensive automobiles on the market. The Mini was voted the second most important car of the 20th century after the Ford Model T. Badge engineered luxury versions with modified bodywork and wood and leather interiors were made under the names of Riley Elf and Wolesely Hornet. Customised versions were made by coach-builders like Harold Radford, and were very popular with the rich and famous of 1960s London. From 1964 a Jeep like version (that had been rejected by British Armed Forces), of the Mini, the Mini Moke was popular with the King's Road / Carnaby Street, Swinging London set. An Estate car / station-wagon (with a non-structural wood frame 'Countryman' version), a Van and Pick-up versions were also successful. In 1962, a slightly larger 1098cc (and later 1256cc) version of the Mini engineering design was launched, as the Austin/Morris 1100. It had front disc brakes as standard. It had Italian styling by Pininfarina and used front-to-rear interconnected independent Hydrolastic suspension. It was available in sporting MG versions, and luxury wood and leather interior Riley, Wolesely and Vanden Plas versions. It was for most of the 1960s, the top selling car in Britain, and was sold until the mid-1970s. It was sold as the Austin America in the U.S., Canada, and Switzerland between 1968 and 1972. It was also sold in South Africa - Austin Apache and Spain - Austin Victoria, with Triumph type Michelotti re-styling, built in local factories. BMC had hedged their bets after the launch of the front wheel drive Mini and 1100 and to meet the demands of more conservative customers, by keeping their rear wheel drive Austin A40 Farina in production until 1967 and Morris Minor until 1971, while front wheel drive was being accepted by the UK and European markets. Demand from older customers in particular kept the Minor in production, despite it being very outdated. Ford in the UK in 1959 launched the Anglia 105E. It had a new overhead valve engine and a four speed gearbox, which was a great improvement over the previous model Anglia 100E that had a side-valve engine and only three speeds. It was rear wheel drive using a rear beam axle and leaf springs, with front Macpherson struts used like its predecessor. It used much miniaturised late 1950s American-influenced styling that was very fashionable, including a sweeping nose line, and on deluxe versions, a full-width slanted chrome grille in between prominent "eye" headlamps. The car also sported a backward-slanted rear window and tailfins. This dated the car over its nine-year production life. The Anglia's Ford Kent engine was in production in a developed form into the 21st century. The launch in the 1960s of the Mini Cooper to exploit the exceptional grip and handling of the Austin Mini, along with its success in rallying, (Monte Carlo Rally in particular) and circuit racing, first showed that economy cars could be effective sports cars. It made traditional sports cars like the MG Midget look very old fashioned. The rear-wheel-drive Ford Lotus Cortina and Ford Escort 1300GT and RS1600, along with the Vauxhall Viva GT and Brabham SL/90 HB in the late 1960s opened up this market still further in Britain. Meanwhile, from the 1950s Abarth tuned Fiats and Gordini tuned Renaults did the same in Italy and France. Also in 1959 the FR layout DAF 600, with a rear-mounted automatic gearbox, was launched in the Netherlands. The 600 was the first car to have a continuously variable transmission (CVT) system – the innovotive DAF Variomatic. It was the first European economy car with an automatic gearbox. The CVT was continued through the 1960s and 1970s by DAF with the DAF Daffodil, DAF 33, DAF 44, DAF 46, DAF 66, and later by Volvo after they merged with the Volvo 340. The 1960s Austin Mini/Austin 1100 compact and innovative automatic gearbox, developed by Automotive Products (with a conventional epicyclic / torque converter coupling) was much less efficient at transmitting drive. In the 1960s the semi-monocoque/platform chassis 750 cc Renault 4 (arguably the first small five-door hatchback, but viewed as a small estate car or station wagon at the time) was launched in France. It had a very soft but well controlled ride like the Citroën 2CV. In layout, it was essentially an economy car version of the 1930s designed Citroën Traction Avant, in particular the 'Commerciale' derivative, but with fully independent rear suspension (the Commerciale used a flexible beam axle, similar to 1970s VW twist-beam rear suspension). The Commerciale had been smaller than an estate car with a horizontally split two-piece rear door before the second world war. When it was relaunched in 1954 it featured a one-piece top-hinged tailgate. Citroën responded with the 2CV-based 1960 602 cc Citroën Ami and hatchback 1967 Citroën Dyane. Also in France, in 1966 Renault launched the midrange Renault 16 - although it was not an economy car, it is widely recognised as the first non-commercial mass-market hatchback car. The hatchback was a leap forward in practicality. It was adopted as a standard feature on most European cars, with saloons declining in popularity apart from at the top of the market over the next twenty years. Small economy cars that were more limited in load carrying ability than larger cars benefited most - long light loads like furniture could be hung out of the back of the car. In the 1960s the Japanese MITI "national car" class of vehicles, saw the launch of the Isuzu Bellett, Daihatsu Compagno and Mazda Familia in 1963, the Mitsubishi Colt in 1965, and the Nissan Sunny, Subaru 1000, and Toyota Corolla in 1966. Honda introduced their first four-door sedan in 1969, called the Honda 1300. In North America, these cars were classified as subcompact cars. The 1960s Toyota Corolla, Datsun Sunny refined the conventional small rear-wheel-drive economy cars were widely exported from Japan as postwar international competition and trade increased. Japan also instituted the "Shaken" road-worthiness testing regime, that required progressively more expensive maintenance, involving the replacement of entire vehicle systems, that was unnecessary for safety, year on year, to devalue older cars and promote new cars on their home market that were available for low prices. There are very few cars in Japan more than five years old. In 1962 Fiat introduced the third generation FR layout Fiat 1100, called the 1100D. It was restyled into the 1100R from 1966. The Fiat 1100D was made in India from 1964 onwards. In 1973 (for that model year alone) it was named the Premier President. From 1974 onwards until it was finally discontinued in 2000, it was known as the Premier Padmini. In 1964 Fiat under the engineering leadership of Dante Giacosa designed the first car with a transverse engine and an end on gearbox (using different length drive shafts) and a hatchback - the Autobianchi Primula, It had Pininfarina styling that bore a resemblance to the Austin 1100. It was put into limited production by Fiat under their Autobianchi brand. Fiat still produced the FR layout 1100 of about the same size, so that any potential technical teething problems would not damage their brand. Primula production ceased in 1970, by which time 74,858 had been built. It was replaced by the Autobianchi A112 and Autobianchi A111 with the same mechanical layout. They were only sold in mainland Europe, where they were popular into the 1980s (replaced by the Lancia Y10), but unknown in the UK. The French 1967 Simca 1100 (who had previously used Fiat technology under licence), the 1969 Fiat 128, and the 1971 Fiat 127 regarded as the first 'super-mini' brought this development to a wider audience. The 128 was Dante Giacosa's final project. This layout gradually superseded the gearbox in the engine's sump of BMC Austin Morris and later Peugeot PSA X engine, until the only car in production with this transmission layout by the 1990s, was the then long obsolescent Austin (Rover) Mini. The Simca 1100 was also the first small car, that was designed from the outset, with an angled single piece hatchback tailgate to enter large scale production. The earlier Renault 4 tailgate was near vertical like an estate car, and the Austin A40 originally had a split tailgate. The Simca was successful in France, but less so elsewhere due to 'tappety' engines and body corrosion. A total of 2.2 million cars were produced by 1985. In 1972 Renault introduced the monocoque Renault 5 supermini hatchback, that used the proven and successful Renault 4 mechanicals and suspension. It was made until 1985, when it was replaced by the 'Super Cinq'. American Motors (AMC) marketed a version with sealed-beam headlamps and reinforced bumpers as the 'Le Car' in the U.S. from 1976 to 1983. GM's British and German subsidiaries re-entered the small car market with then conventional FR layout cars for the first time since the Second World War in the early 1960s. The Vauxhall Viva, launched in September 1963, and was replaced in September 1966. It was also the first new small car produced by Vauxhall since 1936. The HA Viva was powered by a , overhead valve, four cylinder, front-mounted engine driving the rear wheels. It was comparable in size and mechanical specifications with the new GM Germany Opel Kadett released in 1962 in continental Europe. The Opel featured a brand new OHV 993cc engine, that in a developed form lasted until the early 1990s. The Viva and Kadett were sold alongside each other in many markets. The HA Viva was just an inch longer than the Ford Anglia which dated back to 1959. It was offered only as a two-door saloon. The HB Viva, announced in September 1966 and sold by Vauxhall until 1970, was a larger car than the HA, featuring coke bottle styling, and was modelled after American General Motors (GM) models such as the Chevrolet Impala/Caprice of the period. It featured the same basic engine as the HA, but enlarged to 1,159 cc, but with the added weight of the larger body the final drive gearing was reduced to maintain performance. The Opel Kadett B was launched in 1965. In 1968 Ford replaced the outmoded Anglia with the Ford Escort which was sold across Western Europe. It was longer and wider than its predecessor to fill the gap left by increasing the size of Ford's next model up in the range the Ford Cortina. It had the same mechanical layout and suspension as the Cortina and Anglia, but with contemporary 'Coke Bottle' styling. It struggled to compete with the larger and more comfortable second generation 1965 Opel Kadett in West Germany. In the U.S. market, in 1959 Studebaker launched the Studebaker Lark, then 1960 brought the Chevrolet Corvair, Ford Falcon, and Plymouth Valiant into the market segment dominated by Rambler. These vehicles were lower priced and offered better fuel economy than the standard domestic full-size models, that had grown in size and price through the 1950s. The Corvair, Chevrolet's rear-engined compact car, was originally brought to market to compete directly with the VW Beetle. Ford Falcon and Plymouth Valiant were conventional, compact six-cylinder sedans that competed directly with the Rambler American. In 1962 Chevrolet introduced the Chevy II / Nova line of conventional compacts first offered with 4- and six-cylinder engines. These American vehicles were still much larger than fuel-efficient economy cars popular in Europe and Japan. The Corvair is twenty inches longer, seven inches wider, eight hundred pounds heavier and includes an engine almost twice the size of the Beetle that inspired it. Corvair offered VW's rear engine advantages of traction, light steering, and flat floor with Chevrolet's six-passenger room and six-cylinder power American buyers were accustomed to. Later versions of the Corvair were considered sports cars rather than 'economy' cars including Monza Spyder models, which featured one of the first production car turbocharged engines. The Corvair Monza was followed by the Falcon-based Ford Mustang, introduced in 1964, establishing the "pony car" class which included Corvair's replacement, the Chevrolet Camaro in 1967, expanding the domestic pony car market segment started in mid-1960s. The 1960s also saw the swan song of the rear-engined rear-wheel-drive car RR layout. The first models designed with this layout in Central Europe before the second world war, had better traction than any other two wheel drive car layout. They were very capable in the mountainous country there, that had many unsurfaced roads, just how capable was shown by the performance of the two wheel drive military Kübelwagen version of the VW Beetle. This layout also had better interior space utilisation than front engine rear-wheel-drive cars, and a better ride than those with a live rear beam axle. It was an affordable way to produce a car with all round independent suspension, without the need for expensive constant-velocity joints needed by front-wheel-drive cars, or axle arrangements of FR layout cars. They could have road-holding issues due to unfavorable weight distribution and wheel camber changes (rear wheel tuck under), of the lower-cost swing axle rear suspension design. These were highlighted and a little exaggerated by Ralph Nader. These problems were ameliorated on later Beetles and were eliminated on the second-generation Chevrolet Corvair with the switch to a four-link, fully independent rear suspension. The Hillman Imp, NSU Prinz 4 (styled by Claus Luthe) and Soviet Zaporozhets all had styling cues derived from the original Corvair. Connections to the Corvair are mentioned on their respective Wikipages. The only economy cars with this layout launched since the 1960s have been the turn of the millennium ultra compact two seater city car Smart Fortwo and Indian market Tata Nano. 1960s launched RR layout cars: The 874 cc Hillman Imp - UK. The 583 cc NSU Prinz, and the relatively unsuccessful attempt at diversification of the Volkswagen Type 3, Volkswagen Type 4 - West Germany. The 956–1289 cc Renault 8/10 and 777–1294 cc Simca 1000 - France. The 2296 cc Chevrolet Corvair - US. The first 1960s air-cooled two-stroke in-line twin-engined generation of the 360 cc Keicar class - the 1958 Subaru 360, Mitsubishi 360 1961, Mazda Carol 1962, Daihatsu Fellow 1966, Honda N360 and the Suzuki Fronte 1967 along with the non Keicar, Renault based Hino Motors 4CV was replaced by the 1961 Contessa - Japan. In Communist Eastern Europe there was the Škoda 1000MB/1100MB that was developed into the 1970s Škoda S100/110 and then the 1970s–1980s Škoda 105/120/125 Estelle - Czechoslovakia. Centrally planned as the'' small Soviet car, the Zaporozhets from the Ukrainian ZAZ factory (1960-1969 styled like a Fiat 600), (1966-1994 styled like NSU Prinz 4), was sold in the USSR and Warsaw Pact/COMECON countries of Eastern and Central Europe. It had a low price and good fuel economy and was designed to be DIY maintained by the customer, because of lack of maintenance facilities in communist countries. It was also issued to Soviet war amputees by the state through their social welfare system. In total, 3,422,444 air-cooled Zaporozhets made. - Soviet Union 1970s The 1973 oil crisis (and again in 1979), emphasised the importance of fuel economy worldwide, as an increasing proportion of the cost of vehicle operation. This had particular impact in the United States with its greater distances, which was arguably the nation hardest hit because of the prevalence of large, fuel-thirsty cars. At the same time, new emissions and safety regulations were being implemented requiring major and costly changes to vehicle design and construction for the U.S. market. The sales of imported economy cars had continued to rise from the 1960s. The first response by domestic American car makers included the U.S. produced, FR layout cars, the AMC Gremlin, Chevrolet Vega, and Ford Pinto, along with captive imports. AMC was determined to have the first subcompact offering and 1970 AMC Gremlin sales began six months ahead of the all-new 1971 models from GM and Ford. The Gremlin used the AMC Hornet's existing design with a shortened wheelbase and "chopped" tail, and had an important low-price advantage. The Chevrolet Vega, featuring attractive miniaturised Camaro styling, introduced in September 1970, was GM's first subcompact, economy car. Nearly two million were sold over its seven-year production run, due in part to its low price and fuel economy. By 1974, the Vega was among the top 10 best-selling American-made cars, but the aluminum-block engine developed a questionable reputation. Chevrolet increased the engine warranty to to all Vega owners, which proved costly for Chevrolet. The 1976 Vega had extensive engine and body durability improvements and a five-year/ engine warranty. After a three-year sales decline, the Vega and its aluminium engine were discontinued at the end of the 1977 model year. Pontiac's lowest-priced car was a re-badged Vega variant exclusively available in Canada for the 1973-74 model years, and introduced in the U.S. the following year. The final 1977 models featured the first use of Pontiac's Iron Duke inline-4 engine. Lower priced versions of the Chevrolet Monza were introduced for 1978 and rebadged variants of the discontinued Vega were also added to the Monza line - the Monza wagon using the Vega Kammback body was sold for the 1978-79 model years, and the Monza S hatchback, a price leader model using the Vega Hatchback body, was also offered for the 1978 model year. The Ford Pinto was introduced one day after the Vega. It was small, economical, and a top seller. Controversy over the design of the fuel system and a Ford cost benefit analysis presented to the public as specific to the Pinto destroyed the reputation of the car. The Ford Pinto engine though was successful in European Fords for twenty years, in successive mid and large European sized mainstay models of the; UK Ford Cortina, German Ford Taunus, the Ford Sierra, and the Ford Granada amongst others. By 1970, Nissan released their first front-wheel-drive car that was originally developed by Prince Motor Company which had merged with Nissan in 1966. This was introduced in 1970 as the Datsun/Nissan Cherry. In 1973, the Energy Crisis started, which made small fuel efficient cars more desirable, and the North American driver began exchanging their large cars for the smaller, imported compacts that cost less to fill up and were inexpensive to maintain. The Toyota Corona, the Datsun 510, the Mitsubishi Galant (a captive import from Chrysler sold as the Dodge Colt), the Subaru DL, and later the Honda Accord gave buyers increased passenger space and some luxury amenities, such as air conditioning, power steering, AM-FM radios, and even power windows and central locking without increasing the price of the vehicle. In 1972, the Honda Civic was launched, the CVCC (Compound Vortex Controlled Combustion) Stratified charge engine debuted in 1975 and was offered alongside the standard Civic engine. The CVCC engine had a head design that promoted cleaner, more efficient combustion, eliminating the need to use a Catalytic converter for the new California emission standards - nearly every other U.S. market car for that year needed exhausts with catalytic converters. The Japanese, who had previously competed on price, equipment and reliability with conservative designs, were starting to make advanced, globally competitive cars. The Audi 50 designed by Claus Luthe was a front wheel drive supermini three door hatchback car launched in 1974 and produced until 1978, and sold only in Europe, 180,812 were built. A re-badged cheaper, lower equipment version was marketed as the Volkswagen Polo Mk1 (1975-1981) sold more than 500,000. It impacted sales of the Audi, causing production to come to an end early compared to the Polo. The Volkswagen Derby was the booted two door saloon (three-box) version of its Volkswagen Polo Mk1 supermini, between 1977 and 1981 in Europe. Ford had sold 2 million Escorts across Europe by 1974, the year the MK2 was launched with a squarer flatter panel body re-style. The most successful market was the UK. The Escort's success was greatly helped by its numerous rallying successes in the 1970s, and the performance versions like the Escort Mexico and RS2000 that traded on that success, and provided a halo effect for the lesser models. The Chevrolet Chevette was introduced in September 1975 and produced through to 1987. It was a successful and 'Americanized' version of the GM T platform (1973) 'world car' that was developed with Opel, GM's German subsidiary and Isuzu Motors of Japan. Chrysler having taken control of Simca (and Hillman in the UK) in the 1960s, as part of expansion plans to match GM and Ford, turned to their French subsidiary, when they needed to launch an American made sub-compact, to comply with federal Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) regulations that were being introduced starting with the 1978 model year cars. The replacement for the Simca 1100, the C2 project, became the (Simca) Talbot Horizon that won European Car of the Year 1978, and more than 3 million were sold in the United States as the Dodge Omni and Plymouth Horizon from 1978 to 1990. It had been re-engineered with a federal emission VW Golf 1.7L engine and MacPherson strut suspension for the U.S. market. Chrysler Europe was sold to Peugeot in 1978, due to mounting operating losses in Europe and the U.S. that required a U.S. government bailout. Captive imports were the other response by U.S. car makers to the increase in popularity of imported economy cars in the 1970s and 1980s. These were cars bought from overseas subsidiaries or from companies in which they held a significant shareholding. GM, Ford, and Chrysler sold imports for the U.S. market. The Buick Opel, Ford Cortina, Mercury Capri, Ford Festiva, and Dodge Colt are examples. Technologies that developed during the post-war era, such as disc brakes, overhead-cam engines and radial tires, had become cheap enough to be used in economy cars at this time (radials began to be adopted in the 1950s and 1960s, and front disc brakes in the 1960s, towards the bottom of the market in Europe). This led to cars such as the 1974 Mk 1 Volkswagen Golf designed by Giorgetto Giugiaro, Fiat 128 and 1972 Honda Civic. Some previously exotic technology, electronic fuel injection, became affordable, which allowed the production of high-performance hot hatch sport compacts like the 1976 Volkswagen Golf GTI. This car combined economy of use and a practical hatchback body, with the performance and driving fun that kicked off the hot hatchback boom. Also introduced in 1976, was the 1.5 L VW Golf diesel—the first small diesel hatchback. It used new Bosch rotary mechanical diesel injection pump technology. Also in that year, Ford of Europe (produced by the merging of Ford national operations in Europe) launched their first front-wheel-drive small car, the Ford Fiesta, having gained experience from the Ford of Germany 1960s European midsized Ford Taunus P4 and Ford of Brazil Ford Corcel. 1980s GM Europe (Vauxhall/Opel) introduced their first European market front-wheel-drive car, the Opel Kadett D/Vauxhall Astra, Golf-sized car in 1979 by Opel in Germany and 1980 by Vauxhall in the UK. In 1980, Fiat introduced the Giugiaro designed Mk 1 Fiat Panda. It was originally designed to be produced in China at its 1970s level of industrialisation. It was a utilitarian front-wheel-drive supermini with Fiat standard transverse engine and end-on gearbox. It featured mostly flat body panels and flat glass. Also in 1980, the all new hatchback and front wheel drive third generation Ford Escort Mark III (Europe) was launched. Previous Escorts were saloon/sedans with front engine and rear wheel drive. In 1981 Ford launched the American version of the Ford Escort. In 1982 GM launched their first front-wheel-drive supermini, the Opel Corsa/Vauxhall Nova in Europe. In 1983 Fiat launched the next step forward in small car design, the Fiat Uno. It was designed by Giorgetto Giugiaro's ItalDesign. The tall, square body utilising a Kamm tail achieved a drag coefficient of 0.34, and it won much praise for an airy interior space and fuel economy. It incorporated many packaging lessons learnt from Giugiaro's 1978 Lancia Megagamma concept car, (the first modern people carrier-MPV-mini-van)—but miniaturised. Its tall car, high-seating packaging is imitated by every small car today. It showed that not just low sleek cars could be aerodynamic, but small boxy well packaged cars could be too. It was voted Car of the Year in 1984. Also in 1983 Peugeot launched the Pininfarina-styled Peugeot 205. While not as radical as the Uno in body design, it was also very aerodynamic. It was the first European supermini with a diesel engine - the XUD. It provided performance of a 1.4 L petrol with economy——that was better than the base 1 L petrol version. It could, like most diesel engines, last for several hundred thousand miles with regular servicing. It was, along with the larger (also XUD powered) Citroën BX, the beginning of the start of the boom in diesel sales in Europe. The 205 GTI was as popular as the Golf GTI in Europe. The 205 was named "Car of the Decade" in the UK, by CAR magazine in 1990. In the US Chevrolet offered three new small economy cars in the 1980s to replace the Chevette: the Chevrolet Sprint, a three-cylinder Suzuki-built hatchback, The Chevrolet Spectrum built by Isuzu and the Chevrolet Nova built by NUMMI in California, a GM-Toyota joint venture. 1990s Chevrolet offered the Geo brand in the US in the 1990s featuring the Suzuki-built Geo Metro (marketed as the Suzuki Swift in Europe, Suzuki Cultus in Japan, and Holden Barina in Australia), the Isuzu-built Storm, and the NUMMI-built Prizm. In Europe in 1993, Fiat launched the boxy and conservatively styled but very well packaged front wheel drive Fiat Cinquecento that could accommodate four adults that was only slightly larger than an Austin Mini. It eventually replaced the first Fiat Panda and also the aged rear engined rear wheel drive 1970s Fiat 126, as the smallest car in the Fiat range. But the real breakthrough in small car design was the 1993 Renault Twingo which was a revolution in styling by being the first 'one box' small car to reach production. (The early pre-production Citroën AX supermini launched in 1987 was a 'monobox' design, but the production version was much more conservative after negative reactions in focus groups.) Both had the interior space of a much larger car. The Twingo and Cinquecento relaunched the city car market in Europe, for decades the only competitors in this market were the Austin Mini and the Polish built Fiat 126, that had been developed from the 1950s Fiat 500. Economy cars since 2000 Today economy cars have specialised into market niches. The small city car, the inexpensive-to-run but not necessarily very small general economy car, and the performance derivatives that capitalise on light weight of the cars on which they are based. Some models that started as economy cars such as the Volkswagen Golf and Toyota Corolla, have increased in size and moved upmarket over several generations, and their makers have added smaller new models in their original market niches. The 2003 Volkswagen Golf Mk5 had put on so much weight, that some models weigh the same as a Volvo 200 Series. The supermini 2002 Volkswagen Polo Mk4 was longer and wider than the 1970s Volkswagen Golf Mk1. Gordon Murray the Formula 1 and Mclaren F1 designer, said when designing his new Murray T.25 city car: "Today with all the promises of hydrogen and hybrids and electric cars, if you could take ten percent out of the weight of every car, the effect in the next ten years would be more than that of all the hybrids and electric cars on the planet." The City car market in Europe from the 1990s has seen increased competition, with the market split between standard and 'designer' city cars that are sold for a premium. These cars are at the lower end of supermini size or smaller. Standard city cars include the Toyota Yaris, Citroën C1/Peugeot 107/Toyota Aygo (built in the same factory), Fiat Panda, Kia Picanto, Chevrolet Matiz, Volkswagen Fox, Mitsubishi Colt, Volkswagen Lupo, and 2011 Volkswagen Up. The 'designer' city car became increasingly popular in Europe in the 1990s. The first car of this kind was a limited success, the 1985 Lancia Y10, because it had been hampered by its poor ride, from being based on the original utilitarian Fiat Panda. Also, Lancia was a dying brand in the UK at this time. The 1993 Renault Twingo and Ford Ka in 1996, marked an upsurge in sales for this niche. The Ka was to be launched along with the mid-1990s Fiesta with the innovative Australian two stroke Orbital engine, but tightening emissions laws meant that it was launched with an updated Ford Kent engine instead. This was followed by the innovative engineering designs; Mercedes-Benz A-Class with an under floor engine, the two seater rear engined Smart ForTwo, and the aluminium bodied Audi A2 which in its most aerodynamic form only achieved a . Sales really took off with the 2001 BMW Mini with its modern but conventional front wheel drive engineering and re-interpretation of the classic Austin Mini styling. This has sold well in other markets including North America. Other cars of this type include the Mitsubishi Colt-based Smart Forfour, VW Polo based Audi A1, Fiat Panda based Fiat Nuova 500, Citroën C3 based Citroën DS3, and Fiat Grande Punto based Alfa Romeo MiTo. The Toyota iQ, designed in France, went on sale in January 2009 in the UK. It is a competitor for the Smart ForTwo but with occasional rear seats. It follows the Issigonis philosophy of packaging, with innovations including a flat under floor fuel tank and specially located steering rack and final drive unit to maximise floor space for passengers. It seats four adults in a car long, wide, and tall, and achieves with a 99 g/km rating. It also achieved the top Euro NCAP 5/5 stars safety rating. A development in recent years in Europe, has been the launch of small MPVs/people carriers. This is a development of the Giorgetto Giugiaro tall car, high-seating packaging innovation first used in the Fiat Uno. The niche first emerged in Japan with the 1993 Suzuki Wagon R Keicar class car. This was sold by GM in Europe from 2000 as the Vauxhall/Opel Agila. This was followed by the slightly larger supermini based cars like the Renault Modus, Citroën C3 Picasso, Fiat Idea, Nissan Note, and the Vauxhall/Opel Meriva that is also produced in Brazil. Their tall packaging designs offer the interior space of a larger car. The higher seating increases visibility for the driver that is useful in urban driving. They also make it easier to get in and out, which is useful for those with personal mobility problems, such as the elderly and the disabled. The conflicting design goals for economy cars – small size with maximum usable interior space, low cost and light weight with acceptable safety performance (light cars have a higher ratio of unsprung suspension mass to sprung mass, which affects ride quality) and the need for light materials with acceptable durability – continue to stimulate innovative development. Technology improvements such as electronic engine management, adoption of four valves per cylinder, variable valve timing, direct injection of petrol/Gasoline and diesel, hybrid power, and smoother, more powerful diesel engines with very high pressure electronic injection, have dramatically improved fuel economy and performance. The latest technologies to improve efficiency are engine downsizing and automatic engine stop-start. Automatic engine stop-start systems like VWs BlueMotion, shut the engine down when the car is stopped to reduce idling emissions and boost economy, and it is now mandatory not to idle unnecessarily in cities in Germany. It is an updated version of the 1980s VW 'Formel E' system that was developed into the 1990s VW 'Ecomatic' system. The application of turbo-charging to downsized engines is one way to achieve efficiency benefits into fuel economy and emission benefits instead of for performance. The recent Fiat 'Multiair' system, is an electro-hydraulic development of variable valve timing that allows the engine management computer to control valve timing, improving engine efficiency, giving better torque, power, economy, and emissions. Safety design is a particular challenge in a small, lightweight car. This is an area where Renault has been particularly successful. Sport compacts and hot hatches have developed into their own competitive genre. Although their economy has been compromised, these models offer higher performance because of the lightness of the platforms that they are based upon. As an alternative to manual synchromesh gearboxes, automatic continuously variable transmission (CVT) gearboxes are optional on some economy cars, such as Audi, Honda, and the MINI ONE and MINI Cooper. Tata Motors from India, recently announced that it too would use a variomatic transmission in its Nano. CVT application to economy cars was pioneered by Fiat, Ford, and Van Doorne in the 1980s. Rather than the pulled rubber drive belts as used in the past by DAF, the modern transmission is made much more durable by the use of electronic control and steel link belts pushed by their pulleys. A difference between the North American car market and the markets of Europe and Japan is the price of fuel. Fuel is heavily taxed and therefore relatively costly in most first-world markets outside North America; fuel is about two and a half times the price in the UK than the U.S. Fuel costs are also a much higher proportion of income, due to generally higher wages and lower living costs in the U.S. Only during occasional fuel price spikes such as those of 1973, 1979–81, and 2008-9 have North American drivers been motivated to seek levels of fuel economy considered ordinary outside North America. The growth of developing countries has also created a new market for inexpensive new cars. Unlike in the postwar period this demand has not been met by utilitarian but advanced 'peoples cars'. Adaptation of standard or obsolete models from the first world has been the norm. Production of car models superseded in first-world markets is often moved to cost-sensitive markets like South Africa and Brazil; the Citi Golf is an example. Some mainstream European auto makers have developed models specifically for developing countries, such as the Fiat Palio, Volkswagen Gol and Dacia Logan. Renault has teamed up with India's Mahindra and Mahindra to produce a low-cost car in the range of to . The Tata Nano launched in January 2008, in India by Tata Motors, was claimed by Tata to be the world's cheapest car at . The Nano, like the 1950s Fiat 500, has a rear engine and was styled by Italians. It is designed to get whole families off scooters and onto four wheels. The Tata Indica that was formerly sold in Europe as the City Rover until the 2005 collapse of Rover, sold poorly as it was overpriced for a basic car. The narrow profit margins of economy cars can cause financial instability for their manufacturers. Historically, Volkswagen in the 1970s and Ford in the 1920s almost collapsed because of their one model economy car business strategy. Ford was saved by the Model A and Volkswagen was saved by the Golf. Ford started the Mercury and Lincoln brands to diversify its product range. VW moved away from the narrow profit margins of economy cars, by expanding its range so that now it spans from very small city cars like the Volkswagen Up to Audis and Bentleys, and it also owns SEAT and Skoda. China has become one of the fastest growing car markets, recently overtaking the U.S. as the largest producer of cars in the world. It is followed by India with a preference towards inexpensive, basic cars, but they are both moving upmarket in their tastes as their economic rise continues. India is becoming a global outsourcing production centre for small cars. The Suzuki Alto and Hyundai i10 are already being exported to Europe from India. In March 2010 at Chennai formerly Madras, the Renault-Nissan Alliance opened a plant to produce 400,000 units per year at full production. The first vehicle to be produced at the plant will be the new Nissan Micra, for the Indian market as well as for export to over 100 countries in Europe, the Middle East and Africa. Production of the Micra has been re-located from the UK and other developed countries. In 2011, the plant will start production of the Renault Koleos and Fluence, for the Indian market based on the same platform. The Maruti version of the Suzuki Swift is also produced in India. Gordon Murray the Formula 1 and Mclaren F1 designer, said when designing his new Murray T.25 city car: "I discovered why people didn't make what they call 'Sub A' segment cars, small city cars – you don't make any money on them. Because the tooling and development cost for a small car is almost the same as for a bigger car. So people would rather build larger cars and make more profit. That's when I started thinking, that if this is going to work there needs to be a new way of making the cars, that is cost effective. That high capital pressed components using low labour cost countries a long distance from developed world markets has a large environmental cost. Car manufacturers say that production emissions are small compared to tailpipe emissions, but in fact they are a very significant proportion of total emissions. We need to re-think the Henry Ford design of mass production." Murray's solution is a laser cut tubular steel space-frame chassis built with an automated tube mill, braced with bonded low-cost composite sheets that would be a cheaper and greener means of production. Murray's 'iStream' simplifies each process with an eighty percent smaller factory with lower cost production, making light weight efficient cars. There are no sheet metal presses, spot welders or paint plants. It would be built local to its market. Murray was reported to be negotiating production licences. The T25 and T27 were projected to be available in 2016. See also Fuel economy in automobiles Automobile costs References Bibliography Automotive industry in the United States Transport economics

16558558

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MagiC

MagiC

MagiC is a third party and now open-sourced multitasking-capable TOS-compatible operating system for Atari computers, including some newer clone systems manufactured later. There are also variants that run as part of Mac and PC emulation environments, as well as on macOS Intel-Mac computers. Features The kernel of MagiC is largely written in hand-coded assembly language for Motorola 68000, and offers: Extensive Atari TOS compatibility, the developer also created an improved variant (KAOS) Restricted MiNT/MultiTOS compatibility Preemptive multitasking Loadable file systems and long file names Significant performance advantages over both the original TOS and MiNT/MultiTOS platform on the same hardware Disadvantages MagiC was originally a commercial product and not freely available, like MiNT MagiC is not 100% compatible with the original TOS Drivers and file systems from MiNT are not compatible with MagiC Magic-Mac and Magic-PC variants only run under Mac OS and Microsoft Windows respectively, not e.g. Linux distributions Some Atari ST programs assume they alone control the machine, are troublesome when multitasked (mostly graphics glitches) History and variants Atari platform MagiC was originally released as Mag!X (or MagiX) in 1992. At that time, TOS featured only limited multitasking in the form of desk accessory programs, simple programs accessed from the "Desk" menu and that multitasked using cooperative task switching. In contrast, MagiC offered preemptive multitasking, giving the ability to run multiple (well-behaved) GEM applications as well as other non-graphical software on the Atari ST series the Atari STE and Atari TT. The name changed from Mag!X to MagiC with the release of version 3.0, which added many improvements and a significant amount of MiNT compatibility. Version 4.0 added support for the Atari Falcon, and finally in 1995 version 5.0 brought the significant addition of loadable file system support, along with an implementation of VFAT with long file names, and a number of other improvements to the GEMDOS layer including threads and signals. Clone machines MagiC versions 6.0 through 6.2 were released also for use with Atari clone machines of the late 1990s (e.g. Milan manufactured by MILAN Computersystems, Hades by Medusa Computer Systems). They include significant enhancements, such as support for FAT32, increased MiNT compatibility, and support for newer processors and hardware found in the clone systems. Version 6.2 is the latest for Atari machines. Apple Macintosh Atari was slow to improve the hardware of its systems, and in the mid- to late 1990s it was apparent that the Apple Macintosh systems, and some clones by other manufacturers, were a superior hardware platform. Given that Ataris and Macs shared a very similar user interface, the latter were a logical upgrade path for many Atari users. So in 1994 a variant of MagiC known as MagiCMac was released, allowing Atari ST users to run their software on modern Mac hardware. At first MagiCMac was offered for Macs with Motorola 680x0 CPU, a version for PPC CPUs followed. Later releases offered improved integration with the classic Mac OS, and allowed well-behaved Atari software to access the native graphics modes offered by the host machine, in addition to emulations of the standard Atari screen modes . Version 6.2 is the latest for machines with Mac OS classic (up to version 9.2). PowerPC and Mac OS X With introduction of Mac OS X on newer PowerMacs, the original MagiC-Mac would no longer run as it operated at a low level within the former Mac OS classic in order to function. Newer OS X versions have no system-wide emulation layer for Motorola 680x0 code included, as was the case before. So in 2002 a reworked variant MagiC-Mac X for OS X was released. The program itself is a "Carbon" program; it did run under Mac OS X only, not with Mac OS 9.x or in the "Classic Environment". To maximise effectiveness it contained improved code, and integrated parts of the Asgard68k emulator written in hand-optimised PPC assembler (also used in MESS and MAME projects), to reach high emulation speeds on machines with PowerPC processors (typically PowerPC G4 and G5 Macs). MagiC-Mac X was updated in 2004 and 2009, becoming a "Universal Binary" and running natively on both older PowerPC Macs and newer Macs with Intel processors under Mac OS X (version 10.4 "Tiger" to 10.6 "Snow Leopard"). Version 2.0 is the latest for PowerPC machines. IBM PC and older Windows In summer 1996 the version MagiC-PC was released, now allowing Atari ST users to run their software on top of MS-DOS based Windows 9x to ME, as well as under more modern Windows NT 4 to XP. Atari files and directories were organised in drive containers, which represented bigger file archives for Windows. Windows' own directories were mapped as partitions to access them. Networking access and printing via Windows and Novell NetWare was provided for the Atari environment. System requirements for emulating an Atari ST or STE system were: A PC with minimum of 16 megabytes of RAM An Intel 80486 processor, or those comparable in performance by other manufacturers For speed similar to an Atari Falcon system (with Motorola 68030): An Intel Pentium (P5/80586) at 100 MHz and higher, or comparable processors of other manufacturers To achieve faster program execution than on original Atari environments, higher clocked CPUs and more usable system memory were good upgrades for PCs. Modern Windows MagiC-PC is fast but unsupported on newer versions of Windows. It does still work but may cause problems (hangs) when trying to shut down the Atari session itself (pausing the emulation and then closing it is possible as work-around). It can help to change the original "Shutdown" program that comes with MagiC (and is ending an Atari session) for a different one. Restarting a session is then done using the "MagiC" menu bar under Windows. Installing Magic-PC on a USB flash drive is also possible, so the emulation environment can be used on computers under Windows 7 and higher. An alternative to MagiC-PC is Hatari, especially under other free operating systems like Linux. Because the program is written in plain C, using SDL libs and in part UAE (emulator) for multimedia and hardware, it requires quite performant processors (over 1 GHz for Atari ST/STE emulation, over 2 GHz for Atari Falcon emulation). For faster program execution the machine should be at least of the Pentium 4 or Athlon XP class respectively. AtariX for macOS Intel-Macs The successor to MagiC-Mac X on the Apple platform is AtariX, also coded by Andreas Kromke. It has also been released under GPL v3 lately. The software integrates in part the Musashi 68k emulator written in plain C. AtariX is not as optimised as its predecessor once was, but the code written in C makes it more portable. Thus it will not reach the emulation speeds the former software had, but AtariX is aimed to run under more modern macOS (up to version 10.13 "High Sierra" at least), and Intel-only Mac systems with more performant processors. NVDI for MagiC Another third party system enhancement for the Atari platform was NVDI originally developed by Sven und Wilfried Behne. It implemented advanced and accelerated graphics functions, improved driver functionality, and productivity utilities with Atari programs. The last stand-alone version 5.02/5.03 of NVDI, released in the early 2000s, worked with standard Atari TOS, MagiC for Atari, MagiC-PC, MagiC-Mac, and extra graphics cards for Ataris (ET 4000, Matrix MatGraph, Computerinsel NOVA). As bundle with MagiC it was renamed to MVDI. NVDI offered highly optimised graphics routines in Atari environment (TOS or MagiC), emulation speed is raised under Windows and Mac OS via Magic-PC and Magic-Mac by mapping most of the Atari VDI calls to those of the host operating system. In Windows this is done using GDI calls, using native PC code for these functions. Similar functionality and higher speed for graphics was provided with MagiC-Mac, using QuickDraw calls in the classic Mac OS environment. NVDI allows for the use of up to millions of colours, for text on screen it supports Bitstream Speedo Fonts, TrueType and PostScript fonts installed on Windows and classic Mac OS, and features modernised printing capabilities via GDOS for programs, run natively on the Atari and in emulation on PC and Mac. MagiC Desk MagiC's implementation of the GEM Desktop was greatly enhanced over the version included in the original TOS systems. Initially named Mag!X Desk, but changing to MagiC Desk with the release of MagiC 3.0, it offered features missing from the original Desktop, including: Parallel (i.e. in the background) copy/move/delete/format operations Long file names Aliases (symbolic links) Colour icon support Unlike the GEM Desktop, MagiC Desk was not built into MagiC but instead could be launched as an application at startup. It is possible to start MagiC with another shell when wished (popular alternative shells including Jinnee and Thing). Diverse software can expand the usability of MagiC, extra network support e.g. is provided by MagiC Net. GPL Release In 2018 MagiC developer Andreas Kromke released the sources of MagiC variants and MagiC Desk and other software under the GPL version 3, including the extra NVDI/MVDI enhancement which came with MagiC. Provided as open source are: TOS, and KAOS (an improved TOS variant with many bugs removed) MagiX / MagiC for Atari computers, MagiC-Mac for classic Mac OS (Motorola 68000 variants) Magic-Mac X for older Mac OS X on PowerPCs, and AtariX for newer macOS on Apple–Intel architecture NVDI/MVDI for MagiC, as enhancement to the MagiC environment See also emuTOS, an Atari single-tasking operating system component MiNT, another Atari multi-tasking operating system component Hatari (emulator), a free Atari ST/TT/Falcon emulator ARAnyM (emulator), a free Atari ST/TT/Falcon virtual machine-emulator Motorola 68000 series, 16- and 32-bit CPUs of the original Atari and Amiga era References External links ASH distributor page, info on MagiC and variants (German) Programmer documentation, including detailed description of MagiC APIs The MagiC Documentation Project Network support (MagiC-Net a.o.) for MagiC Atari-Mac-MagiC on GitLab - Sources of MagiC a.o. components AtariX on GitLab – Sources of the AtariX computer emulator for macOS GEM software Windows software MacOS software Atari ST software Atari operating systems Disk operating systems Free software operating systems

27378785

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Device%20tracking%20software

Device tracking software

Device tracking software is software installed in an electronic device that is capable of reporting the device's location remotely. Depending upon the software and the device on which it is installed, the software may obtain the location of the device by means of GPS, WiFi-location, IP address, or accelerometer logs, and it may report the address by means of e-mail, SMS, or other means. Some device tracking software is sold as part of a subscription to a staffed service that will assist the device's owner to update police officers with the device's location. See also Geolocation software Hybrid positioning system Mobile phone tracking Bringrr Skyhook Wireless Laptop theft Prey (software) References Surveillance Mobile software Geopositioning

52579317

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EarSketch

EarSketch

EarSketch is a free educational programming environment. Its core purpose is to teach coding in two widely used languages, Python and JavaScript, through music composing and remixing. This learning environment was developed first at Georgia Institute of Technology (from 2011) under Prof. Jason Freeman (School of Music) and Prof. Brian Magerko (School of Literature, Media, and Communication). EarSketch is web-based, which means users can access it with their web-browsers, and with no installation. No account is required to create projects or view existing projects. EarSketch comprises different elements: a curriculum, a digital audio workstation (or DAW), a code editor and console, and a sound browser. EarSketch's sound library was created by Young Guru, Jay Z's sound engineer, and famous sound designer Richard Devine. Purpose EarSketch has two main goals: to make computer science more engaging for students, and to diversify the population of students interested in computer science. Engagement in computer science at school The US has a shortage of computer science students, not only because not all schools are offering CS classes, but also because students do not enroll in such classes. A study published in 2009 states: "The percentage of U.S. high school students taking STEM courses has increased over the last 20 years across all STEM disciplines except computer science where it dropped from 25% to 19%". Considering this, and the fact that all fields of the economy incorporate computing in their operations, EarSketch proposes to motivate students to enroll in CS classes and to pursue CS studies in higher education. EarSketch attempts to reach this goal by adding a musical side to coding. This strategy is a STEAMs approach to education that integrates arts into STEM teaching. A study conducted at Georgia Tech showed statistically significant results in this domain: students who study with EarSketch have been shown to make progress both in content knowledge and attitude towards CS (self-confidence, motivation, intent to persist, etc.). Participation in computing Today female and minority students in CS classes are, like in other engineering fields, underrepresented (with 22% of female students, 13% of African American students in US classes in 2015). EarSketch has demonstrated success in tackling this issue, partly because of the focus on popular genres of music such as dubstep, and because EarSketch provides a creative, expressive, and authentic environment (since students compose their own music). History Origin of the name EarSketch The name EarSketch originated in a different project from co-creators Freeman and Magerko focused on collaborative composition and music analysis via drawing. That project never came to fruition, but the idea of collaborative music-making (and the name) remained in a new project focused more on coding and computer science education. Though sketching is no longer a focus of EarSketch, the environment does offer drawing and animation features through P5. First version: Reaper-based desktop application The initial version of EarSketch, released in 2012, was built inside of REAPER, a commercial digital audio workstation with extensive support for coding via the ReaScript API for Python and the JavaScript plugin authoring architecture. As the project grew, the Reaper-based version of EarSketch was eventually retired due to its dependence on commercial software, the inability of the team to create an integrated user interface to author code, view musical results in the DAW, find sounds, and challenges installing the software in school computer labs. Current version: web application The project then evolved to become a website in 2014. This allowed students to start coding without having to download software. The website uses the web audio API and runs on a private server. New versions are release approximately once per month. EarSketch is not just a software: the EarSketch team works hand in hand with teachers to build the curriculum, and trains teachers every year in summer professional development workshops. Funding EarSketch received funding from the National Science Foundation (NSF) (CNS #1138469, DRL #1417835, DUE #1504293, and DRL #1612644), the Scott Hudgens Family Foundation, the Arthur M. Blank Family Foundation, and the Google Inc. Fund of Tides Foundation. Sections EarSketch is a web application, and when opening a session, users see different sections: the curriculum, the code editor, the console, the Digital Audio Workstation, and the browser. The curriculum The curriculum is aligned with AP Computer Science Principles but can be used in any introductory programming course. Each chapter has several sections, a summary, a quiz, screencasts, and associated slides. The curriculum is positioned in the right side of the window. It is a textbook for EarSketch that includes chapters about major computing principles, Python and JavaScript, as well as an introduction to computer science. The curriculum is divided in the following sections: 3 units, namely: Unit 1 is an introduction to EarSketch, computing and to basic musical concepts (tempo and pitch, effects...), Unit 2 focuses on loops, string operations, musical form and beat, Unit 3 introduces conditionals, data structures, and randomness, Optional more in-depth chapters, The API documentation, which describes all the functions that are specific to EarSketch, A university-level introduction to computer science section, Teacher materials, which include lesson plans, examples, slides, and evaluation tools. An Hour of code tutorial: Hour of code is a worldwide initiative to engage students in computer science, by providing 60 minute-long ludic introduction tutorials (for instance with Minecraft or frozen components). This particular tutorial is an introduction to computer science where students compose their first song with EarSketch. The units are divided into chapters. Each chapter has several sections, a summary, a quiz, and associated slides. The curriculum contains Python and JavaScript example code that can be pasted into the code editor. The code editor and console EarSketch's code editor is located in the window at the center of the page. When the code is executed, it will create the music in the Digital Audio Workstation. If there is an error in the code, a message explaining the error will appear in the console, located under the code editor. The digital audio workstation A digital audio workstation (DAW) is a tool used by a majority of music producers which helps manipulate audio samples (or audio files), add effects, and accomplish other tasks in the composition process. EarSketch's DAW is located in the top center section, above the code editor. It contains tracks: each line is a track, and corresponds to an instrument. With code commands, the user will add sound samples in these tracks, as well as effects, such as volume changes, reverberation, delay, etc. When the code is executed, the DAW will be filled with the sound samples, and the user can play the music they just coded. The browser: scripts and sounds In order to compose music, EarSketch coders can use samples. Audio samples are located in the sound browser, in the left window, which allows for sound file search, and personal sound file upload. In the left section, users can also show the script browser. A script is a code file, and different scripts will create different musics in the DAW. Main feature examples Although the code written in the code editor will be either in Python or JavaScript, there are EarSketch-specific functions that allow for the user to accomplish music related tasks. Here are some examples: One of the basic functions of EarSketch is fitMedia(), which places a sample sound in the Digital Audio Workstation. Another important function is MakeBeat(), that takes as input a string and a file name. The string corresponds to times when the file should be played, sustained, or when there should be silence. This is a common way of creating percussive lines in music programming languages. For instance, in EarSketch, '0' indicates that the file should play, then '-' means a silence, and '+' means keep playing the sample. So if we use the string "0-000+++", it means play the audio file on the first sixteenth note, then there is a silence, then the file is played three times in a row, and finally, the file keeps playing through the three last sixteenth notes. Another example would be setEffect(), which adds effects to a track. Effects are common in Digital Audio Workstations as they are an indispensable element of music production. Here are some examples of effects: Volume: this modifies the loudness of a track. It can be used to emphasize a particular track compared to the rest of the instruments. It can also be used to fade in and fade out the music to have a smoother beginning and end. Reverb: this makes the samples sound like they were being played in a room that echoes the sounds. Delay: this produces an artificial echo. Frequency filters: these will modify the sound by either attenuating or highlighting certain frequencies. References Coding schools Educational programming languages

593233

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trunking

Trunking

In telecommunications, trunking is a technology for providing network access to multiple clients simultaneously by sharing a set of circuits, carriers, channels, or frequencies, instead of providing individual circuits or channels for each client. This is reminiscent to the structure of a tree with one trunk and many branches. Trunking in telecommunication originated in telegraphy, and later in telephone systems where a trunk line is a communications channel between telephone exchanges. Other applications include the trunked radio systems commonly used by police agencies. In the form of link aggregation and VLAN tagging, trunking has been applied in computer networking. Telecommunications A trunk line is a circuit connecting telephone switchboards (or other switching equipment), as distinguished from local loop circuit which extends from telephone exchange switching equipment to individual telephones or information origination/termination equipment. Trunk lines are used for connecting a private branch exchange (PBX) to a telephone service provider. When needed they can be used by any telephone connected to the PBX, while the station lines to the extensions serve only one station’s telephones. Trunking saves cost, because there are usually fewer trunk lines than extension lines, since it is unusual in most offices to have all extension lines in use for external calls at once. Trunk lines transmit voice and data in formats such as analog, T1, E1, ISDN, PRI or SIP. The dial tone lines for outgoing calls are called DDCO (Direct Dial Central Office) trunks. In the UK and the Commonwealth countries, a trunk call was the term for long distance calling which traverses one or more trunk lines and involving more than one telephone exchange. This is in contrast to making a local call which involves a single exchange and typically no trunk lines. Trunking also refers to the connection of switches and circuits within a telephone exchange. Trunking is closely related to the concept of grading. Trunking allows a group of inlet switches at the same time. Thus the service provider can provide a lesser number of circuits than might otherwise be required, allowing many users to "share" a smaller number of connections and achieve capacity savings. Computer networks Link aggregation In computer networking, port trunking is the use of multiple concurrent network connections to aggregate the link speed of each participating port and cable, also called link aggregation. Such high-bandwidth link groups may be used to interconnect switches or to connect high-performance servers to a network. VLAN In the context of Ethernet VLANs, Cisco uses the term to mean carrying multiple VLANs through a single network link through the use of a trunking protocol. To allow for multiple VLANs on one link, frames from individual VLANs must be identified. The most common and preferred method, IEEE 802.1Q adds a tag to the Ethernet frame, labeling it as belonging to a certain VLAN. Since 802.1Q is an open standard, it is the only option in an environment with multiple-vendor equipment. Cisco also has a (now deprecated) proprietary trunking protocol called Inter-Switch Link which encapsulates the Ethernet frame with its own container, which labels the frame as belonging to a specific VLAN. 3Com used proprietary Virtual LAN Trunking (VLT) before 802.1Q was defined. Radio communications In two-way radio communications, trunking refers to the ability of transmissions to be served by free channels whose availability is determined by algorithmic protocols. In conventional (i.e., not trunked) radio, users of a single service share one or more exclusive radio channels and must wait their turn to use them, analogous to the operation of a group of cashiers in a grocery store, where each cashier serves his/her own line of customers. The cashier represents each radio channel, and each customer represents a radio user transmitting on their radio. Trunked radio systems (TRS) pool all of the cashiers (channels) into one group and use a store manager (site controller) that assigns incoming shoppers to free cashiers as determined by the store's policies (TRS protocols). In a TRS, individual transmissions in any conversation may take place on several different channels. In the shopping analogy, this is as if a family of shoppers checks out all at once and are assigned different cashiers by the traffic manager. Similarly, if a single shopper checks out more than once, they may be assigned a different cashier each time. Trunked radio systems provide greater efficiency at the cost of greater management overhead. The store manager's orders must be conveyed to all the shoppers. This is done by assigning one or more radio channels as the "control channel". The control channel transmits data from the site controller that runs the TRS, and is continuously monitored by all of the field radios in the system so that they know how to follow the various conversations between members of their talkgroups (families) and other talkgroups as they hop from radio channel to radio channel. TRS's have grown massively in their complexity since their introduction, and now include multi-site systems that can cover entire states or groups of states. This is similar to the idea of a chain of grocery stores. The shopper generally goes to the nearest grocery store, but if there are complications or congestion, the shopper may opt to go to a neighboring store. Each store in the chain can talk to each other and pass messages between shoppers at different stores if necessary, and they provide backup to each other: if a store has to be closed for repair, then other stores pick up the customers. TRS's have greater risks to overcome than conventional radio systems in that a loss of the store manager (site controller) would cause the system's traffic to no longer be managed. In this case, most of the time the TRS will automatically switch to an alternate control channel, or in more rare circumstances, conventional operation. In spite of these risks, TRS's usually maintain reasonable uptime. TRS's are more difficult to monitor via radio scanner than conventional systems; however, larger manufacturers of radio scanners have introduced models that, with a little extra programming, are able to follow TRS's quite efficiently. References Communication circuits Networks

40266796

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpheios%20Project

Alpheios Project

The Alpheios Project is an open source initiative originally focused on developing software to facilitate reading Latin and ancient Greek. Dictionaries, grammars and inflection tables were combined in a set of web-based tools to provide comprehensive reading support for scholars, students and independent readers. The tools were implemented as browser add-ons so that they could be used on any web site or any page that a user might create in Unicoded HTML. In collaboration with the Perseus Digital Library, the goals of the Alpheios Project were subsequently broadened to combine reading support with language learning. Annotation and editing tools were added to help users contribute to the development of new resources, such as enhanced texts that have been syntactically annotated or aligned with translations. The Alpheios tools are designed modularly to encourage the addition of other languages that have the necessary digital resources, such as morphological analyzers and dictionaries. In addition to Latin and ancient Greek, Alpheios tools have been extended to Arabic and Chinese. The Alpheios Project is a non-profit (501c3) initiative. The software is open source, and resides on Sourceforge.com. The Alpheios software is released as GPL 3.0 and texts and data as CC-by-SA. History The Alpheios Project was established in 2007 by Mark Nelson, the founder of the commercial software company Ovid Technologies, which he started after writing a search engine for medical literature that became widely popular in medical libraries and research facilities (Strauch, 1996). Nelson, who holds an MA in English literature from Columbia University, sold the company to Wolters Kluwer in 1999 (Quint, 1998). Nelson created Alpheios by recruiting several developers and programmers from his previous company, defining the project's initial goals and funding its first three years of operation. In 2008 he also provided the initial funding for The Perseus Treebank of Ancient Greek, which has subsequently been crowd-sourced. In 2011, the Perseus Project hired key Alpheios staff and the activities of the projects were extensively integrated, although Alpheios remains an independent organization focused on developing adaptive reading and learning tools that can provide formative assessment customized to the individual user's special abilities and goals, including the study of specific authors or texts. To date, all Alpheios applications, enhanced texts and code have been provided without any fees or licenses. A separate Alpheios LLC provides commercial consultation on customization and extension of the Alpheios tools. Currently Available Alpheios Resources Reading Support Tools (Available as Browser Plugins) Latin Dictionaries William Whitaker's Words A Latin Dictionary by Lewis and Short Grammars A New Latin Grammar by Charles Edwin Bennett Morphological Analyzers Whittaker's Words morphological analyzer Morpheus from the Perseus Project Inflection tables Alpheios- derived from Allen and Greenough's New Latin Grammar Greek Dictionaries Greek-English Lexicon by Liddell and Scott Liddell and Scott's Intermediate Greek Lexicon A Homeric dictionary by Georg Autenrieth John Jeffrey Dodson's Lexicon of Biblical Greek (supplied by Jonathan Robie) Abbott-Smith's Manual Greek Lexicon of the New Testament (supplied by Jonathan Robie) Grammars Greek Grammar by Herbert Weir Smyth Morphological Analyzers Morpheus from the Perseus Project Inflection tables Alpheios- derived from the Ancient Greek Tutorials by Donald Mastronarde and from Smyth Arabic Dictionaries H.A. Salmone's Advanced Learner's Arabic-English Dictionary E.W. Lane's Arabic English Lexicon Morphological analyzer Buckwalter The reading tools also contain some pedagogical features typically found in e-tutors such as morphological and lexical quizzes and games and the automatic comparison of the user's own claims about vocabulary proficiency with his recorded use of the dictionary resources. Enhanced Texts (originals derived chiefly from the Perseus Project) Greek syntactic diagrams (Treebank) All of Homer, Hesiod and Aeschylus. Selections from Sophocles and Plato. eg the Odyssey alignment with a translation Homer, first book of the Odyssey Latin syntactic diagrams Selections from Ovid alignment with a translation Two poems by Propertius Arabic a number of the Arabic texts that Perseus has digitized are available directly from Alpheios, including: Kitab al-Aghani: "The Book of Songs" Kitāb alf laylah wa-laylah: "The Arabian Nights" Selections from The Voyages of Ibn Batuta. Selections from the Annals of Tabari The Autobiography of the Constantinople Story-teller Annotation Tools for Text Enhancement and Pedagogy Treebank editor Supports manual diagramming of sentences in any language that has spaces or punctuation between its words, annotating the nodes and arcs as desired, and exporting as a re-usable xml document. Alignment editor Supports manual word or phrase alignment of a text in any language with its translation into any other language, and export as a re-usable xml document. The New Testament in Greek and Latin (courtesy of the PROIEL Treebank) is provided for practicing use of the alignment editor. Other Alpheios Projects Prototype of a poetry reader with a line from the Iliad read by Stanley Lombardo. Prototype of a text analysis tool to compare the frequency of lemmas in two different texts. Prototype of a text analysis tool that returns the frequency of both lemmas and specific morphological forms, and the frequency with which a given morphological form represents a specific grammatical function, and vice versa. Prototype of integration into the Moodle learning management system to generate a dynamic reading list. Research Collaborations the Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University. Fragmenta Historica 2.0: quotations and text re-use in the semantic web. Monica Berti. University of Rome, Tor Vergata: Integration into a Collaborative Editing Platform for the Perseids Project: Marie-Claire Beaulieu. Tufts University, funded by the Andrew Mellon Foundation. Prototype of wordnets for Latin and ancient Greek developed with the Perseus Project and Federico Boschetti and Monica Monachini of the Istituto di Linguistica Computazionale "Antonio Zampolli" in Pisa. Prototype of a system for automatic alignment of Greek and Arabic as part of A Digital Corpus for Greco-Arabic Studies (A joint project of the Classics Departments of Harvard and Tufts Universities funded by the Andrew Mellon Foundation). Developing a research platform for comparing Computer Assisted Language Learning methods and collecting "big data" on second language learning with Brian MacWhinney and John Kowalski, Department of Psychology, Carnegie Mellon University. Chief Pedagogical Collaborators University of Leipzig: Humboldt Chair of Digital Humanities: Open Philology: E-Learning Project. Robert J. Gorman. Department of Classics and Religious Studies. University of Nebraska-Lincoln Anise Ferreira. Departamento de Linguística da Faculdade de Ciências e Letras. University of São Paulo: "Júlio de Mesquita Filho". Campus de Araraquara.(FCL-Ar/UNESP). Neven Jovanović. Department of Classical Philology, University of Zagreb. Alpheios encourages participation by interested individuals whether or not they have current academic affiliations. References Alpheios Annotation and Alignment Editors in Project Bamboo ancientworldonline digital classicist Almas B. and Berti. M. “The Linked Fragment: TEI and the Encoding of Text Re-uses of Lost Authors”: The Linked TEI: Text Encoding in the Web. TEI Conference and Members Meeting 2013, Università di Roma Sapienza, October 2–5, 2013 Berti M. and Pietruschka. U. “The Laments of the Philosophers at the Tomb of Alexander: an Example of Text Re-Use in Oriental Languages”: 4ème Colloque International Aliento. Énoncés sapientiels brefs, traductions, traducteurs et contextes culturels et historiques du Xe siècle au XVe siècle: les textes transmis à l’Occident, (MSH Lorraine) – Paris (INALCO), 6-8 novembre 2012 Quint, B. http://newsbreaks.infotoday.com/NewsBreaks/Ovid-Technologies-Bought-by-Wolters-Kluwer-for-200-Million-17998.asp Strauch, K. "Mark Nelson, Founder and President, Ovid Technologies," Against the Grain: Vol. 8: Iss. 4, Article 13.Available at: https://docs.lib.purdue.edu/atg/vol8/iss4/13 External links Alpheios code on Sourceforge Educational projects Language learning software Free language learning software Lifelong learning Distance education Language education Ancient Greek Latin language

409932

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISight

ISight

iSight is a brand name used by Apple Inc. to refer to cameras on various devices. The name was originally used for the external iSight webcam, which retailed for US$149, connected to a computer via a FireWire cable, and came with a set of mounts to place it atop any then current Apple display, laptop computer, all-in-one desktop computer, or flat surface. Apple introduced iSight at the 2003 Worldwide Developers Conference, and It was intended to be used with iChat AV, Apple's video-conferencing client. iMovie (version 4 and later) could also be used to capture video from the device. In April 2005, Apple released a firmware update for the iSight to improve audio performance. As of October 13, 2008, the external iSight was no longer for sale in the Apple online store or in retail locations. Meanwhile, Apple began using the term to refer to the camera built into Apple's iMac, MacBook, MacBook Air, and MacBook Pro computers, Thunderbolt Display, and Cinema Display. In November 2010, Apple began calling them "FaceTime cameras". However, the term was not retired, as the iPhone 4 and later, iPod Touch (fifth generation and later), iPad (third generation and later), iPad Mini, and iPad Pro all incorporate an “iSight” rear camera in addition to a front-facing “FaceTime” or “FaceTime HD” camera. Design The external iSight's ¼-inch color CCD sensor has 640×480-pixel VGA resolution, with a custom-designed three-part F/2.8 lens with two aspherical elements. It features autoexposure, autofocusing from 50 mm to infinity, and video capture at 30 frames per second in 24-bit color with a variety of shutter speeds. However, the iSight has an image delay of approximately 120 ms. The iSight incorporates internal microphones with dual-element noise suppression. The actual camera only takes up one-quarter of the unit; the remaining space is primarily occupied by its two microphones and mounting socket. The iSight camera weighs 2.3 ounces (63.8 grams). It uses a single FireWire 400 (IEEE 1394a) cable (included) for audio, video, and power. Four camera mounts, a plastic tube carrying case, and a FireWire camera mount adapter are also included. The user can select the mounting bracket most appropriate for their monitor or other mounting surface. It is fully compatible with its native macOS, as well as partially compatible with the Microsoft Windows and Linux operating systems. The iSight has a small green LED that illuminates when the camera is in use. It also has an iris that closes by twisting the front of the camera. Built-in iSight Although external and internal iSights have significant differences, Apple has used the "iSight" name to brand its built-in video camera found in their MacBook (Includes Redesigned MacBook), MacBook Air and MacBook Pro notebook computers, iMac desktop computers produced since late 2005 and the LED Cinema Display. While the external iSight is similar to the built-in iSight, the built-in iSight uses an internal USB 2.0 interface and not the FireWire 400 (IEEE 1394a) interface used by the external iSight camera. Further, the built-in iSight has a plastic lens, is fixed-focus, and uses a CMOS active pixel sensor, rather than the CCD used in the external iSight. With the LED-Backlit MacBook Pros, Apple has moved to using a sensor capable of 1280x1024 pixels. The built-in iSight can also be used in the Photo Booth application on macOS and iOS. In 2011, the iSight branding on cameras built-in to displays on the MacBook Pro and iMac was renamed to FaceTime camera. The FaceTime HD cameras included with the 2011 and later models of the MacBook Pro and iMac can output 720p high-definition video. The iMac Pro, released in December 2017, introduced a newer generation FaceTime HD camera which now outputs 1080p video. This newer generation camera was later built into the 2020 27-inch iMac model in August 2020. Security concerns Some MacBooks are affected by the iSeeYou vulnerability, potentially allowing their iSight cameras to record the user without the user's knowledge. iSight on Linux Linux kernel 3.0+ internally contains the driver for the iSight camera. For previous versions of the kernel, one has to manually take out the firmware from Apple's driver through a specific program. This is because the Apple driver cannot be deployed inside a Linux distribution, the cause being legal issues. This lack of native support in the kernel for iSight persists on MacBook 2.1. iSight Camera vs. FaceTime Camera The June 2010 release of the iPhone 4, where Apple introduced the FaceTime communication platform, also involved them naming the integrated front-facing camera on the device a "FaceTime Camera". All subsequent devices and models, including smartphones and personal computers, released after this announcement had the camera branded as FaceTime cameras. In March 2012, with the release of the third generation iPad, Apple re-introduced the iSight camera branding for the rear camera on iPhone and iPod Touch releases (retroactively, in the cases of older models still being sold at the time). Apple would once again discontinue use of the iSight branding in 2015, starting with the release of the iPhone 6s. Similarly, Apple discontinued the use of the FaceTime camera branding with the iPhone 8 as the last phone in 2017 in favour for the True Depth Camera branding on the iPhone X. In general usage the iSight rear camera is used to take higher-resolution photos in scenarios where better quality is usually desired, whereas the front-facing camera is used for lower-resolution casual video conversations using the FaceTime communication platform. References External links iSight Linux audio driver project page iSight Linux driver project on SourceForge iSight Programming Guide for FireWire iSight cameras on Apple.com Apple Inc. peripherals Webcams Teleconferencing Videotelephony

23865410

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto%20Board%20of%20Control

Toronto Board of Control

The Board of Control of Toronto, Ontario, Canada, was a part of its municipal government until it was abolished in 1969. It served as the executive committee of the Toronto City Council. When it was initially created in 1896 by mandate of the provincial government, it consisted of three Controllers appointed from and by the aldermen, and presided over by the Mayor of Toronto. Beginning in 1904, the Board of Control was directly elected by the city's electorate and consisted of four Controllers, presided over by the Mayor. Each voter could vote for up to four candidates, and the four with the most votes were elected. By tradition the controller who received the most votes would get the powerful budget chief position. Functions Under the Municipal Act, the Board of Control had the following duties and powers: the preparation and certification of all estimates for expenditures the preparation of specifications for tenders, and making awards thereon the nomination to council of all heads of departments and related staff, and the recommendation of appropriate salaries the inspection and reporting (at least monthly) on all municipal works carried on or in progress the submission of by-laws to the council the authority to amalgamate departments and sub-departments other powers as the council has delegated by-law or resolution With respect to the first three items, the board's actions could only be overturned by a two-thirds vote of the council. History From 1896 until 1904, the Toronto Board of Control was an executive branch of Council, chaired by the Mayor. It handled all daily business of Council and reported to Council. In the early 20th century, elected Boards of Control were introduced as a reform measure for all cities in Ontario. The board was designed to be the equivalent of a cabinet for municipal governments. It had certain specific duties such as issuing tenders and appointing department heads. In Toronto it often did not function as such. Since the controllers were elected separately from the mayor, there was no guarantee they would be allied. Moreover, since controllers contested citywide elections they were often seen as the natural contenders for the mayoralty and as challengers to the incumbent mayor. Many controllers thus had a self-interest in blocking the mayor from succeeding. Relations between the Board of Control and council were also sometimes difficult, with the Board often acting as an independent council at odds with the larger body. In 1961 the provincial government allowed cities with more than 100,000 people to abolish the Board of Control. Toronto City Council voted to do so in December 1968 after a long debate. The move was opposed by Mayor William Dennison along with three of the sitting controllers, but it was passed by a significant majority of council. The Board of Control was replaced with a new executive committee that would be composed of and elected by city council members. The size of city council was expanded by four to retain the same overall number of councillors. William Peyton Hubbard, the son of American slaves who had escaped to Canada through the Underground Railroad, was elected to the first Board of Control in 1904 and served for four terms - he would be he only Black person or person of colour to sit on the body; Joseph Singer became the first Jewish candidate to win citywide office in 1923; Jean Newman was the first woman elected to the Board and served from 1957 to 1960. City of Toronto Controllers Names in boldface indicate Controllers that became Mayor of Toronto in other years. Names in italics are individuals who only sat on the Board of Control as mayor. X = elected as Controller M = sitting as Mayor B = elected as Controller in a by-election A = appointed Controller to fill a vacancy From 1896 to 1903 Municipal Boards of Control were created by the provincial government as a reform measure. From 1896 to 1903 the Toronto Board of Control was appointed by vote of Toronto City Council from among its own members and acted as an executive committee or municipal cabinet. Controllers were chosen at the first council meeting in January after the annual municipal election. Three Controllers sat on the Board, in addition to the Mayor, until 1901 when the number of Controllers was increased to four. *Fleming resigned as mayor on August 6, 1897. Council elected Shaw to complete his term. From 1904 to 1929 Originally, the Board of Control was appointed by the city council. In 1903, the Ontario legislature passed a law requiring municipal boards of control to be chosen through direct election by the municipality's voters. This requirement became effective in Toronto with the 1904 municipal election. * Richardson resigned after his election agent was charged with bribery. Shaw was elected to replace him in a by-election. 1930s and 1940s From 1950 to abolition With the formation of Metropolitan Toronto in April 1953, the two most senior controllers, in terms of votes at the municipal election, also sat on Metropolitan Toronto Council along with the Mayor of Toronto, the senior alderman from each of Toronto's nine wards, and mayors and reeves elected from the suburbs. * Mayor Summerville died in office, Givens was appointed mayor in his place. Archer was appointed to the Board of Control to fill the vacancy. ** In 1954, Controller Shannon died and Ward 9 Alderman Roy E. Belyea was appointed in his place. *** Mayor Lamport resigned as mayor to become vice-chairman of the Toronto Transit Commission, Saunders was appointed mayor in his place and Ward 8 Alderman Ross Lipsett was appointed to the Board of Control to fill the vacancy. Election results 1966 Margaret Campbell - 88,036 June Marks - 77,655 Herbert Orliffe - 76,412 Allan Lamport - 67,677 George Ben - 63,206 Joseph Piccininni - 58,122 Phyllis Clarke - 10,162 Arthur Young - 9,550 John Charles Ewing - 6,071 Dorothy Cureatz - 4,262 Shaba Musa - 2,399 1964 William Dennison - 68,892 Herbert Orliffe - 66,280 William Archer - 65,593 Margaret Campbell - 60,900 George Ben - 59,751 Richard Horkins - 47,906 Harry Bradley - 12,949 Phyllis Clarke - 10,284 Fred Graham - 9,673 Patricia Mitchell - 6,750 1962 Philip Givens - 88,629 Allan Lamport - 84,902 William Dennison - 76,504 Herbert Orliffe - 73,118 Margaret Campbell - 72,108 Ken Waters - 62,019 Phyllis Clarke - 16,151 Frederick Graham - 10,475 Dorothy Cureatz - 6,752 1960 Donald Summerville - 110,893 William Allen - 110,256 William Dennison - 76,169 Philip Givens - 66,972 Herbert Orliffe - 65,418 Francis Chambers - 30,696 William Harris - 14,493 Jessie Jackson - 14,062 Burke - 13,240 1958 Jean Newman - 59,243 William Allen- 52,462 Donald Summerville - 49,476 William Dennison - 33,612 Leslie Saunders - 33,469 Roy E. Belyea - 27,024 Ross Parry - 25,195 James Karfilis - 10,971 Harry Bradley - 10,499 Ross Dowson - 4,539 George Rolland - 3,834 1956 Jean Newman - 54,785 Ford Brand - 54,178 William Allen - 54,038 Joseph Cornish - 49,385 Leslie Saunders - 47,048 Harry Bradley - 16,450 Charles Sims - 6961 George Rolland - 5,632 1955 Ford Brand - 59,264 Joseph Cornish - 55,162 William Allen - 53,455 Leslie Saunders - 46,528 Arthur Brown - 41,351 Harry Bradley - 14,802 Alex Hodgins - 13,503 Harry Hunter - 9,493 George Rolland - 3,923 George Stanton - 3,863 1954 Ford Brand - 69,540 Roy E. Belyea - 66,223 David Balfour - 62,871 Joseph Cornish - 55,277 Ross Lipsett - 45,385 Harry Bradley - 20,488 Harry Hunter - 14,114 Nobleman - 9,413 George Rolland - 5,280 1953 Leslie Saunders - 62,397 Louis Shannon - 57,635 Ford Brand - 54,635 David Balfour - 51,393 Joseph Cornish - 46,701 Harry Bradley - 18,686 Harry Hunter - 14,194 1952 Leslie Saunders - 71,597 Louis Shannon - 61,154 David Balfour - 58,898 Ford Brand - 58,648 Joseph Cornish - 41,086 John McMechan - 30,219 Stewart Smith - 19,061 Harry Bradley - 17,480 Frederick Vacher - 7,065 Mahoney - 7,046 1951 Leslie Saunders - 95,838 Ford Brand - 92,725 David Balfour - 91,474 Louis Shannon - 87,440 Stewart Smith - 31,317 Frederick Vacher - 20,039 December 1950 John Innes - 93,656 David Balfour - 81,577 Leslie Saunders - 80,703 Louis Shannon - 74,859 Ford Brand - 66,235 W.H. Collings - 59,380 Stewart Smith - 28,309 Mahoney - 8,210 Frederick Vacher - 7,653 January 1950 John Innes - 96,139 Leslie Saunders - 87,799 David Balfour - 78,090 Allan Lamport - 72,436 Louis Shannon - 72,059 Stewart Smith - 45,251 Harry Bradley- 21,719 Frederick Vacher - 9,850 1949 John Innes - 53,599 Leslie Saunders - 57,746 David Balfour - 55,271 Allan Lamport - 52,037 Stewart Smith - 43,364 Kenneth Bert McKellar (incumbent) - 41,846 Leonard Reilly - 20,756 E.C. Roelofson (incumbent) - 11,905 Harry Bradley- 9,701 1948 Hiram E. McCallum - 83,812 John Innes - 80,834 David Balfour - 77,087 Kenneth Bert McKellar - 75,356 Stewart Smith - 47,791 Harry Bradley - 15,711 Harry Clairmont - 4,858 1947 Hiram E. McCallum - 58,524 John Innes - 53,137 David Balfour - 51,578 Kenneth Bert McKellar - 49,680 Stewart Smith - 42,106 M.A. Sanderson - 26,136 Harry Bradley - 10,749 Harry Clairmont - 4,858 1946 Hiram E. McCallum - 42,126 Stewart Smith - 41,637 David Balfour - 40,632 Kenneth Bert McKellar - 35,627 William J. Wadsworth - 35,477 Leslie Saunders - 22,040 Harry Bradley - 6,796 1945 David Balfour - 47,931 William J. Wadsworth - 45,942 Stewart Smith - 41,691 Hiram E. McCallum - 41,201 Leslie Saunders - 34,587 E.C. Bogart - 34,258 C.D Millen - 30,235 Harry Bradley - 9,589 1944 Robert Hood Saunders (incumbent) - 73,383 Fred Hamilton (incumbent) - 52,694 William J. Wadsworth (incumbent) - 52,485 David Balfour - 50,599 Hiram E. McCallum - 50,337 Stewart Smith - 41,277 William Dennison - 30,026 William Muir - 19,061 Harry Bradley - 7,743 1943 Lewis Duncan - 40,060 Robert Hood Saunders - 33,081 Fred Hamilton - 28,919 William J. Wadsworth - 27,031 C.E. Reynolds - 26,194 Minerva Reid - 18,320 J.C. Irwin - 16,860 G.P. Granell - 5,010 Harry Bradley - 3,590 1942 Lewis Duncan - 41,656 Robert Hood Saunders - 28,923 Fred Hamilton - 28,853 William J. Wadsworth - 27,022 Ralph Day - 24,208 Minerva Reid - 20,337 J.C. Irwin - 18,272 N. Macmillan - 5,179 Harry Bradley - 3,102 1941 Lewis Duncan - 49,382 Fred Hamilton - 39,021 Robert Hood Saunders - 37,417 William J. Wadsworth - 33,411 Adelaide Plumptre - 33,021 Ernest Bray - 26,391 David A. Balfour - 20,849 Day - 4,645 Harry Bradley - 3,271 Harding - 2,523 1940 Frederick J. Conboy - 78,672 Douglas McNish - 68,774 Fred Hamilton - 60,124 William J. Wadsworth - 55,756 David A. Balfour - 43,261 Stewart Smith - 19,641 Harding - 6,548 January 1939 Frederick J. Conboy - 80,720 Douglas McNish - 73,252 Fred Hamilton - 54,516 William J. Wadsworth - 49,446 William Croft - 48,798 Tim Buck - 43,112 Robert Hood Saunders - 40,973 William D. Robbins - 24,745 Harry Bradley - 3,489 December 1937 Frederick J. Conboy - 60,665 William J. Wadsworth - 53,766 Fred Hamilton - 47,493 Douglas McNish - 44,402 Tim Buck - 44,248 Robert Hood Saunders - 41,817 Robert Allen - 15,283 Harry Bradley - 4,623 December 1936 Ralph Day - 56,847 Frederick J. Conboy - 48,976 William J. Wadsworth - 48,047 Fred Hamilton - 39,003 Douglas McNish - 32,265 Tim Buck - 31,342 Alfred Burgess - 3,983 Harry Bradley - 3,295 January 1936 Ralph Day - 68,335 William J. Wadsworth - 62,838 J. George Ramsden - 52,170 William D. Robbins - 51,465 Joseph Enoch Thompson - 31,546 Miller - 30,613 Tim Buck - 20,873 Harry Bradley - 4,986 1935 Sam McBride - 71,177 William J. Wadsworth - 58,783 William D. Robbins - 44,820 Ralph Day - 41,515 Claude Pierce - 34,064 Adelaide Plumptre - 32,872 A.E. Hacker - 29,110 Frank Regan - 26,242 Tim Buck - 9,938 1934 Sam McBride - 54,855 J. George Ramsden - 48,152 James Simpson - 47,358 William D. Robbins - 37,714 William J. Wadsworth - 36,289 Claude Pierce - 31,156 Percy Quinn - 26,872 Alice Buck - 9,767 Harry Bradley - 2,623 1933 J. George Ramsden - 55,503 Sam McBride - 55,323 James Simpson - 54,218 William D. Robbins - 48,061 Albert Hacker - 37,019 John Boland - 36,645 William Miller - 18,836 Cotton - 11,871 Alice Buck - 10,155 W.J. Haire - 3,066 J.H.H. Ballantyne - 2,183 1932 James Simpson - 42,010 J. George Ramsden - 38,200 Sam McBride - 31,939 William D. Robbins - 31,067 Albert Hacker - 30,348 Claude Pearce - 23,659 Cotton - 6,440 Tim Buck - 5,974 Harry Bradley - 1,726 1931 J. George Ramsden - 51,043 William D. Robbins - 50,801 James Simpson - 48,105 Albert Hacker - 43,763 John Boland - 41,779 Claude Pearce (incumbent) - 40,431 W.A. Summerville (incumbent) - 19,087 Foster - 13,491 Cotton - 9,014 King - 3,154 Tim Buck - 3,010 1930 W.A. Summerville (incumbent) - 47,418 Claude Pearce - 46,692 James Simpson - 44,921 William D. Robbins - 39,023 Benjamin Miller - 37,156 Frank Whetter (incumbent) - 31,772 Brook Sykes - 28,043 Wesley Benson - 25,054 Harry Bradley - 2,617 1929 Bert Wemp (incumbent) - 43,464 Joseph Gibbons (incumbent) - 32,734 W.A. Summerville - 30,292 A.E. Hacker (incumbent) - 28,667 R.H. Cameron - 27,266 Claude Pearce - 27,245 William D. Robbins (incumbent) - 23,796 James Simpson - 12,816 1928 Bert Wemp (incumbent) - 47,153 Joseph Gibbons (incumbent) - 45,655 A.E. Hacker (incumbent) - 33,433 William D. Robbins - 29,359 D.C. MacGregor (incumbent) - 28,858 Brook Sykes - 24,427 Miller - 18,122 James Simpson - 12,954 1927 Joseph Gibbons (incumbent) - 48,739 A.E. Hacker (incumbent) - 43,153 D.C. MacGregor (incumbent) - 34,813 Bert Wemp - 34,450 J. George Ramsden - 26,489 Clifford Blackburn - 22,959 Frank Whetter - 21,878 James Simpson - 10,946 1926 Joseph Gibbons (incumbent) - 37,608 Sam McBride - 36,211 A.E. Hacker (incumbent) - 31,427 D.C. MacGregor (incumbent) - 30,975 William D. Robbins - 30,320 William C. McBrien - 29,923 Bert Wemp - 28,024 Frank Whetter - 21,722 W.E. Hamilton - 2,590 1925 Joseph Gibbons (incumbent) - 39,299 A.E. Hacker (incumbent) - 34,369 William D. Robbins - 33,172 D.C. MacGregor - 30,326 R.H. Cameron (incumbent) - 29,086 James Simpson - 14,573 Birks - 4,321 1924 Joseph Gibbons (incumbent) - 42,778 Thomas Foster (incumbent) - 34,435 A.E. Hacker - 32,689 R.H. Cameron - 30,621 D.C. MacGregor - 26,637 William D. Robbins - 26,594 F.M. Johnston - 22,542 J.R. Beamish - 20,161 1923 Thomas Foster (incumbent) - 36,040 Joseph Gibbons (incumbent) - 33,740 Wesley Hiltz (incumbent) - 32,551 Joseph Singer - 32,033 Sam McBride - 30,606 A.R. Nesbitt (incumbent) - 29,947 Alfred Burgess - 24,876 James Russell Lovett Starr - 25,931 1922 Thomas Foster - 23,355 Wesley Hiltz (incumbent) - 20,001 Joseph Gibbons (incumbent) - 18,647 A.R. Nesbitt (incumbent) - 16,453 William D. Robbins - 16,814 R.H. Cameron - 15,403 J. George Ramsden - 14,721 Clifford Blackburn - 12,950 William Varley - 3,419 1921 Charles A. Maguire (incumbent) - 34,141 Wesley Hiltz - 22,615 Joseph Gibbons (incumbent) - 18,612 A.R. Nesbitt - 19,202 William D. Robbins - 18,015 R.H. Cameron (incumbent) - 17,872 J. George Ramsden (incumbent) - 17,393 Herbert Henry Ball - 16,911 1920 Charles A. Maguire (incumbent) - 28,438 Joseph Gibbons - 23,269 R.H. Cameron (incumbent) - 21,055 J. George Ramsden - 18,473 William D. Robbins (incumbent) - 17,716 Herbert Henry Ball - 16,506 James Simpson - 10,832 Wright - 7,927 1919 Charles A. Maguire (incumbent) - 19,963 R.H. Cameron - 19,094 Sam McBride (incumbent) - 18,476 William D. Robbins (incumbent) - 19,270 Joseph Gibbons - 16,397 Garnet Archibald - 15,603 Fred McBrien - 13,570 1918 John O'Neill (incumbent) - 24,952 William D. Robbins - 19,000 Sam McBride - 17,850 Charles A. Maguire - 17,711 William Henry Shaw (incumbent) - 14,255 D.C. MacGregor - 14,468 Garnet Archibald - 8,992 Miles Vokes - 2,720 Edward Meek - 2,262 1917 R.H. Cameron (incumbent) - 15,615 John O'Neill (incumbent) - 15,141 Thomas Foster (incumbent) - 13,939 William Henry Shaw - 11,967 James Simpson - 10,779 Sam McBride - 10,085 Frank S. Spence - 9,281 1916 Joseph Elijah Thompson (incumbent) -18,209 John O'Neill (incumbent) - 17,572 Thomas Foster (incumbent) - 16,085 R.H. Cameron - 15,391 James Simpson (incumbent) - 13,080 Frank S. Spence (incumbent) - 12,652 John Dunn - 11,009 1915 John O'Neill (incumbent) - 20,751 Thomas Foster - 18,608 Frank S. Spence - 17,747 Joseph Elijah Thompson - 16,505 James Simpson (incumbent) - 16,349 Fred McBrien - 15,447 John Wanless - 13,044 1914 James Simpson - 20,695 J.O. McCarthy (incumbent) - 17,490 Tommy Church (incumbent) - 17,085 John O'Neill (incumbent) - 14,597 Joseph Elijah Thompson - 14,233 Thomas Foster (incumbent) - 13,929 Robert Yeomans - 11,708 Eckardt - 7,755 1913 Thomas Foster (incumbent) - 15,861 John O'Neill - 14,600 J.O. McCarthy (incumbent) - 14,036 Tommy Church (incumbent) - 12,765 Frank S. Spence (incumbent) - 11,976 Robert Yeomens - 10,713 James Simpson - 10,122 Charles A. Maguire - 9,388 J.J. Ward - 9,278 George R. Sweeny - 1,643 Richard Woods - 498 1912 Horatio Clarence Hocken (incumbent) - 16,904 J.O. McCarthy - 14,897 Thomas Foster - 14,462 Tommy Church (incumbent) - 12,149 Frank S. Spence (incumbent) - 12,003 J.J. Ward (incumbent) - 11,735 O'Donohue - 4,022 George R. Sweeny - 3,921 1911 Horatio Clarence Hocken - 22,761 Frank S. Spence(incumbent) - 16,187 J.J. Ward (incumbent) - 15,999 Tommy Church (incumbent) - 15,760 Thomas Foster (incumbent) - 15,540 Thomas Davies - 3,285 1910 Frank S. Spence - 13,879 J.J. Ward (incumbent) - 13,401 Tommy Church - 12,657 Thomas Foster - 10,841 William Spence Harrison (incumbent) - 9,946 William Peyton Hubbard - 9,498 Mark Bredin - 8,708 James Henry McGhie - 7,511 James Hales - 5,852 Albert Chamberlain - 2,730 1909 George Reginald Geary - 19,027 Horatio Clarence Hocken (incumbent) - 17,380 J.J. Ward (incumbent) - 15,782 William Spence Harrison (incumbent) - 13,509 Frank S. Spence (incumbent) - 12,933 William Peyton Hubbard - 11,275 Hales - 8,171 Robert Buist Noble - 1,287 James O'Hara - 779 1908 Horatio Clarence Hocken (incumbent) - 16,844 Frank S. Spence - 11,512 William Spence Harrison (incumbent) - 10,312 J.J. Ward (incumbent) - 10,075 William Peyton Hubbard (incumbent) - 9,203 John Shaw - 6,385 Robert Fleming - 5,640 Oliver Sheppard - 5,099 John Dunn - 4,434 John Enoch Thompson - 1,291 James Lindala - 1,220 Hugh MacMath - 1,013 Robert Buist Noble - 745 James O'Hara - 367 Joel Marvin Briggs - 232 1907 J.J. Ward (incumbent) - 9,362 William Spence Harrison - 9,054 Horatio Clarence Hocken - 8,639 William Peyton Hubbard (incumbent) - 8,483 Robert Fleming - 7,077 S. Alfred Jones (incumbent) - 6,710 John Shaw (incumbent) - 6,465 John Dunn - 5,038 Davies - 1,390 Joel Marvin Briggs - 496 1906 William Peyton Hubbard (incumbent) - 14,081 S. Alfred Jones - 14,039 J.J. Ward (incumbent) - 13,770 John Shaw (incumbent) - 12,524 Hastings - 11,308 1905 Frank S. Spence (incumbent) - 13,032 J.J. Ward - 12,993 William Peyton Hubbard (incumbent) - 12,880 John Shaw - 12,436 James Russell Lovett Starr - 9,823 Joseph Oliver - 8,141 Thomas Foster - 6,395 G.R. Ramsden - 5,839 Frank Moses - 5,048 A.R. Denison - 4,925 Edward Hanlan - 2,178 1904 Frank S. Spence - 12,294 John F. Loudon - 11,121 William Peyton Hubbard - 8,950 Fred H. Richardson - 8,923 William Burns - 8,641 James Russell Lovett Starr - 8,639 Joseph Oliver - 8,598 John Shaw - 7,184 Suburban Boards of Control Several other municipalities in Metropolitan Toronto also created Boards of Control. Etobicoke created its Board of Control in the 1962 municipal election and North York first elected its Board of Control in the 1964 municipal election. Scarborough and York launched their boards at the 1966 election. North York, and Scarborough had 5 person boards consisting of their respective mayors and four controllers elected at large while York's board consisted of a mayor and two Controllers. East York never created a Board of Control. Etobicoke's board consisted of the reeve and two Controllers until the 1966 election when it expanded to four Controllers and the mayor. The top two candidates from the Toronto Board of Control also sat on, Metro Toronto Council. Beginning with the 1966 municipal election, several members of suburban Boards of Control sat on Metro Council as well as their borough's council - the number depended on the number of seats on Metro Council that borough was allocated. With the 1988 municipal election, the suburban Boards of Control were abolished and Metro Councillors were instead directly elected from special Metro Wards (consisting of two local wards). Etobicoke Beginning in 1966, the top three candidates for Etobicoke's Board of Control also sat on Metro Council. Names in boldface indicate Controllers that were or became Reeve or Mayor of Etobicoke in other years. Italics indicate those who only sat on the Board of Control as mayor. X = elected as Controller A = appointed Controller to fill a vacancy M = sitting as Reeve or Mayor *Dennis Flynn resigned as mayor as a result of his appointment as Metro Chairman in August 1984. On September 4, 1984, Etobicoke City Council appointed Controller Bruce Sinclair to replace Flynn as mayor and appointed Lois Griffin to fill the Controller position vacated by Sinclair. North York Names in boldface indicate Controllers that were or became Mayor of North York in other years. Italics indicate those who only sat on the Board of Control as mayor. Beginning in 1966, all of North York's Controllers also sat on Metro Council. X = elected as Controller A = appointed Controller to fill a vacancy M = sitting as Reeve or Mayor * Booth died in 1970 and was replaced by Paul Godfrey who served out the balance of his term. Godfrey was reelected in 1972, but resigned when he was elected Metro Chairman in 1973 following the death of Metro Chairman Albert Campbell. North York Council elected Alderman William Sutherland to replace Godfrey on the Board of Control on July 23, 1973. **Shiner died on December 19, 1987. Councillor Mario Gentile was appointed to the Board of Control in February 1988 to fill Shiner's seat. Scarborough All of Scarborough's Controllers also sat on Metro Council. X = elected as Controller A = appointed Controller to fill a vacancy M = sitting as Mayor *Albert Campbell resigned as mayor after being elected Metro Chairman on October 1, 1969. Scarborough Council appointed Robert W. White to fill the vacancy as mayor and, on October 6, 1969, appointed Alderman Ken Morrish to the Board of Control to fill White's vacant position as Controller. **Paul Cosgrove resigned as mayor after being elected to the House of Commons of Canada in an October 16, 1978 by-election. Ken Morrish was appointed acting mayor in Cosgrove's place and Frank Faubert was appointed to the Board of Control to fill Morrish's vacated Controller position. Morrish was defeated by Gus Harris in the mayoral election a month later. ***Trimmer served as mayor from 1988 to 1993; Faubert was mayor from 1994 to 1997 York York's two Controllers also sat on Metro Council. Names in boldface indicate Controllers that were or became Mayor of York in other years. Italics indicate those who only sat on the Board of Control as mayor. X = elected as Controller A = appointed Controller to fill a vacancy M = sitting as Reeve or Mayor *Brown served as mayor from 1988 to 1994 See also Board of Control (municipal government) References Bibliography: Notes: "Toronto Council Votes to Drop Board of Control." Toronto Star. December 19, 1968. pg 31 "Farewell Board, of Control?" Toronto Star. December 20, 1968. Board of Control History of Toronto

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Shakespearean%20characters%20%28A%E2%80%93K%29

List of Shakespearean characters (A–K)

This article is an index of characters appearing in the plays of William Shakespeare whose names begin with the letters A to K. Characters with names beginning with the letters L to Z may be found here. NOTE: Characters who exist outside Shakespeare are marked "(hist)" where they are historical, and "(myth)" where they are mythical. Where that annotation is a link (e.g. (hist)), it is a link to the page for the historical or mythical figure. The annotation "(fict)" is only used in entries for the English history plays, and indicates a character who is fictional. Contents: A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | V | W | Y | Sources | Links A Aaron is an evil Moorish character in Titus Andronicus. He incites most of the other evil characters to do violence against the house of Andronicus. The Abbott of Westminster (fict) supports Richard and the Bishop of Carlisle in Richard II. Lord Abergavenny (hist) is Buckingham's son-in-law in Henry VIII. Abhorson is an executioner in Measure for Measure. Abraham Slender is a foolish suitor to Anne, and a kinsman of Shallow, in The Merry Wives of Windsor. Abraham, a Montague servant, fights Sampson and Gregory in the first scene of Romeo and Juliet. Sometimes spelled "Abram". Achilles (myth) is portrayed as a former hero, who has become lazy and devoted to the love of Patroclus, in Troilus and Cressida. Adam is a kindly old servant, rumoured to have been played by Shakespeare himself, in As You Like It. Adrian: Adrian is a lord, a follower of Alonso, in The Tempest. For Adrian in Coriolanus, see Volsce. Adriana is the frequently angry wife of Antipholus of Ephesus in The Comedy of Errors. Don Adriano de Armado is an arrogant Spanish braggart in Love's Labour's Lost. Aediles (officers attending on the Tribunes) appear in Coriolanus. One is a speaking role. For Aegeon (or AEgeon or Ægeon) see Egeon. For Aenobarbus (or AEnobarbus or Ænobarbus) see Enobarbus. Aemelia is an abbess in The Comedy of Errors. She proves to be the long-lost wife of Egeon, and the long-lost mother of the Antipholus twins. Aemilius: Aemilius or Emillius is Roman nobleman who acts as ambassador between Saturninus and Lucius in Titus Andronicus. Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (hist) is one of the Triumvirs. the three rulers of Rome after Caesar's death, in Julius Caesar and Antony and Cleopatra. Aeneas (myth) is a Trojan leader in Troilus and Cressida. Agamemnon (myth) is the general leader of the Greek forces, in Troilus and Cressida. Agrippa: Agrippa (hist), a follower of Caesar in Antony and Cleopatra, proposes that the widowed Antony should marry Octavia. Menenius Agrippa in Coriolanus is a friend and supporter of Coriolanus in his political struggles. Ajax (myth) is the (sometimes foolish) champion of the Greeks in Troilus and Cressida. Alarbus is the eldest son of Tamora, sacrificed by Titus' sons, in Titus Andronicus. The Mayor of St. Albans appears briefly in the "Simpcox" episode in Henry VI, Part 2. The Duke of Albany is Goneril's husband in King Lear. Alcibiades (hist) is a soldier who turns renegade when one of his junior officers is sentenced to death, and true friend of Timon in Timon of Athens. The Duke of Alençon (hist) is one of the French leaders in Henry VI, Part 1. Alexander: Alexander is Cressida's servant in Troilus and Cressida. Alexander Court (fict) is a soldier in the English army in Henry V. Alexander Iden (hist) kills Jack Cade in Henry VI, Part 2. Alexas is a follower of Cleopatra, in Antony and Cleopatra. Alice: Alice (fict) gives the French princess Katharine an English lesson in Henry V. See also Mistress Ford, whose first name is Alice. For Aliena see Celia from As You Like It, who calls herself Aliena while in her self-imposed exile in the Forest of Arden. Alonso is the King of Naples, an enemy to Prospero, in The Tempest. He mourns for his son, Ferdinand, whom he believes is drowned. Ambassador: Some ambassadors from France present Henry with a gift of tennis balls from the Dauphin, in Henry V. Some ambassadors from England bring news that Rozancrantz and Guildenstern are dead, in Hamlet. Several characters act as Ambassadors, including Cornelius (in Hamlet), Lucius (in Cymbeline), Montjoy and Voltemand. See also Schoolmaster, in Antony and Cleopatra. Amiens is a follower of Duke Senior in As You Like It. For Ancient (in the military sense – a standard-bearer), see Iago and Pistol. Sir Andrew Aguecheek is a foolish knight, and suitor to Olivia, in Twelfth Night. Andromache (myth) is Hector's wife in Troilus and Cressida. Andronicus: Marcus Andronicus is the brother of Titus Andronicus. Titus Andronicus is the central character of Titus Andronicus. Broken and sent mad by Tamora and her followers, he eventually exacts his revenge by killing her sons, and cooking them for her to eat. See also Lavinia, Lucius, Quintus, Martius, Mutius and Young Lucius, members of the Andronicus family in Titus Andronicus. Also Sempronius, Caius and Valentine in the same play are "kinsmen" of the Andronicus house. Angelica is Juliet Capulet's nurse in Romeo and Juliet. Angelo: Angelo deputises for the Duke during the latter's absence from Vienna, but proves corrupt, seeking the sexual favours of Isabella, in Measure for Measure. Angelo is a goldsmith who has been commissioned to make a chain by Antipholus of Ephesus, which he delivers to Antipholus of Syracuse in error. Antipholus of Ephesus later refuses to pay for it, causing much consternation, in The Comedy of Errors. Angus is a thane in Macbeth. Anne: Anne Bullen (hist), known to history as Anne Boleyn, is a maid of Honour to Katherine who later becomes King Henry's second wife, in Henry VIII. Anne Page is the daughter of Master and Mistress Page in The Merry Wives of Windsor. She loves Fenton, but her father wishes her to marry Slender and her mother wishes her to marry Caius. Lady Anne (hist) is the widow of Prince Edward, wooed by Richard over the corpse of her late father-in-law (Henry VI) in Richard III. Antenor is a Trojan leader in Troilus and Cressida. For Anthony see Antony/Anthony below. Antigonus is a courtier of Leontes in The Winter's Tale, who takes the infant Perdita to Bohemia. He famously exits, pursued by a bear, which eats him. Antiochus is king of Antioch in Pericles, Prince of Tyre; he engages in an incestuous relationship with his daughter. He orders the death of Pericles, who has discovered his secret. Antipholus: Antipholus of Ephesus, twin of Antipholus of Syracuse – with whom he is often confused, is a central character in The Comedy of Errors. Antipholus of Syracuse, twin of Antipholus of Ephesus – with whom he is often confused, is a central character in The Comedy of Errors. Antonio: Antonio is the title character, although not the central character, of The Merchant of Venice. Shylock claims a pound of his flesh. Antonio is the brother of Leonato in Much Ado About Nothing. Antonio is a sea captain who rescues, and loves, Sebastian in Twelfth Night. Antonio is the brother of Prospero in The Tempest. He conspires with Sebastian to murder Alonzo and Gonzalo. Antonio is Proteus' father, in The Two Gentlemen of Verona. Antony/Anthony: For Anthony in Romeo and Juliet see Servingmen. Mark Antony (hist) (Often just Antony, and sometimes Marcus Antonius) turns the mob against Caesar's killers and becomes a Triumvir in Julius Caesar. His romance with Cleopatra drives the action of Antony and Cleopatra. Sir Anthony Denny (hist) is a minor character in Henry VIII, who brings Cranmer to the King. Apemantus is a churlish philosopher in Timon of Athens. Three Apparitions appear to Macbeth with prophecies, in Macbeth. Apothecary is a small but vital role in Romeo and Juliet. He sells Romeo the poison which ends his life. For Aragon, see Arragon/Aragon, below. For Arcas, see Countryman. Archbishop: Archbishop of Canterbury: The Archbishop of Canterbury (hist) is an important character in the first act of Henry V. He expounds Henry's claim to the French throne. Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury (hist) is a major character in the last act of Henry VIII: hauled before the privy council by his enemies and threatened with imprisonment, but protected by the king. See also Cardinal Bourchier, who was Archbishop of Canterbury at the time dramatised in Richard III. Archbishop of York: The Archbishop of York (1) (hist) is one of the rebel leaders in Henry IV, Part 1 and Henry IV, Part 2. The Archbishop of York (2) (hist) assists Queen Elizabeth and the little Duke of York to obtain sanctuary in Richard III. For Archibald, see Earl of Douglas. Archidamus is a Bohemian lord in The Winter's Tale. Arcite and Palamon are the title characters of The Two Noble Kinsmen. Their friendship endures even though they engage in a mortal quarrel for the love of Emilia. Ariel is a spirit, controlled (but eventually freed) by Prospero in The Tempest. Arragon/Aragon: The Prince of Arragon is an unsuccessful suitor to Portia in The Merchant of Venice. Queen Katherine of Aragon (hist) is the first wife of King Henry in Henry VIII. She falls from grace, is divorced and dies. See also Don Pedro, who is a prince of Arragon. Artemidorus prepares a scroll warning Julius Caesar of danger, and tries to present it to Caesar in the form of a petition. Caesar refuses to accept it. Arthur (hist) is a child, the nephew of the king in King John. He persuades Hubert not to put out his eyes, but dies in an attempt to escape captivity. Don Adriano de Armado is an arrogant Spanish braggart in Love's Labour's Lost. Arviragus (also known as Cadwal) is the second son of the king in Cymbeline, stolen away in infancy by Morgan, and brought up as Morgan's child. For Astringer, meaning a keeper of hawks, see Gentleman in All's Well That Ends Well, who is described as the "Astringer to the King" in his entry stage direction. An Old Athenian in Timon of Athens objects to his daughter's involvement with Lucilius, until Timon offers to endow Lucilius with money to make him her equal. An attendant on the King of France speaks four words, "I shall, my liege", in All's Well That Ends Well. Audrey is a country girl who marries Touchstone in As You Like It. Tullus Aufidius, leader of the Volscians, is the arch-enemy, and briefly the ally, of the title character in Coriolanus. Aumerle (hist) is a companion of Richard in Richard II. For Duke of Austria see Limoges. Autolycus is a rogue, singer, and snapper up of unconsidered trifles in The Winter's Tale. B Bagot (hist) is a favourite of Richard in Richard II. Balthasar: Balthasar is Romeo's servant in Romeo and Juliet. Balthasar is a singer, attending on Don Pedro in Much Ado About Nothing. Balthasar is a merchant in The Comedy of Errors. Balthasar is a servant of Portia in The Merchant of Venice. See also Portia in The Merchant of Venice, who takes the name Balthasar in her disguise as a lawyer from Rome. Three Bandits in Timon of Athens seek Timon's gold, but he persuades them to give up villainy. Banquo is a captain in Macbeth who, with Macbeth, meets the three witches and hears their prophecies. He is later murdered on Macbeth's orders, but his ghost haunts Macbeth at a feast. Baptista Minola is the father of Katherine and Bianca in The Taming of the Shrew. For Barbary, see Countrywomen. Bardolph: Bardolph (fict) is a follower of Sir John Falstaff in Henry IV, Part 1 and Henry IV, Part 2. In The Merry Wives of Windsor he becomes a drawer for the Host of the Garter. He is hanged for stealing a pax in Henry V. Lord Bardolph (hist) is a nobleman, one of the Percy faction, in Henry IV, Part 2. Barnardine is too drunk to consent to be executed, in Measure for Measure. Barnardo (or Bernardo) and Marcellus are soldiers who invite Horatio to see the ghost of Old Hamlet, in Hamlet. For Bartholomew, or Barthol'mew, see the Page in the induction to The Taming of the Shrew. Bassanio, loved by Antonio, is the suitor who wins the heart of Portia in The Merchant of Venice. Basset (fict) is a follower of the Duke of Somerset, in Henry VI, Part 1. Bassianus is the younger brother of Saturninus, and is betrothed to Lavinia, in Titus Andronicus. Chiron and Demetrius murder him, laying the blame on Martius and Quintus. Bastard: The Bastard of Orleans (hist) is one of the French leaders in Henry VI, Part 1. Philip (the Bastard) Faulconbridge is a central character in King John, the bravest and most articulate of John's supporters. Several characters are bastards, most notably Don John and Edmund. John Bates (fict) is a soldier in the English army in Henry V. A Bavian (a baboon) is played by one of the Maying entertainers in The Two Noble Kinsmen. A Bawd and a Pander run the brothel into which Marina is sold, in Pericles, Prince of Tyre. Beadle: A Beadle arrests Doll Tearsheet in Henry IV, Part 2. A Beadle whips Simpcox in Henry VI, Part 2. For Beaufort see Bishop of Winchester. Beatrice is a central character in Much Ado About Nothing. She falls in love with Benedick. For Bedford see Prince John of Lancaster, who was the Duke of Bedford. Belarius (also known as Morgan) steals the two infant princes in Cymbeline, and raises them as his own. Sir Toby Belch is a drunken knight, and kinsman to Olivia, in Twelfth Night. Benedick is a central character in Much Ado About Nothing. He falls in love with Beatrice. Benvolio is a friend and kinsman of Romeo in Romeo and Juliet. Berkeley: Berkeley and Tressell (fict) are the two gentlemen accompanying Lady Anne, and Henry VI's coffin, in Richard III. Lord Berkeley (hist) acts as messenger from York to Bolingbroke, in Richard II. Berowne (hist) is a witty lord of Navarre in Love's Labour's Lost. He breaks his oath by falling in love with Rosaline. The Duke of Berry (hist) is a French leader in Henry V. Bertram is the Count of Roussillon in All's Well That Ends Well. He is married, against his will, to Helena. Bianca: Bianca is the younger sister of Katherine in The Taming of the Shrew. She is loved by Gremio and Hortensio, and eventually marries Lucentio. Bianca is Michael Cassio's mistress in Othello. Lord Bigot, together with Salisbury and Pembroke, fear for the life of young Arthur, and later discover his body, in King John. Biondello is a servant to Lucentio in The Taming of the Shrew. Bishop (title): The Bishop of Carlisle (hist) supports Richard in Richard II. Bishop of Ely: The Bishop of Ely (1) (hist) conspires with the Archbishop of Canterbury in the opening scene of Henry V. The Bishop of Ely (2) (hist) ultimately shows his opposition to Richard, in Richard III. The Bishop of Lincoln (hist) speaks in favour of Henry's divorce, in the trial scene of Henry VIII. Bishop of Winchester: The Bishop of Winchester (hist) (later "the Cardinal") is the chief enemy of Humphrey Duke of Gloucester in Henry VI, Part 1 and Henry VI, Part 2. For The Bishop of Winchester in Henry VIII, see Gardiner. Blanche (hist) is the king's niece in King John, married (by arrangement among the kings, to seal an alliance) to the Dauphin. Blunt: Sir James Blunt is a supporter of Richmond in Richard III. Sir John Blunt is a supporter of the king in Henry IV, Part 2. Sir Walter Blunt is a soldier and messenger to the king in Henry IV, Part 1. He is killed by Douglas while wearing the king's armour. The Boatswain is a character in the first and last acts of The Tempest. Bolingbroke: Bolingbroke, later King Henry IV (hist) leads a revolt against King Richard in Richard II. He is the title character of Henry IV, Part 1 and Henry IV, Part 2 which chart the rebellions against him by the Percy faction, and his difficult relationship with his eldest son, Hal. Bolingbroke, with Southwell, Jourdain and Hume, are the supernatural conspirators with Eleanor Duchess of Gloucester in Henry VI, Part 2. Borachio is a villain, a servant of Don John, in Much Ado About Nothing. Nick Bottom is a weaver, one of the mechanicals, in A Midsummer Night's Dream. While rehearsing a play, Puck changes Bottom's head for an ass's head. Titania falls in love with him. He plays Pyramus in Pyramus and Thisbe. Boult is a servant of the Pander and the Bawd in Pericles, Prince of Tyre. He resolves to rape Marina, but is persuaded to help her to leave the brothel, instead. The Duke of Bourbon (hist) fights on the French side in Henry V. Cardinal Bourchier (hist) delivers the little Duke of York from sanctuary, and into the hands of Richard and Buckingham, in Richard III. Boy: Boy (hist) in Richard III is the young son of the murdered Clarence (described in one speech as little Ned Plantagenet). Boy is young Martius, son of Caius Martius Coriolanus, in Coriolanus. The Boy (fict) is a follower of Sir John Falstaff in Henry IV, Part 2 and The Merry Wives of Windsor (in which he is called Robin). He is also a character in Henry V, who goes to war with Pistol, Bardolph and Nym. A boy sings the wedding song which opens The Two Noble Kinsmen. A boy is a servant of Troilus, in Troilus and Cressida. A boy attends on Benedick in Much Ado About Nothing. A boy sings a song to Mariana, in Measure for Measure. A boy sings "Come, thou monarch of the vine...", in Antony and Cleopatra. The Master Gunner's Boy kills Salisbury, in Henry VI, Part 1. Boyet, a French lord, is the Princess of France's personal assistant, in Love's Labour's Lost. Brabantio is the father of Desdemona, in Othello. Brackenbury (hist) is the Lieutenant of the Tower of London in Richard III. Brandon (hist) arrests Buckingham, in Henry VIII. The Duke of Britain (hist) is a French leader in Henry V. Bromodideuterio: is the apothecary from whom the court doctor Cornelius in Cymbeline obtains the false poison requested by the Queen to murder Cymbeline and Imogen and secure the throne. Cf.: the apothecary in Romeo and Juliet. For Master Brook see Master Ford, who calls himself Master Brook when he disguises himself to encounter Falstaff. Brothers: The Jailer's Brother accompanies his niece, in her madness, in The Two Noble Kinsmen. See Leonatus See Stafford's Brother. Brutus: Decius Brutus (hist) is one of the conspirators against Caesar in Julius Caesar. Junius Brutus and Sicinius Velutus, two of the tribunes of the people, are the protagonist's chief political enemies in Coriolanus, and prove more effective than his military foes. Marcus Brutus (hist) (usually just Brutus) is a central character of Julius Caesar, who conspires against Caesar's life and stabs him. Buckingham: The Duke of Buckingham (1) (hist) is a Lancastrian in Henry VI, Part 2. His death is reported in Henry VI, Part 3. The Duke of Buckingham (2) (hist) is a Yorkist in Henry VI, Part 3, and is a co-conspirator with Richard – although he is eventually rejected, then murdered on Richard's orders – in Richard III. The Duke of Buckingham (3) (hist), an enemy of Wolsey, falls from grace and is executed by Henry in Henry VIII. Bullcalf is nearly pressed into military service by Falstaff in Henry IV, Part 2. Anne Bullen (hist), known to history as Anne Boleyn, is a maid of Honour to Katherine who later becomes King Henry's second wife, in Henry VIII. Burgundy: The Duke of Burgundy (1) (hist) brokers the peace treaty between the kings of France and England in the last act of Henry V. The Duke of Burgundy (2) (hist) fights firstly in alliance with the English, and later in alliance with the French, in Henry VI, Part 1. The Duke of Burgundy (3) refuses to marry Cordelia without a dowry, in King Lear. Bushy (hist) is a favourite of Richard in Richard II. Dick the Butcher (fict) is a follower of Jack Cade in Henry VI, Part 2. Doctor Butts (hist) is the king's physician in Henry VIII. He alerts the king to Cranmer's humiliation in refused admittance to the council chamber. C Jack Cade (hist) leads a proletarian rebellion in Henry VI, Part 2. Cadwal (real name Arviragus) is the second son of the king in Cymbeline, stolen away in infancy by Morgan, and brought up as Morgan's child. Caesar: Julius Caesar (hist) is the title character of Julius Caesar, an Emperor of Rome who is stabbed in the Capitol, on the Ides of March. Octavius Caesar (hist) is one of the Triumvirs, the three rulers of Rome after Caesar's death, in Julius Caesar and Antony and Cleopatra. Caius: Caius, Sempronius and Valentine are minor characters, kinsmen and supporters of Titus, in Titus Andronicus. Caius Cassius (hist) is a central character in Julius Caesar. He incites the conspiracy against Caesar, and recruits Brutus to the conspirators' ranks. Caius Ligarius (hist) is one of the conspirators against Caesar in Julius Caesar. Caius Lucius is the Roman ambassador in Cymbeline, and the leader of the Roman forces. Caius Martius Coriolanus (hist) is the central character of Coriolanus, who earns the title "Coriolanus" in recognition of his skill at smiting Volscians in Coriolai. Doctor Caius (hist-ish) is a French doctor in The Merry Wives of Windsor. He challenges Parson Hugh to a duel. See also the Earl of Kent, who calls himself Caius in his disguise as a servant of King Lear. Calchas, Cressida's father, has defected to the Greeks, and negotiates his daughter's exchange for a Trojan prisoner in Troilus and Cressida. Caliban, son of the witch Sycorax, is a deformed slave to Prospero in The Tempest. Calphurnia (hist) is the wife of Caesar, whose dream predicts her husband's death, in Julius Caesar. For Cambio see Lucentio, who calls himself Cambio in his disguise as a schoolmaster. The Earl of Cambridge (hist) is one of the three conspirators against the king's life (with Scroop and Grey) in Henry V. Camillo is a follower of Leontes, ordered to kill Polixines, but who instead warns Polixines of his danger and becomes his companion, in The Winter's Tale. Cardinal Campeius (hist) is the papal legate at the trial of Katherine, in Henry VIII. Canidius (hist) is a follower of Antony in Antony and Cleopatra. Canterbury: The Archbishop of Canterbury (hist) is an important character in the first act of Henry V. He expounds Henry's claim to the French throne. Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury (hist) is a major character in the last act of Henry VIII: hauled before the privy council by his enemies and threatened with imprisonment, but protected by the king. See also Cardinal Bourchier, who was Archbishop of Canterbury at the time dramatised in Richard III. Caphis is the servant of a Senator in Timon of Athens, sent to collect a debt due from Timon. For Capilet see the Widow in All's Well That Ends Well, whose surname is Capilet. Captain: A Captain survives the shipwreck at the start of Twelfth Night with Viola, and helps her with her disguise. A Captain of the Welsh army brings Richard the bad news that his army, believing him dead, has deserted him, in Richard II. A Captain brings Duncan news of Macbeth and Banquo's victories, in the first act of Macbeth. A Captain attending on Edgar delivers Lear and Cordelia to be hanged in King Lear. A Captain of the Norwegian army explains Fortinbras' mission against the Poles, in Hamlet. A Captain in Antony's army is a minor speaking role in Antony and Cleopatra. An English Captain witnesses the retreat of the cowardly Fastolfe, in Henry VI, Part 1. An English Captain accompanies Lucy on his mission to obtain assistance from the English Lords, in Henry VI, Part 1. A French Captain on the walls of Bordeaux defies Talbot, in Henry VI, Part 1. A Roman Captain in Cymbeline attends on Lucius. Two British Captains in Cymbeline arrest Posthumus, thinking him an enemy. Several characters hold (or purport to hold) the rank of captain, including Fluellen, Gower, Jamy, Macmorris and Pistol. Several characters are sea captains, including Antonio in Twelfth Night. See also Master. Capulet: Capulet is Juliet's father in Romeo and Juliet. Lady Capulet is Juliet's mother in Romeo and Juliet. Old Capulet is a minor character – a kinsman of Capulet – in the party scene of Romeo and Juliet. See also Juliet and Tybalt. Lord Caputius (hist) is an ambassador from the Holy Roman Emperor in Henry VIII. Cardinal: Cardinal Bourchier (hist) delivers the little Duke of York from sanctuary, and into the hands of Richard and Buckingham, in Richard III. Cardinal Campeius (hist) is the papal legate at the trial of Katherine, in Henry VIII. Cardinal Pandulph (hist) is the Papal legate in King John. He incites the Dauphin against John, but later tries to placate him. Cardinal Wolsey (hist) orchestrates the fall from grace of Buckingham and Katherine, but himself falls from grace and dies, in Henry VIII. See also the Bishop of Winchester, who becomes a Cardinal in the course of Henry VI, Part 1. The Bishop of Carlisle (hist) supports Richard in Richard II. A carpenter and a cobbler are among the crowd of commoners gathered to welcome Caesar home enthusiastically in the opening scene of Julius Caesar. Casca (hist) is one of the conspirators against Caesar, in Julius Caesar. He has an important role in the early parts of the play, reporting offstage events. Cassandra (myth) is a prophetess in Troilus and Cressida. Michael Cassio is a lieutenant in Othello. Iago persuades Othello that Cassio is having an affair with Othello's wife, Desdemona. Caius Cassius (hist) is a central character in Julius Caesar. He incites the conspiracy against Caesar, and recruits Brutus to the conspirators' ranks. Catesby (hist) is a double agent – seemingly loyal to Lord Hastings but actually reporting to Buckingham and Richard – in Richard III. For Catherine see Katherine. Caithness is a thane in Macbeth. Simon Catling, Hugh Rebeck and James Soundpost are minor characters, musicians, in Romeo and Juliet. Young Cato is a soldier of Brutus' and Cassius' party, in Julius Caesar. Celia is Rosalind's companion and cousin, and is daughter to Duke Frederick in As You Like It. Ceres (myth) is presented by a masquer in The Tempest. Cerimon is a lord of Ephesus in Pericles, Prince of Tyre. He opens the chest in which Thaisa had been buried at sea and, being skilled in medicine, he realises that she is not dead and nurses her back to health. For Cesario see Viola, who calls herself Cesario in her male disguise, and her brother Sebastian who is sometimes called Cesario, being mistaken for his sister. The Lord Chamberlain, in Henry VIII (hist & hist) is a conflation of two historical Lords Chamberlain, one of them Lord Sandys, who is also a character in the play. The Lord Chancellor (hist) – historically Sir Thomas More, although not identified as such in the play – is among the Privy Counsellors who accuse Cranmer in Henry VIII. Charles: Charles is a wrestler, defeated by Orlando, in As You Like It. The Dauphin, later King Charles VII of France (hist) leads the French forces, with Joan, in Henry VI, Part 1. Charmian (hist) is the main attendant to Cleopatra in Antony and Cleopatra and dies by snakebite. Emmanuel the Clerk of Chatham (fict) is murdered by Jack Cade's rebels in Henry VI, Part 2. Chatillion is an ambassador from France to England in King John. The Lord Chief Justice (hist) is a dramatic foil to Falstaff in Henry IV, Part 2. Chiron and Demetrius, are two sons of Tamora in Titus Andronicus. They rape and mutilate Lavinia, and are eventually killed and cooked by Titus, who serves them to Tamora to eat. Chorus: The Chorus speaks the opening prologue in Romeo and Juliet, and a further prologue at the beginning of the second act. The Chorus (fict) is the second most major character, after the king himself, in Henry V. He speaks a lengthy prologue to each of the five acts, and an epilogue. See also John Gower, Rosalind, Rumour and Time, each of whom act as a chorus in their play. See also Prologue. Christopher: Christopher Sly is a drunken tinker in the induction to The Taming of the Shrew. He is gulled into believing he is a lord. Christopher Urswick (hist) is a minor character: a priest acting as messenger for Lord Stanley, in Richard III. Cicero, a senator, hears Casca's account of strange portents, in Julius Caesar. Metellus Cimber (hist) is one of the conspirators in Julius Caesar. Cinna: Cinna (hist) is one of the conspirators against Caesar in Julius Caesar. Cinna is a poet, mistaken for the conspirator Cinna in Julius Caesar. Realising they have the wrong man, the mob "kill him for his bad verses". Citizen: A citizen of Antium briefly meets the disguised Coriolanus, and directs him to Aufidius' house. A mob of citizens, seven of them speaking roles, appear both in opposition and in support of the title character in several scenes of Coriolanus. Speaking as one, the mob's speech prefix is Plebeians. Three citizens debate the succession of Edward V, in Richard III. See also Plebeians. Clarence: George, Duke of Clarence (hist) is the younger brother of Edward and the elder brother of Richard in Henry VI, part 3 and Richard III. He is often known as "perjured Clarence", having broken his oath to Warwick and fighting instead for his brother's faction. He is eventually drowned in a butt of malmesy wine. Thomas, Duke of Clarence (hist) is Hal's younger brother, who appears in Henry IV, Part 2 and Henry V. Claudio: Claudio is a friend to Benedick and a follower of Don Pedro, in Much Ado About Nothing. He falls in love with Hero but is persuaded, wrongly, that she has been unfaithful. Claudio, brother to Isabella, is sentenced to death for fornication in Measure for Measure. Claudius: Claudius and Varro are guards in Brutus' tent, in Julius Caesar. They do not see Caesar's ghost. King Claudius (myth) is the uncle and stepfather of the title character in Hamlet. He has murdered his brother Old Hamlet, has taken over his crown, and has married his queen, Gertrude. Cleomines is a courtier to Leontes, who, with Dion delivers the oracle from Delphos in The Winter's Tale. Cleon is governor of Tarsus in Pericles, Prince of Tyre. Pericles brings food to save Cleon's starving people, and later trusts his new-born daughter into Cleon's care. Cleopatra (hist) is the lover of Antony in Antony and Cleopatra. She commits suicide using a poisonous asp. Emmanuel the Clerk of Chatham (fict) is murdered by Jack Cade's rebels in Henry VI, Part 2. Clifford: Clifford (sometimes called Young Clifford) (hist) is a staunch Lancastrian, and is the Yorkists most hated enemy — as the killer of Rutland — in Henry VI, Part 2 and Henry VI, Part 3. Old Clifford (hist), father of Clifford, is a Lancastrian leader in Henry VI, Part 2. Clitus is a soldier, a follower of Brutus, in Julius Caesar. He refuses to aid Brutus' suicide. Cloten, son of the Queen and stepson to the king in Cymbeline, vainly loves Imogen, and eventually resolves to rape her. Clown: The Clown is the good-natured son of the Old Shepherd, gulled by Autolycus, in The Winter's Tale. The Clown appears briefly to make fun of the musicians, and later to banter with Desdemona, in Othello. The Clown delivers some pigeons, and letters from Titus Andronicus, to Saturninus. He is hanged for his pains. The Clown delivers a poisonous asp to Cleopatra in a basket of figs, in Antony and Cleopatra. The Clown, also identified as "Pompey" is a servant to Mistress Overdone in Measure for Measure. For the two clowns in Hamlet see "Gravedigger". For "Clown" in All's Well That Ends Well, see Lavatch. See also Touchstone, who is simply called "Clown" until he reaches the Forest of Arden. Numerous characters are clowns, or are comic characters originally played by the clowns in Shakespeare's company. See also Fool and Shakespearian fool. A cobbler and a carpenter are among the crowd of commoners gathered to welcome Caesar home enthusiastically in the opening scene of Julius Caesar. Cobweb is a fairy in A Midsummer Night's Dream. Sir John Coleville is a rebel captured by Falstaff in Henry IV, Part 2. Cominius and Titus Lartius are leaders of the Roman forces against the Volscians, in Coriolanus. Conrade is a villain, a servant of Don John, in Much Ado About Nothing. "Three or four" Conspirators, three of them speaking roles, conspire with Aufidius, in Coriolanus. The Constable of France (hist) leads the French forces in Henry V. Constance (hist) is Arthur's mother in King John: a fierce advocate for her son's right to the English throne. Corambis is an alternative name for Polonius in Hamlet. He is so named in The First Quarto of Shakespeare's "Hamlet" (1603); occasionally referred to as the "bad quarto". Cordelia (myth) is the youngest daughter in King Lear. She marries the King of France. At the end of the play she is hanged on Edmund's instructions. Corin is a kindly shepherd in As You Like It. Caius Martius Coriolanus (hist) is the central character of Coriolanus, who earns the title "Coriolanus" in recognition of his skill at smiting Volscians in Coriolai. Cornelius: Cornelius and Voltemand are two ambassadors from Claudius to the Norwegian court, in Hamlet. Cornelius, a doctor in Cymbeline, provides a fake poison to the Queen, which is later used on Imogen. He also reports the Queen's last words. The Duke of Cornwall is Regan's husband, who puts out Gloucester's eyes, in King Lear. For Corporal, see Bardolph and Nym, who hold that rank. Costard is a clown and country bumkin from Love's Labour's Lost. Count (title): A number of characters have the title Count, including Claudio (from Much Ado About Nothing) and Paris. Countess (title): The Countess of Auvergne tries to entrap Talbot in Henry VI, Part 1. The Countess of Rousillon is Bertram's mother, and Helena's protector, in All's Well That Ends Well. See also Olivia. A number of countrymen, together with Gerald, provide Maying entertainment in The Two Noble Kinsmen. Four of them are speaking roles. Three of them are called Arcas, Rycas and Sennois. They may, or may not, include Timothy and the Bavian. Five countrywomen (called Barbary, Friz, Luce, Maudlin and Nell) dance at the Maying entertainment in The Two Noble Kinsmen. Alexander Court (fict) is a soldier in the English army in Henry V. Courtesan: A courtesan dines with Antipholus of Ephesus, who finds himself locked out of his own home, in The Comedy of Errors. Several characters are courtesans, or are accused of being courtesans, most notably Cressida from Troilus and Cressida. Crab is Launce's dog, in The Two Gentlemen of Verona. Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury (hist) is a major character in the last act of Henry VIII: hauled before the privy council by his enemies and threatened with imprisonment, but protected by the king. Cressida is one of the title characters in Troilus and Cressida. The Trojan prince Troilus falls in love with this young daughter of a Trojan defector. A crier to the court, and a scribe to the court, are minor roles – but they usually have dramatic impact – in the trial scene of Henry VIII. Thomas Cromwell (hist) is secretary to Wolsey, and later to the Privy Council, in Henry VIII. Cupid (myth) reads the prologue to a masque in Timon of Athens. Curan is minor character, a follower of the Earl of Gloucester, in King Lear. Curio is an attendant on Orsino in Twelfth Night. Curtis is a servant of Petruchio in The Taming of the Shrew. Cymbeline (hist), the title character of Cymbeline, is king of the Britons, and father to Imogen, Guiderus and Arviragus. D Dardanius is a soldier, a follower of Brutus, in Julius Caesar. He refuses to aid Brutus' suicide. Daughter: The Daughter of Antiochus is a famed beauty, engaged in a secret incestuous relationship with her father, in Pericles, Prince of Tyre. The Jailer's Daughter develops an obsessive love for Palamon, and releases him from prison, in The Two Noble Kinsmen. She descends into madness. Dauphin (sometimes Dolphin in older texts): The Dauphin (hist) is Henry's chief enemy in Henry V. The Dauphin, later King Charles VII of France (hist) leads the French forces, with Joan, in Henry VI, Part 1. See also Lewis. Davy (fict) is justice Shallow's servant in Henry IV, Part 2. DeBoys: Jaques DeBoys is a brother to Oliver and Orlando in As You Like It. See also Oliver and Orlando from As You Like It, whose surname is also DeBoys. Decius Brutus (hist) is one of the conspirators against Caesar in Julius Caesar. For Decretas, see Dercetus. Deiphobus (myth), a brother of Hector and Troilus, is a minor character (with the one line, "It is the Lord Aeneas") in Troilus and Cressida. Demetrius: Demetrius is in love with Hermia at the start of A Midsummer Night's Dream. Later, he loves and marries Helena. Demetrius and Chiron, are two sons of Tamora in Titus Andronicus. They rape and mutilate Lavinia, and are eventually killed and cooked by Titus, who serves them to Tamora to eat. Demetrius and Philo, Romans following Antony, regret his infatuation with Cleopatra in Antony and Cleopatra. Dennis is a minor character – a servant to Oliver – in As You Like It. Sir Anthony Denny (hist) is a minor character in Henry VIII, who brings Cranmer to the King. Lord Stanley, Earl of Derby (hist) is a military leader who ultimately reveals his loyalty to the Richmond faction, in spite of his son being a hostage to Richard, in Richard III. Dercetus (hist) is a follower of Antony in Antony and Cleopatra. He informs Caesar of Antony's death. Desdemona is the protagonist's wife in Othello. He strangles her, in the mistaken belief that she is unfaithful. Diana: Diana is desired by Bertram, and pretends to agree to have sex with him. Instead, under cover of darkness, she exchanges places with Helena, who becomes pregnant with Bertram's child, in All's Well That Ends Well. Diana (myth) the goddess of chastity, appears to Perciles in a vision, in Pericles, Prince of Tyre She tells him to visit her temple at Ephesus, leading to his reconciliation with Thaisa there. Dick: Dick the Butcher (fict) is a follower of Jack Cade in Henry VI, Part 2. See also Richard. Diomedes: Diomedes is a follower of Cleopatra in Antony and Cleopatra. He informs Antony that Cleopatra is alive, and informs Cleopatra that Antony is dying. Diomedes (myth) is one of the Greek leaders in Troilus and Cressida. Diomedes' Servant is sent with a message to Cressida, in Troilus and Cressida. Dion is a courtier to Leontes, who, with Cleomines delivers the oracle from Delphos in The Winter's Tale. Dionyza, the wife of Cleon of Tarsus, is entrusted with the upbringing of Marina, in Pericles, Prince of Tyre. However, she comes to see Marina as a rival to her own daughter, and orders Leonine to kill Marina. Doctor (title): A Doctor in Cordelia's train tends the mad Lear in King Lear. A Doctor suggests that the wooer can cure the Jailer's Daughter's madness by having sex with her while pretending to be Palamon, in The Two Noble Kinsmen. Doctor Butts (hist) is the king's physician in Henry VIII. He alerts the king to Cranmer's humiliation in refused admittance to the council chamber. Doctor Caius (hist-ish) is a French doctor in The Merry Wives of Windsor. He challenges Parson Hugh to a duel. An English Doctor is a minor character in Macbeth. A Scottish Doctor witnesses Lady Macbeth sleepwalking in Macbeth. See also Pinch in The Comedy of Errors, who is sometimes referred to as "Doctor Pinch". Dogberry, accompanied by Verges, is a clownish officer of the watch in Much Ado About Nothing. Dolabella (hist) is a follower of Caesar in Antony and Cleopatra. He tells Cleopatra that Caesar intends to lead her, in triumph, through Rome. Doll Tearsheet (fict) is a whore, who is emotionally involved with Falstaff, and is later arrested for murder in Henry IV, Part 2. For Dolphin see Dauphin. For Domitus see Enobarbus. Don (title): Don John is the bastard brother of Don Pedro, and is the chief villain in Much Ado About Nothing. Don Pedro is the prince of Arragon in Much Ado About Nothing. Don Adriano de Armado is an arrogant Spanish braggart in Love's Labour's Lost. Donalbain (hist) is the second son of Duncan in Macbeth. A Door Keeper (fict) bars the entrance of Cranmer to the council chamber, in Henry VIII. Dorcas and Mopsa are shepherdesses, usually portrayed as rather tarty, in The Winter's Tale. Dorset (hist) and Grey (hist), are the two sons of Queen Elizabeth from her first marriage, who are arrested and executed on the orders of Buckingham and Richard in Richard III. The Earl of Douglas leads the Scottish rebel forces in Henry IV, Part 1. Dromio: Dromio of Ephesus, servant to Antipholus of Ephesus and twin of Dromio of Syracuse – with whom he is often confused, is a central character in The Comedy of Errors. Dromio of Syracuse, servant to Antipholus of Syracuse and twin of Dromio of Ephesus – with whom he is often confused, is a central character in The Comedy of Errors. Duchess (title): Duchess of Gloucester: The Duchess of Gloucester (hist) is the widow of Thomas of Woodstock, Duke of Gloucester. His murder (before the play opens) drives much of the action of Richard II. Eleanor, Duchess of Gloucester (hist) is the wife of Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester in Henry VI, Part 2, in which she dabbles in witchcraft with disastrous results. Duchess of York: The Duchess of York (1) (unnamed) character in Richard II, a composite of Isabella of Castile, Duchess of York, died 1392, the mother of Aumerle, and Joan Holland, who bore no children The Duchess of York (2) (hist) is the wife of Richard, Duke of York (1) in Henry VI, Part 3. She outlives him to mourn the death of two of their sons in Richard III. Duke (title): The Duke of Albany is Goneril's husband in King Lear. The Duke of Alençon (hist) is one of the French leaders in Henry VI, Part 1. The Duke of Arragon is an unsuccessful suitor to Portia in The Merchant of Venice. For Duke of Austria see Limoges. For Duke of Bedford see Prince John of Lancaster. The Duke of Berry (hist) is a French leader in Henry V. The Duke of Bourbon (hist) fights on the French side in Henry V. The Duke of Britain (hist) is a French leader in Henry V. Duke of Buckingham: The Duke of Buckingham (1) (hist) is a Lancastrian in Henry VI, Part 2. His death is reported in Henry VI, Part 3. The Duke of Buckingham (2) (hist) is a Yorkist in Henry VI, Part 3, and is a co-conspirator with Richard – although he is eventually rejected, then murdered on Richard's orders – in Richard III. The Duke of Buckingham (3) (hist), an enemy of Wolsey, falls from grace and is executed by Henry in Henry VIII. Duke of Burgundy: The Duke of Burgundy (1) (hist) brokers the peace treaty between the kings of France and England in the last act of Henry V. The Duke of Burgundy (2) (hist) fights firstly in alliance with the English, and later in alliance with the French, in Henry VI, Part 1. The Duke of Burgundy (3) refuses to marry Cordelia without a dowry, in King Lear. Duke of Clarence: George, Duke of Clarence (hist) is the younger brother of Edward and the elder brother of Richard in Henry VI, Part 3 and Richard III. He is often known as "perjured Clarence", having broken his oath to Warwick and fighting instead for his brother's faction. He is eventually drowned in a butt of malmesy wine. Thomas, Duke of Clarence (hist) is Hal's younger brother, who appears in Henry IV, Part 2 and Henry V. The Duke of Cornwall is Regan's husband, who puts out Gloucester's eyes, in King Lear. Duke of Exeter: The Duke of Exeter (1) (hist) is an uncle of Henry V. He acts as emissary to the French King in Henry V. He has a more choric role in Henry VI, Part 1. The Duke of Exeter (2) (hist) is a Lancastrian leader in Henry VI, Part 3. The Duke of Florence discusses the progress of the war with the two French Lords, the brothers Dumaine, in All's Well That Ends Well. Duke Frederick is the villain (the usurper of Duke Senior) in As You Like It. Duke of Gloucester: Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester (hist) appears as a brother of Hal in Henry IV, Part 2 and Henry V. He is a much more important character as the protector in Henry VI, Part 1 and Henry VI, Part 2, in which he is murdered by his rivals. Richard, Duke of Gloucester, later Richard III (hist), brave but evil, is the third son of Richard, Duke of York (1). He is a fairly minor character in Henry VI, Part 2, is more prominent in Henry VI, Part 3, and is the title character – and murderer of many other characters – in Richard III. See also Earl of Gloucester. Duke of Lancaster: John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster (hist), uncle to King Richard and father to Bolingbroke, dies in Richard II, having delivered his famous "This sceptred isle..." speech. See also Bolingbroke, son to John of Gaunt, who claims the dukedom of Lancaster on his father's death. Duke of Milan The Duke of Milan is patron to both Valentine and Proteus, and is the father of Silvia, in The Two Gentlemen of Verona. See also Prospero and Antonio from The Tempest, who are dukes of Milan. Duke of Norfolk: The Duke of Norfolk (hist) is a supporter of the Yorkists in Henry VI, Part 3 and Richard III. The Duke of Norfolk (hist & hist) is an associate of Buckingham in Henry VIII. Thomas Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk (hist) is Bolingbroke's enemy, exiled by Richard, in Richard II. The Duke of Orleans (hist) fights on the French side in Henry V. Duke Senior is the father of Rosalind. He is the true duke, and has been usurped by his brother, Duke Frederick, at the start of As You Like It. Duke of Somerset: The Duke of Somerset (1) (hist) is a follower of King Henry in Henry VI, Part 1. The Duke of Somerset (2) (hist) appears among the Lancastrian faction in Henry VI, Part 2. His head is carried onstage by Richard (later Richard III) in the opening scene of Henry VI, Part 3. The Duke of Somerset (3) (hist and hist) is a conflation by Shakespeare of two historical Dukes of Somerset. He supports both factions at different stages of Henry VI, Part 3. Duke of Suffolk: The Duke of Suffolk (hist) is a courtier, cynical about the King's relationship with Anne Bullen, in Henry VIII. The Duke of Suffolk (William de la Pole) (hist) is a manipulative character, loved by Queen Margaret, in Henry VI, Part 1 and Henry VI, Part 2. The Duke of Surrey (hist) accuses Aumerle of plotting Woodstock's death in Richard II. Duke of Venice: The Duke of Venice tries the case between Shylock and Antonio in The Merchant of Venice. The Duke of Venice hears Brabantio's complaint against Othello in Othello. For Duke of Vienna see Vincentio in Measure for Measure. Duke of York: The Duke of York (1) (hist) is the uncle of both Richard and Bolingbroke in Richard II. The Duke of York (2) (hist) is a minor character, the leader of the "vaward" in Henry V. (Historically this character is the same person as Aumerle.) Richard, Duke of York (1) (hist) is a central character in Henry VI, Part 1, Henry VI, Part 2, and Henry VI, Part 3. He is the Yorkist claimant to the throne of England, in opposition to Henry VI, and he is eventually killed on the orders of Queen Margaret. Richard, Duke of York (2) (hist) is the younger of the two princes in the tower, murdered on the orders of Richard in Richard III. For The Duke in Measure for Measure, see Vincentio. Numerous characters are Dukes, including Antonio (from The Tempest), Orsino, Prospero, Solinus, Theseus and Vincentio (from Measure for Measure). Dull is a constable in Love's Labour's Lost. Dumaine: Dumaine (hist), with Berowne and Longaville, is one of the three companions of The King of Navarre in Love's Labour's Lost. See also the two Lords in All's Well That Ends Well, who are described as the brothers Dumaine. Duncan (hist) is the king of Scotland, murdered in Macbeth. A Dutchman, a Frenchman and a Spaniard are guests of Philario, in Cymbeline. E Earl (title): Lord Stanley, Earl of Derby (hist) is a military leader who ultimately reveals his loyalty to the Richmond faction, in spite of his son being a hostage to Richard, in Richard III. The Earl of Douglas (hist) leads the Scottish rebel forces in Henry IV, Part 1. The Earl of Essex (hist) is a minor character in King John. The Earl of Cambridge (hist) is one of the three conspirators against the king's life (with Scroop and Grey) in Henry V. The Earl of Gloucester is the father of Edgar and Edmund, who has his eyes put out by the Duke of Cornwall, in King Lear. The Earl of Grandpre (hist), a French leader, makes an unduly optimistic speech on the morning of Agincourt, in Henry V. The Earl of Huntingdon (hist) is a non-speaking follower of the king in Henry V. The Earl of Kent in King Lear is a follower of Lear who evades banishment by disguising himself as a servant, and calling himself Caius. Earl of Northumberland: The Earl of Northumberland, Henry Percy, (hist) is an important character in Richard II, where he is Bolingbroke's chief ally, and in Henry IV, Part 1 and Henry IV, Part 2, in which he leads the rebellion against his former ally, who is now king. The Earl of Northumberland (hist) fights for the Lancastrians in Henry VI, Part 3. See also Seyward in Macbeth. The Earl of Oxford (hist) is a staunch Lancastrian, supporting Henry in Henry VI, Part 3, and Richmond in Richard III. Earl of Pembroke: The Earl of Pembroke (hist), together with Salisbury and Bigot, fear for the life of young Arthur, and later discover his body, in King John. The Earl of Pembroke (hist) is a non-speaking Yorkist in Henry VI, Part 3. The Earl of Richmond, later King Henry VII (hist) leads the rebellion against the cruel rule of Richard III, and eventually succeeds him as king. Earl Rivers (hist), is the brother to Queen Elizabeth in Richard III. He is arrested and executed on the orders of Richard and Buckingham. Earl of Salisbury: The Earl of Salisbury (hist) delivers bad news to Constance, in King John. The Earl of Salisbury (hist) remains loyal to King Richard in Richard II. The Earl of Salisbury (hist) fights for the king in Henry V. He is killed by the Master Gunner's Boy in Henry VI, Part 1. The Earl of Salisbury (hist) supports the Yorkists in Henry VI, Part 2. Earl of Surrey: The Earl of Surrey (hist) is a supporter of the king in Henry IV, Part 2. The Earl of Surrey (hist) is a son-in-law of Buckingham in Henry VIII. Earl of Warwick: The Earl of Warwick (1) (hist) is a supporter of the kings in Henry IV, Part 2 and Henry V. The Earl of Warwick (2) (hist) is an important player in the Wars of the Roses, firstly for the Yorkist party, and then for the Lancastrians. He appears in Henry VI, Part 1, Henry VI, Part 2, and Henry VI, Part 3. Earl of Westmoreland: The Earl of Westmoreland (1) (hist) is one of the leaders of the royal forces in Henry IV, Part 1, Henry IV, Part 2, and Henry V. The Earl of Westmoreland (2) (hist) fights for King Henry in Henry VI, Part 3. The Earl of Worcester (hist) is the brother of the Earl of Northumberland, and a leader of the rebel forces, in Henry IV, Part 1. Edgar is the worthy, legitimate son of Gloucester in King Lear. He disguises himself as "Poor Tom". Edmund: Edmund is the bastard son of Gloucester, and the most calculating of the villains, in King Lear. Edmund Mortimer (1) (hist) is a claimant to the English throne, and a leader of the rebel forces, in Henry IV, Part 1. Edmund Mortimer (2) (hist) explains the Yorkist claim to the crown to Richard Duke of York (1), in Henry VI, Part 1. Edward: Edward later King Edward IV (hist) is the eldest son of Richard, Duke of York (1) in Henry VI, Part 2 and Henry VI, Part 3 – in which he becomes king. He dies in Richard III. Prince Edward: Prince Edward (hist) is the son of Henry VI, who joins his mother Queen Margaret as a leader of the Lancastrian forces in Henry VI, Part 3. He is killed by the three Yorks (Edward, George and Richard). Prince Edward of York later King Edward V (hist) is the eldest son of Edward IV and Queen Elizabeth. He appears in Henry VI, Part 3, and is the elder of the two princes in the tower in Richard III. See also Ned. Egeon is a merchant from Syracuse, father of the Antipholus twins in The Comedy of Errors. He is under Solinus's sentence of death unless he can pay a thousand marks' fine. Egeus (myth) is the father of Hermia in A Midsummer Night's Dream. He wishes to have her married, against her will, to Demetrius. Sir Eglamour assists Silvia's escape from her father's palace, in The Two Gentlemen of Verona. Elbow is a dim-witted constable in Measure for Measure. Eleanor: Eleanor, Duchess of Gloucester (hist) is the wife of Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester in Henry VI, Part 2, in which she dabbles in witchcraft with disastrous results. Queen Eleanor (hist) is the mother of John in King John. She takes a liking to Philip the Bastard, and recruits him to John's court. Duchess of Gloucester (hist) is the widow of Thomas of Woodstock, Duke of Woodstock, and uncle to the King in Richard II. Her given name, Eleanor de Bohun, is not mentioned in the play. Queen Elizabeth (hist) is a suitor to, and then queen to, Edward IV in Henry VI, Part 3 and Richard III. She is a major character in the later play, and a foil to Richard. Ely: The Bishop of Ely (1) (hist) conspires with the Archbishop of Canterbury in the opening scene of Henry V. The Bishop of Ely (2) (hist) ultimately shows his opposition to Richard, in Richard III. Emmanuel the Clerk of Chatham (fict) is murdered by Jack Cade's rebels in Henry VI, Part 2. Emilia: Emilia is the wife of Iago in Othello. She steals Desdemona's handkerchief for Iago. At the end of the play – too late to save Desdemona – she realises Iago's villainy, and exposes him, but is then murdered by him. Emilia is Hippolyta's sister in The Two Noble Kinsmen. Both title characters fall in love with her, leading to mortal conflict. Emilia is a lady attending on Hermione, both at court and in prison, in The Winter's Tale. See also Aemilia. For Emillius see Aemilius. An English Doctor is a minor character in Macbeth. Enobarbus (hist & hist) is a major character in Antony and Cleopatra: a follower of Antony who later abandons him to join Caesar. Ephesus: Antipholus of Ephesus, twin of Antipholus of Syracuse – with whom he is often confused, is a central character in The Comedy of Errors. Dromio of Ephesus, servant to Antipholus of Ephesus and twin of Dromio of Syracuse – with whom he is often confused, is a central character in The Comedy of Errors. See also Solinus, who is Duke of Ephesus. Epilogue: An Epilogue and a Prologue (possibly the same player) appear in The Two Noble Kinsmen. An Epilogue and a Prologue (possibly the same player) appear in Henry VIII. An Epilogue (possibly the character Rumour) appears in Henry IV, Part 2. A number of characters speak epilogues, including Chorus (in Henry V), Gower, Prospero and Rosalind. See also Prologue and Chorus. Eros is a follower of Antony in Antony and Cleopatra, who kills himself rather than obey Antony's order to kill him. Sir Thomas Erpingham (hist) is an officer in the English army in Henry V. Escalus: Escalus, Prince of Verona tries to keep the peace between Montague and Capulet, in Romeo and Juliet. Escalus is a lord involved in the government of Vienna, in Measure for Measure. Escanes is a minor character in Pericles, Prince of Tyre. He converses with Helicanus about the strange death of Antiochus and his daughter. The Earl of Essex (hist) is a minor character in King John. Sir Hugh Evans is a Welsh priest in The Merry Wives of Windsor. He is challenged to a duel by Caius. He plays a fairy in the final act. Exeter: The Duke of Exeter (1) (hist) is an uncle of Henry V. He acts as emissary to the French King in Henry V. He has a more choric role in Henry VI, Part 1. The Duke of Exeter (2) (hist) is a Lancastrian leader in Henry VI, Part 3. Sir Piers of Exton (fict) murders the deposed King Richard in Richard II. F Fabian is a servant to Olivia, and one of the conspirators against Malvolio, in Twelfth Night. A Fairy flirts with Puck in A Midsummer Night's Dream. Sir John Falstaff (fict, but see Sir John Oldcastle and Sir John Fastolfe) is a central character of Henry IV, Part 1, Henry IV, Part 2, and The Merry Wives of Windsor. In the Henry plays, he is "bad angel" to prince Hal, and is eventually rejected by him. He is the lecherous gull of the title characters in Merry Wives. His death is reported in Henry V, although he is not a character in that play. He is perhaps the most famous supporting role in all of Shakespeare. Fang is a constable in Henry IV, part 2. Sir John Fastolfe (hist) is a coward, stripped of his garter in Henry VI, Part 1. A Father who has killed his son at the Battle of Towton appears in Henry VI, Part 3. See also Son. Faulconbridge: Lady Faulconbridge (fict) confesses to her son, the Bastard, that Richard the Lionheart, and not her husband, was his true father, in King John. Philip (the Bastard) Faulconbridge (fict) is a central character in King John, the bravest and most articulate of John's supporters. Robert Faulconbridge (fict) is the legitimate brother of the bastard in King John. He inherits his father's property. Feeble is pressed into military service by Falstaff in Henry IV, Part 2. Ferdinand: Ferdinand is the only son of Alonzo (King of Naples) in The Tempest. Ferdinand falls in love with Miranda, and his love is tested by Prospero. See also King of Navarre, whose first name is Ferdinand. Fenton is a suitor to Anne Page in The Merry Wives of Windsor. Feste is the clown and musician in Twelfth Night: a foil for Malvolio. For Fidele see Imogen, who calls herself Fidele when disguised as a boy. For "First...", see entries under the rest of the character's designation (e.g. Murderer for First Murderer, Player for First Player, etc.). Three Fishermen befriend the shipwrecked Pericles, at Pentapolis, in Pericles, Prince of Tyre. Lord Fitzwalter (hist) is among those who challenges Aumerle in Richard II. Flaminius is a servant of Timon, sent – unsuccessfully – to seek money for his master from Lucullus, in Timon of Athens. Flavius: Flavius is the loyal steward to Timon in Timon of Athens, who tries – and fails – to prevent his master's collapse into poverty. Flavius and Marullus are tribunes of the people, dismayed by the enthusiasm of the commoners for the return of Caesar, in the opening scene of Julius Caesar. Fleance is the son of Banquo in Macbeth. He escapes when his father is murdered. The Duke of Florence discusses the progress of the war with the two French Lords, the brothers Dumaine, in All's Well That Ends Well. Florizel is the son of Polixines, and therefore prince of Bohemia, in The Winter's Tale. He elopes with Perdita when his father prevents their marriage. The Fool is a recurring (though not continuous) character throughout the canon (see: Shakespearian fool): The Fool serves as a foil for the King in King Lear. A Fool appears briefly in Timon of Athens. See also Feste, Touchstone. See also Clown. Fluellen (fict) is a Welsh captain in Henry V. Francis Flute is a bellows-mender in A Midsummer Night's Dream. He plays Thisbe in Pyramus and Thisbe. Ford: Master Ford is a central character in The Merry Wives of Windsor. He suspects his wife of infidelity with Sir John Falstaff. He tests Falstaff in disguise, calling himself Master Brook. Mistress Ford, wife of Master Ford, is a title character of The Merry Wives of Windsor. She pretends to accept Falstaff's overtures of love to her. A Forester, a minor character, accompanies the Princess and her ladies in waiting on a shooting expedition in Love's Labour's Lost. Fortinbras is a prince of Norway in Hamlet. He is a peripheral figure throughout the play, but arrives to take over the throne of Denmark after the death of the Danish royal family in the final act. France: The Constable of France (hist) leads the French forces in Henry V. The Dauphin, later King Charles VII of France (hist) leads the French forces, with Joan, in Henry VI, Part 1. King of France: The King of France (myth) is the husband of Cordelia in King Lear. The King of France is cured by Helena, and in recompense he agrees to order Bertram to marry her, in All's Well That Ends Well. The King of France (hist) is Henry V's enemy in Henry V. King Lewis XI of France (hist), insulted by Edward IV's marriage to Lady Grey, allies himself with Warwick and Margaret in Henry VI, Part 3. King Philip of France (hist) allies himself with Constance in support of Arthur's claim, but later makes peace with John in King John. The Princess of France (hist) leads a diplomatic mission to Navarre and becomes romantically entangled with the King, in Love's Labour's Lost. The Queen of France (hist) appears in the last act of Henry V. Francis: Francis is a confused drawer in Henry IV, Part 1 and Henry IV, Part 2. Francis Flute is a bellows-mender in A Midsummer Night's Dream. He plays Thisbe in Pyramus and Thisbe. Friar Francis presides at the aborted marriage ceremony for Hero and Claudio, in Much Ado About Nothing. Francisca is a nun, senior to Isabella, in Measure for Measure. Francisco: Francisco is a soldier on watch at Elsinore, who appears briefly in the opening moments of Hamlet. Francisco is a lord, a follower of Alonso, in The Tempest. For Frank see Master Ford, whose first name is Frank. Duke Frederick is the villain (the usurper of Duke Senior) in As You Like It. A Frenchman, a Dutchman and a Spaniard are guests of Philario, in Cymbeline. Friar (title): Friar Francis presides at the aborted marriage ceremony for Hero and Claudio, in Much Ado About Nothing. Friar John is a minor character, who is unable to deliver a crucial letter from Friar Laurence to Romeo, in Romeo and Juliet. Friar Laurence is confessor and confidant to Romeo in Romeo and Juliet. He instigates the unsuccessful plot involving the potion drunk by Juliet. Friar Peter assists Isabella and Mariana in the final act of Measure for Measure. Friar Thomas leads an order of friars, and assists Vincentio to disguise himself as a friar, in Measure for Measure. For The Friar or Friar Lodowick in Measure for Measure, see Vincentio. Two Friends of the Jailer bring him news of his pardon, in The Two Noble Kinsmen. For Friz, see Countrywomen. Froth is a foolish gentleman, among those arrested and brought before Angelo by Elbow, in Measure for Measure. G Gadshill (fict) is the "setter" of the Gadshill robbery in Henry IV, Part 1. For Gaius see Caius. Gallus (hist) is a follower of Caesar in Antony and Cleopatra. Gaoler: A Gaoler has custody of Egeon in The Comedy of Errors. Several Gaolers, one a speaking role, guard Mortimer in Henry VI, Part 1. See also Jailer. For Ganymede see Rosalind. Gardener: A gardener (with his men) encounters the Queen in Richard II. Two gardener's men, with the gardener, encounter the Queen in Richard II. Gardiner: Gardiner (hist) is the King's secretary, later Bishop of Winchester, and Cranmer's chief enemy, in Henry VIII. Gardiner's Page is a minor role in Henry VIII. Gargrave (hist) fights for the English in France in Henry VI, Part 1. The Host of the Garter is the practical-joking innkeeper in The Merry Wives of Windsor. John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster (hist), uncle to King Richard and father to Bolingbroke, dies in Richard II, having delivered his famous "This sceptred isle..." speech. Gentleman: A gentleman discusses the plight of mad Ophelia with Horatio in Hamlet. A gentleman agrees to present Helena's petition to the King of France, in the last act of All's Well That Ends Well. A gentleman reports the arrival of knights to battle for the love of Emilia, in The Two Noble Kinsmen. Two gentlemen (fict) are ransomed for a thousand crowns each in Henry VI, Part 2. Two gentlemen open the action of Cymbeline, explaining the backstory. Two gentlemen of Ephesus witness Cerimon's discovery of Thaisa, in Pericles, Prince of Tyre. Two gentlemen of Mytilene are converted from lives of debauchery by Marina's preaching, in Pericles, Prince of Tyre. Two gentlemen (fict) are mid-sized roles in Henry VIII. Their conversations perform a choric function at the execution of Buckingham and (together with a third gentleman) at the coronation of Anne Bullen. "Two or three" gentlemen of Tyre, one a speaking role, appear in the shipboard reconciliation scene between Pericles and Marina in Pericles, Prince of Tyre. Four gentlemen, with Montano, witness the dispersal of the Turkish fleet and Othello's arrival at Cyprus in Othello. A number of gentlemen (possibly three, although it impossible to know for certain how Shakespeare intended them to be doubled) are speaking roles in King Lear. Gentlewoman: A Gentlewoman attending on Lady Macbeth witnesses her sleepwalking, with the Scottish Doctor, in Macbeth. A Gentlewoman attends on Virgilia, in Coriolanus George: George (fict) is a follower of Jack Cade in Henry VI, Part 2. George, Duke of Clarence (hist) is the younger brother of Edward and the elder brother of Richard in Henry VI, Part 3 and Richard III. He is often known as "purjured Clarence", having broken his oath to Warwick and fighting instead for his brother's faction. He is eventually drowned in a butt of malmesy wine. George Seacoal is a member of the Watch in Much Ado About Nothing. See also Master Page, whose first name is George. Gerald is a pedantic schoolmaster, who leads the Maying entertainments in The Two Noble Kinsmen. Queen Gertrude is the protagonist's mother in Hamlet. She has married Claudius. Ghost. The following characters appear as Ghosts. See the entries under their character name: Banquo Julius Caesar Old Hamlet in Cymbeline: Sicilius Leonantus The Mother of Posthumus Two brothers of Posthumus and in Richard III: Dorset The Duke of Buckingham (2) Earl Rivers George, Duke of Clarence Grey Henry VI Lady Anne Lord Hastings Prince Edward Prince Edward of York Richard Duke of York (2) Antigonus in The Winter's Tale reports seeing the ghost of Hermione in a dream. For "Ghost characters" in the other sense – characters mentioned in stage directions but having no lines and playing no part in the action – see Ghost character. Ghost characters in that sense are not listed on this page. Girl (hist) in Richard III is the young daughter of the murdered Clarence. Glansdale (fict) fights for the English in France in Henry VI, Part 1. Owen Glendower (hist), a warrior and magician who tries the patience of Hotspur, leads the Welsh forces in the rebellion in Henry IV, Part 1. Gloucester: The Duchess of Gloucester (hist) is the widow of Thomas of Woodstock, Duke of Gloucester. His murder (before the play opens) drives much of the action of Richard II. The Earl of Gloucester is the father of Edgar and Edmund, who has his eyes put out by the Duke of Cornwall, in King Lear. Eleanor, Duchess of Gloucester (hist) is the wife of Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester in Henry VI, Part 2, in which she dabbles in witchcraft with disastrous results. Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester (hist) appears as a brother of Hal in Henry IV, Part 2 and Henry V. He is a much more important character as the protector in Henry VI, Part 1 and Henry VI, Part 2, in which he is murdered by his rivals. Richard, Duke of Gloucester, later Richard III (hist), brave but evil, is the third son of Richard, Duke of York (1). He is a fairly minor character in Henry VI, Part 2, is more prominent in Henry VI, Part 3, and is the title character – and murderer of many other characters – in Richard III. Gobbo: Launcelot Gobbo is a clown in The Merchant of Venice, a servant to Shylock, and later to Lorenzo. Old Gobbo, the blind old father of Launcelot Gobbo, is a clown in The Merchant of Venice. Goneril is the cruel eldest daughter in King Lear. She is married to the Duke of Albany. Gonzalo is a courtier to Alonzo in The Tempest. For Robin Goodfellow see Puck. Matthew Gough (hist) is an enemy of Jack Cade's rebels in Henry VI, Part 2. Governor: The Governor of Harfleur (hist) surrenders to Henry V. The Governor of Paris has an oath of allegiance administered to him by Gloucester (but has no lines of his own) in Henry VI, Part 1. Gower: Gower (fict) is a messenger to the Lord Chief Justice in Henry IV, Part 2. Gower (fict) is an English captain in Henry V. John Gower (hist) is the "Presenter", or narrator, of Pericles, Prince of Tyre. The Earl of Grandpre (hist), a French leader, makes an unduly optimistic speech on the morning of Agincourt, in Henry V. Gratiano: Gratiano is a hot-headed friend of Antonio and Bassanio in The Merchant of Venice. He marries Narissa. Gratiano is Brabantio's brother in Othello. Gravedigger. The First Gravedigger and the Second Gravedigger are clowns in Hamlet. Hamlet's conversation with the First Gravedigger over Yorick's skull is possibly the most famous scene in Shakespeare. Green (hist) is a favourite of Richard in Richard II. Gregory and Sampson, two men of the Capulet household, open the main action of Romeo and Juliet with their aggressive and lecherous banter. Gremio is an elderly suitor to Bianca in The Taming of the Shrew. Grey: Grey (hist) and Dorset (hist) are the two sons of Queen Elizabeth from her first marriage, who are arrested and executed on the orders of Buckingham and Richard in Richard III. Sir Thomas Grey (hist) is one of the three conspirators against the king's life (with Cambridge and Scroop) in Henry V. For Lady Grey see Queen Elizabeth. Griffith (hist) is a gentleman usher to Katherine, in Henry VIII. A groom of the King's stable (fict) visits the imprisoned Richard at Pontefract in Richard II. Grumio is a servant to Petruchio in The Taming of the Shrew. Guard/Guardsman: Several Guards (two of them minor speaking roles), together with Dercetus, discover the mortally wounded Antony in Antony and Cleopatra. Two Guards (or Guardsmen) keep an unsuccessful suicide watch over Cleopatra, in Antony and Cleopatra. Guiderius (also known as Polydore) is the true heir of the kingdom in Cymbeline, stolen away in infancy by Morgan, and brought up as Morgan's child. Guildenstern and Rozencrantz, in Hamlet, are two former friends of the prince, invited to the Danish court to spy on him. They eventually accompany Hamlet towards England, but he escapes while they continue with the journey, to their deaths. Sir Henry Guildford (hist) welcomes guests to Cardinal Wolsey's party, in Henry VIII. Gunner: The Master Gunner of Orleans leaves his boy in charge of the artillery, in Henry VI, Part 1. The Master Gunner's Boy kills Salisbury, in Henry VI, Part 1. James Gurney (fict) is a servant of Lady Faulconbridge, in King John. H A Haberdasher is verbally abused by Petruchio in The Taming of the Shrew. Hal, later King Henry V (sometimes called The Prince of Wales, Prince Henry or just Harry) (hist) is a central character in Henry IV, Part 1 and Henry IV, Part 2 and is the title character of Henry V. He has a closer relationship with Falstaff than with his father (Henry IV), but he eventually ascends the throne, rejects Falstaff, and leads the English to victory at Agincourt. Hamlet: Prince Hamlet (myth) is the central character of Hamlet. He is a prince of Denmark, called on to avenge his father's (Old Hamlet's) murder by Claudius. Old Hamlet (myth) is the father of the protagonist in Hamlet. His ghost appears to exhort Hamlet to revenge Old Hamlet's murder by Claudius. Harcourt is a messenger to the king in Henry IV, Part 2. The Governor of Harfleur (hist) surrenders to Henry in Henry V. Harry: Hotspur or Harry Percy (hist), brave and chivalrous but hot-headed and sometimes comical, is an important foil to Hal, and leader of the rebel forces, in Henry IV, Part 1. See also Hal, Bolingbroke. See also "Henry". Hastings: Hastings Pursuivant is a minor character who meets his namesake, Lord Hastings, in Richard III. Lord Hastings (hist) is the prime minister, beheaded on Richard's orders in Richard III. For Hecat see Hecate. Hecate is a leader of the witches in Macbeth. Hector (myth), son of Priam, is the Trojans' champion in Troilus and Cressida. Helen: Helen (myth), the mythological Helen of Troy, is the wife of Menelaus who has been stolen away by Paris, and is thefore the cause of the wars fought in Troilus and Cressida. Helen is a lady attending on Imogen in Cymbeline. See also Nell. See also Helena. Helena: Helena, the ward of the Countess of Rousillon, is the central character of All's Well That Ends Well. She is married to Bertram against his will, but she eventually wins his love. Helena, formerly loved by Demetrius, has been rejected by him at the start of A Midsummer Night's Dream. Helenus (myth) is a priest, and brother of Hector and Troilus. He is a minor character in Troilus and Cressida. Helicanus is a lord in Pericles, trusted with the government of Tyre during Pericles' absences. Henry: Bolingbroke, later King Henry IV (hist) leads a revolt against King Richard in Richard II. He is the title character of Henry IV, Part 1 and Henry IV, Part 2, which chart the rebellions against him by the Percy faction, and his difficult relationship with his eldest son, Hal. Hal, later King Henry V (sometimes called The Prince of Wales, Prince Henry or just Harry) (hist) is a central character in Henry IV, Part 1 and Henry IV, Part 2 and is the title character of Henry V. King Henry VI (hist), the title character of Henry VI, Part 1, Henry VI, Part 2, and Henry VI, Part 3, is a weak and ineffectual king, and the plays chart the rebellions against him, leading to his overthrow and murder. The Earl of Richmond, later King Henry VII (hist) leads the rebellion against the cruel rule of Richard III, and eventually succeeds him as king. King Henry VIII (hist) is the central character of the play Henry VIII, portrayed as a wise and strong ruler. The Earl of Northumberland, Henry Percy, (hist) is an important character in Richard II, where he is Bolingbroke's chief ally, and in Henry IV, Part 1 and Henry IV, Part 2, in which he leads the rebellion against his former ally, who is now king. Prince Henry (hist) appears towards the end of King John, as successor to the title character. Sir Henry Guildford (hist) welcomes guests to Cardinal Wolsey's party, in Henry VIII. See also Hotspur (whose real name is Henry Percy). See also "Harry" Herald: A Herald calls for a champion to face Edmund in King Lear. A Herald brings news to Theseus of noble prisoners taken in battle, including the title characters of The Two Noble Kinsmen. A Herald announces victory celebrations in Othello. A Herald announces Coriolanus' return to Rome in Coriolanus. Two Heralds one French, one English, claim victory before the walls of Angers in King John. Neither of them persuades Hubert. Sir Walter Herbert is a follower of Richmond in Richard III. Hermia loves Lysander, and is loved by Demetrius, at the start of A Midsummer Night's Dream. Hermione is the wife of Leontes in The Winter's Tale. She suffers as a result of his mistaken belief in her infidelity. At the end of the play she appears to return from the dead, having appeared as a statue. Hero falls in love with Claudio in Much Ado About Nothing. She is wronged by Don John and Borachio, and is abandoned at the altar, and left for dead, by Claudio. Hippolyta (myth) is a leader of the Amazons, who is the bride of Theseus in A Midsummer Night's Dream and The Two Noble Kinsmen. Holofernes is a pedantic schoolmaster in Love's Labour's Lost. He plays Judas Maccabeus in the Pageant of the Nine Worthies. Horatio is a student, and a friend and confidant of the protagonist in Hamlet. Thomas Horner (fict) fights a duel with his apprentice Peter Thump in Henry VI, Part 2. Hortensio is a friend to Petruchio and suitor to Bianca in The Taming of the Shrew. He disguises himself as a music teacher in order to pursue Bianca, but ultimately loses her and marries a rich widow. Hortensius is a servant, sent to extract payment of a debt from Timon in Timon of Athens. Host: The Host of the Garter is the practical-joking innkeeper in The Merry Wives of Windsor. The Host of Julia's lodgings brings the disguised Julia into Proteus' company, in The Two Gentlemen of Verona. Hostess: The Hostess of an alehouse throws out the unruly Sly, amidst an argument about broken glasses in the induction to The Taming of the Shrew. See also Mistress Quickly, who is often referred to as "hostess". For Hostilius in Timon of Athens, see Strangers. Hotspur or Harry Percy (hist), brave and chivalrous but hot-headed and sometimes comical, is an important foil to Hal, and leader of the rebel forces, in Henry IV, Part 1. Hubert (hist) is a henchman of the king in King John. He resolves to put out Arthur's eyes, on John's orders, but eventually relents. Hugh: Hugh Oatcake is a member of the Watch in Much Ado About Nothing. Hugh Rebeck, Simon Catling and James Soundpost are minor characters, musicians, in Romeo and Juliet. Sir Hugh Evans is a Welsh priest in The Merry Wives of Windsor. He is challenged to a duel by Caius. He plays a fairy in the final act. Sir Hugh Mortimer (hist) is an uncle of Richard Duke of York (1) in Henry VI, Part 3. Hume, with Southwell, Jourdain and Bolingbroke, are the supernatural conspirators with Eleanor Duchess of Gloucester in Henry VI, Part 2. Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester (hist) appears as a brother of Hal in Henry IV, Part 2 and Henry V. He is a much more important character as the protector in Henry VI, Part 1 and Henry VI, Part 2, in which he is murdered by his rivals. The Earl of Huntingdon (hist) is a non-speaking follower of the king in Henry V. Several Huntsmen, two of whom are speaking roles, accompany the Lord in the induction to The Taming of the Shrew. Hymen (myth), the Greek god of marriage, is a character in As You Like It, and is a non-speaking role in the opening scene of The Two Noble Kinsmen. I For Iachimo see Jachimo. Iago is the villain (and the main character, measured by the number of lines spoken) of Othello. Alexander Iden (hist) kills Jack Cade in Henry VI, Part 2. Imogen is the daughter of the king in Cymbeline. Her husband, Posthumus, wrongly believes she has been unfaithful and orders her killed. Iras is an attendant on Cleopatra, in Antony and Cleopatra. She dies following a kiss from Cleopatra. Iris (myth) is depicted by a masquer in The Tempest. Isabella (sometimes addressed as Isabel) is the virtuous central female character in Measure for Measure: a novice nun who pleads to Angelo for the life of her brother Claudio. For Isidore's Servant, see servant. J Jachimo is a villain in Cymbeline. He persuades Posthumus, wrongly, that he has slept with Posthumus' wife, Imogen. Jack: Jack Cade (hist) leads a proletarian rebellion in Henry VI, Part 2. See also John: especially Sir John Falstaff, who is often addressed as Jack. Jacquenetta is described as a light wench, and is the love interest of many comic characters in Love's Labour's Lost. Jailer: Two Jailers guard the imprisoned Posthumus in Cymbeline. A Jailer keeps Palamon and Arcite in custody in The Two Noble Kinsmen. The Jailer's Brother accompanies his niece in her madness, in The Two Noble Kinsmen. The Jailer's Daughter develops an obsessive love for Palamon, and releases him from prison, in The Two Noble Kinsmen. She descends into madness. A sympathetic Jailer guards and commiserates with Antonio in The Merchant of Venice. See also Gaoler. Jaques : Jaques is a melancholy lord in As You Like It. Jaques DeBoys is a brother to Oliver and Orlando in As You Like It. James: James Gurney (fict) is a servant of Lady Faulconbridge, in King John. James Soundpost, Simon Catling and Hugh Rebeck are minor characters, musicians, in Romeo and Juliet. Sir James Blunt is a supporter of Richmond in Richard III. Sir James Tyrrell (hist) is employed to murder the princes in the tower in Richard III. Jamy (fict) is a Scottish captain in Henry V. Jane Nightwork (fict) is a married libertine, presumably, remembered wistfully by Shallow and Falstaff in Henry IV, Part 2. Jessica is Shylock's daughter in The Merchant of Venice. She elopes with Lorenzo and converts to Christianity. A Jeweller sells a jewel to Timon in Timon of Athens. Joan la Pucelle (hist), better known to history as Joan of Arc, leads the Dauphin's forces against Talbot and the English in Henry VI, Part 1. Shakespeare presents her as an adulteress who fakes pregnancy in order to avoid being burnt at the stake. John: Don John is the bastard brother of Don Pedro, and is the chief villain in Much Ado About Nothing. Friar John is a minor character, who is unable to deliver a crucial letter from Friar Laurence to Romeo, in Romeo and Juliet. John is a servingman of Mistress Ford: he carries Falstaff to Datchet Mead in a buck-basket, in The Merry Wives of Windsor. John Bates (fict) is a soldier the English army in Henry V. John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster (hist) is uncle to King Richard and father to Bolingbroke in Richard II. John Gower (hist) is the "Presenter", or narrator, of Pericles, Prince of Tyre. John Rugby is a servant to Caius in The Merry Wives of Windsor. John Talbot is the son of Sir John Talbot. They die together bravely in battle in Henry VI, Part 1. King John (hist) is the title character of King John: a king whose throne is under threat from the claim of his young nephew, Arthur. Prince John of Lancaster (hist) is the younger brother of Prince Hal in Henry IV, Part 1, Henry IV, Part 2, and Henry V. He is also the Duke of Bedford who is Regent of France in Henry VI, Part 1. Sir John Blunt is a supporter of the king in Henry IV, Part 2. Sir John Coleville is a rebel captured by Falstaff in Henry IV, Part 2. Sir John Falstaff (fict, but see Sir John Oldcastle and Sir John Fastolfe) is a central character of Henry IV, Part 1, Henry IV, Part 2, and The Merry Wives of Windsor. In the Henry plays, he is "bad angel" to prince Hal, and is eventually rejected by him. He is the lecherous gull of the title characters in Merry Wives. His death is reported in Henry V, although he is not a character in that play. He is (with Hamlet) one of the two most significant roles in Shakespeare. Sir John Fastolfe (hist) is a coward, stripped of his garter in Henry VI, Part 1. Sir John Montgomery (historically Thomas Montgomery) is a minor Yorkist character in Henry VI, Part 3. Sir John Mortimer (hist) is an uncle of Richard Duke of York (1) in Henry VI, Part 3. Sir John Stanley supervises Eleanor's penance in Henry VI, Part 2. Sir John Talbot (hist) is the leader of the English forces in France, and therefore the chief enemy of Joan, in Henry VI, Part 1. Joseph is a servant of Petruchio in The Taming of the Shrew. Jourdain, with Southwell, Hume and Bolingbroke, are the supernatural conspirators with Eleanor Duchess of Gloucester in Henry VI, Part 2. Julia is the faithful lover of Proteus, who follows him disguised as a young man and is dismayed to discover his infatuation with Silvia, in The Two Gentlemen of Verona. Juliet: Juliet is a title character in Romeo and Juliet. The daughter of Capulet, she falls in love with Romeo, the son of her father's enemy Montague, with tragic results. Juliet, lover of Claudio, becomes pregnant by him, leading to his death sentence, which begins the action of Measure for Measure. Julius Caesar (hist) is the title character of Julius Caesar, an Emperor of Rome who is stabbed in the Capitol, on the Ides of March. Junius Brutus and Sicinius Velutus, two of the tribunes of the people, are the hero's chief political enemies in Coriolanus, and prove more effective than his military foes. Juno (myth) is presented by a masquer in The Tempest. Jupiter (myth) hears the pleas of the ghosts of Posthumus' family, in Cymbeline. Justice (title): A Justice is a minor role in the trial of Froth and Pompey, in Measure for Measure. The Lord Chief Justice (hist) is a dramatic foil to Falstaff in Henry IV, Part 2. Justice Shallow (fict) is an elderly landowner in Henry IV, Part 2 and The Merry Wives of Windsor. Justice Silence (fict) is an elderly friend of Justice Shallow in Henry IV, Part 2. K Kate: Kate Keepdown is a whore in Measure for Measure. See also Lady Percy. See also Katherine. Katharine/Katherine: Katharine (hist) is the French princess who marries Henry V. Katharine is a lady attending on the Princess of France, in Love's Labour's Lost. She becomes emotionally attached to Dumaine. Katherine (sometimes "Kate" or "Katerina Minola") is the "shrew" from the title of The Taming of the Shrew, who is "tamed" by Petruchio. Queen Katherine of Aragon (hist) is the first wife of King Henry in Henry VIII. She falls from grace, is divorced and dies. See also Kate. Keeper: A door keeper (fict) bars the entrance of Cranmer to the council chamber, in Henry VIII. A keeper (fict) gives Piers of Exton access to the imprisoned Richard in Richard II. Two keepers (fict) arrest the fugitive Henry in Henry VI, Part 3. The Earl of Kent is a follower of the King in King Lear who evades banishment by disguising himself as a servant, and calling himself Caius. King (title): First Player or Player King leads the company which visits Elsinore in Hamlet. He reads an excerpt as Priam, and plays the king in The Mousetrap. King Claudius is the uncle and stepfather of the prince in Hamlet. He has murdered his brother Old Hamlet, has taken over his crown, and has married his queen, Gertrude. King of France: The King of France (fict) is the husband of Cordelia in King Lear. The King of France is cured by Helena, and in recompense he agrees to order Bertram to marry her, in All's Well That Ends Well. The King of France (hist) is Henry's enemy in Henry V. The Dauphin, later King Charles VII of France (hist) leads the French forces, with Joan, in Henry VI, Part 1. King Lewis XI of France (hist), insulted by Edward IV's marriage to Lady Grey, allies himself with Warwick and Margaret in Henry VI, Part 3. King Philip of France (hist) allies himself with Constance in support of Arthur's claim, but later makes peace with John in King John. King Edward: Edward later King Edward IV (hist) is the eldest son of Richard, Duke of York (1) in Henry VI, Part 2 and Henry VI, Part 3 – in which he becomes king. He dies in Richard III. Prince Edward of York later King Edward V (hist) is the eldest son of Edward IV and Queen Elizabeth. He appears in Henry VI, Part 3, and is the elder of the two princes in the tower in Richard III. For King Hamlet see Old Hamlet. King Henry: Bolingbroke, later King Henry IV (hist) leads a revolt against King Richard in Richard II. He is the title character of Henry IV, Part 1 and Henry IV, Part 2 which chart the rebellions against him by the Percy faction, and his difficult relationship with his eldest son, Hal. Hal, later King Henry V (sometimes called The Prince of Wales, Prince Henry or just Harry) (hist) is a central character in Henry IV, Part 1 and Henry IV, Part 2 and is the title character of Henry V. He has a closer relationship with Falstaff than with his father (Henry IV), but he eventually ascends the throne, rejects Falstaff, and leads the English to victory at Agincourt. King Henry VI (hist), the title character of Henry VI, Part 1, Henry VI, Part 2, and Henry VI, Part 3, is a weak and ineffectual king, and the plays chart the rebellions against him, leading to his overthrow and murder. The Earl of Richmond, later King Henry VII (hist) leads the rebellion against the cruel rule of Richard III, and eventually succeeds him as king. King Henry VIII (hist) is the central character of the play Henry VIII, portrayed as a wise and strong ruler. King John (hist) is the title character of King John: a king whose throne is under threat from the claim of his young nephew, Arthur. King Lear is the central character of King Lear. He divides his kingdom among his two elder daughters, is rejected by them, runs mad, and dies. The King of Navarre (hist) and his three noble companions, Berowne, Dumaine, and Longaville, vow to study and fast for three years, at the outset of Love's Labour's Lost. King Richard: King Richard II (hist) is the title character of Richard II: a king who is deposed and eventually murdered. Richard, Duke of Gloucester, later King Richard III (hist), brave but evil, is the third son of Richard, Duke of York (1). He is a fairly minor character in Henry VI, Part 2, is more prominent in Henry VI, Part 3, and is the title character in Richard III. For King of Sparta see Menelaus. For King of Troy see Priam. A number of characters are kings, including Alonso, Antiochus, Leontes, Oberon, Polixines and Simonides. Knight: Five knights, plus Pericles himself, compete in a tournament for the love of Thaisa, in Pericles, Prince of Tyre. Six knights, three of them attending Palamon, and three attending Arcite, appear in The Two Noble Kinsmen. Palamon's knights are speaking roles. A hundred knights, three of whom are speaking parts, and most of whom will inevitably be spoken of but never seen in performance, are followers of Lear in King Lear. References Bibliography Sources cited General references Anne Barton (ed.) New Penguin Shakespeare "The Tempest" Edward Burns (ed.) The Arden Shakespeare (3rd series) "King Henry VI Part 1" Andrew S. Cairncross (ed.) The Arden Shakespeare (2nd series) "King Henry VI Part 3" John D. Cox and Eric Rasmussen (eds.) The Arden Shakespeare (3rd series) "King Henry VI Part 3" T. W. Craik (ed.) The Arden Shakespeare (3rd series) "King Henry V" P. H. Davison (ed.) New Penguin Shakespeare "Henry IV Part One" P. H. Davison (ed.) New Penguin Shakespeare "Henry IV Part Two" Philip Edwards (ed.) New Penguin Shakespeare "Pericles" Bertrand Evans (ed.) The Signet Classic "The Two Gentlemen of Verona" Barbara Everett (ed.) Penguin Shakespeare "All's Well That Ends Well" R. A. Foakes (ed.) Penguin Shakespeare "Much Ado About Nothing" R. A. Foakes (ed.) Penguin Shakespeare "Troilus and Cressida" Charles R. Forker (ed.) The Adren Shakespeare (3rd series) "King Richard II" Antony Hammond (ed.) The Arden Shakespeare (2nd series) "King Richard III" Robert B. Heilman (ed.) The Signet Classic "The Taming of the Shrew" G.R. Hibbard (ed.) Penguin Shakespeare "Coriolanus" G. R. Hibbard (ed.) Penguin Shakespeare "Timon of Athens" E. A. J. Honigman (ed.) New Penguin Shakespeare "Richard III" E. A. J. Honigman (ed.) The Arden Shakespeare (2nd series) "King John" A. R. Humphreys (ed.) The Arden Shakespeare (2nd series) "King Henry IV Part 1" A. R. Humphreys (ed.) The Arden Shakespeare (2nd series) "King Henry IV Part 2" G. K. Hunter (ed.) New Penguin Shakespeare "Macbeth" G. K. Hunter (ed.) New Penguin Shakespeare "King Lear" David Scott Kastan (ed.) The Arden Shakespeare (3rd series) "King Henry IV Part 1" John Kerrigan (ed.) Penguin Shakespeare "Love's Labour's Lost" Ronald Knowles (ed.) The Arden Shakespeare (3rd series) "King Henry VI Part II" M. M. Mahood (ed.) New Penguin Shakespeare "Twelfth Night" Sonia Massai (ed.) Penguin Shakespeare "Titus Andronicus" Gordon McMullan (ed.) The Arden Shakespeare (3rd series) "King Henry VIII" Giorgio Melchiori (ed.) The Arden Shakespeare (3rd series) "The Merry Wives of Windsor" E. Moelwyn Merchant (ed.) New Penguin Shakespeare "The Merchant of Venice" Kenneth Muir (ed.) New Penguin Shakespeare "Othello" Kenneth Muir (ed.) The Arden Shakespeare (2nd series) "Macbeth" J. M. Nosworthy (ed.) New Penguin Shakespeare "Measure for Measure" H. J. Oliver (ed.) New Penguin Shakespeare "As You Like It" John Pitcher (ed.) Penguin Shakespeare "Cymbeline" Lois Potter (ed.) The Arden Shakespeare (3rd series) "The Two Noble Kinsmen" Norman Sanders (ed.) New Penguin Shakespeare "Julius Caesar" Ernest Schanzer (ed.) New Penguin Shakespeare "The Winter's Tale" T. J. B. Spencer (ed.) New Penguin Shakespeare "Romeo and Juliet" T. J. B. Spencer (ed.) New Penguin Shakespeare "Hamlet" Peter Ure (ed.) The Arden Shakespeare (2nd series) "King Richard II" Virginia Mason Vaughan and Alden T. Vaughan (eds.) The Arden Shakespeare (3rd series) "The Tempest" Stanley Wells (ed.) Penguin Shakespeare "The Comedy of Errors" Stanley Wells (ed.) New Penguin Shakespeare "A Midsummer Night's Dream" John Wilders (ed.) The Arden Shakespeare (3rd Series) "Antony and Cleopatra" External links Open Source Shakespeare character list: counting the number of lines for each character. Shakespearean characters: A-K Lists of theatre characters Lists of literary characters by writers

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical%20security

Physical security

Physical security describes security measures that are designed to deny unauthorized access to facilities, equipment and resources and to protect personnel and property from damage or harm (such as espionage, theft, or terrorist attacks). Physical security involves the use of multiple layers of interdependent systems that can include CCTV surveillance, security guards, protective barriers, locks, access control, perimeter intrusion detection, deterrent systems, fire protection, and other systems designed to protect persons and property. Overview Physical security systems for protected facilities are generally intended to: deter potential intruders (e.g. warning signs, security lighting and perimeter markings); detect intrusions and monitor/record intruders (e.g. intruder alarms and CCTV systems); and trigger appropriate incident responses (e.g. by security guards and police). It is up to security designers, architects and analysts to balance security controls against risks, taking into account the costs of specifying, developing, testing, implementing, using, managing, monitoring and maintaining the controls, along with broader issues such as aesthetics, human rights, health and safety, and societal norms or conventions. Physical access security measures that are appropriate for a high security prison or a military site may be inappropriate in an office, a home or a vehicle, although the principles are similar. Elements and design Deterrence methods The goal of deterrence methods is to convince potential attackers that a successful attack is unlikely due to strong defenses. The initial layer of security for a campus, building, office, or other physical space uses crime prevention through environmental design to deter threats. Some of the most common examples are also the most basic: warning signs or window stickers, fences, vehicle barriers, vehicle height-restrictors, restricted access points, security lighting and trenches. Physical barriers Physical barriers such as fences, walls, and vehicle barriers act as the outermost layer of security. They serve to prevent, or at least delay, attacks, and also act as a psychological deterrent by defining the perimeter of the facility and making intrusions seem more difficult. Tall fencing, topped with barbed wire, razor wire or metal spikes are often emplaced on the perimeter of a property, generally with some type of signage that warns people not to attempt entry. However, in some facilities imposing perimeter walls/fencing will not be possible (e.g. an urban office building that is directly adjacent to public sidewalks) or it may be aesthetically unacceptable (e.g. surrounding a shopping center with tall fences topped with razor wire); in this case, the outer security perimeter will be defined as the walls/windows/doors of the structure itself. Combination barriers Barriers are typically designed to defeat defined threats. This is part of building codes as well as fire codes. Apart from external threats, there are internal threats of fire, smoke migration as well as sabotage. The National Building Code of Canada, as an example, indicates the need to defeat external explosions with the building envelope, where they are possible, such as where large electrical transformers are located close to a building. High-voltage transformer fire barriers can be examples of walls designed to simultaneously defeat fire, ballistics and fragmentation as a result of transformer ruptures, as well as incoming small weapons fire. Similarly, buildings may have internal barriers to defeat weapons as well as fire and heat. An example would be a counter at a police station or embassy, where the public may access a room but talk through security glass to employees in behind. If such a barrier aligns with a fire compartment as part of building code compliance, then multiple threats must be defeated simultaneously, which must be considered in the design. Plastic deformation as a result of impact can knock loose, tear or squish passive fire protection (PFP) materials, particularly once the PFP materials are stressed. Some PFP materials can at times be very resilient, impact resistant and ductile at ambient. Once stressed by fire, that can change as free water dissipates at 100°C (212°F), and hydrates can be spent near 300°C (572°F), all of which is reached within minutes of a fire. Construction level binders, unlike certain refractories, can also degrade with heat, thus changing the physical properties of many PFP materials across different temperature ranges. None of that is normally a problem. In fact it is part of PFP designs for different reasons. But when combining PFP with ballistics or fragmentation, it is prudent to consider all relevant stresses in designing barriers that must (or may be presumed or advertised to) simultaneously defeat fire, followed by hose stream and impacts that come during a fire event. Natural surveillance Another major form of deterrence that can be incorporated into the design of facilities is natural surveillance, whereby architects seek to build spaces that are more open and visible to security personnel and authorized users, so that intruders/attackers are unable to perform unauthorized activity without being seen. An example would be decreasing the amount of dense, tall vegetation in the landscaping so that attackers cannot conceal themselves within it, or placing critical resources in areas where intruders would have to cross over a wide, open space to reach them (making it likely that someone would notice them). Security lighting Security lighting is another effective form of deterrence. Intruders are less likely to enter well-lit areas for fear of being seen. Doors, gates, and other entrances, in particular, should be well lit to allow close observation of people entering and exiting. When lighting the grounds of a facility, widely distributed low-intensity lighting is generally superior to small patches of high-intensity lighting, because the latter can have a tendency to create blind spots for security personnel and CCTV cameras. It is important to place lighting in a manner that makes it difficult to tamper with (e.g. suspending lights from tall poles), and to ensure that there is a backup power supply so that security lights will not go out if the electricity is cut off. The introduction of low-voltage LED-based lighting products has enabled new security capabilities, such as instant-on or strobing, while substantially reducing electrical consumption. Intrusion detection and electronic surveillance Alarm systems and sensors Alarm systems can be installed to alert security personnel when unauthorized access is attempted. Alarm systems work in tandem with physical barriers, mechanical systems, and security guards, serving to trigger a response when these other forms of security have been breached. They consist of sensors including perimeter sensors, motion sensors, contact sensors, and glass break detectors. However, alarms are only useful if there is a prompt response when they are triggered. In the reconnaissance phase prior to an actual attack, some intruders will test the response time of security personnel to a deliberately tripped alarm system. By measuring the length of time it takes for a security team to arrive (if they arrive at all), the attacker can determine if an attack could succeed before authorities arrive to neutralize the threat. Loud audible alarms can also act as a psychological deterrent, by notifying intruders that their presence has been detected. In some jurisdictions, law enforcement will not respond to alarms from intrusion detection systems unless the activation has been verified by an eyewitness or video. Policies like this one have been created to combat the 94–99 percent rate of false alarm activation in the United States. Video surveillance Surveillance cameras can be a deterrent when placed in highly visible locations and are useful for incident assessment and historical analysis. For example, if alarms are being generated and there is a camera in place, security personnel assess the situation via the camera feed. In instances when an attack has already occurred and a camera is in place at the point of attack, the recorded video can be reviewed. Although the term closed-circuit television (CCTV) is common, it is quickly becoming outdated as more video systems lose the closed circuit for signal transmission and are instead transmitting on IP camera networks. Video monitoring does not necessarily guarantee a human response. A human must be monitoring the situation in real time in order to respond in a timely manner; otherwise, video monitoring is simply a means to gather evidence for later analysis. However, technological advances like video analytics are reducing the amount of work required for video monitoring as security personnel can be automatically notified of potential security events. Access control Access control methods are used to monitor and control traffic through specific access points and areas of the secure facility. This is done using a variety of systems including CCTV surveillance, identification cards, security guards, biometric readers, and electronic/mechanical control systems such as locks, doors, turnstiles and gates. Mechanical access control systems Mechanical access control systems include turnstiles, gates, doors, and locks. Key control of the locks becomes a problem with large user populations and any user turnover. Keys quickly become unmanageable, often forcing the adoption of electronic access control. Electronic access control systems Electronic access control manages large user populations, controlling for user life cycles times, dates, and individual access points. For example, a user's access rights could allow access from 0700h to 1900h Monday through Friday and expire in 90 days. These access control systems are often interfaced with turnstiles for entry control in buildings to prevent unauthorized access. The use of turnstiles also reduces the need for additional security personnel to monitor each individual entering the building allowing faster throughput. An additional sub-layer of mechanical/electronic access control protection is reached by integrating a key management system to manage the possession and usage of mechanical keys to locks or property within a building or campus. Identification systems and access policies Another form of access control (procedural) includes the use of policies, processes and procedures to manage the ingress into the restricted area. An example of this is the deployment of security personnel conducting checks for authorized entry at predetermined points of entry. This form of access control is usually supplemented by the earlier forms of access control (i.e. mechanical and electronic access control), or simple devices such as physical passes. Security personnel Security personnel play a central role in all layers of security. All of the technological systems that are employed to enhance physical security are useless without a security force that is trained in their use and maintenance, and which knows how to properly respond to breaches in security. Security personnel perform many functions: patrolling facilities, administering electronic access control, responding to alarms, and monitoring and analyzing video footage. See also Alarm management Artificial intelligence for video surveillance Biometric device Biometrics Boundaries of Security Report Computer security Door security Executive protection Guard tour patrol system Information security Logical security Perimeter intrusion detection system Physical Security Professional Security alarm Security company Security convergence Security engineering Surveillance High-voltage transformer fire barriers References Security Crime prevention Public safety National security Warning systems Security engineering Perimeter security

33714574

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Eglin%20Air%20Force%20Base

History of Eglin Air Force Base

Eglin Air Force Base, a United States Air Force base located southwest of Valparaiso, Florida, was established in 1935 as the Valparaiso Bombing and Gunnery Base. It is named in honor of Lieutenant Colonel Frederick I. Eglin (1891–1937), who was killed in a crash of his Northrop A-17 pursuit aircraft on a flight from Langley to Maxwell Field, Alabama. Eglin was the home of the Air Armament Center (AAC) and is one of three product centers in the Air Force Materiel Command (AFMC). Creation Valparaiso Airport was created in 1933, when an arrowhead-shaped parcel of was cleared for use as an airdrome. Two unpaved runways, with a supply house at their intersection, were in use by 1935. "On 1 March 1935, application was made for a FERA grant to pave the runways and to build an office, a barracks 30 by 120, a mess hall and kitchen, and an oil storage building..." On 4 August 1937, it was named Eglin Field in honor of Lt. Col. Frederick I. Eglin (1891–1937). A ceremony was held in June 1939 for the dedication and unveiling of a plaque honoring Valparaiso, Florida banker and businessman James E. Plew, as founder of Eglin Field. Embedded in the stone gate to the airfield, the plaque read "In memory of James E. Plew, 1862–1938, whose patriotism and generosity made this field possible." Captains Delmar T. Spivey and George W. Mundy, 23d Composite Group, Maxwell Field, Alabama, flew two Curtiss YP-37s to Eglin Field for engine testing in December 1939, the first of thousands of service tests. The Army Air Corps sought to increase gun capacity on existing planes, and contracted on 23 August 1939 for two P-36A Hawk conversions: an XP-36D, 38–174, with two .50-caliber guns in the nose and four .30-caliber wing guns, along with the XP-36E, 38–147, which had eight .30-caliber guns in the wings, like British fighters. Both were at Wright Field by October, and after tests at the Eglin proving ground, the XP-36D’s armament was chosen for the future Curtiss XP-46 and P-40B Warhawk types. World War II World War II showed the need for a proving ground for aircraft armament at Eglin. In May 1940, President Franklin D. Roosevelt transmitted to congress a letter, with his approval, from Budget Director Harold D. Smith, asking an appropriation of to purchase of private land within the Choctawhatchee National Forest boundary. The U.S. Forestry ceded to the War Department the Choctawhatchee National Forest on 18 October 1940. Hunters had to be reminded regularly that the base reservation was now off-limits in 1941–1942 and there was some local resentment at the handover. On 15 May 1941, the Air Corps Proving Ground (later the Air Proving Ground Command, on 1 April 1942) was activated, and Eglin became the site for gunnery training for Army Air Forces fighter pilots, as well as for aircraft testing. The 23rd Composite Group moved from Orlando to Eglin Field, 1 July 1941. It comprised the 1st Pursuit Squadron, the 54th Bombardment Squadron (M), the 24th Bombardment Squadron (L), the 54th School Squadron, the 61st Air Base Group, and the 3rd Gunnery and Bombing Range Detachment. On 16 August 1940, the Okaloosa News-Journal, Crestview, Florida, said that the Southern Bell Telephone Company was placing a line to connect the Eglin Field Army headquarters to the company line at Holt, Florida. The newspaper also said that President Franklin Roosevelt had approved a plan on 14 August for a Works Projects Administration (WPA) project for improvements at Eglin. A Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) camp was erected at Valparaiso, Florida, from November 1940 for the CCC workers engaged in base construction. On 1 October 1940, the installation was named the Eglin Field Military Reservation due to its importance to the Air Corps. Work on Auxiliary Field 1 began 27 November 1940. Clearing and grading for Auxiliary Field No.2 began 9 January, Auxiliary Field No. 3 on 23 January, and allocated for the grading and paving of fields 1, 3, 5, and 6 on 24 April 1941. The Louisville and Nashville Railroad laid a siding in Crestview, Florida, for oil tankcars supplying the Asphault Products Company for the paving job of the new airfields. Trucks operated round the clock to offload the tankcars. Congressman Robert L. F. Sikes of Crestview in mid-April 1941 announced appropriations for construction and installation of water, sewage, electrical facilities, sidewalks, roads, fences, parking areas, landscaping and for the construction of a sewage disposal plant. Submitted to the WPA headquarters in Washington, D.C., in late March, the request received presidential approval in April. Work continued apace on some projects on a 24-hour-a-day basis. Almost would be spent on construction at Eglin during the four years, 1941–1944. A housing shortage was partially eased by the construction of 100 units of the Plew Heights Defense Housing Project near Valparaiso for civil service employees and enlisted personnel. The Federal Works Agency, Division of Defense Housing, awarded the contract for the task to the Paul A. Miller Construction Company of Leesburg, Florida, on 5 May 1941, with construction beginning on 8 May. The 11 November 1941 deadline for completion was beaten by almost a month. Eglin Field was designated as the Air Corps Proving Ground on 19 May 1941. The Air Proving Ground Command was activated on 1 April 1942. In June 1941, the Officers Club of Eglin Field arranged to take over the Valparaiso Inn, Valparaiso, Florida, erected in 1924 by James E. Plew, as the "O Club". Doolittle Raiders would later lodge here during their training at Eglin. A recreation center for enlisted men was opened in Crestview on Saturday 21 June 1941, through the efforts of the Community Recreation Council, the Works Progress Administration, and the Okaloosa Progressive Association. In November 1941, the 97th Engineer Battalion, "consisting of approximately 1,000 colored troops under the leadership of white officers," were transferred from Camp Blanding, Florida, to Eglin Field. The battalion, under the command of Maj. Benjamin C. J. Fowlkes, made up largely of Selective Service trainees, and activated 1 June 1941, was "engaged in clearing ranges and auxiliary flying fields and also in constructing and maintaining roads on the huge Eglin Field Reservation." The unit was expected to return to Camp Blanding upon completion of its task. A new United Services Organization (USO) recreation facility for enlisted men opened in Valparaiso in February 1942, with the first formal dance held on Friday 27 February. On 10 March 1942, the first test flight of a second batch of Kettering-General Motors A-1 flying bombs was conducted at Eglin Field but crashed. Doolittle Raiders Eglin was the primary training location for the Doolittle Raid on the Japanese mainland. The 24 crews selected and led by Lieutenant Colonel James "Jimmy" Doolittle picked up modified North American B-25B Mitchell medium bombers in Minneapolis, Minnesota, and flew them to Eglin beginning on 1 March 1942. "9–25 March: Lieutenant Colonel James Doolittle and a B-25 detachment of 72 officers and 75 enlisted men from Lexington County Airport, Columbia, South Carolina, were at Eglin Field in rehearsals for the Tokyo raid." Wartime testing Operational suitability tests were conducted with a pair of P-38F Lightnings, 41-7536 and 41-7612, between 7 August 1942 and 26 January 1943. On 29 January 1943, the sole XB-41, a conversion of a Consolidated B-24D Liberator, into a gunship, was delivered to Eglin Field. Guns were added which brought the total armament to fourteen 0.50-inch machine guns. Tests indicated that the center of gravity was improperly located, making the aircraft unstable. On 21 March 1943, the Army declared the XB-41 as being operationally unsuitable, and plans for thirteen YB-41 Liberator conversions were cancelled. Consolidated worked on the prototype, equipped the aircraft with wide-blade propellers and subjected the plane to a weight-reduction program. On 28 July 1943, the XB-41 was returned to Eglin for more tests. Testing of the first B-25 Mitchell armed with cannon was completed by the Air Proving Ground Command on 26 March 1943. It had first flown 2 October 1942. B-25C-1, 41-13296, c/n 82-5931, the final airframe of the -1 production block, was modified as the XB-25G prototype, fitted with a 75-mm M4 cannon which was long. The transparent nose was replaced with a shortened armored solid nose that reduced overall length to . The cannon was mounted in a cradle in the lower left-hand side of the nose, which extended underneath the pilot's seat with a spring mechanism forming part of the gun mount to take up the recoil. The cannon-armed Mitchell would enjoy success in the Southwest Pacific theatre. On 25 April 1943, the first women arrived at Eglin, comprising two officers and 149 enrolled members as part of the 118th WAAC Post Headquarters Company. In June 1943, in-flight refueling trials were conducted at Eglin with a Consolidated B-24D Liberator modified as a tanker and a Boeing B-17E Flying Fortress as a receiver aircraft by Pennsylvania Central Airlines with the assistance of Flight Refuelling Limited engineers from the United Kingdom. The B-17 received the fuel through a grapple system mounted in the tail gunners position. Worst accident On 12 July 1943, Eglin suffered its worst loss of life when 17 personnel were killed in an explosives test at ~1700 hrs. Wartime censorship and the fact that 15 of the 17 were airmen of the African-American-staffed 867th Aviation Engineering Battalion contributed to the accident receiving virtually no publicity. The identities of the dead, including the two white officers supervising, were never released, and only one small newspaper article was published mentioning the incident. A documentary, The Eglin 17, debuted at the 2009 African American Heritage Month luncheon at the Eglin Air Force Base Officer's Club on 18 February 2009, providing the story of the forgotten accident. "The cause and circumstances surrounding the incident remain 'clouded in mystery,' according to the documentary," although Lt. Col. Allen Howser (Ret.), featured in the documentary, recalled that it was part of an exercise to test fire a newly acquired explosive. Additional testing Thirteen YP-61 Black Widow night fighter service test models were delivered to the Army's Material Command between August and September 1943. The first of three YPs delivered to the Air Proving Ground Command at Eglin Field arrived in the first week of September for operational suitability tests. For the P-61 Black Widow night fighter, the National Research Committee conducted tests on various paint schemes. Three aircraft were used, one in standard olive drab and grey, one in matte black as used by the British and the Germans, and one in gloss black. These were flown through a barrage of searchlights over Fort Barrancas where the olive drab and matte black planes were easily spotted. They did not spot the glossy black paint scheme. The searchlights had failed to detect it. By late 1943, Maj. Gen. Henry H. Arnold directed Brig. Gen. Grandison Gardner's electronic engineers at Eglin Field, Florida, to outfit war-weary bombers with automatic pilots so that they could be remotely controlled. This was the preliminary work for the Operation Aphrodite flying bomb drone missions in Europe in 1944. When the Army Air Force reestablished the all-black 477th Bombardment Group (Medium) to train in North American B-25 Mitchells in January 1944, "The leaders of the Army Air Corps [sic] and the War Department had no more interest in black pilots commanding bombers than there had been in the program that put African-Americans into the cockpits of sleek fighter aircraft. The 477th Bombardment Group was formed because of an undiminished public pressure exerted by African-American leaders, newspapers, unions, and civic groups." Gunners were trained at Eglin Field. The group "experienced some of the most bitter racism of any of the black units ever formed, constantly confronted with bigotry, segregation, and frustration from its activation to war's end. Between May 1944 and June 1945, the 477th endured thirty-eight unit moves." The effect was devastating to the success of the training program. This would culminate in the Freeman Field Mutiny in April 1945. African-American Colonel Benjamin O. Davis, Jr. replaced archly-bigoted Colonel Robert R. Selway as commanding officer at the 477th, on 1 July 1945, then located at Freeman Field, Indiana. Charles Lindbergh accompanied a flight from Eglin Field on 21 January 1944, in an experimental B-29, which arrived at the base for tests. A single vertical tail was tested on a Consolidated B-24D Liberator flown with a Douglas B-23 Dragon fin on 6 March 1943. Then the XB-24K, a B-24D-40-CO, 42-40234, modified by Ford, was flown 9 September 1943, with a high single tail fin, R-1830-65 engines, and Convair nose turret. Improvements in flight handling and field of fire for the rear guns was so great that the Eglin Field Proving Ground recommended on 26 April 1944, that all future B-24s be ordered with single tails. "In January 1944, Eglin became an important contributor to 'Operation Crossbow,' which called for the destruction of German missile launching facilities. Thousands worked around the clock for 12 days to construct a duplicate German V-1 facility. Subsequent bombing runs against this copycat facility taught Army Air Forces tacticians which attack angles and weapons would prove most effective against the German launchers." The site was created using hundreds of aerial photos of V-1 facilities that Gen. Carl A. Spaatz, commander of Allied air forces in England, and Lt. Gen. Doolittle, commander of the Eighth Air Force, had called for "a technical and tactical inquiry into the means, methods, and effectiveness of attacks." Gen. Arnold witnessed a test on 15 February. "Medium- and high-level bombing missions conducted on simulated V-1 targets proved conclusively that V-1 targets were indeed hard to hit. Fragmentation bombs seemed to be the most effective." In February 1944, tests were conducted with M-69 Incendiary cluster bombs against a crude replica Japanese wooden community-style target erected on a range. Various fusing delays were investigated. Lee J. Cobb, portraying an Army Air Force briefing officer, narrated one of the film reports on the project. Concrete and reinforced concrete roofs were much less likely to be penetrated by the six-pound M-69s. On 24 March 1944, the second of only two Vultee XP-54 experimental fighters made its only flight, a 20-minute hop from Downey, California, to San Bernardino Army Air Field, California, for USAAF acceptance, but suffered a failed Lycoming engine en route. The P-54 project was canceled and the airframe grounded to support the first prototype at Wright Field, Ohio. The swiveling nose of the airframe was sent to Eglin Field for armament tests, although the weapons were never fired in the air. From March 1944, the Wright Field, Ohio, Weight Reduction Committee, working to improve performance and crew accommodations in the B-24 Liberator, proposed mating a B-17 Flying Fortress nose to a B-24, with the Air Materiel Command assigning the experiment a First Priority Project rating on 25 May 1944. During a brief check-out flight on 6 July by the Flight Section of Materiel Command at Wright Field, with a gross takeoff weight of and after speed, power and stability tests at the test crew concluded the aircraft performance was "essentially the same as other B-24 airplanes", but with an airspeed "apparently 8.5 mph (13.7 km/h) faster". The Eglin test report considered the modified aircraft "operationally unsuitable". On 11 August 1944, an Army Air Force plane accidentally dropped a bomb on the Cosson family home on the edge of the Eglin Range, killing four and injuring five. In June 2010, Walton County officials commemorated the loss with a plaque to mark the area as an historic site. The first JB-2 launch at Eglin took place on 12 October 1944. Eglin would continue JB-2 tests through 1946 to improve launch and guidance, including remote launchings from B-17s and B-29s. The sole Northrop JB-1A Bat, nicknamed "Thunderbug" due to the improvised General Electric B-1 turbojets' "peculiar squeal", a jet-propelled flying wing spanning to carry . bombs in pods close to the engines, made its first powered, but unmanned, flight from Santa Rosa Island on 7 December 1944, launching from a pair of rails laid across the sand dunes. It climbed rapidly, stalled, and crashed 400 yards from the launch point. Makeshift B-1 turbojets did not live up to expectation, so JB-1s are completed with pulsejet power as JB-10s. Bouncing bomb tests The success of the Royal Air Force using Barnes Wallace's bouncing bombs in the dam busting missions of Operation Chastise on 16–17 May 1943, led the USAAF to investigate using similar tactics. After initial testing with a modified A-26 in January 1945 which was adapted at the Vickers experimental facility at Foxwarren, near Esher, Surrey, to drop the RAF spherical Highball casing, with [an overall weight] of , twenty-five Speedee bomb casings (the American nomenclature for the Highball) were sent to the U.S. On 28 April 1945, A-26C-25-DT Invader, 43-22644, assigned to the 611 Base Unit at Wright Field, Ohio, departed Eglin for a low-level test drop on Water Range No. 60 in the Choctawhatchee Bay S of Lake Lorraine. Dropped at low altitude (~10 feet), the weapon skipped back into the aircraft, completely knocking off the tail unit causing the bomber to nose over instantly and crash into the bay NE of Fort Walton, Florida. Following this accident, the Army Air Force dropped its interest into this attack method. Late war testing On 30 June 1945, the third of 75 Lockheed P-38M-5-LO Lightning night fighter conversions arrived at Eglin Field from the Lockheed Dallas Modification Center for Operational Suitability Testing. For the next two months the P-38M-5 was flown against a standard P-38L-5-LO and a somewhat "test-weary" P-61B Black Widow. It was found to be operationally suitable as a night fighter as far as airplane performance and characteristics were concerned. Compared to the P-38L-5, the M's handling qualities and flying characteristics had not been materially affected, though its top speed was about lower. The Eglin tests found the P-38M superior to the P-61B in speed at altitudes, rate of climb, operational ceiling, and ease of flying at high speeds. The fixed armament of the Lightning limited its effective attack approach to a level stern approach. "In all-around effectiveness the P-38M would probably be superior to the P-61B because its performance would enable it to intercept enemy airplanes which the P-61B is incapable of intercepting. Against enemy types which both airplanes are capable of intercepting, the P-61B would probably prove more effective because of its superior equipment and armament arrangement." At the time of the design of the super-heavy intercontinental Convair B-36 Peacemaker bomber in the mid-1940s, Eglin Field had one of only three runways in the world capable of withstanding the landing gear footprint of the original single tire main gear design of the fully loaded bomber (concrete at least thick). The B-36 would undergo a redesign for a four-wheel main gear bogie with tires to reduce this operational constraint and allow B-36s to operate from runways able to support Boeing B-29 Superfortresses. (The other two runways were at the Convair plant at Fort Worth, Texas, and at Fairfield-Suisun Field, California.) Post-war era Boeing B-29 Superfortress 42-6413, was sent to the Eglin Proving Ground for tests on 31 August 1945. After the war, Eglin became a pioneer in developing the techniques for missile launching and handling; and the development of drone or pilotless aircraft beginning with the Republic-Ford JB-2 Loon, an American copy of the V-1. The 1st Experimental Guided Missiles Group was activated at Eglin Field, Florida, on 6 February 1946, operating out of Auxiliary Field 3. Pursuant to an order from the War Department, dated 25 January 1946, the Commanding General of the Army Air Forces Center at Eglin Field was directed to activate the Headquarters, 1st Experimental Guided Missiles Group, the 1st Experimental Guided Missiles Squadron and the 1st Experimental Air Service Squadron. The total authorized strength for the three organizations was 130 officers, one warrant officer and 714 enlisted men. Eglin's commander was directed to supply manpower for the units from his own resources, but, given the recent postwar demobilization, his ability to do so was extremely limited. Operations were conducted out of Auxiliary Field 3 (Duke Field). On 13 January 1947, a successful drone flight from Eglin to Washington, D.C. was conducted utilizing a QB-17 Flying Fortress. A QB-17G, 44-85648, was utilized in a ditching test program at Eglin in 1948 when it was landed in the water by radio control. Ironically, although nine of the approximately 43 surviving intact B-17s in the world were assigned to the 3200th and 3205th Drone Groups at Eglin, the example displayed at the Air Force Armament Museum is not one of them, having been a former U.S. Navy PB-1W patrol model. In 1946, extensive tests were done on Razon guided bombs by the Air Proving Ground Command, "contemplating using the missile aboard all-weather bombers. Nothing materialized, however, until the Korean War when the Far East Air Forces ordered and used the Tarzon, a Tallboy-Razon combination." On 31 March 1946, the Air Proving Ground Command completed the tactical suitability test of the Hughes JB-3 Tiamat, Project MX-570, an air-to-air missile. Program canceled post-war due to other more promising types being developed. Between mid-1946 and 11 December 1946, the Army Air Force evaluated the third of the three Boeing XF8B Navy fighter prototypes, BuNo 57986, at Eglin as a potential fighter-bomber, but nothing came of the idea, it being found to be inferior in the rôle to the P-47 Thunderbolt already in service. Lt. Col. Ashley C. McKinley, because of his experiences in ferrying aircraft to the Soviet Union, suggested in 1943 that all aircraft and equipment be operable at temperatures as low as −65 °F (−54 °C) and that a refrigerated hangar be erected at Eglin AFB to produce such an environment under controlled conditions. Since testing in Alaska was expensive and had produced only meager results, Col. McKinley reasoned that testing under controlled conditions would be far superior in useful results and up to ten times more economical. Construction of the Climatic Laboratory that allowed the Air Proving Ground Command to simulate virtually all climatic conditions “indoors” was completed 24 May 1947. Initial costs were estimated at nearly $2,000,000. The actual cost, at the end of construction, had risen to $5,500,000, indicative of the many problems encountered by the designers and builders. Testing began in May 1947. The first items tested included the Fairchild C-82 Packet, Boeing B-29 Superfortress, Lockheed F-80, North American P-51, Lockheed P-38, and the Sikorsky H-5D helicopter. The 1st Experimental Guided Missiles Group, apart from receiving nationwide attention for completing the drone flight from Eglin to Washington D.C. on a simulated bombing mission, the Group received little notice in its own right. Without higher supply and personnel priorities, very little else could be accomplished. The situation began to change in March 1947, when the Group moved to Eglin's main base and received its first series of test projects. The Group was given the JB-2 and it got involved in VB-6 Felix, VB-3 Razon, and VB-13 Tarzon guided bomb activities. On 26 July 1947, President Harry S Truman signed the National Security Act of 1947 which restructured the military and intelligence services into the Department of Defense. With this, the Army Air Forces became the independent Department of the Air Force, effective 18 September 1947. January 1948 was the first month without an aviation accident since the base was founded. Total flying hours for the month were 3,725, "an unusually high number for the Proving Ground," said Lt. Gerald E. Gibson, aircraft safety officer for the base. A six-month fatality-free period came to an end on 9 April 1948 when a pilot was killed in a P-51D Mustang crash N of Crestview, Florida. The first production Convair B-36A heavy bomber, B-36A-1-CF Peacemaker, 44-92004, c/n 1, officially accepted by the USAF in May 1948, was delivered on 18 June 1948 to the Air Proving Ground Command to undergo extensive testing. A Boeing C-97 Stratofreighter was assigned at Eglin for tests from 1948 onward and made two flights to Alaska and two trans-Atlantic crossings to the British Isles by July 1950. On 31 October 1948, the 3201st WAC Squadron was redesignated the 3201st WAF Squadron, 3201st Air Base Group, following the establishment of women as an integrated part of the U.S. Air Force on 30 June of that year. The first commander was 1st Lt. Bertie S. Roberts, assuming command on 5 November 1948. On 7 November 1948, the second prototype of the Republic Republic XR-12-RE Rainbow reconnaissance design, 44-91003, crashed at 1300 hrs. while returning to Eglin from a photographic suitability test flight on its second test flight at the base by the Photo Test Squadron of the 3200th Proof Test Group . Unable to maintain control after the number 2 (port inner) engine exploded, the pilot ordered the crew to bail out. Five of the seven crew escaped safely and were rescued by Eglin crash boats and helicopters. Airframe impacted two miles (3 kilometers) south of the base, in the Choctawhatchee Bay. Although further testing of the first prototype was conducted (at Aberdeen Proving Grounds, Maryland), an order for an additional six was cancelled. The sole remaining Hughes XR-11 reconnaissance aircraft prototype, 44-70156, arrived at Eglin in December 1948 from Wright Field, Ohio, to undergo operational suitability testing through July 1949 but a production contract for 98 was cancelled. The airframe was transferred to Sheppard AFB, Texas, on 26 July 1949 for use as a ground maintenance trainer by the 3750th Technical Training Wing, and was dropped from the USAF inventory in November 1949. In early 1949, Air Materiel Command assigned North American F-86A-1-NA Sabre, 47-608, to Eglin for cold weather testing in the climatic hangar. Between 2 February and 6 March 1949, the Air Proving Ground conducted tests in conjunction with Wright-Patterson AFB to determine if the Republic F-84D Thunderjet had improved shortcomings in earlier models of the fighter. These concluded that the F-84 range, acceleration, versatility, load carrying ability, high altitude climb, and level flight speed exceeded that of the Lockheed F-80 Shooting Star. The F-84 was inferior to the F-80, however, in shortness of takeoff roll, low altitude climb, and maneuverability. In the spring of 1949, the 3200th Proof Test Group tested launching Republic-Ford JB-2s from the wings of B-36 bombers at Eglin AFB. About a year later, JB-2s were tested as aerial targets for experimental infrared gunsights. Realizing the necessity of testing and evaluating the B-36 Peacemaker's APG-3 radar tail turret system, Headquarters, United States Air Force, directed the 7th Bomb Wing to undertake testing. The APG-3 was a radar airborne gun sighting system that provided for aircraft detection and automatic fire control of the tail-turret guns, designed to detect and automatically track targets up to 5,000 yards in range on fighter-type aircraft. However, it was possible to extend that search range temporarily on fighters. After a particular target had been selected by the gunner-radar operator, the system automatically tracked the target within its angular limits in both range and direction. Also, the system automatically directed and pointed the gun turret in the correct firing position. The only mechanical function of the gunner was the activation of the firing mechanism when the target was in effective firing range. One B-36B, 44-92042, of the 26th Bomb Squadron, 11th Bomb Group, was modified for testing as the right gun on the APG-3 was removed and a 35mm Vitarama camera installed in lieu of the turret. The first mission was flown on 25 October 1949, over Eglin AFB Gunnery Range, at . Three passes were made on the tail position by two Lockheed F-80 Shooting Stars. Following those passes the APG-3 radar system failed. The malfunction of the radar system was due to low voltage transmitted to the modular and to an antenna tilt motor failure. On 1 November, the wing flew its second APG-3 Tail Turret System evaluation test. A total of 12 passes were made in the Eglin AFB Gunnery Range by two F-80 jet fighters at . Both fighters and the B-36B assigned to the 26th Bomb Squadron, 11th Bomb Group, staged out of Eglin AFB. The next day, a fighter intercept gun-camera mission was flown on 2 November, out of Carswell AFB, Texas, in a B-36B of the 7th Bomb Group. Two North American F-82 Twin Mustang fighters from Bergstrom AFB, Austin, Texas, intercepted the bomber at in the vicinity of Austin. The purpose of the mission, as in any gun-camera mission, was to provide "tracking" and "framing" experience for the B-36 gunners. Also, it provided experience in interception for the fighter pilots. A third test of the APG-3 system was flown out of Eglin AFB on 7 November. A total of 18 passes were made by two F-80s on the bomber at . On 15 December 1949, Johnson Hall, home of Headquarters Air Proving Ground Center, was named for Maj. Simon H. Johnson, Jr., deputy commanding officer of the Eglin AFB, Florida, fighter section, who was killed on 11 May 1948 when his Republic P-84 Thunderjet disintegrated during an air demonstration at Range 52 on the Eglin reservation, in front of some 600 witnesses. Johnson was also serving as the acting commanding officer, operations officer, and test pilot for the Eglin fighter section at the time of his death. Early Cold War The Main Base public address system, known as the "giant voice", first conceived in 1946 and installed by the communications maintenance division of the Mobile, Alabama Air Material Area, went into operation in February 1950 with preliminary testing completed by 15 February. "The new PA system, situated in the Johnson Hall information booth, resembles an instrument panel from some Buck Roger's [sic] space ship. Two record turn tables are available for the transmission of transcribed bugle calls, and appropriate music. A telephone extension running to the commanding general's office will enable him to make special addresses to Eglin personnal [sic]. The third method of transmitting announcements and emergency bulletins is the microphone connection to the control console. Four amplifier speakers are located in clusters at each of the seven sites. Designed to saturate the area, the speakers are installed at the radio base maintenance shop, guided missiles headquarters, headquarters air proving ground, the motor pool area, the maintenance and supply area, the boat squadron area, in the Plew Heights housing area, and a direct connection to the station hospital's public address system." The system is now used to broadcast lightning warnings after an airman was struck while out on a ramp and killed. "At Eglin, the 1st Guided Missiles Squadron was assigned air-to-surface missiles and guided bombs (e.g., Tarzon) and the 2nd Guided Missiles Squadron worked with surface-to-surface missiles and aircraft drones. During the first ten months of its existence, the 550th Guided Missiles Wing also continued its predecessor's earlier preparations to support Project GREENHOUSE with drone aircraft, but additional drones and personnel were assigned to other Air Proving Ground units during this period as well. By January 1950, the Air Proving Ground decided this piecemeal operation ought to be consolidated, and it recommended the establishment of a separate and permanent drone squadron. Personnel from the 2nd Guided Missiles Squadron were subsequently transferred to a new unit – the 3200th Drone Squadron, 3200th Proof Test Group – in May 1950. While the 3200th Drone Squadron remained under the 550th for administrative purposes, its operations were essentially divorced from the 550th's missile activities when the 3200th moved to Auxiliary Field 3. The 2nd Guided Missiles Squadron was placed on inactive status after the transfer, but it was revived at Holloman Air Force Base on 25 October 1950 when the 550th's detachment out there was discontinued. As the 2nd Guided Missiles Squadron Commander at Holloman, Captain John A. Evans inherited the old detachment's manpower and gained 40 airmen from other Wing resources. This brought the Squadron's strength to 17 officers and 114 airmen (out of the 550th's total complement of 201 officers and 816 airmen)." By March 1950, the 550th Guided Missiles Wing, comprising the 1st and 2nd Guided Missile Squadrons, had replaced the 1st Experimental Guided Missiles Group. The 2nd Guided Missile Squadron, SSM, had 62 pilots manning 14 B-17s, three B-29s, and four F-80 Shooting Stars, yellow-tailed drone aircraft used in the role of testing guided missiles. In 1949, the 2nd GMS tallied 3,052 flight hours without mishap and secured the green and white pennant denoting safety supremacy for USAF B-17 type aircraft for the fourth straight time, gaining permanent possession of the three-starred flag. The 550th GMW played a prominent part in the spring of 1949 in the aerial filming of "Twelve O' Clock High", filmed in part at Eglin AFB. The 2nd GMS flew B-29s in Operation Banshee before switching to B-17s. Seven Flying Fortresses were joined by another seven in November 1948, bringing the squadron complement up to 14 mother and drone Forts. DB-17P, 44-83559, assigned to both the 3200th and 3205th Drone Squadrons at Eglin between 22 June 1950 and May 1958, was dropped from the inventory to become a display aircraft at Patrick AFB, Florida. Flown to Offutt AFB, Nebraska, in May 1959, it is now on exhibit at the Strategic Air and Space Museum, Ashland, Nebraska. A large hump-backed steel hangar, the "Butler Hangar", X , transported from Trinidad, was erected at Auxiliary Field 3 between 1 April and ~10 July 1950, by personnel of Company 'C', 806th Aviation Engineering Battalion, under Capt. Samuel M. Cable, and the men of the 550th Guided Missiles Wing. Project Officer was Capt. Clarence A. Ebbert of the Air Proving Ground Command Installations Division. An additional four feet of roof clearance was added to accommodate B-17s in the structure. Concrete block buildings, X , were erected on the flanks of the hangar. Concurrently, the runway was widened to and additional parking ramps were constructed, with 117,327 cubic yards of dirt excavated. The new ramps and runway expansion consisted of asphalt over a crushed shell base. In 1950, the Air Force Armament Center was established at Eglin. After the start of the Korean War, test teams moved to the combat theater for testing in actual combat. In 1957, the Air Force combined the Air Proving Ground Command and the Air Force Armament Center to form the Air Proving Ground Center. In 1968, the Air Proving Ground Center was redesignated the Armament Development and Test Center to centralize responsibility for research, development, test and evaluation, and initial acquisition of nonnuclear munitions for the Air Force. The North American T-28A Trojan arrived at Eglin in mid-June 1950 for suitability tests as an advanced trainer by the 3200th Fighter Test Squadron, with consideration given to its transition, instrument, and gunnery capabilities. The Fledgling's Roost nursery opened on base on 30 June 1950, staffed by a practical or registered nurse and volunteers, and offered military and civilian families assigned to the Air Proving Ground space for up to 80–90 children, 8 a.m. to midnight, and 3 a.m. on special occasions. The establishment of this project was supported by base commander Col. M. C. Woodbury and the various wives clubs on base. A 40-lot trailer court opened on base at Postl Point in early July 1950. Proposed in April by Col. M. C. Woodbury, deputy commander of the Air Proving Ground, Col. E. W. Moore, deputy of material, and Lt. L. F. Strain, of budget and fiscal, site preparation was delayed until June by planning for the visit to Eglin by President Harry S Truman on 22 April. At the outbreak of the Korean war, the only light bomber in the Air Force inventory was the obsolete B-26 Invader, which was marginally effective during daylight but unsuitable for night combat. "After considering a number of proposals and evaluating several aircraft, the Air Proving Ground Command recommended that the United States manufacture the English Electric Canberra jet bomber used in the Royal Air Force. The Air Force Senior Officers Board approved the proposal and recommended that the aircraft go directly into production to provide a night intruder capability at the earliest possible date. The Canberra, designated the B-57 entered the Air Force inventory as an off-the-shelf aircraft without experimental or test models. On 2 March 1951, Air Force Headquarters told the Air Materiel Command—later the Air Force Logistics Command—to negotiate a contract with the Glenn L. Martin Company for the production of 250 B-57 aircraft for use in the Korean War." The Convair XB-46 concluded its test program at Eglin Air Force Base, arriving from Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, on its last flight, in July 1950. Its pneumatic landing gear and brake system was tested under the coldest conditions in the large climatic facility there. Most aircraft used hydraulic or electrical systems. When this concluded in November 1950, the Air Force no longer had need for it, a fact acknowledged in the press as early as August, and on 13 January 1951 the nose section was sent to the U.S. Air Force Museum at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. The rest of the airframe was scrapped 28 February 1952. Assault transport evaluations were done in the second half of August 1950, involving a modified Fairchild C-82 Packet, the Chase C-122 and C-123 Avitrucs, the Northrop C-125A Raider, and two gliders, the Chase XG-18A and Chase XG-20. Tests included short-field approaches over obstructions, and operational abilities over rough, unprepared fields and roads with simulated full loads. Initial landing tests were conducted at the municipal airport at Crestview, Florida. " 'The assault transport airplane was developed as a replacement for the glider to be used as the vehicle for delivering ground force troops and equipment into an airhead assault area,' asserted Capt. H. A. Lyon, Eglin project officer. 'We are primarily interested in which airplane does this job best, and determining if the assault transport can match the landing performance of the glider under the worst conditions of rough terrain operation.' " The first Convair B-36D Peacemakers accepted by the Air Force, in August 1950, were sent to Eglin AFB for testing. On 12 September 1950, a 26th Bomb Squadron, 11th Bomb Group, 7th Bomb Wing, Eighth Air Force, B-36D, 49-2653 (the first D model in the wing) took part in the first D-model gunnery mission. It was a test evaluation mission flown over the Eglin AFB Gunnery Range, Florida at . During the mission seven malfunctions of various types occurred before the plane returned to Carswell AFB, Texas. Just over a week later, on 20 September, three B-36Ds (436th, 492d and 9th Bomb Squadrons) of the 7th Bomb Group participated in an exact profile of the war plan. The mission consisted of a night attack on Fort Worth with additional training accomplished by making a simulated bomb run over Birmingham, Alabama. Also, the aircraft conducted a live firing over the Eglin AFB Gunnery Range, Florida, before recovering at Carswell. In January 1951, control of the armament test center, located at Eglin, was transferred from Air Material Command headquarters at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, and assigned to the Air Proving Ground. The APG also reassumed control of the 320_ (?) Chemical and Ordnance Test Group which had squadrons at the Aberdeen Proving Grounds, Maryland, and the Army chemical center at Edgewood, Maryland. The sole prototype of the Fairchild XC-120 Packplane, 48-330, c/n 10312, a design with a detachable pod for the cargo converted from a C-119B, was tested at Eglin AFB in 1951, although no production orders followed. Project abandoned in 1952. In 1951, as part of testing of aircraft for Strategic Air Command Escape and Evasion missions, the prototype USAF Douglas YC-47F "Super DC-3" conducted short-field landings with and without a drogue chute as well as RATO (rocket assisted take-off) tests from rough terrain at Eglin Air Force Base. Also tested was the Chase XC-123 Avitruc modified from the Chase XCG-20 glider, and a Fairchild C-119C Flying Boxcar. "A B-29 assigned to the 581st Air Resupply Squadron, 580th Air Resupply and Communications Wing (ARCW) [a psychological warfare unit that actually was a cover for Central Intelligence Agency infiltration, exfiltration and supply operations], based at Mountain Home AFB, Idaho, conducted trials at Eglin AFB, during the summer of 1951 to determine if the aircraft could be used to extract personnel utilizing the prototype Personnel Pickup Ground Station extraction system. The test aircraft was modified with a 48-inch diameter opening in place of the aft-belly turret and with an elongated tailhook at the rear of the aircraft. The system was similar to the one adopted in 1952 by Fifth Air Force for the Douglas C-47 Skytrains of the Special Air Missions detachment in Korea. The tests proved technically feasible, but the project was dropped for the B-29 aircraft due to aircraft size and safety considerations of flying it so close to the ground." "While missile testing continued in 1950 and 1951, the Air Force reorganized the oversight of its research and development program under the auspices of a new major agency – the Air Research and Development Command (ARDC). The new command was activated on 23 January 1950 with Major General David M. Schlatter as its commander. By April 1951, Wright-Patterson's research and development agencies, various laboratories, Edwards Air Force Base and Holloman Air Force Base had been transferred from Air Materiel Command to ARDC. By the end of 1951, ARDC's principal field components included the Wright Air Development Center at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, the Air Force Flight Test Center at Edwards Air Force Base, the Air Force Armament Test Center at Eglin, and the Air Force Missile Test Center at Patrick Air Force Base (about 15 miles south of Cape Canaveral). The Holloman Air Development Center was established at Holloman Air Force Base in 1952." On 10 July 1951, a special training mission was flown by B-36D Peacemakers of the 11th Bombardment Wing, 19th Air Division, out of Carswell AFB, Texas, including a high altitude penetration of Eglin AFB, utilizing F-84 fighter escort from the 12th Fighter-Escort Wing, Bergstrom AFB, Texas. On that date, nine B-36s took part escorted by 18 F-84 fighters. The bombers flew out of Carswell south to Port Arthur, Texas. At Port Arthur the bombers picked up their escort fighters and headed east to Florida reaching the Eglin Range. Several F-86 fighters from Eglin AFB intercepted the bombers en route to targets in the area. Completing the scheduled mission the bombers returned to Carswell and the escort fighters recovered at Eglin AFB, returning to Bergstrom AFB the next day. In the summer of 1951, a B-36 crew on a training mission out of Carswell AFB, Texas, to the Eglin AFB bombing range in the Gulf of Mexico was to drop an unarmed obsolete nuclear gravity bomb, likely a Mark 4, on a water target. Due to past mechanical problems, the bombardier was briefed to open the bomb bay doors at the Initial Point (IP). Although the bomber's bombing navigation radar was still in the navigation mode, the bomb dropped unexpectedly when the bay doors were opened, and the . of high explosives in the weapon burst in the air over a non-designated target area. An intensive investigation concluded that a corroded D-2 switch, a hand-held bomb release switch, was found to be in the "closed" position and the bomb was dropped through equipment malfunction. On 22 August 1951, the 11th Bombardment Wing, 19th Air Division, Carswell AFB, Texas, conducted its first B-36F gunnery test over the Eglin AFB Gunnery Range, Florida. Results of the test were satisfactory. On 11 October 1951, the 11th Bombardment Wing conducted a unit simulated combat mission out of Carswell AFB using three B-36Fs (9th, 436th and 492nd Bomb Squadrons). The mission was flown in the Eglin AFB Range, Florida. All three aircraft completed the mission as scheduled and returned to Carswell on 12 October. In 1951–1952, some of the non-combat-capable Boeing B-47A Stratojets (delivered without operational equipment) were assigned to the Air Proving Ground Command, two of which were utilized to test the Emerson A-2 and General Electric A-5 fire-control systems. On 28 March 1952, 12 7th Bomb Wing B-36s, four each from the 9th, 436th and 492d Bomb Squadrons, flew a unit simulated combat mission in the Eglin AFB Range, Florida. All aircraft recovered at Carswell AFB, Texas, on 29 March. Building 100 on the flightline is named the Audette Airborne Systems Building. A dedication plaque at the front entrance reads: "In memory of Lieutenant Colonel Leo R. Audette, United States Air Force – in recognition of his contribution in the development of airborne electronics systems – who on 25 August 1952, while a member of this command, gave his life while participating in operations which advanced the development of these systems." His aircraft was F-86D-1-NA Sabre, 50–469. In 1953, under the FICON project, the Convair GRB-36F, 49-2707 and Republic EF-84E Thunderjet, 49-2115, was sent to Eglin Air Force Base where 170 airborne launches and retrievals were subsequently performed. The Piasecki H-21 Workhorse twin-rotor helicopter, which entered service in 1952, underwent operational suitability tests at Eglin AFB from May 1953. On 17 November 1953, a YH-21-PH deployed to Thule AFB, Greenland, from the Air Proving Ground Center, crashed, killing two crew. "The helicopter and a sister craft left Eglin on the first leg of the 4,000 mile flight to Thule AFB on 17 August and arrived there on 14 September. The purpose of the flight was to continue the Air Proving Ground operational suitability testing of the YH-21 which began last May and included tests in Eglin's climatic hanger [sic] as well as temperate or warm weather testing. Arctic testing at Thule Air Force Base was scheduled to be completed by December 1." In the summer of 1953, the fifth Martin B-57A-MA Canberra, 52-1422, was sent to Eglin for climatic testing. The first two production B-61A Matador missiles arrived at Eglin in September 1953, under the control of the 6555th Guided Missile Squadron, out of Patrick Air Force Base, Florida, for climatic testing, although instrumentation and pre-test check-outs kept the actual cold-weather tests from beginning until November. Between 7 October and 21 October 1953, nine tests were conducted of the downward firing ejection seat of the Boeing B-47 Stratojet by the Air Proving Ground, utilizing a TB-47B (a modified B-47B) from the Wright Air Development Center, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, at an altitude of 10,000 feet and various speeds. A second series of tests was also conducted beginning 8 July 1954 after refinements to the system. These tests were depicted in the film On the Threshold of Space, shot at Eglin in 1955. Bell XGAM-63-BC Rascal, 51-17598, c/n 18, delivered 23 December 1953, was sent to Eglin AFB for testing in the climatic laboratory, then was transferred to the Air Test Center on 19 March 1955. In 1954, North American F-86F Sabres of the Tactical Air Command's 612th Fighter-Bomber Squadron, assigned at Alexandria AFB, Louisiana, participated in Night Owl, an Air Proving Ground Command project to determine the feasibility of using fighter bombers at night. "The F-86Fs convinced the Night Owl observers of their effectiveness. Moreover, necessary modifications would not affect the aircraft daytime capabilities. Pilot training, if closely monitored, also should present no problem. TAC considered the positive results of Night Owl the greatest single development in night operations since the end of WW II." From March to October 1954, the Korean People's Air Force Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15bis was tested at Eglin AFB. Flown to Kimpo Air Base, South Korea, from Sunan Air Base near Pyongyang by defecting North Korean pilot Lt. No Kum-Sok on 21 September 1953, this, the first MiG-15 to fall into Western hands, was flown extensively in comparisons with the B-36, B-47, F-84 and F-86 before returning to Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, in October. In February 2004, while a guest at Eglin Air Force Base, No Kum-Sok was offered the opportunity to fly in a MiG-15UTI operated by the Red Star Aviation Museum during the annual convention of the Classic Jet Aircraft Association. After the flight, his first in a MiG since the day he defected, he commented "It is a fast, fast car". In mid-1954, problems with the Allison J-35 jet engines equipping the first 48 Northrop F-89 Scorpions produced negatively affected the Air Proving Ground test program for the new night fighter, with both the F-89A and F-89B models concurrently undergoing operational suitability tests at Eglin. Modified J-35-A-21A engines would replace the initial versions. North American F-100A Super Sabre, 53-1538, arrived at Eglin on 15 August 1954 to undergo cold-weather testing in the Climatic Hangar under the auspices of the Wright Air Development Center. The Air Force Operational Test Center of the Air Proving Ground Command at Eglin expected to receive six F-100s soon for operational suitability testing. Also, this date, the Air Proving Ground Center received its first F-105 Thunderchief for armament and fire control system testing. The 48th Air Rescue Squadron was assigned to Eglin AFB from 10 Jan 1955 to 7 Feb 1969, operating SA-16 Albatrosses (1955–1968), H-19 Chickasaws (1954–1963), SC-54 Rescuemasters (1956–1965), HH-43 Huskies (1963–1965, 1966–1968), HC-130 Hercules (1965–1969), Sikorsky CH-3s (1966–1969), and Sikorsky HH-53s (1966–1969). A RCAF Avro Canada CF-100 Canuck arrived at Eglin AFB in mid-January 1955 for cold-weather tests in the climatic hangar. A seven-man RCAF team, headed by Flight Lieutenant B. D. Darling, which had previously conducted tests at Namao Air Base, Alberta, are part of the climatic detachment of Central Experimental and Proving Establishment. Tests were to begin in February. A factory-fresh Convair VC-131D Samaritan arrived at Eglin AFB on 17 February 1955, to join the Air Proving Ground's diversified aircraft inventory. Piloted by Capt. Millard V. C. Cooper, flight instructor of the 3201st Base Flight Squadron, the passenger craft arrived after a seven-hour flight from the plant in San Diego, California. The 1955 Warner Bros. film The McConnell Story, about Capt. Joseph C. McConnell, Jr., the top American ace of the Korean War, included footage of a Sikorsky H-19 rescuing a downed B-29 crew in that conflict, while under heavy fire. A Chickasaw was furnished by the 48th Air Rescue Squadron, Eglin AFB, for seven days of filming at Alexandria AFB, Louisiana, in February 1955. Sikorsky YH-5A, 43-46620, one of 26 ordered in 1944, is on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson AFB near Dayton, Ohio. It was obtained from Eglin Air Force Base, in March 1955. The 17th Bomb Wing (Light) of the Far East Air Force, based at Miho Air Base, Japan, was reassigned to Tactical Air Command and moved to Hurlburt Field in March 1955, Maj. Gen. Patrick W Timberlake, commander of the Air Proving Ground, announced 9 March 1955. The first 13 B-26 Invaders arrived on the first weekend of April 1955, with 26 more due to arrive over the next few days on the last leg of their reaasignment from Japan, via Waco, Texas. All 48 of the wing's bombers were expected by month's end. The 34th Bombardment Squadron (Light, Night Intruder), reactivated 10 May 1952 at Pusan, Korea, in the midst of the Korean War, equipped with the B-26 Invader, remained in Korea until 10 October 1954, when it moved to Miho, Japan. On 1 April 1955, it moved to Eglin AFB, administratively assigned to Hurlburt Field, still flying the B-26. While there, the squadron transitioned into the B-57A Canberra and conducted evaluation testing of the aircraft. The receipt of the B-57 caused another redesignation to the 34th Bombardment Squadron (Tactical) on 1 October 1955. In 1956 the unit transitioned to the B-66B Destroyer, the first squadron to equip with the new tactical bomber. Deployed to RAF Sculthorpe, England, briefly in 1958 before returning to Eglin and performing more testing on B-66s with Jet Assisted Take Off (JATO). Following three years of peacetime operations at Eglin, the unit was again inactivated on 25 June 1958, due to budget cuts later in the year. In 2011, the non-lineal descent 34th Bomb Squadron operates B-1B Lancers out of Ellsworth AFB, South Dakota, as part of the 28th Bomb Wing. The 37th Bomb Squadron, reactivated at Pusan, Korea on 10 May 1952 during the Korean War and equipped with B-26 Invaders, moved to Miho, Japan, from circa 9 October 1954 to circa 19 March 1955, then transferred to Eglin AFB, administratively assigned at Hurlburt Field on 1 April 1955. Reequipped with the B-66B Destroyer in 1956, the unit deployed to ReAF Alconbury, England, on 11 May 1958. Returning to Eglin on 12 May 1958, the unit was inactivated 25 June 1958. In 2011, the 37th Bomb Squadron operates B-1B Lancers out of Ellsworth AFB, South Dakota, as part of the 28th Bomb Wing. Three QF-80 Shooting Star drones of the 3205th Drone Group, Duke Field, were exposed to close-in effects of the MET (military effects test) of the Operation Teapot nuclear test at the Nevada Test Site on 15 April 1955. Remotely controlled and positioned to receive calculated degrees of blast and heat, the official evaluation of the unmanned drones was described as successful and according to plan by operations officials. Pre-mission estimates expected the loss of two of the drones in the blast. Droppable data collection pods were carried for helicopter recovery. All three drones survived the initial blast effects although two were seriously damaged. One was crash landed by its director aircraft on a dry lake bed near Indian Springs AFB. The second distressed drone was lost in the mountains when it went out of control. The third drone was landed at Indian Springs according to plan. King Hangar was built in 1955 and named for test pilot, Maj. Lyle R. King, assistant chief of weapons and missiles branch directorate of test operations of the Air Force Armament Center at Eglin, who was killed in the take-off crash of North American EF-86D-5-NA Sabre, 50–516 at Eglin on 22 September 1954. The King Installations Building was dedicated on 5 May 1955. The hangar is considered a historical Korean War-era facility. Bob Hope performed in King Hangar. In mid-1955, a heavily modified JB-17G Flying Fortress, operated by Pratt & Whitney as an engine testbed for their T34 Turbo Wasp with the huge fifth engine mounted in the nose of the former bomber (Boeing Model 299Z), was present for a base open house on 21 May and made several passes over the flightline with all four reciprocating engines shut down and powered solely by the turboprop. It is unclear whether the design underwent tests at Eglin, however. Also present at the 21 May 1955 open house was a production model Boeing B-52 Stratofortress, newly arrived from the factory on 9 May, to begin 18 months of operational suitability trials. The bomber arrived for a flypast of the stands as the highlight of the Firepower Demonstration of the 20th Joint Civilian Orientation Conference "at precisely 2:59, four hours and twenty five minutes after it started its 2,220 mile flight from Seattle, Washington." Consolidated RB-36D-1-CF Peacemaker 44-92090, c/n 87, ordered as part of a production for thirty-four B-36C-1-CF bombers in August 1944; B-36C program cancelled summer of 1948; reordered as B-36B but built as RB-36D; to Convair Aircraft Corporation, Carswell AFB, Fort Worth, Texas, 2 August 1954, for conversion to GRB-36D-1-CF. modified as a carrier for the FICON (FIghter CONveyer) project. Fitted with a trapeze to carry and recover a Republic RF-84K Thunderflash parasite fighter in its bomb bay. To the 3243rd Test Group, 3200th Test Wing, Air Proving Ground Center, Eglin AFB, 2 August 1955. Used for the Phase VII Operational Suitability Test of the FICON system, Operational Test Center, Eglin AFB, through December 1955. Airframe to MASDC 3 July 1956 and scrapped there. The F-86K Sabre underwent operational evaluation and testing at Eglin in 1955. Six of the all-weather fighter-interceptors, selected by the NATO countries for the air defense rôle, began five months of tests from 15 July. One of these suffered engine failure and explosion on 16 August 1955, crashing NW of Holt, Florida, the pilot successfully bailing out. From mid-1955, the fire control system for the F-105 Thunderchief was tested at Eglin on a modified RF-84F-1-RE Thunderflash, 51-1835, with bomb drop tests concluded by 1 December 1956. Fifty percent of all drops made on the ranges were within 500 feet CEP, and 75% were within 700 feet CEP. An F-84F was also used for stringent component testing. During August 1955, three C-123B Providers underwent 60 takeoff and landing tests from unimproved ground with loads from empty to 51,350 lb gross. Landing rolls ranged from 700 to 950 feet, while takeoff rolls ranged from 1080 to 2168 feet. Primary test craft was C-123B-3-FA, 54–559, c/n 20008, which eventually went to the Republic of Vietnam Air Force. Wright Air Development Center delivered a B-47 with Doppler-augmented K-system to the Air Force Armament Center, in July 1955, for tests aimed principally at the MA-6A bombing system. The test installation also contained provisions for automatic crosshair-laying, semi-automatic fix taking, and dead reckoning navigation. The first flight at Eglin on 22 July 1955 revealed that the Doppler set caused "wander" in the wind values calculated by the D-system, a condition which made the equipment completely unsatisfactory for bombing. General Precision Laboratories went to work on the APN-81, and Sperry on the computers already modified by International Business Machines, in an attempt to resolve the difficulties. By July 1956, the Doppler tie-in was at last working satisfactorily during test flights. Scenes for the film On the Threshold of Space were shot at Eglin in mid-September 1955, depicting ejection seat tests from a B-47 Stratojet over the Gulf of Mexico. The identity of the B-47 used in the film is unknown as the tail number was covered by a broad black tailband for security reasons of the early Cold War era. Flightline shots were conducted on 19 September with scenes in the Gulf with Eglin crash boats filmed on 20 September. Testing of the North American F-100C Super Sabre by the Air Force Operational Test Center began in mid-October 1955, with five of six slated for evaluation arriving at Eglin AFB by the end of September. These were undergoing acceptance inspection and having special instrument equipment installed at month's end. Convair F-102A-15-CO Delta Dagger, 53-1802, arrived at Eglin AFB and entered the climatic laboratory for cold testing under the auspices of the Wright Air Development Center in October 1955. The Air Force Operational Test Center was scheduled to conduct operational suitability tests on the F-102 with Lt. Col. Louis E. Andre as project officer. On 11 October 1955, 7th Bomb Wing B-36H-1-CF Peacemaker, 50-1085, c/n 197, flew from Carswell AFB, Texas, to Eglin AFB, to take part in a firepower demonstration. The first of four McDonnell F-101A Voodoos arrived at Eglin AFB on 25 October 1955 for operational suitability tests by the APGC's Air Force Operational Test Center, with the other three due within a few weeks. The B-52 Stratofortress that arrived at Eglin AFB in May 1955, underwent all-weather testing in the climatic hangar at the base, and then was prepared from November 23 for an "accelerated phase" of the operational suitability testing with the "Arctic Testing Phase", deploying from Eglin AFB to Eielson Air Force Base for tests slated to last until March 1956, including aerial refuelling, polar navigation, and bombing. "Special radio and navigational equipment have been installed in the aircraft to aid in navigation through polar areas where the effect of magnetic variation makes use of magnetic compasses impossible. As with all Air Force 'winterized' aircraft, the upper surfaces of the arctic bound 'Stratofortress' have been painted red to facilitate rescue in the event of an emergency landing. Portions of the towering tail, which is as tall as a five story building, have also been given a coat of red." Contracts for constructing a new runway, 32/14, were awarded in late November 1955 to R. B. Tyler and Hyde Construction Co. of Jackson, Mississippi, whose $3,191,577 bid was the lowest received for the project, said Col. Walter W. Woodard, deputy chief of staff for material for the Air Proving Ground Command. The new runway will connect with the existing north-south runway at its south end, and head northwest from that point. The new runway will be wide, with a parallel taxiway, X . One thousand feet of the new runway at each end will be constructed of cement concrete, with the remainder and taxiways of asphaltic concrete. The intermediate area's surface depth will be total four inches (102 mm) combined of asphaltic concrete binder and surface materials. Underlying will be a sub-base of oyster shells seven to eight inches (203 mm) deep, with a strip in the center of the runway further reinforced by an additional four-inch (102 mm) deep stabilized sub-base. Emergency overruns of will be at the ends of the new facility. The contract includes clearing and grubbing of of reservation as well as relocation of a section of the base railroad main line and the ammunition area spur. Some parking aprons and connecting taxiways are also part of the project, which will be supervised for the Mobile District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers by Resident Engineer James K. Glennon. Work commenced on 15 December 1955. The runway was expected to be completed in January 1957. "The use of barges for delivery of materials is being used extensively. Oyster shell is being dredged from Choctawhatchee Bay and delivered to Garnier Bayou by barge. Gravel is also being delivered by barge to Weekly Bayou on Eglin Main Base. From the above barge delivery points, the materials are then hauled by truck to the construction site. Slag for manufacture of asphaltic concrete is shipped from Birmingham, Ala., and cement concrete will be shipped by rail from the Ideal Cement Company, Mobile, Ala." The Air Munitions Development Laboratory was reassigned from the Wright Air Development Center at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, to the Air Force Armament Center at Eglin by Headquarters Air Research and Development Command in December 1955. The responsibility for development of guns, bombs, rockets, fuses, guided missile warheads and other related equipment in the armament field was transferred from the Dayton, Ohio facility at this time. Work on nuclear weapons was not included in this mission. Construction of 500 family homes to be erected S of the Eglin Homes development close to the West Gate, along the Choctawhatchee Bay, E of Ben's Lake, was announced in January 1956 by Major General Robert W. Burns, Air Proving Ground Commander. Authorized by the Department of Defense, the "dwellings will be constructed under the provisions of Title VIII of the National Housing Act and are commonly called 'Capehart housing'. The project will be financed by funds sponsored by the Federal Housing Authority. Title VIII housing differs basically from Wherry Act communities in the financing arrangements. Funds for Wherry projects were provided by a civilian sponsor who owned and operated the development. Title VIII houses are owned by the government but built by funds borrowed from commercial finance sources." Seventeen double units will border the east shore of Ben's Lake S of the present Wherry houses. About two dozen additional units will border the Choctawhatchee Bay E of Ben's Lake. The contract for the construction of the 500 housing units was awarded to the Centex Construction Company of Dallas, Texas, it was announced on Tuesday 5 June 1956. The amount of the contract was $6,433,865. Construction of the project was begun on 27 July 1956, with Maj. Gen. Robert W. Burns, Commander of the Air Proving Ground Command, turning the first spadeful of soil. The fifth production C-130A Hercules, 53-3133, c/n 3005, was delivered to the 3206th Test Wing at Eglin in January 1956 for testing in the climatic hangar, under the auspices of the Wright Air Development Center, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio. Senior project officer for the tests was Maj. Samuel B. Brown, with Capt. Russell M. Bobyna as assistant project officer. J. A. White of the 3206th Test Wing was project engineer. Project officer from the Air Research and Development Command for the climatic hangar testing was 1st Lt. Perry E. Amidon. It was joined in July 1956 by JC-130A, 54-1623, c/n 3010, the tenth production Hercules, for the Air Force Operational Test Center's 3244th Test Group (Transport and Equipment). Ten members of the project team for the operational suitability tests completed familiarization and training courses at Lockheed's Marietta, Georgia plant in April 1956. The McDonnell F-101A Voodoo began 18 months of operational suitability testing at Eglin AFB from January 1956 by the Air Force Operational Test Center. On 3 January 1956, GAM-63-BC Rascal, 53-8208, c/n 73, delivered 30 December 1955, arrived at Eglin AFB, transported by a JB-50D Superfortress bomber, for on job training (OJT) of personnel, followed on 1 May 1956 by GAM-63-BC, 53-8209, c/n 74, delivered 30 March 1956, and on 30 November by 53–8230, c/n 95, delivered 29 November, all in the same capacity. The first operational launch of a Ryan Q-2A Firebee drone at Eglin AFB was made on 14 January 1956, following operational suitability testing by the APGC's Air Force Operational Test Center. Launched in flight from the wing of a Douglas DB-26C Invader, the drone flew a controlled flight pattern over the Eglin water ranges over Gulf of Mexico before deploying a parachute for recovery by a boat of the 3201st Boat Squadron. It was rinsed with fresh water and returned to Eglin for overhaul and preparation for future flights, the first time a Firebee had been recovered from a water area. "Overall command of the mission was in AFOTC's 3241st Test Group (Interceptor), commanded by Colonel Thomas D. DeJarnette. Captain Alexander J. Bobrowski of the 3241st Test Group served as project officer. The drone was controlled under the supervision of Lieutenant Colonel Charles C. Woolwine, Commander of the 3205th Drone Group." Local boaters were warned that Firebee tests would continue over water ranges 32 through 45, Warning Area 151, off Santa Rosa Island, 15 to 60 miles offshore, with drone launches occurring from a point approximately 20 miles offshore. "A project team from the Air Force Operational Test Center left Eglin Air Force Base Sunday [15 January] for Eielson Air Force Base, Alaska to conduct the Arctic Testing Phase of the testing of the North American F-100C 'Super Sabre'. Major John J. Innis, project officer, and Captain Roscoe B. Tanner, assistant project officer, both of AFOTC's 3243rd Test Group (Fighter) flew the two aircraft to Alaska. A maintenance crew of 17 men from the 3243 Test Squadron (Electronics Maintenance) is accompanying the project to Eielson. Oscar F. Niedermann and Hugh Curtis, technical representatives from North American Aviation and Continental Aircraft Corporations are also part of the teams. During the Arctic test phase, which is expected to last from six weeks to three months, the project team will evaluate the operational suitability of the 'Super Sabre' in sub-zero temperatures. In an effort to determine maintenance problems peculiar to this climate, the ground crews will change the engine in one of the aircraft at 30 degrees below zero. The project will be supported by two transport aircraft, a Douglas C-124 'Globemaster' and a Fairchild C-123B 'Avitruck'. The C-123B, which recently was given operational suitability testing at AFOTC, will also undergo Arctic phase testing while at Eielson. The two F-100Cs, will be integrated into the Alaskan Air Defense system during the duration of the test." In mid-February 1956, two Convair F-102A Delta Daggers and one Northrop F-89H Scorpion arrived at Eglin AFB to undergo operational suitability testing by the 3241st Test Group (Interceptor) with tests beginning in March 1956. Testing of the F-102A began in the first week of April under senior project officer Maj. Robert T. Goetz. It was expected that the AFOTC would conduct operational suitability tests on the TF-102 proficiency trainer version of the Delta Dagger in the near future. Two Douglas RB-66B Destroyers arrived at Eglin AFB the first week of March 1956 for operational suitability testing, flown in from Norton AFB, California, by Lt. Col. Henry J. Walsh and Capt. Edward A. Kayworth of the 3245th Test Group of APGC's Air Force Operational Test Center. "These new aircraft include modifications which were made as a result of an operational suitability test performed on the RB-66B last summer and fall. During these tests the RB-66B was used to determine the efficiency of standard U. S. Air Force reconnaissance cameras in high-speed jet aircraft. In performing this mission the plane took part in Exercise 'Sagebrush,' the joint Air Force – Army maneuver held in Louisiana late last year." "Col. Walsh, chief of the Light Bomb Branch of the 3245th Test Group (Bombardment), had as his navigator Lt. James L. Hicks, and as gunner T/Sgt. William W. Brown. Capt. Kayworth, who will act as senior project officer for the tests had Cap. [sic] J. D. Vaughn and T'Sgt. Walter L. Bryant as his crew. All are assigned to the Air Force Operational Test Center, commanded by Col. John A. Hilger." Two Douglas B-66 Destroyers arrived at Eglin AFB in the last week of March 1956 to undergo operational suitability testing by the 3245th Test Group (Bombardment) of the AFOTC, flown to Eglin from George AFB, California. Maj. Robert R. Hull piloted one plane, with Capt. Archie M. Rackwell as co-pilot, and T/Sgt. D. Richards as gunner. The other was piloted by Lt. Col. Henry J. Walsh, Chief of the Light Bomb Branch of the 3245th Test Group, with Lt. James L. Hicks as co-pilot. Gunner was T/Sgt. Walter L. Bryant. All were assigned to the Air Force Operational Test Center. In March 1956, four RCAF Avro Canada CF-100 Canucks began tests at Eglin AFB for comparative armament trials, flown by USAF crews. The operational suitability tests, dubbed Project Banana Belt, were carried out by the 3241st Test Group (Interceptor) of the APGC's Air Force Operational Test Center, in conjunction with a project team from the Royal Canadian Air Force. Project officer for Banana Belt is Capt. Philip B. Porter of the 3241st, and Squadron Leader Philip E. Etienne, RFC, of the RCAF's 445th All-Weather Interceptor Squadron, is Officer Commanding of the Canadian detachment. The CF-100 Mark IV first arrived at Eglin AFB in January 1956. On 7 May 1956, the Air Proving Ground Command hosted a two-hour firepower demonstration at Range 52 before some 5,000 guests representing governments and military units from Latin America, Canada, Cuba, and air attaches of 52 countries, as well as 70 members of the Joint Civilian Orientation Conference. Maj. Gen. Robert W. Burns, commander of APGC, was host. The Thunderbirds performed as part of the event. Flying demonstrations and weapons delivery by F-89 Scorpions, F-94 Starfires, F-100 Super Sabres, and CF-100 Canucks, and the new F-102A Delta Dagger were included, as was an appearance by a Lockheed EC-121. Four F-100s made supersonic runs from 43,000 feet which shook the viewing stands. "Parked aircraft that had outlived their usefulness were attacked by jet fighters using firebombs, cannon and high-velocity rockets." An F-100 demonstrated the new "toss-bombing" technique. A flight of four F-86H Sabres delivered a napalm attack against a concrete simulated factory building. B-47 Stratojets dropped bombs of various sizes and were shown refuelling from aerial tankers. The new B-52 Stratofortress and the B-36 Peacemaker were also demonstrated, with the latter dropping five 100-pound bombs at the shortest interval, "blanketing an area more than 8,000 feet in length." Three North American F-100D Super Sabres arrived at Eglin AFB at the end of May 1956 for operational suitability testing by the 3243d Test Group, Air Force Operational Test Center. Maj. Daniel D. Hagarty headed the project. On 26 June 1956, a "1,000-pound bomb was dropped by accident somewhere near the city limits of Niceville Tuesday. The bomb did not explode. First word of the bomb drop was received by City Manager Vernon E. Peeples in a telephone call from Eglin Air Force Base, he informed the city council Tuesday night. Airmen spent the day searching for the bomb but had not located it by nightfall, he added. The bomb was dropped through accident near Field Two and traveled three or four miles in the air, Peeples was informed." On 26 June 1956, an F-89H Scorpion downed a remote-controlled target QB-17 Flying Fortress over the Eglin water ranges with a Hughes GAR-1 Falcon, "the first time the missile has been employed to destroy a target ship in a simulated air defense environment." Lt. Col. Louis E. Andre, Jr., from the 3241st Test Group, Interceptor, of AFGC and his radar observer, Squadron Leader George T. E. Richards of the Royal Air Force, were credited with the kill. The Falcon is designed to be launched by the F-89H and the F-102A Delta Dagger interceptors. "The missile as well as the Scorpion and the F-102A are presently undergoing operational suitability testing at the Air Force Operational Test Center." An F-102A Delta Dagger downed a remotely controlled QB-17 Flying Fortress over the Eglin water ranges with a Hughes GAR-1 Falcon on 30 June 1956, announced Air Proving Ground Commander Maj. Gen. Robert W. Burns, the second drone to fall prey to the air-to-air missile within a week at the APGC. In the last week of June 1956, a new maximum-minimum airspeed indicator was installed in a Boeing B-47 Stratojet to undergo operational suitability testing. "The new instrument, resembling the standard type indicator, differs in that it will determine the stall speed of an aircraft at any specific time. It will also compute the approach speed of the aircraft to aid the pilot in attaining proper speeds for landing. In the past, with the standard type indicator, pilots have had to determine the approach speed of the aircraft through a mental process of totaling the weight of the fuel load and the operating weight of the aircraft to arrive at the gross weight. This was then applied to a chart to determine the proper approach speed of the aircraft. This method, using the standard indicator, left room for error. With the high speed aircraft of today, pilots must be accurate in determining the speed in order to prevent stalling or approaching the landing strip too fast. The new maximum-minimum air speed indicator is designed to prevent errors that might be made by mental calculations of the pilot. The testing of the new indicator is under the supervision of Major Oliver D. Taylor, 3245th Test Group (Bombardment), Air Force Operational Test Center." Tests of M-112 and M-123 photoflash cartridges, as well as a 165-pound photoflash bomb were conducted over Eglin ranges using Republic RF-84F Thunderflash and Douglas RB-66B Destroyers from 31 July 1956 through the late fall. Air Force Operational Test Center Project Officers for the tests were Capt. Thomas R. Pratt of the 3244th Test Group (Transport and Equipment) and Capt. Robert W. Meade of the 3243d Test Group (Fighter). In September 1956, B-57E-MA Canberra, 55-4244, was assigned to the Air Force Operational Test Center at the Air Proving Ground Command, Eglin AFB, becoming a JB-57E for test missions. In December 1957, it transferred to the Air Proving Ground Center, Air Research and Development Command, at Eglin, reverting to a B-57E in October 1967, and finally to the Armament Development and Test Center of Air Force Systems Command in November 1968. Retired and dropped from the inventory in December 1969, it was sent as an exhibit to what is now the Strategic Air and Space Museum, Ashland, Nebraska. On 27 September 1956, one of the first production Lockheed F-104A-LO Starfighters arrived at Eglin AFB for cold-weather tests in the Air Proving Ground Commands' Climatic Projects Laboratory, with testing due to begin in October under the auspices of the Wright Air Development Center, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio. In October and November 1956, a Cinerama motion picture Search for Paradise, directed by Otto Lang, and produced by Lowell Thomas, was filmed in part at Eglin AFB under the working title of Search for Shangri-La. The film "tells the story of a veteran officer, who wants 'out' but finds, after searching the world for a 'Shangrila,' [sic] that the U. S. Air Force is 'it.'" "Some of the action-packed events captured at Eglin include F-100 'Super Sabres' breaking the sound barrier, in-flight refueling of B-47 'Stratojet' medium bombers, landings and mass fly-bys of the latest operational U. S. Air Force aircraft. Hollywood stunt flyer and combat veteran Paul Mantz, was contracted by Stanley Warner to fly his specially built B-25 in filming a number of aerial sequences . The Cinerama camera can be placed in the nose or tail gunnery slot of the World War II aircraft to film the panorama called for in this latest 'wide-curved' screen production." Release by Stanley Warner, Inc., was expected in the spring of 1957. For thirty days, beginning 1 November 1956, a combined test of elements of the Air Force Operational Test Center, Air Defense Command, Air Material Command, Air Research and Development Command, and Strategic Air Command dubbed Project Plymouth Rock, tested the capabilities of Lockheed RC-121 Warning Stars of the 551st Airborne Early Warning and Control Wing, Otis AFB, Massachusetts. The RC-121s flew picket patterns along the east coast of the United States 24 hours a day while attempting to detect aircraft of the Eglin-based AFOTC playing the part of "enemy" attacks on the boundaries of the U.S. The tests were under the supervision of Senior Project Officer Maj. R. L. Wood of the 3241st Test Group (Interceptor) of the Eglin-based Operational Test Center, with Capt. Phillip B. Porter, Operations Officer, and Maj. A. W. Gramzinski, who collected and analyzed data compiled during the tests. The 3245th Test Group (Bombardment) supplied a Boeing B-47 Stratojet and a Boeing KC-97 Stratofreighter as target aircraft. Other target aircraft were supplied by Strategic Air Command and interceptors by Air Defense Command. A third QB-17 drone kill was achieved by a Hughes GAR-1 Falcon fired from a F-102A Delta Dagger of the 3201st Test Group (Interceptor), flown by Maj. Robert T. Goetz on 1 November 1956 over the Eglin water ranges. The drone had been previously damaged by an earlier hit during the same mission, fired by Capt. William T. Quirk. Goetz had been credited with one of the two QB-17 kills during June 1956. Three F-102A Delta Daggers were deployed to Eglin AFB in December 1956 for GAR-1D Falcon missile firing trials. Of 20 GAR-1Ds launched at targets, only one achieved a hit. The Air Force halted GAR-1D production and temporarily removed the weapon from the inventory while deficiencies were corrected, with additional tests in February 1957 rating the missile as satisfactory. Two Northrop F-89J Scorpions arrived at Eglin AFB in mid-December 1956 from the Northrop Aircraft Corporation facility at Palmdale, California to undergo employment and suitability testing by the 3241st Test Group (Interceptor) of the AFOTC. The first of the two aircraft to arrive was piloted by Capt. Edward J. Slown with Capt. Clayton D. Modeas radar observer. The other 'J' was flown by Lt. Col. Max E. Wolfson with Capt. Phillip B. Porter as radar observer. "Senior Project Officer for testing the F-89J is Capt. Daniel Andre of the 3241st Test group (Interceptor)." Bids for a new control tower to be located near the southwest end of the old abandoned NE-SW runway at Eglin AFB were announced by Col. Walter W. Woodward, Deputy Chief of Staff for Material, Air Proving Ground Command, to be received by the Mobile District Office, Corps of Engineers, by 15 January 1957. The site is ~2,000 feet N of the center line of the new runway and 2,000 feet W of the existing runway. The height of the observation deck from the ground will be 62 feet, two inches. It was anticipated that the new tower would be completed in late summer or early fall. In 1957, the Okaloosa County Air Terminal opened on Eglin Air Force Base in building 89 with 3 personnel (Airport Manager, Security and Administrative Support). Southern Airways was the only air carrier, from 3 September, operating Douglas DC-3s, and, from 1961, Martin 4-0-4s. The last Southern DC-3 was retired on 31 July 1967. The 4-0-4s would serve Eglin until 1973. The airport code of VPS was assigned for the traditional identifier of Valparaiso Airport. Work began on new missile launching facilities on Santa Rosa Island at site A-15, south of Hurlburt Field, in March 1957, the planning for which dated to October 1955, to accommodate the testing of the new IM-99 Bomarc surface-to-air missile. By 1958 the site hosted missile ground testing and personnel training facilities by the 4751st Air Defense Missile Wing of the Air Defense Command, activated on 15 January 1958 (another source gives the date as 27 February 1958) to supplement Bomarc testing done at Patrick AFB, Florida. Launchers were constructed so that Bomarcs could be fired into what became known as the Eglin Gulf Test Range. The first Santa Rosa Bomarc was launched 15 January 1959. Launch tests were conducted against QF-80s, QB-47H Stratojets and KDBU (Regulus II) drones. In the last week of March 1957, a Douglas C-133A Cargomaster arrived at the Air Proving Ground Command "to undergo adverse weather testing in the Air Force Operational Test Center's Climatic Hangar." Project Officer for the climatic testing was Capt. J. C. Shive, from the Wright Air Development Center, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio. The Air Force Operational Test Center was scheduled to conduct employment and suitability tests starting in October 1957, headed by Maj. James M. Myers of the 3244th Test Group (Transport and Equipment), to be run in the Military Air Transport Service environment. The project team was slated to make a number of trans-Atlantic flights in the C-133A from Dover AFB, Delaware, to determine the suitability of the Cargomaster to haul heavy cargo loads over long distances. The week of 1 April 1957 a Lockheed C-130 Hercules from the Air Force Operational Test Center at Eglin Air Force Base became the first turbo-prop aircraft to carry U.S. mail across the Atlantic. The C-130 was on its way to Evreux, France, where it was to be put through another phase of Employment and Suitability Testing by AFOTC. Stopping at Dover, Delaware, on the first leg of the Atlantic crossing, the Hercules took on 4,800 pounds of mail for servicemen overseas. In May 1957, four F-102 Delta Dagger squadrons participated in Operation FAST DRAW at Eglin AFB for further evaluation of the interceptor and its MG-10 fire control system. The GAR-1D Falcon performance once again rated satisfactory, validating the F-102’s capability for continental air defense. As a result, the GAR-1D re-entered service in mid-1958. In March 1957, the last F-51 Mustang in USAF service, F-51D-30-NA, 44-74936, retired to the Air Force Central Museum from the West Virginia Air National Guard in late 1956, was pulled out of "mothballs" and flown to Eglin AFB to "appear in the Aerial Firepower Demonstration to be conducted by the Air Proving Ground Command on May 6. The May 6 demonstration will celebrate the Golden Anniversary of the U. S. Air Force. The F-51 will participate in a pageant of U. S. airpower which will highlight the developments in combat aircraft from the open-cockpit by-planes [sic] of World War I to the ultrasonic fighters of the present. The F-51 was flown to Eglin from the Air Force Museum in Dayton, Ohio, by Lt. Col. Walter A. Rosenfield, Jr. It will be flown in the Aerial Firepower Demonstration by Capt. Ralph P. Clark, with Major George N. Metcalf as an alternate pilot. The Crew Chief for the 'Mustang' is Technical Sergeant Harry P. Grizzle. Col. Rosenfield, Capt. Clark, and Sgt. Grizzle are members of the Air Force Operational Test Center at Eglin, and Major Metcalf is assigned to Air Proving Ground Headquarters. All have had prior experience with the F-51." A 7th Bomb Wing B-36 was flown to Eglin AFB, on 24 May 1957 for static display. After ten years of service, primarily for electronic testing, the first B-50A-1-BO Superfortress, 46-002, reclassified as an EB-50A in March 1949, and then as a JB-50A in January 1956 for testing of special instrumentation, concluded its career by verifying a stellar monitoring inertial bombing system and was then salvaged at Eglin on 12 July 1957. The Low Altitude Bombing System (LABS), or toss bombing, tactic was first made public in front of a crowd of 3,000 including 11 state governors on 7 May 1957 at Eglin AFB, when a B–47 Stratojet entered its bombing run at low altitude, pulled up sharply (3.5 g) into a half loop, releasing its bomb under computer control at a predetermined point in its climb, then executed a half roll, completing a maneuver similar to an Immelmann turn or Half Cuban Eight. The bomb continued upward for some time in a high arc before falling on a target which was a considerable distance from its point of release. In the meantime, the maneuver had allowed the bomber to change direction and distance itself from the target. The development of this system at Eglin dated to at least mid-1955 under Project Back Breaker. The unintended consequence of this tactic would be a series of crashes by B-47s in early 1958 caused by stress-induced cracks which caused the bombers to shed their wings. A fleet-wide inspection and repair program known as Milk Bottle was begun in May 1958 which led to no fewer than nine Technical Orders, with most aircraft cycled through the program by October 1958. From 5 to 10 October 1957, one 7th Bomb Wing B-36 participated in a firepower demonstration at Eglin AFB, Florida. The first inventory-accepted production GAM-63 Rascal missile was assigned to Eglin AFB on 30 October 1957, with Category II testing running into mid-1958 with launch from a DB-47 Stratojet. It was delivered from the Bell Aircraft Company plant at Wheatfield, New York, on board a JB-50D Superfortress modified as a Rascal transporter. Two bombers were used in this capacity, 48-069 and 48–126. Despite a cover article and glowing account in the July 1958 issue of Popular Science magazine (Vol. 173, No. 1) of a recent successful test by a DB-47 which flew from Eglin to Holloman AFB, New Mexico, to launch the Rascal, this was the exception. Out of 65 tests, all others either were cancelled or were outright failures. The design never was deployed, having been superseded during its protracted development by the vastly improved GAM-77 Hound Dog, the whole project being canceled on 29 September 1958. The Eglin Aero Club was founded in 1958. In 1958, the 3215th Drone Squadron from Eglin's Air Proving Ground Center deployed to Cape Canaveral to provide the target drones for the IM-99 Bomarc test program. On 5 December 1958, the Squadron was discontinued, but it was succeeded by the 3205th Drone Group, Detachment #1, which continued flying drone targets for BOMARC tests well into 1959. Once the IM-99A portion of the program was completed, drones were no longer required. Detachment #1 departed for Eglin on 8 June 1959. An XIM-99 Bomarc missile, 54-3079, was displayed at an open house at Eglin in 1958 along with a TM-61 Matador and an SM-62 Snark. Also on show was a GAM-63 Rascal, mounted on a DB-47 Stratojet launch aircraft. Unreported at the time, the military planned a live nuclear test in the Gulf of Mexico in mid-1958 involving Nike Hercules and Genie missiles. "The Pentagon scheduled a Nike-Hercules operational exercise and a second full-fledged Genie test to take place over the Gulf of Mexico in 1958. However, President Eisenhower halted the operation a week before it occurred following two Oval Office meetings with senior military and civilian officials. From the outset, the AEC opposed the operation. AEC Chairman Lewis Strauss 'questioned the possible adverse public reaction'" if the operation went ahead. Nonetheless, the Army prepared to have a Nike-Hercules battery at Eglin Air Force Base's Santa Rosa Island launch two missiles over the Gulf, each with different version of the W-31 nuclear charge, at a formation of three obsolete Air Force F-80 fighters converted into drones. In the same exercise, the Air Force intended to have interceptors fire Genies at other unmanned aircraft. Both the Army and Air Force were to make use of airspace ' horizontal distance from the nearest populated area' which had been a military training area for years and was routinely used to test Air Force weapons (albeit never nuclear arms). On June 27, 1958, Lewis Strauss, Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and others discussed the Eglin operation with President Eisenhower. Strauss emphasized his belief that what he considered unnecessary tests of production nuclear arms might imperil future test activities he thought which were central to the AEC's mission. Dulles and his deputy, Christian Herter, expressed concern that neighboring nations might react poorly to the operation. Eisenhower decided that if the governments of Cuba or Mexico objected, 'the matter would have to be reconsidered.' A month later, as test preparations proceeded, another White House meeting was convened. Dulles reported to Eisenhower that 'consultations' with Cuba and Mexico led him 'to recommend strongly' that the nuclear operation be moved to the Pacific. The president then 'approved transfer or cancellation' of the operation but requested 'some study of some combination of activities to accomplish the same objectives.' While the military moved to continue the operation in Florida with conventional rounds, Public Health Service officials contacted their state-level counterparts, informed them of the nuclear test halt, expressed appreciation for 'complete cooperation,' and asked them to 'forget our activities in the area.' The request was heeded. There is no evidence that the 1958 test arrangements became known at the time." The eleventh YB-58A-1-CF Hustler, 55–670, c/n 11, first flown on 26 June 1958, was placed in the climatic test chamber at Eglin AFB on 7 August 1958 and removed in September 1958. The first F-105B Thunderchiefs to reach an operational unit were delivered to the 335th Tactical Fighter Squadron of the Tactical Air Command's 4th Fighter Wing at Eglin in August 1958. On 1 December 1958, the 4135th Strategic Wing of the Second Air Force, Strategic Air Command, flying the B-52 Stratofortress and KC-135 Stratotanker, was assigned to Eglin as part of SAC's dispersal program. The wing was reassigned to the Eighth Air Force, 822nd Air Division on 1 January 1959. A five-pronged concrete Christmas-tree alert ramp was constructed at the west end of runway 32/14 as Taxiway 3 to accommodate the eight-engined bombers. All the buildings of the SAC Alert area were erected between 1958 and 1961. The Crew Readiness, or "Alert" Building, was completed and in use by the end of January 1960. Buildings 1343, 1344 and 1345 were built as B-52 service nose bays, while 1339 was a fuel system "nose dock", so-named because only the nose and wings fit inside. This fuel cell maintenance hangar would be demolished on 13 December 2011 by general contractors, the Army Corps of Engineers, and base civil engineers to be replaced by an F-35 fuel cell maintenance hangar with three aircraft bays. From the late 1940s through the mid-1960s, Eglin played host to annual Fire Power Demonstrations on its extensive test ranges. President Harry S Truman attended one such event on 22 May 1950, as did President John F. Kennedy on 4 May 1962. RB-36D-1-CO Peacemaker, 44-92088, was demonstrated at Eglin for Truman's visit. In the mid-late 1950s, the fifth and last B-66A-DL Destroyer all-weather photo reconnaissance variant, 52-2832, modified to a JRB-66A, served at Eglin with the 3206th Test Wing and the 3201st Air Base Wing. It would be transferred to the U.S. Navy at Davis-Monthan AFB, Arizona, on 20 February 1960. Category II testing of the F-101B Voodoo was completed at Eglin on 15 March 1959. On 23 April 1959, a B-52 launched the first flight test of a prototype GAM-77 Hound Dog A missile at Eglin AFB. Testing of the General Electric APN-115 navigational radar system took place at Eglin from mid-1959 utilizing a JRB-57 Canberra. GAR-4A Falcon missile trials with F-106 Delta Darts were conducted at Eglin AFB in June and July 1959. Beginning 1 August 1959, P2V-7U Neptune, BuNo 135612, c/n 7047, as an RB-69A, 54-4037, acquired by the Central Intelligence Agency under Project Cherry, was sent to Eglin AFB for testing aircraft performance at low level and under adverse conditions. A CIA document indicates that 200 hours of testing were planned, including tests with the Skyhook system. The names of two agency personnel involved in the tests were redacted. For a time in the 1960s–1970s, the CIA had "front" offices in Shalimar, Florida. This office may have been involved as a test project office for the Lockheed U-2, with whom Fort Walton Beach resident, World War II exile Polish pilot, and CIA officer, Ksawery Wyrożemski was involved. The first operational Strategic Air Command GAM-77 Hound Dog A missile, 59-2794, arrived at Eglin AFB in December 1959 to equip the 4135th Strategic Wing, operating B-52G Stratofortresses out of the base. The 1960s On 14 January 1960, Eglin AFB conducted the first test launch of a rocket-borne transmitter. The first production Republic F-105D Thunderchief, F-105D-1-RE, 58-1146, c/n D-1, began an intensive flight test program at Eglin during the last week of January 1960. It arrived from Farmingdale, New York on 22 January, flown by Republic test pilot Don Seaver. The first Air Proving Ground Command pilot to fly the airframe was Maj. Kenneth L. Skeen, project pilot for the APGC's Directorate of Tactical Systems Test. The first GAM-77 Hound Dog missile assigned to the Strategic Air Command was carried aloft for the first time on 29 January 1960, aboard a B-52G-75-BW Stratofortress, 57-6472, c/n 464177, of 4135th Strategic Wing, commanded by Capt. Jay L. McDonald. The strategic missile was carried on the port underwing pylon during the flight that lasted more than four hours. The Eglin crew made the first Air Force launch of the type at 1950 hrs., over the Atlantic Missile Range, all previous launches having been made by contractor crews flying B-52s. A second Hound Dog was launched several hours later. On board the B-52 during the two launches was Gen. A. J. Russell, Commander of the 822d Air Division with headquarters at Turner Air Force Base, Georgia. Directing the mission from the Missile Control Center at Cape Canaveral was Lt. Col. William T. Wilborn, Test and Evaluation Director for the SAC Project Office at Eglin. Another operational test of the GAM-77 Hound Dog took place over the Eglin water range on 31 March 1960 when a B-52G of the 4135th Strategic Wing, commanded by Capt. Jay L. McDonald, launched the missile from a point near Tampa, Florida, at 1347 hrs. CST, which then flew several hundred miles NW to hit a target in the Gulf of Mexico off the northwest Florida coast. This test followed a series of successful flights over the Atlantic Missile Range at Cape Canaveral as well as on the test ranges of Eglin. An IM-99A Bomarc was fired from Santa Rosa Island by the 4751st Air Defense Missile Wing at 1503 hrs., 26 February 1960, targeting a QF-80 drone flying above 30,000 feet over the Eglin Gulf Test Range. "A spokesman for the Wright Air Development Division, which manages the Bomarc program for the Air Research and Development Command said the objective in the firing was to test some recently modified missile supported equipment." The first GAM-72 Quails began to join the 4135th Strategic Wing at Eglin AFB on 27 February 1960. On 11 April 1960, a 4135th Strategic Wing B-52 crew, commanded by Capt. Jay L. McDonald, took off from Eglin AFB, carrying two operational Hound Dogs, made a 20-hour, 30-minute flight to the North Pole and back, and on 12 April, launched a Hound Dog missile over the Atlantic Missile Range. This test, called Operation Blue Nose, verified the ability of the B-52 and missile to operate in temperatures as low as 75 degrees below zero. North American Aviation, Inc., Space And Information Systems Division / Strategic Air Command documentary "Operation Blue Nose", written and directed by Ernest Frankel. Testing continued with the Bomarc B model. Designated the IM-99B, this missile underwent its inaugural service test on 13 April 1960. In May 1960, the obsolete control tower at Eglin's Main base, a glass-enclosed cab, 15 feet square, supported by steel legs about 50 feet long, with steel cross-bracing, ladders and hand rails, was offered for sale to the highest bidder, announced by the U.S. Army District Engineer at Mobile, Alabama. The structure, offered on an as-is, where-is basis, was to be removed from the site not later than August 12. The final flight in the Category II testing of the F-105B Thunderchief was flown by members of the 335th Tactical Fighter Squadron at Eglin AFB on 31 May 1960. Lt. Col. Robert R. Scott, Commander of the 335th, stated that the year-long tests were completed successfully and on schedule. In Cat II testing, the aircraft, its subsystems and components are evaluated under closely simulated tactical conditions. The F-105B then moved into Category III testing under actual combat conditions by the Tactical Air Command. The 335th TFS remained at Eglin for similar testing of the F-105D. On 8 June 1960, the first SAC launch of an GAM-72 Quail decoy was made by a B-52G of the 4135th Strategic Wing, operating out of Eglin. On 14 June 1960, Air Force Secretary Dudley C. Sharp announced in Washington, D.C., that testing and development of the Douglas GAM-87 Skybolt air-to-surface ballistic missile had been assigned to Eglin AFB. "While preliminary activity will start immediately at Eglin on the Sky Bolt [sic] project, the program is not expected to reach full scale for at least a year or two." Ultimately, however, a series of test failures and the development of submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) eventually leads to its cancellation in December 1962. A Nike-Asp sounding rocket was launched from Eglin Air Force Base on 27 June 1960 at 1410 hrs. with an X-ray detector on board to measure ambient electronic and ionic fields, reaching an altitude of 160 miles, but failed to return any useful data. From July 1960, a Canadair CP-107 Argus of the Royal Canadian Air Force underwent hot weather testing at Eglin AFB. "Since the Canadian climate is comparatively cool, even in mid-summer, a team of 35 RCAF officers and airmen have come to Eglin for six weeks to evaluate the performance of their four-engined Argus patrol craft in a hot-weather environment. Squadron Leader Garnet W. Ovans pointed out they could have tested the Argus in a much warmer location, 'but we picked Eglin because it also had the necessary humidity range, and especially because of the extensive testing facilities here. The APGC project officer for the test of the Argus is Major Charles E. Dougan, of the Directorate of Strategic Systems Test. While at Eglin, the 35-man RCAF crew will collect high-temperature performance data on the Argus, including fuel consumption rates, takeoff and landing distances, maintenance techniques, and functional checks of the armament systems." The first production GAM-72 Quail missile was delivered to the 4135th Strategic Wing at Eglin on 13 September 1960. Initial operational capability was reached on February 1, 1961, when the first squadron of the 4135th Strategic Wing was equipped with the GAM-72A. The Development Projects Division, the Central Intelligence Agency's air arm, operated out of Eglin in support of Operation Pluto, the ill-fated Bay of Pigs Invasion, in 1960-1961. A temporary C-54 Skymaster unit, the 1045th Operational Evaluation and Training Group, Headquarters Command, Eglin AFB, as the Air Force designated it, but which was a DPD operation, was temporarily based at Eglin's Auxiliary Field Three (Duke Field) from late 1960 to June/July 1961. “There was a total of about 20 Polish airmen at Eglin at the time, all of them 'employed' by Lockheed, so there should be enough of them to form at least two crews.” The DPD operated independently of "the organizational structure of the project, in which it had a vital, central role, including air drops to the underground, training Cuban pilots, operation of air bases, the immense logistical problems of transporting the Cuban volunteers from Florida to Guatemala, and the procuring and servicing of the military planes." On 16 December 1960, the Semi Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE) facility at Gunter AFS, Alabama, controlled two BOMARC-B missiles launched from Eglin AFB, and directed their interception of a QB-47 drone flying at at . Category II testing of the instrument displays, fire-control and navigation systems of the F-105D Thunderchief was conducted at Eglin between 26 December 1960 and 31 October 1961 by the 335th Tactical Fighter Squadron. In 1961, Southern Airways began acquiring 22 40-seat Martin 4-0-4s from Eastern Airlines to augment its DC-3 fleet. One squadron of the B-52G equipped 4135th Strategic Wing at Eglin was declared Operational with the Quail missile, by SAC Headquarters on 1 February 1961, the first B-52 unit to obtain this status. In an experiment conducted at Eglin AFB, on 23 February 1961, the direct measurement of atmospheric densities between the altitudes of and was accomplished for the first time. On 8 March 1961, the first launch of an Astrobee 1500 rocket took place at 17:53 GMT, from an Eglin site, on an ionosphere mission – apogee was 267 miles (431 km). In 1961, four Fiat G.91s were delivered to the U.S. aboard Douglas C-124s for evaluation. Two Two G.91R-1's were placed at the disposal of technicians of the U.S. Army at Fort Rucker, Alabama, and two G.91R-3's were delivered to the U.S. Air Force at Kirtland Air Force Base, New Mexico. One G.91R-3 was sent to the climatic laboratory at Eglin for a series of tests. Instrumentation was installed on the aircraft to record all the information related to the airframe and the engine. On 17 August 1961, the BOMARC-B missile completed a critical profile flight by destroying a QB-47 drone at a minimum range of and in altitude. On 19 September 1961, a Bomarc B launched from Eglin, and controlled from a Semi Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE) facility at Gunter AFS, Alabama, intercepted a supersonic Regulus II drone off the Florida coast at a seven-mile (11 km) altitude, from the launchpoint. The Bomarc successfully executed a 180-degree turn to make the intercept. Another source lists the launch date as 19 September 1962. Combat Evaluation Launches of the GAM-77 Hound Dog began at Eglin AFB on 18 December 1961, by elements of the B-52G equipped 4241st Strategic Wing at Seymour Johnson AFB, North Carolina. In early 1962, Eglin was considered as one of the possible launch sites for the Little Joe II ballistics test for the Apollo program, although the U.S. Army's White Sands Missile Range was eventually selected in late spring due, in part, to the simplified recovery on a land versus a water range. The ninth F-102A Delta Dagger, F-102A-15-CO, 53-1799, one of only 25 short-tail models built, was retired at Eglin in 1962 and placed on display in Fort Walton Beach. Donated back to the infant Armaments Museum in 1975, it was found to be too badly corroded after 13 years in Gulf sea air for preservation. Between 22 January and 2 March 1962, the U.S. Army Quartermaster Research and Engineering Command conducted a human factors study of QMC clothing and equipment during cold weather tests of the Pershing missile in the Climatic Laboratory at Eglin AFB. Quartermaster participation in the test was at the request of the Army Ordnance Missile Command, with compatibility tests conducted at temperatures of 0, −25, −45, and . The artillery test team consisted of a commanding officer and 15 enlisted men, all from the Army Ordnance Missile Command, Redstone Arsenal, Alabama. In the early 1960s, the Air Force investigated the conversion of the Cessna T-37 jet-powered primary trainer for counterinsurgency missions. The project was intended to provide an inexpensive aircraft for the U.S. export market. In 1962 two T-37Bs, 62-5950 and 62-5951 were modified and tested at Eglin Air Force Base. The aircraft retained the T-37's Continental J69 engines, but since gross weight increased to accommodate the ordnance and attack avionics, the aircraft was underpowered and performed poorly. The USAF Special Air Warfare Center was activated 27 April 1962, with the 1st Combat Applications Group (CAG) organized as a combat systems development and test agency under the SAWC. The 1st CAG concentrated on testing and evaluation of primarily short-term projects which might improve Air Force counter-insurgency (COIN) operations. The Special Air Warfare Center, located at Hurlburt Field, undertook to develop tactical air doctrine while training crews for special air warfare in places like Southeast Asia. By mid-1963, SAW groups were in Vietnam and Panama. On 4 May 1962, President John F. Kennedy visited Eglin for an airpower tour. The 4080th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing, Laughlin AFB, Texas, dispatched a Lockheed U-2A, piloted by Rudolf Anderson for static display. Although Kennedy's motorcade only drove past the spy plane without stopping, Anderson later briefed the president, accompanied by Generals Curtis E. LeMay, Thomas S. Power, and Secretary of the Air Force Eugene M. Zuckert, on the spy plane's capabilities. Also on display for the president's firepower demonstration was B-58A-10-CF Hustler, 59-2460, of the 43d Bombardment Wing. Also on display for the presidential visit was F-105B-20-RE Thunderchief, 57-5836, fully loaded with 26 X 500 lb. bombs. Footage of the president's arrival. After a three-year testing program, on 10 May 1962, a U.S. Air Force Bomarc A launched from Eglin AFB, Fla., intercepted a QF-104 Starfighter drone away. 1365th Photo Squadron report "Starfighter To Be Drone", Eglin AFB, Florida, 1961. On 1 July 1962, the 4751st Air Defense Missile Wing was discontinued and the unit replaced by the 4751st Air Defense Missile Squadron, which provided ground training and practice missile shoots for Air Defense Command crews until 1979. An RM-86 Exos sounding rocket was successfully launched over the Eglin Gulf Test Range to an apogee of 227 miles (365 kilometres) on 3 August 1962 for the Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories. The mission was described as Bipolar Probe ionospheric research. On 19 September 1962, a Bomarc B launched from Eglin, and controlled from Gunter AFB, Alabama, intercepted a supersonic Regulus II drone at a seven-mile (11 km) altitude, from the launchpoint. The Bomarc successfully executed a 180-degree turn to make the intercept. During the Cuban Missile Crisis in October 1962, F-104C Starfighters of the 479th Tactical Fighter Wing from George AFB, California, were deployed to Eglin as part of the immense build up of military strength and material in the State of Florida in preparation for possible military action. The 4135th Strategic Wing, Strategic Air Command, Alert crews at Eglin were placed on airborne alert priority with two Eglin B-52s on 24-hour flights within cruising range of Russia. Flights of 24 hours, more than double the usual ten-hour missions, were refueled by KC-135 tankers. Following the end of the crisis, the SAC crews returned to their usual routines. Ready Force, A Company, of the 82d Airborne Division, U.S. Army, was deployed to Eglin from Fort Benning, Georgia, for a possible jump into Havana to seize the airport. Testing of specialized U.S. Navy equipment intended for use in the unsuccessful Operation Coldfeet salvage of Soviet drift station equipment (as a Navy undertaking) in the Arctic in late 1962-early 1963 was conducted in the Climatic Laboratory post-September. Eventually a CIA proprietary company carried out the mission in late May-early June 1963. Minnesota Honeywell Corporation conducted flight tests on an inertial guidance sub-system for the later-cancelled X-20 Dyna-Soar project at the base utilizing an NF-101B Voodoo, beginning in January 1963, and completed by August 1963. QB-47E Stratojets and QF-104A Starfighters were operated by the 3205th Drone Director Group through the late 1960s (QB-47s) in support of such programs as the testing of the IM-99 Bomarc interceptor missile, and into the 1970s (QF-104s). The USAF Tactical Air Warfare Center was activated on 1 November 1963. It would be re-designated as the USAF Air Warfare Center on 1 October 1991. Three SC-54 Rescuemasters and an HU-16 Albatross of the 48th Rescue Squadron deployed from Eglin to Grand Turk Island with a contingent of some 40 squadron personnel supporting four pararescuemen who jumped from SC-54s to recover four camera cassettes, and sight and mark a fifth, from the launch of Apollo mission SA-5 with launch vehicle AS-105 at 1625 hrs. GMT, 29 January 1964, the first launch of a Block II Apollo with a live second stage. Two other Eglin-based HU-16s were flown to Patrick Air Force Base, Florida, for alert missions during this launch. A large AN/FPS-85 Space Track Radar was constructed at Site C-6, ~ E of Eglin main base, from October 1962, with Bendix as the primary contractor. Testing was scheduled for May 1965, but four months before, the building and all the equipment were destroyed in a fire caused by arcing electrical equipment. Rebuilt, this was the first phased-array radar system especially designed to detect and track objects in space. The physical structure of the system was 13 stories high, and the radar contained 5,134 transmitters and 4,660 receivers and utilized three computers. The Air Force took ownership of the site in September 1968 with the 20th Surveillance Squadron as the primary operator. Initially charged with tracking objects in Earth's orbit, new software installed in 1975 allowed tracking of submarine-launched ballistic missiles. This became the unit's primary mission, while continuing to perform space tracking. The AN/FPS-85 played an active role in America's space program. From 1971 to 1984, the 20th SURS was the site of the Alternate Space Surveillance Center. It provided computational support to the Space Surveillance Center at Cheyenne Mountain AS, Colo. If the need arose, the squadron could assume command and control for worldwide space track sensors. Space operations began in February 1969. Initially designed to track satellites, new software installed in 1975 enabled the unit to track submarine-launched ballistic missiles, or SLBMs. This became the unit's primary mission, while space surveillance became secondary. From 1971 to 1984 the 20 SURS served as the Alternate Space Surveillance Center, providing computational support to the Space Surveillance Center at Cheyenne Mountain AS, Colorado. If the need arose, the squadron could assume command and control of worldwide SSN. In 1979, the 20 SURS was renamed the 20th Missile Warning Squadron, or 20th MWS, and four years later, with inactivation of Strategic Air Command, the squadron was transferred to Air Force Space Command. During this time, the AN/FPS-85 was the proving ground for development of phased array radars designed specifically for early warning of SLBM attacks. These PAVE Phased Array Warning System radars assumed missile warning responsibilities from the 20th MWS and in 1987, the unit returned to its original mission of space surveillance with a corresponding name change to the 20th Space Surveillance Squadron. In February 2003, the unit was again re-designated, this time as the 20th SPCS. In October 2004, a detachment was activated under the 20th SPCS at Dahlgren, Virginia, and the unit assumed control of the U.S. Navy's AN/FPS-133 Space Surveillance Radar Fence and the Alternate Space Control Center. A low security Federal Prison Camp was established under a maintenance contract with the Air Force, located at the old Niceville Road Prison where German POWs had been incarcerated during World War II, from November 1962. The camp moved to a compound at Auxiliary Field 6 in November 1969, and served as a minimum security facility for non-violent offenders. It would gain the nickname "Club Fed". The facility was closed in 2006 as a cost-cutting measure, with most of the prisoners transferred to the Pensacola Federal Prison Camp, Saufley Field, at NAS Pensacola in December 2005. Watergate conspirator E. Howard Hunt, former Maryland Governor Marvin Mandel, and fashion maven Aldo Gucci (tax evasion) were among those who served time at Eglin. The 39th Bombardment Wing, Heavy, was activated on 15 November 1962 at Eglin AFB as a Strategic Air Command B-52G Stratofortress bombardment wing. It was assigned to SAC's 822d Air Division at Turner AFB, Georgia. The 39th BW was a redesignation of the former 4135th Strategic Wing which was inactivated on 1 February 1963 and the unit redesignated in order to retain the lineage of the combat units and to perpetuate the lineage of many currently inactive units with illustrious World War II records. The wing's 62d Bomb Squadron flew B-52G's which it acquired from the 301st Bomb Squadron. As a preliminary step towards the AC-47 Spooky gunship program (retroactively Gunship I), under Project Tailchaser C-131B Samaritan, 53-7820, was given a gunsight for the side window, but instead of guns it had cameras in the cargo area. In 1964 the C-131 was ferried to Eglin AFB and a General Electric SUU-11A/A 7.62 mm Gatling-style Minigun was installed. Live ammunition was used and both over-water and over-land tests in late summer were successful. A C-47 was subsequently fitted with three Miniguns and side-firing tests began in September 1964. The initial combat operation of the FC-47, as it was initially officially named, began in Vietnam on 15 December 1964. Ryan Model 147B Firebee reconnaissance drones, launched from DC-130A Hercules controllers, were tested at Eglin in 1964 under Strategic Air Command's project Lightning Bug, reaching operational status by May. They were deployed to Southeast Asia in August following the passage of the Tonkin Gulf Resolution, and initially operated out of Kadena Air Base, Okinawa, for missions over southern China. The Cessna YAT-37D, modified from the standard T-37B primary trainer to evaluate the design as a counter-insurgency (COIN) attack/reconnaissance aircraft, first flew in September 1963. The airplane underwent performance and systems evaluation testing during 1964 at Edwards AFB, California, and Eglin AFB, Florida. In 1964, C-141A-10-LM Starlifter, 63-8076, c.n. 300-6007, was tested in the climatic laboratory. In 1964, prior to the start of Arc Light bombing missions in Southeast Asia on 18 June 1965, Boeing B-52F Stratofortresses of the 2d Bomb Wing demonstrated their conventional bombing capability over ranges at Eglin AFB. On 23 March 1964, the GAM-72A Quail missile made its first operational test flight (nicknamed Shotgun) at Eglin AFB. The 4486th Test Squadron at Eglin was the first USAF unit to receive the Bell UH-1F model Huey, which received two of these helicopters in September 1964. The U.S. Air Force performed its first Fulton Skyhook recovery on 27 November 1964 when Capt. Nelson Gough was picked up by a modified C-123H Provider at Eglin. A CH-21B Workhorse helicopter, 51-5857, named "The Joker", was retired from Eglin in January 1965 to the National Museum of the United States Air Force, Wright Patterson AFB, Dayton, OH, where it is on display today. The 48th Air Rescue Squadron was redesignated the 48th Air Recovery Squadron on 1 February 1965. Vietnam War During the early part of 1965 about one dozen personnel of the 109th Quartermaster Corps, U.S. Army, were sent TDY to Eglin Air Force Base, where they assisted Air Force personnel developing an air delivery technique called the low-altitude parachute extraction system (LAPES). The 109th's mission was to provide parachute packing, temporary storage and rigging of supplies and equipment for aerial drop by aircraft of all the services. In addition, the 109th was to render technical assistance in the recovery and evacuation of airdrop equipment. Using the LAPES system, while a cargo plane flew a few feet above ground level, a drogue parachute would be released, pulling palletized cargo out of the aircraft and onto the drop zone. An alternative method was the ground proximity extraction system (GPES), in which cargo was yanked from the aircraft by a hook that snagged a cable traversing the runway. At full strength the unit would be capable of preparing 200 tons of material per day for delivery by free, high velocity or low-velocity drop techniques. The 33d Tactical Fighter Wing was organized at Eglin on 1 April 1965 as an associate unit with F-4C Phantom IIs, taking over the area of the base where Strategic Air Command had dispersed B-52s. On 25 June 1965 the 39th Bomb Wing's 62d Bomb Squadron was reassigned to the 2d Bombardment Wing at Barksdale AFB, Louisiana to support SAC Arc Light combat operations over Southeast Asia, marking the phaseout of SAC operations at Eglin. At this time the 39th Bomb Wing was inactivated. During 1965, F-5A Freedom Fighters were evaluated at Eglin under project Sparrow Hawk prior to being deployed to overseas under project Skoshi Tiger. Between 1965 and 1966, USAFTAWC personnel saw combat in Vietnam while simultaneously performing the combat evaluation of the Northrop F-5. The center was conducting this evaluation to determine if an inexpensive, uncomplicated fighter would be beneficial in lower levels of conflict, such as in Southeast Asia. In 1965, the Air Force was initiating development of a low-cost guided bomb capability for its aircraft. Aiding that effort, Texas Instruments conducted a series of tests at the Armament Development and Test Center at Eglin AFB. These tests incorporated laser technology to guide free falling ordnance. This classified project received the code name PAVE and was the beginning of what would later become a series of sensors and precision-guided munitions. "In the summer of 1965, a 15-man team tested and evaluated a Grumman E-2 Hawkeye at the Tactical Air Warfare Center at Eglin AFB. It was envisaged that the aircraft would be used in a forward-operating combat environment until a land-based command and control center would become operational. However, the type was never used by the USAF who relied on larger C-130 and C-121 variants to perform the mission." The North Vietnamese began launching surface-to-air missiles against U.S. aircraft in 1965. The Air Force had little or no defense against these missiles and assigned the USAF Tactical Air Warfare Center the critical mission of developing effective surface-to-air missile (SAM) countermeasures to protect aircrews over the skies of Vietnam. In response to this new threat, USAFTAWC originated and fielded the Wild Weasel program. Simultaneously, the center was testing radar homing and warning equipment and self-protection electronic countermeasures jamming pods. Four F-100F Super Sabres, modified as Wild Weasel I groundfire suppression aircraft, deployed from Eglin to Southeast Asia on 21 November 1965, assigned to the operational control of the 388th Tactical Fighter Wing. Systems integration of the Hughes AIM-4D Falcon air-to-air missile with the new model F-4D Phantom II was accomplished at Eglin AFB during late 1965 under Project Dancing Falcon. "The AIM-4D's disappointing performance in terms of MiG kills – only five in Vietnam (the first of which, a MiG-17, was claimed on 26 October 1967 by Capts Larry D. Cobb and Alan A. Lavoy flying F-4D 66-7565) – was largely attributed to the missile's inherent design features, which had been chosen with strategic air defence in mind." Construction began in 1965 on a new $3.4 million three-story base hospital with completion slated for mid-1967. Ground-breaking was held on 25 June 1965, attended by Congressman Bob Sikes; Lewis Turner, Assistant Secretary of the Air Force; Maj. Gen. Richard L. Bohannon, USAF Surgeon General; and Col. Robert C. Marshall, commander of the Mobile District of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, among others. In 1966, the third Lockheed YF-12A, 60-6936, c/n 1003, first flown on 13 March 1964, participated in AIM-47 missile firing tests at Eglin AFB. "On 22 March, the crew of 936 successfully fired a missile from 74,500 feet while cruising at Mach 3.15. The target was a Ryan Q-2C flying at 1,500 feet. Another Q-2C, which was cruising at 20,000 feet, was downed on 13 May. On 21 September, the crew of 936 fired a missile from 74,000 feet and Mach 3.2 at a remotely piloted Boeing QB-47 flying near sea level. Shortly after these tests, the YF-12As were placed in storage for three years." The 48th Air Recovery Squadron was redesignated the 48th Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Squadron on 8 January 1966. In 1966, HU-16 Albatrosses of the 48th ARRSq were deployed to Southeast Asia as Detachment 7, based at Da Nang Air Base, South Vietnam. Seven off-the-shelf civilian lightplanes were tested at Eglin AFB in 1966 to fulfill the forward air control (FAC) mission as replacements the Cessna O-1 Bird Dog, with the Cessna 337 Super Skymaster selected to fulfill the mission. On 1 March 1966, the Air Force Armament Laboratory was established at Eglin, replacing the Directorate of Armament Development, which had assumed the responsibilities for the discontinued Air Force Armament Center in early 1965. The new laboratory, the eighth major lab of the Air Force Systems Command, was composed of the Biological Chemical Weapons, Ballistics, Targets and Scorers, and the Engineering and Evaluation Divisions. The lab was designated the "lead" laboratory of the Research and Technology Division for non-nuclear munitions for the Air Force. The first Tactical Air Command F-4D Phantom IIs assigned to a combat unit arrived at the 33d Tactical Fighter Wing at Eglin on 21 June 1966. The 560th Civil Engineering Squadron was activated at Eglin AFB in November 1966, located at Eglin Auxiliary Field 2. Also known as the Civil Engineering Field Activities Center, the unit was responsible for training replacement personnel destined for RED HORSE units in Southeast Asia. The 560th was capable of field training 2,400 individuals each year to keep the six RED HORSE squadrons up to strength. The 560th continued this mission until inactivated in early 1970. Eleven C-130 Hercules transports were modified into HC-130P probe-and-drogue refuelers for CH-3 helicopters in 1966–67, with training beginning at Eglin in 1966. The first fuel transfer was conducted between an HC-130P and an HH-3E on 14 December 1966. With the increasing U.S. involvement in Southeast Asia in the 1960s, the need for increased emphasis on conventional weapons development made Eglin's mission even more important. On 1 August 1968, the Air Proving Ground Center was redesignated the Armament Development and Test Center to centralize responsibility for research, development, test and evaluation, and initial acquisition of non-nuclear munitions for the Air Force. On 1 October 1979, the Center was given division status. The Armament Division, redesignated Munitions Systems Division on 15 March 1989, placed into production the precision-guided munitions for the laser, television, and infrared guided bombs; two anti-armor weapon systems; and an improved hard target weapon, the GBU-28, used in Operation Desert Storm during the Persian Gulf War. The Division was also responsible for developing the Advanced Medium Range Air-to-Air Missile (AMRAAM), an Air Force-led joint project with the U.S. Navy. On 9 January 1967, Tactical Airlift Command initiated Combat Lady, a test of classified weapons at Eglin AFB. This project was later canceled. In April 1967, the U.S. Air Force Special Air Warfare School was activated at Hurlburt Field under the Special Air Warfare Center, then located at Eglin AFB. In 1968, the school was re-designated the U.S. Air Force Special Operations School. On 1 June 1987, USAFSOS, as an organizational element of the 23d Air Force, was assigned to the U.S. Special Operations Command, headquartered at MacDill AFB, Florida. As of 22 May 1990, the school became a reporting unit of the newly established Air Force Special Operations Command. During its formative years, the school's main thrust was the preparation of Air Force personnel for duty in Southeast Asia. Since then, the USAFSOS curriculum has grown from a single course of instruction with 300 graduates per year to 78 classes representing 28 formal courses a year and approximately 25 off-station tutorials. In the spring and summer of 1967 the Air Force experimented with several B-58 Hustlers for the conventional strike role in Project BULLSEYE, including 59–2428, of the 43d Bomb Wing (Medium). The four stores pylons were modified for the carriage of conventional bombs, and the aircraft were flown on low-level strike test missions out of Eglin. It has been reported that one B-58 was painted in Southeast Asia camouflage but no proof of this has been verified. On 1 June 1967, two 48th Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Squadron Sikorsky HH-3E helicopters completed the first helicopter crossing of the Atlantic. The flight followed Lindbergh's route from New York to Paris of 40 years earlier. They completed the flight in 30 hours, 46 minutes with nine inflight refueling from HC-130P tankers to set a FAI record. The 48th Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Squadron was redesignated the 48th Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Squadron, Training on 8 July 1967. Southern Airways retired the last of its DC-3 prop airliners on 31 July 1967, with the final flight between Dothan, Alabama and Atlanta, Georgia. The AC-130A Spectre gunship was operationally tested at Eglin Air Force Base from 12 June to September 1967 under Project Gunship II. The prototype, modified from JC-130A, 54-1626, was selected for conversion at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, by the Aeronautical Systems Division, with flight tests conducted at Eglin. The prototype was then flown to Vietnam, arriving there on 21 September. Following Israel's victory in the Mideast War of June 1967 huge amounts of Soviet manufactured equipment were captured, including radars in working order. Israel was not a close U.S. ally at the time, so a working Westinghouse TPS-43 surveillance radar was "horse traded" to Israel for a Russian Bar Lock (P-50) early warning/GCI radar. It was subsequently tested by Eglin personnel at a site set up at Cape San Blas, Florida, where it was found to be very ruggedly built, using old style World War II circuitry, and was very reliable, designed to be maintained by people with very little technical knowledge. Beginning in 1965, Project Black Spot was a test program designed to give the Air Force a self-contained night attack capability to seek out and destroy targets along the Ho Chi Minh Trail. After the program was approved by the Department of Defense in early 1966, E-Systems of Greenville, Texas, modified two C-123K Providers which were redesignated NC-123Ks, but were often referred to as AC-123Ks. The aircraft were equipped with a long, 57.75 inch nose fairing that housed an X-band forward-looking radar. Below and aft of the extended radome was a turret with Forward-Looking Infrared (FLIR), Low-Level Light Television (LLLTV), and a laser range-finder/illuminator. Also, a low-level Doppler navigation radar and weapons release computer were installed. Two rectangular aluminum weapons dispensers (for CBU bomblets) were stacked within the fuselage. Each container housed 12 cells, each cell containing three Cluster Bomb Units (CBUs). Depending on the type of CBU installed, the containers had a capacity of between 2,664 and 6,372 one pound bomblets. The bomblets were released through 12 openings in the cargo floor that aligned with the cells in the weapons dispenser. The lower fuselage contained 12 inward opening doors that aligned with the openings in the cargo floor, forming a chute. Bomblet release was controlled by a weapons panel in the forward section of the fuselage. In the event of an emergency, the entire load could be jettisoned manually. The first aircraft, 54–691, was delivered to Eglin AFB in August 1967 and the second, 54–698, incorporating an AN/ASD-5 Black Crow direction finder set (engine ignition sensor), was delivered in February 1968. The two aircraft were then deployed, first the Republic of Korea, to be evaluated against North Korean high-speed patrol boats used to insert agents, 19 August – 23 October 1968; and then to South Vietnam with operations beginning 15 November 1968. Despite their success, with 70% of all missions completed and in-commission rate of 84%, there were no follow-on NC-123Ks modified. The two aircraft were transferred to the 16th Special Operations Squadron at Udon Royal Thai Air Force Base, Thailand, where they continued to serve from late 1969 to June 1970. Both airframes were then returned to standard C-123K configuration to serve again as airlifters. The 33d Tactical Fighter Wing began receiving F-4E Phantom IIs in October 1967. Flight testing of laser-guided bombs began at Eglin AFB on 18 November 1967. The first use in combat will be on 23 May 1968, when an F-4D Phantom II of the 8th Tactical Fighter Wing, drops a Paveway Laser Guided Bomb. Modified F-4Ds, fitted with laser illuminators, designate target for the strike. In 1968, Southern Airways added four Douglas DC-9 aircraft to its fleet and began daily flights out of VPS, joining Martin 4-0-4s, in use since 1961. Air New Orleans began operations with service to New Orleans but this operation would not endure. In 1968, an area was added to the main chamber of the Climatic Laboratory to specifically allow the C-5A Galaxy to be tested. This appendent area is approximately by with a ceiling height of . With this appendent area included, usable floor space is approximately . The first North American OV-10A Bronco for the U.S. Air Force was accepted, along with the first U.S. Marine Corps OV-10A, in a joint ceremony held at Port Columbus International Airport, Columbus, Ohio, in February 1968. Maj. Gen. Thomas C. Corbin, commanding officer of the Special Air Warfare Center, represented the Air Force at the event. The USAF Bronco was then flown by Capt. Gary Sheets to Eglin for the 4410th Combat Crew Training Squadron, 4410th Combat Crew Training Wing, designated as the first Air Force OV-10A unit. The first jet-augmented Fairchild C-123K Provider arrived at Hurlburt Field on 5 January 1968, and the first of 76 of the type to be ferried to Vietnam by the 319th Air Commando Squadron departed on 10 April. Sensors used in Southeast Asia for Operation Igloo White were developed, in part, at Eglin. Under the related Pave Eagle I project, YQU-22A aircraft (modified Beechcraft Bonanzas) primary mission equipment and PME flight tests were conducted at Eglin in 1968. Later, the 424th Special Operations Training Squadron operated pilot training for the new QU-22B out of Duke Field, Auxiliary Field 3, under Special Operations Force. In 1968–1969, electronic testing of the F-111 was conducted at Eglin using up to three aircraft. In September 1968, B-57E Canberra, 55-4235, was sent to Eglin for tests. In April 1970 it was retired to AMARC at Davis-Monthan AFB, Arizona. The 557th Civil Engineering Squadron (Heavy Repair), (RED HORSE), originally activated 5 February 1968, and organized at Auxiliary Field 2 on 10 February 1968, deployed to Osan Air Base, South Korea, in April 1968 to assist in a build-up following the capture of , with a permanent change of station to Osan AB effective 30 August 1968. The squadron left Korea in 1969 after 18 months in country, returning to Aux. Fld. 2 on 10 December 1969, and was stationed at Eglin AFB until its inactivation on 1 June 1972. Beginning in 1969, Ford Aerospace developed an early laser targeting pod, the AN/AVQ-10 Pave Knife, for the USAF and US Navy to designate and guide laser-guided bombs, and replaced the essentially improvised Airborne Laser Designator (ALD), a hand-held laser. Testing at Eglin, the system met specifications. McDonnell Douglas F-4D-31-MC, 66-7693, acted as the test-bed at the Armament Development Test Center, and the pod was carried on left inner wing pylon (Station 2), bolted on in an asymmetric configuration which typically included a 370 US gallon drop tank on the starboard wing, plus up to two LGBs (on Stations 1 and 8), along with the regular fit of a centreline tank, Sparrows and ECM. It performed so well that within a few weeks, it was shipped to Vietnam and placed into service where it met objectives. On 7 February 1969, the 48th Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Squadron, Training was inactivated at Eglin AFB. A Lockheed C-5A Galaxy arrived at Eglin AFB on 27 June 1969 for 14 weeks of testing in the Climatic Hangar. From late 1969 through 28 September 1970, the Armament Development and Test Center conducted Category II and munitions compatibility testing of the B-57G Canberra Tropic Moon III night attack aircraft, using between one and three airframes, while the Tactical Air Warfare Center, TAC, utilized three by 8 June 1970 in Category III tests to develop tactics, ending formally on 27 July 1970. Concurrently, the 13th Bombardment Squadron (Tactical), reactivated 8 February 1969, began training with five B-57Gs at MacDill AFB, Florida, from 26 May 1970. Despite ongoing problems with the forward-looking radar, and other sensor systems, the first eleven aircraft of the 13th BS deployed to Ubon Royal Thai Air Force Base on 15 September 1970. Specially selected raiders for Operation Ivory Coast, the attempted POW rescue from Son Tay prison in North Vietnam, were extensively trained and rehearsed at Eglin Air Force Base, while planning and intelligence gathering continued from 25 May to 20 November 1970. The mission failed when it was found during the raid that all the prisoners had been previously moved to another camp. During 15–24 August 1970, two new Sikorsky HH-53 rescue helicopters made a flight from Eglin AFB, to Da Nang, South Vietnam, led by Major Frederic M. "Marty" Donahue. The flight, which took nine days with seven intermediate stops, included a nonstop transpacific flight between Shemya Island in the Aleutians and Misawa Air Base, Japan. HC-130 tankers refueled the helicopters in this first transpacific helicopter flight. On 2 October 1970, the U.S. Air Force Special Operations Force at Hurlburt Field, took possession of the first Bell UH-1N Twin Huey. Continuing problems with the forward-looking radar and other sensor systems (which were ultimately never resolved) on the Tropic Moon III B-57Gs after deployment to Thailand in the September 1970 meant that ADTC testing of the design continued at Eglin into 1971. Concurrently, the Air Force delivered the Cat II test airframe, 53-3906, to Westinghouse Electronic Systems in Maryland for modification under Project Pave Gat to house a special bomb bay installation of one Emerson TAT-161 turret with a single M61 20mm cannon as a gunship. After initial flight tests in the Baltimore area, the gun B-57G was flown to Eglin in January 1971. Delays occurred in testing at Eglin AFB, due to competition for mission time from the Tropic Moon III B-57Gs as the airframe was also used in the radar remedial program, coupled with a spare parts shortage for mandatory maintenance keeping it grounded from 9 April to 16 May. Three of four Pave Gat missions flown on 16 May were aborted due to equipment failures, causing loss of three more weeks of testing. Operational deployment was slipped to October 1971 on 13 May 1971. Once underway, Pave Gat tests proved "that the B-57G could hit stationary or moving targets with its 20mm gun, day or night. Loaded with 4,000 rounds of ammunition, the Pave Gat B-57G could hit as many as 20 targets, three times as many as the bomb-carrying B-57G. The Pave Gat aircraft could avoid antiaircraft fire by firing from offset positions, while the bomb carrier had to pass directly over the target." Category II and III testing was completed 31 July 1971. Deployment to SEA was resisted, however, by the Seventh and Thirteenth Air Forces and others as the decision had been made in August 1971 to return the B-57G squadron to the U.S. in early 1972, leaving insufficient evaluation time. Project Pave Gat was terminated 21 December 1971. From 11 July 1971, in a joint operation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, seven UC-123Ks from Langley AFB, Virginia, and Hurlburt Field, and eight C-47s from England AFB, Louisiana, sprayed Malathion on more than in southeast Texas to combat Venezuelan Equine Encephalomyelitis. Operation Ranch Hand was the name of the aerial application of defoliants in Southeast Asia, aimed at stripping away the dense jungle that hid enemy activities. The center for US testing of the herbicides used in Ranch Hand was Eglin AFB, primarily on Range C-52A. For ten years, 1961 to 1971, 222,530 liters of herbicides (Agents Purple, Orange, White and Blue) were sprayed at a test grid on the base reservation. These herbicides were estimated to contain at least 3.1 kg of dioxin. Soil sampling at the test site conducted in 1970–1987 confirmed that there was TCDD contamination, though only about 1 percent remained. "Researchers theorized that much of the dioxin was broken down in the hot Florida sun or relocated due to wind or water erosion. At the storage and loading site west of the airstrip, residual dioxin was also found. Mitigation efforts were conducted, including the construction of a concrete drainage ditch and the building of a sediment pond to keep the dioxin from migrating into the nearby ravine and water bodies that lead to the city of Fort Walton Beach water supply. In 2001, the area around Hardstand 7 was capped with concrete and remediation activities concluded." The 55th Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Squadron, equipped with HC-130H Hercules, was reassigned from McCoy AFB, Florida, to Eglin AFB on 25 June 1971. It will also operate Sikorsky CH-53s from 1973 to 1980, Sikorsky CH-3s from 1980 to 1982, and then Sikorsky MH-60 Black Hawks from 1982 to 1999. North American Rockwell Block 1 Apollo Command Module, serial 007, a Block 1 spacecraft, built for training and Earth-orbit missions, delivered to NASA in 1966 (and originally identical to CM 012 in which astronauts Gus Grissom, Ed White, and Roger Chaffee died in the 1967 launchpad fire), after serving as a ground test vehicle was modified in 1967 for use in water-survival training. As part of their training, astronauts inside the capsule were dropped into the Gulf of Mexico by a crane from an aircraft carrier to simulate the force of splashdown. Apollo crews also trained for extended recovery by remaining at sea for several days at a time in the Command Module. This prepared astronauts for the possibility of a splashdown far from the planned recovery site. In 1971, CM 007 was transported to Eglin Air Force Base, where it was exposed to cold water and cold air during testing through 1973 for the forthcoming Skylab program. It was displayed at several open houses during this period at the base. The Command Module survived the tests only to end up in an equipment lot of the Houston Department of Public Works, where it remained for 12 years. In 1988, CM 007 was restored for the Museum of Flight in Seattle, Washington, where it is now preserved, by the Kansas Cosmosphere and Space Center. In May 1971, the Aeronautical Systems Division at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, initiated the program Credible Chase to evaluate the potential use of armed light utility short takeoff and landing aircraft in Southeast Asia. The program was designed to add mobility and firepower to the Republic of Vietnam Air Forces in a relatively short time. Two commercial aircraft were selected for testing: the Fairchild Porter and the Helio Stallion. Initial performance testing was conducted with leased aircraft (Porter N352F, c/n 2011) at Eglin Air Force Base and was successful enough to warrant a combat evaluation. The Porter, designated AU-23A, was fitted with a side-firing 20mm XM-197 Gatling cannon, four wing pylons and a center fuselage station for external ordnance. The 20mm cannon was essentially a three barrel version of the M61 Vulcan 6-barrel 20mm cannon. The aircraft could carry a variety of ordnance including forward firing gun pods, 500- and 250-pound bombs, napalm units, cluster bomb units, flares, rockets, smoke grenades and propaganda leaflet dispensers. The combat evaluation, PAVE COIN, was done in June and July 1971. The AU-24A Stallion had the same side-mounted gun, as well as five underwing and fuselage stations. In January 1972, the second test phase for the AU-24A began at Eglin Air Force Base, Fla. The initial aircraft used, 72-1319, was leased from Helio and retained its civilian configuration, but it allowed basic flight testing to begin. The combat evaluation of the Credible Chase program was canceled in February 1972, but the initial (stateside) evaluation was kept on the program schedule. The first combat equipped AU-24A was delivered on 4 March 1972, and operational test and evaluation began on 17 March, but was delayed after a review of contractor quality control began on 3 April. On 10 April, the review imposed a number of flight restrictions on the AU-24A limiting maximum airspeed, dive and bank angles, and all instrument, weather and night test flights. The OT&E of the AU-24A was officially started over on 22 April, and by 3 May, the aircraft was again in trouble. This time the problem was a dynamic instability during flight. The problems were resolved by 12 May, and the test program continued until completion on 22 May. Starting on 28 June, the AU-24As were flown to Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Ariz. for storage. The Credible Chase program was canceled and no AU-24A was delivered to the Republic of Vietnam Air Force. The 4400th Special Operations Squadron (Provisional) was created to complete the operational test and evaluation of the Credible Chase aircraft. The first AU-23A, 72-1306 was delivered to the 4400th SOS on 2 January 1972, followed by two more aircraft (72-1304 and -1305) at the end of the month. Testing continued until 4 February, when the three aircraft were grounded because of cracks in the rudder assemblies. The first three aircraft were returned to Fairchild for repair and delivery of new aircraft resumed in late April 1972. On 10 May 1972, an AU-23A, 72-1309, crashed after an in-flight engine failure. The pilot was not hurt, but all AU-23As were grounded until 22 May, during the accident investigation. The last AU-23A was delivered on 7 June and testing was completed on 28 June. The 4400th recommended the aircraft not be used in combat without a major upgrade program. Specific problems identified included a slow combat speed (135 knots), a low working altitude, no capability for "zoom" escapes after delivering ordnance and a complete lack of armor protection for the crew and vital aircraft systems. On 30 June 1972, the 4400th SOS ferried the AU-23As to Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona, for storage. The climatic facility was named the McKinley Climatic Laboratory on 12 June 1971 after the late Col. Ashley C. McKinley. A new base exchange, commissary and movie theatre were constructed in the Bens Lake area of the base in 1972. The 823d Civil Engineering Squadron (Heavy Repair), (RED HORSE), inactivated in Southeast Asia in 1971, was reactivated at Eglin AFB on 1 June 1972, incorporating elements of the 557th CES (HR), which was inactivated at Eglin the same day. The 823rd became a Tactical Air Command (later Air Combat Command) unit. In 1972, the 58th Tactical Fighter Squadron, 33d Tactical Fighter Wing, was deployed to Udorn Royal Thai Air Force Base, Thailand, under what was known as the "Summer Help Program." During this period, the 58th was credited as the first temporary duty unit to down an enemy aircraft. On 2 June 1972, Major Philip W. Handley and Lieutenant John J. Smallwood shot down a MiG-19 with a 300 round burst from their M-61A Vulcan Cannon, disproving the perception that American aircrews had lost their dogfighting skills (Smallwood was later shot down and to this day remains listed as missing in action). Just over two months later on 12 August 1972, another 58th Phantom II was credited with a kill after shooting down a MiG-21 with an AIM-7 Sparrow, a radar guided missile. This second kill was the last credited to the 58th during its six-month rotation in Southeast Asia. In early 1972, a squadron of Republic F-84F Thunderstreaks were retired to Eglin to serve as range targets. Last operated by the 170th Tactical Fighter Squadron, 183rd Tactical Fighter Group, Illinois ANG, and flown to Eglin in Vietnam-era camouflage to serve as live fire targets when that unit became the first Air National Guard group to reequip with F-4 Phantom IIs after corrosion discovered in wings of remaining F-84 fleet. One example, taken out to the range, was retrieved by helicopter for the infant Air Force Armament Museum. The final QF-104 Starfighter drone operation took place 3 July 1972 when 56-0737 flew an unmanned mission and was killed by an AIM-9J Sidewinder missile, its 21st unmanned mission. The two F-104Ds assigned to base flight (formerly assigned at George AFB, California), are turned over to the Puerto Rico Air National Guard as the QF-104 program ends in the summer of 1972. One of these airframes, 57-1331, later returns to Eglin in 1975 for display at the infant Air Force Armament Museum. The last ADM-20C Quail operational test was flown at the Eglin AFB water test area on 13 July 1972. The sole Windecker YE-5A low-visibility airframe, 73-1653, c/n 005, delivered to the Air Force in February 1973, underwent radar reflectivity testing for five years at Eglin beginning in 1973 by both the USAF and Lockheed. With a glass-fiber airframe and internally fitted RAM, it was an early contributor of data on "stealth" designs. This airframe was destroyed in a crash during a classified test in 1985 after it had left Eglin. Late Cold War era In April 1973, Pave Deuce, an Eglin AFB program calling for low-cost, full-size, supersonic targets, was awarded to Sperry Rand Corporation to convert F-102A Delta Daggers into QF-102A (manned) and PQM-102A (unmanned) drones. Southern Airways operated its last Martin 4-0-4 flights serving Eglin and the Okaloosa Air Terminal in 1973, the last reciprocating-engined airliners to serve the base, with all further service now provided by Southern's DC-9 fleet. The last AGM-28 Hound Dog operational test was flown at the Eglin AFB water test area on 24 July 1973. From January to March 1973, the Armament Development and Test Center conducted a competitive evaluation of the two prototype GAU-8/A 30mm cannon designs by Philco-Ford, Newport Beach, California, and General Electric, Burlington, Virginia. On 2 April 1973, The Armament Development and Test Center selected the General Electric version of the GAU-8/A 30mm cannon over the Philco-Ford model for the A-10 Thunderbolt II. Test Site C-74L on Range 21 West in Walton County was used for weapons testing of the pre-production Gatling-type rotary cannon from 1974 to 1978 using various types of rounds, including depleted uranium. An estimated 16,315 pounds of DU was expended at the site. Approximately 9,257 pounds of DU were collected and disposed of during remediation activities conducted between March 1978 and June 1987. The remainder of the material has since been remediated, was dispersed or vaporized as part of DU ordnance testing, or remains onsite and requires remediation. The test area currently consists of a radiologically controlled area, fire control/ballistics building, gun corridor, target area, well house building, drum storage area, and surrounding land. The Department of the Air Force has proposed shutting down and remediating Site C-74L, post-2002. On 19 October 1973, pilots of the 33d Tactical Fighter Wing delivered at least 13 Eglin-based F-4E Phantom IIs to Israel during the Yom Kippur War as part of Operation Nickel Grass. The tenth single-seat McDonnell Douglas F-15A Eagle, F-15A-4-MC, 71-0289, F-10, c/n 0011/A010, that had been delivered to the Air Force on 16 January 1974, was assigned to the 3247th Test Squadron, 3246th Test Wing, Eglin AFB in 1974 for Category 1 Tactical electronic warfare system, radar and avionics evaluation. It would remain on strength at Eglin until 1990 when it was reassigned to the 586th Test Squadron, 46th Test Wing, Holloman AFB, New Mexico. The Air Force Armament Museum was founded on base in 1975. Retired aircraft types that were expended as range targets in tests in the 1970s included RA-5C Vigilantes, F-84F Thunderstreaks, F-89J Scorpions, F-100 Super Sabres, TF-102A Delta Daggers, at least one HH-43A Huskie, and T-33A Shooting Stars, among others. Armor targets included M41, M47, and M48 tanks, M53/T97 self-propelled assault guns, and M113 armored personnel carriers. In January 1975, one of three preproduction A-10 Thunderbolt II attack aircraft, equipped with one of three preproduction GE-built GAU-8/A 30mm cannon, arrived at Eglin AFB for qualification, reliability and combat ammunition compatibility tests using Aerojet Ordnance and Manufacturing Company ammunition. First phase testing was scheduled to be completed in July 1975, with additional testing with second source Honeywell ammunition planned to start in January 1976. The newly constructed James E. Plew Terminal Building of the Okaloosa Air Terminal, located on State Road 85, opened its doors in mid-February 1975, with a dedication ceremony held on Saturday, 22 February. Congressman Bob Sikes and Southern Airways President Frank Hulse were some of the guest speakers. The 32,000 sq ft (3,000 m2) facility was constructed at a cost of $1.7 million. Financing for the entire facility was through federal, state, and local money. Federal grants totaled $472,000, state $80,000, Okaloosa County bond sale $1.1 million, and Southern Airways $190,000. First year enplaned passengers totaled 97,000 with Southern Airways as the sole airline with 12 departing flights daily. A new sun, wind, rain and dust facility was completed in April 1975 as an addition to the McKinley Climatic Laboratory. Designed to withstand internal winds of 100 mph and maintain temperatures from 60 to 145 degrees Fahrenheit, the new addition simulated extreme climatic conditions for ground vehicles. Rain could be simulated from one to 15 inches per hour and humidity controlled between 20 and 100 percent. Silicon dust could be used to simulate intense dust storms, the powder being collected and re-used following tests. Construction was supervised by the Army Corps of Engineers, with the Beckman Construction Company of Fort Worth, Texas, doing the work. The 50 X 50 X 30 foot building cost an estimated $432,500. Selected on 27 April 1975, the installation served as one of four main U.S. Vietnamese Refugee Processing Centers operated by the Interagency Task Force for Indochina Refugees, where base personnel housed and processed more than 10,000 Southeast Asian refugees, the first 374 of which arrived on board a Northwest Orient Boeing 747 on 4 May 1975. The final 16 refugees processed through the Eglin center departed on 15 September 1975. Eglin again became an Air Force refugee resettlement center on 25 April 1980 processing over 9,200 Cubans who fled to the U.S. between April and May 1980. The half-dozen Convair C-131Bs assigned to the 3246th Test Wing, ADTC, were retired to MASDC at Davis-Monthan AFB, Arizona, in mid-1975. From late 1975, until it was finally sunk (accidentally, by an AGM-65 Maverick missile) in 1981, the former mine counter-measures ship USS Ozark was anchored south of Destin, Florida, as a water range target for Eglin tests. It lies in about of water ~ offshore. In July 1976, Air Force Systems Command reported that testing of a NASA Lockheed U-2 in temperatures as cold as −57 degrees Celsius had been completed in the McKinley Climatic Laboratory to isolate flight-control malfunctions occurring in cold temperatures at high altitude. Climatic testing of the ground-test-vehicle (GTV) for the Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk program was conducted in the McKinley Climatic Laboratory from September to November 1976, spanning temperature ranges from −65 °F to +. On 2 March 1977, the historic Valparaiso Inn, which once served as the Eglin Officers' Club, was heavily damaged by fire. The 33d Tactical Fighter Wing began receiving F-15A and B-model Eagles in 1978, replacing the F-4E Phantom IIs they had flown since 1967. In 1978, the USAF Tactical Air Warfare Center assumed responsibility for the USAF Air Ground Operations School. In the same year, the Electronic Warfare Evaluation Program became another one of the USAFTAWC's weapons system evaluation programs, and resulted in the activation of the 4487th Electronic Warfare Aggressor Squadron in 1990. The Ryan AQM-34V, an electronic countermeasures update of the AQM-34H leaflet-dropping RPV used in the conflict in Southeast Asia (and known as "bullshit bombers"), was thoroughly tested by TAC in an exercise named "Gallant Eagle", conducted at Eglin AFB, during the week of 30 October through 3 November 1978. M. E. "Gene" Juberg, Teledyne Ryan Aeronautical's ops manager for the exercise, "summarized the purpose and results of the show in a memorandum to the main plant after completion of the maneuvers. It reads, in part: 'This trip report covers the writer's observations of the 432nd TDG participation. Their deployment team consisted of 134 personnel operating out of Hurlburt Field, four miles west of Fort Walton Beach. Gallant Eagle was a combined Air Force, Army, Navy, and Marine exercise. The 432nd's participation was to fly four EW sorties with AQM-34V vehicles on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday. The squadron deployed from Davis-Monthan with three DC-130 launch planes with four drones uploaded on each, three CH-3 MARS recovery helicopters, a TPW-2 Ground Director and a minimum of ground-handling equipment and spares. Two additional DC-130 aircraft were flown in from Davis-Monthan with spares for the launch planes, and a third came in at the end of the exercise to transport the Ground Director back home. The EW mission for the exercise was to lay a chaff corridor at 3,000 feet MSL while heading toward the coastline. The two drones, flying two minutes apart in trail formation, were then climbed to 19,000 and 20,000 feet MSL respectively, where they took up an active jamming orbit. The drones were followed by an E6A [sic] or EB-57 aircraft which also dispensed chaff and provided EW active jamming through the chaffed corridor. The operation clearly demonstrated TAC's philosophy of sending in the decoy drones first to protect the manned jammers and fighter planes to follow.' Gene Juberg's field report concluded, stating that all objectives of the meet were met with unqualified success from the performance of the AQM-34V. The 432nd Tactical Drone Squadron, under the command of Col. James Witzel, was recognized by top TAC generals and commended for a job well done." Following the mass suicides by members of the Peoples Temple, a cult led by Jim Jones, at Jonestown in Guyana on 18 November 1978, CH-53 helicopters of the 55th ARRSq were utilized to evacuate the dead. In 1979, the 4751st Air Defense Missile Squadron was inactivated. It had conducted practice Bomarc missile shoots for Air Defense Command crews since 1963, and was activated in February 1958 for testing of the Bomarc A and B models. On 1 July 1979, Southern Airways, serving Eglin since 1957, merged with North Central Airlines to form Republic Airlines. The new company continued operations to the Okaloosa Air Terminal. Flight-testing of modified C-130 Hercules for Operation Credible Sport were conducted at Eglin and Auxiliary Field 1 (Wagner Field) in 1980. The AGM-114 Hellfire missile underwent test firings at the Site C-7 Hellfire range on Range 72 from 1980. Upgraded Hellfire tests continue through 2011, with the AGM-114R Hellfire II being successfully tested in August 2010. The first AGM-65E laser Maverick missile was fired at Eglin AFB on 3 June 1980 from a Marine Corps Douglas A-4M Skyhawk. The missile was the laser-guided version of the USAF’s air-to-ground Maverick with a heavier warhead. It was being developed by Hughes Aircraft Company for use by the Marine Corps in close-air support of combat troops. On 25 October 1980, the historic Valparaiso Inn, which served as the Eglin Officers' Club during World War II, was destroyed by fire. It had remained vacant since another blaze severely damaged it on 2 March 1977. In 1981 the original building housing the Air Force Armament Museum was condemned and the facility closed until 1984. The Navy F/A-18 Hornet began climatic testing by the Air Force’s 3246th Test Wing at the McKinley Climatic Laboratory on 23 March 1981. The tests were designed to evaluate the F/A-18 airframe’s ability to withstand the wide range of temperatures and climatic conditions which the aircraft would experience in its everyday operations. The Hughes YAH-64 underwent testing in the McKinley Climatic Laboratory from 2 November to 16 December 1981, consisting of 14.4 hours of operating time. The U.S. Army Aviation Engineering Flight Activity was responsible for the evaluation of aircraft systems and the U.S. Army Aviation Development Test Activity was responsible for the mission equipment evaluation. The U.S. Army formally accepted its first production AH-64A Apache in January 1984. Southeastern Airlines, an Atlanta-based operation, commenced flights into Okaloosa Air Terminal on 15 November 1982. It was acquired by Atlantic Southeast Airlines, a Delta Connection carrier, on 1 April 1983. Two Piper PA-48 Enforcers were tested during 1983 and 1984 at Eglin AFB, and Edwards AFB, California. As in the Pave COIN tests of 1971, the PA-48s were found to perform well in their intended role for counter-insurgency, but the USAF again decided not to purchase the aircraft being apparently uninterested in adding tail-dragger propeller-driven aircraft to the inventory. Construction began in 1984 on the Bob Hope Village, the only retirement facility that caters to enlisted military, opening in February 1985. Residents pay below market value for the 256 independent apartments. Col. Bob Gates, Bob Hope's USO pilot, was key in getting the comedian's support for the undertaking, as well as lending his name and prestige to the project. Hope was named an honorary board member of the foundation in 1978 and held benefit concerts for nearly two decades. In November 1984, the Air Force Armament Museum reopened in a new building on State Highway 85. The first two advanced Multi-Stage Improvement Program (MSIP) F-15 aircraft were delivered to the 33d TFW on 28 June 1985. Republic Airlines, primary carrier at the Okaloosa Air Terminal, merged into Northwest Airlines on 31 July 1986. "In its last year as an independent entity, Republic employs 15,100 people serving a national network with a fleet of 168 DC9s, 727s, 757s and Convair 580s." In 1987, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) designated the McKinley Climatic Laboratory a National Historical Mechanical Engineering Landmark. The 55th Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Squadron, equipped with HC-130 Hercules, was redesignated the 55th Special Operations Squadron on 1 March 1988, relinquishing its four-engine transports at this time. On 24 June 1988, the US Navy opened its new facility for the Navy Explosive Ordnance Disposal School at Eglin AFB, relocated from Indian Head, Maryland. On 4 May 1989, the AIM-120A advanced medium-range air-to-air, or AMRAAM, passed its final flight test for use on U.S. fighters. The AIM-120A demonstrated its ability to achieve multiple targets. On the Gulf Test Range near Eglin Air Force Base, an F-15 Eagle fired two missiles at two QF-100 drones at and two more at two drones at . The test resulted in three direct hits and one pass within lethal distance. More than 200 of the test missiles were launched during flight tests at Eglin AFB,; White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico; and NAS Point Mugu, California. "Following the collapse of the Communist regime in East Germany in 1989, elements of the East German Volksarmee were integrated into the German armed forces. The dowry of the enforced marriage brought another mass of Soviet-built equipment. Of particular interest were the various SAM systems now available, complete with trained operating crews. "At the firing range near Ramstein in southern Germany, western technical experts looked on as the radar operators endeavored to track German, British, French, and US tactical aircraft flying jamming runs against their systems. Afterwards, an eight-man ex-Volksarmee operating team with an SA-8 came to Eglin AFB, to conduct a series of fully instrumented tests there." Operation Desert Storm Following Saddam Hussein's August 1990 invasion of Kuwait, 24 F-15s of the 58th Fighter Squadron, 33d Fighter Wing, under the command of Colonel Rick Parsons, departed Eglin for King Faisal Air Base, Saudi Arabia as part of the build up of coalition forces in Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm. In the early morning hours of 17 January 1991, Operation Desert Storm commenced. Captain John J. B. Kelk claimed the first aerial victory by downing the first MiG-29. As the war progressed, the 58th flew 1,689 combat sorties and destroyed 15 other enemy aircraft. During the course of the war, the 58th accomplished feats that no other coalition member matched including: the most air-to-air kills, the most double kills, and the most sorties and hours flown by any F-15 unit in theater. The 58th also destroyed the most MiG-29s (a total of five) and had the only wing commander who had an air-to-air victory. The GAR-4A Falcon missile returned to the USAF test inventory in the early 1990s. During an unusual test, an F-15 Eagle engaged a C-141 Starlifter, (61-2777), over the Eglin AFB range with four GAR-4As. The F-15 launched the GAR-4As outside of their effective range to evaluate the Starlifter’s Missile Approach Warning System (MAWS). The purpose of the test was to evaluate the ability of the MAWS to detect an incoming missile and activate countermeasures systems. On 19 February 1991, the 3246th Test Wing conducted a short notice test to certify the GBU-28/B “Bunker Buster,” developed in only eight weeks, on the F-111 for immediate deployment for Desert storm. On 9 July 1991, Lockheed F-117A, 84-0824, c/n A.4038, was flown to Eglin for climatic testing. The aircraft was prepped and then installed in the chamber using special fixtures and tooling designed to allow simulation of conditions in flight. Testing began under cold weather conditions (−40 °F ambient) on 15 July 1991, and continued through conditions of snow loading, blowing snow, hail, freezing rain, ice and fog, hot weather (140 °F ambient), water intrusion testing, and concluded in January 1992 with tropical rain and human factors evaluations. Cold soaks to −60 °F and 160 °F were also included. A typical mission "flown" included pre-flight, pilot ingress, APU and engine start, full power takeoff, cruise, systems operation and weapon delivery, landing, pilot egress, and post flight inspection. Aircraft maintenance was performed and evaluated throughout the testing sequence. On 13 August 1991 ground was broken for a new 14-story air traffic control tower that would replace the older and less capable tower attached to the King Hangar. On 1 October 1991, the USAF Tactical Air Warfare Center, activated on 1 November 1963, is re-designated as the USAF Air Warfare Center. Following bombing difficulties in Operation Desert Storm, the Air Force sought an all-weather "smart" bomb that could work regardless of smoke, fog, dust, and cloud cover, with research, development, testing and evaluation (RDT&E) of an "adverse weather precision guided munition" beginning in 1992. Several proposals were considered, including a radical concept that used GPS. To identify the technical risk associated with an INS/GPS guided weapon, the Air Force created in early 1992 a rapid-response High Gear program called the "JDAM Operational Concept Demonstration" (OCD) at Eglin Air Force Base. Honeywell, Interstate Electronics Corporation, Sverdrup Technology, and McDonnell Douglas were hired to help the 46th Test Wing demonstrate the feasibility of a GPS weapon within one year. The OCD program fitted a GBU-15 guided bomb with an INS/GPS guidance kit and on 10 February 1993, dropped the first INS/GPS weapon from an Air Force F-16 on a target downrange. Five more tests were run in various weather conditions, altitudes, and ranges. The OCD program demonstrated an 11-meter Circular Error Probable (CEP). Modern era During a 1992 reorganization, the Air Force disestablished Eglin's parent major command, Air Force Systems Command (AFSC) and merged its functions with the former Air Force Logistics Command (AFLC). The newly created major command from this merger, Air Force Material Command (AFMC), remains Eglin's parent command to this day. The Development Test Center, Eglin's host unit, became part of AFMC on 30 June 1992. The 46th Test Wing replaced the 3246th Test Wing on 1 October 1992 and the 40th Test Squadron replaced the 3247th Test Squadron the same date. In July 1992, a Bell Boeing MV-22 Osprey prototype concluded four months of tests in the McKinley Climatic Laboratory. Unfortunately, on 20 July, this airframe crashed at MCAS Quantico, Virginia, after a flight from Eglin, killing 5 crew members in front of an audience of high-ranking US government officials, the first of a series of fatal accidents involving the controversial tiltrotor aircraft. A U.S. Navy Court of Inquiry (COI) concluded that the aircraft "experienced multiple emergencies upon entering the downwind" and that "the primary cause of the mishap was a flammable [sic] fluid leak which was ingested by the right engine." On 31 October 1992, the first U.S. Air Force McDonnell Douglas C-17 Globemaster III to deploy to a base outside of California completed a 4.2-hour, flight to Eglin Air Force Base. The third production aircraft flew from Edwards AFB to the Florida base where it underwent pressurization and temperature control tests inside the climatic test facility. The tests were expected to last five to six months, after which it was to return to the flight test program at Edwards. On 25 March 1993, the 55th Special Operations Squadron, equipped with Sikorsky MH-60 Black Hawks, was reassigned from Eglin Main Base to Hurlburt Field, where it would remain until its inactivation on 11 November 1999. From 29 March 1993 and into 1994, a series of live fire tests were conducted at Eglin by the second developmental Sea Harrier FRS Mk.2, XZ439, of the Royal Navy, using AIM-120 AMRAAM missiles. This was the first non-U.S. aircraft to live fire the AMRAAM. This airframe is now privately preserved on the U.S. register as N94422. In 1993, B-2A Block 10 Spirit, 82-1070, AV-5, "The Spirit of Ohio", endured over 1,000 hours of extensive temperature testing at the McKinley Climatic Laboratory at Eglin AFB. It was given the second nick-name "Fire and Ice". This name was painted on the nose gear door. This component was donated to the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, in 1999, and installed on the test B-2 airframe displayed there. The USAF test facilities at Eglin were heavily involved in the F-15 AUP (Avionics Upgrade Program) for the Israeli Air Force that integrated the AIM-120 Advanced Medium-Range Air-to-Air Missile (AMRAAM) in the mid-1990s. On 10 August 1994 construction began on the All Conflicts' Veterans War Memorial on the site of the old POW/MIA memorial on the western end of Eglin Boulevard. The memorial was dedicated on 15 August 1995. On 1 October 1995, Headquarters Air Combat Command consolidated the USAF Air Warfare Center, Eglin Air Force Base, with the inactive 53d Tactical Fighter Group, and it was re-designated as the 53d Wing. A 5,000-pound terrorist bomb destroyed the Khobar Towers near Dhahran, Saudi Arabia on 26 June 1996, killing 19 U.S. servicemen including 12 assigned to the 33d Fighter Wing. Fully remodelled and renovated at the cost of $72 million, the McKinley Climatic Laboratory reopened in June 1997. On 21 November 1997, the Air Force announced the planned deployment of an Air Expeditionary Force (AEF) to Southwest Asia, including 12 F-15C Eagles from the 33d Fighter Wing. In 1998, as part of the Air Forces' strategic plan to guide the service into the 21st century, the Air Force Development Test Center became the Air Force Materiel Command's Air Armament Center (AAC), responsible for development, acquisition, testing, and fielding all air-delivered weapons. The Eglin Field Historic District, a U.S. historic district, was so designated as such on 22 October 1998, and is bounded by Barranca, Choctawhatchee, 4th, and "F" Avenues. It contains 20 historic buildings. Naval School Explosive Ordnance Disposal (NAVSCOLEOD), a Navy-managed command, jointly staffed by Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marine Corps personnel, had its official ribbon cutting on a new consolidated training facility in April 1999. These five new buildings, which centralize all basic EOD training at Eglin, total and were built at a cost of $16.2 million. NAVSCOLEOD’s additional facilities are located just inside the east gate, including a three building, 252 room bachelor quarters complex, a second training facility located in Building 845, and an extensive practical training facility on Range D-51. Three demolition training areas at Ranges D-51 and C-52 West, and C-52 North, a training aid and facilities maintenance compound and six explosive storage magazines are also part of the school’s facilities. To commemorate those EOD Technicians that have given the last full measure in performance of their duty, the EOD Memorial Foundation was created in 1969 by a group of volunteers. The construction of the EOD Memorial was started that same year at Indian Head Naval Ordnance Station, Maryland, home of the first Naval School of Explosive Ordnance Disposal. The Memorial is composed of four cenotaphs, one for each branch of the armed forces, with a bronze tablet inscribed with the names of those EOD technicians who lost lives in line of duty. In 1999, the memorial was relocated to Eglin AFB, across the street from the now relocated EOD School. As part of the military drawdown in the 1990s, the Air Force inactivated the 33d Fighter Wing's 59th Fighter Squadron on 15 April 1999. The wing lost six aircraft and consolidated the remaining aircraft into the 58th and 60th Fighter Squadrons. Originally selected for inactivation in 1997, Air Force officials delayed the decision in recognition of the Nomads connection with Khobar Towers. The 59th reactivated as the 59th Test and Evaluation Squadron on 3 December 2004, at Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada. The 59th falls under the 53rd Test Management Group at Eglin. On 16 June 1999, a U.S. Navy Tomahawk cruise missile, in limited supply since the war over Kosovo, completed a test flight over northern Florida. The cruiser launched an unarmed Tomahawk from the Atlantic Ocean off Jacksonville. The land-attack mission ended successfully at Eglin AFB, away. A parachute brought the missile, which is in short supply because so many were launched at Yugoslavia, to a soft landing so it can be refurbished and used again, according to a Pentagon news release. The 55th Special Operations Squadron at Hurlburt Field was inactivated on 11 November 1999. On 16 December 1999, an F-15D Eagle of the 33d Fighter Wing became the first F-15 in the Air Force's inventory to log 6,000 flying hours. Under Project Linked Seas, a NATO exercise, conducted between 1 May and 12 May 2000, two missions were flown by RPV RQ-4Q Global Hawk, AV-4, 98–2004, from Eglin AFB to Portugal. From June to August 2002, F-22A Block 10 Raptor, 91-4004, c/n 4004, was tested in the McKinley Climatic Laboratory. The aircraft arrived from Langley AFB, Virginia, on 30 May 2002, piloted by Maj. Colin Miller, 36, of Falls Church, Virginia. Given the initial tasking 10 September 2002, experts from the Air Armament Center, Air Force Operational Test and Evaluation Center, Air Force Research Laboratory Munitions Directorate and 53rd Wing developed, tested and delivered the new CBU-107 Passive Attack Weapon by December. The weapon’s full production was completed 9 March 2003. The Air Force used the new weapon following a 98-day, $40 million development program. Lockheed Martin successfully conducted the first test flight of a prototype NetFires Loitering Attack Missile (LAM) at Eglin Air Force Base, on 11 November 2002. The LAM vertically launched flawlessly, transitioned to stable flight and performed several maneuvers during the short flight test. Test objectives were successfully achieved. The Lockheed Martin-designed LAM was flown without a Laser Radar (LADAR) seeker or warhead. A solid rocket motor vertically launched the , 100-pound missile from a closed breach canister mounted in a Lockheed Martin prototype launcher. Control surfaces and a pivoting wing deployed as planned as the missile began its programmed assent-phase roll and pitch maneuver. Protective covers on the forward dome, scoring camera and turbojet inlet were ejected properly and engine start sequence began as scheduled. Turbojet ignition sequence completed approximately five seconds after launch, and the engine came up to speed as the prototype approached apogee. For the next eight minutes, the LAM prototype executed preprogrammed maneuvers over the Eglin test range, demonstrating impressive stability and validating aerodynamic performance, navigation and autopilot performance design parameters. The 'Massive Ordnance Air Blast' or 'Mother of All Bombs' (MOAB) was first tested live at Eglin AFB on 11 March 2003. In May 2003, seven Luftwaffe MiG-29A Fulcrums of Jagdgeschwader 73, visited Eglin to participate in Sniper 2003 training exercises, staging to the United States through Keflavik, Iceland. This was the MiGs' last major deployment before being dropped from the German Air Force. They were 29+02, 29+06, 29+08, 29+10, 29+14, 29+15 and 29+19. 29+10 carried special markings that read "Fulcrum Farewell USA 2003". The Eastern Bloc aircraft flew training and secret missions with and against U.S. military units of the Air Force, Air National Guard, and U.S. Navy. Live missile launches were made against aerial targets, including BQM-34 Firebees, over the extensive water ranges. The X-43A-LS low-speed demonstrator underwent testing out of Auxiliary Field 6 in November 2003. From 2004, the Team Eglin Miniature Munitions Systems Group conducted development and testing of the GBU-39 Small Diameter Bomb, the fastest major acquisition program in Eglin history. In February 2004, the Classic Jets Aircraft Association held its annual convention at Eglin AFB. No Kum-Sok, the North Korean pilot who defected in a MiG-15bis to South Korea in 1953, the first of the type to be acquired and evaluated by the West, was a guest of honor and received his first MiG ride since his defection in a Polish-built MiG-15UTI two-seat trainer owned by the Red Star Aviation Museum. Textron Systems announced on 13 September 2004 that its BLU-108 Sensor Fuzed Submunition was successfully dropped at Eglin Air Force Base from the DRS Sentry HP Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV), resulting in multiple target hits. The test demonstrated the capability of weaponizing small, FCS Class II-category UAVs to engage multiple target threats. The U.S. Air Force's UAV Battle Lab sponsored the Sentry HP UAV/BLU-108 drop test, with participation by the USAF Sensor Fuzed Weapon (SFW) Project Office at Eglin AFB, Florida and the U.S. Army's Aviation & Missile Research Development & Engineering Center (AMRDEC) at Redstone Arsenal, Alabama. Lt. Col. Richard Mountain, the Sensor Fuzed Weapon Squadron Commander at Eglin AFB, stated, "The cooperation between the various Air Force organizations and Army Lab at Redstone Arsenal, along with the BLU-108 submunition's adaptability to other carriers, ensured the UAV demonstration would be a success. The BLU-108 brings a great deal of proven capability to the war fighter." The first upgraded A-10C Thunderbolt II, 81-0989, c/n A10-0684, made its debut flight at Eglin on 20 January 2005, piloted by Maj. Trey Rawls, of the 40th Flight Test Squadron. In September 2005, a Raytheon Hawker Horizon business jet underwent testing in the McKinley Climatic Laboratory. In July 2006, Eglin AFB was recognized as the 2005 Complex of the Year for maintaining the most complex airspace and airfield with many runways and moving parts. "Eglin supports five million square yards of pavement used by six wings, five major commands, six civilian airlines, and the Army and the Navy." The Lockheed Martin Sniper XR Advanced Targeting Pod successfully demonstrated compatibility with the launch of a Maverick missile from an adjacent A-10C wing pylon at Eglin in August 2006. The test was conducted by the U.S. Air Force’s 46th Test Wing, 40th Flight Test Squadron at Eglin. The Sniper ATP was mounted on an A-10C Precision Engagement aircraft adjacent to the Maverick missile mounted on the LAU-88 missile rail. In this configuration, Sniper ATP is approximately from the missile body. Test pilots from the 40th Test Squadron, and the 422nd Test Squadron at Nellis AFB, Nevada, reported that they were impressed with the ATP’s performance during the developmental and operational flight tests of the A-10C. The A-10C’s avionics upgrade and targeting pod integration are part of the Precision Engagement (PE) program, led by Lockheed Martin Systems Integration-Owego in New York. Lockheed-Martin announced on 27 September 2006 that successful guided test flights of its Compact Kinetic Energy Missile (CKEM) against a reinforced urban structure (RUS) were recently conducted at Eglin Air Force Base. All objectives for this test were achieved. In addition to demonstrating CKEM’s capability against a RUS, the test also gathered performance data about the missile’s guidance system and collected thermal, shock and vibration effects data. This flight was the second of four guided test flights scheduled for this calendar year. “This test demonstrated CKEM against a reinforced structure at the missile’s maximum kinetic energy,” said Loretta Painter, CKEM Advanced Technology Demonstration (ATD) program manager at the U.S. Army Research and Development Command (RDECOM), Aviation and Missile Research, Development, and Engineering Center (AMRDEC), Redstone Arsenal, AL. “This test collected target effects data to assess the lethality potential of CKEM against various targets, and substantiates what CKEM could provide the warfighter.” On 29 September 2006, RAF BAE Systems Nimrod MRA4 PA-2, ZJ518, arrived at Eglin Air Force Base after its first transatlantic flight. In the second half of October 2006 PA-2 spent ten days at temperatures as low as -40 °C (-40 °F) in the McKinley Climatic Laboratory at Eglin AFB. The aircraft also completed high-temperature trials at the same facility, operating in temperatures up to 44 °C (110 °F) and 100% relative humidity. ZJ518 returned to BAE Systems/Woodford on 16 November 2006, via the Azores. In December 2006, a "fast cook-off" test, the largest ever at Eglin AFB, was conducted when a rocket motor was engulfed in 28,000 gallons of burning jet fuel as part of a hazard assessment. Anonymous all-white Boeing C-32B or Boeing 757-23A aircraft, utilized in support of the U.S. State Department Foreign Emergency Support Team as well as other agencies, have operated out of Eglin Main in the post 9/11 era. One source ascribes these aircraft as being the sole asset of the 486th Flight Test Squadron. The Naval Air Systems Command (NAVAIR) announced that a test of a U.S. Navy Tomahawk Block IV cruise missile was conducted on 17 January 2007, from , an underway in the Gulf of Mexico sea ranges off the coast of the Florida panhandle. Seconds after launch from the ship's vertical launch system, the Tomahawk missile transitioned to cruise flight. It flew a fully guided test flight using global positioning satellite and digital scene matching area correlator navigation. The one-hour, 30-minute flight concluded at a target and recovery site on the Eglin Air Force Base land range. In February 2007, a U.S. Navy Tomahawk cruise missile was launched from , a that was under way in the Gulf of Mexico. Seconds after launch, the Tomahawk transitioned to cruise flight. It flew a fully guided test flight to the Eglin AFB's land test range where it executed a simulated programmed warhead detonation followed by a parachute recovery. Total flight time to target was one hour, 27 minutes. On 17 April 2007, a U.S. Navy Tomahawk Block IV cruise missile was vertically launched by , in the Gulf of Mexico and completed a successful test. The launched missile executed a Vertical Dive Maneuver attack on the Eglin H-Target complex on the test range. Seconds after launch from USS Winston S. Churchill, the test-configured Tomahawk transitioned to cruise flight. The missile successfully flew approximately using GPS-only navigation which provided navigation updates en route to the target site. Safety chase aircraft were provided by the Air Force 46th Test Wing's 40th Flight Test Squadron, based here. Chase aircraft were flown by a combined Air Force and Navy crew from the 40th FLTS and from the Navy VX-30 and VX-31 test squadrons, based at the Naval Air Warfare Center Weapons Division test centers at Point Mugu and China Lake, California. Lockheed C-5M Galaxy, 86-0013, c/n 500-0099, underwent extensive testing in the McKinley Climatic Laboratory from 21 October to 17 November 2007, the first time since 1969 that a C-5 had been contained completely inside the hangar and the first time in the history of the laboratory that a C-5's engines were run while in the hangar. This capability enables developmental testing on an aircraft with full weather predictability. This was the first Galaxy upgraded to C-5M standard, rolled out at Lockheed Marietta on 16 May 2006 and first flown on 19 June 2006. In 2012, Air Combat Command requested the testing of a 600-gallon external fuel tank which would extend the Fairchild-Republic A-10's loitering time by 45–60 minutes; flight testing of such a tank had been conducted in 1997, but did not involve combat evaluation. Over 30 flight tests were conducted by the 40th Flight Test Squadron to gather data on the aircraft's handling characteristics and performance across different load configurations. The tank slightly reduced stability in the yaw axis, however there is no decrease in aircraft tracking performance. The Bombardier CS-100 flight test vehicle 2 (FTV2), C-GWYD, underwent a month of tests in the McKinley Climatic Laboratory in April 2014. Due to budget cuts, the contract services for the Eglin base library were terminated and the facility closed on 30 April 2014 until further notice. Airbus A350 XWB, F-WWCF, msn. 2, was given two-and-a-half weeks of climatic tests in the McKinley Climatic Laboratory in May 2014, and was subjected to multiple climatic and humidity settings from a high of 45 deg. C. to as low as -40 deg. C. Eglin's east-west runway 12/30 was closed on 1 May 2015 to allow upgrading of aircraft arresting systems from obsolete BAK-9 systems to MB-100 textile brake systems. The BAK-9s were the last systems in operational USAF service. All flight operations used the north-south runway 1/19. The runway work was completed in August 2015. "Closing Runway 12/30 may slightly increase noise over Valparaiso for a few months," said Mark Pohlmeier, acting deputy assistant secretary of the Air Force for installations, in a news release. Further, 15 F-35Cs that are part of the Navy's backup aircraft inventory (BAI) are temporarily assigned at Eglin from May 2015 while construction upgrades are underway at Naval Air Station Lemoore, California, their future base. That work is expected to be completed in about three years. Ford Motor Company was the McKinley Climatic Laboratory's customer for three weeks in August 2015, beginning 7 August. Engineers from Ford's headquarters in Flint, Michigan, and from Mexico arrived to test everything from the smallest Fiesta to the largest Super Duty trucks. Ford has been testing here for a decade, and has contracts for the next three years. The lab's schedule is almost full through 2020. About half of the tests are government, the rest private firms. See also List of aircraft accidents at Eglin Air Force Base Notes References Angell, Joseph W., "History of the Army Air Forces Proving Ground Command – Part One – Historical Outline 1933–1944", The Historical Branch, Army Air Forces Proving Ground Command, Eglin Field, Florida, 1944, reprint by Office of History, Munitions Systems Division, Eglin AFB, Florida, 1989 Knaack, Marcelle Size (1978) Encyclopedia of US Air Force Aircraft and Missile Systems, Vol. 1, Post-World War Two Fighters, 1945–1973. Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History, 1978. Knaack, Marcelle Size (1988) Post-World War II Bombers, 1945–1973. Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History, 1988, Maurer, Maurer. Air Force Combat Units Of World War II. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office 1961 (republished 1983, Office of Air Force History, ). Ravenstein, Charles A. Air Force Combat Wings Lineage and Honors Histories 1947–1977. Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama: Office of Air Force History 1984. . Mueller, Robert, Air Force Bases Vol. I, Active Air Force Bases Within the United States of America on 17 September 1982, Office of Air Force History, 1989 Martin, Patrick, Tail Code: The Complete History of USAF Tactical Aircraft Tail Code Markings, 1994 USAAS-USAAC-USAAF-USAF Aircraft Serial Numbers—1908 to present Shaw, Frederick J. (2004), Locating Air Force Base Sites History’s Legacy, Air Force History and Museums Program, United States Air Force, Washington DC, 2004. Manning, Thomas A. (2005), History of Air Education and Training Command, 1942–2002. Office of History and Research, Headquarters, AETC, Randolph AFB, Texas Pfau, Richard A., and Greenhalgh Jr., William H., "The Air Force in Southeast Asia: The B-57G Tropic Moon III 1967–1972", Office of Air Force History, Headquarters USAF, 1978 External links Eglin Air Force Base official website History of the United States Air Force

60684484

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1995%20USC%20Trojans%20baseball%20team

1995 USC Trojans baseball team

The 1995 USC Trojans baseball team represented the University of Southern California in the 1995 NCAA Division I baseball season. The Trojans played their home games at Dedeaux Field. The team was coached by Mike Gillespie in his 9th season at USC. The Trojans won the Pac-10 Conference and the West Regional before losing in the College World Series, defeated by the Cal State Fullerton Titans in the championship game. Roster Schedule and results Schedule Source: Awards and honors Geoff Jenkins Pac-12 Conference Baseball Player of the Year All Tournament Team Baseball America 1st Team All-American Collegiate Baseball 1st Team All-American NCBWA 1st Team All-American American Baseball Coaches Association 2nd Team All-American 1st Team All-Pacific-10 Conference Wes Rachels All Tournament Team Randy Flores Pac-12 Conference Baseball Pitcher of the Year All Tournament Team Collegiate Baseball 3rd Team All-American 1st Team All-Pacific-10 Conference Gabe Alvaraz ABCA 1st Team All-American NCBWA 1st Team All-American Collegiate Baseball 2nd Team All-American Baseball America 3rd Team All-American 1st Team All-Pacific-10 Conference Walter Dawkins NCBWA 2nd Team All-American 1st Team All-Pacific-10 Conference Jason Garner Collegiate Baseball 2nd Team All-American American Baseball Coaches Association 3rd Team All-American 1st Team All-Pacific-10 Conference Jacque Jones NCBWA 3rd Team All-American 1st Team All-Pacific-10 Conference References Pac-12 Conference baseball champion seasons USC USC Trojans baseball seasons USC Trojans baseball College World Series seasons Southern California

1731762

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solarsoft

Solarsoft

Solarsoft is a collaborative software development system created at Lockheed-Martin to support solar data analysis and spacecraft operation activities. It is widely recognized in the solar physics community as having revolutionized solar data analysis starting in the early 1990s. Solarsoft is in active development and use by research groups on all seven continents. Solarsoft is a store-and-forward system that makes use of rsync, csh and other UNIX tools to distribute the software to a wide variety of platforms. Solarsoft predates CVS and most other collaborative development systems; hence, it does not provide direct support for many features that today would be considered necessary, such as software versioning. The use of Solarsoft has grown to include calibration data and even complete catalog indices for some instruments, as well as the scientific software. Most of the software in the Solarsoft tree pertains to either solar data analysis or specific space missions or observatories such as Yohkoh or SOHO. The vast majority is written in IDL, the most commonly used analysis platform in the solar physics community, though some C, ana, and PDL modules are also available. External links Solarsoft @ LMSAL Solarsoft @ NASA Physics software Lockheed Martin

6900130

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klocwork

Klocwork

Klocwork is a static code analysis tool owned by Minneapolis, Minnesota-based software developer Perforce. Klocwork software analyzes source code in real time, simplifies peer code reviews, and extends the life of complex software. Overview Klocwork is used to identify security, safety and reliability issues in C, C++, C#, Java, JavaScript and Python code. The product includes numerous desktop plug-ins for developers, metrics and reporting. History Originally Klocwork’s technology was developed to address requirements for large-scale source code analysis to optimize software architecture for C code inside Nortel Networks and spun out in 2001. In January 2012, Klocwork Insight 9.5 was released. It provided on-the-fly static analysis in Visual Studio, like a word processor does with spelling mistakes. In May 2013, Klocwork Cahoots peer code review tool was launched. Awards and recognition In 2007, Klocwork was awarded the 2007 InfoWorld Technology of Year award for best source code analyzer. In May 2014, Klocwork won the Red Herring Top 100 North America Award, in the software sector. Original developer Klocwork was an Ottawa, Canada-based software company that developed the Klocwork brand of programming tools for software developers. The company was acquired by Minneapolis-based application software developer Perforce in 2019, as part of their acquisition of Klocwork's parent software company Rogue Wave. Klocwork no longer exists as a standalone company, but Perforce continues to develop Klocwork branded static code analysis software. Company history The company was founded in 2001 as a spin-out of Nortel Networks. Its initial investors were Firstmark Capital, USVP, and Mobius Ventures. In January 2014, the company was acquired by Rogue Wave Software. In January 2019, Rogue Wave was acquired by Minneapolis-based application software developer Perforce. References External links Static program analysis tools Development software companies Software companies established in 2001 2014 mergers and acquisitions

38599961

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Just%20This%20Once

Just This Once

Just This Once is a 1993 romance novel written in the style of Jacqueline Susann by a Macintosh IIcx computer named "Hal" in collaboration with its programmer, Scott French. French reportedly spent $40,000 and 8 years developing an artificial intelligence program to analyze Susann's works and attempt to create a novel that Susann might have written. A legal dispute between the estate of Jacqueline Susann and the publisher resulted in a settlement to split the profits, and the book was referenced in several legal journal articles about copyright laws. The book had two small print runs totaling 35,000 copies, receiving mixed reviews. Creation The novel's creation spanned the fields of artificial intelligence, expert systems, and natural language processing. Scott French first scanned and analyzed portions of two books by Jacqueline Susann, Valley of the Dolls and Once Is Not Enough, to determine constituents of Susann's writing style, which French stated was the most difficult task. This analysis extracted several hundred components including frequency and type of sexual acts and sentence structure. "Once you're there, the writer's style emerges, part of her actual personality comes out, and the computer can be programmed to make a story." French also created several thousand rules to govern tone, plotting, scenes, and characters. The text generated by Hal, the computer, was intended to mimic what Susann might have written, although the output required significant editing. French credits Hal's work with "almost 100% of the plot, 100% of the theme and style." French estimates that he wrote 10% of the prose, the computer Hal wrote about 25% of the prose, and the remaining two-thirds was more of a collaboration between the two. A typical scenario to write a scene would involve Hal asking questions that French would answer (for example, Hal might ask about the "cattiness factor" involved in a meeting between two key female characters, and French would reply with a range of 1 to 10), and the computer would then generate a few sentences to which French would make minor edits. The process would repeat for the next few sentences until the scene was written. Legal issues Jacqueline Susann's publisher was skeptical of the legality of Just This Once, although French doubted that an author's thought processes could be copyrighted. Susann's estate reportedly threatened to sue Scott French but the parties settled out of court; the settlement involved splitting profits between the parties but the terms of the settlement were not disclosed. The publication of Just This Once raised questions in the legal profession concerning how copyright law applies to computer-generated works derived from an analysis of other copyrighted works, and whether the generation of such works infringes on copyright. The publications on this topic suggested that the copyright laws of the time were ill-equipped to deal with computer-generated creative works. Reception The book's publisher Steven Shragis of Carol Group said of the novel, "I'm not going to say this is a great literary work, but it's every bit as good as anything out in this field, and better than an awful lot." The novel received some positive early reviews. In USA Today, novelist Thomas Gifford compared Just This Once to another novel in the same genre, American Star by Jackie Collins. Gifford concluded: "If you do like this stuff, you'd be much, much better off with the one written by the computer." The Dead Jackie Susann Quarterly declared that Susann "would be proud. Lots of money, sleaze, disease, death, oral sex, tragedy and the good girl gone bad." Other reviews were mixed. Publishers Weekly wrote, "If the books of Jacqueline Susann and Harold Robbins seem formulaic, this debut novel of sin and success in Las Vegas outdoes them all. And that, in a way, is the point.... All novelty rests in the conceit of computer authorship, not in the story itself." Library Journal stated "French invested eight years and $50,000 in a scheme to use artificial intelligence to fulfill his authentic, if dubious, desire to generate a trashy novel a la Jacqueline Susann. Shallow, beautiful-people characters are flatly conceived and randomly accessed in a formulaic plot ... a sexy, boring morality tale. Of possible interest to computer buffs for its use of Expert Systems and the virtual promise of more worthy possibilities; others should read Susann." Kirkus Reviews wrote: "The deal here is that author French is not the author, he's just the midwife, having allegedly programmed his computer to write about our times just the way Susann would... almost perfectly capturing glamorous Jackie's turgid but E-Z reading prose style and ultrareliable mix of sex, glitz, dope 'n' despair.... One wonders, though, if French's tale spinning PC will do as well on the talkshows as Jackie did. The computer weenies have been trying to tell us for years, garbage in-garbage out." See also Procedural generation The Policeman's Beard is Half Constructed References 1993 American novels American romance novels Novels about artificial intelligence Natural language processing

46864642

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ALFA%20%28XACML%29

ALFA (XACML)

ALFA, the Abbreviated Language For Authorization, is a domain-specific language used in the formulation of access-control policies. History Origin XACML, the eXtensible Access Control Markup Language, uses XML as its main encoding language. Writing XACML policies directly in XACML leads to bloated, human-unfriendly text, therefore a new, more lightweight, notation was necessary. Axiomatics researcher, Pablo Giambiagi, therefore designed ALFA, the Axiomatics Language for Authorization. ALFA maps directly into XACML. ALFA contains the same structural elements as XACML i.e. PolicySet, Policy, and Rule. Axiomatics donates ALFA to OASIS In March 2014, Axiomatics announced it was donating ALFA to the OASIS XACML Technical Committee in order to advance its standardization. ALFA was consequently renamed Abbreviated Language for Authorization and filed for standardization. Its current version can be accessed here. Sample Use Cases Medical use case: doctors can view the medical records of patients they have a relationship with. Financial use case: employees in Singapore can view the customer accounts of employees based in Singapore. Insurance use case: an insurance agent can approve the claim of a user if the claim is in the same region as the agent and if the claim amount is less than the agent's approval amount. The words doctor, view, medical record, Singapore... are all examples of attribute values. Attributes make up the building blocks of policies in ABAC and consequently in ALFA. Structure Just like XACML, ALFA has three structural elements: PolicySet Policy Rule Like in XACML, a PolicySet can contain PolicySet and Policy elements. A Policy can contain Rule elements. A Rule contains a decision (either Permit or Deny). In addition, in ALFA, it's possible to add Rule elements to PolicySet and Policy elements. PolicySet, Policy, and Rule elements can be nested or referenced to. In order to resolve conflicts between siblings, ALFA (as does XACML) uses combining algorithms. There are several combining algorithms that may be used. Their behavior is defined in this truth table Data types ALFA supports all the data types that are defined in the OASIS XACML Core Specification. Some datatypes e.g. numerical (integer, double) and boolean map directly from ALFA to XACML. Others need to be converted such as date or time attributes. To convert an attribute into the relevant data type, use the "value":datatype notation. See below for examples Native attribute values mapped directly from ALFA to XACML String, integer, double, and boolean all map directly from ALFA to XACML. They do not need a conversion ALFA Policy using Boolean Attributes namespace exampleBoolean{ policy article{ target clause userRole == "editor" and actionId == "edit" and itemType=="article" apply firstApplicable rule publishedArticles{ target clause published == true permit } } } Attribute values which need an explicit conversion The following attribute datatypes need an explicit conversion: http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema#time http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema#date http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema#dateTime http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema#anyURI http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema#hexBinary http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema#base64Binary http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema#dayTimeDuration http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema#yearMonthDuration urn:oasis:names:tc:xacml:1.0:data-type:x500Name urn:oasis:names:tc:xacml:1.0:data-type:rfc822Name urn:oasis:names:tc:xacml:2.0:data-type:ipAddress urn:oasis:names:tc:xacml:2.0:data-type:dnsName urn:oasis:names:tc:xacml:3.0:data-type:xpathExpression Example: ALFA Policy using anyURI In this policy, we convert a String value to anyURI. attribute userDisallowedResources{ category = subjectCat id = "userDisallowedResources" type = string } rule allowProfileAccess{ target clause url == "http://<host>:<port>/profile/":anyURI permit } Sample Policies A simple policy & rule with a condition The following ALFA example represents a XACML policy which contains a single rule. The policy and rule both have a target. The rule also has a condition which is used to compare 2 attributes together to implement a relationship check (user ID must be equal to owner). Whenever one needs to check 2 attributes together, they must use a condition. namespace example{ policy article{ target clause itemType=="article" apply firstApplicable rule editArticle{ target clause actionId == "edit" and userRole == "editor" permit condition userId == owner } } } Using time in a XACML policy written in ALFA namespace exampleTime{ policy checkTimeAccess { apply firstApplicable rule checkNightAccess { target clause role == "supervisor" and document == "medicalrecord" condition timeInRange(timeOneAndOnly(currentTime), "22:00:00":time, "06:00:00":time) permit } } } Policy References in ALFA ALFA can use policy (set) references. They are in fact used implicitly when doing the following. namespace com.axiomatics{ namespace example{ /** * A policy about what managers can do. It is linked to from the * documents policy set. */ policy managers{ target clause role == "manager" apply firstApplicable rule allowSameDepartment{ condition user.department == document.department permit } } } /** * The main policy. It references the managers policy */ policyset documents{ target clause resourceType == "document" apply firstApplicable // The following is a policy reference example.managers } } Obligations & Advice in ALFA Obligations and advice are statements in XACML that can be returned from the PDP to the PEP alongside the decision (Permit, Deny...). Obligations and advice are triggered on either Permit or Deny. namespace example{ import Attributes.* advice notify = "example.notify" policy readDocuments{ target clause actionId=="read" and objectType=="document" apply firstApplicable /** * This rule denies access if the time is not between 9 and 5 */ rule denyOutsideHours{ target clause currentTime<"09:00:00":time or currentTime>"17:00:00":time deny on deny{ advice notify{ acme.obligations.message = "You cannot access this service outside office hours" } } } /** * This rule grants managers access */ rule allowManagers{ target clause acme.user.role=="manager" permit } /** * This rule catches anything else that might have fallen to this point */ rule failsafeDeny{ deny on deny{ advice notify{ acme.obligations.message = "Your request did not match the policy. Please try again" } } } } } Break the Glass Authorization Scenario Let's start by defining the attributes and obligations we will use. namespace com.axiomatics.examples{ import Attributes.* obligation breakTheGlass = "com.axiomatics.examples.breakTheGlass" obligation auditLog = "com.axiomatics.examples.auditLog" namespace user{ attribute role{ category = subjectCat id = "com.axiomatics.examples.user.role" type = string } attribute identifier{ category = subjectCat id = "com.axiomatics.examples.user.identifier" type = string } } namespace patient{ attribute assignedDoctor{ category = resourceCat id = "com.axiomatics.examples.user.assignedDoctor" type = string } } namespace record{ attribute identifier{ category = resourceCat id = "com.axiomatics.examples.record.identifier" type = string } } attribute actionId{ category = actionCat id = "com.axiomatics.examples.actionId" type = string } attribute objectType{ category = resourceCat id = "com.axiomatics.examples.objectType" type = string } attribute isEmergency{ category = environmentCat id = "com.axiomatics.examples.isEmergency" type = boolean } attribute message{ category = environmentCat id = "com.axiomatics.examples.message" type = string } We can now define the policy with 3 rules: the first rule is for normal access (doctors can view records of patients they are assigned to. the second rule is for special access because the glass has been broken. the third rule is the rule that triggers the obligation telling the user how to break the glass. /** * Control access to medical records */ policy accessMedicalRecord{ target clause actionId == "view" and objectType == "medical record" apply firstApplicable /** * Doctors can view medical records of patients they are assigned to */ rule allowRegularAccess{ target clause user.role == "doctor" condition patient.assignedDoctor == user.identifier permit } /** * Doctors can view any medical reason in the case of an emergency */ rule allowBreakTheGlassAccess{ target clause isEmergency == true permit on permit{ obligation auditLog{ message = "A doctor has gotten access to a medical record by breaking the glass" user.identifier = user.identifier record.identifier = record.identifier currentDateTime = currentDateTime } } } /** * Deny other accesses. If access is normally denied, tell doctors how * they can get access by "breaking the glass". */ rule denyAccess{ deny on deny{ obligation breakTheGlass{ message = "You do not have access to this medical record. To be granted access, set the isEmergency flag to true." record.identifier = record.identifier currentDateTime = currentDateTime } } } } } Time-based fine-grained authorization policy The following is an example of an ABAC policy implemented using ALFA. It uses time as attributes. It uses a XACML condition to compare the currentTime attribute to the value representing 5pm (expressed in 24-hour time). Note the use of :time to convert the String value to the right data type. rule allowAfter5pm{ permit condition currentTime > "17:00:00":time } HL7 Policies Use Cases HL7 defines a series of medical access control use cases which can be easily defined in ALFA. Sample ALFA policies for HL7 Access Control Based on Category of Action Implementations VS Code Extension for ALFA A free extension for the VS Code editor that supports code completion, syntax highlighting, refactoring, and go-to-definition navigation. It can also compile ALFA into XACML 3.0. The ALFA plugin for Eclipse The ALFA Plugin for Eclipse is a tool that converts your Eclipse programming IDE to a dedicated editor of authorization policies using ALFA syntax. ALFA policies can then easily be converted into XACML 3.0 policies and loaded into your XACML policy management tool. References External References European analysts talk about ALFA A Template-Based Policy Generation Interface for RESTful Web Services XML-based programming languages

16864178

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torch%20Triple%20X

Torch Triple X

The Torch Triple X (or XXX) was a UNIX workstation computer produced by the British company Torch Computers, and launched in 1985. It was based on the Motorola 68010 microprocessor and ran a version of UNIX System V. Hardware The Triple X was based on an 8 MHz 68010 CPU, with a Hitachi 6303 "service processor". The CPU was accompanied by a 68451 memory management unit and a 68450 DMA controller. Both VMEbus and a BBC Micro-compatible "1MHz bus" expansion buses were provided, as was a SCSI host adapter, and an optional Ethernet interface. Both RS-423 and X.25-compatible synchronous serial ports were provided. This latter feature made the Triple X attractive to the UK academic community, where X.25 networks were prevalent at the time. Standard RAM capacity was 1 MB, expandable to 7 MB via VME cards. A 720 kB, 5.25 in floppy disk drive and ST-506-compatible 20 MB hard disk were fitted as standard, interfaced to the SCSI bus via an OMTI adapter. Either a 10 or 13 inch colour monitor was supplied. Two graphics modes were available: 720 × 256 pixels in four colours, or 720 × 512 in two colours. The Triple X had a novel touch-sensitive "soft" power switch. When switching off, this commanded the operating system to shut down gracefully before powering down. Software The Triple X's firmware was called Caretaker. The native operating system was Uniplus+ UNIX System V Release 2. A graphical user interface called OpenTop was also included as standard. Quad X The Quad X was an enhanced version of the Triple X, with a 68020 processor and three VME expansion slots. This was produced only in small numbers before Torch became insolvent. References Bibliography Computer workstations 68k architecture 32-bit computers

44374513

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laundry%20detergent%20pod

Laundry detergent pod

Laundry detergent pods (or packs or liquitabs) are water-soluble pouches containing highly concentrated laundry detergent, softener and other laundry products. Notable brands of these packs include All, Arm & Hammer, Gain, Purex, Persil and Tide. They first became popular in February 2012 when they were introduced by Procter & Gamble as Tide Pods (Ariel Pods in Europe). The chemistry of laundry detergent packs is the same as in liquid detergents (including alkylbenzenesulfonates). The dissolvable packets are typically made of polyvinylalcohol (PVA) or a derivative of PVA. Although the formulas are similar, a detergent pack's liquids may contain 10% water compared to 50% in liquid detergents. MonoSol is one of the companies that develops the water-soluble film used for laundry and dishwasher detergent packs, used by brands including Tide, with roughly $250 million in annual sales and controlling around 90-percent of the market. The film is designed to be soluble in cold water. While PVA is water-soluble and technically biodegradable under specific conditions, it's estimated that close to 15,000 metric tons of intact PVA either bypass or make it through treatment facilities every year. Laundry pods are estimated to make up about 15% of the $7 billion-a-year U.S. laundry detergent market sales according to market researcher Nielsen NV. Laundry pods were advertised as a way to reduce wasted use of powdered and liquid detergent by having precise measurements for a load. For large loads, most brands recommend two pods, with Tide suggesting up to three. Detergent pods cost significantly more than liquid detergent for equivalent laundry loads. History Laundry tabs were originally introduced in the 1960s in a compacted granular form (similar to an oral medical tablet), when Procter & Gamble launched Salvo tablets, later disappearing from the market in the 1970s. In the 1990s, Unilever and Henkel launched a similar laundry detergent pack product sold in Western Europe under the Persil brand. These products sometimes did not fully dissolve in United States washers. Powder Laundry Soluble Sachets were first marketed in the UK and Europe in 1998 as Soapy Sacks and shortly thereafter rebranded as Aquados and received a Millennium Award for the innovation. The first powder dishwasher soft-tabs were then sold in Europe in the early 2000's under the Simply brand name. Liquitabs were launched in 2001 in Europe (spelt as 'liqui-tabs' or 'écodoses' in different countries). In 2005, Cot’n Wash, Inc., introduced liquid unit dose laundry pods under the Dropps brand. In 2012, Procter & Gamble launched a liquid tablet product as Tide Pods. In 2017, the "Tide Pod Challenge" emerged causing more concern about laundry detergent pod poisoning. Standard Safety Specification for Liquid Laundry Detergent Packets In November 2012, a Safety Alert was issued by the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) to inform parents and caregivers that Liquid Laundry Detergent Packets need to be kept away from children. The alert warned that children exposed to packet contents are “at risk of serious injury and even death due to the highly concentrated nature of the product.” The Standard Safety Specification for Liquid Laundry Packets by the ASTM provides requirements for household Liquid Laundry Detergent Packet safety to reduce unintentional exposures to the contents of the packets, especially to children, and that apply exclusively to household Liquid Laundry Detergent Packets. Product Innovations In late 2015, ASTM International developed voluntary standards for product manufacturers to reduce unintentional exposures to Liquid Laundry Detergent Packets in children by enhancing overall product safety. These changes included specifications for safe manufacturing that suggested Liquid Laundry Detergent Packet packaging must be easy to close in one motion and meet one or more of the following safety requirements and features: ·       Test criteria for being child-resistant ·       Force greater than a child to open ·       Hand dexterity greater than those of an average-sized child to open ·       Bitter tasting film ·       Delayed dissolution film ·       Squeeze resistant packet ·       Warning information, safety icons, and first aid instructions In 2021, an evaluation of 2012-2020 data from the National Poison Data System (NPDS) was conducted to describe the characteristics of exposures to Liquid Laundry Detergent Packets in the context of the ASTM changes. The results found that while a total of 94,610 unintentional-general exposures involving Liquid Laundry Detergent Packets and children of six years and younger were reported NPDS from July 1, 2012 through December 31, 2020, unintentional exposures initially increased from 2012-2016. This correlates to the introduction of Liquid Laundry Detergent Packets in the U.S. at a time when the ASTM safety standards were still in initial development and implementation. A succeeding decrease was correlated with the period at which full adoption of the ASTM safety standard had been achieved (2017 to 2020), suggesting that the ASTM safety standard was a contributor to decreasing unintentional pediatric exposures to Liquid Laundry Detergent Packets. A substantial decrease in the morbidity of unintentional pediatric exposures was also observed following adoption of the ASTM standard. In May of 2021, an additional study was conducted using 2012-2018 data that looked at accidental exposures to liquid laundry packets in children <6 years old to determine the overall impact of product safety changes and how they affect children's safety. The results concluded a 90.9% decrease in exposures per every 1 million packets sold. This data demonstrated a temporal association between the exposure patterns and the full adoption of the ASTM safety standards to improve the safety of Liquid Laundry Detergent Packets. Also in 2021, an evaluation of 2012-2017 data from Poison Control Centers was conducted to determine the impact of the voluntary safety standards for liquid laundry packets on children exposure rates reported to the Poison Control Centers in the United States. The results found that “the voluntary safety standard was associated with a 28.6% reduction in the rate of total reported exposures and a 36.8% reduction in the rate of medically treated exposures.” The analysis concluded that the implementation of the voluntary safety standards significantly reduced children’s rate of injury when it comes to accidental exposures involving liquid laundry packets. Poisonings Concern has been raised over children accidentally being exposed to laundry packs, as its appearance and the packaging design can have the same appeal to a child as hard candy with patterned designs, and be confused as such. In 2012, in response to a child swallowing Tide Pods, Procter & Gamble said they would make this product more difficult to open by adding a double latch to the lid, and has also re-focused their advertising to make clear the product should be out of a child's reach at all times. The packaging was also changed to an opaque orange rather than the original clear plastic gumball machine-type presentation to make them look less enticing; other manufacturers followed suit with equivalent packaging changes. In 2013, Consumer Reports stated that there had been nearly 7,700 reported incidents in which children age 5 or younger had been exposed to laundry pacs, and that year, one child from Florida died after ingesting a pac. In 2014, a study published in Pediatrics found that from 2012 to 2013, more than 17,000 calls were made to poison control centers about children who had been exposed to the packs. Despite the industry's move toward safer packaging, a 2017 study published in JAMA Ophthalmology found that between 2012 and 2015, the number of chemical eye burns associated with laundry detergent pods among 3- to 4-year-old children skyrocketed from fewer than 20 to almost 500 per year; in 2015, these injuries were responsible for 26% of all chemical eye burns among this population. In late 2017 and early 2018, a viral Internet trend, called the "Tide Pod Challenge" emerged, in which participants deliberately and intentionally ingested detergent pods, in some cases filming the consumption of the detergent and the aftermath. Several children and teens have been injured, some severely, from this intentional consumption. Since 2019 the International Mandatory action sign "Keep out of reach of children" is available to inform adults that these items must be kept out of the reach of children. References Laundry detergents Packaging

10268099

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft%20Sort

Microsoft Sort

Microsoft Sort is a software utility developed by the Microsoft Corporation in 1982-83. It was sold in two versions - as a standalone utility and as a version hosted in Microsoft COBOL. The 95 page ring-bound manual describes the function of the software as follows: "Microsoft Standalone SORT is a programmable sorting and merging utility. It accepts data files and arranges the records contained in these files in the order you assign. You may specify sequence keys, which are specific data field(s) within each record, for comparison of records. Also, you may specify a selection procedure." The software came on a single 5¼" floppy diskette. The software and manual came packaged in a hinged Perspex box, which Microsoft described as "EaselBox". It was designed to double up as a book stand for the reference manual. At the time of sale, Microsoft Sort was one of 32 products available from the company including productivity software, educational software, recreational software, hardware and programming languages. Sort COBOL

26177746

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Beanland

John Beanland

John Walton Beanland (3 November 1866 – 7 December 1943) was a building contractor and Mayor of Christchurch from 1936 to 1938. Early life Beanland was born in Durham Lead near Ballarat, Victoria in 1866. His parents were John Griffith Beanland (1844–1875) and Elizabeth Pickering (1845–1923). The Beanlands were a prominent family in Williamstown near Melbourne, where John Walton lived for about 20 years. He was the eldest of six children. On 18 October 1889, he married Mary Ann Hick and they had two sons: Arnold White Beanland (born 1889) and Walton Howard Beanland (born 1890). His three brothers all married sisters of his wife. Life in New Zealand Beanland was a master builder, and the family came to Christchurch during a time of depression in Victoria in the early 1890s. His name first appeared in the Christchurch newspaper The Star in 1899, when he was elected onto the committee of the model yacht club. His brother, William Henry Beanland (1874–1960), was also a building contractor in Christchurch. Beanland won the contract to build the first stage of the Nurses' Hostel for £54,990. This allowed for the first three storeys of the building on Riccarton Avenue next to Christchurch Hospital, and construction started in 1931. Beanland was a trustee on the Board of Trustees of the Riccarton Bush from 1919 to 1921. Political career In April 1909, Beanland was elected onto the St Albans School Committee and in 1913, he was elected chairman. He became the president of the St Albans Library Committee. In 1911, Beanland travelled to England to attend the coronation of George V, followed by several months of travel for pleasure. Beanland was narrowly defeated in January 1912 when he stood for the St Albans seat of the Drainage Board. He was first elected to Christchurch City Council in 1914 in the St Albans ward for the conservative-leaning Citizens' Association. For several years, he chaired the works committee of Christchurch City Council. He first became deputy mayor after the 1919 mayoral election, and was the second person to hold that post. At the same election, Henry Thacker was first elected as mayor. The next mayoral election was held on Wednesday, 27 April 1921, and the two candidates were Thacker and Beanland. Thacker received 7,580 votes, a majority of 292 votes over the 7,288 votes for Beanland. Beanland had stood for the mayoralty only, and this ended his first period on Christchurch City Council. Beanland was again elected as a Christchurch city councillor in the 26 April 1923 local election, receiving the second highest number of first preference votes after Rev John Archer. In October 1924, Beanland announced that he would contest the next mayoral election in April 1925, and that he would not stand for re-election for the Christchurch Tramway Board, so that he had sufficient time for the mayoralty. Beanland claimed that he should have the official support of the Citizen's Association, although the incumbent, James Arthur Flesher, also belonged to the Citizen's Association and intended to stand again. Beanland claimed that he had been persuaded in 1923 to not stand for the mayoralty, and that he would in turn receive the support of the Citizens' Association in 1925. This situation apparently caused great friction within the Citizens' Association, but all rumours to this effect were categorically denied. The situation got worse when the Citizens' Association issued a statement to The Press: The Association has always considered Mr Beanland to be lacking in qualities needed in the Mayor of a city of this size and importance. For that reason it has refused to support him for the Mayoralty on three occasions. It believes Mr Beanland to be a useful member of a Council or a Board. For offices such as these it is ready to support him, but not for the Mayoralty. In the end, four candidates contested the election: the incumbent, James Arthur Flesher, as the official candidate of the Citizens' Association, Beanland and Joseph Hamlets as independents, and John Archer for the Labour Party. The Citizens' Association vote was split between Flesher and Beanland, and Archer had a majority of some 1100 votes over the incumbent. Beanland contested the electorate in the for the Reform Party, but was beaten by Labour's James McCombs. In 1934, he embarked on a six months trip that took him to Australia, England and Germany. In 1935, he was awarded the King George V Silver Jubilee Medal. In February 1936, the mayor of Christchurch, Dan Sullivan, resigned from the mayoralty after he had been appointed by the Labour government as a cabinet minister. Beanland, who was deputy-mayor at the time, contested the resulting by-election and narrowly won against former mayor and Labour candidate John Archer; this brought to an end 11 years of Labour candidates winning the mayoralty. Beanland was sworn in on 16 March. At the end of the mayoral term, the Citizens' Association chose Dr. John Guthrie as their mayoral candidate. Beanland had also sought the nomination but was not successful. Beanland stood as a city councillor and was narrowly returned; he was 15th for the 16 positions, and only three votes ahead of the candidate in 17th place. The new mayor and councillors were installed on 18 May 1938. Beanland retired at the end of the term in 1941. Death Mary Beanland died on 8 August 1941. He died on 7 December 1943 at his residence at 237 Edgeware Road in the Christchurch suburb of St Albans. He was survived by their two sons. The family grave is at Bromley Cemetery and holds Mary and John Beanland, the wife of their son Walton, and a grandchild. Beanland Avenue in the Christchurch suburb of Spreydon is named in his honour. The street name was suggested by the Director of Housing Construction for the government housing project, and approved by the Christchurch City Council in April 1938. References 1866 births 1943 deaths Mayors of Christchurch Deputy mayors of Christchurch Burials at Bromley Cemetery People from Ballarat Australian emigrants to New Zealand Reform Party (New Zealand) politicians Unsuccessful candidates in the 1928 New Zealand general election New Zealand builders

35320077

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little%20Implementation%20Language

Little Implementation Language

LIL, the Little Implementation Language, was a system programming language during the early days of Unix history on PDP-11 machines. It was written by P. J. Plauger of Bell Labs. LIL attempted to fill the gap between assemblers and machine-independent system implementation languages (such as the C programming language), by basically adding structured programming to the PDP-11 assembly language. LIL resembled PL360 with C-like flow control syntax. The LIL compiler "lc" was part of Fifth Edition Unix (1974), but was dropped by Sixth Edition Unix (1975). Plauger left Bell Labs in the same year. Plauger explains why LIL was abandoned in Bell Labs in favor of C: ... LIL is, however, a failure. Its stiffest competition at Bell Labs is the language C, which is higher level, and machine independent. Every time it looked like C was too expensive to use for a particular project, LIL was considered. But almost every time, it proved easier (and more rewarding) to improve C, or its runtime support, or the hardware, than to invest time in yet another language. ... A machine independent language is always superior -- even for writing machine dependent code (it's easier to find trained programmers) -- so long as the overhead can be endured. It is clear now that writing straightforward code and then measuring it is the formula for the best end product. At worst there will be 5-15 per cent overhead, which is seldom critical. Once system writers become mature enough to recognize this basic truth, they gravitate naturally toward machine independent SILs. ... it looks like the little implementation language is an idea whose time as come -- and gone. See also High-level assembler References LIL, The Little Implementation Language A Little Implementation Language LIL Reference Manual, June 19, 1974, Bell Labs Technical Memo: TM-74-1352-8. Programming in LIL: A Tutorial, June 19, 1974, Bell Labs Technical Memo: TM-74-1352-6. Fifth Edition Unix manuals, lc(6), the LIL compiler. Unix history Procedural programming languages Systems programming languages

38947394

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical%20image%20sharing

Medical image sharing

Medical image sharing is the electronic exchange of medical images between hospitals, physicians and patients. Rather than using traditional media, such as a CD or DVD, and either shipping it out or having patients carry it with them, technology now allows for the sharing of these images using the cloud. The primary format for images is DICOM (Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine). Typically, non-image data such as reports may be attached in standard formats like PDF (Portable Document Format) during the sending process. Additionally, there are standards in the industry, such as IHE Cross Enterprise Document Sharing for Imaging (XDS-I), for managing the sharing of documents between healthcare enterprises. A typical architecture involved in setup is a locally installed server, which sits behind the firewall, allowing secure transmissions with outside facilities. In 2009, the Radiological Society of North America launched the "Image Share" project, with the goal of giving patients control of their imaging histories (reports and images) by allowing them to manage these records as they would online banking or shopping. Uses Care Facilities: Institutions use medical image sharing to facilitate transfers between other facilities that may or may not be on the same network. They are also able to instantly send results to referring physicians in the community, as well as directly to patients. Physicians: Doctors use the technology to have immediate access to images, as opposed to waiting for physical media to arrive. Having access to a patient's medical history improves the point of care service. Patients: In conjunction with recent US government initiatives, patients are able to receive their imaging exams electronically, without needing to carry and store physical media. It allows for the ability to see physicians in multiple locations and have their imaging at the ready. Benefits Improved access to patients’ medical imaging histories Ability to view images instantly Real-time collaboration by specialists Avoiding duplicate care reduces costs Decreased radiation exposure for patients Expertise and specialized opinion is remotely accessible to patients Health Medical Image Sharing contributes to many of the "Health" initiatives across the industry. Being able to instantly and electronically exchange medical information can improve communication between physicians, as well as with patients. Meaningful Use: The goal of meaningful use is to promote the spread of electronic health records to improve health care in the United States, which is to be rolled out in 3 stages through 2015. Some benefits of the initiative include better access to medical information and patient empowerment. Medical image sharing helps achieve meaningful use by improving access to medical images to patients and physicians. Telehealth: The practice of delivering healthcare services utilizing telecommunication technologies is known as Telehealth. A major goal is to support long-distance health care for patients who are unable to easily travel to the point of care. Patients and professionals are also able to obtain further knowledge on health topics. As a part of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, the Office for the Advancement of Telehealth (OAT) promotes the use of telehealth technologies. Sharing medical images over long distances can happen instantaneously with these technologies, allowing a physician to review a patient's images during the conference. Patient Engagement: Recent changes in the healthcare industry have placed more emphasis on empowering patients to control and have access to more of their medical information. The use of tools such as Electronic health records will help patients take a more active role in their health. With medical image sharing, patients can receive their medical imaging electronically, and then be able to share that information with the next physician they are seeing. Cloud Computing: Using software that is delivered as a service over the internet is referred to as Cloud computing. Typically, medical image sharing will be rolled out as a service for hospitals, clinicians and patients. Mobile: The use of mobile electronic devices has been rising across many industries, with healthcare included. As a physician, having access to medical images on the go is an important development in the field. Architecture A typical architecture for a medical image sharing platform includes transmitting data from a system installed directly on the hospital network and behind the firewall, to and from an outside entity. Some of the standard architectural pieces involved include: Data transmission is the physical transfer of data through a communication channel, such as wires, wireless technologies or physical media. The most common use case for image sharing would be transmitting the image files using the cloud, allowing for instant access and exchange with anyone, anywhere. A Virtual private network (VPN) can be set up to enable exchange, but this is typically requires more to maintain for the facilities involved. Data compression is used to help facilitate the exchange of large files by encoding using smaller bits than the original version. This process helps reduce the resources being used and improves the transmission capabilities. Security: One widely utilized security tool is TSL/SSL, or Transport Layer Security. The Transport Layer Security (TLS)/Secure Sockets Layer (SSLv3) is used to secure electronic communications. TLS/SSLv3 helps to secure transmitted data using encryption. TLS/SSLv3 authenticates clients to prove the identities of parties engaged in secure communication, as well as authenticates servers. The TLS/SSLv3 security protocol can protect against data disclosure, masquerade attacks, bucket brigade attacks, rollback attacks, and replay attacks. Data Centers: A Data center is used to house computer systems and associated pieces. The main use of these facilities in medical image sharing is to provide backup. The infrastructure commonly includes redundant power, redundant generators, redundant Internet connections, redundant firewalls, redundant network switches, and redundant storage. This is a vital piece to ensure that medical images are safe and secure in the cloud. Integrations Image sharing platforms can integrate directly with many hospital systems, such as: Active Directory - Link to a hospital Active Directory for seamless use by staffed physicians. Picture archiving and communication system (PACS) - A medical imaging technology that provides economical storage of, and convenient access to, images from multiple modalities within a facility. Electronic medical record (EMR) - A computerized medical record created in an organization that delivers care, such as a hospital or physician's office. Vendor Neutral Archive (VNA) - A medical imaging technology in which images and documents (and potentially any file of clinical relevance) are stored (archived) in a standard format with a standard interface, such that they can be accessed in a vendor-neutral manner by other systems. Decision support system - A computer-based information system that supports business or organizational decision-making activities. Health information exchange (HIE) - The mobilization of healthcare information electronically across organizations within a region, community or hospital system. Personal health record (PHR) - A health record where health data and information related to the care of a patient is maintained by the patient. Standards DICOM - A standard for handling, storing, printing, and transmitting information in medical imaging. Cross Enterprise Document Sharing (XDS) - Focused on providing a standards-based specification for managing the sharing of documents between any healthcare enterprise, ranging from a private physician office to a clinic to an acute care in-patient facility and personal health record systems. Cross-enterprise Document Sharing for Imaging (XDS-I) - Extends XDS to share images, diagnostic reports and related information across a group of care sites. HL7 Privacy Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) - Enacted by the United States Congress and signed by President Bill Clinton in 1996. Title II of HIPAA, known as the Administrative Simplification (AS) provisions, requires the establishment of national standards for electronic health care transactions and national identifiers for providers, health insurance plans, and employers. Government Initiatives HITECH Act: The Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health (HITECH) Act was instituted on February 17, 2009, in hopes of raising the overall meaningful use of health IT. It was created as a part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009. It also addressed security and privacy issues related to electronic exchange of medical information. Blue Button: A patient is provided with a highly visible, clickable button to download his or her medical records in digital form from a secure website offered by their doctors, insurers, pharmacies or other health-related service. People can log into this secure website to view and have the option to download their health information, so they can examine it, check it, and share it with their doctors and others as they see fit. The Blue Button download capability is a tool that can help individuals get access to their information so they can more effectively participate in and manage their health and health care. It is mainly being used by the Department of Veteran Affairs in the United States. RSNA Image Share Project RSNA Image Share is a network created to enable radiologists to share medical images with patients using personal health record (PHR) accounts. This pilot project, funded by the National Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering (Nibib) and administered by RSNA, began enrolling patients in 2011. Currently, there are five participating medical centers in the program - Mount Sinai Hospital, New York, UCSF Medical Center, University of Maryland Medical Center, University of Chicago Medical Center, and Mayo Clinic. Patients at these sites are able to receive and access their medical images electronically. As of January 2017, there were seven software companies who have completed the RSNA Image Share Validation, Agfa Healthcare, Ambra Health (formerly DICOM Grid), GE Healthcare, Lexmark Healthcare, LifeImage, Inc., Mach7 Technologies and Novarad. There are three main architectural pieces to the project: A clearinghouse in the cloud An Edge Server at each local radiology site A PHR to receive the images and reports See also Medical imaging DICOM Medical software Telemedicine Electronic health record (EHR) Radiology Radiology Information System Electronic Medical Record (EMR) Vendor Neutral Archive (VNA) Picture Archiving & Communications System (PACS) Imaging Informatics Cloud computing References Health informatics Medical imaging Image sharing websites

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test%20harness

Test harness

In software testing, a test harness or automated test framework is a collection of software and test data configured to test a program unit by running it under varying conditions and monitoring its behavior and outputs. It has two main parts: the test execution engine and the test script repository. Test harnesses allow for the automation of tests. They can call functions with supplied parameters and print out and compare the results to the desired value. The test harness is a hook to the developed code, which can be tested using an automation framework. A test harness should allow specific tests to run (this helps in optimizing), orchestrate a runtime environment, and provide a capability to analyse results. The typical objectives of a test harness are to: Automate the testing process. Execute test suites of test cases. Generate associated test reports. These individual objectives may be fulfilled by unit test framework tools, stubs or drivers. A test harness may provide some of the following benefits: Increased productivity due to automation of the testing process. Increased probability that regression testing will occur. Increased quality of software components and application. Repeatability of subsequent test runs. Offline testing (e.g. at times that the office is not staffed, like overnight). Access to conditions and/or use cases that are otherwise difficult to simulate (load, for example). Alternative definition An alternative definition of a test harness is software constructed to facilitate integration testing. Where test stubs are typically components of the application under development and are replaced by working components as the application is developed (top-down integration testing), test harnesses are external to the application being tested and simulate services or functionality not available in a test environment. For example, when attempting to build an application that needs to interface with an application on a mainframe computer, but no mainframe is available during development, a test harness may be built to use as a substitute. A test harness may be part of a project deliverable. It is kept separate from the application source code and may be reused on multiple projects. A test harness simulates application functionality; it has no knowledge of test suites, test cases or test reports. Those things are provided by a testing framework and associated automated testing tools. A part of its job is to set up suitable test fixtures. The test harness will generally be specific to a development environment such as Java. However, interoperability test harnesses have been developed for use in more complex systems. References Further reading Pekka Abrahamsson, Michele Marchesi, Frank Maurer, Agile Processes in Software Engineering and Extreme Programming, Springer, 1 January 2009 Software testing

66259522

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20the%20COVID-19%20pandemic%20in%20the%20Republic%20of%20Ireland%20%28January%E2%80%93June%202021%29

Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Ireland (January–June 2021)

The following is a timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Ireland from January to June 2021. Timeline January 2021 1 January A further 1,754 cases and 11 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 93,532 cases and 2,248 deaths. 1 previously notified case was de-notified. Minister for Children, Equality, Disability, Integration and Youth Roderic O'Gorman announced that the resumption of pre-school programmes would be delayed until 11 January, in line with the reopening of primary and secondary schools. 2 January A further 3,394 cases and 4 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 96,926 cases and 2,252 deaths. It was revealed that there were approximately 9,000 positive COVID-19 tests not yet logged on the HSE's IT systems, due to both limitations in the software; and lack of staff to check and input details, meaning there is an effective ceiling of approximately 1,700 to 2,000 cases that can be logged each day. The Director of the National Virus Reference Laboratory Cillian de Gascun announced that a further 9 cases of the UK variant of COVID-19 had been detected in the Republic of Ireland from 23 December to 29 December, bringing the total number of cases identified to 16. 3 January – a further 4,962 cases and 7 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 101,887 cases and 2,259 deaths. 1 previously notified case was de-notified. 4 January – a further 6,110 cases and 6 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 107,997 cases and 2,265 deaths. 5 January A further 5,325 cases and 17 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 113,322 cases and 2,282 deaths. A 95-year-old woman became the first nursing home resident in the Republic of Ireland to receive the Pfizer/BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine. An infectious diseases consultant became the first healthcare worker in the Mater University Hospital to receive the COVID-19 vaccine. The Irish Prison Service announced that five prisoners in Loughan House Open Centre in County Cavan tested positive for COVID-19. 6 January A further 7,836 cases and 17 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 121,154 cases and 2,299 deaths. 4 previously notified cases were de-notified. The Government of Ireland agreed a number of new lockdown measures including the closure of all schools until February with Leaving Certificate students allowed to attend school for three days a week, the closure of all non-essential construction sites with certain exceptions at 6pm on 8 January, the requirement from 9 January for all passengers from the UK and South Africa to have a negative PCR test that they acquired within 72 hours of travelling and the prohibition of click-and-collect services for non-essential retail. Following the approval of the Moderna COVID-19 vaccine by the European Medicines Agency on 6 January 2021, Tánaiste Leo Varadkar announced that the vaccine would allow 10,000 more people in Ireland to be vaccinated per week. It was announced that Minister for Justice Helen McEntee tested positive for COVID-19. 7 January A further 6,521 cases and 10 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 127,657 cases and 2,307 deaths. 2 previously notified deaths were de-notified. The Government of Ireland was forced to abandon plans for Leaving Certificate students to attend school on three days a week, and instead students would return to homeschooling along with other students until February, after the Association of Secondary Teachers, Ireland (ASTI) directed its members not to return to in-school teaching. The rollout of the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine in private and voluntary nursing homes began nationwide, with 22 nursing homes of 3,000 residents and staff to be vaccinated. Tánaiste Leo Varadkar announced that the government would consider banning the sale of alcohol after a certain time in a day, while all pubs, restaurants and other businesses were set to remain closed until April. 8 January A further 8,248 cases and 20 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 135,884 cases and 2,327 deaths. 21 previously notified cases were de-notified. In a statement from NPHET, Chief Medical Officer Tony Holohan confirmed that three cases of the South African variant of COVID-19 had been detected in the Republic of Ireland by whole genome sequencing associated with travel from South Africa. 9 January – a further 4,824 cases (including 1 probable case) and 9 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 140,727 cases and 2,336 deaths. 10 January – a further 6,888 cases and 8 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 147,613 cases and 2,344 deaths. 2 previously notified cases were de-notified. 11 January A further 4,929 cases and 8 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 152,539 cases and 2,352 deaths. 3 previously notified cases were de-notified. The purchase of alcohol with supermarket vouchers as well as a number of multi-buy schemes were banned under new legislation that came into effect. Figures revealed by the Our World in Data organisation showed that Ireland had the highest daily number of new confirmed COVID-19 cases in the world for every million people. Gardaí received new COVID-19 enforcement powers, including the power to fine people €100 in breach in the 5 km travel limit. 12 January A further 3,086 cases and 46 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 155,591 cases and 2,397 deaths. 34 previously notified cases were de-notified. The Government of Ireland agreed that all passengers arriving into Ireland would need a negative PCR COVID-19 test taken 72 hours before departure from Saturday 16 January. The first shipment of the Moderna vaccine arrived in the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Prison Service announced that three prisoners in Portlaoise and Mountjoy Prisons tested positive for COVID-19. 13 January A further 3,569 cases and 63 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 159,144 cases and 2,460 deaths. 16 previously notified cases were de-notified. The Irish Nurses and Midwives Organisation (INMO) called for the Government to declare a national emergency and for all private hospital capacity to be fully nationalised into the public healthcare system as the number of hospitalisations doubled the peak of April 2020. 14 January A further 3,955 cases and 28 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 163,057 cases and 2,488 deaths. 42 previously notified cases were de-notified. Gardaí issued 29 fines to people breaching the 5 km travel limit over the previous 7 days including three people who travelled 80 km to "collect burgers from a takeaway" in Ringsend, Dublin. The National Transport Authority announced that reduced timetables for bus operators in Dublin (including Dublin Bus and Go-Ahead Ireland) would recommence from Monday 18 January and would run at 80% capacity. 15 January A further 3,498 cases and 50 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 166,548 cases and 2,536 deaths. 7 previously notified cases were de-notified. The Chief Medical Officers of Ireland and Northern Ireland Tony Holohan and Michael McBride issued a joint statement urging everyone to stay at home. 16 January A further 3,231 cases and 60 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 169,780 cases and 2,595 deaths. 1 previously notified death and 7 cases were de-notified. Around 1,800 healthcare workers received the Moderna vaccine at three mass vaccination centres that opened in Dublin, Galway and Portlaoise. The Department of Health announced the suspension of all nursing and midwifery student placements for two weeks due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on staffing levels. 17 January A further 2,944 cases and 13 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 172,726 cases and 2,608 deaths. The Government of Ireland requested early deliveries of the Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine as discussions to secure early delivery of the vaccine got underway. The Irish Nurses and Midwives Organisation (INMO) called for further clarity on the decision to suspend nursery and midwifery student placements for two weeks. 18 January A further 2,121 cases and 8 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 174,843 cases and 2,616 deaths. 4 previously notified cases were de-notified. The number of patients with COVID-19 being treated in hospitals around the country reached a record 2,023, with 200 in ICUs and over 400 people receiving high-grade ventilation and respiratory support. 19 January A further 2,001 cases and 93 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 176,839 cases and 2,708 deaths. 1 previously notified death and 5 cases were de-notified. The Government of Ireland was forced to abandon plans to reopen special schools on Thursday 21 January for thousands of children with special educational needs following safety concerns among staff unions. 20 January A further 2,488 cases and 61 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 179,324 cases and 2,768 deaths. 1 previously notified deaths and 3 cases were de-notified. The St Patrick's Day parade in Dublin was cancelled for a second year. 21 January – a further 2,608 cases and 51 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 181,922 cases and 2,818 deaths. 1 previously notified death was de-notified. 22 January A further 2,371 cases and 52 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 184,279 cases and 2,870 deaths. 14 previously notified cases were de-notified. Taoiseach Micheál Martin confirmed that there would be no easing of Level 5 lockdown restrictions at the end of January and suggested the current restrictions would be in place for at least another four weeks. Gardaí issued 771 fines to people breaching the 5 km travel limit since 11 January with the majority issued in Wicklow, Cork, Laois and Longford, while 30 fines were issued for the non-wearing of face coverings in certain locations. Chief Clinical Officer of the Health Service Executive (HSE) Colm Henry stated that COVID-19 transmission levels remained too high for schools to reopen in February. The Health Service Executive (HSE) confirmed that 11 residents of a nursing home in North County Dublin died after testing positive for COVID-19. 23 January A further 1,910 cases and 77 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 186,184 cases and 2,947 deaths. 5 previously notified cases were de-notified. Taoiseach Micheál Martin stated that COVID-19 vaccinations for people over the age of 70 may be delayed due to issues with the supply of the Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine, and also stated that COVID-19 restrictions would be in place for at least the first six months of the year and that not all of the 1 million students nationwide would be back in school before St Patrick's Day. 24 January – a further 1,378 cases and 23 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 187,554 cases and 2,970 deaths. 8 previously notified cases were de-notified. 25 January A further 1,372 cases and 7 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 188,923 cases and 2,977 deaths. 3 previously notified cases were de-notified. Gardaí warned that foreign holidays were not deemed essential as 1,500 fines were issued to people breaching the 5 km travel limit in the previous two weeks. A meat processing plant in Bunclody, County Wexford confirmed 42 cases of COVID-19 following screening of all staff on 15 January. 26 January A further 928 cases and 90 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 189,851 cases and 3,066 deaths. 1 previously notified death was de-notified. In a statement from NPHET, Chief Medical Officer Tony Holohan confirmed that a further 6 cases of the South African variant of COVID-19 had been detected in the Republic of Ireland. The Government of Ireland announced the extension of the Level 5 lockdown restrictions until 5 March, along with a number of new measures including a mandatory 14-day quarantine period for all people travelling into the country without a negative COVID-19 test, including all arrivals from Brazil and South Africa. The Government made the wearing of face coverings in all banks, credit unions and post offices mandatory. Talks between the Department of Education and unions continued with hopes that schools would be able to reopen on a phased basis between February and March. 27 January – a further 1,335 cases and 54 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 191,182 cases and 3,120 deaths. 4 previously notified cases were de-notified. 28 January – a further 1,466 cases and 47 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 192,645 cases and 3,167 deaths. 3 previously notified cases were de-notified. 29 January A further 1,254 cases and 48 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 193,892 cases and 3,214 deaths. 1 previously notified death and 7 cases were de-notified. Ireland was expected to receive 300,000 fewer doses of the Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine by the end of March as a result of a shortfall in deliveries to the EU. Gardaí issued more than 2,400 fines to people breaching the 5 km travel limit in the previous two weeks, including a man who travelled 200 km to "collect a puppy as a gift" in Cork. 30 January A further 1,414 cases and 79 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 195,303 cases and 3,292 deaths. 1 previously notified death and 3 cases were de-notified. Chief Medical Officer Tony Holohan announced that more cases had been confirmed in one month than throughout 2020 with over 1,000 deaths and more than 100,000 cases confirmed in January. The Director of the National Virus Reference Laboratory Cillian de Gascun stated that there was no significant transmission of the South African COVID-19 variant in Ireland as cases of the variant identified had been contained. 31 January – a further 1,247 cases and 15 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 196,547 cases and 3,307 deaths. 3 previously notified cases were de-notified. February 2021 1 February A further 1,062 cases and 10 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 197,553 cases and 3,317 deaths. 57 previously notified cases were de-notified. The Department of Education agreed to reopen special schools with 50% capacity on Thursday 11 February and special classes in mainstream schools on Monday 22 February. Latest figures showed that in the last 4 days of January, Gardaí fined 280 people at Dublin Airport for leaving the country for non-essential travel, while more than 3,500 fines had been issued in total for breaches of COVID-19 regulations, with 2,100 fines for travelling without a reasonable excuse. A nursing home in Tuam, County Galway appealed for help from qualified nurses following the deaths of 12 residents due to COVID-19. It was announced that more than 30 residents of 4 Cork nursing homes and a community hospital in Kerry died in the previous two weeks following COVID-19 outbreaks. 2 February A further 879 cases and 101 deaths (the highest number of confirmed deaths recorded in a single day since the pandemic began) were reported, bringing the totals to 198,424 cases and 3,418 deaths. 8 previously notified cases were de-notified. Latest figures showed a total of 1,543 staff and residents in nursing homes died during the pandemic with 369 in January alone. 3 February A further 1,013 cases and 94 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 199,430 cases and 3,512 deaths. 7 previously notified cases were de-notified. Another outbreak of COVID-19 at a direct provision centre in Newbridge, County Kildare was confirmed. The Department of Public Health expressed concern over increases in COVID-19 transmission linked to social gatherings involving the student population in the mid-west region. 4 February A further 1,318 cases and 75 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 200,744 cases and 3,586 deaths. 1 previously notified death and 4 cases were de-notified. The total number of COVID-19 cases in Ireland surpassed 200,000 cases, with over half confirmed in 2021. Minister for Health Stephen Donnelly signed new regulations that empower Gardaí to call to the homes of people who arrive from international travel and ensure that they are abiding by mandatory quarantine rules, with a €2,500 fine or an imprisonment sentence of 6 months for non-compliance. 5 February A further 1,047 cases and 35 deaths were reported, bringing the totals 201,763 cases and 3,621 deaths. 28 previously notified cases were de-notified. Gardaí issued more than 375 fines to people breaching the 5 km travel limit over the previous 7 days, bringing the total number of breaches to over 4,600. Minister for Health Stephen Donnelly announced that the first batches of 21,600 doses of the AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine would arrive in the weekend, with 190,000 doses expected to arrive by the end of February. 6 February A further 827 cases and 55 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 202,548 cases and 3,674 deaths. 42 previously notified cases were de-notified. The first shipment of 21,600 AstraZeneca vaccines arrived in the Republic of Ireland. 7 February – a further 1,024 cases and 12 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 203,568 cases and 3,686 deaths. 4 previously notified cases were de-notified. 8 February – A further 829 cases and 6 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 204,397 cases and 3,687 deaths. 5 previously notified deaths were de-notified. 9 February A further 556 cases and 68 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 204,940 cases and 3,752 deaths. 3 previously notified deaths and 13 cases were de-notified. The Government of Ireland announced funding of €160 million in additional supports for businesses affected by COVID-19. Tánaiste Leo Varadkar announced that the Government is working on a revised version of the "Living with COVID-19" plan which he hoped would be announced in the week of 22 February. Latest figures released by NPHET showed that more than one in three deaths from COVID-19 in February reported were associated with outbreaks in nursing homes. 10 February A further 1,006 cases and 54 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 205,939 cases and 3,794 deaths. 12 previously notified deaths and 7 cases were de-notified. Taoiseach Micheál Martin announced that fines for non-essential travel abroad would be increased from €500 to €2,000, after a request was made to Minister for Health Stephen Donnelly to sign off on the increase. Minister for Education Norma Foley and Minister of State for Special Education and Inclusion Josepha Madigan announced details of a return to in-school teaching and learning for students attending special classes in secondary schools from Monday 22 February, after a deal was agreed between teacher and SNA trade unions and the Department of Education. The Director of the National Virus Reference Laboratory Cillian de Gascun stated that the Government should be vaccinated as soon as possible and that Taoiseach Micheál Martin should receive his vaccine ahead of travel if he is to visit the United States for St Patrick's Day. The World Health Organization praised Ireland's recovery from the third wave of COVID-19 but warned of the danger of a fourth wave. 11 February A further 866 cases and 52 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 206,801 deaths 3,846 cases. 4 previously notified cases were de-notified. Up to 4,000 children with additional educational needs returned to in-person education as special schools nationwide reopened their doors, under plans agreed between the Department of Education and teacher and SNA trade unions. The Association of Secondary Teachers, Ireland (ASTI) withdrew from discussions with the Department of Education on the Leaving Certificate 2021 after it said that the plan being developed would not provide a "meaningful Leaving Certificate" for students. Taoiseach Micheál Martin stated that the majority of the current Level 5 lockdown restrictions were set to be extended until the Easter period, with only schools and the construction sector likely to be allowed to reopen before Easter. The CEO of the HSE Paul Reid suggested that healthcare workers who refused to take the COVID-19 vaccine may be removed from their frontline duties. 12 February A further 921 cases and 23 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 207,720 cases and 3,865 deaths. 4 previously notified deaths and 2 cases were de-notified. The Department of Health added a further 18 countries to the Government's COVID-19 "high-risk" list for international travel. The countries added were: Angola, Austria, Botswana, Burundi, Cape Verde, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Lesotho, Malawi, Eswatini, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Rwanda, Seychelles, Tanzania, United Arab Emirates, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The Chair of the NPHET Irish Epidemiological Modelling Advisory Group Philip Nolan stated that it would be at least six weeks before COVID-19 cases drop to around 100 a day and that the country should be at around 200–400 cases a day heading into March and approaching 100–200 cases a day by the end of March. Gardaí issued more than 6,500 fines to people breaching COVID-19 regulations over the past month, with over 4,900 fines issued for non-essential travel. It was confirmed that the traditional St Patrick's Day meeting between US President Joe Biden and Taoiseach Micheál Martin at the White House would take place virtually due to the COVID-19 pandemic. 13 February A further 1,078 cases and 66 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 208,796 cases and 3,931 deaths. 2 previously notified cases were de-notified. The Association of Secondary Teachers, Ireland (ASTI) re-joined discussions with the Department of Education on the Leaving Certificate 2021 after pulling out on 11 February. The pace of the COVID-19 vaccine rollout in Ireland was set to increase from Monday 15 February with the first doses administered to over-85s in the community and the first widespread use of the AstraZeneca vaccine. 14 February – a further 788 cases and 17 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 209,582 cases and 3,948 deaths. 2 previously notified cases were de-notified. 15 February A further 821 cases and no deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 210,402 cases and 3,948 deaths. 1 previously notified case was de-notified. Minister for Health Stephen Donnelly confirmed locations for 37 vaccination centres across all counties as part of the country's COVID-19 vaccination programme. Vaccines officially began for the third cohort in Ireland's prioritisation list, with over 80,000 people expected to receive COVID-19 vaccines. It was announced that two universities in Galway and Limerick had been hit by major COVID-19 outbreaks of up to nearly 250 confirmed cases due to students breaching Level 5 lockdown regulations, which caused clusters of infection involving up to 40 people. 16 February – a further 744 cases and 33 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 211,113 cases and 3,980 deaths. 1 previously notified death and 33 cases were de-notified. 17 February A further 650 cases and 57 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 211,751 cases and 4,036 deaths. 1 previously notified death and 12 cases were de-notified. Ireland's COVID-19 death toll surpassed 4,000 as Deputy Chief Medical Officer Ronan Glynn announced that 90% of COVID-19 cases in Ireland were the UK variant of COVID-19. Minister for Education Norma Foley confirmed that Leaving Certificate examinations would proceed with students given the option between a modified version of calculated grades or written exams, while Junior Certificate examinations were cancelled for a second year in a row. 18 February – a further 901 cases and 47 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 212,647 cases and 4,082 deaths. 1 previously notified death and 5 cases were de-notified. 19 February A further 763 cases and 28 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 213,400 cases and 4,109 deaths. 1 previously notified death and 10 cases were de-notified. Deputy Chief Medical Officer Ronan Glynn confirmed that three cases of the Brazilian variant of COVID-19 had been detected in the Republic of Ireland all associated with travel from Brazil. Strict Level 5 restrictions were expected to remain in place until May as all primary school students were to return by 15 March, with the first four classes in primary schools and Leaving Certificate students the first to return on 1 March. Latest figures showed that as of 18 February, Gardaí had issued over 8,000 fines to people breaching COVID-19 regulations, with over 6,500 fines issued for non-essential travel and 944 fines issued for attending or hosting house parties. Taoiseach Micheál Martin expressed his condolences to Chief Medical Officer Tony Holohan and his family after his wife, Emer, died following a long illness with multiple myeloma. 20 February A further 988 cases and 26 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 214,378 cases and 4,135 deaths. 10 previously notified cases were de-notified. Taoiseach Micheál Martin stated that pubs and restaurants would likely not reopen until the middle of the summer. Nearly 1,000 patients over the age of 85 received their first dose of a COVID-19 vaccine at the country's first mass vaccination centre at The Helix in Dublin City University. 21 February A further 679 cases and 1 death were reported, bringing the totals to 215,057 cases and 4,136 deaths. Facebook shut down and restricted access to a number of Instagram accounts that were advertising an illegal "lockdown rave" on St Patrick's Day. 22 February A further 686 cases and 1 death were reported, bringing the totals to 215,743 cases and 4,137 deaths. Special classes in mainstream primary and secondary schools reopened as the phased reopening of schools continued. 23 February A further 575 cases and 45 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 216,300 cases and 4,181 deaths. 1 previously notified death and 8 cases were de-notified. Taoiseach Micheál Martin announced the extension of Level 5 lockdown restrictions for another six weeks until 5 April (Easter Monday) at the earliest as the Government of Ireland published its new revised Living with COVID-19 plan called "The Path Ahead", which includes the phased reopening of schools and childcare and the extension of the COVID-19 Pandemic Unemployment Payment and the Employment Wage Subsidy Scheme. Minister for Health Stephen Donnelly announced an update to the COVID-19 Vaccine Allocation Strategy with people aged between 16 and 69 who are at very high risk of developing severe COVID-19 moved up the priority list, after NPHET endorsed recommendations by the National Immunisation Advisory Committee. COVID-19 Resilience and Recovery 2021 – The Path Ahead 24 February A further 574 cases and 56 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 216,870 cases and 4,237 deaths. Among the deaths confirmed was a 16-year-old teenager. 4 previously notified cases were de-notified. Tánaiste Leo Varadkar addressed a meeting of Fine Gael TDs, Senators and MEPs and stated that criticism of how the Government had been communicating was reasonable, had been heard loud and clear, and would be taken on board, after a number of Fine Gael politicians launched an attack on Taoiseach Micheál Martin over his handling of the COVID-19 pandemic. 25 February A further 613 cases and 35 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 217,478 cases and 4,271 deaths. 5 previously notified cases were de-notified. The Director of the National Virus Reference Laboratory Cillian de Gascun confirmed that the first case of the B.1.525 variant of COVID-19, first identified in the United Kingdom and Nigeria, had been detected in the Republic of Ireland, while a further four cases of the South African variant had been detected, bringing the total to 15. 26 February A further 776 cases and 29 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 218,251 cases and 4,300 deaths. 3 previously notified cases were de-notified. The Department of Health added a further 13 countries to the Government's COVID-19 "high-risk" list for international travel, which brought the total number of countries added to 33. The countries added were: Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay and Venezuela. Deputy Chief Medical Officer Ronan Glynn issued a letter appealing to parents to adhere to public health guidelines and not to congregate at school gates or to organise play dates, ahead of schools reopening and the return of 320,000 students from Monday 1 March. Latest figures released by the CSO showed that Dublin, Donegal, Limerick, Louth and Monaghan were the hardest hit counties in terms of cases, while Cavan, Dublin, Kildare, Mayo and Monaghan were the counties with the most deaths. Latest figures showed that as of 25 February, Gardaí had issued over 9,800 fines to people breaching COVID-19 regulations, with over 7,566 fines issued for non-essential travel and 1,386 fines issued for attending or hosting house parties. 27 February A further 738 cases and 13 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 218,980 cases and 4,313 deaths. 9 previously notified cases were de-notified. 23 people were arrested and 3 Gardaí were injured (including one hospitalised), as around 500 protesters took part in an anti-lockdown protest in Dublin city centre, with fireworks being fired at Gardaí, while St Stephen's Green and the Iveagh Gardens closed in advance of the protest. The protest was widely condemned by the gardaí and politicians, including the Taoiseach, Tánaiste and Minister for Justice. 28 February A further 612 cases and 6 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 219,592 cases and 4,319 deaths. Ireland officially marked one year since the first case of COVID-19 in the country was confirmed on 29 February 2020. 13 people, including 12 men and 1 woman, were charged and remanded in custody for public order offences after anti-lockdown protests in Dublin city centre turned violent on 27 February, while Tánaiste Leo Varadkar stated that the violence on the streets of Dublin was "not a protest and was a riot". March 2021 1 March A further 687 cases and 1 death were reported, bringing the totals to 220,273 cases and 4,319 deaths. 1 previously notified death and 6 cases were de-notified. Over 320,000 junior primary school pupils and Leaving Certificate students nationwide returned to school for the first time since Christmas. A school in north Dublin confirmed a case of COVID-19 on the first day of reopening schools nationwide as parents received an urgent letter from the school. 2 March A further 359 cases and 14 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 220,630 cases and 4,333 deaths. 2 previously notified cases were de-notified. A man in his 30s was arrested in connection with a firework attack on Gardaí at a violent anti-lockdown protest in Dublin city centre on 27 February. Three men in their 20s were arrested and more than 50 fixed payment notices were issued in Limerick after Gardaí broke up a street party involving large groups of students drinking, dancing, singing and setting of fireworks, near the University of Limerick. A secondary school in Cork confirmed a case of COVID-19 while a south Dublin school announced its closure due to a confirmed case of COVID-19 just one day after schools reopened. 3 March A further 566 cases and 25 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 221,189 cases and 4,357 deaths. 1 previously notified death and 7 cases were de-notified. One of the three men arrested following a street party in Castletroy, Limerick on the night of 2 March was charged with public order offences, as the University of Limerick warned that any student who were found breaking the university's code of conduct could face temporary suspension or expulsion, while Minister for Justice Helen McEntee urged young people to comply with COVID-19 restrictions. Jake Merriman, a 30-year-old man, appeared in court charged in connection with a firework attack on Gardaí at an anti-lockdown protest in Dublin city centre on 27 February. 4 March A further 462 cases and 39 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 221,649 cases and 4,396 deaths. 2 previously notified cases were de-notified. Deputy Chief Medical Officer Ronan Glynn announced that the Department of Health was made aware of four preliminary reports of stillbirths in Ireland that could potentially be associated with a condition called COVID Placentitis. The Health Service Executive (HSE) confirmed that a single outbreak of COVID-19 among students in the west of the country had led to more than 442 further cases in more than 200 separate household outbreaks, involving young adults aged 18 to 24. 5 March – a further 522 cases and 9 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 222,160 cases and 4,405 deaths. 2 previously notified cases were de-notified. 6 March A further 539 cases and 14 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 222,699 cases and 4,419 deaths. 9 previously notified cases were de-notified. Taoiseach Micheál Martin announced that Ireland had reached the milestone of half a million COVID-19 vaccines administered. Gardaí arrested 6 people (5 men and 1 woman) as around 450 people attended an anti-lockdown protest in Cork city centre that ended without incident. 7 March A further 525 cases and 3 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 223,219 cases and 4,422 deaths. 5 previously notified cases were de-notified. President Michael D. Higgins signed into law the legislation to bring in mandatory hotel quarantine for certain passengers entering the country from high-risk countries. 8 March A further 437 cases and no deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 223,651 cases and 4,422 deaths. 5 previously notified cases were de-notified. The Health Information and Quality Authority (HIQA) advised NPHET that the duration of immunity following COVID-19 infection should be considered to be six months. Around 100,000 children returned to pre-school under the Early Childhood Care and Education Scheme. The Department of Education and the Health Service Executive (HSE) confirmed that the gradual phased reopening of schools would proceed as planned with all primary pupils and fifth year students returning to school on 15 March. 9 March A further 311 cases and 30 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 223,957 cases and 4,452 deaths. 5 previously notified cases were de-notified. A further three cases of the Brazilian variant were detected in the country, bringing the total to 6. Minister for Education Norma Foley lost her appeals against findings that two home-schooled students were unfairly excluded from the Leaving Certificate calculated grades process. 10 March A further 631 cases and 47 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 224,588 cases and 4,499 deaths. 11 March A further 592 cases and 10 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 225,179 cases and 4,509 deaths. 1 previously notified case was de-notified. Ireland officially marked one year since the first death of COVID-19 in the country was confirmed on 11 March 2020, the same day when COVID-19 was declared a pandemic. Under new nursing home visitation guidance approved by NPHET, residents in nursing homes would be permitted two visits per week on general compassionate grounds from 22 March. 12 March A further 646 cases and 10 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 225,820 cases and 4,518 deaths. 5 previously notified cases were de-notified. Latest figures showed that as of 11 March, Gardaí had issued over 13,600 fines to people breaching COVID-19 regulations, with over 10,013 fines issued for non-essential travel and 2,040 fines issued for attending or hosting house parties. Gardaí confirmed that two people were arrested and more than 80 fines were issued after around 300 people gathered for the funeral of a young Traveller man in Carrick-on-Shannon on 11 March, despite Level 5 restrictions limiting mourners to 10 people. Nine residents at a nursing home with an outbreak of COVID-19 in Trim, County Meath died after the first doses of a COVID-19 vaccine were administered there. 13 March – a further 543 cases and 16 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 226,358 cases and 4,534 deaths. 5 previously notified cases were de-notified. 14 March A further 384 cases and no deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 226,741 cases and 4,534 deaths. 1 previously notified case was de-notified. The administration of the AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine was suspended in Ireland by the National Immunisation Advisory Committee (NIAC) as a precautionary measure following concerns over serious blood clots in Norway. Two men in their 20s were charged after three Gardaí were assaulted following a house party in Milford, County Donegal on 13 March. 15 March A further 575 cases and no deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 227,316 cases and 4,534 deaths. Over 350,000 remaining primary school pupils and fifth year students nationwide returned to school for the first time since Christmas. 30,000 fewer people received a COVID-19 vaccine from 15 March due to the temporary suspension of the AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine in Ireland. 16 March A further 349 cases and 18 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 227,663 cases and 4,552 deaths. 2 previously notified cases were de-notified. The Garda Síochána urged people to stay at home for St Patrick's Day as a significant policing operation was put in place to deal with planned protests in Dublin city with 2,500 Gardaí being deployed across the country. Latest figures released by the Health Service Executive (HSE) showed that 1,842 tests for COVID-19 were carried out in 108 schools in the past 7 days, with 44 positive cases confirmed in primary, secondary and special schools across the country. 17 March A further 557 cases and 17 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 228,215 cases and 4,566 deaths. 2 previously notified cases were de-notified. Gardaí arrested 21 people after around 700 protestors took part in a number of anti-lockdown protests in Dublin city centre, Herbert Park and at the RTÉ campus in Donnybrook. 18 March A further 582 cases and no deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 228,796 cases and 4,566 deaths. 1 previously notified case was de-notified. It was confirmed that 7 Gardaí were injured (including five hospitalised) after being kicked, punched and spat at in separate violent anti-lockdown protests which took place in Dublin on St Patrick's Day. 19 March A further 507 cases (including 3 probable cases) and 10 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 229,360 cases and 4,576 deaths. 57 previously notified cases were de-notified. The National Immunisation Advisory Committee (NIAC) recommended that the AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine could continue to be used in Ireland following approval from the European Medicines Agency (EMA) on 18 March. Latest figures showed that as of 18 March, Gardaí had issued over 15,358 fines to people breaching COVID-19 regulations, with over 11,072 fines issued for non-essential travel and over 2,300 fines issued for attending or hosting house parties. 20 March A further 525 cases and 9 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 229,831 cases and 4,585 deaths. The HSE resumed administering the AstraZeneca vaccine at a number of hospitals across the country after a precautionary pause. Gardaí arrested 11 people and issued a number of fines after around 200 protestors took part in an anti-lockdown protest in the Phoenix Park in Dublin city centre. 21 March A further 769 cases and 2 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 230,599 cases and 4,587 deaths. 1 previously notified case was de-notified. 22 March A further 520 cases and 1 death were reported, bringing the totals to 231,119 cases and 4,588 deaths. It was announced that President Michael D. Higgins and his wife Sabina Higgins received their first doses of a COVID-19 vaccine on 19 March. A primary school in Carrick-on-Suir, County Tipperary closed after two positive cases of COVID-19 were confirmed. 23 March A further 371 cases and 24 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 231,484 cases and 4,610 deaths. 2 previously notified deaths and 6 cases were de-notified. The booking portal for mandatory hotel quarantine in Ireland opened for those arriving into the country from Friday 26 March, with a 12-night stay for passengers arriving from high risk countries costing €1,875 each. Six classes were sent home from a primary school in County Longford after five cases of COVID-19 were confirmed. A class was sent home following an outbreak of COVID-19 at a primary school in Dublin. 24 March A further 683 cases and 18 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 232,164 cases and 4,628 deaths. 4 previously notified cases were de-notified. The Government of Ireland announced that five new walk-in COVID-19 test centres would open in Dublin and Offaly on 25 March in an effort to bring down cases that are high in certain areas. NPHET postponed a key meeting on deciding whether any Level 5 restrictions could be eased from 5 April so that latest trends in COVID-19 data could be taken into account in its final analysis for the Government. A man was arrested after €140,000 worth of suspected cannabis herb was seized during a checkpoint operation in County Cork. 25 March A further 606 cases and 3 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 232,758 cases and 4,631 deaths. Nearly 1,700 people attended the five new temporary walk-in COVID-19 testing centres for people with no symptoms operated by the National Ambulance Service that opened in Dublin and Offaly. 26 March A further 584 cases and 20 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 233,327 cases and 4,651 deaths. 15 previously notified cases were de-notified. Ireland's mandatory hotel quarantine system for all passengers arriving into the country from high-risk countries came into force at 4 am. The Leader of the Labour Party Alan Kelly called for the chief executive of the Beacon Hospital to resign after it gave 20 leftover COVID-19 vaccines to a number of teachers and staff at a private secondary school in Bray, County Wicklow on 23 March. Latest figures showed that as of 25 March, Gardaí had issued over 16,834 fines to people breaching COVID-19 regulations, with over 12,336 fines issued for non-essential travel and over 2,700 fines issued for attending or hosting house parties. The Department of Education confirmed that the final phase of the gradual reopening of schools would proceed as planned with all remaining secondary school students returning to school after the Easter holidays on 12 April. 27 March A further 624 cases and 2 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 233,937 cases and 4,653 deaths. 14 previously notified cases were de-notified. Minister for Health Stephen Donnelly requested the Health Service Executive (HSE) to suspend vaccine operations at the Beacon Hospital following controversy after 20 teachers received COVID-19 vaccines at the private hospital. Gardaí began an investigation after three people absconded from a mandatory hotel quarantine facility near Dublin Airport while on a smoking break outside under supervision, with one person located. A family of five renewed their appeal against their mandatory hotel quarantine after they claimed the facilities were not fit for purpose, following the rejection of their appeal by the Department of Justice. 28 March A further 604 cases and 13 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 234,541 cases and 4,666 deaths. A second person who absconded from a mandatory hotel quarantine facility on 27 March was located, while a search for the third male continued. 29 March A further 539 cases and 1 death were reported, bringing the totals to 235,078 cases and 4,667 deaths. 2 previously notified cases were de-notified. Latest figures released by the Central Statistics Office showed that serious crime dropped by over a third in 2020 during the pandemic, while over 1,000 breaches of COVID-19 regulations were classified as crimes by Gardaí including the non-wearing of face coverings and international travel. 30 March A further 368 cases and 14 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 235,444 cases and 4,681 deaths. 2 previously notified cases were de-notified. The Government of Ireland announced a phased easing of Level 5 restrictions from Monday 12 April, with people allowed to travel within their county, two households allowed to meet socially outdoors, people who are fully vaccinated against COVID-19 allowed to meet other fully vaccinated people indoors, and the resumption of all residential construction projects from that date. From 19 April: Elite-level senior GAA matches and training could resume From 26 April: Outdoor sports facilities (such as pitches, golf courses and tennis courts) could reopen Outdoor visitor attractions (such as zoos, open pet farms, heritage sites) could reopen Maximum attendance at funerals would increase from 10 to 25 on compassionate grounds From 4 May: Full reopening of construction activity Phased reopening of non-essential retail and personal services Religious services, museums and galleries could reopen and resume The United States and a number of EU countries, including France, Germany and Italy, were recommended for inclusion in Ireland's mandatory hotel quarantine list in advice given to Minister for Health Stephen Donnelly by NPHET. Minister for Health Stephen Donnelly announced an update to the COVID-19 Vaccine Allocation Strategy with priority groups being changed to an age-based system after vulnerable people with underlying conditions were vaccinated. The HSE confirmed that three passengers staying in mandatory hotel quarantine tested positive for COVID-19. 31 March A further 411 cases and 6 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 235,854 cases and 4,687 deaths. 1 previously notified case was de-notified. The Taoiseach told the Dáil that a national portal allowing for everyone to register for a COVID-19 vaccine would be available by the third week in April. The Health Service Executive (HSE) announced that seven new walk-in COVID-19 testing centres for asymptomatic people would open from April in Dublin, Meath, Westmeath, Kildare and Galway in an effort to bring down cases that are high in certain areas. April 2021 1 April A further 761 cases and 18 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 236,600 cases and 4,705 deaths. 15 previously notified cases were de-notified. Deputy Chief Medical Officer Ronan Glynn and Northern Ireland Chief Medical Officer Michael McBride issued a joint statement urging the public across Ireland to continue to follow public health advice to ensure everyone can have a safe Easter. An independent review of the COVID-19 vaccination programme at the Coombe Hospital found that a consultant brought two leftover vaccine doses home to administer them to two family members. Dublin GAA suspended senior football manager Dessie Farrell for 12 weeks after a number of Dublin footballers were photographed attending a training session on the morning of 31 March in breach of COVID-19 regulations. Plans by the Department of Health to expand mandatory hotel quarantine to 43 additional countries, including the United States, Germany and France, sparked a major row within Government, after the Attorney General, the European Union and a number of ministers expressed concerns about the plans. The Department of Health added a further 26 countries to the Government's COVID-19 "high-risk" list for international travel and removed one country, which brought the total number of countries added to 59. The countries added were: Albania, Andorra, Aruba, Bahrain, Bonaire, Sint Eustatius, Ethiopia, Israel, Jordan, Kosovo, Kuwait, Lebanon, Moldova, Monaco, Montenegro, Nigeria, North Macedonia, Oman, Palestine, Philippines, Puerto Rico, Qatar, Saint Lucia, San Marino, Serbia, Somalia and Wallis and Futuna Islands. Mauritius was removed from the list. 2 April A further 591 cases and 8 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 237,187 cases and 4,713 deaths. 4 previously notified cases were de-notified. Two women in their 30s were arrested and charged after refusing to enter mandatory hotel quarantine upon arrival in Dublin Airport from Dubai. A COVID-19 outbreak of 15 cases was confirmed in a special school in Clontarf, Dublin. 3 April A further 511 cases and 2 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 237,695 cases and 4,715 deaths. 3 previously notified cases were de-notified. Around 300 protestors took part in an anti-lockdown protest at the National Monument on the Grand Parade in Cork city centre. 4 April A further 457 cases and 3 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 238,148 cases and 4,718 deaths. 4 previously notified cases were de-notified. The High Court made orders allowing two women who refused to enter mandatory hotel quarantine after arriving into Dublin Airport following their return from a trip to Dubai for cosmetic procedures to leave Mountjoy Women's Prison and continue to quarantine at a designated hotel. Gardaí arrested 8 people as part of a policing plan around an anti-lockdown protest planned in Dublin city centre. 5 April – a further 320 cases and no deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 238,466 cases and 4,718 deaths. 2 previously notified cases were de-notified. 6 April A further 443 cases and 9 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 238,907 cases and 4,727 deaths. 2 previously notified cases were de-notified. A number of Gardaí were forced to self-isolate after a guest staying at a quarantine hotel tested positive for COVID-19. Minister for Education Norma Foley defended the Government decision to change the vaccine roll-out schedule to an aged-based system stating it was "not a value judgement on any given profession", as teachers' unions continued to call for their members to be prioritised. Three women who absconded from a mandatory hotel quarantine facility in Dublin were found by Gardaí almost 200 km away near Loughrea, County Galway. 7 April A further 423 cases and 5 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 239,325 cases and 4,732 deaths. 5 previously notified cases were de-notified. The three teacher unions voted for an emergency motion backing industrial action, up to and including strike action, if they were not prioritised for vaccination. Minister for Health Stephen Donnelly confirmed that a failure to follow vaccination reserve list protocols led to teachers and special needs assistants (SNAs) in a number of special needs schools in Dublin and Wicklow to receive COVID-19 vaccinations from the Health Service Executive (HSE) on 6 April. 8 April A further 400 cases and 7 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 239,723 cases and 4,737 deaths. Monaghan GAA suspended senior football manager Séamus McEnaney for 12 weeks after a dossier sent to the Department of Justice showed video and photographic evidence of a training session taking place in breach of COVID-19 regulations. The CEO of the Health Service Executive (HSE) Paul Reid announced that Ireland had reached the milestone of one million COVID-19 vaccines administered. The Health Products Regulatory Authority (HPRA) began an investigation after the first case of a very rare blood clot in the brain of a person after vaccination with the AstraZeneca vaccine was confirmed in a 40-year-old Dublin woman. Latest figures from the HSE showed that 10 confirmed cases of COVID-19 had been detected among arrivals into Ireland who were in mandatory hotel quarantine. 9 April A further 473 cases and 34 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 240,192 cases and 4,769 deaths. 1 previously notified death and 4 cases were de-notified. The Health Service Executive (HSE) announced that five new walk-in COVID-19 testing centres for asymptomatic people would open from 10 April in Dublin, Limerick and Waterford in an effort to bring down cases that are high in certain areas. Following an incorporeal Cabinet meeting, the Department of Health added a further 16 countries to the Government's COVID-19 "high-risk" list for international travel and removed three countries, which would come into effect from 4 am on Thursday 15 April. The countries added were: Bangladesh, Belgium, France, Italy, Kenya, Luxembourg, Pakistan, Turkey, the USA, Canada, Armenia, Bermuda, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Curaçao, Maldives and Ukraine. Albania, Israel and Saint Lucia were removed from the list. A fully vaccinated woman quarantining in a Dublin hotel after her arrival into the country from Israel asked the High Court for an inquiry into what she claimed amounted to unlawful detention. Latest figures showed that as of 8 April, Gardaí had issued over 19,865 fines to people breaching COVID-19 regulations, with over 13,972 fines issued for non-essential travel and over 3,300 fines issued for attending or hosting house parties. 10 April – a further 455 cases and 14 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 240,643 cases and 4,783 deaths. 4 previously notified cases were de-notified. 11 April A further 303 cases (the lowest number of daily cases recorded since mid-December 2020) and 2 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 240,945 cases and 4,785 deaths. 1 previously notified case was de-notified. An Irish man and an Israeli woman who challenged their detention in mandatory hotel quarantine and claimed they had been fully vaccinated against COVID-19 were released pending court hearings. 12 April A further 394 cases and no deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 241,330 cases and 4,785 deaths. 9 previously notified cases were de-notified. The phased easing of Level 5 restrictions began with the 5 km travel limit lifted, the resumption of all residential construction work, two households could meet up outdoors and the full reopening of all schools. Following a lengthy meeting, the NIAC recommend that only people over 60 years of age should get the AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine and that a second dose of the vaccine should not be given to anyone who developed unusual blood clots with low platelets after the first dose. Minister for Health Stephen Donnelly announced that arrivals from Israel, Albania and St Lucia were no longer required to complete their quarantine period in a hotel and could quarantine at home instead. 13 April A further 358 cases and 18 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 241,684 cases and 4,803 deaths. 4 previously notified cases were de-notified. The Health Service Executive (HSE) announced that all AstraZeneca clinics were cancelled for the rest of the week, except for those arranged for certain people aged over 60. Minister for Health Stephen Donnelly announced that mandatory hotel quarantine bookings were paused on a precautionary basis, in order to ramp up capacity in the system. 14 April A further 431 cases and 12 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 242,105 cases and 4,812 deaths. 10 previously notified cases were de-notified. Ireland was set to receive 545,000 additional doses of the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine from April to June as part of a wider EU agreement. 15 April A further 309 cases and 8 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 242,402 cases and 4,820 deaths. 12 previously notified cases were de-notified. Over 26,000 people registered for a COVID-19 vaccination after the online portal for 69-year-olds went live. The Health Service Executive (HSE) announced that four new walk-in COVID-19 testing centres for asymptomatic people would open from 22 April in Dublin and Tipperary in an effort to bring down cases that are high in certain areas. 16 April A further 420 cases and 11 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 242,819 cases and 4,831 deaths. 3 previously notified cases were de-notified. The European Commission urged the Government of Ireland to amend or possibly scrap mandatory hotel quarantine for EU citizens and sought clarifications as to why a number of EU member states were subject to the rules. Latest figures showed that as of 15 April, Gardaí had issued over 20,280 fines to people breaching COVID-19 regulations, with over 14,650 fines issued for non-essential travel and over 3,500 fines issued for attending or hosting house parties. 17 April – a further 420 cases and 4 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 243,238 cases and 4,835 deaths. 1 previously notified case was de-notified. 18 April – a further 269 cases and 1 death were reported, bringing the totals to 243,508 cases and 4,836 deaths. 1 previously notified case was de-notified. 19 April A further 403 cases and no deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 243,911 cases and 4,836 deaths. The Director of the National Virus Reference Laboratory Cillian de Gascun confirmed that three cases of the B.1.617 variant of COVID-19, first identified in India, had been detected in the Republic of Ireland. 20 April A further 390 cases and 11 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 244,297 cases and 4,847 deaths. 4 previously notified cases were de-notified. A nursing home in County Louth suspended all indoor visits after two staff members who had been fully vaccinated tested positive for COVID-19. The Department of Health confirmed that Chief Medical Officer Tony Holohan had returned to work after taking leave following the death of his wife. 21 April – a further 401 cases and 15 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 244,695 cases and 4,856 deaths. 6 previously notified deaths and 3 cases were de-notified. 22 April A further 617 cases and 10 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 245,310 cases and 4,866 deaths. 2 previously notified cases were de-notified. An outbreak of at least 70 COVID-19 cases was confirmed at Intel's construction site in Leixlip, County Kildare. 23 April A further 434 cases and 1 death were reported, bringing the totals to 245,743 cases and 4,867 deaths. 1 previously notified case was de-notified. Latest figures showed that as of 22 April, Gardaí had issued over 20,566 fines to people breaching COVID-19 regulations, with over 14,730 fines issued for non-essential travel and over 3,600 fines issued for attending or hosting house parties. The Health Products Regulatory Authority reported a number of serious blood clotting events associated with the AstraZeneca vaccine in people who received the vaccine. A COVID-19 outbreak resulted in all Leaving Certificate students being sent home from a secondary school in Letterkenny, County Donegal. 24 April A further 461 cases and 5 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 246,204 cases and 4,872 deaths. According to the Chair of the High-Level Task Force on COVID-19 Vaccination Brian MacCraith, one in four adults (25%) in Ireland had received at least their first dose of a COVID-19 vaccine. 25 April A further 429 cases and 1 death were reported, bringing the totals to 246,633 cases and 4,873 deaths. Speaking on RTÉ's The Week in Politics, Taoiseach Micheál Martin stated that the Government was moving cautiously on the reopening of society and that outdoor activities would be the "theme for the summer". Taoiseach Micheál Martin announced that Ireland had reached the milestone of one million first doses of COVID-19 vaccines administered. 26 April A further 437 cases and 1 death were reported, bringing the totals to 247,069 cases and 4,874 deaths. 1 previously notified case was de-notified. The further easing of Level 5 restrictions came into effect with all sports pitches, golf courses, tennis courts, zoos, pet farms and heritage sites reopening. Minister for Health Stephen Donnelly announced that Ireland was to donate 700 oxygen concentrators to India as part of efforts to assist with the COVID-19 outbreak in the country. The Health Service Executive (HSE) announced that two new walk-in COVID-19 testing centres for asymptomatic people would open in Kildare and Offaly in an effort to bring down cases that are high in certain areas. 27 April A further 426 cases and 10 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 247,489 cases and 4,884 deaths. 6 previously notified cases were de-notified. New recommendations by NIAC were approved by the Government of Ireland with the Johnson & Johnson and AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccines recommended for people aged 50 and older, pregnant women offered an mRNA vaccine between 14 and 36 weeks gestation, and people aged under 50 years who had a COVID-19 infection receiving just one vaccine dose and be considered fully-vaccinated. A primary school in County Offaly closed following confirmation of 23 cases of COVID-19. 28 April – a further 371 cases and 13 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 247,857 cases and 4,896 deaths. 1 previously notified death and 3 cases were de-notified. 29 April A further 474 cases and 3 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 248,326 cases and 4,899 deaths. 5 previously notified cases were de-notified. The Government of Ireland announced a reopening plan for the country throughout May and June from 10 May, with inter-county travel allowed, the reopening of all hairdressers, libraries, museums and galleries, up to 50 people allowed to attend religious services, the resumption of click-and-collect services and the allowances of three households to meet outdoors (including in private gardens) and a vaccinated household to meet an unvaccinated household indoors from that date. From 17 May All retail could reopen From 2 June Hotels, B&Bs, self-catering and hostels could reopen but services must be restricted to overnight guests and residents From 7 June Outdoor sports matches could recommence with no spectators permitted Gyms, swimming pools and leisure centres could reopen for individual training only Outdoor services in restaurants and bars could recommence, with groups limited to a maximum of 6 people The numbers of guests attending wedding celebrations/receptions could increase to 25 Visitors from one other household could be permitted in private homes 30 April A further 545 cases and 4 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 248,870 cases and 4,903 deaths. 1 previously notified case was de-notified. Minister for Health Stephen Donnelly announced that nearly 150 cases of variants of concern had been identified in Ireland, including: 71 cases of the South African variant, 27 cases of the Brazilian variant, 8 cases of the Indian variant, 6 cases of the New York variant and 20 cases of the Nigerian variant. The Department of Health added a further 5 countries to the Government's COVID-19 "high-risk" list for international travel and removed 6 countries, which would come into effect from 4 am on Tuesday 4 May. The countries added were: Costa Rica, Georgia, India, Iran and Mongolia. Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba, San Marino, Monaco, Wallis and Futuna Islands, and Moldova were removed with immediate effect. Chief Medical Officer Tony Holohan stated that there were concerns around the level of COVID-19 in Donegal and that there were outbreaks occurring in lots of different settings in the county. Latest figures showed that as of 29 April, Gardaí had issued over 20,974 fines to people breaching COVID-19 regulations, with over 14,749 fines issued for non-essential travel and over 3,900 fines issued for attending or hosting house parties. May 2021 1 May A further 569 cases and 3 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 249,437 cases and 4,906 deaths. 2 previously notified cases were de-notified. Around 370 protestors took part in an anti-lockdown protest at the National Monument on the Grand Parade in Cork city centre. The Health Service Executive (HSE) announced that seven new walk-in COVID-19 testing centres for asymptomatic people would open in Dublin, Cork, Kildare and Mayo in an effort to bring down cases that are high in certain areas. 2 May – a further 402 cases and 1 death were reported, bringing the totals to 249,838 cases and 4,906 deaths. 1 previously notified death and 1 previously notified case were de-notified. 3 May A further 453 cases and no deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 250,290 cases and 4,906 deaths. 1 previously notified case was de-notified. In an open letter to those who had been fully vaccinated, Chief Medical Officer Tony Holohan praised the sacrifices people had made over the past year and advised those who were vaccinated to make the most of socialising outdoors. 4 May A further 383 cases and 2 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 250,672 cases and 4,908 deaths. 1 previously notified case was de-notified. A special hotline to allow the public to inform the Gardaí about illegal parties or gatherings in County Donegal was set up in response to a spike in the number of COVID-19 cases in the county in recent days. The COVID-19 vaccine registration portal opened to people aged between 50 and 59 on a phased basis, starting with people aged 59. 5 May – a further 418 cases and 7 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 251,087 cases and 4,915 deaths. 3 previously notified cases were de-notified. 6 May A further 393 cases and 8 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 251,474 cases and 4,921 deaths. 2 previously notified deaths and 6 cases were de-notified. The first doses of the Janssen COVID-19 vaccine were administered through homeless services at a temporary vaccination clinic set up in Dublin. Around 120 revellers defied an emergency court order after attending a post-wedding celebration involving members of the Traveller community in a marquee in County Longford on 5 May. 7 May A further 434 cases and 4 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 251,904 cases and 4,918 deaths. 4 previously notified cases were de-notified. The Department of Tourism, Culture, Arts, Gaeltacht, Sport and Media announced that all summer Irish language college courses in the Gaeltacht were cancelled for a second year running. 8 May A further 408 cases and 1 death were reported, bringing the totals to 252,303 cases and 4,919 deaths. 9 previously notified cases were de-notified. The Department of Health added a further 2 countries to the Government's COVID-19 "high-risk" list for international travel and removed 11 countries, which would come into effect from 4 am on Wednesday 12 May. The countries added were: Nepal and Anguilla. Armenia, Aruba, Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Curaçao, Italy, Jordan, Kosovo, Lebanon, North Macedonia and Ukraine were removed with immediate effect. 9 May A further 514 cases and 2 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 252,809 cases and 4,921 deaths. 8 previously notified cases were de-notified. Taoiseach Micheál Martin received his first dose of a COVID-19 vaccine in Cork City Hall and urged people to get vaccinated to protect themselves, while a record 52,278 doses were administered on Friday 7 May. 10 May A further 381 cases and no deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 253,189 cases and 4,921 deaths. 1 previously notified case was de-notified. The further easing of Level 5 restrictions came into effect with all hairdressers, barbers, beauticians, galleries, museums, libraries and other cultural attractions reopening, the resumption of non-essential retail on a phased basis, inter-county travel and in-person religious services, and the allowance of three households (or six people) from individual households to meet outdoors. The Irish Prison Service confirmed that an outbreak of 19 cases of COVID-19 had been identified at Mountjoy Prison. 11 May – a further 379 cases and 9 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 253,567 cases and 4,929 deaths. 1 previously notified death and 1 case were de-notified. 12 May – a further 448 cases and 8 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 254,013 cases and 4,937 deaths. 2 previously notified cases were de-notified. 13 May – a further 456 cases and no deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 254,450 cases and 4,937 deaths. 19 previously notified cases were de-notified. 14 May A further 425 cases and 4 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 254,870 cases and 4,940 deaths. 5 previously notified cases were de-notified. The Health Service Executive (HSE) shut down all of its IT systems after a major ransomware attack, with Ireland's GP and Close Contact referral system and the COVID-19 vaccine registration portal down, while the COVID-19 vaccination programme had not been affected by the attack. The 2021 National Ploughing Championships, due to have taken place in County Laois in September, was cancelled for a second year due to uncertainty over COVID-19 restrictions. 15 May The Department of Health announced that there would be no daily COVID-19 figures update provided due to the Health Service Executive cyberattack, with backdated figures being published "when possible". The HSE stated that there was "substantial cancellations across all outpatient services with widespread cancellation of radiology services" following a ransomware attack on its IT systems. The Department of Health removed 5 countries from the Government's COVID-19 "high-risk" list for international travel with immediate effect. The countries removed were: Bermuda, Iran, Montenegro, Palestine and Serbia. 16 May A further 802 cases were reported in the past 48 hours, with 447 cases reported on 15 May and 355 cases reported on 16 May. The Department of Health confirmed that it had been the victim of a separate cyber attack similar to the ransomware attack on the Health Service Executive, prompting the shutting down of much of its IT infrastructure. 17 May A further 360 cases were reported, however data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. The further easing of Level 5 restrictions came into effect with the reopening of all non-essential retail for the first time in over four months. The National Immunisation Advisory Committee (NIAC) confirmed that people in their 40s would be given a choice to accept the Janssen or AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine or opt to wait for another vaccine. 18 May – a further 358 cases were reported, however data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths and total number of cases were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. 19 May A further 503 cases were reported, however data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths and total number of cases were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. The COVID-19 vaccine registration portal opened to people aged between 45 and 49 on a phased basis, starting with people aged 49. 20 May A further 469 cases were reported, however data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths and total number of cases were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. It was reported that the organised cyber crime group that attacked the HSE and the Department of Health IT systems provided a decryption key, while the public was advised to be aware of a number of call and text scams in the wake of the cyber attack. 21 May A further 524 cases were reported, however data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths and total number of cases were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. Minister for Rural and Community Development Heather Humphreys announced the return of the Tidy Towns competition after it was cancelled in 2020 due to the pandemic. 22 May A further 381 cases were reported, however data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths and total number of cases were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. The Department of Health removed 6 countries from the Government's COVID-19 "high-risk" list for international travel with immediate effect. The countries removed were: Andorra, Georgia, Kuwait, Mongolia, Nigeria and Puerto Rico. 23 May – a further 438 cases were reported, however data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths and total number of cases were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. 24 May – a further 345 cases were reported, however data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths and total number of cases were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. 25 May – a further 365 cases were reported, however data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths and total number of cases were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. 26 May A further 448 cases were reported, however data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths and total number of cases were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. Under new COVID-19 safety guidelines issued by Fáilte Ireland, a maximum of six people aged 13 years and over would be allowed per table when restaurants, pubs and cafés open in June, with up to 15 people allowed when accompanying children under the age of 12. 27 May A further 436 cases and 8 deaths were reported, however data relating to the total number of cases and deaths were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. The Chief Executive of the Health Service Executive (HSE) Paul Reid stated that the cost of the cyber attack on its IT systems could exceed €100 million. 28 May A further 467 cases were reported, however data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths and total number of cases were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. The HSE confirmed that data relating to 520 patients, including sensitive information, was published online following the ransomware attack on 14 May. The Department of Health removed 4 countries from the Government's COVID-19 "high-risk" list for international travel with immediate effect. The countries removed were: Belgium, France, Luxembourg and the United States. The Government of Ireland announced a further reopening plan for the country throughout June, July and August, with the reopening of all hotels from 2 June, outdoor hospitality, cinemas, swimming pools, gyms from 7 June, and indoor hospitality from 5 July. From 2 June: Reopening of accommodation services including hotels, B&Bs, self-catering and hostels From 7 June: The numbers permitted at organised outdoor events could increase to a maximum of 100 for the majority of venues, with a maximum of 200 for outdoor venues with a minimum accredited capacity of 5,000 Reopening of all cinemas, theatres, gyms, swimming pools and leisure centres Reopening of outdoor amusement parks, theme parks and funfairs Resumption of outdoor services in restaurants and pubs Visiting indoors in private homes Partial reopening of Driver Theory Test Services Resumption of outdoor sports matches From 5 July: Up to three households permitted to meet indoors in private homes in line with Level 2 Resumption of organised indoor events The numbers permitted at outdoor organised events could further increase to a maximum of 200 for the majority of venues, with a maximum of 500 for outdoor stadia/venues with a minimum accredited capacity of 5,000 Resumption of indoor services in restaurants and pubs Reopening of bowling alleys, snooker halls, amusement arcades, ice-skating/roller skating rinks and indoor waterparks From 19 July: International non-essential travel would be allowed with the EU Digital COVID-19 Certificate for travel coming into force in Ireland 29 May A further 464 cases were reported, however data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths and total number of cases were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. Four people were arrested for public order offences after large crowds gathered in parts of Dublin city centre, while Chief Medical Officer Tony Holohan stated that he was "absolutely shocked" by the crowds that gathered. 30 May – a further 374 cases were reported, however data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths and total number of cases were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. 31 May A further 378 cases were reported, however data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths and total number of cases were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. It was announced that the 2021 edition of the Rose of Tralee would be cancelled for the second year in a row. June 2021 1 June A further 337 cases were reported, however data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths and total number of cases were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. According to a new study published by the Irish Medical Journal, medics reported what they believed to be the first case of COVID-19 reinfection in Ireland in a 40-year-old female healthcare worker. The Government of Ireland launched a €3.5 billion Economic Recovery Plan to achieve rapid job creation and economic growth after the pandemic, with the COVID-19 Pandemic Unemployment Payment and the Employment Wage Subsidy Scheme extended until September 2021, when gradual reductions would begin. 2 June A further 407 cases were reported, however data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths and total number of cases were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. The COVID-19 vaccine registration portal opened to people aged between 40 and 44 on a phased basis, starting with people aged 44. A probationary Garda avoided a jail sentence for breaching COVID-19 restrictions, and instead received a €1,000 fine for the breach along with a charge for being intoxicated in public. The Director of the National Virus Reference Laboratory Cillian de Gascun confirmed that there had been 115 cases of the Indian variant of COVID-19 detected in Ireland. The Department of Education announced that Leaving Certificate results would be delayed for a second year in a row, with students to receive their results on 3 September. 3 June A further 465 cases were reported, however data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths and total number of cases were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. The Health Information and Quality Authority (HIQA) advised the National Public Health Emergency Team that the duration of immunity following COVID-19 infection should be extended from six to nine months. The Government's emergency COVID-19 powers including additional Garda powers introduced to deal with COVID-19 was extended until November 2021. Speaking on RTÉ's Morning Ireland, Minister for Further and Higher Education Simon Harris stated that he expected students and staff to be back on campus for the new academic year of 2021/22. The National Immunisation Advisory Committee (NIAC) advised that the gap between two doses of the AstraZeneca vaccine could be reduced from 12 weeks to 8 weeks. 4 June A further 529 cases were reported, however data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths and total number of cases were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. Minister of State with responsibility for the Office of Public Works Patrick O'Donovan appealed to people visiting St Stephen's Green in Dublin to respect the site after reckless behaviour was witnessed on 3 June when a group of people gained access to the bandstand which had been fenced off for health and safety reasons. 5 June A further 416 cases were reported, however data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths and total number of cases were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. 14 people (including 5 juveniles) were arrested for public order offences and a Garda received hospital treatment on the night of 4 June, after violence broke out in Dublin city centre in which glass bottles were thrown at Gardaí, which resulted in a patrol car being damaged. Minister for Health Stephen Donnelly described the incidents as "thuggish behaviour and completely unacceptable". Minister for Health Stephen Donnelly received his first dose of a COVID-19 vaccine in Greystones, County Wicklow. The Department of Health added a further 5 countries to the Government's COVID-19 "high-risk" list for international travel, which would come into effect from 4 am on Tuesday 8 June. The countries added were: Afghanistan, Egypt, Sri Lanka, Sudan and Trinidad and Tobago. 6 June A further 313 cases were reported, however data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths and total number of cases were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. 19 people (including 2 juveniles) were arrested for public order offences and two Gardaí received hospital treatment on the night of 5 June, after violence broke out in Dublin's south city centre for a second consecutive night in which a person was assaulted, a bin was set on fire and glass bottles were thrown, which resulted in a patrol car being damaged. 7 June A further 377 cases were reported, however data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths and total number of cases were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. The gradual easing of COVID-19 restrictions continued with the reopening of all bars, restaurants and cafés for outdoor service, gyms, swimming pools, leisure centres, cinemas and theatres, the partial resumption of driver theory test services, and the allowance of an unvaccinated household to visit another unvaccinated household indoors. 14 people (including 3 juveniles) were arrested for public order offences on the night of 6 June, after violence broke out in Dublin's south city centre for a third consecutive night, while Gardaí arrested 8 people in Cork. 8 June – a further 271 cases were reported, however data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths and total number of cases were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. 9 June – a further 259 cases were reported, however data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths and total number of cases were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. 10 June A further 398 cases were reported, however data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths and total number of cases were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. The first in a series of live pilot concerts took place at the Iveagh Gardens, Dublin, with James Vincent McMorrow and special guest Sorcha Richardson playing to 500 people at the show. 11 June – a further 319 cases were reported, however data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths and total number of cases were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. 12 June – a further 431 cases were reported, however data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths and total number of cases were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. 13 June A further 315 cases were reported, however data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths and total number of cases were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. The Department of Health added one additional country to the Government's COVID-19 "high-risk" list for international travel, which would come into effect from 4 am on Wednesday 16 June. The country added was: Uganda. 14 June – a further 242 cases were reported, however data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths and total number of cases were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. 15 June A further 283 cases were reported, however data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths and total number of cases were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. The Government of Ireland agreed to increase the self-isolation period for travellers arriving in Ireland from Britain from 5 to 10 days for those who are not fully vaccinated amid Delta variant concerns. 16 June – a further 329 cases were reported, bringing the total number of cases to 267,576. Data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. 17 June A further 373 cases and 26 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 267,949 cases and 4,979 deaths. HSE Chief Clinical Officer Colm Henry confirmed that there had been 180 cases of the Delta variant detected in Ireland. 18 June A further 313 cases were reported, bringing the total number of cases to 268,251. Data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. The Department of Health added one country and removed one country to the Government's COVID-19 "high-risk" list for international travel, which would come into effect from 4 am on Tuesday 22 June. The country added was: Mongolia. Canada was removed from the list. 19 June A further 393 cases were reported, bringing the total number of cases to 268,644. Data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. A primary school in County Offaly confirmed a suspected case of the Delta variant with the children told to self isolate at home. After discussing the evolving profile of COVID-19 across the island, the Chief Medical Officers of Ireland and Northern Ireland Tony Holohan and Michael McBride issued a joint statement reminding people who intended to travel across the border to be alert to the epidemiological situation in the relevant local areas and to ensure that they avoid activities which could place them or their families at risk of COVID-19 infection. 20 June A further 288 cases were reported, bringing the total number of cases to 269,037. Data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. The COVID-19 vaccine registration portal opened to people aged between 35 and 39 on a phased basis, starting with people aged 39. 21 June A further 284 cases were reported, bringing the total number of cases to 269,321. Data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. Chief Medical Officer Tony Holohan stated that the latest data showed a "concerning increase in transmission" of the Delta variant of COVID-19 in Ireland. Minister for Justice Heather Humphreys spoke to Garda Commissioner Drew Harris about the legal issues around outdoor drinking and pledged to take legislative action to facilitate outdoor hospitality if it was required, after Gardaí warned that alcohol licences were not valid for areas outside pubs and restaurants. 22 June A further 294 cases were reported, bringing the total number of confirmed cases to 269,495. Data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. The HSE's Director of Public Health for the Midlands Una Fallon announced that a COVID-19 outbreak in Athlone had been identified as "probably" the Delta variant after a cluster of 14 primary cases associated with socialising by the River Shannon were confirmed on Friday 11 June. An online booking system for COVID-19 test referral opened for people in all counties. 23 June A further 348 cases and 10 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 269,793 cases and 4,989 deaths. It was confirmed that at least three quarters of the HSE's IT servers had been decrypted and 70% of computer devices were back in use, following the cyber attack in May. 24 June A further 304 cases were reported, bringing the total number of confirmed cases to 270,097. Data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. HSE Chief Clinical Officer Colm Henry confirmed that there had been 210 cases of the Delta variant detected in Ireland. 25 June A further 380 cases were reported, bringing the total number of confirmed cases to 270,477. Data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. The Department of Health added 9 countries to the Government's COVID-19 "high-risk" list for international travel, which would come into effect from 4 am on Tuesday 29 June. The countries added were: Dominican Republic, Eritrea, Haiti, Indonesia, Kuwait, Kyrgyzstan, Myanmar, Russia and Tunisia. 26 June – a further 443 cases were reported, bringing the total number of confirmed cases to 270,920. Data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. 27 June – a further 340 cases were reported, bringing the total number of confirmed cases to 271,260. Data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. 28 June – a further 305 cases were reported, bringing the total number of confirmed cases to 271,589. Data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. 29 June A further 351 cases were reported, bringing the total number of confirmed cases to 271,931. Data relating to the number of COVID-19 deaths were not available due to the HSE cyberattack. Due to the rapidly increasing incidence of the Delta variant, the Government of Ireland announced that the planned reopening of indoor dining and drinking in restaurants and pubs on 5 July would be delayed until at least 19 July when a system to verify vaccination or immunity would be implemented, while 50 guests would be permitted to attend wedding celebrations as an exception from July. 30 June A further 452 cases and 9 deaths were reported, bringing the totals to 272,336 cases and 4,998 deaths. European Commissioner for Justice Didier Reynders stated that Ireland was the only European Union member state that would not be ready to comply with the EU Digital COVID-19 Certificate for travel when it would come into effect from 1 July 2021 due to the cyber attack on the Health Service Executive. References 2021 A 2021 A 2021 in the Republic of Ireland

21921025

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PacketFence

PacketFence

PacketFence is an open-source network access control (NAC) system which provides the following features: registration, detection of abnormal network activities, proactive vulnerability scans, isolation of problematic devices, remediation through a captive portal, 802.1X, wireless integration and User-Agent / DHCP fingerprinting. That company that develops PacketFence, Inverse Inc. was acquired by Akamai Technologies on February 1st, 2021. PacketFence version 10 supports Red Hat Enterprise Linux 7 and its derivatives, notably CentOS, and Debian Stretch. Inverse Inc. has also been releasing a version of PacketFence dubbed the "Zero Effort NAC", which is a standalone Virtual Appliance that is preconfigured installation of PacketFence, making it easier than ever to deploy a NAC in your environment. PacketFence version 11 added support for Red Hat Enterprise Linux 8 and it's derivatives, notably CentOS, and Debian Bullseye. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Further reading External links PacketFence website PacketFence on GitHub References FLOSS Weekly 155: PacketFence, at the FLOSS Weekly podcast, March 2, 2011, retrieved March 3, 2011. Network management Internet Protocol based network software Computer network security Free network management software

9589

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European%20Strategic%20Programme%20on%20Research%20in%20Information%20Technology%20%28ESPRIT%29

European Strategic Programme on Research in Information Technology (ESPRIT)

European Strategic Programme on Research in Information Technology (ESPRIT) was a series of integrated programmes of information technology research and development projects and industrial technology transfer measures. It was a European Union initiative managed by the Directorate General for Industry (DG III) of the European Commission. Programmes Five ESPRIT programmes (ESPRIT 0 to ESPRIT 4) ran consecutively from 1983 to 1998. ESPRIT 4 was succeeded by the Information Society Technologies (IST) programme in 1999. Projects Some of the projects and products supported by ESPRIT were: BBC Domesday Project, a partnership between Acorn Computers Ltd, Philips, Logica and the BBC with some funding from the European Commission's ESPRIT programme, to mark the 900th anniversary of the original Domesday Book, an 11th-century census of England. It is frequently cited as an example of digital obsolescence on account of the physical medium used for data storage. CGAL, the Computational Geometry Algorithms Library (CGAL) is a software library that aims to provide easy access to efficient and reliable algorithms in computational geometry. While primarily written in C++, Python bindings are also available. The original funding for the project came from the ESPRIT project. Eurocoop & Eurocode: ESPRIT III projects to develop systems for supporting distributed collaborative working. Open Document Architecture, a free and open international standard document file format maintained by the ITU-T to replace all proprietary document file formats. In 1985 ESPRIT financed a pilot implementation of the ODA concept, involving, among others, Bull corporation, Olivetti, ICL and Siemens AG. Paradise: A sub-project of the ESPRIT I project, COSINE which established a pan-European computer-based network infrastructure that enabled research workers to communicate with each other using OSI. Paradise implemented a distributed X.500 directory across the academic community. Password: Part of the ESPRIT III VALUE project, developed secure applications based on the X.509 standard for use in the academic community. ProCoS I Project (1989–1991), ProCoS II Project (1992–1995), and ProCoS-WG Working Group (1994–1997) on Provably Correct Systems, under ESPRIT II. REDO Project (1989–1992) on software maintenance, under ESPRIT II. RAISE, Rigorous Approach to Industrial Software Engineering, was developed as part of the European ESPRIT II LaCoS project in the 1990s, led by Dines Bjørner. REMORA methodology is an event-driven approach for designing information systems, developed by Colette Rolland. This methodology integrates behavioral and temporal aspects with concepts for modelling the structural aspects of an information system. In the ESPRIT I project TODOS, which has led to the development of an integrated environment for the design of office information systems (OISs), SAMPA: The Speech Assessment Methods Phonetic Alphabet (SAMPA) is a computer-readable phonetic script originally developed in the late 1980s. SCOPES: The Systematic Concurrent design of Products, Equipments and Control Systems project was a 3-year project launched in July, 1992, with the aim of specifying integrated computer-aided (CAD) tools for design and control of flexible assembly lines. SIP (Advanced Algorithms and Architectures for Speech and Image Processing), a partnership between Thomson-CSF, AEG, CSELT and ENSPS (ESPRIT P26), to develop the algorithmic and architectural techniques required for recognizing and understanding spoken or visual signals and to demonstrate these techniques in suitable applications. StatLog: "ESPRIT project 5170. Comparative testing and evaluation of statistical and logical learning algorithms on large-scale applications to classification, prediction and control" SUNDIAL (Speech UNderstanding DIALgue) started in September 1988 with Logica Ltd. as prime contractor, together with Erlangen University, CSELT, Daimler-Benz, Capgemini, Politecnico di Torino. Followed the Esprit P.26 to implement and evaluate dialogue systems to be used in telephone industry. The final results were 4 prototypes in 4 languages, involving speech and understanding technologies, and some criteria for evaluation were also reported. Web for Schools, an ESPRIT IV project that introduced the World Wide Web in secondary schools in Europe. Teachers created more than 70 international collaborative educational projects that resulted in an exponential growth of teacher communities and educational activities using the World Wide Web AGENT: A project led by IGN-France aiming at developing an operational automated map generalisation software based on multi-agent system paradigm. References External links ESPRIT home page 1983 establishments in Europe 1998 establishments in Europe History of the European Union Information technology organizations based in Europe European Union and science and technology

23256994

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20%28command%29

History (command)

In computing, various shells maintain a record of the commands issued by the user during the current session. The history command works with the command history list. When the command is issued with no options, it prints the history list. Users can supply options and arguments to the command to manipulate the display of the history list and its entries. The operation of the history command can also be influenced by a shell's environment variables. For example, an environment variable can be set to control the number of commands to retain in the list. History In early versions of Unix the history command was a separate program. However, most shells have long included the history command as a shell built-in, so the separate program is no longer in common use. Implementations The command is available in various Unix shells, as well as in PowerShell, ReactOS, and KolibriOS. It is also included as external command in PTS-DOS where it keeps a resident part, sometimes in conventional memory. Since most current history commands are shell built-ins, details depend on the choice of shell. bash The history command has the following syntax in bash: history [-c] [-d offset] [n] history -awrn [filename] history -ps arg [arg...] tcsh The history command has the following syntax in tcsh: history [-hTr] [n] history -S|-L|-M [filename] (+) history -c (+) The first form prints the history event list. If n is given only the n most recent events are printed or saved. With -h, the history list is printed without leading numbers. If -T is specified, timestamps are printed also in comment form. (This can be used to produce files suitable for loading with 'history -L' or 'source -h'.) With -r, the order of printing is most recent first rather than oldest first. With -S, the second form saves the history list to filename. If the first word of the savehist shell variable is set to a number, at most that many lines are saved. If the second word of savehist is set to `merge', the history list is merged with the existing history file instead of replacing it (if there is one) and sorted by time stamp. (+) Merging is intended for an environment like the X Window System with several shells in simultaneous use. Currently it succeeds only when the shells quit nicely one after another. With -L, the shell appends filename, which is presumably a history list saved by the -S option or the savehist mechanism, to the history list. -M is like -L, but the contents of filename are merged into the history list and sorted by timestamp. In either case, histfile is used if filename is not given and ~/.history is used if histfile is unset. `history -L' is exactly like 'source -h' except that it does not require a filename. Note that login shells do the equivalent of `history -L' on startup and, if savehist is set, `history -S' before exiting. Because only ~/.tcshrc is normally sourced before ~/.history, histfile should be set in ~/.tcshrc rather than ~/.login. If histlit is set, the first and second forms print and save the literal (unexpanded) form of the history list. The last form clears the history list. PowerShell In PowerShell, history is a predefined command alias for the Get-History cmdlet. In addition, PowerShell includes the Add-History, Clear-History, Get-History, and Invoke-History cmdlets. The *-History cmdlets serve the same purpose as the Unix-like history command. Get-History [[-Id] <Int64[]>] [[-Count] <Int32>] [<CommonParameters>] Add-History [[-InputObject] <PSObject[]>] [-Passthru] [<CommonParameters>] Clear-History [[-Id] <Int32[]>] [[-Count] <Int32>] [-Newest] [-Confirm] [-WhatIf] [<CommonParameters>] Clear-History [[-Count] <Int32>] [-CommandLine <String[]>] [-Newest] [-Confirm] [-WhatIf] [<CommonParameters>] Invoke-History [[-Id] <String>] [-Confirm] [-WhatIf] [<CommonParameters>] ReactOS Command Prompt The history command of the ReactOS Command Prompt currently only supports printing the history list. See also List of command-line interpreters References Further reading ReactOS commands Unix software Windows administration

68180411

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaseya%20VSA%20ransomware%20attack

Kaseya VSA ransomware attack

On 2 July 2021, a number of managed service providers (MSPs) and their customers became victims of a ransomware attack perpetrated by the REvil group, causing widespread downtime for over 1,000 companies. Company Kaseya Limited is an American software company founded in 2001. It develops software for managing networks, systems, and information technology infrastructure. Owned by Insight Partners, Kaseya is headquartered in Miami, Florida with branch locations across the US, Europe, and Asia Pacific. Since its founding in 2000, it has acquired 13 companies, which have in most cases continued to operate as their own brands (under the "a Kaseya company" tagline), including Unitrends. Timeline and impact The source of the outbreak was identified within hours to be VSA (Virtual System Administrator), a Remote monitoring and management software package developed by Kaseya. An authentication bypass vulnerability in the software allowed attackers to compromise VSA and distribute a malicious payload through hosts managed by the software, amplifying the reach of the attack. In response, the company shut down its VSA cloud and SaaS servers and issued a security advisory to any customers, including those with on-premises deployments of VSA. Initial reports of companies affected by the incident include Norwegian financial software developer Visma, who manages some systems for Swedish supermarket chain Coop. The supermarket chain had to close down its 800 stores for almost a week, some in small villages without any other food shop. They did not pay ransom, but rebuilt their systems from scratch after waiting for an update from Kaseya. The REvil ransomware gang officially took credit for the attack and claimed to have encrypted more than one million systems during the incident. They initially asked for a $70 million ransom payment to release a universal decryptor to unlock all affected systems. On July 5, Kaseya said that between 800 and 1,500 downstream businesses were impacted in the attack. Marcus Hutchins criticized the assessment that the impact of the Kaseya attack was larger than WannaCry, citing difficulties in measuring the exact impact. After a 9 July 2021 phone call between United States president Joe Biden and Russian president Vladimir Putin, Biden told the press, "I made it very clear to him that the United States expects when a ransomware operation is coming from his soil even though it’s not sponsored by the state, we expect them to act if we give them enough information to act on who that is." Biden later added that the United States would take the group's servers down if Putin did not. On 13 July 2021, REvil websites and other infrastructure vanished from the internet. On 23 July 2021, Kaseya announced it had received a universal decryptor tool for the REvil-encrypted files from an unnamed "trusted third party" and was helping victims restore their files. On 8 November 2021, the United States Department of Justice unsealed indictments against Ukrainian national Yaroslav Vasinskyi and Russian national Yevgeniy Polyanin. Vasinskyi was charged with conducting ransomware attacks against multiple victims including Kaseya, and was arrested in Poland on 8 October. Polyanin was charged with conducting ransomware attacks against multiple victims including Texas businesses and government entities. The Department worked with the National Police of Ukraine for the charges, and also announced the seizure of $6.1 million tied to ransomware payments. If convicted on all charges, Vasinskyi faces a maximum penalty of 115 years in prison, and Polyanin 145 years in prison. References 2021 in computing

400615

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desktop%20Linux%20Consortium

Desktop Linux Consortium

The Desktop Linux Consortium (DLC) was a non-profit organization which aims at enhancing and promoting the use of the Linux operating system on desktop computers. It was founded on 4 February 2003. Members Ark Linux CodeWeavers Debian KDE Linux Professional Institute (LPI) The Linux Terminal Server Project (LTSP) Lycoris (company) Mandriva (formerly known as Mandrakesoft) NeTraverse OpenOffice.org Organisation, does not exist any more Questnet (Support4Linux.com) Samba Sunwah Linux (rays Linux Distribution) SUSE theKompany TransGaming Technologies TrustCommerce Xandros Ximian See also Desktop Linux References External links Archived version of the official website as of 2007 Linux organizations

12225566

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy%20of%20Omaha%2C%20Nebraska

Economy of Omaha, Nebraska

The economy of Omaha, Nebraska has served as a major commercial hub in the Midwestern United States since its founding in 1854. Dubbed the "Motor Mouth City" by The New York Times, Omaha is widely regarded as the telecommunications capital of the United States. The city's economy includes agriculture, food processing, insurance, transportation, healthcare and education. Warren Buffett of Berkshire Hathaway has lived in Omaha all of his life, as have the ConAgra Foods, Union Pacific Railroad and Mutual of Omaha Companies, and Kiewit Corporation, all Fortune 500 corporations. According to the Nebraska Department of Labor, in March 2008 the unemployment rate in Omaha was 3.9 percent. Between 2000 and 2005 Omaha's job growth was 0.70 percent. In 2006 the sales tax rate was seven percent, with income tax at 6.68 percent. That same year the median family income was $56,869, with a 1.80 percent housing price gain. In September 2007 the city ranked eighth among the 50 largest cities in the United States in both per-capita billionaires and Fortune 500 companies. According to USA Today, no other city in the country could claim a ranking as high as Omaha on both lists. The paper identified the richest residents of Omaha as Ameritrade founder Joe Ricketts, worth $1.5 billion; Walter Scott Jr. of Peter Kiewit Sons, worth $1.2 billion; and Warren Buffett, then valued by Forbes magazine at $44 billion. The city ranks fourteenth among the states for philanthropic giving, according to the Catalogue of Philanthropy. Historic economic sectors and industries In the years after the founding of Omaha, the city's economy grew in cycles. Early success as a transportation hub drew a variety of economic sectors to the downtown area. The early warehousing area was located next to the Missouri River, drawings good from steamboats coming upriver from Kansas City and St. Louis, Missouri, as well as points east. The Union Pacific Railroad has been headquartered in Omaha since its inception, eventually bringing the meatpacking, stockyard, and regional brewing companies to the city. The American Smelting and Refining Company owned a large plant on the Omaha riverfront from 1881 into the 1990s, when the Environmental Protection Agency forced it to close. Omaha has a long history of labor unrest and conflict between management and workers. As a long-time open shop the city gained the reputation for actively breaking unions; however, with the loss of large-scale railroad operations and meat production, the labor-driven protests, rioting and civil unrest of the past appears to be gone. Wholesaling and manufacturing In 1870 Omaha began its role as a wholesale jobbing center for the United States. The wholesale jobber purchased goods directly from the manufacturer, transported these goods via the railroads, and sold them directly to small businesses through traveling salesmen. Omaha jobbers handled a wide variety of wholesale products along the Great Platte River Road and beyond, including groceries, dry goods, hardware, fruits, paper, and liquor. The city created a market house and a food-oriented warehousing district to meet the needs of this sector of the economy. Omaha earned its nickname, the "Gateway to the West", because of its central location as a transportation hub for the United States in the middle and late 19th century. Emigrants, gold seekers, Mormons, freighters, Native Americans, speculators and land sharks all contributed. The Omaha Claim Club was an early land claim seller, court, jury and enforcement group. Jobbers Canyon grew as a warehousing center as carriage factories, wholesale houses, and barbed wire factories, along with Downtown Omaha department stores such as Brandeis and hotels such as Hotel Fontenelle. The city's breweries, brickyards, iron works, flour mills, and the Union Pacific headquarters caused the city to swell rapidly between the 1880s and the 1920s. The "Big Four" local breweries in Omaha were the Storz, Krug, Willow Springs and Metz breweries. Businesses Warehousing and manufacturing operations out of Omaha from its founding through the 1920s include the Western Bridge and Construction Company. Other important businesses included the Byron Reed Company and the N.P. Dodge Company. Stockyards and meatpacking The meatpacking industry, built in conjunction with the Omaha Stockyards, started to grow in the 1890s, and provided financial strength to the city through the 1970s. A fierce rival of Chicago's Union Stock Yards, the Omaha Stockyards were third in the nation for production by 1890. The "Big Four" meat packers during this time were Armour, Wilson, Cudahy, and Swift. There were several breweries established throughout the city during this period. In 1947 they were second only to Chicago in worldwide ratings. Omaha overtook Chicago as the U.S.'s largest livestock market and meat packing industry center in 1955, a title which it held until 1971. The 116-year-old institution closed in 1999. Businesses There were several small-scale meatpacking operations in Omaha during this period. Large plants in Omaha included Armour, Cudahy, Swift and Morris, along with several smaller companies. All together they employed over 13,000 men by the 1950s. Transportation The Missouri River provided the initial source of revenue for young Omaha, as fur trappers such as Manuel Lisa used the area to build their inland empires with local Native American tribes. As steamboats started pouring in goods manufactured in the Eastern United States, thousands of tons of goods came through the city. However, the problem of transporting materials for the growing Midwestern United States needed to be addressed, which luckily opened the doorways to the city's major growth engine in its earliest years. The second period of growth in Omaha, from approximately 1865 through the 1880s, is attributed solely to the city's railroad connections, which drew almost all significant rail traffic from the Pacific Northwest through the area. By the 1870s, Omaha had seven major rail lines. Major bus lines and airlines have traveled through the city for almost 100 years. Several major highways and bridges come into the city as well. Businesspeople Early businesspeople who were important to the growth and development of the city include a variety of bankers, investors, promoters, lawyers, and entrepreneurs. Omaha is said to have been founded by William D. Brown, the entrepreneur behind the Lone Tree Ferry which brought settlers across from Council Bluffs, Iowa. Alfred D. Jones was a surveyor and lawyer who first platted the city. Later the brothers Edward and John A. Creighton traveled west from their native Ohio planting telegraph wires along the way. Their contributions to the city's growth were innumerable, with varied backgrounds in banking, investing and philanthropy. Similarly, the Kountze family's impact on the city was immense. Augustus and his brother Herman founded the bank that became the First National of Nebraska, which today is the largest independent bank in the U.S., and is still headquartered in Omaha. Gilbert Hitchcock and Edward Rosewater were among the many influential newspaper editors in the city, founding empires that promoted, molded and drove economic development. Frederick Krug, Frederick Metz and Gottlieb Storz were all early beer brewers, with counterparts in the meatpacking industry included Edward Cudahy, Sr. among others. Current economic sectors and industries Currently, the service sector accounts for approximately 40 percent of total employment in Omaha. Other key sectors in the city include trade, transportation and utilities, finance, insurance, and real estate. Telecommunications and architecture/construction are also major influences on the city's local economy. The Greater Omaha Economic Development Partnership identifies the defense industry, manufacturing, and information technology as important areas as well. The presence of the Strategic Air Command during the Cold War and the U.S. Strategic Command has led to a strong defense industry. The city's transportation has been vital to its growth, with more than 144 million pounds of cargo passing through Eppley Airfield in 2004. The Union Pacific and several other major railroads provide freight service coordinated with many trucking companies serving the metropolitan area. Studies also show that the Holland Foundation, which is based in Omaha, is one of the nation's most generous philanthropic foundations. Finance and insurance The insurance industry has also been important to the city's fiscal well-being, while its finance and real estate sectors have been less-so than the nation as a whole. The nation's largest privately held bank, First National of Nebraska, as well as three Fortune 1000 financial services companies (Berkshire Hathaway, Mutual of Omaha and TD Ameritrade) make Omaha one of the highest density clusters of the country's financial sector. In addition, insurance companies based in Omaha include Blue Cross Blue Shield of Nebraska, Physicians Mutual, Woodmen of the World, and Berkshire Hathaway subsidiaries National Indemnity Company, and Central States Indemnity. Telecommunications and information technology According to Newsweek magazine, "Omaha is where the blue-collar work of the information economy is done. Phones are answered, money is counted, and data are processed. Six national fiber optic networks converge here." The telecommunications industry has gravitated to Omaha over the last 30 years. After the U.S. government relocated the Strategic Air Command here following World War II, the city became home to one of the world's most advanced and secure phone systems. Other factors in the city's success include the city's location in the Central Time Zone, making it more convenient to call either coast during the work day, as well as local speech patterns, described as "pure American," making it easily understood everywhere. Nebraska state regulators granted local phone companies wide latitude to deploy new services rapidly. Furthermore, Omaha's Metropolitan Community College created telecommunications-related courses and training programs. Since the early 1980s, several large hotel and travel reservation operations, including those for Marriott, Hyatt, Radisson and Westin hotels as well as the traffic information center for Greyhound Bus Lines, have all been located in the city. After the AT&T breakup, US West, the phone company whose 14-state territory includes Nebraska, adopted the slogan "Dial 800 and get Omaha" to promote its services. Worldwide telecommunications company West Corporation was founded in Omaha in 1986, and it is currently still headquartered there. Other nationwide companies with major call center operations located in Omaha include PayPal, Cox Communications, and Aflac. Omaha was one of the first U.S. cities to develop a fiber optic network. Over the past 10 years, its telecommunications foundation has expanded into a thriving information technology sector. Today, the city has several educational facilities focused on information technology and telecommunications, including the University of Nebraska's Peter Kiewit Institute, Creighton University's Joe Ricketts Center in Electronic Commerce and Database Marketing, the Creighton Institute of Information Technology Management, and programs at Bellevue University. Companies The Omaha metropolitan area's largest employer is the Offutt Air Force Base, which employs over 10,000 military and civilian workers. Its second-largest is Alegent Health, with approximately 7,500 employees, followed by Omaha Public Schools and First Data Corporation, each with approximately 7,000 employees. Other major employers in the Omaha area include Methodist Health System, Mutual of Omaha, ConAgra Foods, Nebraska Health System, Odyssey Staffing Inc., Staff Mid-America, and the West Corporation. Businesspeople According to USA Today, Omaha is ranked eighth among the nation's 50 largest cities in both per-capita billionaires and Fortune 500 companies. Warren Buffett, nicknamed the "Oracle of Omaha", was ranked as the richest people in the world in 2017. Other influential businesspeople in the area include Cathy Hughes, owner of Radio One. Retail Omaha is home to five major shopping malls: Westroads Mall, Crossroads Mall, Oak View Mall, and Village Pointe, an outdoor shopping mall located in far west Omaha. Village Pointe houses some of Omaha's finer national retailers, such as Coach, Inc. and Apple Inc. Shadow Lake Towne Center is another large scale outdoor shopping mall located in the suburb of Papillion. Several smaller scale shopping centers are located throughout the city. One Pacific Place and Regency Court Mall are upscale shopping centers in the Regency neighborhood. Borsheim's Fine Jewelry store is located in Regency Court Mall. Sorensen Park Plaza, Aksarben Village, Midtown Crossing, and Rockbrook Village are other major shopping centers in the Omaha area. Located near Crossroads Mall on 72nd and Dodge, Nebraska Furniture Mart is the largest home furnishings store in North America. The Target Corporation entered the hypermarket format in 1995 by opening its first SuperTarget store in Omaha. Although Downtown Omaha was once the city's major retail district, most retail locations are now located in Midtown and West Omaha. However, the Old Market District has several local specialty shops and clothing stores and boutiques. The NoDo development has brought national retailers back to downtown with Urban Outfitters and American Apparel opening in the Slowdown development. The neighborhoods of Benson, Dundee, and South Omaha all have main street retail districts. Headquarters Omaha is home to four companies listed on the Fortune 500 list: Berkshire Hathaway (#12), Union Pacific (#151), Peter Kiewit and Sons, Inc. (#446), and Mutual of Omaha (#489). Omaha is also the headquarters of several other major corporations, including The Gallup Organization, Physicians Mutual, TD Ameritrade, Werner Enterprises, and First National Bank. Many large technology firms have major operations or operational headquarters in Omaha as well. Those include First Data, PayPal, and LinkedIn. The city is home to three of the 30 largest architecture firms in the United States: HDR, Inc., DLR Group, Inc., and Leo A. Daly Co. The Lozier Corporation, West Corporation, ITI Marketing Services, Omaha Steaks, Pamida, Oriental Trading Company, Valmont Industries, First Comp Insurance, Hayneedle, and Godfather's Pizza are based in the city themselves Current urban growth The city recently has experienced a large amount of economic growth. In its downtown area, the Omaha World-Heralds Freedom Center, the First National Bank Tower, the CenturyLink Center Omaha, and the Gallup University campus have each been identified as central to the city's revitalization efforts. WallStreet Tower Omaha was a planned downtown addition that would have been the city's third tallest building. The Missouri River waterfront development project features a pedestrian bridge connecting Omaha and Council Bluffs, Iowa. Also, there are two condominium towers and an area for both retail and restaurants. Redevelopment has been ongoing in the north downtown area, with interest piquing after the recent announcement of a new downtown baseball stadium for the College World Series in the area. In West Omaha — parts of which were covered in cornfields as recently as 2002, several commercial districts and high wealth neighborhoods have developed. A mixed-use development in the southwest portion of the city called Coventry will be a complex of mansions, commercial development, and retail/restaurants. Projects are also under way for improving North Omaha. In the Midtown area, Mutual of Omaha is redeveloping an area bordering 31st to 33rd streets and Dodge to Harney streets that is called Midtown Crossing at Turner Park. Featuring condominiums, apartments and an Element Hotel, The area will also host an urban style movie theater with restaurant and bar/club included, a grocery store, restaurants, a dry cleaners, a health club and other shops and services. After renovating and expanding the public Turner Park, the development seeks to become a catalyst for further redevelopment in the area. Another mixed-use project in Midtown is situated on the site of the former Ak-Sar-Ben Colesium. Aksarben Village is a huge complex consisting of University of Nebraska at Omaha's Aksarben Campus containing learning centers and dorms, Blue Cross and Blue Shield of NE's new Headquarters, First Data's Omaha offices, a neighborhood grocer, restaurants, shops, a hotel, lounges, bars, clubs, a movie theater, residential areas, and several other medium and small business offices. Also, in 2009, Omaha released a new master plan for Downtown's development over the next 30 years. It divides several unique districts, The Downtown Center, North Downtown, the Entertainment district, the North and South Riverfront, the Joslyn District, The Park East/Farnam District, and the Old Market District. The Entertainment district will include the CenturyLink Center Omaha and the TD Ameritrade Park. Also, there is a proposed area for several soccer or baseball fields. A large Part of the new Master Plan is the prediction of 8 new office towers in the next 30 years. Another positive economic note for Omaha is that out of all major U.S. cites, it was least affected by the 2008 economic recession. Current poverty and economic isolation Census data in Douglas County from 2000 shows more than 7,800 families living below the poverty line. This is about 6.7 percent of families. In 2007, the director of a statewide poverty advocacy group was quoted as saying, "In Omaha, you start talking about low-income issues, people assume you’re talking about minority issues..." As of October 2007, the city of Omaha, the 42nd largest in the country, has the fifth-highest percentage of low-income African Americans in the country. See also Railroads in Omaha Transportation in Omaha Gambling in Omaha, Nebraska Hotels in Omaha (category) Mass media in Omaha (category) Shopping malls in Omaha (category) Tourist attractions in Omaha (category) References External links Omaha-Council Bluffs Economy at a glance - US Bureau of Labor Statistics Omaha

1711443

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay%20Networks

Bay Networks

Bay Networks, Inc. is a Menlo Park, California based Managed Service Provider and IT support company specialized in IT managed services and support, including Smart hands and Remote hands, Network and Cyber Security, and Cloud Solutions, as well as IT hardware sale and recycling for SMB, Enterprise and Data Center businesses in San Francisco and Bay area. Previously Bay Networks was a network hardware vendor formed through the merger of Santa Clara, California based SynOptics Communications and Billerica, Massachusetts based Wellfleet Communications on July 6, 1994. SynOptics was an important early innovator of Ethernet products, having developed a pre-standard twisted pair 10Mbit/s Ethernet product and a modular Ethernet hub product that dominated the enterprise networking market. Wellfleet was an important competitor to Cisco Systems in the router market, ultimately commanding up to a 20% market share of the network router business worldwide. The combined company was renamed Bay Networks as a nod to the legacy that SynOptics was based in the San Francisco area and Wellfleet was based in the Boston area, two cities well known for their bays. Logos Acquisitions Bay Networks expanded its product line both through internal development and acquisition, acquiring the following companies during the course of its existence: Centillion Networks, Inc. (May, 1995) - Provided Asynchronous Transfer Mode switching and Token Ring technology. Xylogics, Inc. (December, 1995) - Remote access technologies. Performance Technology (March, 1996) - LAN-to-WAN access technology. ARMON Networking, Ltd. (April, 1996) - RMON and RMON2 network management technology. LANcity Corporation (October, 1996) - Cable modem technology. Penril Datability Networks (November, 1996) - Dial-up modems and remote access products based on Digital Signal Processing technology. NetICs, Inc. (December, 1996) - ASIC-based Fast Ethernet switching technology. ISOTRO Network Management, Inc. (April, 1997) - DNS and DHCP technologies. Rapid City Communications (June, 1997) - Gigabit Ethernet switching and routing technology. New Oak Communications (January, 1998) - Provided VPN technology to Bay Networks product line. Netsation Corp. (February, 1998) - Technology was used to augment Bay Networks Optivity network management system. NetServe GmbH (July, 1998) - VoIPX technology Acquisition by Nortel Bay Networks was acquired by Northern Telecom in June 1998 for US$ 9.1 billion, broadening Nortel's reach from its traditional carrier customer base into enterprise data networking. Reflective of this expanded product set and market, Nortel renamed itself Nortel Networks after the merger. In December 2009, as part of its bankruptcy proceedings, Nortel sold its Enterprise Networking equipment and software business to Avaya. The sale included a few remaining Bay Networks products that were still active in Nortel's portfolio at the time of the sale, such as the Ethernet Switch 450 and Backbone Concentrator Node (BCN) router. The Bay Networks product Small office/home office line survives to this day as the Netgear products that are widely sold by electronics retailers. Example products include Gigabit Ethernet switches, cable modems, print servers, and similar inexpensive, consumer-oriented networking equipment. Bay Networks had originally launched Netgear as a product line/division in January 1996, but the product line was not core to the newly formed Nortel Networks operations and so was spun out as a standalone company in September 1999. References Defunct networking companies Nortel Netgear Companies based in Santa Clara, California Companies based in Billerica, Massachusetts

12335847

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sol-20

Sol-20

The Sol-20 was the first fully assembled microcomputer with a built-in keyboard and television output, what would later be known as a home computer. The design was a combination of an Intel 8080-based motherboard, a VDM-1 graphics card, the 3P+S I/O card to drive a keyboard, and circuitry to connect to a cassette deck for program storage. Additional expansion was available via five S-100 bus slots at the back of the machine. It also included swappable ROMs with a rudimentary operating system. The design was originally suggested by Les Solomon, the editor of Popular Electronics. He asked Bob Marsh of Processor Technology if he could design a smart terminal for use with the Altair 8800. Lee Felsenstein, who shared a garage working space with Marsh, had previously designed such a terminal but never built it. Reconsidering the design using modern electronics, they agreed the best solution was to build a complete computer with a terminal program in ROM. Felsenstein suggested the name "Sol" because they were including "the wisdom of Solomon" in the box. The Sol appeared on the cover of the July 1976 issue of Popular Electronics as a "high-quality intelligent terminal". It was initially offered in three versions; the Sol-PC motherboard in kit form, the Sol-10 without expansion slots, and the Sol-20 with five slots. A Sol-20 was taken to the Personal Computing Show in Atlantic City in August 1976 where it was a hit, building an order backlog that took a year to fill. Systems began shipping late that year and were dominated by the expandable Sol-20, which sold for $1,495 in its most basic fully-assembled form. The company also offered schematics for the system for free for those interested in building their own. The Sol-20 remained in production until 1979, by which point about 12,000 machines had been sold. By that time, the "1977 trinity" —the Apple II, Commodore PET and TRS-80— had begun to take over the market, and a series of failed new product introductions drove Processor Technology into bankruptcy. Felsenstein later developed the successful Osborne 1 computer, using much the same underlying design in a portable format. History Tom Swift Terminal Lee Felsenstein was one of the sysops of Community Memory, the first public bulletin board system. Community Memory opened in 1973, running on a SDS 940 mainframe that was accessed through a Teletype Model 33, essentially a computer printer and keyboard, in a record store in Berkeley, California. The cost of running the system was untenable; the teletype normally cost $1,500 (their first example was donated from Tymeshare as junk), the modem another $300, and time on the SDS was expensive – in 1968 Tymshare charged $13 per hour (). Even the reams of paper output from the terminal were too expensive to be practical and the system jammed all the time. The replacement of the Model 33 with a Hazeltine glass terminal helped, but it required constant repairs. Since 1973, Felsenstein had been looking for ways to lower the cost. One of his earliest designs in the computer field was the Pennywhistle modem, a 300 bits per second acoustic coupler that was the cost of commercial models. When he saw Don Lancaster's TV Typewriter on the cover of the September 1973 Popular Electronics, he began adapting its circuitry as the basis for a design he called the Tom Swift Terminal. The terminal was deliberately designed to allow it to be easily repaired. Combined with the Pennywhistle, users would have a cost-effective way to access Community Memory. In January 1975, Felsenstein saw a post on Community Memory by Bob Marsh asking if anyone would like to share a garage. Marsh was designing a fancy wood-cased digital clock and needed space to work on it. Felsenstein had previously met Marsh at school and agreed to split the $175 rent on a garage in Berkeley. Shortly after, Community Memory shut down for the last time, having burned out the relationship with its primary funding source, Project One, as well the energy of its founding members. Processor Technology January 1975 was also the month that the Altair 8800 appeared on the front page of Popular Electronics, sparking off intense interest among the engineers of the rapidly growing Silicon Valley. Shortly thereafter, on 5 March 1975, Gordon French and Fred Moore held the first meeting of what would become the Homebrew Computer Club. Felsenstein took Marsh to one of the meetings, Marsh saw an opportunity supplying add-on cards for the Altair, and in April, he formed Processor Technology with his friend Gary Ingram. The new company's first product was a 4 kB DRAM memory card for the Altair. A similar card was already available from the Altair's designers, MITS, but it was almost impossible to get working properly. Marsh began offering Felsenstein contracts to draw schematics or write manuals for the products they planned to introduce. Felsenstein was still working on the terminal as well, and in July, Marsh offered to pay him to develop the video portion. This was essentially a version of the terminal where the data would be supplied by the main memory of the Altair rather than a serial port. The result was the VDM-1, the first graphics card. The VDM-1 could display 16 lines of 64 characters per line, and included the complete ASCII character set with upper- and lower-case characters and a number of graphics characters like arrows and basic math symbols. An Altair equipped with a VDM-1 for output and their 3P+S card running a keyboard for input removed the need for a terminal, yet cost less than dedicated smart terminal products like the Hazeltine. Intelligent terminal concept Before the VDM-1 was launched in late 1975, the only way to program the Altair was through its front-panel switches and LED lamps, or by purchasing a serial card and using a terminal of some sort. This was typically a Model 33, which still cost $1,500 if available. Normally the teletypes were not available Teletype Corporation typically sold them only to large commercial customers, which led to a thriving market for broken-down machines that could be repaired and sold into the microcomputer market. Ed Roberts, who had developed the Altair, eventually arranged a deal with Teletype to supply refurbished Model 33s to MITS customers who had bought an Altair. Les Solomon, whose Popular Electronics magazine launched the Altair, felt a low-cost smart terminal would be highly desirable in the rapidly expanding microcomputer market. In December 1975, Solomon traveled to Phoenix to meet with Don Lancaster to ask about using his TV Typewriter as a video display in a terminal. Lancaster seemed interested, so Solomon took him to Albuquerque to meet Roberts. The two immediately began arguing when Lancaster criticized the design of the Altair and suggested changes to better support expansion cards, demands that Roberts flatly refused. Any hopes of a partnership disappeared. Solomon then traveled to California and approached Marsh with the same idea, stating that if they could produce the design within 30 days, he would put it on the cover of the magazine. Marsh once again hired Felsenstein to design the system. As Felsenstein later noted: Design effort Felsenstein initially wanted to build a terminal following the model of his earlier Tom Swift design, using discrete electronics. Marsh, in parallel, sketched out a version using the Intel 8080. It quickly became apparent the difference in cost would only be about $10, and from then on the original dedicated terminal concept was dropped. Over time the plans changed, and at some point, Marsh told Felsenstein "We want you to design a computer around the VDM display." Initially, the idea was to sell a kit system, as was common in the industry at that time. The kit concept would make it through to the release, at which time it was known as the Sol-PC. As the design process continued, at some point the decision was made to offer the system in complete form, with all the parts needed for a complete system. Felsenstein originally thought he was only needed for the initial design, but as the physical layout began it was clear that the layout artist they had hired would not be able to do it on his own. Marsh had a woodworker friend build a large light table and Felsenstein and the layout artist began using it to design the printed circuit board for the motherboard. While Felsenstein worked on the design, Marsh continually came up with new ideas that he demanded to be included. This led to creeping featuritis problems and the final design was not delivered until about two months of "frantic" work. The final product consisted of a single motherboard with the 8080, a simplified version of the VDM-1, serial input/output, and 1k of SRAM for the screen buffer. A ROM, the "personality module", would include the terminal driver or other code which would begin running as soon as the machine was turned on. The module was designed so it could be removed or inserted without accessing the interior of the machine. Marsh, meanwhile, was working on the physical design. He demanded from the start that it use walnut sides; while working on the digital clock project he had learned from his woodworker friend that they could get parts for practically nothing if they were small enough to be made from off-cuts. Beyond that requirement, anything was fair. The deadline for the magazine had been pushed back, but there was still little time to finalize the layout before it needed to be photographed. Marsh decided that the machine should have a cassette deck, so they mocked up a machine with a keyboard on the left and cassette player on the right. The first motherboard arrived 45 days after the project started, and the first cases and power supplies about 15 days after that. By this point it was clear the system was a usable microcomputer on its own, but "the decision was made to soft-pedal the fact until the last possible moment. Once published, all the fuss possible was to be made about its general-purpose nature; but until it actually saw print, it was to be treated first as a terminal." As the machine increasingly expanded in power, Felsenstein suggested the name "Sol", because they were including "the wisdom of Solomon" in the system. Les Solomon would later quip that "if it worked, they'll say Sol means 'sun' in Spanish. If it don't work, they're gonna blame it on the Jewish guys." Stan Veit later joked to Solomon that they named it after him in another way, "the LES Intelligent Terminal". Release In February 1976, the first machine, a kludged-up box of parts, was readied and flown to New York to show Solomon. As he pointed out the features, Solomon asked what was stopping anyone from putting a BASIC on the personality ROM. Felsenstein, who had been told to avoid referring to it as a computer, simply replied "beats me". When they powered it up the machine would not work, displaying unreadably fuzzy images. Marsh and Felsenstein then flew to Boston to visit the offices of the newly started Byte magazine. While there, Felsenstein had time to discover the problem was a tiny bit of broken wire that got stuck under a chip, shorting out two of the video lines. They returned to Solomon's house to demonstrate the working unit. Due to publication timelines, it did not appear in the magazine until the July 1976 issue, where it was described as "high-quality intelligent terminal". The cover image showed the mockup version; it was packaged in a slim case, not unlike the general shape of the TI-99. By the time the article appeared, the design had changed; the new design had a distinct "step" behind the keyboard that rose up over the expansion chassis and power supply at the back of the case. A bent piece of sheet steel formed most of the case, capped on the left and right by the wooden panels Marsh demanded. The new design was first shown at the Midwest Area Computer Club conference in June 1976. The machine was not ready for sales at this point, but they did a brisk business selling their existing expansion card line. This was followed by the Personal Computing '76 (PC'76) show in late August in the dilapidated Shelburne Hotel in Atlantic City. The order book was officially opened and Sol was a huge hit at this show. Soon after, Marsh was invited to demonstrate the Sol on NBC's The Tomorrow Show. They used a game by Steve Dompier called "Target" to show off the system's capabilities. The show's host, Tom Snyder, ended up playing the game right through the commercial breaks, and they had to force him to give up the machine in order to finish the show. Sales The Sol was initially offered in three versions. The base motherboard was offered as the Sol-PC, available as a kit for $575, or fully assembled and tested for $745. The Sol-10 added a case, keyboard and power supply, was $895 in kit form and $1,295 assembled. Finally the Sol-20 added a keyboard with numeric keypad, and a larger power supply to feed the five expansion slots and a fan to cool them, for $995 as a kit or $1,495 assembled. Advertising of the time referred to the Sol-20 as "The first complete small computer under $1,000". Most systems would require additional pieces, which they bundled as the "Sol Systems"; the Sol System I consisted of a Sol-20, an 8k RAM card, a PT-872 monitor and the RQ-413 Cassette Recorder, for $2,129. In keeping with the hacker ethic, the company also offered to send out copies of the schematic for the motherboard for the cost of postage, later estimating that somewhere between 40,000 and 50,000 copies were sent. Few, if any, Sol-10s were sold, and the company focused on the Sol-20. The first machines shipped in December 1976. These were also available for third-party sales, and this began the formation of a dealer network among some of the earliest computer stores. By 1977, Processor Technology had a reputation for quality and was among the best-selling computers in the world. By this time, S-100 machines were beginning to make inroads into business markets. Processor Technology invited all of their dealers to a meeting in Emeryville, California, outside Berkeley, to introduce their Helios floppy disk drive for $1,199, along with their PTDOS system to work with it. They also promised larger memory cards and a color video card. Additionally, dealers could now order 30 days net, as opposed to cash-on-delivery, although to do so they had to put in orders at least once a quarter. Collapse These plans quickly fell apart. The Helios was initially based on a new mechanism from Diablo Data Systems. Diablo had been purchased by Xerox in 1972, and shortly after the Helios was announced, Xerox canceled development of the floppy line. Processor Technology selected the new Persci 270 in its place. The 270 had two drive bays operated by a single drive and voice coil head positioner, which meant a two-drive system was only slightly more complex than a single drive. This was released as the Helios II, at $1,895 for the kit or $2,295 assembled. Processor Technology moved to a much larger factory in Pleasanton, California. It was at about this point that Radio Shack introduced the TRS-80. Like the Sol, it was a complete all-in-one machine but came with its own monitor and sold for about half the price. Moreover, it was available at hundreds of Radio Shack stores across North America. Sales of the Sol plummeted. Meanwhile, the company failed to introduce any of the other new products it mentioned, notably the color graphics card. When the Apple II appeared with color graphics, it quickly became a best seller. To add to their woes, Processor Technology had contracted North Star Computers to write a new version of the BASIC for the Sol machines. North Star then began selling the resulting North Star BASIC to other vendors as well. Processor Technology sued North Star, claiming the contract had been exclusive. The suit dragged on, hurting both companies before Processor Technology ultimately lost. To add to the injury, North Star then released a new 5.25-inch drive for the system that sold at half the cost of the Helios. A patch that allowed CP/M to run on the new drives killed off any interest in alternatives like PTDOS, and new business applications like WordStar and Electric Pencil soon cemented CP/M as the standard operating system for all S-100 machines. Processor Technology continued selling the Helios system and refused to consider replacing PTDOS with CP/M. Helios proved to be highly unreliable and resulted in a lawsuit by those owners that had purchased them. Meanwhile, the company introduced one of its few new products during this period, 32 and 64 KB memory cards based on dynamic RAM which was much denser than the older SRAMs. These began failing at an alarming rate, overwhelming the company's ability to repair them. These problems caused the company to go bankrupt, and the company was eventually liquidated on 14 May 1979. Description From the Sol Systems Manual unless otherwise noted. Physical layout Looking at the Sol-20 from the front, where the operator would sit, the keyboard was in a typical location with the main QWERTY-style layout on the left and the numeric keypad on the right. The wooden sides of the case were close on either side of the keyboard, potentially interfering with the operator's hands. On the rear right of the case (as seen from the front), directly to the rear of the numeric keypad, was the power supply, which also provided a fan to cool the circuitry. The main motherboard sat to the left of the power supply, spanning about of the case's width. The motherboard extended forward under the keyboard all the way to the front of the case. Cassette, parallel and serial ports extended off the back of the motherboard into holes in the case. Directly below the fan, was a UHF connector that produced composite video output. This could be connected to a monitor, or with a bit of work, a conventional television. The processor was near the back of the machine, with the memory and video circuits at the front. This required the video output to be routed to the back of the machine with a coaxial cable running across the top of the card. Sol bus Originally, expansion was going to be handled through an external cage that connected to the main console using two 50-pin ribbon cables. The original Altair bus design lacked signal ground pins for each of its data lines, a decision that had been made in order to reduce pin count and allow it to fit into 100-pin connectors they found in surplus. This led to noisy signals as they all shared a common ground, a topic of considerable derision by many users. When the bus was extended into a ribbon cable, the resulting signals were too noisy to be useful, and Marsh demanded that there be additional ground pins spread across the cable to reduce this noise. The Sol solved this problem by supporting only one of the two data busses at a time, allowing input or output and switching between them by signaling with the DBIN pin on the 8080. Since only one bus was being used at a time, they could share a set of eight pins, which allowed the eight formerly dedicated to the second bus to be used as ground lines instead. Ultimately, the idea of using an external chassis was dropped. By this time the decision to use the additional lines for grounds had been made, which had the desirable side-effect of making the board easier to design. The same 50-pin concept was instead implemented in an internal expansion chassis, the Sol-BPB. This extended vertically upwards from roughly the center of the motherboard. It had five horizontal connectors, and a metal framework on either side mechanically supported the expansion cards. The chassis also had another edge connector at the top, but it is unclear whether this could be used for further expansion. The BPB retained the DBIN signaling and ground pins of the early design and this quickly became a de facto standard for S-100 cards. This change to the bus design was contentious, as it meant cards for the Altair did not work in the Sol without some adjustments. Felsenstein noted, "I take the position that Bob made me do it, and he takes the position that history will absolve him." Software Three "personality modules" were released with the original systems. CONSOL provided a simple terminal emulator function, along with a small number of additional commands to load and run programs from tape using TLOAD. SOLOS added names to the files on the cassette, the TSAVE command for saving data to the tape into a named file, and TCAT to print out the details of a named program. TXEC loaded and executed a named program in one step. SOLED included block-mode editing, used on some mainframe systems, but it is not clear if this was actually available. One commonly used software for the Sol-20 was the BASIC/5 language. This was able to run in even a minimal machine with a 4 KB expansion, but in order to fit it had only single-precision floating point numbers and lacked string variables. An Extended BASIC that ran in 8 KB added strings and other functions. Processor Technology also sold a wide variety of other programs, including many games, on cassette format for the Sol, or on punch tape for other S-100 machines. Notes References Citations Bibliography Alt URL External links Sol-20, web site with may programs and information about the Sol-20. BASIC/5, the Sol version of BASIC Early microcomputers S-100 machines 8-bit computers

147460

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free%20variables%20and%20bound%20variables

Free variables and bound variables

In mathematics, and in other disciplines involving formal languages, including mathematical logic and computer science, a free variable is a notation (symbol) that specifies places in an expression where substitution may take place and is not a parameter of this or any container expression. Some older books use the terms real variable and apparent variable for free variable and bound variable, respectively. The idea is related to a placeholder (a symbol that will later be replaced by some value), or a wildcard character that stands for an unspecified symbol. In computer programming, the term free variable refers to variables used in a function that are neither local variables nor parameters of that function. The term non-local variable is often a synonym in this context. A bound variable, in contrast, is a variable that has been bound to a specific value or range of values in the domain of discourse or universe. This may be achieved through the use of logical quantifiers, variable-binding operators, or an explicit statement of allowed values for the variable (such as, "…where is a positive integer".) Examples are given in the next section. However it is done, the variable ceases to be an independent variable on which the value of the expression depends, whether that value be a truth value or the numerical result of a calculation, or, more generally, an element of an image set of a function. Note that while the domain of discourse in many contexts is understood, when an explicit range of values for the bound variable has not been given, it may be necessary to specify the domain in order to properly evaluate the expression. For example, consider the following expression in which both variables are bound by logical quantifiers: This expression evaluates to false if the domain of and is the real numbers, but true if the domain is the complex numbers. The term "dummy variable" is also sometimes used for a bound variable (more commonly in general mathematics than in computer science), but this should not be confused with the identically named but unrelated concept of dummy variable as used in statistics, most commonly in regression analysis. Examples Before stating a precise definition of free variable and bound variable, the following are some examples that perhaps make these two concepts clearer than the definition would: In the expression n is a free variable and k is a bound variable; consequently the value of this expression depends on the value of n, but there is nothing called k on which it could depend. In the expression y is a free variable and x is a bound variable; consequently the value of this expression depends on the value of y, but there is nothing called x on which it could depend. In the expression x is a free variable and h is a bound variable; consequently the value of this expression depends on the value of x, but there is nothing called h on which it could depend. In the expression z is a free variable and x and y are bound variables, associated with logical quantifiers; consequently the logical value of this expression depends on the value of z, but there is nothing called x or y on which it could depend. More widely, in most of the proofs, we use bound variables. For example, the following proof shows that all squares of even integers are divisible by Let be a positive even integer. Then there is an integer such that . Since , we have divisible by not only k but also n have been used as bound variables as a whole in the proof. Variable-binding operators The following are some common variable-binding operators. Each of them binds the variable x for some set S. Note that many of these are operators which act on functions of the bound variable. In more complicated contexts, such notations can become awkward and confusing. It can be useful to switch to notations which make the binding explicit, such as for sums or for differentiation. Formal explanation Variable-binding mechanisms occur in different contexts in mathematics, logic and computer science. In all cases, however, they are purely syntactic properties of expressions and variables in them. For this section we can summarize syntax by identifying an expression with a tree whose leaf nodes are variables, constants, function constants or predicate constants and whose non-leaf nodes are logical operators. This expression can then be determined by doing an inorder traversal of the tree. Variable-binding operators are logical operators that occur in almost every formal language. A binding operator Q takes two arguments: a variable v and an expression P, and when applied to its arguments produces a new expression Q(v, P). The meaning of binding operators is supplied by the semantics of the language and does not concern us here. Variable binding relates three things: a variable v, a location a for that variable in an expression and a non-leaf node n of the form Q(v, P). Note: we define a location in an expression as a leaf node in the syntax tree. Variable binding occurs when that location is below the node n. In the lambda calculus, x is a bound variable in the term M = λx. T and a free variable in the term T. We say x is bound in M and free in T. If T contains a subterm λx. U then x is rebound in this term. This nested, inner binding of x is said to "shadow" the outer binding. Occurrences of x in U are free occurrences of the new x. Variables bound at the top level of a program are technically free variables within the terms to which they are bound but are often treated specially because they can be compiled as fixed addresses. Similarly, an identifier bound to a recursive function is also technically a free variable within its own body but is treated specially. A closed term is one containing no free variables. Function expressions To give an example from mathematics, consider an expression which defines a function where t is an expression. t may contain some, all or none of the x1, …, xn and it may contain other variables. In this case we say that function definition binds the variables x1, …, xn. In this manner, function definition expressions of the kind shown above can be thought of as the variable binding operator, analogous to the lambda expressions of lambda calculus. Other binding operators, like the summation sign, can be thought of as higher-order functions applying to a function. So, for example, the expression could be treated as a notation for where is an operator with two parameters—a one-parameter function, and a set to evaluate that function over. The other operators listed above can be expressed in similar ways; for example, the universal quantifier can be thought of as an operator that evaluates to the logical conjunction of the boolean-valued function P applied over the (possibly infinite) set S. Natural language When analyzed in formal semantics, natural languages can be seen to have free and bound variables. In English, personal pronouns like he, she, they, etc. can act as free variables. Lisa found her book. In the sentence above, the possessive pronoun her is a free variable. It may refer to the previously mentioned Lisa or to any other female. In other words, her book could be referring to Lisa's book (an instance of coreference) or to a book that belongs to a different female (e.g. Jane's book). Whoever the referent of her is can be established according to the situational (i.e. pragmatic) context. The identity of the referent can be shown using coindexing subscripts where i indicates one referent and j indicates a second referent (different from i). Thus, the sentence Lisa found her book has the following interpretations: Lisai found heri book. (interpretation #1: her = of Lisa) Lisai found herj book. (interpretation #2: her = of a female that is not Lisa) The distinction is not purely of academic interest, as some languages do actually have different forms for heri and herj: for example, Norwegian and Swedish translate coreferent heri as sin and noncoreferent herj as hennes. English does allow specifying coreference, but it is optional, as both interpretations of the previous example are valid (the ungrammatical interpretation is indicated with an asterisk): Lisai found heri own book. (interpretation #1: her = of Lisa) *Lisai found herj own book. (interpretation #2: her = of a female that is not Lisa) However, reflexive pronouns, such as himself, herself, themselves, etc., and reciprocal pronouns, such as each other, act as bound variables. In a sentence like the following: Jane hurt herself. the reflexive herself can only refer to the previously mentioned antecedent, in this case Jane, and can never refer to a different female person. In this example, the variable herself is bound to the noun Jane that occurs in subject position. Indicating the coindexation, the first interpretation with Jane and herself coindexed is permissible, but the other interpretation where they are not coindexed is ungrammatical: Janei hurt herselfi. (interpretation #1: herself = Jane) *Janei hurt herselfj. (interpretation #2: herself = a female that is not Jane) Note that the coreference binding can be represented using a lambda expression as mentioned in the previous Formal explanation section. The sentence with the reflexive could be represented as (λx.x hurt x)Jane in which Jane is the subject referent argument and λx.x hurt x is the predicate function (a lambda abstraction) with the lambda notation and x indicating both the semantic subject and the semantic object of sentence as being bound. This returns the semantic interpretation JANE hurt JANE with JANE being the same person. Pronouns can also behave in a different way. In the sentence below Ashley hit her. the pronoun her can only refer to a female that is not Ashley. This means that it can never have a reflexive meaning equivalent to Ashley hit herself. The grammatical and ungrammatical interpretations are: *Ashleyi hit heri. (interpretation #1: her = Ashley) Ashleyi hit herj. (interpretation #2: her = a female that is not Ashley) The first interpretation is impossible. Only the second interpretation is permitted by the grammar. Thus, it can be seen that reflexives and reciprocals are bound variables (known technically as anaphors) while true pronouns are free variables in some grammatical structures but variables that cannot be bound in other grammatical structures. The binding phenomena found in natural languages was particularly important to the syntactic government and binding theory (see also: Binding (linguistics)). See also Closure (computer science) Combinatory logic Lambda lifting Name binding Scope (programming) References Mathematical notation Logic symbols Computer programming Predicate logic

37203904

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middleware%20for%20Robotic%20Applications

Middleware for Robotic Applications

Middleware for Robotic Applications (MIRA) is a cross-platform, open-source software framework written in C++ that provides a middleware, several base functionalities and numerous tools for developing and testing distributed software modules. It also focuses on easy creation of complex, dynamic applications, while reusing these modules as plugins. The main purpose of MIRA is the development of robotic applications, but as it is designed to allow type safe data exchange between software modules using intra- and interprocess communication it is not limited to these kinds of applications. MIRA is developed in a cooperation of the MetraLabs GmbH and the Ilmenau University of Technology/Neuroinformatics and Cognitive Robotics Lab. Therefore, MIRA was designed to fulfill the requirements of both commercial and educational purposes. Features General: adds introspection/reflection and serialization to C++ with the usage of C++ language-constructs only (a meta-language or metacompilers are not necessary) efficient data exchange between software modules the used communication technique based on "channels" always allows non-blocking access to the transferred data for the user the communication is fully transparent no matter if the software modules are located within the same process, different processes or on different machines, the underlying transport layer will choose the fasted method for data transportation automatically beside data exchange via "channels", MIRA supports Remote Procedure Calls (RPC) and Remote Method Invokation. MIRA is fully decentralized, hence there is no central server or central communication hub, making its communication more robust and allows its usage in multi-robot applications Robotic Application specific: easy configuration of software modules via configuration files parameters of algorithms can be modified live at runtime to speed up the debugging and development process huge amounts of robot sensor data can be recorded in Tapes for later playback, here different codecs can be used to compress the data Platforms MIRA supports and was successfully tested on the following platforms: Linux – Ubuntu and derivates, OpenSuse, CentOS, Red Hat and Fedora Windows – Microsoft Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7 (32bit and 64bit) Applications using MIRA MIRA is used within the following applications: Konrad and Suse - Guide Robots, that guide visitors within the Zuse-Building of the Ilmenau University of Technology Monitoring the air quality within clean rooms at Infineon Technologies using several SCITOS G5 robots and projects: CompanionAble - Integrated Cognitive Assistive & Domotic Companion Robotic System for Ability & Security Robot-Era - Implementation and integration of advanced robotic systems and intelligent environments in real scenarios for the ageing population Usability Reflection/Serialization class Data { int value; std::map<std::string,std::list<int> > complex; Foo* ptr; template <typename Reflector> void reflect(Reflector& r) { r.member("Value", value, "an int member"); r.member("Complex", complex, "a complex member"); r.member("Pointer", ptr, "a pointer pointer"); } }; arbitrary complex data types can be serialized by adding a simple reflect method to the class as shown above after these minor changes, the objects of the class can be transported via inter-process communication, can be used as parameters in configuration files for software modules, can be recorded in "Tape" files, etc. Remote Procedure Calls class MyClass { int compute(const std::list<float>& values); template <typename Reflector> void reflect(Reflector& r) { r.method("compute", &MyClass::compute, this, "comment"); } }; arbitrary methods can be turned into RPC methods by adding one line of code within the reflect() method. There is no need to write wrappers around the methods or to use meta description languages. References External links MIRA Website MIRA Documentation MIRA Questions & Answers Robotics software Robotics suites 2012 software 2012 in robotics

277573

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Research%20Council%20Canada

National Research Council Canada

The National Research Council Canada (NRC; ) is the primary national agency of the Government of Canada dedicated to science and technology research & development. It is the largest federal research & development organization in Canada. The Minister of Innovation, Science, and Economic Development (currently, François-Philippe Champagne) is responsible for the NRC. Mandate NRC is an agency of the Government of Canada, and its mandate is set out in the National Research Council Act. Under the Act, the NRC is responsible for: Undertaking, assisting or promoting scientific and industrial research in fields of importance to Canada; Providing vital scientific and technological services to the research and industrial communities; Investigating standards and methods of measurement; Working on the standardization and certification of scientific and technical apparatus, instruments and materials used or usable by Canadian industry; Operating and administering any astronomical observatories established or maintained by the Government of Canada; Establishing, operating and maintaining a national science library; and Publishing and selling or otherwise distributing such scientific and technical information as the Council deems necessary. Close to 4,000 people across Canada are employed by the NRC. In addition, the NRC also employs guest workers from universities, companies, and public and private-sector organizations. History Between World War I and II The National Research Council was established in 1916, under the pressure of World War I, to advise the government on matters of science and industrial research. In 1932, laboratories were built on Sussex Drive in Ottawa. With the impetus of World War II, the NRC grew rapidly and for all practical purposes, became a military science and weapons research organization. It undertook a number of important projects, which included participation with the United States and United Kingdom, in the development of chemical and germ warfare agents, the explosive RDX, the proximity fuse, radar, and submarine detection techniques. A special branch, known as the Examination Unit, was involved with cryptology and the interception of enemy radio communications. According to the Canadian Security Intelligence Service website, the NRC headquarters in Ottawa "was a prime espionage target" during the Cold War. The NRC was also engaged in atomic fission research at the Montreal Laboratory, and later the Chalk River Laboratories in Ontario. Post-World War II Post-WWII, the NRC reverted to its pre-war civilian role, and a number of wartime activities were spun off to newly formed organizations. Military research continued under a new organization, the Defence Research Board, while inventions with commercial potential were transferred to the newly formed Canadian Patents and Development Limited; and atomic research went to the newly created Atomic Energy of Canada Limited. Foreign signals intelligence gathering officially remained with the agency when, by Order in Council, the Examination Unit became the Communications Branch of the NRC in 1946. The CBNRC was transferred to the Department of National Defence in 1975, and renamed the Communications Security Establishment. During the 1950s, the medical research funding activities of the NRC were handed over to the newly formed Medical Research Council of Canada. Finally, on 1 May 1978, with the rapid post-war growth of Canadian universities, the NRC's role in university research funding in the natural sciences was passed to the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. Under financial pressure in the 1980s, the federal government produced what popularly became known as the Neilson Report, which recommended across-the-board financial cuts to all federal government organizations, including the NRC. This led to staff and program cutbacks. 21st Century In 2000, there were about 1000 NRC researchers with PhDs conducting research in many areas. Recovery was slow, but the NRC has managed to regain its status as Canada's single most important scientific and engineering research institution among many other Canadian government scientific research organizations. As President of the National Research Council Canada, chemist Arthur Carty revitalized the organization. In 2004, he left the NRC when then prime minister Paul Martin appointed him as independent, non-partisan advisor on science and technology. Around June 2014, the NRC was reportedly penetrated by Chinese state-sponsored hackers. The tenure of John McDougall as President of the NRC (2010–2016) was marked by a number of controversies. His presidency was characterized by a dramatic drop in publications and patents, by significant cuts in scientific staff, and by a 23-month period during which NRC management was aware that the organization was contaminating the water table outside its fire-safety testing facility in Mississippi Mills, Ontario, with perfluorinated chemicals used in firefighting foams and did not inform that community's inhabitants. John McDougall's departure – signalled by a sudden, three-line email to employees in March 2016 announced that he was going on personal leave. During this time Maria Aubrey, Vice President of the NRC, filled the role as Acting President. Effective August 24, 2016, Iain Stewart became the new President of the NRC. The details regarding McDougall's personal leave were not publicly disclosed. Under Minister of Science Kirsty Duncan, the Trudeau government changed the focus of the NRC, to develop partnerships with private and public-sector technology companies, both nationally and internationally. Under the previous federal Minister of State (Science and Technology), Gary Goodyear, the NRC became in the words of one wag a "toolbox for industry" and dented basic-research infrastructure. In August 2020 under Minister of Innovation, Science and Industry Navdeep Bains and President Iain Stewart, the NRC announced it was building the Biologics Manufacturing Centre, a facility that can produce vaccines and other biologics. The construction of the facility was started as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, and Canada's inability to produce COVID-19 Vaccines. The facility is expected to open in July 2021, and will have a vaccine manufacturing capacity of 2 million does per month. In February 2021, the Canadian government has signed a memorandum of understanding with Novavax to pursue manufacturing its NVX-CoV2373 vaccine at the Biologics Manufacturing Centre. In September 2020, President Iain Stewart was shuffled to the troubled Public Health Agency of Canada, and in December 2020 Bains named Mitch Davies to fill the vacancy. Divisions and portfolios Divisions of the NRC include: Digital Technologies Artificial intelligence Bioinformatics Blockchain Computer vision and graphics Cybersecurity Data analysis and modelling Human–computer interaction Internet of things Natural language processing Emerging Technologies Advanced Electronics and Photonics Herzberg Astronomy and Astrophysics Metrology Nanotechnology Security and Disruptive Technologies Engineering Construction Energy, Mining and Environment Ocean, Coastal and River Engineering Life Sciences Aquatic and Crop Resource Development Human Health Therapeutics Medical Devices Clinical Trial Material Facility Project Transportation and Manufacturing Aerospace Automotive and Surface Transportation Industrial Research Assistance Program Secretary General Business and Professional Services Corporate Services and Finance Biologics Manufacturing Centre (BMC) Project Programmes Some areas of research & development at NRC include: aerospace engineering and manufacturing astronomy high-throughput DNA sequencing photonics biotechnology nanotechnology At one point in January 2018 the NRC had over 30 approved programs, including the following. Facilities The following are the NRC's various research centres and their areas of R&D: Advanced Electronics and Photonics Research Centre — semiconducting materials and photonic device design Aerospace Research Centre — design, manufacturing, performance and maintenance of air and space vehicles Aquatic and Crop Resource Development Research Centre — sustainability of foods and other bio-product sectors Automotive and Surface Transportation Research Centre — eco-friendly and more economical vehicles Canadian Campus for Advanced Materials Manufacturing (CCAMM) — a joint initiative with the Xerox Research Centre of Canada (XRCC). Centre for Research and Applications in Fluidic Technologies (CRAFT) — in vitro diagnostics, regenerative medicine, and precision medicine. Collaboration Centre for Clean Energy Transition — in partnership with the University of British Columbia Collaborative Unit for Translational Research — in partnership with CHU Sainte-Justine; treatment, analytics, and diagnoses for mothers and children. Construction Research Centre — building materials and regulations, fire safety, infrastructure and more Cybersecurity Collaboration Consortium — in partnership with the Canadian Institute for Cybersecurity (University of New Brunswick); cybersecurity research and its applications in security, privacy, and safety. Digital Technologies Research Centre — artificial intelligence, bioinformatics, blockchain, computer vision, cybersecurity, data analytics, language processing Energy, Mining and Environment Research Centre — reducing environmental risks and increasing "global competitiveness in the energy and mining sectors." Herzberg Astronomy and Astrophysics Research Centre — observatories and other astronomy and astrophysics infrastructure Human Health Therapeutics Research Centre — advanced therapeutics, vaccines and diagnostics technologies Karluk Collaboration Space — ocean engineering, technology, and science. Medical Devices Research Centre — medical diagnostic technology Metrology Research Centre — measurement research and metrological services Nanotechnology Research Centre — nanotechnology NRC-Fields Mathematical Sciences Collaboration Centre NRC-uOttawa Joint Centre for Extreme Photonics — in partnership with the University of Ottawa Ocean, Coastal and River Engineering Research Centre Security and Disruptive Technologies Research Centre — facilities and technical support for nanotechnologies, advanced materials, photonics and quantum technologies Former facilities: Chalk River Laboratories Montreal Laboratory Algal Carbon Conversion Flagship Program The goal of the Algal Carbon Conversion Pilot Program was to develop of an algae system to recycle carbon emissions from the oil sands. It contained plans for a $19-million facility to be constructed in Alberta, in partnership between the NRC, Canadian Natural Resources, and Pond Biofuels. In 2008, researchers from five I-CAN organizations were developing a Carbon Algae Recycling System (CARS) to "feed waste heat and flue gas containing CO2 from industrial exhaust stacks to micro-algae growing in artificial ponds." The "Algal Carbon Conversion", is related to prior interests of NRC President John McDougall, as he previously headed Innoventures, a company involved in lobbying for the development of an algae system to recycle carbon emissions. The NRC was not involved in this area of research prior to the arrival of McDougall. Canadian Wheat Improvement Flagship The Canadian Wheat Improvement Program is a "strategic collaboration with Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC), the University of Saskatchewan’s Crop Development Centre and the province of Saskatchewan." With a budget of approximately $97 million (2013–2018), the Canadian Wheat Alliance will be conducting research on improving the yield of Canadian wheat crops and on the most efficient use of chemical fertilizers. Working with breeders and scientists at the Crop Development Centre and at AAFC, they will be integrating long term research with genetic improvement of wheat. Gallium Nitride Electronics Program Gallium nitride (GaN) is a semiconductor commonly used in light-emitting diodes. The GaN Electronics Program supports partner research and development activities with a goal of ensuring that GaN technology will create wealth and a greener future for Canadians. The NRC is the only Canadian foundry for GaN electronics, and offers both normally-on and normally-off devices. The GaN500v2 Foundry Design Kit was released on June 28, 2014. Industrial Research Assistance Program (NRC-IRAP) The NRC Industrial Research Assistance Program (NRC-IRAP) was introduced in the 1950s to support product developments in small to medium-sized businesses. The NRC provides grants and financial support to business' looking to bring new and innovative technologies to the market. Some of the many innovations by NRC personnel included the artificial pacemaker, development of canola (rapeseed) in the 1940s, the Crash Position Indicator in the 1950s, and the Cesium Beam atomic clock in the 1960s. Since 1974, Paul Barton of PSB Speakers used the NRC's world-class measurement facilities, their anechoic chamber. By the 1980s, more companies began to use this resource, develop it further, and tested their loudspeakers at the NRC. Electrical engineer, Floyd E. Toole, who worked at the NRC was at the centre of this research. By the year 2000, most companies had their own sound chambers, but Barton continued to use the NRC's facilities. In about 1990, PSB and other Canadian companies worked with the NRC on Athena to evaluate digital signal processing (DSP) for loudspeaker design. From 2002 to 2006, John R. McDougall, who was appointed President of the NRC in 2010, was a member of the NRC-IRAP Advisory Board. In 2011, Bev Oda, the Minister of International Cooperation, and Gary Goodyear, Minister of State (Science and Technology), announced the grant recipients. These included small to medium-sized businesses, such as, Nortek Solutions a privately-owned Canadian software company. They received a $30,000 grant from the NRC to hire a young graphics design graduate to work on their "CUROS" people management software. Oasys Healthcare, a company that provides "innovative audio and video solutions for the medical marketplace" received a $13,000 NRC grant for its new technology for operating rooms. Jeffrey Ross Jewellery's product called Dimples, imprints fingerprints in silver using an innovative process and material, developed through a NRC $35,750 grant. Flight dynamics NRC's fleet of research and test aircraft The NRC has a fleet of nine aircraft for their research purposes: Bell 412 – Advanced Systems Research Aircraft and 4-DOF simulator Bell 205 (205A-1) – 4-DOF simulator Bell 206 (206B) – Rotary trainer and advanced vision studies Canadair CT-133 Silver Star (Mk 3) – Vintage fighter jet Convair 580 – Multi-purpose flying laboratory Falcon 20 (Mystère 20) – Aerospace, geoscience testing and micro gravity testing Twin Otter (Series 200) – Atmospheric and biospheric studies, and for flight mechanics and flight systems development Extra 300 (300L) – studying pilot perception in a dynamic environment and trainer Harvard (4) – Trainer and experimental platform for avionics research NRC's past fleet of research and test aircraft Former aircraft include other models of the nine listed above and the following: C-45 – Atmospheric studies (retired in 1992) Bell 47 – Fly by wire and icing studies (last of 3 retired in the mid 1990s) Canadair North Star – Similar work as the Convair 580. (Retired 1974) de Havilland Canada DHC-5 Buffalo – High wing super STOL aircraft joint project with United States Air Force de Havilland Canada DHC-1 Chipmunk Beechcraft Queen Air – Retired from fleet pre 1980 Research aircraft NRC tailless glider Nobel Prizes Several Nobel laureates have been associated with the NRC at various points of their careers, including: Sir Geoffrey Wilkinson, who spent his time at the NRC in the Montreal and the Chalk River laboratories (1942–1946) Dudley R. Herschbach, formerly an NRC visiting student, Nobel Prize in Chemistry John Polanyi, formerly an NRC postdoctoral Fellow, Nobel Prize in Chemistry Rudolph A. Marcus, formerly an NRC postdoctoral Fellow, Nobel Prize in Chemistry Sir Harold Kroto, formerly an NRC postdoctoral Fellow, Nobel Prize in Chemistry Bertram Brockhouse, who conducted atomic research at Chalk River from 1950 to 1952, and worked at the NRC laboratories in Ottawa (1944–1947) Sir John Pople, Nobel Prize in Chemistry Sir John Cockcroft, Nobel Prize in Physics Gerhard Herzberg, formerly a Director of the Division of Pure Physics, Nobel Prize in Chemistry Donna Strickland, formerly a Research Associate, Nobel Prize in Physics Controversies Harper government Under the tenure of Prime Minister Stephen Harper, Canadian Government research organizations began to restrict the ability of government scientists to communicate with the public. This includes restricting scientists within the NRC to communicate with the public through non-scientist communications personnel. Harper's focus as an economist was on his action plan: creating jobs and building the economy. There were widespread concerns that the progress in development was at the cost of the environment. In 2012, the federal government moved "to defund government research centres in the High Arctic." In the same year National Research Council environmental scientists "were barred from discussing their work on snowfall with the media. The appointment by Harper's Minister of State (Science and Technology) Gary Goodyear of John McDougall as President of the NRC was followed by several controversies: In 2011, President John McDougall began to oversee a change in research focus away from basic research and towards industry-relevant research. This included the development of multiple programs which shifted the research budget out of existing projects and into a number of focused programs. The transformation of the NRC into a research and technology organization that focuses on "business-led research" was part of the Harper government's Economic Action Plan. On 7 May 2013, the NRC launched its new "business approach" in which it offered four business lines: strategic research and development, technical services, management of science and technology infrastructure and NRC-Industrial Research Assistance Program (IRAP). With these services, the NRC intended to shorten the gap between early stage research and development and commercialization. During his tenure as president, there was a drop in research publications and new patents from the NRC as the scientific staff was cut significantly. An article published in April 2016 and based on information from the office of the Minister of Science gave the following figures for the period 2011–2015: In the five years from 2011 through 2015, the number of studies in academic journals were 1,889, 1,650, 1,204, 1,017 and 549, respectively. (Figures from 2010 and earlier are generally in the 1,200 to 1,300 range.) The number of patents over the period 2011 to 2014 (with no figure available for 2015) are: 205, 251, 128 and 112, respectively. The years before 2011 averaged 250 to 300 patents per year. In September 2016, the office of the Minister of Science released figures showing that from 2010 to 2015, the number of research officers at the NRC fell by 26 per cent, and the number of scientists and engineers of all kinds fell by 22 per cent. McDougall's tenure as president included the period during which the NRC contaminated the water table in the Eastern Ontario community of Mississippi Mills, without informing its inhabitants. In January 2014, NRC employees at the fire-safety testing facility in Mississippi Mills were told to start drinking bottled water. In December 2015, 23 months later, residents of Mississippi Mills with homes near the facility were warned by the NRC that their well-water was contaminated with toxic chemicals called perfluorinated alkyl substances, often found in firefighting foam. In July 2016, Acting President Maria Aubrey formally acknowledged that the NRC's National Fire Laboratory was the source of the groundwater contamination in Mississippi Mills. In December 2016, it was reported that owners of homes near the lab in Mississippi Mills were launching a multi-million dollar lawsuit against the NRC over water contamination. In March 2016, John McDougall sent a three-sentence email to NRC employees, announcing that he was going on personal leave. Subsequently, NRC management announced that two major projects he had led would be abandoned: re-branding the NRC as "CNRCSolutions" – though colourful "CNRCSolutions" T-shirts and "branding books" had already been distributed, and re-organizing its three research divisions into five research divisions. Effective August 24, 2016 under Kirsty Duncan, Iain Stewart became the new President of the NRC. The details regarding McDougall's personal leave were not publicly disclosed. Bill C-38 Bill C-38 angered many people who opposed unregulated industrial growth. They argued that science was being gutted and silenced to open the way for development in ecologically sensitive areas in the north. In June 2012, the federal opposition made a motion in parliament, Thirty Meter Telescope Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT) is a proposed extremely large telescope (ELT) that has become controversial due to its planned location on Mauna Kea, which is considered sacred land according to the native Hawaiians, on the island of Hawaii in the United States. On April 6, 2015, Prime Minister Stephen Harper announced that Canada would commit $243.5 million over a period of 10 years. The telescope's enclosure was designed by Dynamic Structures Ltd. in British Columbia. In an online petition, a group of Canadian academics have called on Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, together with Navdeep Bains (then Minister of Innovation, Science and Economic Development) and Kirsty Duncan (then Minister Of Science) to divest Canadian funding from the project. On July 20, 2019, an online petition titled "A Call to Divest Canada's Research Funding for the Thirty Meter Telescope on Mauna Kea" has been posted on Change.org. Agencies with special relationships with the NRC Specialized agencies and services which have branched out of the NRC include: Canadian Space Agency Defence Research and Development Canada Atomic Energy of Canada Limited Canadian Institutes of Health Research Communications Security Establishment Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council See also National Research Council Time Signal Canadian government scientific research organizations Canadian university scientific research organizations Canadian industrial research and development organizations List of presidents of the National Research Council Canada Science and technology in Canada Herbert Yardley – American cryptologist who help establish the Examination Unit in 1941 William Arthur Steel – headed radio laboratory at the NRC in the 1930s List of aerospace flight test centres NRC Research Press Notes References External links Archival papers held at University of Toronto Archives and Records Management Services Government agencies established in 1916 Federal departments and agencies of Canada Education in Canada Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada Scientific organizations based in Canada Science and technology in Canada 1916 establishments in Canada Research councils Members of the International Council for Science Members of the International Science Council Sussex Drive

465730

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N.%20R.%20Narayana%20Murthy

N. R. Narayana Murthy

Nagavara Ramarao Narayana Murthy (born 20 August 1946) is an Indian billionaire businessman. He is the founder of Infosys, and has been the chairman, chief executive officer (CEO), president, and chief mentor of the company before retiring and taking the title chairman emeritus. As of October 2021, his net worth was estimated at US$4.3 billion. Murthy was born and raised in Shidlaghatta, Karnataka. He graduated from National Institute of Engineering, University of Mysore with a bachelor's degree in electrical engineering and a master's degree from the Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur. Before starting Infosys, Murthy worked at Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad as the chief systems programmer, and Patni Computer Systems in Pune (Maharashtra). He started Infosys in 1981 and was the CEO from 1981 to 2002 as well as the chairman from 2002 to 2011. In 2011, he stepped down from the board and became the chairman emeritus. In June 2013, Murthy was appointed as the executive chairman for a period of five years. Murthy has been listed among the 12 greatest entrepreneurs of our time by Fortune magazine. He has been described as the "father of the Indian IT sector" by Time magazine and CNBC for his contribution to outsourcing in India. Murthy has been honoured with the Padma Vibhushan and Padma Shri awards. He is the father-in-law of Rishi Sunak, a British MP and the current Chancellor of the Exchequer. Early life and education N. R. Narayana Murthy was born on 20 August 1946 in Sidlaghatta in the Kingdom of Mysore in British India (present-day Chikkaballapura district, Karnataka, India) into a middle-class Kannada Brahmin family. After completing his school education, he went to the National Institute of Engineering and graduated in 1967 with a degree in electrical engineering. In 1969 he received his master's degree from the Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur. Career Murthy first served as a Research Associate under a faculty at IIM Ahmedabad and then later served as the chief systems programmer. There he worked on India's first time-sharing computer system and designed and implemented a BASIC interpreter for Electronics Corporation of India Limited. He started a company named Softronics. When that company failed after about a year and a half, he joined Patni Computer Systems in Pune. A bitter experience on a train in 1974 in Niš, a border town between what is now Serbia and Bulgaria, turned N R Narayana Murthy into a "compassionate capitalist" from a "confused leftist", leading him to create Infosys. Murthy and his six software professionals founded Infosys in 1981 with an initial capital investment of Rs 10,000, which was provided by his wife Sudha Murthy. Murthy served as the CEO of Infosys for 21 years from 1981 to 2002 and was succeeded by co-founder Nandan Nilekani. At Infosys he articulated, designed and implemented the Global Delivery Model for IT services outsourcing from India. He was the chairman of the board from 2002 to 2006, after which he also became the Chief Mentor. In August 2011, he retired from the company, taking the title chairman Emeritus. Murthy is an independent director on the corporate board of HSBC and has been a director on the boards of DBS Bank, Unilever, ICICI and NDTV. He is also a member of the advisory boards and councils of several educational and philanthropic institutions, including Cornell University, INSEAD, ESSEC, Ford Foundation, the UN Foundation, the Indo-British Partnership, Asian Institute of Management, a trustee of the Infosys Prize, a trustee of the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, and as a trustee of the Rhodes Trust. He is also the Chairman of the Governing board of Public Health Foundation of India. He is on the Asia Pacific advisory board of British Telecommunications. In 2005, he co-chaired the World Economic Forum in Davos. In June 2013, Murthy returned to Infosys as executive chairman and a director. In June 2014, he stood down as executive chairman, was the non-executive chairman until October, when he became chairman emeritus. Murthy is also on the strategic board which advises the national law firm, Cyril Amarchand Mangaldas, on strategic, policy and governance issues. He is also a member of IESE's International Advisory Board (IAB). In 2016, Murthy spoke with Harvard Business Review Ascend on the subject of "How To Be a Better Manager", where he shared tips that he has learned from his own life. In 2017, Murthy raised concerns over alleged corporate governance lapses at Infosys, however the company went on to deny these claims. Personal life His wife, Sudha Murthy, is a social worker and author, and does philanthropic work through the Infosys Foundation. Murthy has two children, a son, Rohan Murty, and a daughter, Akshata Murthy. In June 2013, Rohan joined Infosys as an executive assistant to his father. He left Infosys in June 2014. In 2009, Akshata married Rishi Sunak; the UK's Chancellor of the Exchequer and Conservative MP for Richmond, Yorkshire. Awards and honours Books A Better India: A Better World, Penguin Books, 2009 A Clear Blue Sky: Stories and Poems on Conflict and Hope, Puffin Books India, 2017 The Wit and Wisdom of Narayana Murthy, Hay House, 2016 References Further reading External links Profile at Infosys 1946 births Living people Recipients of the Padma Shri in trade and industry Recipients of the Padma Vibhushan in trade & industry Businesspeople in software Kannada people Indian billionaires Businesspeople from Mysore IIT Kanpur alumni Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad faculty Trustees of the Institute for Advanced Study Officiers of the Légion d'honneur Honorary Commanders of the Order of the British Empire Businesspeople from Bangalore Infosys people Indian software engineers 20th-century Indian engineers 20th-century Indian businesspeople HSBC people DBS Bank people Unilever people ICICI Bank NDTV Group British Telecom people Cornell University staff INSEAD faculty Indian technology company founders United Nations Foundation Winners of the Nikkei Asia Prize Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur Murthy family Madhva Brahmins

19001

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft

Microsoft

Microsoft Corporation is an American multinational technology corporation which produces computer software, consumer electronics, personal computers, and related services. Its best-known software products are the Microsoft Windows line of operating systems, the Microsoft Office suite, and the Internet Explorer and Edge web browsers. Its flagship hardware products are the Xbox video game consoles and the Microsoft Surface lineup of touchscreen personal computers. Microsoft ranked No. 21 in the 2020 Fortune 500 rankings of the largest United States corporations by total revenue; it was the world's largest software maker by revenue as of 2016. It is one of the Big Five American information technology companies, alongside Alphabet, Amazon, Apple, and Meta. Microsoft (the word being a portmanteau of "microcomputer software") was founded by Bill Gates and Paul Allen on April 4, 1975, to develop and sell BASIC interpreters for the Altair 8800. It rose to dominate the personal computer operating system market with MS-DOS in the mid-1980s, followed by Microsoft Windows. The company's 1986 initial public offering (IPO), and subsequent rise in its share price, created three billionaires and an estimated 12,000 millionaires among Microsoft employees. Since the 1990s, it has increasingly diversified from the operating system market and has made a number of corporate acquisitions, their largest being the acquisition of LinkedIn for $26.2 billion in December 2016, followed by their acquisition of Skype Technologies for $8.5 billion in May 2011. , Microsoft is market-dominant in the IBM PC compatible operating system market and the office software suite market, although it has lost the majority of the overall operating system market to Android. The company also produces a wide range of other consumer and enterprise software for desktops, laptops, tabs, gadgets, and servers, including Internet search (with Bing), the digital services market (through MSN), mixed reality (HoloLens), cloud computing (Azure), and software development (Visual Studio). Steve Ballmer replaced Gates as CEO in 2000, and later envisioned a "devices and services" strategy. This unfolded with Microsoft acquiring Danger Inc. in 2008, entering the personal computer production market for the first time in June 2012 with the launch of the Microsoft Surface line of tablet computers, and later forming Microsoft Mobile through the acquisition of Nokia's devices and services division. Since Satya Nadella took over as CEO in 2014, the company has scaled back on hardware and has instead focused on cloud computing, a move that helped the company's shares reach its highest value since December 1999. Earlier dethroned by Apple in 2010, in 2018 Microsoft reclaimed its position as the most valuable publicly traded company in the world. In April 2019, Microsoft reached the market cap, becoming the third U.S. public company to be valued at over $1 trillion after Apple and Amazon respectively. , Microsoft has the third-highest global brand valuation. History 1972–1985: Founding Childhood friends Bill Gates and Paul Allen sought to make a business using their skills in computer programming. In 1972, they founded Traf-O-Data, which sold a rudimentary computer to track and analyze automobile traffic data. Gates enrolled at Harvard University while Allen pursued a degree in computer science at Washington State University, though he later dropped out to work at Honeywell. The January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics featured Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems's (MITS) Altair 8800 microcomputer, which inspired Allen to suggest that they could program a BASIC interpreter for the device. Gates called MITS and claimed that he had a working interpreter, and MITS requested a demonstration. Allen worked on a simulator for the Altair while Gates developed the interpreter, and it worked flawlessly when they demonstrated it to MITS in March 1975 in Albuquerque, New Mexico. MITS agreed to distribute it, marketing it as Altair BASIC. Gates and Allen established Microsoft on April 4, 1975, with Gates as CEO, and Allen suggested the name "Micro-Soft", short for micro-computer software. In August 1977, the company formed an agreement with ASCII Magazine in Japan, resulting in its first international office of ASCII Microsoft. Microsoft moved its headquarters to Bellevue, Washington, in January 1979. Microsoft entered the operating system (OS) business in 1980 with its own version of Unix called Xenix, but it was MS-DOS that solidified the company's dominance. IBM awarded a contract to Microsoft in November 1980 to provide a version of the CP/M OS to be used in the IBM Personal Computer (IBM PC). For this deal, Microsoft purchased a CP/M clone called 86-DOS from Seattle Computer Products which it branded as MS-DOS, although IBM rebranded it to IBM PC DOS. Microsoft retained ownership of MS-DOS following the release of the IBM PC in August 1981. IBM had copyrighted the IBM PC BIOS, so other companies had to reverse engineer it in order for non-IBM hardware to run as IBM PC compatibles, but no such restriction applied to the operating systems. Microsoft eventually became the leading PC operating systems vendor. The company expanded into new markets with the release of the Microsoft Mouse in 1983, as well as with a publishing division named Microsoft Press. Paul Allen resigned from Microsoft in 1983 after developing Hodgkin's disease. Allen claimed in Idea Man: A Memoir by the Co-founder of Microsoft that Gates wanted to dilute his share in the company when he was diagnosed with Hodgkin's disease because he did not think that he was working hard enough. Allen later invested in low-tech sectors, sports teams, commercial real estate, neuroscience, private space flight, and more. 1985–1994: Windows and Office Microsoft released Microsoft Windows on November 20, 1985, as a graphical extension for MS-DOS, despite having begun jointly developing OS/2 with IBM the previous August. Microsoft moved its headquarters from Bellevue to Redmond, Washington, on February 26, 1986, and went public on March 13, with the resulting rise in stock making an estimated four billionaires and 12,000 millionaires from Microsoft employees. Microsoft released its version of OS/2 to original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) on April 2, 1987. In 1990, the Federal Trade Commission examined Microsoft for possible collusion due to the partnership with IBM, marking the beginning of more than a decade of legal clashes with the government. Meanwhile, the company was at work on Microsoft Windows NT, which was heavily based on their copy of the OS/2 code. It shipped on July 21, 1993, with a new modular kernel and the 32-bit Win32 application programming interface (API), making it easier to port from 16-bit (MS-DOS-based) Windows. Microsoft informed IBM of Windows NT, and the OS/2 partnership deteriorated. In 1990, Microsoft introduced the Microsoft Office suite which bundled separate applications such as Microsoft Word and Microsoft Excel. On May 22, Microsoft launched Windows 3.0, featuring streamlined user interface graphics and improved protected mode capability for the Intel 386 processor, and both Office and Windows became dominant in their respective areas. On July 27, 1994, the Department of Justice's Antitrust Division filed a competitive impact statement which said: "Beginning in 1988 and continuing until July 15, 1994, Microsoft induced many OEMs to execute anti-competitive 'per processor' licenses. Under a per-processor license, an OEM pays Microsoft a royalty for each computer it sells containing a particular microprocessor, whether the OEM sells the computer with a Microsoft operating system or a non-Microsoft operating system. In effect, the royalty payment to Microsoft when no Microsoft product is being used acts as a penalty, or tax, on the OEM's use of a competing PC operating system. Since 1988, Microsoft's use of per processor licenses has increased." 1995–2007: Foray into the Web, Windows 95, Windows XP, and Xbox Following Bill Gates' internal "Internet Tidal Wave memo" on May 26, 1995, Microsoft began to redefine its offerings and expand its product line into computer networking and the World Wide Web. With a few exceptions of new companies, like Netscape, Microsoft was the only major and established company that acted fast enough to be a part of the World Wide Web practically from the start. Other companies like Borland, WordPerfect, Novell, IBM and Lotus, being much slower to adapt to the new situation, would give Microsoft a market dominance. The company released Windows 95 on August 24, 1995, featuring pre-emptive multitasking, a completely new user interface with a novel start button, and 32-bit compatibility; similar to NT, it provided the Win32 API. Windows 95 came bundled with the online service MSN, which was at first intended to be a competitor to the Internet, and (for OEMs) Internet Explorer, a Web browser. Internet Explorer was not bundled with the retail Windows 95 boxes, because the boxes were printed before the team finished the Web browser, and instead was included in the Windows 95 Plus! pack. Backed by a high-profile marketing campaign and what The New York Times called "the splashiest, most frenzied, most expensive introduction of a computer product in the industry's history," Windows 95 quickly became a success. Branching out into new markets in 1996, Microsoft and General Electric's NBC unit created a new 24/7 cable news channel, MSNBC. Microsoft created Windows CE 1.0, a new OS designed for devices with low memory and other constraints, such as personal digital assistants. In October 1997, the Justice Department filed a motion in the Federal District Court, stating that Microsoft violated an agreement signed in 1994 and asked the court to stop the bundling of Internet Explorer with Windows. On January 13, 2000, Bill Gates handed over the CEO position to Steve Ballmer, an old college friend of Gates and employee of the company since 1980, while creating a new position for himself as Chief Software Architect. Various companies including Microsoft formed the Trusted Computing Platform Alliance in October 1999 to (among other things) increase security and protect intellectual property through identifying changes in hardware and software. Critics decried the alliance as a way to enforce indiscriminate restrictions over how consumers use software, and over how computers behave, and as a form of digital rights management: for example the scenario where a computer is not only secured for its owner, but also secured against its owner as well. On April 3, 2000, a judgment was handed down in the case of United States v. Microsoft Corp., calling the company an "abusive monopoly." Microsoft later settled with the U.S. Department of Justice in 2004. On October 25, 2001, Microsoft released Windows XP, unifying the mainstream and NT lines of OS under the NT codebase. The company released the Xbox later that year, entering the video game console market dominated by Sony and Nintendo. In March 2004 the European Union brought antitrust legal action against the company, citing it abused its dominance with the Windows OS, resulting in a judgment of €497 million ($613 million) and requiring Microsoft to produce new versions of Windows XP without Windows Media Player: Windows XP Home Edition N and Windows XP Professional N. In November 2005, the company's second video game console, the Xbox 360, was released. There were two versions, a basic version for $299.99 and a deluxe version for $399.99. Increasingly present in the hardware business following Xbox, Microsoft in 2006 released the Zune series of digital media players, a successor of its previous software platform Portable Media Center. These expanded on previous hardware commitments from Microsoft following its original Microsoft Mouse in 1983; as of 2007 the company sold the best-selling wired keyboard (Natural Ergonomic Keyboard 4000), mouse (IntelliMouse), and desktop webcam (LifeCam) in the United States. That year the company also launched the Surface "digital table", later renamed PixelSense. 2007–2011: Microsoft Azure, Windows Vista, Windows 7, and Microsoft Stores Released in January 2007, the next version of Windows, Vista, focused on features, security and a redesigned user interface dubbed Aero. Microsoft Office 2007, released at the same time, featured a "Ribbon" user interface which was a significant departure from its predecessors. Relatively strong sales of both products helped to produce a record profit in 2007. The European Union imposed another fine of €899 million ($1.4 billion) for Microsoft's lack of compliance with the March 2004 judgment on February 27, 2008, saying that the company charged rivals unreasonable prices for key information about its workgroup and backoffice servers. Microsoft stated that it was in compliance and that "these fines are about the past issues that have been resolved". 2007 also saw the creation of a multi-core unit at Microsoft, following the steps of server companies such as Sun and IBM. Gates retired from his role as Chief Software Architect on June 27, 2008, a decision announced in June 2006, while retaining other positions related to the company in addition to being an advisor for the company on key projects. Azure Services Platform, the company's entry into the cloud computing market for Windows, launched on October 27, 2008. On February 12, 2009, Microsoft announced its intent to open a chain of Microsoft-branded retail stores, and on October 22, 2009, the first retail Microsoft Store opened in Scottsdale, Arizona; the same day Windows 7 was officially released to the public. Windows 7's focus was on refining Vista with ease-of-use features and performance enhancements, rather than an extensive reworking of Windows. As the smartphone industry boomed in the late 2000s, Microsoft had struggled to keep up with its rivals in providing a modern smartphone operating system, falling behind Apple and Google-sponsored Android in the United States. As a result, in 2010 Microsoft revamped their aging flagship mobile operating system, Windows Mobile, replacing it with the new Windows Phone OS that was released in October that year. It used a new user interface design language, codenamed "Metro", which prominently used simple shapes, typography and iconography, utilizing the concept of minimalism. Microsoft implemented a new strategy for the software industry, providing a consistent user experience across all smartphones using the Windows Phone OS. It launched an alliance with Nokia in 2011 and Microsoft worked closely with the company to co-develop Windows Phone, but remained partners with long-time Windows Mobile OEM HTC. Microsoft is a founding member of the Open Networking Foundation started on March 23, 2011. Fellow founders were Google, HP Networking, Yahoo!, Verizon Communications, Deutsche Telekom and 17 other companies. This nonprofit organization is focused on providing support for a cloud computing initiative called Software-Defined Networking. The initiative is meant to speed innovation through simple software changes in telecommunications networks, wireless networks, data centers and other networking areas. 2011–2014: Windows 8/8.1, Xbox One, Outlook.com, and Surface devices Following the release of Windows Phone, Microsoft undertook a gradual rebranding of its product range throughout 2011 and 2012, with the corporation's logos, products, services and websites adopting the principles and concepts of the Metro design language. Microsoft unveiled Windows 8, an operating system designed to power both personal computers and tablet computers, in Taipei in June 2011. A developer preview was released on September 13, which was subsequently replaced by a consumer preview on February 29, 2012, and released to the public in May. The Surface was unveiled on June 18, becoming the first computer in the company's history to have its hardware made by Microsoft. On June 25, Microsoft paid US$1.2 billion to buy the social network Yammer. On July 31, they launched the Outlook.com webmail service to compete with Gmail. On September 4, 2012, Microsoft released Windows Server 2012. In July 2012, Microsoft sold its 50% stake in MSNBC, which it had run as a joint venture with NBC since 1996. On October 1, Microsoft announced its intention to launch a news operation, part of a new-look MSN, with Windows 8 later in the month. On October 26, 2012, Microsoft launched Windows 8 and the Microsoft Surface. Three days later, Windows Phone 8 was launched. To cope with the potential for an increase in demand for products and services, Microsoft opened a number of "holiday stores" across the U.S. to complement the increasing number of "bricks-and-mortar" Microsoft Stores that opened in 2012. On March 29, 2013, Microsoft launched a Patent Tracker. In August 2012, the New York City Police Department announced a partnership with Microsoft for the development of the Domain Awareness System which is used for Police surveillance in New York City. The Kinect, a motion-sensing input device made by Microsoft and designed as a video game controller, first introduced in November 2010, was upgraded for the 2013 release of the Xbox One video game console. Kinect's capabilities were revealed in May 2013: an ultra-wide 1080p camera, function in the dark due to an infrared sensor, higher-end processing power and new software, the ability to distinguish between fine movements (such as a thumb movement), and determining a user's heart rate by looking at their face. Microsoft filed a patent application in 2011 that suggests that the corporation may use the Kinect camera system to monitor the behavior of television viewers as part of a plan to make the viewing experience more interactive. On July 19, 2013, Microsoft stocks suffered their biggest one-day percentage sell-off since the year 2000, after its fourth-quarter report raised concerns among the investors on the poor showings of both Windows 8 and the Surface tablet. Microsoft suffered a loss of more than US$32 billion. In line with the maturing PC business, in July 2013, Microsoft announced that it would reorganize the business into four new business divisions, namely Operating System, Apps, Cloud, and Devices. All previous divisions will be dissolved into new divisions without any workforce cuts. On September 3, 2013, Microsoft agreed to buy Nokia's mobile unit for $7 billion, following Amy Hood taking the role of CFO. 2014–2020: Windows 10, Microsoft Edge, and HoloLens On February 4, 2014, Steve Ballmer stepped down as CEO of Microsoft and was succeeded by Satya Nadella, who previously led Microsoft's Cloud and Enterprise division. On the same day, John W. Thompson took on the role of chairman, in place of Bill Gates, who continued to participate as a technology advisor. Thompson became the second chairman in Microsoft's history. On April 25, 2014, Microsoft acquired Nokia Devices and Services for $7.2 billion. This new subsidiary was renamed Microsoft Mobile Oy. On September 15, 2014, Microsoft acquired the video game development company Mojang, best known for Minecraft, for $2.5 billion. On June 8, 2017, Microsoft acquired Hexadite, an Israeli security firm, for $100 million. On January 21, 2015, Microsoft announced the release of their first Interactive whiteboard, Microsoft Surface Hub. On July 29, 2015, Windows 10 was released, with its server sibling, Windows Server 2016, released in September 2016. In Q1 2015, Microsoft was the third largest maker of mobile phones, selling 33 million units (7.2% of all). While a large majority (at least 75%) of them do not run any version of Windows Phone— those other phones are not categorized as smartphones by Gartner in the same time frame 8 million Windows smartphones (2.5% of all smartphones) were made by all manufacturers (but mostly by Microsoft). Microsoft's share of the U.S. smartphone market in January 2016 was 2.7%. During the summer of 2015 the company lost $7.6 billion related to its mobile-phone business, firing 7,800 employees. On March 1, 2016, Microsoft announced the merger of its PC and Xbox divisions, with Phil Spencer announcing that Universal Windows Platform (UWP) apps would be the focus for Microsoft's gaming in the future. On January 24, 2017, Microsoft showcased Intune for Education at the BETT 2017 education technology conference in London. Intune for Education is a new cloud-based application and device management service for the education sector. In May 2016, the company announced it was laying off 1,850 workers, and taking an impairment and restructuring charge of $950 million. In June 2016, Microsoft announced a project named Microsoft Azure Information Protection. It aims to help enterprises protect their data as it moves between servers and devices. In November 2016, Microsoft joined the Linux Foundation as a Platinum member during Microsoft's Connect(); developer event in New York. The cost of each Platinum membership is US$500,000 per year. Some analysts deemed this unthinkable ten years prior, however, as in 2001 then-CEO Steve Ballmer called Linux "cancer". Microsoft planned to launch a preview of Intune for Education "in the coming weeks", with general availability scheduled for spring 2017, priced at $30 per device, or through volume licensing agreements. In January 2018, Microsoft patched Windows 10 to account for CPU problems related to Intel's Meltdown security breach. The patch led to issues with the Microsoft Azure virtual machines reliant on Intel's CPU architecture. On January 12, Microsoft released PowerShell Core 6.0 for the macOS and Linux operating systems. In February 2018, Microsoft killed notification support for their Windows Phone devices which effectively ended firmware updates for the discontinued devices. In March 2018, Microsoft recalled Windows 10 S to change it to a mode for the Windows operating system rather than a separate and unique operating system. In March the company also established guidelines that censor users of Office 365 from using profanity in private documents. In April 2018, Microsoft released the source code for Windows File Manager under the MIT License to celebrate the program's 20th anniversary. In April the company further expressed willingness to embrace open source initiatives by announcing Azure Sphere as its own derivative of the Linux operating system. In May 2018, Microsoft partnered with 17 American intelligence agencies to develop cloud computing products. The project is dubbed "Azure Government" and has ties to the Joint Enterprise Defense Infrastructure (JEDI) surveillance program. On June 4, 2018, Microsoft officially announced the acquisition of GitHub for $7.5 billion, a deal that closed on October 26, 2018. On July 10, 2018, Microsoft revealed the Surface Go platform to the public. Later in the month it converted Microsoft Teams to gratis. In August 2018, Microsoft released two projects called Microsoft AccountGuard and Defending Democracy. It also unveiled Snapdragon 850 compatibility for Windows 10 on the ARM architecture. In August 2018, Toyota Tsusho began a partnership with Microsoft to create fish farming tools using the Microsoft Azure application suite for Internet of things (IoT) technologies related to water management. Developed in part by researchers from Kindai University, the water pump mechanisms use artificial intelligence to count the number of fish on a conveyor belt, analyze the number of fish, and deduce the effectiveness of water flow from the data the fish provide. The specific computer programs used in the process fall under the Azure Machine Learning and the Azure IoT Hub platforms. In September 2018, Microsoft discontinued Skype Classic. On October 10, 2018, Microsoft joined the Open Invention Network community despite holding more than 60,000 patents. In November 2018, Microsoft agreed to supply 100,000 Microsoft HoloLens headsets to the United States military in order to "increase lethality by enhancing the ability to detect, decide and engage before the enemy." In November 2018, Microsoft introduced Azure Multi-Factor Authentication for Microsoft Azure. In December 2018, Microsoft announced Project Mu, an open source release of the Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI) core used in Microsoft Surface and Hyper-V products. The project promotes the idea of Firmware as a Service. In the same month, Microsoft announced the open source implementation of Windows Forms and the Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF) which will allow for further movement of the company toward the transparent release of key frameworks used in developing Windows desktop applications and software. December also saw the company discontinue the Microsoft Edge project in favor of Chromium backends for their browsers. On February 20, 2019, Microsoft Corp said it will offer its cyber security service AccountGuard to 12 new markets in Europe including Germany, France and Spain, to close security gaps and protect customers in political space from hacking. In February 2019, hundreds of Microsoft employees protested the company's war profiteering from a $480 million contract to develop virtual reality headsets for the United States Army. 2020–present: Acquisitions, Xbox Series X/S, and Windows 11 On March 26, 2020, Microsoft announced it was acquiring Affirmed Networks for about $1.35 billion. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Microsoft closed all of its retail stores indefinitely due to health concerns. On July 22, 2020, Microsoft announced plans to close its Mixer service, planning to move existing partners to Facebook Gaming. On July 31, 2020, it was reported that Microsoft was in talks to acquire TikTok after the Trump administration ordered ByteDance to divest ownership of the application to the U.S. On August 3, 2020, after speculation on the deal, Donald Trump stated that Microsoft could buy the application, however it should be completed by September 15, 2020, and that the United States Department of the Treasury should receive a portion if it were to go through. On August 5, 2020, Microsoft stopped its xCloud game streaming test for iOS devices. According to Microsoft, the future of xCloud on iOS remains unclear and potentially out of Microsoft's hands. Apple has imposed a strict limit on "remote desktop clients" that means applications are only allowed to connect to a user-owned host device or gaming console owned by the user. On September 21, 2020, Microsoft announced its intent to acquire video game company ZeniMax Media, the parent company of Bethesda Softworks, for about $7.5 billion, with the deal expected to be occurred in the second half of 2021 fiscal year. On March 9, 2021, the acquisition was finalized and ZeniMax Media became part of Microsoft's Xbox Game Studios division. The total price of the deal was $8.1 billion. On September 22, 2020, Microsoft announced that it had an exclusive license to use OpenAI’s GPT-3 artificial intelligence language generator. The previous version of GPT-3, called GPT-2, made headlines for being “too dangerous to release” and had numerous capabilities, including designing websites, prescribing medication, answering questions and penning articles. On November 10, 2020, Microsoft released the Xbox Series X and Xbox Series S video game consoles. In April 2021, Microsoft said that it will buy Nuance Communications for about $16 billion in cash. In 2021, in part due to the strong quarterly earnings spurred by the COVID-19 pandemic, Microsoft's valuation came to near $2 trillion. The increased necessity for remote work and distance education drove up the demand for cloud-computing services and grew the company's gaming sales. On June 24, 2021, Microsoft announced Windows 11 during a livestream. The announcement came with confusion after Microsoft announced Windows 10 would be the last version of the operating system; set to be released in Fall 2021. It was released to the general public on October 5, 2021. In October 2021, Microsoft announced that it began rolling out end-to-end encryption (E2EE) support for Microsoft Teams calls in order to secure business communication while using video conferencing software. Users can ensure that their calls are encrypted and can utilize a security code which both parties on a call must verify on respective ends. On October 7, Microsoft acquired Ally.io, a software service that measures companies' progress against OKRs. Microsoft plans to incorporate Ally.io into its Viva family of employee experience products. On January 18, 2022, Microsoft announced the acquisition of American video game developer and holding company Activision Blizzard in an all-cash deal worth $68.7 billion. Activision Blizzard is best known for producing franchises, including but not limited to Warcraft, Diablo, Call of Duty, StarCraft, Candy Crush Saga, and Overwatch. Activision and Microsoft each released statements saying the acquisition was to benefit their businesses in the metaverse, many saw Microsoft's acquisition of video game studios as an attempt to compete against Meta Platforms, with TheStreet referring to Microsoft wanting to become "the Disney of the metaverse". Microsoft has not released statements regarding Activision's recent legal controversies regarding employee abuse, but reports have alleged that Activision CEO Bobby Kotick, a major target of the controversy, will leave the company after the acquisition is finalized. The deal is expected to close in 2023 followed by a review from the US Federal Trade Commission. Corporate affairs Board of directors The company is run by a board of directors made up of mostly company outsiders, as is customary for publicly traded companies. Members of the board of directors as of July 2020 are Satya Nadella, Reid Hoffman, Hugh Johnston, Teri List-Stoll, Sandi Peterson, Penny Pritzker, Charles Scharf, Arne Sorenson, John W. Stanton, John W. Thompson, Emma Walmsley and Padmasree Warrior. Board members are elected every year at the annual shareholders' meeting using a majority vote system. There are four committees within the board that oversee more specific matters. These committees include the Audit Committee, which handles accounting issues with the company including auditing and reporting; the Compensation Committee, which approves compensation for the CEO and other employees of the company; the Governance and Nominating Committee, which handles various corporate matters including the nomination of the board; and the Regulatory and Public Policy Committee, which includes legal/antitrust matters, along with privacy, trade, digital safety, artificial intelligence, and environmental sustainability. On March 13, 2020, Gates announced that he is leaving the board of directors of Microsoft and Berkshire Hathaway to focus more on his philanthropic efforts. According to Aaron Tilley of The Wall Street Journal this is "marking the biggest boardroom departure in the tech industry since the death of longtime rival and Apple Inc. co-founder Steve Jobs." On January 13, 2022, The Wall Street Journal reported the Microsoft's board of directors plans to hire an external law firm to review its sexual harassment and gender discrimination policies, and to release a summary of how the company handled past allegations of misconduct against Bill Gates and other corporate executives. Chief executives Bill Gates (1975–2000) Steve Ballmer (2000–2014) Satya Nadella (2014–present) Financial When Microsoft went public and launched its initial public offering (IPO) in 1986, the opening stock price was $21; after the trading day, the price closed at $27.75. As of July 2010, with the company's nine stock splits, any IPO shares would be multiplied by 288; if one were to buy the IPO today, given the splits and other factors, it would cost about 9 cents. The stock price peaked in 1999 at around $119 ($60.928, adjusting for splits). The company began to offer a dividend on January 16, 2003, starting at eight cents per share for the fiscal year followed by a dividend of sixteen cents per share the subsequent year, switching from yearly to quarterly dividends in 2005 with eight cents a share per quarter and a special one-time payout of three dollars per share for the second quarter of the fiscal year. Though the company had subsequent increases in dividend payouts, the price of Microsoft's stock remained steady for years. Standard & Poor's and Moody's Investors Service have both given a AAA rating to Microsoft, whose assets were valued at $41 billion as compared to only $8.5 billion in unsecured debt. Consequently, in February 2011 Microsoft released a corporate bond amounting to $2.25 billion with relatively low borrowing rates compared to government bonds. For the first time in 20 years Apple Inc. surpassed Microsoft in Q1 2011 quarterly profits and revenues due to a slowdown in PC sales and continuing huge losses in Microsoft's Online Services Division (which contains its search engine Bing). Microsoft profits were $5.2 billion, while Apple Inc. profits were $6 billion, on revenues of $14.5 billion and $24.7 billion respectively. Microsoft's Online Services Division has been continuously loss-making since 2006 and in Q1 2011 it lost $726 million. This follows a loss of $2.5 billion for the year 2010. On July 20, 2012, Microsoft posted its first quarterly loss ever, despite earning record revenues for the quarter and fiscal year, with a net loss of $492 million due to a writedown related to the advertising company aQuantive, which had been acquired for $6.2 billion back in 2007. As of January 2014, Microsoft's market capitalization stood at $314B, making it the 8th largest company in the world by market capitalization. On November 14, 2014, Microsoft overtook ExxonMobil to become the second most-valuable company by market capitalization, behind only Apple Inc. Its total market value was over $410B—with the stock price hitting $50.04 a share, the highest since early 2000. In 2015, Reuters reported that Microsoft Corp had earnings abroad of $76.4 billion which were untaxed by the Internal Revenue Service. Under U.S. law, corporations don't pay income tax on overseas profits until the profits are brought into the United States. In November 2018, the company won a $480 million military contract with the U.S. government to bring augmented reality (AR) headset technology into the weapon repertoires of American soldiers. The two-year contract may result in follow-on orders of more than 100,000 headsets, according to documentation describing the bidding process. One of the contract's tag lines for the augmented reality technology seems to be its ability to enable "25 bloodless battles before the 1st battle", suggesting that actual combat training is going to be an essential aspect of the augmented reality headset capabilities. Subsidiaries Microsoft is an international business. As such, it needs subsidiaries present in whatever national markets it chooses to harvest. An example is Microsoft Canada, which it established in 1985. Other countries have similar installations, to funnel profits back up to Redmond and to distribute the dividends to the holders of MSFT stock. Marketing In 2004, Microsoft commissioned research firms to do independent studies comparing the total cost of ownership (TCO) of Windows Server 2003 to Linux; the firms concluded that companies found Windows easier to administrate than Linux, thus those using Windows would administrate faster resulting in lower costs for their company (i.e. lower TCO). This spurred a wave of related studies; a study by the Yankee Group concluded that upgrading from one version of Windows Server to another costs a fraction of the switching costs from Windows Server to Linux, although companies surveyed noted the increased security and reliability of Linux servers and concern about being locked into using Microsoft products. Another study, released by the Open Source Development Labs, claimed that the Microsoft studies were "simply outdated and one-sided" and their survey concluded that the TCO of Linux was lower due to Linux administrators managing more servers on average and other reasons. As part of the "Get the Facts" campaign, Microsoft highlighted the .NET Framework trading platform that it had developed in partnership with Accenture for the London Stock Exchange, claiming that it provided "five nines" reliability. After suffering extended downtime and unreliability the London Stock Exchange announced in 2009 that it was planning to drop its Microsoft solution and switch to a Linux-based one in 2010. In 2012, Microsoft hired a political pollster named Mark Penn, whom The New York Times called "famous for bulldozing" his political opponents as Executive Vice-president, Advertising and Strategy. Penn created a series of negative advertisements targeting one of Microsoft's chief competitors, Google. The advertisements, called "Scroogled", attempt to make the case that Google is "screwing" consumers with search results rigged to favor Google's paid advertisers, that Gmail violates the privacy of its users to place ad results related to the content of their emails and shopping results, which favor Google products. Tech publications like TechCrunch have been highly critical of the advertising campaign, while Google employees have embraced it. Layoffs In July 2014, Microsoft announced plans to lay off 18,000 employees. Microsoft employed 127,104 people as of June 5, 2014, making this about a 14 percent reduction of its workforce as the biggest Microsoft lay off ever. This included 12,500 professional and factory personnel. Previously, Microsoft had eliminated 5,800 jobs in 2009 in line with the Great Recession of 2008–2017. In September 2014, Microsoft laid off 2,100 people, including 747 people in the Seattle–Redmond area, where the company is headquartered. The firings came as a second wave of the layoffs that were previously announced. This brought the total number to over 15,000 out of the 18,000 expected cuts. In October 2014, Microsoft revealed that it was almost done with the elimination of 18,000 employees, which was its largest-ever layoff sweep. In July 2015, Microsoft announced another 7,800 job cuts in the next several months. In May 2016, Microsoft announced another 1,850 job cuts mostly in its Nokia mobile phone division. As a result, the company will record an impairment and restructuring charge of approximately $950 million, of which approximately $200 million will relate to severance payments. United States government Microsoft provides information about reported bugs in their software to intelligence agencies of the United States government, prior to the public release of the fix. A Microsoft spokesperson has stated that the corporation runs several programs that facilitate the sharing of such information with the U.S. government. Following media reports about PRISM, NSA's massive electronic surveillance program, in May 2013, several technology companies were identified as participants, including Microsoft. According to leaks of said program, Microsoft joined the PRISM program in 2007. However, in June 2013, an official statement from Microsoft flatly denied their participation in the program: During the first six months in 2013, Microsoft had received requests that affected between 15,000 and 15,999 accounts. In December 2013, the company made statement to further emphasize the fact that they take their customers' privacy and data protection very seriously, even saying that "government snooping potentially now constitutes an 'advanced persistent threat,' alongside sophisticated malware and cyber attacks". The statement also marked the beginning of three-part program to enhance Microsoft's encryption and transparency efforts. On July 1, 2014, as part of this program they opened the first (of many) Microsoft Transparency Center, that provides "participating governments with the ability to review source code for our key products, assure themselves of their software integrity, and confirm there are no "back doors." Microsoft has also argued that the United States Congress should enact strong privacy regulations to protect consumer data. In April 2016, the company sued the U.S. government, arguing that secrecy orders were preventing the company from disclosing warrants to customers in violation of the company's and customers' rights. Microsoft argued that it was unconstitutional for the government to indefinitely ban Microsoft from informing its users that the government was requesting their emails and other documents, and that the Fourth Amendment made it so people or businesses had the right to know if the government searches or seizes their property. On October 23, 2017, Microsoft said it would drop the lawsuit as a result of a policy change by the United States Department of Justice (DoJ). The DoJ had "changed data request rules on alerting the Internet users about agencies accessing their information." Corporate identity Corporate culture Technical reference for developers and articles for various Microsoft magazines such as Microsoft Systems Journal (MSJ) are available through the Microsoft Developer Network (MSDN). MSDN also offers subscriptions for companies and individuals, and the more expensive subscriptions usually offer access to pre-release beta versions of Microsoft software. In April 2004, Microsoft launched a community site for developers and users, titled Channel 9, that provides a wiki and an Internet forum. Another community site that provides daily videocasts and other services, On10.net, launched on March 3, 2006. Free technical support is traditionally provided through online Usenet newsgroups, and CompuServe in the past, monitored by Microsoft employees; there can be several newsgroups for a single product. Helpful people can be elected by peers or Microsoft employees for Microsoft Most Valuable Professional (MVP) status, which entitles them to a sort of special social status and possibilities for awards and other benefits. Noted for its internal lexicon, the expression "eating your own dog food" is used to describe the policy of using pre-release and beta versions of products inside Microsoft in an effort to test them in "real-world" situations. This is usually shortened to just "dog food" and is used as noun, verb, and adjective. Another bit of jargon, FYIFV or FYIV ("Fuck You, I'm [Fully] Vested"), is used by an employee to indicate they are financially independent and can avoid work anytime they wish. Microsoft is an outspoken opponent of the cap on H-1B visas, which allow companies in the U.S. to employ certain foreign workers. Bill Gates claims the cap on H1B visas makes it difficult to hire employees for the company, stating "I'd certainly get rid of the H1B cap" in 2005. Critics of H1B visas argue that relaxing the limits would result in increased unemployment for U.S. citizens due to H1B workers working for lower salaries. The Human Rights Campaign Corporate Equality Index, a report of how progressive the organization deems company policies towards LGBT employees, rated Microsoft as 87% from 2002 to 2004 and as 100% from 2005 to 2010 after they allowed gender expression. In August 2018, Microsoft implemented a policy for all companies providing subcontractors to require 12 weeks of paid parental leave to each employee. This expands on the former requirement from 2015 requiring 15 days of paid vacation and sick leave each year. In 2015, Microsoft established its own parental leave policy to allow 12 weeks off for parental leave with an additional 8 weeks for the parent who gave birth. Environment In 2011, Greenpeace released a report rating the top ten big brands in cloud computing on their sources of electricity for their data centers. At the time, data centers consumed up to 2% of all global electricity and this amount was projected to increase. Phil Radford of Greenpeace said "we are concerned that this new explosion in electricity use could lock us into old, polluting energy sources instead of the clean energy available today," and called on "Amazon, Microsoft and other leaders of the information-technology industry must embrace clean energy to power their cloud-based data centers." In 2013, Microsoft agreed to buy power generated by a Texas wind project to power one of its data centers. Microsoft is ranked on the 17th place in Greenpeace's Guide to Greener Electronics (16th Edition) that ranks 18 electronics manufacturers according to their policies on toxic chemicals, recycling and climate change. Microsoft's timeline for phasing out brominated flame retardant (BFRs) and phthalates in all products is 2012 but its commitment to phasing out PVC is not clear. As of January 2011, it has no products that are completely free from PVC and BFRs. Microsoft's main U.S. campus received a silver certification from the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) program in 2008, and it installed over 2,000 solar panels on top of its buildings at its Silicon Valley campus, generating approximately 15 percent of the total energy needed by the facilities in April 2005. Microsoft makes use of alternative forms of transit. It created one of the world's largest private bus systems, the "Connector", to transport people from outside the company; for on-campus transportation, the "Shuttle Connect" uses a large fleet of hybrid cars to save fuel. The company also subsidizes regional public transport, provided by Sound Transit and King County Metro, as an incentive. In February 2010, however, Microsoft took a stance against adding additional public transport and high-occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes to the State Route 520 and its floating bridge connecting Redmond to Seattle; the company did not want to delay the construction any further. Microsoft was ranked number 1 in the list of the World's Best Multinational Workplaces by the Great Place to Work Institute in 2011. In January 2020, the company promised the carbon dioxide removal of all carbon that it has emitted since its foundation in 1975. On October 9, 2020, Microsoft permanently allowed remote work. In January 2021, the company announced on Twitter to join the Climate Neutral Data Centre Pact, which engages the cloud infrastructure and data centers industries to reach carbon neutrality in Europe by 2030. Headquarters The corporate headquarters, informally known as the Microsoft Redmond campus, is located at One Microsoft Way in Redmond, Washington. Microsoft initially moved onto the grounds of the campus on February 26, 1986, weeks before the company went public on March 13. The headquarters has since experienced multiple expansions since its establishment. It is estimated to encompass over 8 million ft2 (750,000 m2) of office space and 30,000–40,000 employees. Additional offices are located in Bellevue and Issaquah, Washington (90,000 employees worldwide). The company is planning to upgrade its Mountain View, California, campus on a grand scale. The company has occupied this campus since 1981. In 2016, the company bought the campus, with plans to renovate and expand it by 25%. Microsoft operates an East Coast headquarters in Charlotte, North Carolina. Flagship stores On October 26, 2015, the company opened its retail location on Fifth Avenue in New York City. The location features a five-story glass storefront and is 22,270 square feet. As per company executives, Microsoft had been on the lookout for a flagship location since 2009. The company's retail locations are part of a greater strategy to help build a connection with its consumers. The opening of the store coincided with the launch of the Surface Book and Surface Pro 4. On November 12, 2015, Microsoft opened a second flagship store, located in Sydney's Pitt Street Mall. Logo Microsoft adopted the so-called "Pac-Man Logo," designed by Scott Baker, in 1987. Baker stated "The new logo, in Helvetica italic typeface, has a slash between the o and s to emphasize the "soft" part of the name and convey motion and speed." Dave Norris ran an internal joke campaign to save the old logo, which was green, in all uppercase, and featured a fanciful letter O, nicknamed the blibbet, but it was discarded. Microsoft's logo with the tagline "Your potential. Our passion."—below the main corporate name—is based on a slogan Microsoft used in 2008. In 2002, the company started using the logo in the United States and eventually started a television campaign with the slogan, changed from the previous tagline of "Where do you want to go today?" During the private MGX (Microsoft Global Exchange) conference in 2010, Microsoft unveiled the company's next tagline, "Be What's Next." They also had a slogan/tagline "Making it all make sense." On August 23, 2012, Microsoft unveiled a new corporate logo at the opening of its 23rd Microsoft store in Boston, indicating the company's shift of focus from the classic style to the tile-centric modern interface, which it uses/will use on the Windows Phone platform, Xbox 360, Windows 8 and the upcoming Office Suites. The new logo also includes four squares with the colors of the then-current Windows logo which have been used to represent Microsoft's four major products: Windows (blue), Office (red), Xbox (green) and Bing (yellow). The logo resembles the opening of one of the commercials for Windows 95. Sponsorship The company was the official jersey sponsor of Finland's national basketball team at EuroBasket 2015. The company was a Major sponsor of the Toyota Gazoo Racing WRT (2017-2020). The company was a sponsor of the Renault F1 Team (2016-2020) Philanthropy During the COVID-19 pandemic, Microsoft's president, Brad Smith, announced that an initial batch of supplies, including 15,000 protection goggles, infrared thermometers, medical caps, and protective suits, were donated to Seattle, with further aid to come soon. Criticism Criticism of Microsoft has followed various aspects of its products and business practices. Frequently criticized are the ease of use, robustness, and security of the company's software. They've also been criticized for the use of permatemp employees (employees employed for years as "temporary," and therefore without medical benefits), the use of forced retention tactics, which means that employees would be sued if they tried to leave. Historically, Microsoft has also been accused of overworking employees, in many cases, leading to burnout within just a few years of joining the company. The company is often referred to as a "Velvet Sweatshop", a term which originated in a 1989 Seattle Times article, and later became used to describe the company by some of Microsoft's own employees. This characterization is derived from the perception that Microsoft provides nearly everything for its employees in a convenient place, but in turn overworks them to a point where it would be bad for their (possibly long-term) health. "Embrace, extend, and extinguish" (EEE), also known as "embrace, extend, and exterminate", is a phrase that the U.S. Department of Justice found that was used internally by Microsoft to describe its strategy for entering product categories involving widely used standards, extending those standards with proprietary capabilities, and then using those differences to strongly disadvantage competitors. Microsoft is frequently accused of using anticompetitive tactics and abusing its monopolistic power. People who use their products and services often end up becoming dependent on them, a process known as vendor lock-in. Microsoft was the first company to participate in the PRISM surveillance program, according to leaked NSA documents obtained by The Guardian and The Washington Post in June 2013, and acknowledged by government officials following the leak. The program authorizes the government to secretly access data of non-US citizens hosted by American companies without a warrant. Microsoft has denied participation in such a program. Jesse Jackson believes Microsoft should hire more minorities and women. Jackson has urged other companies to diversify their workforce. He believes that Microsoft made some progress when it appointed two women to its board of directors in 2015. Licensing arrangements for service providers The Microsoft Services Provider License Agreement, or SPLA,  is a mechanism by which service providers and independent software vendors (ISVs), who license Microsoft products on a monthly basis, are able to provide software services and hosting services to end-users. The SPLA can be customised to suit the solution being offered and the customers using it. See also List of Microsoft software List of Microsoft hardware List of investments by Microsoft Corporation List of mergers and acquisitions by Microsoft Microsoft engineering groups Microsoft Enterprise Agreement References External links 1975 establishments in New Mexico 1980s initial public offerings American brands American companies established in 1975 Business software companies Cloud computing providers Companies based in Redmond, Washington Companies in the Dow Jones Industrial Average Companies in the NASDAQ-100 Companies in the PRISM network Companies listed on the Nasdaq Computer companies established in 1975 Computer hardware companies CRM software companies Electronics companies established in 1975 Electronics companies of the United States ERP software companies Mobile phone manufacturers Multinational companies headquartered in the United States Portmanteaus Software companies based in Washington (state) Software companies established in 1975 Software companies of the United States Supply chain software companies Technology companies established in 1975 Technology companies of the United States Web service providers