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46877829 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bashar%20Ahmad%20Nuseibeh | Bashar Ahmad Nuseibeh | Bashar Ahmad Nuseibeh, (born 1967) is a Professor of Computing at The Open University in the United Kingdom, a Professor of Software Engineering at the University of Limerick in Ireland, and Chief Scientist of Lero, the Irish Software Research Centre. He is also an Honorary Professor at University College London (UCL) and the National Institute of Informatics (NII), Japan.
Career
Bashar received a BSc (First Class Honours) degree in Computer Systems Engineering from the University of Sussex, UK, in 1988, before moving to Imperial College London to complete his MSc (1989) and PhD (1994) in Software Engineering. He remained at Imperial College as a Post Doctoral Researcher until receiving a Lectureship in 1996 before being promoted to Reader in 2000. In 2001 he moved to the Open University as Professor of Computing where he was Director of Research from 2002–2008. From 2009-2012 he took a secondment to Lero, The Irish Software Research Centre, as Professor of Software Engineering and Chief Scientist. He was a Visiting professor at Imperial College, and is currently a Visiting Professor at both University College London (UCL) and the National Institute of Informatics (NII), Japan. He received two European Research Council (ERC) grants, including an Advanced Grant on Adaptive Security and Privacy.
Honors and Fellowships
Member of the Royal Irish Academy (RIA).
Fellow of the British Computer Society (BCS).
Fellow of Irish Computer Society (ICS).
Fellow of the Institution of Engineering & Technology (IET).
Member of Academia Europaea.
Automated Software Engineering Fellow
Royal Society-Wolfson Merit Award.
Senior Research Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering.
Philip Leverhulme Prize.
Most Influential Paper Award at International Conference on Software Engineering (ICSE).
ACM SigSoft Distinguished Service Award
IFIP Outstanding Service Award
Selected Publications
References
External links
Personal Webpage
1967 births
Living people
Alumni of the University of Sussex
British computer scientists
Academics of the Open University
Bashar Ahmad
Alumni of the Department of Computing, Imperial College London
Members of the Royal Irish Academy |
1076132 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile%20IP | Mobile IP | Mobile IP (or MIP) is an Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) standard communications protocol that is designed to allow mobile device users to move from one network to another while maintaining a permanent IP address. Mobile IP for IPv4 is described in IETF RFC 5944, and extensions are defined in IETF RFC 4721. Mobile IPv6, the IP mobility implementation for the next generation of the Internet Protocol, IPv6, is described in RFC 6275.
Introduction
The Mobile IP allows for location-independent routing of IP datagrams on the Internet. Each mobile node is identified by its home address disregarding its current location in the Internet. While away from its home network, a mobile node is associated with a care-of address which identifies its current location and its home address is associated with the local endpoint of a tunnel to its home agent. Mobile IP specifies how a mobile node registers with its home agent and how the home agent routes datagrams to the mobile node through the tunnel.
Applications
In many applications (e.g., VPN, VoIP), sudden changes in network connectivity and IP address can cause problems. Mobile IP was designed to support seamless and continuous Internet connectivity.
Mobile IP is most often found in wired and wireless environments where users need to carry their mobile devices across multiple LAN subnets. Examples of use are in roaming between overlapping wireless systems, e.g., IP over DVB, WLAN, WiMAX and BWA.
Mobile IP is not required within cellular systems such as 3G, to provide transparency when Internet users migrate between cellular towers, since these systems provide their own data link layer handover and roaming mechanisms. However, it is often used in 3G systems to allow seamless IP mobility between different packet data serving node (PDSN) domains.
Operational principles
The goal of IP Mobility is to maintain the TCP connection between a mobile host and a static host while reducing the effects of location changes while the mobile host is moving around, without having to change the underlying TCP/IP. To solve the problem, the RFC allows for a kind of proxy agent to act as a middle-man between a mobile host and a correspondent host.
A mobile node has two addresses – a permanent home address and a care-of address (CoA), which is associated with the network the mobile node is visiting. Two kinds of entities comprise a Mobile IP implementation:
A home agent (HA) stores information about mobile nodes whose permanent home address is in the home agent's network. The HA acts as a router on a mobile host's (MH) home network which tunnels datagrams for delivery to the MH when it is away from home, maintains a location directory (LD) for the MH.
A foreign agent (FA) stores information about mobile nodes visiting its network. Foreign agents also advertise care-of addresses, which are used by Mobile IP. If there is no foreign agent in the host network, the mobile device has to take care of getting an address and advertising that address by its own means. The FA acts as a router on a MH’s visited network which provides routing services to the MH while registered. FA detunnels and delivers datagrams to the MH that were tunneled by the MH’s HA
The so-called Care of Address is a termination point of a tunnel toward a MH, for datagrams forwarded to the MH while it is away from home.
Foreign agent care-of address: the address of a foreign agent that MH registers with
co-located care-of address: an externally obtained local address that a MH gets.
A Mobile Node (MN) is responsible for discovering whether it is connected to its home network or has moved to a foreign network. HA’s and FA’s broadcast their presence on each network to which they are attached. They are not solely responsible for discovery, they only play a part. RFC 2002 specified that MN use agent discovery to locate these entities. When connected to a foreign network, a MN has to determine the foreign agent care-of-address being offered by each foreign agent on the network.
A node wanting to communicate with the mobile node uses the permanent home address of the mobile node as the destination address to send packets to. Because the home address logically belongs to the network associated with the home agent, normal IP routing mechanisms forward these packets to the home agent. Instead of forwarding these packets to a destination that is physically in the same network as the home agent, the home agent redirects these packets towards the remote address through an IP tunnel by encapsulating the datagram with a new IP header using the care of address of the mobile node.
When acting as transmitter, a mobile node sends packets directly to the other communicating node, without sending the packets through the home agent, using its permanent home address as the source address for the IP packets. This is known as triangular routing or "route optimization" (RO) mode. If needed, the foreign agent could employ reverse tunneling by tunneling the mobile node's packets to the home agent, which in turn forwards them to the communicating node. This is needed in networks whose gateway routers check that the source IP address of the mobile host belongs to their subnet or discard the packet otherwise. In Mobile IPv6 (MIPv6), "reverse tunneling" is the default behaviour, with RO being an optional behaviour.
Development
Enhancements to the Mobile IP technique, such as Mobile IPv6 and Hierarchical Mobile IPv6 (HMIPv6) defined in RFC 5380, are being developed to improve mobile communications in certain circumstances by making the processes more secure and more efficient.
Fast Handovers for Mobile IPv6 is described in IETF RFC 5568.
Researchers create support for mobile networking without requiring any pre-deployed infrastructure as it currently is required by MIP. One such example is Interactive Protocol for Mobile Networking (IPMN) which promises supporting mobility on a regular IP network just from the network edges by intelligent signalling between IP at end-points and application layer module with improved quality of service.
Researchers are also working to create support for mobile networking between entire subnets with support from Mobile IPv6. One such example is Network Mobility (NEMO) Network Mobility Basic Support Protocol by the IETF Network Mobility Working Group which supports mobility for entire Mobile Networks that move and to attach to different points in the Internet. The protocol is an extension of Mobile IPv6 and allows session continuity for every node in the Mobile Network as the network moves.
Changes in IPv6 for Mobile IPv6
A set of mobility options to include in mobility messages
A new Home Address option for the Destination Options header
A new Type 2 Routing header
New Internet Control Message Protocol for IPv6 (ICMPv6) messages to discover the set of home agents and to obtain the prefix of the home link
Changes to router discovery messages and options and additional Neighbor Discovery options
Foreign Agents are no longer needed
Definition of terms
Home network The home network of a mobile device is the network within which the device receives its identifying IP address (home address).
Home address The home address of a mobile device is the IP address assigned to the device within its home network.
Foreign network A foreign network is the network in which a mobile node is operating when away from its home network.
Care-of address The care-of address of a mobile device is the network-native IP address of the device when operating in a foreign network.
A home agent is a router on a mobile node’s home network which tunnels datagrams for delivery to the mobile node when it is away from home. It maintains current location (IP address) information for the mobile node. It is used with one or more foreign agents.
A foreign agent is a router that stores information about mobile nodes visiting its network. Foreign agents also advertise care-of-addresses which are used by Mobile IP.
Binding A binding is the association of the home address with a care-of address.
See also
GPRS Tunneling Protocol
Host Identity Protocol (HIP)
Identifier/Locator Network Protocol (ILNP)
Mobility management
Proxy Mobile IPv6 (PMIPv6)
Vertical handoff
References
External links
RFC 2002 – IP Mobility Support
RFC 6275 – Mobility support for IPv6
RFC 5944 – IP Mobility Support for IPv4, Revised
RFC 4721 – Mobile IPv4 Challenge/Response Extensions
RFC 3024 – Reverse Tunneling for Mobile IP
Inside Mobile IP
Mobile IP explained (a tutorial)
Mobility Extensions for IPv6 (mext) IETF Working Group Web site
Mobile IPv6 -- A short introduction by Holger Zuleger
Linux Mobile IPv6 HOWTO on the Linux Documentation Project
D. Johnson, C. Perkins, J. Arkko. Mobility Support in IPv6. RFC 6275. June 2011
J. Arkko, V. Devarapalli, F. Dupont. Using IPsec to Protect Mobile IPv6 Signaling Between Mobile Nodes and Home Agents. RFC 3776. June 2004
The CDG wiki page for Mobile IP
Network layer protocols
Internet Protocol |
27262733 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security%20information%20and%20event%20management | Security information and event management | Security information and event management (SIEM) is a field within the field of computer security, where software products and services combine security information management (SIM) and security event management (SEM). They provide real-time analysis of security alerts generated by applications and network hardware. Vendors sell SIEM as software, as appliances, or as managed services; these products are also used to log security data and generate reports for compliance purposes. The term and the initialism SIEM was coined by Mark Nicolett and Amrit Williams of Gartner in 2005.
History
Monitoring system logs has grown more prevalent as complex cyber-attacks force compliance and regulatory mechanisms to mandate logging security controls within a Risk Management Framework. Logging levels of a system started with the primary function of troubleshooting system errors or debugging code compiled and run. As operating systems and networks have increased in complexity, so has the event and log generation on these systems. In comparison, the logging of system, security, and application logs are not the only way to perform incident response. They do offer the capability to trace the activities of nearly any system or user-related movement throughout a given period. From the late 1970s there was a formation of working groups to help establish the criteria for the management of auditing and monitoring programs and what and how system logs can be used for insider threat, incident response, and troubleshooting. This also established a base discussion for many of the concepts still used in modern cybersecurity. See, Basis for Audit and Evaluation of Computer Security from National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Special Publication 500-19 published in 1977.
With Risk Management Frameworks (RMF) being implemented worldwide in nearly all industry sectors, auditing and monitoring are core elements of information assurance and information security. Information assurance personnel, cybersecurity engineers, and analysts can use logging information to perform critical security functions in real-time. These items are driven by governance models that integrate or use auditing and monitoring as a basis for that analytical work. As information assurance matured in the late 1990s and moved into the 2000s, system logs needed to be centralized. This allows records to be centrally located and viewed and provides centralized management as a 'nerve center' for all machines on a given network.
This centralization and consolidation of system data would provide significantly more than just a holistic view. Still, now organizations could use the logging data for operational use cases and help with performance and networking-based communication troubleshooting. Security Information and Event Management (SIEM) is now commonplace, and there are apparent variations of the same acronym in this article. The word SIEM is primarily a moniker forcing all logs into a single place to provide a single pane of glass for security and network operations to perform analysis.
The National Institute of Standards and Technology provides the following definition for Security Information Event Management (SIEM): "Application that provides the ability to gather security data from information system components and present that data as actionable information via a single interface." Information assurance has become a forcing function for system logging. System logging can enable traceability for an account on a system used to perform system actions. In combination with the operating system, the SIEM can index and parse system logs and be made available for searching.
On May 17, 2021, United States President Joseph Biden signed Executive Order 14028 Improving the Nations Cybersecurity. This Executive Order mandates endpoint protection, further defining logging requirements, implementing audit logging in a unified way, and enhancing the capabilities to provide further insight into system and account actions. Audit logs were identified in three separate technical areas, all relating to incident response and knowing what is happening on a system at a given time. This Executive Order responds to an increase in cyber-attacks that use ransomware to cripple critical infrastructure components related to national security and the public. Enhancing existing information assurance security controls as part of a Risk Management Framework is a suitable mechanism to force compliance and justify funding based on these Presidential requirements.
Security Information and Event Management (SIEM) & Information Assurance
Published in September 2006, NIST SP 800-92 Guide to Computer Security Log Management is the primary document used in the NIST Risk Management Framework for what should be auditable. While not definitive or exhaustive as there have been significant changes in technology since 2006, this guidance anticipated industry growth as the document is still relevant. This document pre-dates many modern SIEM technologies that are well known today, as evident by no reference to the term "SIEM. NIST is not the only guidance for regulatory mechanism for auditing and monitoring that are encouraged to use SIEM solutions instead of de-centralized individual host-based checks. NIST identifies several public and private entities with their logging guidance that may enforce its requirements; Federal Information Security Management Act of 2002 (FISMA), Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act (GLBA), Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA), Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX) of 2002, Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS), and International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 27001. It is not uncommon for NIST documents to be referenced in public and private organizations.
NIST SP 800-53 AU-2 Event Monitoring is a core security control for enabling logging functionality to support the information assurance process for all auditing throughout a system. AU-2 Event Monitoring also serves as a critical basis for continuous monitoring for information assurance and cybersecurity engineering efforts throughout a network. It is expected that the SIEM solution is used as a core tool or suite of tools to support this effort. Depending on the system categorization concerning the impact to the Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability (CIA) of a system are generally five specific requirements needed to satisfy base logging requirements of a federal system (AU-2, a-e). It is essential to understand the security control requirements about the SIEM infrastructure and operation. Below are the security control requirements for AU-2.The [Assignment: organization-defined...] is left blank to determine what is appropriate for its enterprise. Executive Order 144028 seeks to unify the inputs across all federal agencies.
a. Identify the types of events that the system is capable of logging in support of the audit function: [Assignment: organization-defined event types that the system is capable of logging];
b. Coordinate the event logging function with other organizational entities requiring audit-related information to guide and inform the selection criteria for events to be logged;
c. Specify the following event types for logging within the system: [Assignment: organization-defined event types (subset of the event types defined in AU-2a.) along with the frequency of (or situation requiring) logging for each identified event type];
d. Provide a rationale for why the event types selected for logging are deemed to be adequate to support after-the-fact investigations of incidents; and
e. Review and update the event types selected for logging [Assignment: organization-defined frequency].Events on a system could include and are not limited to credential changes, failed access attempts, role base or attribute changes to accounts, token-based use, access attempts, and failures, etc. While logging every system action to the system is possible, it is often not advised based on the volume of logs and actionable security-relevant data. Organizations can use AU-2 a through e, as the basis to build from while adhering to other controls that may require or call out specific security auditing requirements in more granular detail.
NIST SP 800-53 SI-4 System Monitoring is the security control that specifies the monitoring of the system. This monitoring is focused on monitoring systems that monitor the system. This can include hardware and software in unison to detect events and anomalies, malware, connections, and any other pertinent mechanism that is used to detect attacks or indicators of potential attacks.a. Monitor the system to detect:
1. Attacks and indicators of potential attacks in accordance with the following monitoring objectives: [Assignment: organization-defined monitoring objectives]; and
2. Unauthorized local, network, and remote connections;
b. Identify unauthorized use of the system through the following techniques and methods: [Assignment: organization-defined techniques and methods];
c. Invoke internal monitoring capabilities or deploy monitoring devices:
1. Strategically within the system to collect organization-determined essential information; and
2. At ad hoc locations within the system to track specific types of transactions of interest to the organization;
d. Analyze detected events and anomalies;
e. Adjust the level of system monitoring activity when there is a change in risk to organizational operations and assets, individuals, other organizations, or the Nation;
f. Obtain legal opinion regarding system monitoring activities; and
g. Provide [Assignment: organization-defined system monitoring information] to [Assignment: organization-defined personnel or roles] [Selection (one or more): as needed; [Assignment: organization-defined frequency]].NIST SP 800-53 RA-10 Threat Hunting is a new base security control added to NIST 800-53 with the latest Revision 5 edit and publication. Threat hunting is the proactive defense of a network by combining all security information and actively looking for threats. To execute the operation, the analysts and engineers need a repository of information, and a SIEM solution is often used as a hub because all system logs would typically be sent to this centralized location. A threat hunting team is not limited to this approach. However, the SIEM solution should provide significant amounts of security-relevant data.a. Establish and maintain a cyber threat hunting capability to:
1. Search for indicators of compromise in organizational systems; and
2. Detect, track, and disrupt threats that evade existing controls; and
b. Employ the threat hunting capability [Assignment: organization-defined frequency].NIST SP 800-53 R5 and the brief descriptions of AU-2, SI-4, and RA-10 depict how individual controls are all used as critical elements of the event, alerting and monitoring via a SIEM. These controls, combined with other technical security controls provided by NIST, weave together an in-depth defense system. The assurance of the system security is enforced with various risk assessments and continuous monitoring - often enhanced or streamlined with a SIEM product used across entire cybersecurity teams. There are many more technical controls that outline specific items that must be monitored. The controls identified are a cursory overlook of controls directly related to the event and audit gathering functionality and use in a SIEM tool.
Terminology
The acronyms SEM, SIM and SIEM have sometimes been used interchangeably, but generally refer to the different primary focus of products:
Log management: Focus on simple collection and storage of log messages and audit trails
Security information management (SIM): Long-term storage as well as analysis and reporting of log data.
Security event manager (SEM): Real-time monitoring, correlation of events, notifications and console views.
Security information and event management (SIEM): Combines SIM and SEM and provides real-time analysis of security alerts generated by network hardware and applications.
Managed Security Service: (MSS) or Managed Security Service Provider: (MSSP): The most common managed services appear to evolve around connectivity and bandwidth, network monitoring, security, virtualization, and disaster recovery.
Security as a service (SECaaS): These security services often include authentication, anti-virus, anti-malware/spyware, intrusion detection, Penetration testing and security event management, among others.
In practice many products in this area will have a mix of these functions, so there will often be some overlap – and many commercial vendors also promote their own terminology. Oftentimes commercial vendors provide different combinations of these functionalities which tend to improve SIEM overall. Log management alone doesn't provide real-time insights on network security, SEM on its own won't provide complete data for deep threat analysis. When SEM and log management are combined, more information is available for SIEM to monitor.
A key focus is to monitor and help manage user and service privileges, directory services and other system-configuration changes; as well as providing log auditing and review and incident response.
Capabilities
Data aggregation: Log management aggregates data from many sources, including network, security, servers, databases, applications, providing the ability to consolidate monitored data to help avoid missing crucial events.
Correlation: Looks for common attributes, and links events together into meaningful bundles. This technology provides the ability to perform a variety of correlation techniques to integrate different sources, in order to turn data into useful information. Correlation is typically a function of the Security Event Management portion of a full SIEM solution
Alerting: The automated analysis of correlated events
Dashboards: Tools can take event data and turn it into informational charts to assist in seeing patterns, or identifying activity that is not forming a standard pattern.
Compliance: Applications can be employed to automate the gathering of compliance data, producing reports that adapt to existing security, governance and auditing processes.
Retention: Employing long-term storage of historical data to facilitate correlation of data over time, and to provide the retention necessary for compliance requirements. Long term log data retention is critical in forensic investigations as it is unlikely that discovery of a network breach will be at the time of the breach occurring.
Forensic analysis: The ability to search across logs on different nodes and time periods based on specific criteria. This mitigates having to aggregate log information in your head or having to search through thousands and thousands of logs.
Components
SIEM architectures may vary by vendor; however, generally, essential components comprise the SIEM engine. The essential components of a SIEM are as follows:
A data collector forwards selected audit logs from a host (agent based or host based log streaming into index and aggregation point)
An ingest and indexing point aggregation point for parsing, correlation, and data normalization
A search node that is used to for visualization, queries, reports, and alerts (analysis take place on a search node)
A basic SIEM infrastructure is depicted in the image to the right.
Use cases
Computer security researcher Chris Kubecka identified the following SIEM use cases, presented at the hacking conference 28C3 (Chaos Communication Congress).
SIEM visibility and anomaly detection could help detect zero-days or polymorphic code. Primarily due to low rates of anti-virus detection against this type of rapidly changing malware.
Parsing, log normalization and categorization can occur automatically, regardless of the type of computer or network device, as long as it can send a log.
Visualization with a SIEM using security events and log failures can aid in pattern detection.
Protocol anomalies which can indicate a mis-configuration or a security issue can be identified with a SIEM using pattern detection, alerting, baseline and dashboards.
SIEMS can detect covert, malicious communications and encrypted channels.
Cyberwarfare can be detected by SIEMs with accuracy, discovering both attackers and victims.
Correlation rules examples
SIEM systems can have hundreds and thousands of correlation rules. Some of these are simple, and some are more complex. Once a correlation rule is triggered the system can take appropriate steps to mitigate from a cyber attack. Usually, this includes sending a notification to a user and then possibly limiting or even shutting down the system. According to UTMStack, these are some of the most important ones.
Brute Force Detection
Brute force detection is relatively straight forward. Brute forcing relates to continually trying to guess a variable. It most commonly refers to someone trying to constantly guess your password - either manually or with a tool. However, it can refer to trying to guess URLs or important file locations on your system.
An automated brute force is easy to detect as someone trying to enter their password 60 times in a minute is impossible.
Impossible Travel
When a user logs in to a system, generally speaking, it creates a timestamp of the event. Alongside the time, the system may often record other useful information such as the device used, physical location, IP address, incorrect login attempts, etc. The more data is collected the more use can be gathered from it. For impossible travel, the system looks at the current and last login date/time and the difference between the recorded distances. If it deems it's not possible for this to happen, for example traveling hundreds of miles within a minute, then it will set off a warning.
Many employees and users are now using VPN services which may obscure physical location. This should be taken into consideration when setting up such a rule.
Excessive File Copying
If you think about your day-to-day activities, you most likely don't copy or move a lot of files around on your system. Therefore any excessive file copying on a system could be attributed to someone wanting to cause harm to your company. Unfortunately, it's not as simple as stating someone has gained access to your network illegally and they want to steal confidential information. It could also be an employee looking to sell company information, or they could just want to take home some files for the weekend.
DDoS Attack
A DDoS (Distributed Denial of Service) Attack would cause an issue for pretty much any company. A DDoS attack can not only take your web properties offline, it can also make your system weaker. With suitable correlation rules in place, your SIEM should trigger an alert right at the start of the attack so that you can take the necessary precautionary measures to protect your systems.
File Integrity Change
File Integrity and Change Monitoring (FIM) is the process of monitoring the files on your system. Unexpected changes in your system files will trigger an alert as it's a likely indication of a cyber attack.
Models
Alongside correlation rules, it's also possible for SIEM to have models. Models differ somewhat from correlation rules but if implemented correctly can be just as useful. Instead of using a one-to-one correlation, a model requires a number of steps to happen in order to trigger an alert. This usually means a first-time rule followed by an anomalous behavior. This can be as simple as a user logging in from a different location than usual and then carry out a large file transfer.
This can be extremely useful as a single event does not necessarily mean a compromise of an organization's servers or network, it could just be a team member working from a café for a change in scenery.
Handling False Positives
Unfortunately, false positives appear in all walks of life, and this holds true for SIEM. All tools and systems have the possibility to produce a false-positive result. For example, too many failed login attempts can just be an employee forgetting their password and not someone trying to break into the system. It's important that for any triggered events the steps taken are justifiable and of an appropriate measure as you wouldn't want employees getting locked out for hours in such scenarios.
Alerting examples
Some examples of customized rules to alert on event conditions involve user authentication rules, attacks detected and infections detected.
See also
IT risk
Log management
Security event manager
Security information management
References
Data security |
22330277 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collectd | Collectd | collectd is a Unix daemon that collects, transfers and stores performance data of computers and network equipment. The acquired data is meant to help system administrators maintain an overview over available resources to detect existing or looming bottlenecks.
The first version of the daemon was written in 2005 by Florian Forster and has been further developed as free open-source project. Other developers have written improvements and extensions to the software that have been incorporated into the project. Most files of the source code are licensed under the terms of the GNU General Public License, version 2 (GPLv2), the remaining files are licensed under other open source licenses.
Operation
collectd uses a modular design: The daemon itself only implements infrastructure for filtering and relaying data as well as auxiliary functions and requires very few resources, it even runs on OpenWrt-powered embedded devices. Data acquisition and storage is handled by plug-ins in the form of shared objects. This way code specific to one operating system is mostly kept out of the actual daemon. Plug-ins may have their own dependencies, for example a specific operating system or software libraries. Other tasks performed by the plug-ins include processing of “notifications” and log messages.
Data acquisition plug-ins, called "read plug-ins" in collectd's documentation, can be roughly put into three categories:
Operating system plug-ins collect information such as CPU utilization, memory usage, or number of users logged into a system. These plug-ins usually need to be ported to each operating system. Not all such plug-ins are available for all operating systems.
Application plug-ins collect performance data from or about an application running on the same or a remote computer, for example the Apache HTTP Server. These plug-ins often use software libraries but are usually otherwise operating system independent.
Generic plug-ins offer basic functions that the user can employ to perform specific tasks. Examples are querying of network equipment using SNMP or execution of custom programs or scripts.
So called "write plug-ins" offer the possibility to store the collected data on disk using RRD- or CSV-files, or to send data over the network to a remote instance of the daemon.
Networking
Included in the source code distribution of collectd is the so-called "network" plug-in, which can be used to send and receive data to/from other instances of the daemon. In a typical networked setup the daemon would run on each monitored host (called "clients") with the network plug-in configured to send collected data to one or more network addresses. On one or more so called "servers" the same daemon would run but with a different configuration, so that the network plug-in receives data instead of sending it. Often the RRDtool-plug-in is used on servers to store the performance data.
The plug-in uses a binary network protocol over UDP. Both, IPv4 and IPv6 are supported as network layer. It is possible to use unicast (point-to-point) and multicast (point-to-group) addressing. Authentication and encryption has been added to the protocol with version 4.7.0, released in May 2009.
See also
Cacti
Munin
Multi Router Traffic Grapher (MRTG)
Shinken (software)
Zabbix
Comparison of network monitoring systems
System monitor
References
External links
List of available plug-ins
Free software programmed in C
Free network management software |
251208 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stony%20Brook%20University | Stony Brook University | Stony Brook University (SBU), officially the State University of New York at Stony Brook, is a public research university in Stony Brook, Long Island, in the metropolitan area of New York City. Along with the University at Buffalo, it is one of the State University of New York system's two flagship institutions.
Consisting of 213 buildings over of land in Suffolk County, it is the largest public university (by area) in the state of New York.
Opened in 1957 in Oyster Bay as the State University College on Long Island, the institution moved to Stony Brook in 1962. In 2001, Stony Brook was elected to the Association of American Universities, a selective group of major research universities in North America. It is also a member of the larger Universities Research Association. It is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity".
Stony Brook University, in partnership with Battelle, manages Brookhaven National Laboratory, a national laboratory of the United States Department of Energy. The university acquired land for a Research & Development Park adjacent to its main campus in 2004, and has four business incubators across the region. The University's impact on the Long Island economy amounts to US$7.23 billion in increased output, and research expenditures have surpassed the US$230 million mark annually. Stony Brook is the largest single-site employer on Long Island; 26,814 students are enrolled at the university, which has over 15,000 employees and over 2,700 faculty.
Stony Brook has been affiliated with five Fields Medalists, putting it in a tie for the seventh-most among American universities.
Stony Brook's intercollegiate athletic teams have competed in Division I of the NCAA since 1999 as the Seawolves. Stony Brook will join the Colonial Athletic Association on July 1, 2022 after competing as a member of the America East Conference since 2001.
History
Origins in Oyster Bay
The State University of New York at Stony Brook was established in Oyster Bay in 1957, as the State University College on Long Island (SUCOLI) Established almost a decade after the creation of New York's public higher education system, the institution was envisioned as a college for the preparation of secondary school teachers.
Leonard K. Olson was appointed as the first dean of the institution and was instrumental in the recruitment of faculty staff and planning of the later Stony Brook campus. SUCOLI opened with an inaugural class of 148 students, on the grounds of the William Robertson Coe Planting Fields estate. These first students were admitted on a tuition-free basis.
1961 was a year of firsts as thirty students were conferred degrees in the first commencement and the university was appointed its first president, John Francis Lee. Lee left later that year due to political and bureaucratic matters regarding the future of the university and the central administration at Albany. Nevertheless, he had fulfilled his primary task of reshaping the university from a technical science and engineering college of limited degree options to a full-scale university featuring liberal arts programs.
Move to Stony Brook
In 1960 the Heald Report, commissioned by Governor Nelson Rockefeller, recommended a major new public university be built on Long Island to "stand with the finest in the country", a report that would ultimately shape most of the university's growth for years to come.
Ward Melville, a philanthropist and businessman from the Three Village area in western Suffolk County donated over of land to the state for the development of a state university and in 1962 the institution relocated to Stony Brook and officially renamed as the State University of New York at Stony Brook. However, the longer name has fallen out of favor; since 2005, it has usually been called simply Stony Brook University (SBU).
The campus had 782 students enrolled in 1962, but enrollment had increased more than tenfold by 1969, surpassing the 8,000 mark, fueled by the large funding of public higher education in the Sputnik era. In 1963, only three years after the release of the Heald Report, the Governor commissioned the "Education of Health Professions" (Muir Report) report. The report outlined the need for expansion of the university system to prepare medical professionals for the future needs of the state. The report was particularly important for Stony Brook as it recommended creation of a Health Science Center and academic hospital at the campus to serve the need of the fastest-growing counties (Nassau and Suffolk) in New York at the time.
Growth
In 1965, the State University appointed John S. Toll, a physicist from the University of Maryland as the second president of Stony Brook. In 1966, the university set forth initial timetables for the development of the Health Science Center, which would house the university's health programs and hospital. Despite the budgetary concerns and challenges from Albany, the university released a formalized plan early in 1968 and funding for recruitment of faculty was provided. At the same time, residential housing was expanded to 3,000, the Stony Brook Union opened in 1970, and in 1971, the massive expansion project for the campus library (named in memory of Frank Melville Jr., father of philanthropist Ward Melville) was completed.
Despite the fast-paced growth, campus infrastructure often struggled to keep pace: overcrowding, expansion, landscaping, lighting, and safety were persistent problems at the university, which led to multiple protests and growing tension between the student body and the administration. In January 1968, the infamous "Operation Stony Brook" drug raid resulted in the arrest of twenty nine students and in the fall of 1968, tension climaxed as the administration and students decided on a three-day moratorium to bring together the entire university with the goal of improving communication between the students, faculty, and administration.
The 1970s witnessed the growth of the university and its transformation as a major research institution within New York's public school system, with strong graduate programs and scientific breakthroughs like the development of magnetic resonance imaging. But the university lagged significantly in undergraduate education, prioritizing graduate education and research over undergraduate studies and student life. By 1975, enrollment had reached 16,000 and expansion crossed over Nicolls Road with the construction of the Health Science Center, which would be completed in 1980.
In 1981, John Marburger was inaugurated as the third presiden, and continued the expansion. By the late 1980s, the administration affirmed the need to improve other areas of the institution, which included undergraduate education, student and residential life, and intercollegiate athletics. The university approved a decision to transition athletics to the Division I of the NCAA and followed with the construction of the Stony Brook Arena and the expansion of the Indoor Sports Complex.
Further expansion into the 21st century
The 1990s affirmed Stony Brook's success at building a research university with a strong undergraduate education. Under the leadership of its fourth president, Shirley Strum Kenny, the administration sought out to showcase the value of the institution. Kenny was responsible for campus wide improvement projects which included large scale landscaping, renovations of every residence hall, the continued growth of the athletics programs, the improvement of student life, ever increasing research expenditures, a branding/marketing campaign, and the university's increasing ties with private philanthropy.
In the mid-1990s, the school began to distance itself from the SUNY system, as Kenny believed that the SUNY name was hurting the school's reputation.
In 1998, the university became one of the top 100 of American research universities in the U.S. News & World Report. That same year, the university and Battelle Memorial Institute were chosen by the Department of Energy as joint operators of the Brookhaven National Laboratory, joining a selective group of universities that operated national laboratories across the nation. Enrollment reached the 20,000 mark in 2001, and the administration's improvement efforts climaxed with the invitation to the highly selective Association of American Universities, an organization of sixty-two universities across North America committed to a strong system of research and education.
2002 saw the opening of the $22 million Kenneth P. LaValle Stadium and the inauguration of the massive Charles B. Wang Center dedicated to Asian and American culture, funded by a $50 million donation from Charles B. Wang. At the time, it was the largest private donation to a SUNY institution. In 2003, chemistry professor Paul Lauterbur received a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his research and discovery of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, which was instrumental in the development of NMR Imaging (MRI) while at Stony Brook. In 2005, the university bought the Flowerfield property adjacent to campus through eminent domain as land for the development of a Research and Development Park. Plans for a law school were in the talks but scrapped shortly after.
In 2009, president Shirley Strum Kenny stepped down, and in May, Dr. Samuel Stanley, Jr. was announced as Stony Brook's fifth president. The late 2000s saw the university receive historic philanthropic donations. Hedge funder Jim Simons made multiple multi-million donations, including a $25 million donation to the Stony Brook Foundation in 2006, a $60 million donation for the development of the Simons Center for Geometry and Physics in 2008, and a landmark $150 million donation to the university in 2011. Other major donations were provided by alumni Joe Nathan, Stuart Goldstein, and Glenn Dubin for major renovation of athletic facilities. In 2010 Dr. Stanley announced Project 50 Forward, a comprehensive plan for the development of the university in the next fifty years with a focus on "operational excellence, academic greatness, and building for the future."
In 2012, the $40 million Walter J. Hawrys Campus Recreation Center opened, soon followed by the on-campus Hilton Garden Inn in May 2013. Frey Hall, named after alumnus Dr. Robert Frey, opened in 2013 after undergoing renovations as the former Old Chemistry building. The Stony Brook University Arena underwent a $21 million overhaul, re-opening as the Island Federal Arena in 2014. In July 2015, a new $40.8 million Computer Science building opened, spanning . New dormitories, known as Chavez Hall and Tubman Hall, along with a new East Side Dining hall, opened in the fall of 2016. In January 2019, Stony Brook Medicine opened their $194 million cancer center to the public.
In 2018, Stony Brook received its best ranking yet in the U.S. News & World Report, at 80th in the United States.
President Stanley left Stony Brook effective August 1, 2019 to become the president of Michigan State University following the Larry Nassar scandal. Provost Michael A. Bernstein was named interim president in his place. On March 26, 2020, Maurie McInnis, the executive vice president and provost of the University of Texas was named the sixth president of Stony Brook, effective July 1, 2020.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, the United States Army constructed $50 million temporary field hospitals on the campus of Stony Brook University. However, the beds were dismantled in 2021 without ever being used. A $63.4 million renovation of the Stony Brook Union was completed during the pandemic and opened in 2020.
Flagship status era
On January 5, 2022, New York governor Kathy Hochul officially designated Stony Brook University and the University at Buffalo as the two flagship universities of the State University of New York system. The announcement came with the dedication of a new $100 million multidisciplinary engineering building. On January 25, 2022, Stony Brook announced its departure from the America East Conference after 21 years to the Colonial Athletic Association, effective July 1, 2022.
Campus
Main campus
The main campus is in the historic north shore hamlet of Stony Brook near the geographic midpoint of Long Island, approximately east of Manhattan and west of Montauk. Bounded to the north by New York State Route 25A (North Country Road) the campus is subdivided into "West Campus" and "East Campus" by the thoroughfare County Road 97 (Nicolls Road). The Ashley Schiff Forest Preserve separates the South Campus from West Campus. The Long Island Rail Road serves the community with the Stony Brook station situated along the northern edge of the campus.
West
The west campus is the center of the academic life of the university. It houses the majority of academic, athletic, and undergraduate student housing facilities while also being the original site of the university.
The modern campus is centered around the Academic Mall, which stretches for more than a quarter of a mile from the Simons Center for Geometry and Physics at the west end to the Administration Building at the east end. The Academic Mall includes the Student Activity Center, Frank Melville Jr. Memorial Library, Staller Center for the Arts, Humanities building, Psychology A & B, Harriman Hall, Frey Hall (previously known as Old Chemistry), the Earth and Space Sciences Building, Math Tower, and Physics building.
The Engineering Quad is located near the Academic Mall, and contains the Engineering, Light Engineering, Heavy Engineering, and Computing Center facilities. The Javits Lecture Center, Social and Behavioral Sciences Building, Computer Science building, New Computer Science building and Student Union facilities are also on the west campus. The Life Sciences complex, also on the west campus, consists of the Life Sciences Building, Laufer Center for Physical and Quantitative Biology, Centers for Molecular Medicine, Bioengineering building, and the Institute for Advanced Computational Science.
Among the latest additions to the campus are the Simons Center for Geometry and Physics, the new Walter J. Hawrys Campus Recreation Center, the Hilton Garden Inn hotel, Frey Hall, and a new Computer Science building. The Staller Center, which contains the largest movie screen in Long Island's Suffolk County, holds the annual Stony Brook Film Festival.
The athletic facilities are in the northwest quadrant of west campus, which include the Stony Brook Sports Complex, Island Federal Credit Union Arena, Kenneth P. LaValle Stadium, Joe Nathan Field, University Track, and University Field.
South
The South Campus is about half a mile south of the Academic Mall and separated from West Campus by the Ashley Schiff Forest Preserve. It is home to the School of Dental Medicine, the School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences (SoMAS), the Cody Center for Autism and Developmental Disabilities, and the University Police headquarters.
Research and development
The Research and Development Park is on Stony Brook Road, a mile from the center of campus. On November 3, 2005, the university announced it had formally acquired of the adjacent Flowerfield property, originally owned by the St. James Gyrodyne Company of America, through eminent domain, three years after the university had expressed its desire to acquire the property.
Stony Brook is using this property as a Research and Development Park, similar to other university-affiliated science parks around the country. The campus will ultimately house ten new buildings. The first building, the Center of Excellence in Wireless and Information Technology (CEWIT), was completed in October 2008. CEWIT houses the world's first (and currently the largest) immersive gigapixel facility in the world, called the Reality Deck. In 2019, Stony Brook University celebrated the opening of its astonishing new SMART Cluster in CEWIT, a dual use GPU Cluster for both machine learning and visualization. The SMART Cluster is also the first hardware-accelerated ray-tracing cluster for real-time cinematic quality rendering, allowing scientists, engineers and physicians to visualize huge amounts of data in a new way.. Construction for the Advanced Energy Research and Technology Center, designed by Flad Architects, commenced in the Summer of 2008 and is open as of spring 2010.
East
The East Campus is separated from the main campus by Nicolls Road (County Road 97). It is home to the Stony Brook University Hospital and the Health Science Center. Stony Brook University Hospital, completed in 1980, is Suffolk County's only tertiary hospital and Level 1 Trauma Center, and the only academic medical center in Suffolk County—larger also than any in Nassau County.
The hospital is the largest in Suffolk County, and the attached Health Sciences Center (HSC) and Basic Science Tower (BST) houses numerous laboratories, the School of Medicine (1972), the School of Nursing (1970), the School of Health Technology and Management (1970) and the School of Social Welfare (1971). The area also includes the Ambulatory Surgery Center and the Center for Outpatient Services.
Construction on the Medical and Research Translation (MART) building began in November 2013, and the 240,000 square foot building opened on November 1, 2018, with its $194 million cost funded by state grants and donations from Jim Simons. The MART building is the home to the Stony Brook Cancer Center. In November 2019, Stony Brook Medicine opened a four-story, $73 million expansion to the Stony Brook Children's Hospital.
Also in the east side of campus are the Chapin apartments, which provide housing for graduate students. The Long Island High Technology Incubator, one of the four business incubators of the university, is a short walk north of the hospital. The Long Island State Veterans Home serving the Long Island veteran community is in this part of campus.
Manhattan Campus
In 2002, the university established a presence in Manhattan with the opening of Stony Brook Manhattan. The original site was at 401 Park Avenue South; a newer operation opened in late 2008 in the adjacent building on the third floor of 387 Park Avenue South. The university consolidated operations in 2011 to just the 3rd floor of 387 Park Avenue South, with a classroom entrance around the corner at 101 East 27th Street. The site allows Stony Brook to offer professional and graduate courses targeted towards students in New York City; undergraduate courses are held primarily during the summer and winter sessions. Conferences and special events take place throughout the year. In February 2017 however, the lease for this campus was terminated, and there are no classes offered at this location.
Southampton Campus
On March 24, 2006, the university completed the purchase of the Southampton College (on the east end of Long Island) property from Long Island University with the intent to develop it as a full college campus focusing on academic programs related to the environment and sustainability. Stony Brook expanded its original program, started in the fall of 2005, when it offered an undergraduate marine sciences program, with teaching and research facilities at the campus leased from Long Island University. An enrollment of about 2,000 students is expected within the next five years. Professor Martin Schoonen was appointed interim dean of Southampton campus on August 3, 2006, and conservationist Mary Pearl was appointed dean and vice president in March 2009.
On April 7, 2010, the university had suspended residential programs and transferred sustainability programs to the main campus. The change was prompted by severe state budget cuts. Although the Marine Sciences and Graduate Writing programs are still in session at Southampton, undergraduates were relocated to the main campus. As a result of the suspension of residential programs, all dining services and retail operations were suspended by the Faculty Student Association. The old LIU radio station and National Public Radio affiliate no longer operate on the campus.
In September 2011 Stony Brook Southampton began offering an undergraduate program called Semester by the Sea, where students attend undergraduate classes to study the Ocean or the Arts. Students studying the Ocean are immersed in marine topics that are enhanced with close proximity to the water, a fleet of research vessels and graduate research projects that are ongoing. Students studying the Arts are engaged in studies for filmmaking and creative writing. Both programs offer a Public Lecture Series.
As of 2015, the Stony Brook Southampton campus has shown growth, despite almost being closed down in 2010. Programs had been added back and the Board of Trustees of the State University of New York approved a long-awaited partnership agreement between Southampton and Stony Brook University hospitals. Enrollment increased to over 400, after being around 175, three years following the addition of new funding.
As of 2019, Stony Brook University operates the Stony Brook Southampton Hospital with plans to take ownership of more eastern Long Island hospitals.
South Korea
In May 2009, the SUNY board of trustees granted Dr. Stanley authority to conduct negotiation measures towards a partnership campus between Stony Brook and the South Korean government. Stony Brook would be joining other universities in a univerCITY complex, potentially involving other schools such as North Carolina State University, George Mason, Carnegie Mellon, Johns Hopkins, and Boston University. The campus would be a global university with intentions to offer a diverse learning environment while at the same time stimulating the economy of South Korea.
In July 2011, Dr. Stanley announced that the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology in South Korea has approved the establishment of SUNY Korea as part of Songdo International Business District in Incheon. The campus was expected to begin academic programs in March 2012 with an enrollment of 200.
Art on campus
Stony Brook University has four gallery spaces on campus. As was the desire of donor Paul W. Zuccaire, the Paul W. Zuccaire Gallery, formerly known as the University Art Gallery, showcases professional exhibitions as well as annual graduate and undergraduate student works. The Paul W. Zuccaire Gallery is in the Staller Center for the Arts.
Also on campus is the Latin American and Caribbean Studies Center's Art Gallery, which features works from Latino and Latin American artists as well as local artists who fall under that category. The SAC Art Gallery is a center for interactive and participatory art projects.
The Tabler Center for Arts, Culture, and Humanities includes an art gallery and blackbox theater performance space.
The Simons Center for Geometry and Physics includes an art gallery as well.
Organization and administration
The Stony Brook University consists of a main campus in Stony Brook, and additional satellite campuses in Southampton and South Korea. The university is composed of twelve schools and colleges. By enrollment, the largest college or school is the College of Arts and Science.
The university is governed by the State University of New York board of trustees, a body of eighteen members which regulate all the individual units of the SUNY system. The trustees have the authority to appoint the president of each state-operated institution, grant all degree diplomas and certificates for the completion of studies at any state-operated campus, and regulation of admissions, tuition, curricula, and all other matters pertaining to the operation and administration of each state-operated campus. The president of Stony Brook is the principal executive officer of the university. The position was first held by John Francis Lee and is held by the sixth president in the institution's history, Maurie McInnis, who took office on July 1, 2020.
Endowment
Stony Brook's financial endowment is managed by the Stony Brook Foundation. The foundation was established in 1965 as a not-for-profit corporation under the New York State Education Law. Chartered to collect and manage gifts from private and non-state resources to supplement the funding of the university and managed by a voluntary Board of Trustees. Donations can be made to a wide selection of funds which benefit different areas of the university. In 2012 the endowment was valued at approximately $125 million with total assets amounting to nearly $350 million and has fully recovered from the losses endured in the 2008 economic downturn. After a strong fundraising campaign led by Jim Simon's $150 million donation, the university amounted to more than $180 million in fundraising for the 2011-12 year and raised $200 million by March 2013. It is the second largest endowment among State University of New York university centers behind the University at Buffalo. However, the University's endowment remains far below the average of its Association of American Universities peers.
Student government
Housed in the Student Activity Center, the Undergraduate Student Government (USG) is the governing body representing the undergraduate students of the university. The main functions of USG involve regulation, funding, and recognizing official clubs and organizations of the university. Undergraduate students are obligated to pay a Student Activity Fee per semester which is then administered by the Undergraduate Student Government. USG manages the yearly Homecoming events, Roth Pond Regatta and the traditional end-of-the year Brookfest concert and a series of concerts and events branded as "Stony Brook Concerts" that occur throughout the academic year while also directly funding undergraduate organizations, clubs, and other student services. USG at Stony Brook has a long history going back to the founding of the Student Polity Association (Polity) in 1959. After the controversial de-certification of Polity by the administration in 2002, USG was founded in 2003.
Like USG, the Graduate Student Organization (GSO) is the governing body representing the graduate students of the university. The GSO advocates for graduate student interests to senior university administration, and is part of shared governance at the university. Graduate students pay a per-semester activity fee which is used to fund events and programs for the Graduate community. The GSO provides services for graduate students including funding for conferences, seminars, speaker events, travel to Brookhaven and Coldspring Harbor Laboratories, funding for social events, departmental organizations, and student clubs. The GSO hosts social events, professional development programming, and free legal and tax clinics. Traditional events hosted by the GSO include graduate student orientation, Three Minute Thesis, an annual speaker event, and national conferences. The GSO co-manages the University Cafe. GSO executive board members partake in national advocacy, and work with organizations such as the National Association of Graduate-Professional Students (NAGPS) on advocating for higher education policy issues.
Academics
Stony Brook was one of ten national universities awarded a National Science Foundation recognition award in 1998 for their integration of research and education. Between 2005 & 2007, two Nobel Prizes were awarded to professors for their work conducted at Stony Brook. The university has an annual $4.65 billion economic impact on the region. Stony Brook co-manages Brookhaven National Laboratory through Brookhaven Science Associates, a 50-50 partnership with Battelle Memorial Institute. Stony Brook is also one of two public schools in New York to have a medical school and a dental school, the other being University at Buffalo, The State University of New York.
The university's health science and medical component, collectively referred to as Stony Brook Medicine, includes the Renaissance School of Medicine and the Schools of Dental Medicine, Nursing, Health Technology and Management, Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, and Social Welfare, as well as the Hospital, major centers and institutes, programs, clinics and community-based healthcare settings, and the Long Island State Veterans Home.
Tuition
For the 2021–22 academic year, annual undergraduate tuition and fees was $10,410 for in-state students and $28,080 for out-of-state students. Tuition alone cost $7,070 and $24,740, respectively, with $3,020 in fees. Average room and board cost is $14,884.
78% of full-time enrolled freshmen received financial aid, with an average of $13,100 per student. 71% of full-time enrolled freshmen received a scholarship or aid from a federal or state government institution. 42% of full-time enrolled freshmen received loan aid from the federal government at an average of $5,000 per student.
Student body
In fall 2021, the university had an enrollment of 26,782 students: 18,010 undergraduate students and 8,772 graduate students.
Of all students, 23,072 (86 percent) are U.S. citizens or permanent residents representing all states of the United States and 3,536 (13 percent) are international students representing over a hundred countries around the world.
21,103 students hail from New York state, accounting for 79 percent of the student body. 12,061 students (45 percent) of the student body reside in Nassau or Suffolk County on Long Island, while 6,766 students (25 percent) reside in New York City.
2,276 students (8.5 percent) reside north of New York City, with Westchester County, Rockland County and Orange County as the three most common. 7.3 percent of students live out of state, most represented by New Jersey, California and Connecticut.
Half of Stony Brook's international students hail from China. An additional 18% come from India and 10% from South Korea. In 2021, there were more Asian American undergraduate students than White American students attending Stony Brook for the first time in the university's history.
Rankings
In 2022, U.S. News & World Report ranked Stony Brook University as tied for 93rd overall among national universities and tied for 38th among public universities. In the same year, the QS US University Rankings ranked Stony Brook University as No. 39 in the US. In 2020, The Wall Street Journal ranked Stony Brook University tied with two others as the second-best public school in the Northeastern United States.
In 2015, Kiplinger's Personal Finance ranked Stony Brook 33rd best value among the country's public institutions for in-state students, and 26th for out-of-state students. In 2012, The Wall Street Journal ranked Stony Brook 8th among public universities sending students to elite graduate programs.
, U.S. News & World Report has given the following rankings to graduate programs at Stony Brook:
The School of Engineering is ranked 67th, the School of Social Work is ranked 71st, the School of Medicine is ranked 59th in Research and a 'Rank Not Published' in Primary Care nationally.
Nuclear Physics (categorized as a Physics specialty) ranked 4th; Geometry (categorized as a Mathematics specialty) ranked 4th; Clinical Psychology ranked 4th; Topology (categorized as a Mathematics specialty) ranked 11th; Physician Assistant program ranked 16th; Physics ranked 23rd; Midwifery ranked 23rd; Mathematics ranked 25th; Political Science ranked 29th; Earth Science ranked 34th; Materials Science (categorized as an Engineering specialty) ranked 37th; Psychology ranked 39th; Sociology ranked 40th; Computer Science ranked 40th; Occupational Therapy ranked 44th; Biological Sciences ranked 55th; Chemistry ranked 56th; English ranked 60th; Economics ranked 63rd; History ranked 63rd; Physical Therapy ranked 64th; and Fine Arts ranked 98th.
In 2017, the Shanghai Global Rankings of Academic Subjects ranked Stony Brook's Mathematics program 13th best worldwide.
College Factuals 2015 survey ranked Stony Brook University's Applied Mathematics program as 3rd best in the United States.
The Stony Brook College of Business earned AACSB International Accreditation in 2021.
Awards
In 2021, a team of students of the Journalism School won the Edward R. Murrow Awards for Excellence in Audio Feature Reporting.
Research
The School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences (SoMAS) is the SUNY center for marine and atmospheric research, education, and public service. More than 300 graduate and undergraduate students from 16 different nations work and study at SoMAS. The School's students study coastal oceanographic processes and atmospheric sciences. The Marine Sciences Research Center, the original institute for marine studies, was incorporated into the new School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences (SOMAS) on June 15, 2007.
The university co-manages Brookhaven National Laboratory, which is affiliated with the United States Department of Energy. In the Physical Sciences, Mathematics and Engineering area, some of the research centers of Stony Brook University are the Institute for Mathematical Sciences, the Institute for Advanced Computational Science, and the C. N. Yang Institute for Theoretical Physics among others. In the biomedical sciences, Stony Brook houses the Center for Biotechnology and the Institute of Chemical Biology and Drug Discovery, among many others. In March 2008, the university received $60 million endowment from James Simons to establish the Simons Center for Geometry and Physics. The Louis and Beatrice Laufer Center for Physical and Quantitative Biology was established by a generous gift in 2008 from Dr. Henry Laufer.
In July 2007 Stony Brook won a grant from the Department of Defense to devise ways to prevent terrorists from corrupting computers, and another from the Department of Homeland Security to design a system to detect radiation without triggering false alarms.
The New York Center for Computational Sciences (NYCCS), formed in 2007, is a joint venture of Stony Brook University and Brookhaven National Laboratory. Its centerpiece is an 18-rack Blue Gene /L and 2 rack Blue Gene/P massively parallel supercomputer
based on the IBM system-on-chip technology, also known as New York Blue Gene supercomputer. In the June 2008 Top 500 supercomputer rankings New York Blue Gene/L was ranked 17th, and Blue Gene/P was ranked 75th. The total peak performance for both Blue Gene/L and Blue Gene/P consists 103.22 teraflops (trillion floating-point calculations per second).
In 2016, Stony Brook University placed second at the Long Island regional round of the New York State Business Plan Competition. New York Institute of Technology placed first with four teams qualifying for the state competition's final round, while Stony Brook University had three teams qualifying for the state competition's final round.
Notable research and discoveries
There have been many notable research projects and important scientific discoveries at Stony Brook.
Admissions
In 2018, Stony Brook University accepted 41.8%, or 15,800, of the 37,828 freshman applications it received.
Of the 15,800 freshmen applicants accepted, 3,383 chose to enroll, or a rate of 21.4%.
Academic Profile of middle 50% of enrolled freshmen (as of 2018)
GPA: 91-97 (100-point scale), 3.6-4.0 (4-point scale)
47% in top ten percent of graduating class
80% in top quarter of graduating class
97% in top half of graduating class
SAT: 1250-1400
SAT Math: 630-740
SAT Evidence-Based Reading and Writing: 600-680
ACT: 26-31
The average SAT score of 2018 freshmen is 1323 out of 1600.
Student life
Stony Brook has a wide variety of student-run organizations on campus, which include sororities and fraternities, and a count of almost 300 recognized student clubs and organizations. The Undergraduate Student Government at Stony Brook University is trusted with the responsibility of budgeting the undergraduate student activity fee which funds most student run organizations on campus. The Graduate Student Organization is responsible for budgeting the graduate student activity fee, and supplies a variety of funding opportunities, programming, student services, and funding for departmental and student organizations.
The oldest campus newspaper is The Statesman, which was founded in 1957 when the university was in Oyster Bay. Other publications include the Stony Brook Press, Stony Brook Independent, Blackworld, and the Asian American E-Zine. Stony Brook also has a campus-wide public radio station, WUSB, which serves most of Long Island and dedicates programming to Stony Brook athletics and other events on campus.
Stony Brook has the greatest number of students who live on campus out of any public school in New York. Once seen as a "suitcase school" of commuters, Stony Brook has undergone efforts to shed that negative label, creating a model that struggling schools such as Central Connecticut State University have tried to emulate. Around 83% of freshmen students are residents.
Events and traditions
Incoming freshmen are welcomed to the university in August with First Night Out, a night of events taking place on the Friday in which they move in. Organized by Student Engagement and Activities, the night consists of a "Party on the Plaza" as well as various assorted activities. Wolfieland, an annual carnival, began in 2016 and takes place during September. Stony Brook University's annual Homecoming celebration, known as "Wolfstock", takes place in October and features numerous activities throughout the week, including Homecoming Hoopla & Carnival on Wednesday and the Seawolves Showcase talent show on Friday. Wolfstock culminates in Stony Brook's annual Homecoming football game on Saturday, which traditionally draws record-breaking crowds upwards of 12,000 people. The homecoming court is presented during halftime, dating back to 1984. Beginning in 2018, Stony Brook shifted to the gender-neutral title of 'royal' in lieu of 'king' and 'queen'.
Academic activity pauses weekly on Wednesdays from 1:00 to 2:30 p.m. in a period known as "Campus Life Time", which was established in February 1991. During Campus Life Time, no classes are scheduled and events take place at the Academic Mall, allowing students to take a break from their studies and come together for social activity.
First-year students are assigned a book written by a notable figure, who speaks to the entire freshman class on Commons Day in the fall semester. Commons Day speakers have included Supreme Court associate justice Sonia Sotomayor, author Janet Mock, designer Joshua Davis and journalist Charles M. Blow.
The Festival of Lights started in 2000 as an annual Stony Brook tradition that celebrates the numerous cultures and faiths which celebrate during the holiday season. The festival is preceded by "Light the Brook", a tree lighting ceremony at the Academic Mall. Midnight Breakfast takes place during the first Monday of Finals Week in both semesters as the dining halls open late to serve breakfast foods to students.
To celebrate Earth Day, Stony Brook holds a week-long Earthstock celebration in the week leading up, culminating in the Earthstock Festival. Numerous environment-themed events take place throughout the week, with the most known tradition being the Rubber Duck Race held at "The Brook" adjacent to the Administration building.
Starting in 1993, Strawberry Fest is held on the first Wednesday of May, where students and faculty gather at the Academic Mall to eat an array of strawberry-themed foods with live music and student performances. In 1998, Stony Brook began to hold Diversity Day during the same day as Strawberry Fest, planned and organized by the Office of Multicultural Affairs to highlight the diverse cultures which make up the university.
The yearly Roth Pond Regatta, held since 1989, attracts dozens of competitors and thousands of attendees, including students, faculty, staff, and alumni. The competition involves groups making boats out of cardboard and tape, with the challenge to get across the Roth Pond first without sinking.
Stony Brook holds two annual concerts – Back to the Brook during the fall semester and Brookfest during the spring semester. The inaugural Back to the Brook took place in 2012 and featured Reel Big Fish at the Staller Steps. Since then, Mac Miller, Lupe Fiasco, Walk the Moon, Fetty Wap and Post Malone have headlined Back to the Brook. 2018's Back to the Brook was infamously cancelled after only 24 tickets were sold for headliner Ashanti a week before the concert. 2019's Back to the Brook was controversially cancelled again. The historic Stony Brook concert series was revived in 2011 with Brookfest hosting headliners Bruno Mars and Janelle Monáe. Brookfest has since been headlined by Wiz Khalifa and Miguel, Ludacris and Grouplove, Childish Gambino and Diplo, Panic! at the Disco and Twenty One Pilots, Future and Cash Cash, DNCE and Joey Badass, 21 Savage and A Boogie wit da Hoodie, and ASAP Ferg and Aminé.
In the early 2010s, Stony Brook's Graduate Student Organization sponsored a concert series on the first Thursday of every month titled Stony Brooklyn, focused on exposing the student body to up-and-coming indie rock musicians from the New York area. This concert series included acts like The Antlers, Parquet Courts, Beach Fossils, The Drums, Ra Ra Riot, Das Racist and The Front Bottoms playing concerts on the Stony Brook campus. As interest in this scene declined, the series was shut down by 2017.
The Spirit of Stony Brook Marching Band
The Spirit of Stony Brook Marching Band was created in 2006 and plays at athletic games and other events. The first public performance was at the September 2006 convocation. The band grew to 70 members the second year and added additional staff. The band first traveled to the America East Men's Basketball Tournament in March 2007 and has done so regularly ever since. By July 2008, the band had reached 100 members, and by the mid-2010s had attracted over 200 members.
The Stony Brook marching band first participated in the NYC Columbus Day Parade in 2011, as well as appeared in an episode of Extreme Makeover: Home Edition and a commercial for the New York Lottery. The band performed on ESPN's College GameDay in 2017 when an episode was hosted in New York City's Times Square.
In 2021 during the COVID-19 pandemic, members of the Stony Brook marching band performed in the virtual halftime show for the College Football Playoff National Championship game between Alabama and Ohio State.
Stony Brook's current Director of Athletic Bands is Dr. Justin R. Stolarik, who previously was a director at the University of Wisconsin–Madison and the University of Oklahoma.
Athletics
Stony Brook University's intercollegiate athletics teams, known as the Stony Brook Seawolves, compete in the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) at the Division I level and are members of the Colonial Athletic Association, beginning on July 1, 2022. The school's current Director of Athletics is Shawn Heilbron, who was hired in May 2014 after serving as Senior Associate Athletic Director for Development at Oregon State University.
The university's athletics teams were originally known as the Soundmen or the Baymen in the early 1950s when the campus was located in Oyster Bay. Their name was changed to the Warriors in 1960, and again to the Patriots and Lady Patriots in 1966. In 1994, as Stony Brook prepared to become a Division I program, the team nickname was changed again, this time to its current day incarnation, the Seawolves. The team's mascot is named Wolfie.
Beginning in 2019, Stony Brook announced a partnership with SNY to broadcast football, basketball and lacrosse games on the channel. Stony Brook games on WUSB were announced by Josh Caray, grandson of famed broadcaster Harry Caray and son of Skip Caray until his departure in 2019.
The Stony Brook Patriots participated at the Division III level until 1995, when they moved up to Division II with the ultimate goal of soon reaching Division I. On June 3, 1997, President Shirley Kenny announced that the Seawolves' entire athletics program would play at the Division I level beginning during the 1999–00 season. Stony Brook joined the America East Conference in 2001 until leaving in 2022 and also played women's tennis in the Missouri Valley Conference.
Stony Brook garnered national attention during their 2012 College World Series run. The Seawolves upset the LSU Tigers in a three-game series to win the Baton Rouge Super Regional and reach the College World Series in Omaha, the first America East team to do so. Coach Matt Senk was awarded the National College Baseball Writers Association's Coach of the Year award. Outfielder Travis Jankowski was drafted by the San Diego Padres in the first round of the 2012 MLB Draft.
After going winless in four consecutive America East Finals in men's basketball, the Seawolves earned their first bid to the NCAA Tournament in 2016 by defeating the Vermont Catamounts 80–74. They lost to Kentucky in the first round of the NCAA Tournament by a score of 85–57.
Stony Brook has established itself as a dominant force in women's lacrosse. Since 2013, the Seawolves have finished in first place in the America East for eight straight seasons, making eight consecutive NCAA Division I Women's Lacrosse Championship tournaments. During the 2018 season, the Seawolves were ranked No. 1 nationally in all three major polls (IWLCA Coaches' Poll, Cascade/Inside Lacrosse, Nike/US Lacrosse) for at least ten weeks.
In recent years, Stony Brook's athletic facilities have undergone several additions and renovations. The Goldstein Family Student-Athlete Development Center opened in 2006 after a million-dollar donation by alumnus Stuart Goldstein. In 2011, Joe Nathan Field, dedicated to six-time MLB All-Star relief pitcher and Stony Brook alumnus Joe Nathan, opened after renovations to the former University Field were made possible by Nathan's $500,000 donation. Island Federal Arena, formerly known as the Stony Brook University Arena, opened in 2014 after a two-year, $21.1 million renovation. The Pritchard Gymnasium, current home of the volleyball team and former home of the men's and women's basketball teams, underwent a $1.5 million renovation in 2008. Alumnus Glenn Dubin donated $4.3 million to a strength and conditioning facility named the Dubin Family Athletic Performance Center, which opened in 2012. The Dubin family also pledged $5 million for a $10 million for the Dubin Family Indoor Training Center, which opened in 2020.
Transportation
In 2013, Stony Brook University launched its own bike share system to provide a sustainable transportation alternative for students (Wolf Ride Bike Share). As of 2016, the university provides 8 stations and 63 bikes. Docking stations and bikes are supplied by PBSC Urban Solutions.
There is also a system of buses operated by the university. This system is accessible to anyone on the Stony Brook Campus at no charge.
The university is located next to the Stony Brook LIRR station on the Port Jefferson Line.
The university is served by Suffolk County Transit connection S60/S69 and 3D is available on campus.
Notable people
Notable alumni
Chris Algieri, 2007, professional boxer and former WBO junior welterweight title holder
Kim Barnes Arico, current head coach of the Michigan Wolverines women's basketball team (transferred)
Joy Behar, 1966, co-host of The View
Pat Benatar, musician, Rock and Roll Hall of Fame nominee (dropped out)
Mark Bridges, 1983, Academy Award-winning costume designer
Adrien Brody, youngest winner of the Academy Award for Best Actor for The Pianist (2002)
Steve Cuozzo, 1971, journalist, contributor for the New York Post
Dabuz, 2017, a professional Super Smash Bros. player
Buck Dharma, lead guitarist and sole constant member of rock band Blue Öyster Cult
Diane Farr, 1995, actress on Numbers and Rescue Me
Keiko Fujimori, Peruvian politician
Steven K. Galson, 1978, former acting Surgeon General of the United States
David Gelernter, 1982, computer science professor at Yale and Unabomber victim
Richard Gelfond, 1976, CEO of IMAX Corporation
John L. Hennessy, 1975, tenth president of Stanford University, 2017 Turing Award winner
Scott Higham, 1982, winner of 2002 Pulitzer Prize in investigative journalism
Travis Jankowski, 2012, MLB player, first-round draft pick, currently with the Philadelphia Phillies
Tom Koehler, 2008, former MLB pitcher
Kevin Kwan Loucks, 2013, CEO of Chamber Music America
Momina Mustehsan, a Pakistani singer, musician, and social activist.
Dianne Morales (born 1967), non-profit executive and political candidate
Joe Nathan, 1997, six-time MLB All-Star and Minnesota Twins Hall of Famer
Jon Oringer, 1997, founder and CEO of Shutterstock
Sandy Pearlman, 1966, music producer and band manager for Blue Öyster Cult, Black Sabbath, etc.
Nan Phinney, 1972, accelerator physicist at SLAC, program coordinator for the world's first linear collider
Jef Raskin, 1964, Apple manager and creator of the Macintosh
Dominick Reyes, 2013, mixed martial artist currently #1 in the UFC light heavyweight rankings
Burton Rocks, 1994, sports attorney and current agent of Paul DeJong
Howard Saltz, 1983, former publisher and editor-in-chief of the South Florida Sun-Sentinel and Pulitzer Prize-winning editor
Laura Schlessinger, 1968, talk radio host
Greg Schwartz, 1995, comedian
Andrew Sega, 1997, video game music composer
Daniel Zamora, 2015, MLB pitcher, currently with the Seattle Mariners Organization
Victoria Hart, 2010, YouTube personality, educator, inventor
Faculty awards and honors
Nobel Prize in Physics
Nobel Prize in Medicine
Nobel Peace Prize
Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences
Pulitzer Prize
Crafoord Prize
Wolf Prize
Fields Medal
Abel Prize
National Medal of Science (5)
National Medal of Technology (2)
Presidential Early Career Award for Scientists and Engineers
Benjamin Franklin Medal
National Book Critics Circle Award
Oliver E. Buckley Condensed Matter Prize
Grammy Award
NASA Distinguished Service Medal
Obie Award
Howard Hughes Medical Institute Award
Humboldt Research Award for Senior U.S. Scientists
Fellows of Academic Societies
Fellows of the Royal Society (6)
MacArthur Foundation Fellows (3)
National Academy of Engineering Fellows (3)
National Academy of Sciences Fellows (19)
American Academy of Arts and Sciences Fellows (19)
Guggenheim Fellows (87)
Fulbright Association Fellows (54)
Sloan Foundation Fellows (46)
Rockefeller Foundation Fellows (13)
Institute of Medicine Members (3)
References
External links
1957 establishments in New York (state)
Brookhaven, New York
Census-designated places in New York (state)
Educational institutions established in 1957
Public universities and colleges in New York (state)
Universities and colleges on Long Island
Universities and colleges in Suffolk County, New York
Public universities in the United States
Flagship universities in the United States |
38656652 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeep%20Cherokee%20%28KL%29 | Jeep Cherokee (KL) | The Jeep Cherokee (KL) is a compact crossover SUV manufactured and marketed by the Jeep marque of Stellantis North America. Introduced for model year 2014 at the 2013 New York International Auto Show, sales began in November 2013. It occupies a position between the smaller Compass and the larger Grand Cherokee in Jeep's global lineup.
Overview
Jeep previewed the fifth generation Cherokee in February 2013, shortly after the releasing the Compass, Patriot, and Grand Cherokee. The Cherokee debuted at the New York International Auto Show on March 27, 2013. The North American market saw the Cherokee nameplate for the first time since the 2001 departure of the Cherokee (XJ). Other markets retained the Cherokee name with the introduction of the Liberty in the North American markets.
The Cherokee is the first Jeep vehicle to use the Fiat Compact Wide platform, which was co-developed by Chrysler and Fiat. It features a wheelbase of , longer than the 1993 Jeep Grand Cherokee, longer than its predecessor, the Jeep Cherokee XJ, and shorter than the original Jeep Cherokee (SJ).
The Jeep Cherokee can be equipped with three different four-wheel drive systems: Active Drive I, Active Drive II, and Active Drive Lock. All of these systems come with Jeep's Selec-Terrain traction control system and rear-axle disconnect feature. The rear axle disconnect feature, a first for Compact SUV, disconnects the rear-axle when four-wheel drive is not needed. This lowers parasitic drivetrain load; which improves fuel efficiency.
Trim levels
The Cherokee is available in several trim levels:
Sport (2014-2018)
The Sport served as the base model between 2014 and 2018. It includes seventeen-inch steel wheels, the Uconnect 5.0 touch screen radio, six speakers, cloth seating surfaces, a 2.4L Tigershark I4 engine, nine-speed ZF automatic transmission, and more. It comes in both 4x2 and 4x4. In 2015, the 3.2L Pentastar V6 also became available on this model. Seventeen-inch alloy wheels are available as part of the Sport Appearance Package. The Sport was replaced with the Latitude starting in 2019.
Latitude (2014- )
The Latitude adds alloy wheels and body-colored door handles and side view mirrors. It comes in both 4x2 and 4x4. In Canada, the model is dubbed North 4x2 or North 4x4. The "Latitude" comes with the 8.4" Uconnect and premium sound option as standard, whereas on the "North" it is an optional upgrade. There is an Altitude model that was introduced in spring 2014 that is based on the Latitude model and adds black alloy wheels and blacked-out accents. The Latitude model will be Jeep's volume seller of the Cherokee line. The Latitude became the new base model Cherokee in 2019, replacing the Sport, and a new Latitude Plus trim was introduced to take the place of the old Latitude model. For 2021, a new Latitude Lux trim adds some of the features found on the Limited trim, such as Nappa luxury leather-trimmed seating surfaces, the U Connect 4 8.4 touchscreen infotainment system, and dual heated front seats. Base Latitude and Latitude Plus trims were discontinued for the 2022 model year, although the Latitude Lux trim remains available.
X (2022- )
The X trim became available in 2022. Building off of the base Altitude trim, the X adds Trailhawk-inspired exterior styling, combination vinyl-and-cloth-trimmed seating surfaces, dual heated front seats, and a heated leather-wrapped steering wheel.
Trailhawk (2014- )
The Trailhawk adds dark-colored alloy wheels, the Uconnect 8.4A touch screen radio with 9-1-1 emergency assistance, roadside assistance, and support for apps. It comes in 4x4 model only, is Trail Rated®, and is a far more off-road capable model. The Trailhawk includes recovery hooks for towing a stuck vehicle and a mechanical rear locker. Both Trailhawk L and Trailhawk Elite models became available starting in 2017, adding uplevel features to the base Trailhawk model.
Limited (2014- )
The Limited serves as the top-of-the-line model, and adds bright-finished alloy wheels, and leather seating surfaces. It comes in both 4x2 and 4x4. It also adds the U Connect ACCESS 8.4A touch-screen infotainment system, heated dual front seats, and Keyless Go with push-button and remote starter systems.
Altitude Edition (2015- )
The Altitude Edition is based on the midlevel Latitude model, and adds features to the model such as gloss black eighteen-inch alloy wheels, a black lower front fascia accent, gloss black grille surrounds, gloss black roof rails, gloss black exterior badges, black window surround moldings, and an all-black leather interior. Also included is Chrysler's award-winning U Connect ACCESS 8.4A radio, with an A/M-F/M stereo, SIRIUS-XM Satellite Radio, an optional single-disc player (mounted in the center console), iPod and USB input jacks, a 3.5-millimeter auxiliary audio input jack, U Connect ACCESS W/ hands-free calling, 9-1-1 Assist, Wi-Fi connectivity for wireless internet access in the vehicle, wireless audio streaming, voice command, a full color touch-screen display, optional Garmin GPS navigation, and more. The model became available in 2015, and has a base price of $25,495.00 MSRP, up only $600.00 MSRP from the Latitude model it is based on, and is only available in Granite Crystal Metallic, Billet Silver Metallic, Bright White Clear Coat, or Brilliant Black Crystal Pearl Coat Metallic, all of which complement the gloss black exterior accents. Starting in 2022, the Altitude replaces the Latitude and Latitude Plus trims as the base trim in the Cherokee lineup.
Overland (2016-2020)
Introduced in 2016, the Cherokee Overland is the top-of-the-line, and most luxurious, Cherokee trim level in the United States. In addition to the previously top-of-the-line Limited trim level, it adds color-keyed front and rear fascias with chrome accents, color-keyed wheel wells, 18-inch polished alloy wheels, U-Connect Access 8.4 infotainment system with navigation, 9-speaker 506-Watt Alpine premium sound system, heated and ventilated leather seats, and a leather and wood-trimmed heated steering wheel.
The Overland offers either the 184-horsepower 2.4L Tigershark inline four-cylinder (I4) engine, or the 271-horsepower 3.2L Pentastar V6 engine with Stop-and-Go Technology, as well as two wheel drive or four wheel drive (with Jeep's "Active-Drive II" transfer case).
The Overland trim was discontinued following the 2020 model year, due to slow sales, as well as being simiarly-equipped to the Limited trim. The High Altitude Edition takes the Overland's place at the top of the Cherokee lineup for the 2021 model year.
75th Anniversary (2016) and 80th Anniversary (2021) Editions
In addition, a 75th Anniversary Edition model made its debut in spring 2016 to celebrate Jeep's 75th anniversary. Based on the Latitude trim level of the Cherokee, exclusive features include a Recon Green Metallic exterior paint color option, unique 75th Anniversary Edition exterior emblems, bronze-painted exterior accents, bronze-painted eighteen-inch (18") alloy wheels, premium cloth seating surfaces with "Ombre" mesh inserts and 75th Anniversary Edition embroidery, and bronze-accented interior trim. The U Connect ACCESS 8.4A infotainment system, as well as a full panoramic power moonroof are both standard on this model, as is deep-tinted glass and automatic front head and fog lamps. A similar 80th Anniversary Edition, celebrating Jeep's 80th anniversary, was also available for 2021.
Production
The Cherokee began production in the spring of 2013. Jeep pushed back the release date of the Cherokee to allow time for the development of the nine-speed automatic transmission by ZF. The new Cherokee arrived at dealerships in mid-fall 2013.
In late summer 2013, Jeep temporarily ceased production of its all-new Cherokee due to a transmission software issue. A few thousand Cherokees had already been produced, and would remain at the factory until a fix could be issued. In October 2013, a software fix was issued to the Cherokee, resuming production of the vehicle, and shipped it to dealerships in the U.S. By November the sales have started well in both the US and Canada, with at least four weeks of stock depletion due to pre-order. Chrysler has stated on 11 December 2013 the Cherokee advertisement campaign with the tagline Built Free to be the most successful one since the introduction of the 2011 Dodge Charger.
The Cherokee was introduced in Europe in the spring of 2014. To meet the demands of European buyers the model was fitted with one or more diesel powertrains, most likely one or more versions of the FIAT Multijet engine with a displacement of 2.0L and 170 PS (125 kW; 168 hp).
Production in Toledo ended in spring 2017. 949,151 units were built between 2013 and 2017.
FCA moved production of the Jeep Cherokee to their Belvidere Assembly facility, where the Jeep Compass and Jeep Patriot, as well as the Dodge Dart (PF) were produced until 2016. The Belvidere Assembly facility did not have to be retooled in order to produce the Cherokee, and the production change took place after the Dart was discontinued following the 2017 model year. FCA invested $700M into the plant and added 700 jobs to the Toledo North.
Powertrain
The Cherokee features Chrysler's 2.4L Tigershark I4 engine that produces a maximum output of and of torque. The most efficient model had a highway fuel economy rating of 31 miles per gallon, which is 45% better than the Liberty/Cherokee it replaces, and a driving range of .
Optional for the Cherokee is Chrysler's new 3.2L Pentastar V6 engine, It achieves 29 MPG and produces and of torque. The Cherokee is Chrysler's first product to feature the all-new engine.
In select markets, FCA offers an all-new 2.2L Multijet II common rail direct injection turbodiesel with or and of torque, achieving fuel economy of 49.6 MPGimp combined.
Cherokees for sale in the United States feature Chrysler's new nine-speed automatic transmission, designed by ZF and manufactured by Chrysler. Cherokees for sale in Europe may feature a 6 speed manual transmission. Not only is the Cherokee the first Chrysler vehicle to feature a nine-speed transmission, it is the first sport utility vehicle to feature a nine-speed transmission. The transmission yields approximately two additional miles per gallon with the V6 engine option compared to a six speed automatic.
New for the 2019 model year is the 2.0L "Hurricane" Turbocharged Inline Four-Cylinder (I4) gasoline engine.
Front-wheel-drive and four-wheel-drive models are available, with Jeep's Selec-Terrain system being available on the latter. These are named differently depending on the markets, with the FWD being slightly less expensive.
Transmission issues
The Cherokee was the first vehicle to market to use ZF's new 9 speed automatic transaxle. It features an unconventional design that reduces its size and increases fuel economy over more conventional transmissions, but increases its complexity. The initial release of the Cherokee was delayed several weeks citing quality concerns with the transmission, and multiple reports of issues with shift quality and reliability surfaced shortly after launch. Both 2014 and 2015 Cherokees have a high number of consumer complaints on safecar.gov and carcomplaints.com compared to similar models of its class, with the vast majority of complaints being related to the transmission. FCA's chief quality officer was forced to leave shortly after a poor Consumer Reports review on the dependability of models including the Cherokee, and so far Chrysler has released 3 software updates for the 2014-2015 Cherokee transmission. The company continues to assert that the problem is software related. However, Chrysler is repairing some Cherokee models' transmission "snap ring" to address durability concerns. Multiple vehicles that use the same ZF model transmission, such as the Range Rover Evoque, Honda Pilot, Acura TLX, Chrysler 200, and even the similarly built Jeep Renegade have had issues of varying severity as well. ZF, the transmission's designer, also insists that the issue is with software, and would not comment on any improvements being made. As of August 2016, ZF has issued a recall regarding the 9 speed automatic transmission affecting 505,000 vehicles. ZF is quoted for suggesting the issues are related to a faulty control sensor could cause the transmission to randomly drop into neutral while driving.
These transmission issues delayed the release of the all-new 2014 Jeep Cherokee KL to consumers until late summer 2014.
Software hack
In July 2015, FCA issued a recall of 1.4 million vehicles after a software glitch was discovered which would allow hackers to wirelessly hijack vehicles and electronically control vital functions. IT security researchers Charlie Miller and Chris Valasek hacked a 2014 Jeep Cherokee and gained access to the car over the Internet, which allowed them to control the vehicle's radio, A/C, and windshield wipers, as well as the Cherokee's steering, brakes and transmission. Chrysler published a patch that car owners can download and install via a USB stick, or have a car dealer install for them.
The software glitch impacted the 2014-2015 Jeep Cherokee, as well as the 2015 Chrysler 200, the 2015 Chrysler 300, the 2015 Dodge Charger, the 2015 Dodge Challenger, the 2013-2014 SRT and Dodge Viper, the 2014-2015 Jeep Grand Cherokee (WK2), and the 2013-2015 Ram Truck 1500'through 5500. All vehicles were equipped with either the U Connect 3C 8.4A (RA3) or the U Connect 3C 8.4AN (RA4) infotainment systems, which featured U Connect ACCESS, and used a Sprint 3G CDMA wireless connection in the vehicle to access services and apps. Vehicles equipped with the U Connect 2 3.0/3.0BT (RA1), the U Connect 3 5.0BT (RA2), and the U Connect 6.5A (RA4) were unaffected by the software glitch, as those radios did NOT feature a built-in wireless connection. Vehicles equipped with the older U Connect 3 8.4A (RE2) and the older U Connect 8.4N (RB5) infotainment systems were also unaffected for the same reason.
Facelift
The restyled 2019 Jeep Cherokee KL made its debut at the 2018 North American International Auto Show in Detroit, Michigan on January 16, 2018.
The front grille on the Cherokee has been moved down slightly to allow for larger front headlamps with LED daytime running lamps (DRL's), and the turn signals are now integrated into the front headlamps. All trim levels of the new Cherokee receive new wheel designs. The rear end of the 2019 Cherokee resembles the rear end of the second-generation Jeep Compass, with similar LED rear tail lamps.
On the interior, the Cherokee has changed little from the pre-facelifted 2014-18 version. Some trim levels of the Cherokee receive new seat fabrics, and all trim levels receive improved interior materials (all trim levels receive new interior color schemes). The infotainment systems have also been upgraded to the fourth-generation U Connect 4 systems. The base system (U Connect 4 7.0) replaces the previous U Connect 3 5.0BT radio on base trim levels, and the U Connect 4C 8.4 systems replace the U Connect 3C systems, adding 4G LTE Wi Fi connectivity, SiriusXM Guardian service for either six months when not equipped with GPS navigation, or one year when equipped with GPS navigation. All systems receive an improved User Interface (UI), and standard Apple CarPlay and Android Auto The larger U Connect 4C 8.4 systems integrate with the SiriusXM Guardian smartphone application for iOS and Android, as well as an application for smartwatches such as the Apple Watch and Android Wear devices, as well as integration with Amazon Alexa (Amazon Echo) devices, which was first introduced on the 2018 Cherokee Latitude Plus with the Tech Connect Package (the Latitude Plus with Tech Connect Package is no longer available for 2019, as its features have been integrated into the 2019 Jeep Cherokee lineup).
Engine choices for the 2019 Cherokee include the previously-available 180-horsepower 2.4L Multi-Air Inline Four-Cylinder (I4) and the 271-horsepower 3.2L Pentastar VVT V6 gasoline-powered units, though the V6 engine now comes as standard equipment on the upper trim levels of the Cherokee, where it was previously optional. However, a new engine, the 2.0L Hurricane Turbocharged Inline Four-Cylinder (I4) engine is now available on higher trim levels of the Cherokee, and produces 270 horsepower. All engines remain mated to a ZF-manufactured 948TE 9-speed automatic transmission, with a choice of either Front Wheel Drive (FWD) or Four Wheel Drive (4WD). All engines and transmissions receive improvements for improved reliability and fuel economy.
While only the uplevel Limited and Trailhawk trims were shown at its debut, the 2019 Jeep Cherokee will be available in Latitude, Latitude Plus, Limited, Trailhawk, Overland, and Trailhawk Elite trims. The Latitude trim replaces the previous base Sport trim for 2019. The all-new 2019 Cherokee went on sale at Jeep dealerships in the United States in early 2018 as an early 2019 model year vehicle.
Production of the Jeep Cherokee was relocated from the Toledo Complex in Toledo, Ohio to the Belvidere Assembly Plant in Belvidere, Illinois that once produced the first-generation Jeep Compass MK and Jeep Patriot, and the Dodge Dart (PF), in late 2017 in order to accommodate production of the all-new 2018 Jeep Wrangler (JL). Both plants received an extensive retooling in order to produce their respective vehicles. The Belvidere Assembly Plant temporarily closed for retooling following production of the final 2017 Jeep Compass MK and Jeep Patriot in December 2016.
Fiat Chrysler Automobiles has released a television commercial for the United States market restyled 2019 Cherokee, entitled "The World Comes With It", which also appears on the manufacturer's website for the vehicle.
2022 Changes
For 2022, the Jeep Cherokee lineup is revised, with Latitude trim being discontinued, and the Latitude Plus trim being replaced by a new X trim. The Altitude trim, which is the new "base" trim, receives seventeen-inch (17") Gloss Black aluminum-alloy wheels, as well as revised cloth seating surfaces, with available combination cloth and vinyl-trimmed seating surfaces available as an option. The new X trim, which replaces the Latitude Plus, includes all of the standard equipment of the base Altitude trim, but adds seventeen-inch (17") polished aluminum-alloy wheels with black accents, as well as combination cloth and vinyl-trimmed seating surfaces, off-road suspension, off-road body side cladding and front and rear wheel flares, a full-size spare tire and wheel, unique front hood and side decals with Gloss Black badging, a Matte Black rear tow hook, heated front seats, a heated leather-wrapped multifunction steering wheel, an eight-way, power-adjustable front driver's seat with lumbar support, all-season front and rear floor mats, rain-sensitive front windshield wipers, and a front windshield wiper de-icer system. The previous 2.4L "Tigershark" Inline Four-Cylinder (I4) gasoline engine has been discontinued for all models except for the base Altitude trim, with the 3.2L Pentastar V6 gasoline engine becoming standard equipment on most trims. The base U Connect 4 seven-inch (7.0") touchscreen infotainment system has also been discontinued, with the 8.4-inch (8.4") touchscreen with SiriusXM Satellite Radio with a one-year trial subscription becoming standard equipment on all models, and the Sun and Sound Group, containing a dual-pane panoramic power moonroof and the Alpine nine-speaker premium amplified surround-sound audio system with a subwoofer now optional on all models. All models except for the base Altitude trim, now include standard four wheel drive featuring Jeep's "Selec-Terrain" terrain management system.
The mid-level Latitude Lux trim now gains ventilated front seats, as well as a power-adjustable front passenger seat with lumbar support, while the Limited trim gains standard SiriusXM Guardian telematics services with a one-year trial subscription, as well as features such as parallel and perpendicular automatic parking assist, a lane departure warning system, a dual-pane panoramic power moonroof, and lane keeping assist as standard equipment. One new exterior paint color, "Earl", is also available for 2022.
Other markets
The Jeep Cherokee returned to the Chinese market in October 2015 for the 2016 model year since production ended 10 years earlier with the Jeep Cherokee (XJ). The new Jeep Cherokee (KL) is now assembled by GAC Fiat Chrysler in Changsha. A 2.4 litre engine was available paired to a 9 speed automatic gearbox until 2017 alongside the 2 litre naturally aspirated petrol engine. 2019 models were available with the 2 litre naturally aspirated petrol engine producing and 2 litre turbocharged engine producing from Tigershark paired to a 9 speed automatic gearbox. 8 trim levels are currently available for purchase and pricing ranges from 185,800 yuan to 319,800 yuan (26,830 to 46,180 USD) with the pre-facelift and facelift models sold together as of 2019. The pre-facelift version is known as New Cherokee Classic while the latter is known as the New Cherokee.
Sales
Safety
Awards
As of February 2014, the 2014 Cherokee was the top-ranked Affordable Compact SUV in U.S. News & World Report's rankings.
Notes
References
External links
Cherokee Official Website
Cherokee (KL)
Compact sport utility vehicles
Crossover sport utility vehicles
All-wheel-drive vehicles
Front-wheel-drive vehicles
Cars introduced in 2013
Motor vehicles manufactured in the United States |
43445613 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keyboard%20Maestro | Keyboard Maestro | Keyboard Maestro is a closed-source commercial macOS-based application that allows automation of routine functions, such as navigating running applications, opening documents, typing text, expanding abbreviations, and controlling web applications, by means of a visual programming language with support for variables, styled clipboards, functions and text tokens, if-then-else logic, loops and other functions.
Features include recording and designing macros, clipboard history, saved clipboards, and navigation through applications and windows. Macros are organised into groups which can be limited to operate within certain applications.
Keyboard Maestro was created and first released in 2002 by Michael Kamprath and purchased by Stairways Software in 2004, and has been in continuous development since then.
See also
AutoHotkey (for Windows)
AutoIt (for Windows)
AutoKey (for Linux)
Automise (for Windows)
Automator (for macOS)
Bookmarklet (for Windows)
iMacros for Firefox (for Windows)
KiXtart (for Windows)
Macro Express (for Windows)
References
Further reading
External links
Automation software
Utilities for macOS |
33161 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ward%20Cunningham | Ward Cunningham | Howard G. Cunningham (born May 26, 1949) is an American computer programmer who developed the first wiki and was a co-author of the Manifesto for Agile Software Development. A pioneer in both design patterns and extreme programming, he started coding the WikiWikiWeb in 1994, and installed it on c2.com (the website of his software consultancy) on March 25, 1995, as an add-on to the Portland Pattern Repository. He co-authored (with Bo Leuf) a book about wikis, entitled The Wiki Way, and invented the Framework for Integrated Tests.
Cunningham was a keynote speaker at the first three instances of the WikiSym conference series on wiki research and practice, and also at the Wikimedia Developer Summit 2017.
Early life and employment
Howard G. Cunningham was born in Michigan City, Indiana, on May 26, 1949. He grew up in Highland, Indiana, staying there through high school. He received his bachelor's degree in interdisciplinary engineering (electrical engineering and computer science) and his master's degree in computer science from Purdue University, graduating in 1978. He is a co-founder of Cunningham & Cunningham, a software consultancy he started with his wife. He has also served as Director of R&D at Wyatt Software and as Principal Engineer in the Tektronix Computer Research Laboratory. He is founder of The Hillside Group and has served as program chair of the Pattern Languages of Programming conference which it sponsors. Cunningham was part of the Smalltalk community.
From December 2003 until October 2005, Cunningham worked for Microsoft in the "Patterns & Practices" group. From October 2005 to May 2007, he held the position of Director of Committer Community Development at the Eclipse Foundation. In May 2009, he joined AboutUs as its chief technology officer. On March 24, 2011 The Oregonian reported that Cunningham had departed AboutUs to join the Venice Beach-based CitizenGlobal, a startup working on crowd-sourced video content, as their chief technology officer and the Co-Creation Czar. He remains "an adviser" with AboutUs. Cunningham left CitizenGlobal and is now a programmer at New Relic.
Ideas and inventions
Cunningham is well known for a few widely disseminated ideas which he originated and developed. The most famous among these are the wiki and many ideas in the field of software design patterns, made popular by the Gang of Four (GoF). He owns the company Cunningham & Cunningham Inc., a consultancy that has specialized in object-oriented programming. He also created the site (and software) WikiWikiWeb, the first internet wiki in 1995.
When asked in a 2006 interview with internetnews.com whether he considered patenting the wiki concept, he explained that he thought the idea "just sounded like something that no one would want to pay money for."
Cunningham is interested in tracking the number and location of wiki page edits as a sociological experiment and may even consider the degradation of a wiki page as part of its process to stability. "There are those who give and those who take. You can tell by reading what they write."
In 2011, Cunningham created Smallest Federated Wiki, a tool for wiki federation, which applies aspects of software development such as forking to wiki pages. He signed the Manifesto for Agile Software Development
Cunningham has contributed to the practice of object-oriented programming, in particular the use of pattern languages and (with Kent Beck) the class-responsibility-collaboration cards. He also contributes to the extreme programming software development methodology. Much of this work was done collaboratively on the first wiki site.
"Cunningham's Law"
Cunningham is credited with the idea: "The best way to get the right answer on the Internet is not to ask a question; it's to post the wrong answer." This refers to the observation that people are quicker to correct a wrong answer than to answer a question. According to Steven McGeady, Cunningham advised him of this on a whim in the early 1980s, and McGeady dubbed this Cunningham's Law. Although originally referring to interactions on Usenet, the law has been used to describe how other online communities work, such as Wikipedia. Cunningham himself denies ownership of the law, calling it a "misquote that disproves itself by propagating through the internet."
Personal life
Cunningham lives in Beaverton, Oregon. He holds an Amateur Radio Extra Class license issued by the Federal Communications Commission, and his call sign is Kilo Nine Oscar X-ray, K9OX.
Cunningham is Nike's first "Code for a Better World" Fellow.
Publications
See also
Christopher Alexander – Cunningham cites Alexander's work as directly influencing his own.
Framework for integrated test
PatternShare
Software design pattern
References
External links
WikiWikiWeb, including his WikiHomePage
2012 Dr. Dobb's Interview
EclipseCon 2006 interview with Ward Cunningham (MP3 audio podcast, running time 20:01)
The Microsoft patterns & practices group home page
The Simplest Thing That Could Possibly Work (2004 interview)
"The Web's wizard of working together" – profile originally in The Oregonian, December 19, 2005
You can look it up: The Wikipedia story – excerpt from the 2014 book The Innovators
1949 births
Living people
21st-century American non-fiction writers
Amateur radio people
American computer programmers
American technology writers
Extreme programming
People from Beaverton, Oregon
Writers from Portland, Oregon
Purdue University College of Engineering alumni
Technology evangelists
Tektronix people
Wikimedia Foundation Advisory Board members
People from Highland, Lake County, Indiana
Microsoft employees
Articles containing video clips
Agile software development
Software design patterns |
1894504 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain%20implant | Brain implant | Brain implants, often referred to as neural implants, are technological devices that connect directly to a biological subject's brain – usually placed on the surface of the brain, or attached to the brain's cortex. A common purpose of modern brain implants and the focus of much current research is establishing a biomedical prosthesis circumventing areas in the brain that have become dysfunctional after a stroke or other head injuries. This includes sensory substitution, e.g., in vision. Other brain implants are used in animal experiments simply to record brain activity for scientific reasons. Some brain implants involve creating interfaces between neural systems and computer chips. This work is part of a wider research field called brain–computer interfaces. (Brain–computer interface research also includes technology such as EEG arrays that allow interface between mind and machine but do not require direct implantation of a device.)
Neural implants such as deep brain stimulation and Vagus nerve stimulation are increasingly becoming routine for patients with Parkinson's disease and clinical depression, respectively.
Purpose
Brain implants electrically stimulate, block or record (or both record and stimulate simultaneously) signals from single neurons or groups of neurons (biological neural networks) in the brain. The blocking technique is called intra-abdominal vagal blocking. This can only be done where the functional associations of these neurons are approximately known. Because of the complexity of neural processing and the lack of access to action potential related signals using neuroimaging techniques, the application of brain implants has been seriously limited until recent advances in neurophysiology and computer processing power. Much research is also being done on the surface chemistry of neural implants in effort to design products which minimize all negative effects that an active implant can have on the brain, and that the body can have on the function of the implant. Researchers are also exploring a range of delivery systems, such as using veins, to deliver these implants without brain surgery; by leaving the skull sealed shut, patients could receive their neural implants without running as great a risk of seizures, strokes, or permanent neural impairments, all of which can be caused by open-brain surgery.
Research and applications
Research in sensory substitution has made significant progress since 1970. Especially in vision, due to the knowledge of the working of the visual system, eye implants (often involving some brain implants or monitoring) have been applied with demonstrated success. For hearing, cochlear implants are used to stimulate the auditory nerve directly. The vestibulocochlear nerve is part of the peripheral nervous system, but the interface is similar to that of true brain implants.
Multiple projects have demonstrated success at recording from the brains of animals for long periods of time. As early as 1976, researchers at the NIH led by Edward Schmidt made action potential recordings of signals from rhesus monkey motor cortexes using immovable "hatpin" electrodes, including recording from single neurons for over 30 days, and consistent recordings for greater than three years from the best electrodes.
The "hatpin" electrodes were made of pure iridium and insulated with Parylene, materials that are currently used in the Cyberkinetics implementation of the Utah array. These same electrodes, or derivations thereof using the same biocompatible electrode materials, are currently used in visual prosthetics laboratories, laboratories studying the neural basis of learning, and motor prosthetics approaches other than the Cyberkinetics probes.
Other laboratory groups produce their own implants to provide unique capabilities not available from the commercial products.
Breakthroughs include: studies of the process of functional brain re-wiring throughout the learning of a sensory discrimination, control of physical devices by rat brains, monkeys over robotic arms, remote control of mechanical devices by monkeys and humans, remote control over the movements of roaches, the first reported use of the Utah Array in a human for bidirectional signalling. Currently a number of groups are conducting preliminary motor prosthetic implants in humans. These studies are presently limited to several months by the longevity of the implants. The array now forms the sensor component of the Braingate.
Much research is also being done on the surface chemistry of neural implants in effort to design products which minimize all negative effects that an active implant can have on the brain, and that the body can have on the function of the implant.
Another type of neural implant that is being experimented on is Prosthetic Neuronal Memory Silicon Chips, which imitate the signal processing done by functioning neurons that allows peoples' brains to create long-term memories.
In 2016, scientists at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign announced development of tiny brain sensors for use postoperative monitoring, which melt away when they are no longer needed.
In 2020, scientists out of the University of Melbourne, who formed the company Synchron in 2016, published clinical data related to a discovery for Stentrode, a device implanted via the jugular vein, without the need for open brain surgery. The technology was shown to enable two patients to control a computer using thought alone. It may ultimately help diagnose and treat a range of brain pathologies, such as epilepsy and Parkinson's disease.
Military
DARPA has announced its interest in developing "cyborg insects" to transmit data from sensors implanted into the insect during the pupal stage. The insect's motion would be controlled from a Micro-Electro-Mechanical System (MEMS) and could conceivably survey an environment or detect explosives and gas. Similarly, DARPA is developing a neural implant to remotely control the movement of sharks. The shark's unique senses would then be exploited to provide data feedback in relation to enemy ship movement or underwater explosives.
In 2006, researchers at Cornell University invented a new surgical procedure to implant artificial structures into insects during their metamorphic development. The first insect cyborgs, moths with integrated electronics in their thorax, were demonstrated by the same researchers. The initial success of the techniques has resulted in increased research and the creation of a program called Hybrid-Insect-MEMS, HI-MEMS. Its goal, according to DARPA's Microsystems Technology Office, is to develop "tightly coupled machine-insect interfaces by placing micro-mechanical systems inside the insects during the early stages of metamorphosis".
The use of neural implants has recently been attempted, with success, on cockroaches. Surgically applied electrodes were put on the insect, which were remotely controlled by a human. The results, although sometimes different, basically showed that the cockroach could be controlled by the impulses it received through the electrodes. DARPA is now funding this research because of its obvious beneficial applications to the military and other areas
In 2009 at the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Micro-electronic mechanical systems (MEMS) conference in Italy, researchers demonstrated the first "wireless" flying-beetle cyborg. Engineers at the University of California at Berkeley pioneered the design of a "remote controlled beetle", funded by the DARPA HI-MEMS Program. This was followed later that year by the demonstration of wireless control of a "lift-assisted" moth-cyborg.
Eventually researchers plan to develop HI-MEMS for dragonflies, bees, rats and pigeons. For the HI-MEMS cybernetic bug to be considered a success, it must fly from a starting point, guided via computer into a controlled landing within of a specific end point. Once landed, the cybernetic bug must remain in place.
In 2012, DARPA provided seed funding to Dr. Thomas Oxley, a neurointerventionist at Mount Sinai Hospital in New York City, for a technology that became known as Stentrode. Oxley's group in Australia was the only non-US-based funded by DARPA as part of the Reliable Neural Interface Technology (RE-NET) program. This technology is the first to attempt to provide neural implants through a minimally invasive surgical procedure that does not require cutting into the skull. That is, an electrode array built onto a self-expanding stent, implanted into the brain via cerebral angiography. This pathway can provide safe, easy access and capture a strong signal for a number of indications beyond addressing paralysis, and is currently in clinical trials in patients with severe paralysis seeking to regain the ability to communicate.
In 2015 it was reported that scientists from the Perception and Recognition Neuro-technologies Laboratory at the Southern Federal University in Rostov-on-Don suggested using rats with microchips planted in their brains to detect explosive devices.
In 2016 it was reported that American engineers are developing a system that would transform locusts into "remote controlled explosive detectors" with electrodes in their brains beaming information about dangerous substances back to their operators.
Rehabilitation
Neurostimulators have been in use since 1997 to ease the symptoms of such diseases as epilepsy, Parkinson's disease, dystonia and recently depression. Rapid advancements in neurostimulation technologies are providing relief to an unprecedented number of patients affected by debilitating neurologic and psychiatric disorders. Neurostimulation therapies include invasive and noninvasive approaches that involve the application of electrical stimulation to drive neural function within a circuit.
Brain implants are also being explored by DARPA as part of the Reliable Neural-Interface Technology (RE-NET) program launched in 2010 to directly address the need for high-performance neural interfaces to control the dexterous functions made possible by DARPA's advanced prosthetic limbs. The goal is to provide high-bandwidth, intuitive control interface for these limbs.
Individuals and companies exploring brain–computer interface include: Elon Musk, Bill Gates, Mark Zuckerberg, Jeff Bezos, CTRL Labs, Synchron, MIT, and the University of California, San Francisco.
Current brain implants are made from a variety of materials such as tungsten, silicon, platinum-iridium, or even stainless steel. Future brain implants may make use of more exotic materials such as nanoscale carbon fibers (nanotubes), and polycarbonate urethane. Nearly all implants require open brain surgery, but, in 2019, a company called Synchron was able to successfully implant a brain–computer interface via the blood vessels.
Historical research
In 1870, Eduard Hitzig and Gustav Fritsch demonstrated that electrical stimulation of the brains of dogs could produce movements. Robert Bartholow showed the same to be true for humans in 1874. By the start of the 20th century, Fedor Krause began to systematically map human brain areas, using patients that had undergone brain surgery.
Prominent research was conducted in the 1950s. Robert G. Heath experimented with mental patients, aiming to influence his subjects' moods through electrical stimulation.
Yale University physiologist Jose Delgado demonstrated limited control of animal and human subjects' behaviours using electronic stimulation. He invented the stimoceiver or transdermal stimulator, a device implanted in the brain to transmit electrical impulses that modify basic behaviours such as aggression or sensations of pleasure.
Delgado was later to write a popular book on mind control, called Physical Control of the Mind, where he stated: "the feasibility of remote control of activities in several species of animals has been demonstrated [...] The ultimate objective of this research is to provide an understanding of the mechanisms involved in the directional control of animals and to provide practical systems suitable for human application."
In the 1950s, the CIA also funded research into mind control techniques, through programs such as MKULTRA. Perhaps because he received funding for some research through the US Office of Naval Research, it has been suggested (but not proven) that Delgado also received backing through the CIA. He denied this claim in a 2005 article in Scientific American describing it only as a speculation by conspiracy-theorists. He stated that his research was only progressively scientifically motivated to understand how the brain works.
Current research is focused on enabling paralyzed patients to move external devices through thought as well as facilitating thought-to-text capability in this population.
In 2012, a landmark study in Nature, led by pioneer Leigh Hochberg, MD, PhD, demonstrated that two people with tetraplegia were able to control robotic arms through thought when connected to the BrainGate neural interface system. The two participants were able to reach for and grasp objects in three-dimensional space, and one participant used the system to serve herself coffee for the first time since becoming paralyzed nearly 15 years prior.
In October 2020, two patients were able to wirelessly control a Surface Book 2 running Windows 10 to text, email, shop and bank using direct thought through the Stentrode brain computer interface. This was the first time a brain–computer interface was implanted via the patient's blood vessels, eliminating the need for open-brain surgery.
Concerns and ethical considerations
Ethical questions raised include who are good candidates to receive neural implants and what are good and bad uses of neural implants.
Whilst deep brain stimulation is increasingly becoming routine for patients with Parkinson's disease, there may be some behavioural side effects. Reports in the literature describe the possibility of apathy, hallucinations, compulsive gambling, hypersexuality, cognitive dysfunction, and depression. However, these may be temporary and related to correct placement and calibration of the stimulator and so are potentially reversible.
Some transhumanists, such as Raymond Kurzweil and Kevin Warwick, see brain implants as part of a next step for humans in progress and evolution, whereas others, especially bioconservatives, view them as unnatural, with humankind losing essential human qualities. It raises controversy similar to other forms of human enhancement. For instance, it is argued that implants would technically change people into cybernetic organisms (cyborgs). It's also expected that all research will comply to the Declaration of Helsinki. Yet further, the usual legal duties apply such as information to the person wearing implants and that the implants are voluntary, with (very) few exceptions.
Other concerns involve vulnerabilities of neural implants to cybercrime or intrusive surveillance as neural implants could be hacked, misused or misdesigned.
Sadja states that "one's private thoughts are important to protect" and doesn't consider it a good idea to just charge the government or any company with protecting them. Walter Glannon, a neuroethicist of the University of Calgary notes that "there is a risk of the microchips being hacked by third parties" and that "this could interfere with the user's intention to perform actions, violate privacy by extracting information from the chip".
In fiction and philosophy
Brain implants are now part of modern culture but there were early philosophical references of relevance as far back as René Descartes.
In his 1641 Meditations, Descartes argued that it would be impossible to tell if all one's apparently real experiences were in fact being produced by an evil demon intent on deception. A modern twist on Descartes' argument is provided by the "brain in a vat" thought experiment, which imagines a brain, sustained apart from its body in a vat of nutrients, and hooked up to a computer which is capable of stimulating it in such a way as to produce the illusion that everything is normal.
Popular science fiction discussing brain implants and mind control became widespread in the 20th century, often with a dystopian outlook. Literature in the 1970s delved into the topic, including The Terminal Man by Michael Crichton, where a man suffering from brain damage receives an experimental surgical brain implant designed to prevent seizures, which he abuses by triggering for pleasure. Another example is Larry Niven's science fiction writing of wire-heads in his "Known Space" stories.
A somewhat more positive view of brain implants used to communicate with a computer as a form of augmented intelligence is seen in Algis Budrys 1976 novel Michaelmas.
Fear that the technology will be misused by the government and military is an early theme. In the 1981 BBC serial The Nightmare Man the pilot of a high-tech mini submarine is linked to his craft via a brain implant but becomes a savage killer after ripping out the implant.
Perhaps the most influential novel exploring the world of brain implants was William Gibson's 1984 novel Neuromancer. This was the first novel in a genre that came to be known as "cyberpunk". It follows a computer hacker through a world where mercenaries are augmented with brain implants to enhance strength, vision, memory, etc. Gibson coins the term "matrix" and introduces the concept of "jacking in" with head electrodes or direct implants. He also explores possible entertainment applications of brain implants such as the "simstim" (simulated stimulation) which is a device used to record and playback experiences.
Gibson's work led to an explosion in popular culture references to brain implants. Its influences are felt, for example, in the 1989 roleplaying game Shadowrun, which borrowed his term "datajack" to describe a brain–computer interface. The implants in Gibson's novels and short stories formed the template for the 1995 film Johnny Mnemonic and later, The Matrix Trilogy.
Pulp fiction with implants or brain implants include the novel series Typers, film Spider-Man 2, the TV series Earth: Final Conflict, and numerous computer/video games.
The Gap Cycle (The Gap into): In Stephen R. Donaldson's series of novels, the use (and misuse) of "zone implant" technology is key to several plotlines.
Ghost in the Shell anime and manga franchise: Cyberbrain neural augmentation technology is the focus. Implants of powerful computers provide vastly increased memory capacity, total recall, as well as the ability to view his or her own memories on an external viewing device. Users can also initiate a telepathic conversation with other cyberbrain users, the downsides being cyberbrain hacking, malicious memory alteration, and the deliberate distortion of subjective reality and experience.
In Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle's Oath of Fealty (1981) an arcology with high surveillance and feudal-like society is built by a private company due to riots around Los Angeles. Its systems are run by MILLIE, an advanced computer system, with some high-level executives being able to communicate directly with it and given omniscience of the arcology's workings via expensive implants in their brains.
Film
Brainstorm (1983): The military tries to take control over a new technology that can record and transfer thoughts, feelings, and sensations.
RoboCop (1987) Science fiction action film. Police officer Alex Murphy is murdered and revived as a superhuman cyborg law enforcer.
Johnny Mnemonic (1995): The main character acts as a "mnemonic courier" by way of a storage implant in his brain, allowing him to carry sensitive information undetected between parties.
The Manchurian Candidate (2004): For a means of mind control, the presidential hopeful Raymond Shaw unknowingly has a chip implanted in his head by Manchurian Global, a fictional geopolitical organization aimed at making parts of the government sleeper cells, or puppets for their monetary advancement.
Hardwired (2009): A corporation attempting to bring marketing to the next level implants a chip into main character's brain.
Terminator Salvation (2009): A character named Marcus Wright discovers he is a Cyborg and must choose to fight for humans or an evil Artificial intelligence.
Television
The Happiness Cage (1972) A German scientist works on a way of quelling overly aggressive soldiers by developing implants that directly stimulate the pleasure centers of the brain. Also known as The Mind Snatchers.
Six Million Dollar Man (1974 to 1978) Steve Austin suffers an accident and is rebuilt as a cyborg.
The Bionic Woman (1976 to 1978) Jaime Sommers suffers an accident and is rebuilt as a cyborg.
Blake's 7: Olag Gan, a character, has a brain implant which is supposed to prevent future aggression after being convicted of killing an officer from the oppressive Federation.
Dark Angel: The notorious Red Series use neuro-implants pushed into their brain stem at the base of their skull to amp them up and hyper-adrenalize them and make them almost unstoppable. Unfortunately the effects of the implant burn out their system after six months to a year and kill them.
The X-Files (episode:Duane Barry, relevant to the overreaching mytharc of the series.): FBI Agent Dana Scully discovers an implant set under the skin at the back of her neck which can read her every thought and change memory through electrical signals that alter the brain chemistry.
Star Trek franchise: Members of the Borg collective are equipped with brain implants which connect them to the Borg collective consciousness.
Stargate SG-1 franchise: Advanced replicators, the Asuran interface with humans by inserting their hand into the brain of humans.
Stargate SG-1 franchise: Stargate SG-1 (season 7). Episode #705. Title "Revisions". A computer network linked to all the brains of the inhabitants. The A.I. in the interface has the ability to erase and rewrite history and does so.
Fringe: The Observers use a needle like, self-guided implant which allows them to read the minds of others at the expense of emotion. The implant also allows for short range teleportation and increases intelligence.
Person of Interest, Season 4. Episode 81 or 13. Title "M.I.A" "One of many innocent people who Samaritan operatives are experimenting on with neural implants."
Brain implants appear in several episodes of The Outer Limits: in the episode "Straight and Narrow", students are forced to have brain implants and are controlled by them. In "The Message", a character named Jennifer Winter receives a brain implant to hear. In "Living Hell", a character named Ben Kohler receives a brain implant to save his life. And in "Judgment Day", a character who is judged a criminal has a chip implanted on the medulla oblongata of the lower brainstem . The forcibly implanted chip induces overwhelming pain and disorientation by a remote control within range. In the episode "Awakening", season three, episode 10, a neurologically impaired woman receives a brain implant to help her become more like a typical human.
Black Mirror, a British science fiction television anthology series, has several episodes in which characters have implants on their head or in their brain or eyes, providing video recording and playback, augmented reality, and communication.
Earth: Final Conflict, in season 1, episode 12, named "Sandoval's Run", the character named Sandoval experiences the breakdown of his brain implant.
Earth: Final Conflict, in season 4, episode 12, named "The Summit", the character named Liam is implanted with a neural surveillance device.
Video games
In the video games PlanetSide and Chrome, players can use implants to improve their aim, run faster, and see better, along with other enhancements.
The Deus Ex video game series addresses the nature and impact of human enhancement with regard to a wide variety of prosthesis and brain implants. Deus Ex: Human Revolution, set in 2027, details the impact on society of human augmentation and the controversy it could generate. Several characters in the game have implanted neurochips to aid their professions (or their whims). Examples are of a helicopter pilot with implanted chips to better pilot her aircraft and analyse flight paths, velocity and spatial awareness, a CEO getting an artificial arm to throw a baseball better, as well as a hacker with a brain–computer interface that allows direct access to computer networks and also to act as a 'human proxy' to allow an individual in a remote location to control his actions.
The game raises the question of the downsides of this kind of augmentation as those who cannot afford the enhancements (or object to getting them) rapidly find themselves at a serious disadvantage against people with artificial enhancement of their abilities. The spectre of being forced to have mechanical or electronic enhancements just to get a job is explored as well. The storyline addresses the effect of implant rejection by use of the fictional drug 'Neuropozyne' which breaks down glial tissue and is also fiercely addictive, leaving people who have augmentations little choice but to continue buying the drug from a single biotech corporation who controls the price of it. Without the drug augmented people experience rejection of implants (along with ensuing loss of implant functionality), crippling pain, and possible death.
In the video game AI: The Somnium Files, a direct neural interface is used to invasively interface the thoughts and dreams of two individuals to the extent that one person could forcibly extract information from another person's brain. Although the ethics of it are not discussed much, the significant concerns presented by this sort of technology, such as blending of the minds of connected individuals or trading thereof, and forced invasive interfacing are brought up and form part of the core narrative.
See also
Auditory brainstem implant (ABI)
Hippocampal prosthesis
History of neuroimaging
Nanotechnology
Neuroprosthetics
Neurotechnology
Transhumanism
Wirehead
Reversible charge injection limit
Responsive neurostimulation device
References
Further reading
External links
Exclusive: A robot with a biological brain | Emerging Technology Trends | ZDNet.com
Theodore Berger's Website
Scientific American article on Jose Delgado
Discover Magazine article on brain implants
Neurotech Reports article on neural-silicon hybrid chips
Parylene-c vs Acrylic Conformal Coatings used in Brain Implants
BrainGate website
80,000 and Counting, Brain Implants on the Rise World Wide
Brain Implant
IsoRay
Encyclopedia of Computer Science
IEE Explore
Brain–computer interfacing
Brain–computer interfacing in fiction
Devices to alter consciousness
Emerging technologies
History of human–computer interaction
Implants (medicine)
Mind control
Multimodal interaction
Neural engineering
Neuroprosthetics |
689524 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WebKit | WebKit | WebKit is a browser engine developed by Apple and primarily used in its Safari web browser, as well as all iOS web browsers. WebKit is also used by the BlackBerry Browser, PlayStation consoles beginning from the PS3, the Tizen mobile operating systems, and a browser included with the Amazon Kindle e-book reader. WebKit's C++ application programming interface (API) provides a set of classes to display Web content in windows, and implements browser features such as following links when clicked by the user, managing a back-forward list, and managing a history of pages recently visited.
WebKit's HTML and JavaScript engine started as a fork of the KHTML and KJS libraries from KDE, and has since been further developed by KDE contributors, Apple, Google, Nokia, Bitstream, BlackBerry, Sony, Igalia, and others. WebKit supports macOS, Windows, Linux, and various other Unix-like operating systems. On April 3, 2013, Google announced that it had forked WebCore, a component of WebKit, to be used in future versions of Google Chrome and the Opera web browser, under the name Blink.
WebKit is available under the BSD 2-Clause license with the exception of the WebCore and JavaScriptCore components, which are available under the GNU Lesser General Public License. As of March 7, 2013, WebKit is a trademark of Apple, registered with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.
Origins
The code that would become WebKit began in 1998 as the KDE HTML (KHTML) layout engine and KDE JavaScript (KJS) engine. The WebKit project was started within Apple by Don Melton on June 25, 2001, as a fork of KHTML and KJS. Melton explained in an e-mail to KDE developers that KHTML and KJS allowed easier development than other available technologies by virtue of being small (fewer than 140,000 lines of code), cleanly designed and standards-compliant. KHTML and KJS were ported to OS X with the help of an adapter library and renamed WebCore and JavaScriptCore. JavaScriptCore was announced in an e-mail to a KDE mailing list in June 2002, alongside the first release of Apple's changes.
According to Apple, some changes which called for different development tactics involved OS X-specific features that are absent in KDE's KHTML, such as Objective-C, KWQ (pronounced "quack") an implementation of the subset of Qt required to make KHTML work on OS X written in Objective C++, and OS X calls.
Split development
The exchange of code between WebCore and KHTML became increasingly difficult as the code base diverged because both projects had different approaches in coding and code sharing. At one point KHTML developers said they were unlikely to accept Apple's changes and claimed the relationship between the two groups was a "bitter failure". Apple submitted their changes in large patches containing multiple changes with inadequate documentation, often in relation to future additions to the codebase. Thus, these patches were difficult for the KDE developers to integrate back into KHTML. Also, Apple had demanded that developers sign non-disclosure agreements before looking at Apple's source code and even then they were unable to access Apple's bug database.
During the publicized "divorce" period, KDE developer Kurt Pfeifle (pipitas) posted an article claiming KHTML developers had managed to backport many (but not all) Safari improvements from WebCore to KHTML, and they always appreciated the improvements coming from Apple and still do so. The article also noted Apple had begun to contact KHTML developers about discussing how to improve the mutual relationship and ways of future cooperation. In fact, the KDE project was able to incorporate some of these changes to improve KHTML's rendering speed and add features, including compliance with the Acid2 rendering test.
Following the appearance of a story of the fork in the news, Apple released the source code of the WebKit fork in a public revision-control repository.
The WebKit team had also reversed many Apple-specific changes in the original WebKit code base and implemented platform-specific abstraction layers to make committing the core rendering code to other platforms significantly easier.
In July 2007, Ars Technica reported that the KDE team would move from KHTML to WebKit. Instead, after several years of integration, KDE Development Platform version 4.5.0 was released in August 2010 with support for both WebKit and KHTML, and development of KHTML continues.
Open-sourcing
On June 7, 2005, Safari developer Dave Hyatt announced on his weblog that Apple was open-sourcing WebKit (formerly, only WebCore and JavaScriptCore were open source) and opening up access to WebKit's revision control tree and the issue tracker.
In mid-December 2005, support for Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) was merged into the standard build.
WebKit's JavaScriptCore and WebCore components are available under the GNU Lesser General Public License, while the rest of WebKit is available under the BSD 2-Clause license.
Further development
Beginning in early 2007, the development team began to implement Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) extensions, including animation, transitions and both 2D and 3D transforms; such extensions were released as working drafts to the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) in 2009 for standardization.
In November 2007, the project announced that it had added support for media features of the HTML5 draft specification, allowing embedded video to be natively rendered and script-controlled in WebKit.
On June 2, 2008, the WebKit project announced they rewrote JavaScriptCore as "SquirrelFish", a bytecode interpreter. The project evolved into SquirrelFish Extreme (abbreviated SFX), announced on September 18, 2008, which compiles JavaScript into native machine code, eliminating the need for a bytecode interpreter and thus speeding up JavaScript execution. Initially, the only supported processor architecture for SFX was the x86, but at the end of January 2009, SFX was enabled for OS X on x86-64 as it passes all tests on that platform.
WebKit2
On April 8, 2010, a project named WebKit2 was announced to redesign WebKit. Its goal was to abstract the components that provide web rendering cleanly from their surrounding interface or application shell, creating a situation where, "web content (JavaScript, HTML, layout, etc) lives in a separate process from the application UI". This abstraction was intended to make reuse a more straightforward process for WebKit2 than for WebKit. WebKit2 had "an incompatible API change from the original WebKit", which motivated its name change.
The WebKit2 targets were set to Linux, MacOS, Windows, GTK, and MeeGo-Harmattan. Safari for OS X switched to the new API with version 5.1. Safari for iOS switched to WebKit2 since iOS 8.
The original WebKit API has been renamed WebKitLegacy API. WebKit2 API has been renamed just plain WebKit API.
Use
WebKit is used as the rendering engine within Safari and was formerly used by Google's Chrome web browser on Windows, macOS, and Android (before version 4.4 KitKat). Chrome used only WebCore, and included its own JavaScript engine named V8 and a multiprocess system. Chrome for iOS continues to use WebKit because Apple requires that web browsers on that platform must do so. Other applications on macOS and iOS make use of WebKit, such as Apple's e-mail client Mail, App Store, and the 2008 version of Microsoft's Entourage personal information manager, both of which make use of WebKit to render HTML content.
Installed base
New web browsers have been built around WebKit such as the S60 browser on Symbian mobile phones, BlackBerry Browser (ver 6.0+), Midori, Chrome browser, the Android Web browser before version 4.4 KitKat, and the browser used in PlayStation 3 system software from version 4.10. KDE's Rekonq web browser and Plasma Workspaces also use it as the native web rendering engine. WebKit has been adopted as the rendering engine in OmniWeb, iCab and Web (formerly named Epiphany) and Sleipnir, replacing their original rendering engines. GNOME's Web supported both Gecko and WebKit for some time, but the team decided that Gecko's release cycle and future development plans would make it too cumbersome to continue supporting it. webOS uses WebKit as the basis of its application runtime. The latest interface update for Valve's Steam employs WebKit to render its interface and built-in browser. WebKit is used to render HTML and run JavaScript in the Adobe Integrated Runtime application platform. In Adobe Creative Suite CS5, WebKit is used to render some parts of the user interface. As of the first half of 2010, an analyst estimated the cumulative number of mobile handsets shipped with a WebKit-based browser at 350 million. By mid-April 2015, WebKit browser market share was 50.3%.
Ports
The week after Hyatt announced WebKit's open-sourcing, Nokia announced that it had ported WebKit to the Symbian operating system and was developing a browser based on WebKit for mobile phones running S60. Named Web Browser for S60, it was used on Nokia, Samsung, LG, and other Symbian S60 mobile phones. Apple has also ported WebKit to iOS to run on the iPhone, iPod Touch, and iPad, where it is used to render content in the device's web browser and e-mail software. The Android mobile phone platform used WebKit (and later versions its Blink fork) as the basis of its web browser and the Palm Pre, announced January 2009, has an interface based on WebKit. The Amazon Kindle 3 includes an experimental WebKit based browser.
In June 2007, Apple announced that WebKit had been ported to Microsoft Windows as part of Safari. Although Safari for Windows was silently discontinued by the company, WebKit's ports to Microsoft's operating system are still actively maintained. The Windows port uses Apple's proprietary libraries to function and is used for iCloud and iTunes for Windows, whereas the "WinCairo" port is a fully open-source and redistributable port.
WebKit has also been ported to several toolkits that support multiple platforms, such as the GTK toolkit for Linux, under the name WebKitGTK which is used by Eolie, GNOME Web, Adobe Integrated Runtime, Enlightenment Foundation Libraries (EFL), and the Clutter toolkit. Qt Software included a WebKit port in the Qt 4.4 release as a module called QtWebKit (since superseded by Qt WebEngine, which uses Blink instead). The Iris Browser on Qt also used WebKit. The Enlightenment Foundation Libraries (EFL) port – EWebKit – was developed (by Samsung and ProFusion) focusing the embedded and mobile systems, for use as stand alone browser, widgets-gadgets, rich text viewer and composer. The Clutter port is developed by Collabora and sponsored by Robert Bosch GmbH.
There was also a project synchronized with WebKit (sponsored by Pleyo) called Origyn Web Browser, which provided a meta-port to an abstract platform with the aim of making porting to embedded or lightweight systems quicker and easier. This port is used for embedded devices such as set-top boxes, PMP and it has been ported into AmigaOS, AROS and MorphOS. MorphOS version 1.7 is the first version of Origyn Web Browser (OWB) supporting HTML5 media tags.
Web Platform for Embedded
Web Platform for Embedded (WPE) is a WebKit port designed for embedded applications; it further improves the architecture by splitting the basic rendering functional blocks into a general-purpose routines library (libwpe), platform backends, and engine itself (called WPE WebKit).
The GTK port, albeit self-contained, can be built to use these base libraries instead of its internal platform support implementation. The WPE port is currently maintained by Igalia.
Forking by Google
On April 3, 2013, Google announced that it would produce a fork of WebKit's WebCore component, to be named Blink. Chrome's developers decided on the fork to allow greater freedom in implementing WebCore's features in the browser without causing conflicts upstream, and to allow simplifying its codebase by removing code for WebCore components unused by Chrome. In relation to Opera Software's announcement earlier in the year that it would switch to WebKit by means of the Chromium codebase, it was confirmed that the Opera web browser would also switch to Blink. Following the announcement, WebKit developers began discussions on removing Chrome-specific code from the engine to streamline its codebase. WebKit no longer has any Chrome specific code (e.g., buildsystem, V8 JavaScript engine hooks, platform code, etc.).
Components
WebCore
WebCore is a layout, rendering, and Document Object Model (DOM) library for HTML and Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG), developed by the WebKit project. Its full source code is licensed under the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL). The WebKit framework wraps WebCore and JavaScriptCore, providing an Objective-C application programming interface to the C++-based WebCore rendering engine and JavaScriptCore script engine, allowing it to be easily referenced by applications based on the Cocoa API; later versions also include a cross-platform C++ platform abstraction, and various ports provide more APIs.
WebKit passes the Acid2 and Acid3 tests, with pixel-perfect rendering and no timing or smoothness issues on reference hardware.
JavaScriptCore
JavaScriptCore is a framework that provides a JavaScript engine for WebKit implementations, and provides this type of scripting in other contexts within macOS. JavaScriptCore is originally derived from KDE's JavaScript engine (KJS) library (which is part of the KDE project) and the PCRE regular expression library. Since forking from KJS and PCRE, JavaScriptCore has been improved with many new features and greatly improved performance.
On June 2, 2008, the WebKit project announced they rewrote JavaScriptCore as "SquirrelFish", a bytecode interpreter. The project evolved into SquirrelFish Extreme (abbreviated SFX, marketed as Nitro), announced on September 18, 2008 further speeding up JavaScript execution.
An optimizing just-in-time (JIT) compiler named FTL was announced on May 13, 2014. It uses LLVM to generate optimized machine code. "FTL" stands for "Fourth-Tier-LLVM", and unofficially for faster-than-light, alluding to its speed. As of February 15, 2016, the backend of FTL JIT is replaced by "Bare Bones Backend" (or B3 for short).
See also
Comparison of browser engines
List of WebKit-based browsers
References
External links
for WebKitGTK
SunSpider 1.0 JavaScript Benchmark
Application programming interfaces
Free layout engines
Free software programmed in C++
Mobile software
Software based on WebKit
Software forks
Software that uses Cairo (graphics)
WebKitGTK
Software using the BSD license
2005 software |
39305141 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill%20Curtis | Bill Curtis | Bill Curtis (born 1948) is a software engineer best known for leading the development of the Capability Maturity Model and the People CMM in the Software Engineering Institute at Carnegie Mellon University, and for championing the spread of software process improvement and software measurement globally. In 2007 he was elected a Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) for his contributions to software process improvement and measurement.
Personal life
Bill Curtis was born in Meridian, Texas in 1948. He graduated from the Fort Worth Country Day School in 1967 where the Bill Curtis Award is given annually to the undergraduate boy whose performance contributes the most to the athletic program. He received his B.A. in mathematics, psychology, and theater in 1971 from Eckerd College in St. Petersburg, Florida. He received his M.A. in 1974 from The University of Texas. He received his Ph.D. specializing in organizational psychology and statistics in 1975 from Texas Christian University in Fort Worth, Texas. He has published 4 books, over 150 articles, and has been on the editorial board of 7 academic journals. He lives in Fort Worth, Texas.
Career
He started his career as a Research Assistant Professor in the Organizational Research Group at the University of Washington where he also taught statistics in the Department of Psychology and performed research on programmer skills, leadership, and sports psychology. He entered software engineering in 1978 as the Manager of Software Management Research at Information System Programs in General Electric's Space Division (now a division of Lockheed Martin) in Arlington, Virginia, where he led research on software metrics and programming practices. From 1980 to 1983 he developed a global software productivity and quality measurement system in ITT's Programming Technology Center.
During 1983–1990 he founded the Human Interface Laboratory and later led Design Process Research at Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation (MCC), the American Fifth Generation Computer Research Consortium in Austin, Texas. During 1991–1992 he was the Director of the Software Process Program at the Software Engineering Institute (SEI) at Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, where he led the projects that produced the Capability Maturity Model for Software (CMM). and the People CMM In 1993 he returned to Austin and co-founded TeraQuest Metrics, which provided CMM-based improvement services globally. TeraQuest was acquired by Borland Software Corporation in 2005, where he became the Chief Process Officer.
He is currently the Director of the Consortium for IT Software Quality (CISQ), an IT industry leadership group founded by the SEI and OMG. Under his leadership CISQ has begun releasing standards for measuring the size (Automated Function Point Counting) and structural quality characteristics of software at the code and software architecture level.
Significant contributions
Maturity models and process improvement
Dr. Curtis initiated the project to create the Capability Maturity Model (CMM) in 1991 after he had been selected to succeed Watts Humphrey as the Director of the Software Engineering Institute's Software Process Program. The CMM integrated the software development best practices the SEI had been collecting into Humphrey's Process Maturity Framework. The CMM for Software Version 1.0 was released in August, 1991 and Version 1.1 in January, 1993, and the CMM was published as a book in 1995. Throughout the 1990s he promoted the CMM to companies and government agencies in the U.S, E.U., and Asia, contributing to its global adoption as a method for guiding process improvement and for evaluating the capability of software organizations.
Dr. Curtis recognized that Humphrey's Process Maturity Framework was a unique model of organizational development that challenged conventional wisdom on how to conduct organizational improvement programs and could be applied to organizational processes far beyond software development. With his background in organizational psychology, he proposed applying Humphrey's framework to human capital management practices. Working with Bill Hefley and Sally Miller, he created the People CMM, validating the broad applicability of the Process Maturity Framework to many different organizational processes. The People CMM stages the implementation of increasingly sophisticated human capital management practices across the five levels of organizational maturity proposed by Humphrey. The People CMM has been used by several Fortune 200 companies to guide workforce development programs, and has been widely adopted by offshore system integrators and outsourcers to help manage the rapid growth of their workforces.
With support from Nedbank in South Africa, Dr. Curtis and Charles Weber developed a Business Process Maturity Model (BPMM) to extend the benefits of CMM and CMMI which are project-based, to the continuous value-chain processes of a business. The BPMM includes several new innovations in maturity models based on a decade of experience in applying them to guide process improvement programs. The BPMM has been applied and validated in the banking, electronic equipment manufacturing, medical services, and gaming industries. The BPMM has recently become a supported specification (standard) of the Object Management Group's Business Process Management Initiative.
Software measurement
Dr. Curtis led a team at General Electric Space Division that was the first to prove experimentally that software metrics could be used to predict programmer performance and quality. His group provided early leadership in studying programming practices experimentally. He next developed a global software productivity and quality measurement system while at ITT's Programming Technology Center which allowed established corporate baselines across different business lines in one of the world's largest corporate conglomerates. He has promoted the use of advanced statistic methods in managing software productivity and quality.
In 2009 Dr. Curtis became the founding Director of the Consortium for IT Software Quality (CISQ) that was created with joint sponsorship from the SEI and OMG. CISQ's primary objective has been to create standards for measuring the size and quality attributes of software at the code level. Under his leadership CISQ has recently had a standard for computing Automated Function Points approved by OMG. CISQ has also released a standard for computing automated measures of software reliability, performance efficiency, security, and quality.
Design process
Curtis has been an advocate for studying the psychological and behavioral processes of software development. In 1986 he established Design Process Research in the Software Technology Program at MCC. Over the next four years his team published research that challenged the existing top-down paradigms of software design. They interviewed design teams on large software to reveal the greatest challenges they encountered in designing large software-intensive systems. They videotaped design team meetings over a three-month period to see how designs actually emerged from the team dialectic. They also videotaped individual software designers solving problems to uncover the cognitive processes of design. Their insights have been cited as an argument for the use of agile development methods in software.
User interface
Dr. Curtis led the creation of MCC's Human Interface Laboratory that focused on creating tools for designing advanced user interfaces that integrated artificial intelligence with multi-media technology. In 1980 acquired funding from the Washington, D.C. Chapter of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) to launch the initial conference on Human Factors in Computer Systems, which became the Association for Computing Machinery's successful CHI conference series on user interface technology. He was program Chair for CHI'85 and General Chair for CHI'89. He was an advocate for making user interface design an engineering design discipline and for more sensible approaches to protecting the intellectual property in user interfaces.
References
1948 births
Carnegie Mellon University faculty
American software engineers
People in information technology
University of Texas at Austin alumni
Texas Christian University alumni
People from Meridian, Texas
Eckerd College alumni
Living people
Engineers from Texas |
699752 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntactic%20methods | Syntactic methods | In software engineering, syntactic methods are techniques for developing correct software programs. The techniques attempt to detect, and thus prevent, certain kinds of defects (bugs) by examining the structure of the code being produced at its syntactic rather than semantic level.
Usage
Syntactic methods are often used when formal methods are not an option, and are often a simpler and, more importantly, cheaper alternative. In non-mission-critical systems, formal methods may prove to be too expensive for the benefit they provide. The costs of modelling, personnel, execution and development may often outweigh the benefits gained by preventing possible failures. This approach revolves around the use of an abstract dependency graph which is created from the system in question. An abstract dependency graph is a directed graph, a graph of vertices connected by one-way edges. Most often, the vertices and edges of the graph represent the inputs and outputs of functions in or components of the system. By inspecting the created abstract dependency graph, the developer can detect syntactic anomalies (or Preece anomalies) in the system. While anomalies are not always defects, they often provide clues to finding defects in a system. Therefore, the anomalies in a system help point the developer in the right direction in finding defects.
Anomalies
There are four main types of anomaly:
Redundancies – A chunk of the graph is redundant if its terminals can be reached if the chunk is removed from the graph
Conflicts – A system contains conflicts if the same inputs can imply different outputs
Circularities – A loop in the graph indicates a circularity in the system
Deficiencies – A chunk is deficient if a subset of inputs leads to no terminals
While anomalies often point to defects, they can just as easily reflect normal intended functionality in the system. It is up to the developer to look into anomalies in order to determine whether they are clues to problems or simply false alarms.
By creating a visual directed graph of a system, there are several obvious visual flags that indicate the above anomalies:
a sub-graph with no input is probably missing something important;
while looking at the transitive closure of a system (all nodes downstream from a node), a node in its own transitive closure indicates a circularity;
while looking at the transitive closure of a system, subsumption between pairs of rows indicates redundancy;
conflicts are somewhat more difficult as they become more semantic than syntactic.
When formal methods prove too costly, a system can be checked solely on its syntax. This is not as thorough, as it only looks at a system on a surface level. However, it does give a developer many clues as to where a system's defects may lie.
General references
"Syntactic theory of software architecture." Dean, Thomas R., Cordy, James R. IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering 21 (4), pp. 302–313 (1995)
"Syntactic type abstraction" Grossman, D., Morrisett, G., Zdancewic, S. ACM Transactions on Programming Languages and Systems 22 (6), pp. 1037–1080
"A new algorithm for slicing unstructured programs." Harman, M., Danicic, S. Journal of Software Maintenance and Evolution 10 (6), pp. 415–441
"Reverse engineering of embedded software using syntactic pattern recognition" Fournigault, M., Liardet, P.-Y., Teglia, Y. Trémeau, A. Robert-Inacio, F.Lecture Notes in Computer Science (including subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics) Volume 4277 LNCS - I, 2006, Pages 527–536. (2006)
External links
"Project: Algebraic and Syntactic Methods in Computer Science (ASMICS 2)" Université Paris 7, Laboratoire Informatique Théorique et Programmation (working group)
"Syntactic Methods in Computer Graphics" by Pavel Slavik
Formal methods |
40051405 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testdroid | Testdroid | Testdroid is a set of mobile software development and testing products by Bitbar Technologies Limited.
Company
Bitbar was founded in 2009, with offices in Cambridge, United Kingdom, Wrocław, Poland, and Oulu, Finland.
Marko Kaasila is a founder and serves as chief executive officer.
Other founders included Sakari Rautiainen and Jouko Kaasila. Initial seed funding came from angel investors and Finnvera Venture Capital in December 2012.
By 2013, Bitbar was reported to have offices in San Francisco, Helsinki and in Wrocław.
An investment of US$3 million was announced in April 2013, from Creathor Ventures, DFJ Esprit, Finnvera Venture Capital, Finland's TEKES and Qualcomm.
Investors were quoted as being attracted because customers already included Google, Facebook, LinkedIn, Flipboard, Pinterest, and eBay.
In May 2014, a research by the company found out several aspects that fragment Android ecosystem for developers and users.
In September 2014, company enabled free access to Intel Atom based Android devices for mobile application and game testers.
Products
Testdroid comprises three different products: Testdroid Cloud, Testdroid Recorder and Testdroid Enterprise.
Testdroid provides an application programming interface through open source software available on GitHub.
Testdroid can use testing frameworks, such as Robotium, Appium and uiautomator for native and Selenium for web applications, targeted for mobile application and game developers.
Testdroid Cloud contains real Android and iOS powered devices, some of which are available for users.
Testdroid Cloud lets users run tests simultaneously on cloud-based service.
Testdroid Recorder is a tool for developers and testers for recording user-actions and producing JUnit based test cases on mobile application and games. Testdroid Recorder is available at the Eclipse marketplace.
Testdroid Enterprise is a server software for managing automated testing on multiple real Android and iOS powered devices, supporting Gradle build system and Jenkins Continuous Integration.
Testdroid appeared at Google I/O in 2012 and 2013.
References
External links
Software testing tools
Software quality
Mobile software programming tools
Unit testing |
5377176 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD%20disklabel | BSD disklabel | In BSD-derived computer operating systems (including NetBSD, OpenBSD, FreeBSD and DragonFly BSD) and in related operating systems such as SunOS, a disklabel is a record stored on a data storage device such as a hard disk that contains information about the location of the partitions on the disk. Disklabels were introduced in the 4.3BSD-Tahoe release. Disklabels are usually edited using the utility. In later versions of FreeBSD, this was renamed as .
Where disklabels are stored
Traditionally, the disklabel was the first sector of the disk. However, this system only works when the only operating systems that access the disk are Unix systems that comprehend disklabels. In the world of IBM PC compatibles, disks are usually partitioned using the PC BIOS's master boot record (MBR) Partition Table scheme instead, and the BSD partitioning scheme is nested within a single, primary, MBR partition (just as the "extended" partitioning scheme is nested within a single primary partition with extended boot records). Sometimes (particularly in FreeBSD), the primary MBR partitions are referred to as slices and the subdivisions of a primary MBR partition (for the nested BSD partitioning scheme) that are described by its disklabel are called partitions. The BSD disklabel is contained within the volume boot record of its primary MBR partition.
The MBR partition IDs for primary partitions that are subdivided using BSD disklabels are (386BSD and FreeBSD), (OpenBSD), (NetBSD), and (DragonFly BSD).
This format has a similar goal as the extended partitions and logical partition system used by MS-DOS, Windows and Linux.
The same PC hard drive can have both BSD disklabel partitions and the MS-DOS type logical partitions in separate primary partitions. FreeBSD and other BSD operating systems can access both the BSD disklabel subdivided partition and the MS-DOS type Extended/Logical partitions.
The contents of disklabels
BSD disklabels traditionally contain 8 entries for describing partitions. These are, by convention, labeled alphabetically, 'a' through to 'h'. Some BSD variants have since increased this to 16 partitions, labeled 'a' through to 'p'.
Also by convention, partitions 'a', 'b', and 'c' have fixed meanings:
Partition 'a' is the "root" partition, the volume from which the operating system is bootstrapped. The boot code in the Volume Boot Record containing the disklabel is thus simplified, as it need only look in one fixed location to find the location of the boot volume;
Partition 'b' is the "swap" partition;
Partition 'c' overlaps all of the other partitions and describes the entire disk. Its start and length are fixed. On systems where the disklabel co-exists with another partitioning scheme (such as on PC hardware), partition 'c' may actually only extend to an area of disk allocated to the BSD operating system, and partition 'd' is used to cover the whole physical disk.
See also
Master Boot Record (MBR)
Extended Boot Record (EBR)
GUID Partition Table (GPT)
Boot Engineering Extension Record (BEER)
Apple Partition Map (APM)
Rigid Disk Block (RDB)
References
Further reading
BSD software
Disk partitions
Unix file system technology |
3246921 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimitri%20Voudouris | Dimitri Voudouris | Dimitri Voudouris (Greek: Δημήτριος Βουδούρης), is an electroacoustic, new music composer, scientific researcher and pharmacist living in South Africa who pioneered UNYAZI, the first electronic music festival and symposium on the African continent in 2005 that took place at University of the Witwatersrand, in Johannesburg, South Africa. He lectures part-time at Witwatersrand University in electronic music composition.
He composes for acoustic instruments, electronic sound sources, multimedia, including dance and theatre. He bases his technical and theoretical compositional approach in scientific research e.g. Study of traffic flow patterns, biochemical dynamics of energy formation, flow / resistance of fluids travelling through various transport systems, cognitive psycho-acoustic behavioural patterns in humans and the behaviour of sound in relationship to continued environmental changes.
His sociocultural interests have led him to research the survival of music in the 21st century and the impact that media and technology have on the composer. These theories help to create moments of isolation allowing for the morphological study of each individual sound source, a strategic necessity that brings a degree of order and allows for the creation of various building blocks used in the construction of micro-environments that in turn form the backbone of his compositions.
Compositions
UNOXHAKA [1998] Piano.
...A VICTORY FOR HEALTH... [2000] News media Audio Montage.
IMPILO [2000–2001] Computer music with prepared environment.
SIZOBONANA [2002] Field recordings, African percussion, computer assisted processing.
PALMOS [2002] Hammond Organ B4, Bandoneon, Oboe, computer assisted processing.
NPFAI.1 [2002] Kalimba, Kundi, Granular synthesis.
NPFAI.2 [2002–2003] Piccolo, Flute, Bass Clarinet, French Horn, Hindewhu, computer assisted processing.
NPFAI.3 [2003] African marimba, computer assisted processing.
NPFAI.3 + WM [2004] Western Marimba and tape in [2017**](revised score)Amplified western marimba(extended techniques)and electronics
ISILOKAZANE [2007] Piano.
[O]-Rd:2 -[2008–2010] – Calculating elastic behaviour of complex microscopic systems:Examining unidirectional vehicular motion Piano and Digital Audio Tape.[biomechanical study:3]
[W]-Rd:1e [2009–2010]- Calculating behaviour of complex microscopic systems:Examining mobility of unidirectional vehicular motion in a two-lane system – Computer generated music.[biomechanical study:4]
ΞΩΡΑΑΚ – Παρ.5 [version:1] – [2011] – Harpsichord.[biomechanical study:5]
ΞΩΡΑΑΚ – Παρ.5 [version:1e] – [2012] – Harpsichord and electronics.[biomechanical study:5]
CI-[N1]-H:1e [2011–2012]- Behaviour of complex macroscopic systems:examining kinetic flow disturbances occurring in vehicular motion during phantom traffic jam formations in a three-lane unidirectional system – Computer generated music.[biomechanical study:7]
SBI -[ N1 ]:H [Sections 1–21] [2011 – 2013] – [ Free flowing traffic congestion ] tracking regular and irregular behaviour of vehicles travelling in a four-lane unidirectional system – Two amplified Harps.
A[EV] 3070/7f – [ 2013 – 2014 ] – An artificial evolutionary analysis of environments: Artificial speech and singing synthesis, computer assisted electronics, [composition assisted by Matlab's computational autonomy ] – [biomechanical study:10]
cong[s/m]-l2 - [2013-2015] - Dynamic sound analysis, computerised transcription of data from various single and multi-lane traffic congestions in a unidirectional system – Grand piano and [C++]granular synthesis. [biomechanical study:12]
NPFAI.4 [2008-2015] Xigoviya (globular flute), ring modulator with electronic environments
NPFAI.5 [2009-2015] Computer assisted music
cong(m)l:a (19z..,24y..,13.3i..) - [2017] - “....from chaos to discernible order....” - Amplified grand piano and computer as(an assistant composer)
cong(m)l:a (05g..,31v..,08p..) - [2018] - “....from chaos to discernible order....” - Amplified grand piano and computer as(an assistant composer)
NPFAI.3.1 [2018] - African xylophones , mbira , computer assisted processing
NPFAI.6 [2018] - Natural voice/s of performer/s as well as artificial voices, African xylophone, variety of whistles, computer assisted processing
SY-mplexi - [2018-2020] - 4 x Short-wave receivers, assorted metal percussion, (2 x condenser,8 x contact ) D.I.Y microphones, computer assisted processing.
Panta Rhei - [2021] - 14524GF Violin and computer-assisted electronics, 1736GF solo violin (commissioned by NewMusicSA on composers 60th birthday)
Multimedia Theater
L22P08M02 [2002–2005] Scene 1–3: Field recording of demonstration, Dance Theatre, poetry, Visual Design, computer assisted processing.
ANAMNΗΣΙΣ [2007– 2008] [ΜΕΡΟΣ Α-Γ]: 50 Piccolo Flutes,20 Trumpets,20 Children baring banners and remote control toys,3 Actors, Mixed choir with short-wave receivers,3 Megaphones,3 Inflatable Balls,16 Dancers on Roller-skates and Stalls, Birds,8 Microphones,3 Transparent Screens with Projectors and Animation, Audience, Computer music, Sound Projection.
Music for Contemporary dance theatre
LEXICOPHONY.1 [2003–2004] Computer music for disabled contemporary dance performance.
GESTICULAR [Cena 1–11] [2006–2007]: [Cena 2,4,8,10,11] originally commissioned by Projet Insitu for contemporary dance TAXIDERMIE – as part of the specific project 4M [Maputo] with funding from the French Institute of South Africa – Contrabass, Grand piano, Violin, Xylophone, Mbira, Field recordings, Computer assisted processing.
UVIVI [2008] Computer Music for Contemporary Dance Theatre.[biomechanical study:2]
ΞΩΡΑΑΚ [2010-2012]:
[2010] – Παρ.1,2 – Dancers, objects, audience, mobiles, triggers, sound projectionist, lighting Technician, choreographer, electronic music
for 6 speaker diffusion system.
[2011] – Παρ.3,4 – music ensemble – [small metal objects, stones, wood, whirlies, balloons, wind machines, paper, sticks, short-wave
receivers, bowed saws, narrators (with voice manipulation), public speakers (with megaphones), xylophone]- amplified, an audience with mobiles,
conductor and sound projectionist, sound engineer, lighting technician, choreographer and electronic music with 8 channel speaker diffusion."
[2011] – Παρ.5 [ Version 1 ] – Amplified harpsichord.
[2012] – Παρ.5,6 – Παρ.5.2 – Harpsichord [amplified], midi harpsichord, whistles and electronic music, dancers, sound engineer, sound
projectionist, light technician, for 14 x channel diffusion system. Παρ.6 – Electronic music for 6 x channel diffusion system, dancers, sound engineer, choreographer, sound projectionist, light technician.
[2012] – Παρ.5 [ Version 1e ] – Amplified harpsichord and electronics.
Kinematic theatre for inanimate objects
Sιηκ – [2013–2014] – electro-acoustic music, giant puppet figures with optional [ animation, shadow theatre and mechanised toys ], mobile scenery.[biomechanical study:11]
Hydrophonics
Ω375.3 – [2012–2014] – [sound analysis: pipe corrosion affecting liquid volumetric flow rate in 375,3 meter closed pipe system] – computer assisted processing.[bio-kinetic study:1a]
η(154m) - [2013-2016] - [sound analysis: computerized transcription of data, investigating corrosion in a 154 meter galvanized pipe] - computer assisted processing and bowed electric double bass.[bio-kinetic study:1b]
Vocal
PRAXIS [2003–2004] Orthodox Christian Male Choir, Magnetic Tape and computer-assisted processing.
ONTA [2003–2005] Voice and electronics with computer-assisted processing.
1.ΘΦ4 [2007] Four artificial female voices.[biomechanical study:1]
VOZ DA REVOLUÇÃO [2007–2009][CONSTRUÇÃO.. 1-(1.1–1.7),CONSTRUÇÃO.. 2] Opera in 8 Scenes : TTS Choir- Soprano, Mezzo-Soprano, 2 Tenors, Baritone Live Act- 2 Sopranos, 2 Tenors, Mixed Choir [25 Children and Women],30 Gymnasts, journalist, Economist, 4 Chess Players, 50 Children, 10 Construction Builders, 20 Youths, 30 Actors, Audience, 5 Slide Projectionists, 7 Projectionists, 2 Poets, 5 Public Speakers with Megaphones, 10 Remote Control Toy Operators, 5 Heavy Duty Vehicles with Drivers, 3 Percussionists, 2 Sound Projectionists, 2 Lighting Technicians:- Text to Speech Synthesis, Prepared Natural Voice Environment, Computer Assisted Processing.
mftrah [2011–2013] Text to speech and singing (TTSS) synthesis – 4 female, 3 male, 2 children voices with pseudo environments mimicking (TTSS)- created with the use of Computer-assisted processing and modelling.[biomechanical study:9]
Onirophoreas (Phase 1.1 - 1.6) [ 2018 - 2019 ] (text to speech) Artificial speech, singing synthesis with environments / natural voices with environments / African hand drum, bells, shakers, rain stick / computer-assisted processing
Installation
a] Designed space for performance
ΑΛΘ = Φ [2005–2008] TTS[text to speech synthesis]with computer assisted processing for a 24 speaker interactive robotic ensemble for ΘΩΡΑΞ a designed space for live performance.
b] Designed space for game performance
MUSUNUNGURI −1/ chikamu – .1 [2009] Speech synthesis with Computer assisted processing for an interactive game installation MUCHETO a designed space for live performance.
Piano and video projection or piano and audience
KODERING
P1 – [ kode 1 – kode 16 ] – [2010–2011],
P2 – [ kode 17 – kode 32 ] – [2010–2011],
P3 – [ kode 33 – kode 48 ] – [2011–2012],
P4 – [ kode 49 – kode 61 ] – [2012]
for amplified Grand piano, video projection, monitor or amplified Grand piano, audience, monitor or 4 x Grand pianos.-
kode 1 – kode 21 was commissioned by DOMUS, concept Mareli Stolp [biomechanical study:6]
Film
JHB626GP [2006] Short compositions of field recordings for the video work of Ismail Farouk exhibited at the Venice Architecture Biennale 2006.
Recordings
.NPFAI.1,Palmos,NPFAI.3,Praxis – 2006 – [Pogal Productions]
.ΑΛΘ=Φ,UVIVI,1Θφ4,ΟΝΤΑ – 2010 – [Pogal Productions]
.GESTICULAR: Cena 8 – on compilation CD – 2013 – [Peer Music Records]
References
1. International Computer Music Conference 2005, Voudouris Dimitri, L22P08M02 - Volume 30, Number 2, Page 90, (2006) Computer Music Journal, ISSN 0148-9267.
2. Voudouris, Dimitri. Volume 13, issue 1-2, (2016), Lexicophony.1: Computer-generated composition, Journal of the Musical Arts in Africa, pages: 71–77, ISSN 1812-1004 EISSN 2070-626X.
3. Voudouris, Dimitri.NPFAI.5:in construction.(2020) (1-4 page article)
4. Music Indaba 2010:Home Made-Hand Made/University of Kwazulu Natal, Durban, South Africa: Reviewed by Dimitri Voudouris, Computer Music Journal Volume 35, Number 3, Page 98-102, ISSN 0148-9267.
5. UNYAZI 2005, by Jurgen Brauninger Leonardo Music (2006) Journal Volume 16 Special Section Introduction, Page 62-65, ISSN 0961-1215.
6. Actualitatea Muzicala Magazine - NPFAI.3, page 16, Serie nouã DECEMBRIE 2016 - Carmen Popa,[Language - Romanian] ISSN 1220-742X
7. Actualitatea Muzicala Magazine - NPFAI.4, page 12, Serie nouã DECEMBRIE 2017 - Carmen Popa,[Language - Romanian] ISSN 1220-742X
8. Actualitatea Muzicala Magazine - NPFAI.1, page 12, Serie nouã DECEMBRIE 2018 - Diana Rotaru,[Language - Romanian] ISSN 1220-742X
1. Jazz & Tzaz issue 236 - Dimitri Voudouris by Thomas Tamvakos, Nov 2012, Page 53[ Language - Greek ], www.jazztzaz.gr email address:[email protected]
2. Taxidermie, Mail&Guardian: Kwanele Sosibo, Mail & Guardian October 20-26 2006
3. Sonic Africa's many stylistic skins, Imagining Africa 2004, Business Day- Gwen Ansell, CUE Sunday 4, July 2004
4. Interview 2004, by:: Wanita Briel, CUE Sunday 4, July 2004
External links
NewMusicSA
Rhizome
At.Joburg
ICMC2005
ICMC2006
ICMC2008
ICMC2009
ICMC2014
ICMC2020 - 2021
MITPress
International Competition Art Biennale Kompozytorski
SAartEmerging
PROJET IN SITU
HELMCA
PGN
La Biennale di Venezia
Pogus Productions
Pierre Henri Wicomb
IMEB
GAUDEAMUS COMPONIST
20th-century classical composers
21st-century classical composers
Greek electronic musicians
Experimental composers
Greek classical composers
Microtonal musicians
South African composers
South African male composers
Living people
1961 births
Musicians from Athens
Male classical composers
20th-century male musicians
21st-century male musicians |
1933660 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network%20tap | Network tap | A network tap is a system that monitors events on a local network. A tap is typically a dedicated hardware device, which provides a way to access the data flowing across a computer network.
The network tap has (at least) three ports: an A port, a B port, and a monitor port. A tap inserted between A and B passes all traffic (send and receive data streams) through unimpeded in real time, but also copies that same data to its monitor port, enabling a third party to listen.
Network taps are commonly used for network intrusion detection systems, VoIP recording, network probes, RMON probes, packet sniffers, and other monitoring and collection devices and software that require access to a network segment. Taps are used in security applications because they are non-obtrusive, are not detectable on the network (having no physical or logical address), can deal with full-duplex and non-shared networks, and will usually pass through or bypass traffic even if the tap stops working or loses power.
Terminology
The term network tap is analogous to phone tap or vampire tap. Some vendors define TAP as an acronym for test access point or terminal access point; however, those are backronyms.
The monitored traffic is sometimes referred to as the pass-through traffic, while the ports that are used for monitoring are the monitor ports. There may also be an aggregation port for full-duplex traffic, wherein the A traffic is aggregated with the B traffic, resulting in one stream of data for monitoring the full-duplex communication. The packets must be aligned into a single stream using a time-of-arrival algorithm.
Vendors will tend to use terms in their marketing such as breakout, passive, aggregating, regeneration, bypass, active, inline power, and others; Unfortunately, vendors do not use such terms consistently. Before buying any product it is important to understand the available features, and check with vendors or read the product literature closely to figure out how marketing terms correspond to reality. All of the "vendor terms" are common within the industry, have real definitions and are valuable points of consideration when buying a tap device.
A distributed tap is a set of network taps that report to a centralized monitoring system or packet analyzer.
Tapping technology methods
There are various methods for monitoring a network. Many tapping methods can be used, according to the network technology, the monitoring objective, the resources available and the size of the target network. Various methods will be developed below.
Tapping by software
This type of tapping focuses on tapping by making use of software, and without making any significant change on an infrastructures hardware. This type of tapping is often the cheapest one to implement, but it needs several implementations to give a truly complete look of the network.
Monitoring software
The simplest type of monitoring is logging into an interesting device and running programs or commands that show performance statistics and other data. This is the cheapest way to monitor a network, and is highly appropriate for small networks. However, it does not scale well to large networks. It can also impact the network being monitored; see observer effect.
SNMP
Another way to monitor devices is to use a remote management protocol such as SNMP to ask devices about their performance. This scales well, but is not necessarily appropriate for all types of monitoring. The inherent problems with SNMP are the polling effect. Many vendors have alleviated this by using intelligent polling schedulers, but this may still affect the performance of the device being monitored. It also opens up a host of potential security problems.
Port mirroring
Another method to monitor networks is to use port mirroring (called "SPAN", for Switched Port Analyzer, by vendors such as Cisco, and given other names, such MLXe telemetry by Brocade Communications and other vendors)(also known as MIRROR port) or a monitoring protocol such as TZSP on routers and switches. This is a low-cost alternative to network taps and solves many of the same problems. However, not all routers and switches support port mirroring, and, on those that do, using port mirroring can affect the performance of the router or switch. These technologies may also be subject to the problem with full-duplex described elsewhere in this article, and there are often limits for the router or switch on how many pass-through sessions can be monitored, or how many monitor ports (generally two) can monitor a given session.
Often, when the SPAN port is overloaded, packets will be dropped before reaching the monitoring device. There is also the possibility of losing some of the error packets that may be causing problems. If this data is not sent to the monitoring device because it is dropped, it is impossible to troubleshoot, no matter how advanced a device that may be used.
Promiscuous sniffer
This tapping method consists in enabling promiscuous mode on the device that is used for the monitoring and attaching it to a network hub. This works well with older LAN technologies such as 10BASE2, FDDI, and Token Ring. On such networks, any host can automatically see what all other hosts were doing by enabling promiscuous mode. However, modern switched network technologies create point-to-point links between pairs of devices, making it impossible to tap network traffic with this method.
Tapping by hardware
This type of tapping focuses on tapping with remarkable use of hardware
In-line sniffer
This method consists in the installation of a device in between a network cable and the device the Admin/Attacker wishes to "tap". When a monitoring device is installed in-line, the network will stop every time the device fails, or shutsdown. The "victim" device might stop receiving traffic when the tapping-device is updating/rebooting if said mechanisms weren't integrated in a smart way (aka. that would prevent this scenario from happening).
Some taps, particularly fiber taps, use no power and no electronics at all for the pass-through and monitor portion of the network traffic. This means that the tap should never suffer any kind of electronics failure or power failure that results in a loss of network connectivity. One way this can work, for fiber-based network technologies, is that the tap divides the incoming light using a simple physical apparatus into two outputs, one for the pass-through, one for the monitor. This can be called a passive tap. Other taps use no power or electronics for the pass-through, but do use power and electronics for the monitor port. These can also be referred to as passive.
V-Line tapping
V-Line Tapping is the most important Tapping system methods. V-Line Tapping (also known as Bypass Tapping) allows placing the served system virtually in-line. Putting this device in-line will compromise the integrity of a critical network. By placing a Tapping system instead of the monitoring device and connecting the monitoring device to the Tapping system, it can guarantee that the traffic will continue to flow and the device will not create a failure point in the network. This method always passes every packet, even error packets that a SPAN port may drop, to the monitoring device. This method involves using spying-software on the target machine. For a system-admin, this type of solution is the easiest to implement and the most cost-effective one; However, for an attacker, this type of tapping is very risky, as this is easily detectable by system scans. The tapping system will be removed after a reboot if the spying software was installed in a non-persistent way on a system that is executing a Live-OS.
Advantages and features
Modern network technologies are often full-duplex, meaning that data can travel in both directions at the same time. If a network link allows 100 Mbit/s of data to flow in each direction at the same time, this means that the network really allows 200 Mbit/s of aggregate throughput. This can present a problem for monitoring technologies if they have only one monitor port. Therefore, network taps for full-duplex technologies usually have two monitor ports, one for each half of the connection. The listener must use channel bonding or link aggregation to merge the two connections into one aggregate interface to see both halves of the traffic. Other monitoring technologies, such as passive fiber network TAPs do not deal well with the full-duplex traffic.
Once a network tap is in place, the network can be monitored without interfering with the network itself. Other network monitoring solutions require in-band changes to network devices, which means that monitoring can impact the devices being monitored. This scenario is for active, inline security tools, such as next-generation fire walls, intrusion prevention systems and web application firewalls.
Once a tap is in place, a monitoring device can be connected to it as-needed without impacting the monitored network.
Some taps have multiple output ports, or multiple pairs of output ports for full-duplex, to allow more than one device to monitor the network at the tap point. These are often called regeneration taps.
Some taps operate at the physical layer of the OSI model rather than the data link layer. For example, they work with multi-mode fiber rather than 1000BASE-SX. This means that they can work with most data link network technologies that use that physical media, such as ATM and some forms of Ethernet. Network taps that act as simple optical splitters, sometimes called passive taps (although that term is not used consistently) can have this property.
Some network taps offer both duplication of network traffic for monitoring devices and SNMP services. Most major network tap manufacturers offer taps with remote management through Telnet, HTTP, or SNMP interfaces. Such network tap hybrids can be helpful to network managers who wish to view baseline performance statistics without diverting existing tools. Alternatively, SNMP alarms generated by managed taps can alert network managers to link conditions that merit examination by analyzers to intrusion detection systems.
Some taps get some of their power (i.e., for the pass-through) or all of their power (i.e., for both pass-through and monitor) from the network itself. These can be referred to as having inline power.
Some taps can also reproduce low-level network errors, such as short frames, bad CRC or corrupted data.
Advantages of a network tap
Here are some advantages of a network tap over port mirroring or SPAN:
Passive; fail-safe
Zero configuration
Secure
Exact duplicate of network traffic
No added latency or altered timing
Passes network errors in addition to good frames/packets
Oversubscription not an issue
Disadvantages and problems
Because network taps require additional hardware, they are not as cheap as technologies that use capabilities that are built into the network. However, network taps are easier to manage and normally provide more data than some network devices.
Network taps can require channel bonding on monitoring devices to get around the problem with full-duplex discussed above. Vendors usually refer to this as aggregation as well.
Putting a network tap into place will disrupt the network being monitored for a short time. Even so, a short disruption is preferable to taking a network down multiple times to deploy a monitoring tool. Establishing good guidelines for the placement of network taps is recommended.
Monitoring large networks using network taps can require a lot of monitoring devices. High-end networking devices often allow ports to be enabled as mirror ports, which is a software network tap. While any free port can be configured as a mirror port, software taps require configuration and place load on the network devices.
Even fully passive network taps introduce new points of failure into the network. There are several ways that taps can cause problems, and this should be considered when creating a tap architecture. Consider non-powered taps for optical-only environments or throwing star network tap for copper 100BASE-TX. This allows you to modify the intelligent aggregation taps that may be in use and avoids any complications when upgrading from 100 megabit to gigabit to 10 gigabit. Redundant power supplies are highly recommended.
Fully passive is only possible on optical connections of any bandwidth and on copper connections from type G703 (2Mbit) and Ethernet Base-T 10/100 Mbit. On Gigabit and 10 Gbit Base-T connections, passive tapping is currently not possible.
Countermeasures
Countermeasures for network taps include encryption and alarm systems. Encryption can make the stolen data unintelligible to the thief. However, encryption can be an expensive solution, and there are also concerns about network bandwidth when it is used.
Another counter-measure is to deploy a fiber-optic sensor into the existing raceway, conduit or armored cable. In this scenario, anyone attempting to physically access the data (copper or fiber infrastructure) is detected by the alarm system. A small number of alarm systems manufacturers provide a simple way to monitor the optical fiber for physical intrusion disturbances. There is also a proven solution that utilizes existing dark (unused) fiber in a multi-strand cable for the purpose of creating an alarm system.
In the alarmed cable scenario, the sensing mechanism uses optical interferometry in which modally dispersive coherent light traveling through the multi-mode fiber mixes at the fiber's terminus, resulting in a characteristic pattern of light and dark splotches called speckle. The laser speckle is stable as long as the fiber remains immobile, but flickers when the fiber is vibrated. A fiber-optic sensor works by measuring the time dependence of this speckle pattern and applying digital signal processing to the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) of the temporal data.
The U.S. government has been concerned about the tapping threat for many years, and it also has a concern about other forms of intentional or accidental physical intrusion. In the context of classified information Department of Defense (DOD) networks, Protected Distribution Systems (PDS) is a set of military instructions and guidelines for network physical protection. PDS is defined for a system of carriers (raceways, conduits, ducts, etc.) that are used to distribute Military and National Security Information (NSI) between two or more controlled areas or from a controlled area through an area of lesser classification (i.e., outside the SCIF or other similar area). National Security Telecommunications and Information Systems Security Instruction (NSTISSI) No. 7003, Protective Distribution Systems (PDS), provides guidance for the protection of SIPRNET wire line and optical fiber PDS to transmit unencrypted classified National Security Information (NSI).
Gigabit Ethernet issues
The 1000BASE-T signal uses PAM 5 modulation, meaning that each cable pair transports 5 bits simultaneously in both directions. The PHY chips at each end of the cable have a very complex task at hand, because they must separate the two signals from each other. This is only possible because they know their own signal, so they can deduct their own send signals from the mixed signals on the line and then interpret the information sent by their link partners.
To tap a copper link as shown in the picture above it is not possible to just tap the middle of the wire because all you will see is a complex modulation of two signals. The only way to terminate the signal (as shown in the picture) is to use a PHY chip to separate the signal and then send the signal on to the link partner. This solution works but causes some other problems.
It is not passive any longer, so in the case of a failure the link can go down and the services on the link are interrupted. To minimize this problem each copper tap has a bypass switch (relays), which closes in a power down situation (as shown in the picture), to bring the link back up. Also this solution will not detect that the link is down for a minimum of three seconds. These three seconds are a result of the autonegotiation behavior. This can not be changed because it is a vital function of the IEEE 802.3 standard as described in clause 28 and 40. Even this short interruption time could cause big problems in a network.
In some cases these links cannot be re-established without shutting down the services.
Rerouting functions in the network may take place
Streaming applications can collapse and cause more issues.
Some layer 1 information is not transported over a copper tap (e.g. pause frames)
The clock synchronization is affected. Sync-E over a standard Gbit copper tap is impossible and IEEE 1588 is affected, because of the additional delay a copper tap produces.
See also
Virtual TAP device
DShield
ShieldsUP
References
External links
Make-a-Passive-Network-Tap
tap
Intrusion detection systems |
255930 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum%20Link | Quantum Link | Quantum Link (or Q-Link) was an American and Canadian online service for the Commodore 64 and 128 personal computers that operated starting November 5, 1985. It was operated by Quantum Computer Services of Vienna, Virginia, which later became America Online.
In October 1989 the service was renamed to "America Online" and the service was made available to users of PC systems in addition to Commodore users. The original Q-link service was terminated November 1, 1995 in favor of the "America Online" brand.
The original Q-Link was a modified version of the PlayNET system, which Control Video Corporation licensed. Q-Link featured electronic mail, online chat (in its People Connection department), public domain file sharing libraries, online news, and instant messaging (using On Line Messages, or OLMs). Other noteworthy features included online multiplayer games like checkers, chess, backgammon, hangman and a clone of the television game show "Wheel Of Fortune" called 'Puzzler'; and an interactive graphic resort island called Habitat while in beta-testing and later renamed to Club Caribe.
In October 1986 QuantumLink expanded their services to include casino games such as bingo, slot machines, blackjack and poker in RabbitJack's Casino and RockLink, a section about rock music. The software archives were also organized into hierarchical folders and were expanded at this time.
In November 1986 the service began offering to digitize users' photos to be included in their profiles, and also started an online auction service.
Connections to Q-Link were typically made by dial-up modems with speeds ranging from 300 to 2400 baud, with 1200 baud being the most common. The service was normally open weekday evenings and all day on weekends. Pricing was $9.95 per month, with additional fees of six cents per minute (later raised to eight) for so-called "plus" areas, which included most of the aforementioned services. Users were given one free hour of "plus" usage per month. Hosts of forums and trivia games could also earn additional free plus time.
Q-Link competed with other online services like CompuServe and The Source, as well as bulletin board systems (single or multiuser), including gaming systems such as Scepter of Goth and Swords of Chaos. Quantum Link's graphic display was better than many competing systems because they used specialized client software with a nonstandard protocol. However, this specialized software and nonstandard protocol also limited their market, because only the Commodore 64 and 128 could run the software necessary to access Quantum Link.
In the summer of 2005 Commodore hobbyists reverse engineered the service, allowing them to create a Q-Link protocol compatible clone called Quantum Link Reloaded which runs via the Internet as opposed to telephone lines. Using the original Q-Link software as a D-64 file, it can be accessed using either the VICE Commodore 64 emulator (available on multiple platforms, including Windows and Linux), or by using authentic Commodore hardware connected to the Internet by way of a serial cable connected to a PC with internet access.
Club Caribe / Habitat
One of the most influential Quantum Link games was Club Caribe. Club Caribe was a predecessor to today's MMOGs.
Club Caribe was developed with Lucasfilm Games using software that later formed the basis of Lucasfilm's Maniac Mansion story system ("SCUMM"). Users controlled on-screen avatars that could chat with other users, carry and use objects and money (called tokens), and travel around the island one screen at a time. Club Caribe allowed users to take the heads off their character, carry it around or even set it down. However, other users could pick up heads that were placed on the ground, resulting in headless players exploring the game world.
In February 2017, an open-source project to revive Habitat led by Randy Farmer (one of Habitat's creators) named NeoHabitat was announced to the public. The project is currently requesting volunteer contributors to aide in developing code, region design, documentation, and provide other assistance. Utilizing Quantumlink Reloaded, a new Habitat server was created which support the ability for an avatar to log in, manipulate objects, chat and navigate between sample regions.
See also
Habitat
References
External links
Q-Link Promotion Video from 1986
Quantum Link Reloaded
Remember Q-Link
JohnD39's Q-Link contact/memories site
Quantum Link Reloaded - MiSTer FPGA - C64 Core
Commodore 64
Pre–World Wide Web online services
Internet properties established in 1985
1985 establishments in Virginia |
9504079 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BT%20Smart%20Hub | BT Smart Hub | The BT Smart Hub (formerly BT Home Hub) is a family of wireless residential gateway router modems distributed by BT for use with their own products and services and those of wholesale resellers (i.e. LLUs) but not with other Internet services. Since v 5 Home/Smart Hubs support the faster Wi-Fi 802.11ac standard, in addition to the 802.11b/g/n standards. All models of the Home Hub prior to Home Hub 3 support VoIP Internet telephony via BT's Broadband Talk service, and are compatible with DECT telephone handsets. Since the Home Hub 4, all models have been dual band (i.e. both 2.4GHz and 5GHz).
The BT Home Hub works with the now defunct BT Fusion service and with the BT Vision video on demand service. The BT Home Hub 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0 devices connect to the Internet using a standard ADSL connection. The BT Home Hub 3 and 4 models support PPPoA for ADSL and PPPoE for VDSL2, in conjunction with an Openreach-provided VDSL2 modem to support BT's FTTC network (BT Infinity). Version 5 of the Home Hub, released in August 2013, includes a VDSL2 modem for fibre-optic connections. New firmware is pushed out to Home Hubs connected to the Internet automatically by BT.
The Home Hub 5 was followed on 20 June 2016 by the Smart Hub, a further development of the Home Hub, internally referred to as "Home Hub 6". It has more WiFi antennas than its predecessor. It supports Wave 2 802.11ac WiFi, found on review to be 50% faster than non-Wave 2. The Smart Hub was subsequently replaced with the Smart Hub 2 (Home Hub 6DX).
History
Prior to release of the Home Hub (2004–2005), BT offered a product based on the 2Wire 1800HG, and manufactured by 2Wire. This was described as the "BT Wireless Hub 1800HG", or in some documentation as the "BT Wireless Home Hub 1800". This provided one USB connection, four ethernet ports and Wi-Fi 802.11b or 802.11g wireless connection. A total of ten devices in any combination of these was supported.
The hardware contained within the BT Home Hub 1.0 and 1.5 was manufactured by Inventel, and is equivalent to other Inventel produced and third-party branded routers such as the Orange Livebox and the Thomson SpeedTouch 7G and ST790. Consequently, the Home Hub 1.0 can be flashed with some firmware such as that for the 7G; however full functionality cannot be achieved using this method. The Home Hub 1.5 firmware, whilst not hardware locked as previously claimed, does have extra locks in the bootloader which can now be circumvented and full functionality achieved.
There are two versions of the BT Home Hub 2.0, the A and the B model. The hardware contained within the Home Hub 2.0A was manufactured by Thomson SpeedTouch, who had bought out Inventel and all their hardware and software rights. This model is electronically identical to the Thomson SpeedTouch TG797n.
The hardware contained within the BT Home Hub 2.0B was manufactured by Siemens' Gigaset division in Germany. The middleware was developed by Jungo, a subsidiary of NDS, and is based on their openRG product.
Some Home Hub 2.0 units were also made by Hon Hai Precision Ind. Co. Ltd.
In the standard firmware, telnet shell access is available in earlier versions (up to 6.2.2.6) on the BT Home Hub 1.0 with appropriate user permissions. This is identical to the custom shell used in the SpeedTouch range of routers and provides an almost identical software feature set, with a few notable exceptions (e.g. PPP authentication is locked on the BT firmware). This is not the case in the unlocked versions, as full telnet access is available.
There are two versions of the BT Home Hub 3, the A and the B model. The hardware contained within the Home Hub 3A was manufactured by Siemens' Gigaset division (now Sagem) and is based on a Lantiq XWAY ARX168 chipset supporting ADSL2+.
The Home Hub 3B was manufactured by Huawei and also supports ADSL2+. The Home Hub 3B is powered by a highly integrated Broadcom BCM6361 System-on-a-chip (SoC). The BCM6361 has a 400 MHz dual MIPS32 core processor as well as an integrated DSL Analog Front End (AFE) and line driver, gigabit Ethernet switch controller and 802.11 Wi-Fi transceiver.
Features
The BT Home Hub 2.0 was a combined wireless router and phone. It supports the 802.11b/g/n wireless networking standards, and the WEP and WPA security protocols. It supports many of BT's services such as BT Fusion, BT Vision and BT Broadband Anywhere. It can also be used as a VOIP phone through BT Broadband Talk.
The BT Home Hub 3 incorporated WPS functionality, seen on other routers, which enables the user to connect to their encrypted network by the use of a "one touch" button, and also includes "smart wireless technology", which automatically chooses the wireless channel to give the strongest possible wireless signal. WPS has since been (temporarily) disabled by firmware updates due to security issues with the standard.
The BT Home Hub supports port forwarding.
The BT Home Hub versions 3, 4 and 5 may be used for access to files stored on an attached USB stick - USB 2.0 is supported. The server by default has the address File://192.168.1.254 and is available to the entire network.
The BT Smart Hub (initially branded Home Hub 6) upgraded the wifi provision to Wave 2 of the 802.11ac specification, and increased the number of antennae for improved MIMO.
The BT Ultra Smart Hub appeared visually similar to the Smart Hub, but featured a G.fast capable modem and included a BS6312 socket which subscribers to BT Digital Voice can use to attach an analogue telephone. Digital Voice launched in January 2020 as the replacement for analogue voice service, which planned to be turned off by 2025.
The BT Smart Hub 2 provided the same technical features as the Ultra Smart Hub in a redesigned body, as well as supporting BT's "Complete Wifi" mesh product.
Hub Phone
The BT Hub Phone is an optional handset that can be bought to work in conjunction with the BT Home Hub 2.0. It calls using the BT Broadband Talk service, and may sit in a dock in the front of the Home Hub or be used on its own stand. It uses Hi-def sound technology when calls between Hub Phones are made. A DECT telephone may be used instead.
With each BT Home Hub released up to 2.0, a new phone model was made to accompany it:
BT Home Hub 1.0: was supplied with the BT Hub Phone 1010
BT Home Hub 1.5: was supplied with the BT Hub Phone 1020 (The only difference between the 1010 and the 1020 was the lack of the colour screen and supporting features on the 1020.)
BT Home Hub 2.0: was supplied with the BT Hub Phone 2.1
The BT Home Hub 3 and 4 do not work with the BT Broadband Talk service or DECT telephones. After 29 January 2011, BT Broadband Talk was no longer provided as part of BT's broadband packages.
The phones are only partially compatible with newer or older versions of the hub, able to make and receive calls, but with the loss of features including call waiting, call transfer, internal calls, phonebook, call lists and Hi-def sound.
Design
the following versions of the BT Home/Smart Hub had been released:
Version 0.5: grey (no Hub Phone was available, not technically a Home Hub but rather BT Fusion Hub)
Version 1.0: white (matching Hub Phone was available)
Version 1.5: white or black (matching Hub Phone was available)
Version 2.0: black (matching black Hub Phone was available)
Version 3.0: black (Hub Phones and DECT phones are not compatible) released on 29 January 2011.
Version 4.0: black (Hub Phones and DECT phones are not compatible) released on 10 May 2013.
Version 5.0 (HH5A/5B): black, released in mid-October 2013
Smart Hub (Home Hub 6A /6B), mid-2016
Smart Hub 2 (Home Hub 6DX), early 2019
There were two different versions of the BT Home Hub 2.0: v2.0A (2.0 Type A), manufactured by Thomson, and v2.0B (2.0 Type B), manufactured by Gigaset Communications (now Sagem Communications, Sagem having acquired Gigaset's broadband business in July 2009). Whilst the looks and functionality appear to be identical, the Home Hub 2.0A has been plagued with problems relating to poorly tested firmware upgrades which, amongst other problems, cause the Home Hub 2.0A to restart when uploading files using the wireless connection.
There are also two versions of the BT Home Hub 3: v3A (by Gigaset, now Sagem) and v3B, (Huawei).
The BT Home Hub can only be used with the BT Total Broadband package without modification; the 1.0, 1.5, 2A, 2B and 3A versions can be unlocked. The BT Home Hub configuration software is compatible with both Macintosh and Windows operating systems, although use of this is optional and computers without the BT software will still be able to connect to the Hub and browse the Internet normally.
The 4th generation of the BT Home Hub was released on 10 May 2013. It has been built with a smart dual band technology, making it unique amongst other UK-based ISP provided routers. The Home Hub 4 was supplied free of charge to new customers, with a £35 charge to existing customers. It has intelligent power management technology which monitors the hub functions and puts them individually into power-save mode when not in use. There two variants of the Hub 4, Type A and B.
The 5th generation Home Hub was released in mid-October 2013 and is an upgrade to the Home Hub 4, with Gigabit Ethernet connections, 802.11ac Wi-Fi (Wave 1) and an integrated VDSL modem. Customers upgrading from ADSL Broadband pay only a delivery charge; existing Broadband customers pay a £45 upgrade charge. There are two variants of the Hub 5, Type A with Lantiq chipset (ECI), and Type B with Broadcom. It is possible to replace the firmware of the Hub 5 Type A (and the identical 'Plusnet Hub One' and 'BT Business Hub 5' Type A) with OpenWrt, unlocking it from BT and providing the features of OpenWrt. In April 2018, scripts for modifying the stock firmware of a BT Hub 5 Type A to enable SSH access, were published on the GitHub repository; this enables access to the native OpenRG command-line interface.
Models and technical specifications
The BT Home Hub package includes:
Broadband cable (RJ11 to RJ11)
Ethernet cable (RJ45 to RJ45) (Cat5e)
Power adapter
2× ADSL microfilters
Phone to RJ11 converter
User guide and CD
A USB lead was provided with the Home Hub 1 only.
Reported issues
The security of older BT Home Hub has been questioned
BT has the capability to detect remotely and silently all devices connected to customers' networks, and asserts and uses the right to do so, saying that "we don't believe that consent is necessary where the testing is necessary to the service that we are providing."
In May 2017, it was reported that many BT Smart Hub customers were suffering problems with the router constantly rebooting and being unable to maintain a reliable internet connection.
In May 2021, it was reported that the "BT Smart Hub 2 router [was] 'disrupting' home networks
References
External links
Official BT Home Hub Page
BT Group
Linux-based devices
Broadband
Digital subscriber line
Wireless networking hardware
Hardware routers |
21258395 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DAA | DAA | DAA or Daa may refer to:
People
Ludvig Kristensen Daa, Norwegian historian, ethnologist, auditor, editor of magazines and newspapers, educator and politician
Yinduu Daa, also known as Daai Chin, ethnic tribe of Myanmar
Claus Daa, a Danish nobleman and landowner
Technology
Data access arrangement, in telecommunications
Designated Approving Authority, in the US Department of Defense, an individual who provides oversight of an IT environment
Detect and Avoid, a set of technologies designed to avoid interference of UWB upon other networks
Direct Access Archive, a file format for disk images
Authentication
Data Authentication Algorithm, a former American standard for authentication codes
Digest access authentication, protocol for negotiating browser user credentials
Direct anonymous attestation, remote authentication of a trusted computer
Other
Daa, a ward in the Arusha Region of Tanzania
Danmarks Adels Aarbog, (Yearbook of the Danish Nobility), a genealogical publication
Davison Army Airfield, Virginia, United States, a military airport
Decare, a metric area unit equivalent to 1000 square metres
Delaware Aerospace Academy, a camp program run by the Delaware AeroSpace Education Foundation
Designers Against Aids, a non-profit organization which battles against AIDS, together with artists, designers and companies
Diacetone alcohol, a chemical used as an intermediate and solvent
Dictionary of Australian Artists
Dubai American Academy, an educational institute located in Dubai, United Arab Emirates
DAA (Irish company), an Irish company that operates Dublin Airport and Cork Airport |
31143566 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuduntu | Fuduntu | Fuduntu Linux was a Fedora-based Linux distribution created by Andrew Wyatt. It was actively developed between 2010 and 2013. It was designed to fit in somewhere between Fedora and Ubuntu. It was notable for providing a 'classic' desktop experience. Although it was optimized for netbooks and other portable computers it is a general-purpose OS.
History
After forking Fedora 14 in early November 2011, Fuduntu became an independent distribution and was no longer considered a "remix" of Fedora, it did not qualify as a "spin" because it contained packages not included in Fedora.
On a Team Meeting held on 14 April 2013, it was decided that Fuduntu would discontinue development and no new versions will be released. Large parts of the team were planning to work on a new rebased OS. The move of wider support to GTK 3 and Systemd were also factors, as Fuduntu used GTK 2 and wasn't systemd based.
Post development
On 28 April 2013 the Fuduntu website officially informed that the project has come to an end and that users may want to switch to the new project Cloverleaf Linux which is based on openSUSE instead.
In late August, the development team decided to discontinue Cloverleaf, due to lack of manpower. Other concerns included image leaks and other issues regarding source code for KDE's upcoming lightweight desktop environment KLyDE, which in term was supposed to be used as Cloverleaf's default desktop environment.
Features
As Fuduntu was originally targeted at the Asus Eee PC and other netbooks it contained tweaks to reduce power consumption. This included moving the /tmp and /var/log directories to a RAM disk, and reducing swappiness 10, to reduce the frequency of disk spin-up. Also, Fuduntu includes the Jupiter power management applet (also developed by Andrew Wyatt), for easy adjustment of CPU performance settings, screen output and resolution, etc.
The default packages include Nautilus Elementary, Adobe Flash, the Fluendo MP3 Codec, VLC, Infinality Freetype, LibreOffice, and the nano editor.
Look and Feel
The used icon theme is called Faenza Cupertino. It features the distinctive square icon set of Faenza. Because it was originally based on Fedora and Ubuntu it has GNOME as window manager, giving the opportunity to change themes, including window frames.
It aimed for a 'classic' desktop experience, as opposed to a 'mobile' experience.
See also
Ubuntu GNOME
References
External links
Fuduntu listing on Distrowatch
RPM-based Linux distributions
X86-64 Linux distributions
Linux distributions |
9171604 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20S.%20Alberts | David S. Alberts | David Stephen Alberts (born 1942) is a former American Director of Research for the Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Networks and Information Integration (NII).
Biography
David S. Alberts did his undergraduate work was at City College of New York where he received a bachelor's of arts degree in statistics in 1964. He received a master's degree in 1966 and a doctorate in operations research in 1968 from the University of Pennsylvania.
Alberts' academic career has included serving as first director of the Computer Science Program at New York University and has held professional rank posts at the NYU Graduate School of Business, the City University of New York, and most recently as a research professor at George Mason University.
He was the director of Advanced Concepts, Technologies, and Information Strategies; deputy director of the Institute for National Strategic Studies, and the executive agent for Department of Defense Command and Control Research Program. This included responsibility for the Center for Advanced Concepts and Technology and the School of Information Warfare and Strategy at the National Defense University.
Dr. Alberts has chaired numerous international and national conferences and symposia and has authored or co-authored many publications, some of which are included in tutorials given by the IEEE and other professional societies. He has served as an officer in a number of professional societies and has contributed to AIAA, MORS, TIMS, AFCEA, and ORSA. At the local level, Alberts has served as Assistant to the Commissioner of the New York City Police Department.
Honors have included the Secretary of Defense's Outstanding Public Service Award, Aviation Week and Space Technology's Government/Military Laurel, and the inaugural Network Centric Warfare Award for Best Contribution to the Theory of NCW presented by the Institute for Defense and Government Advancement.
He is currently the president of the International Command and Control Institute (IC2I), a non-profit dedicated to ensuring that the body of literature created and inspired by the Department of Defense Command and Control Research Program remains accessible to researchers. He is also a senior fellow at the Institute for Defense Analyses, a federally funded research and development center. His current research focuses on the relationships and inter-dependencies between and among approaches to C2 and Governance, composite network characteristics and performance, automation and autonomy, and cyber.
Work
In his book entitled The Agility Advantage, he proposes "agility" as the measure of choice for organizations, collections of organizations, processes, systems, and individuals engaged in complex endeavors (e.g. civil-military, cyber-security, economic development). A NATO research group, chaired by Dr. Alberts was formed to explore the ideas put forth in The Agility Advantage. In 2013, this group (SAS-085) completed its final report which received the 2014 NATO Scientific Achievement Award. In C2 Re-Envisioned: The Future of the Enterprise (2015), a collaboration with co-authors Marius Vassiliou and John R. Agre identifies and discusses four interrelated megatrends that are shaping the current practice of C2 and the challenges enterprises are and will continue to face in the 21st century. This book includes an analysis of historical examples and experimental evidence to identify the ways that C2 can go wrong. It presents a set of conclusions regarding the ways to get C2 right. The book was published in Chinese in 2017.
He co-authored an article with Mark E. Nissen, which was published in the International C2 Journal, entitled Toward Harmonizing Command and Control with Organization and Management Theory. Another recent article Agility, Focus and Convergence: The Future of Command and Control challenges not only long-held command and control beliefs but the very language of command and control itself.
In early 2010, he developed a comprehensive educational campaign to remedy the lack of awareness and understanding of the nature of 21st century missions, Networked Enabled Capability (NEC), and the implications for Command and Control (C2) and intelligence. The overall objective is to develop the widespread awareness and in-depth understanding necessary to accelerate a “network-centric” transformation of existing C2I organizations, processes, and systems to make them more effective and efficient. This campaign involves the development of curricula, courses, educational materials, and experimental environments that provide students with “hands-on” opportunities to experience a variety of network-enabled capabilities and network-enabled C2 (NEC2) under different mission-related scenarios and circumstances is the first such offering. The C2-related educational materials he created, the Network Enabled Command and Control (NEC2) Short Course, consists of 8 course modules. Each can be accessed and downloaded from the CCRP website (NEC2 Short Modules).
Leadership of NATO Research Groups
Alberts has chaired a number of NATO research groups, the latest of which is SAS-143 that is developing a conceptual framework for Multi-Domain C2 and using this framework to explore the C2 implication of 1) operating in contested cyber environments and 2) incorporating increasingly sophisticated non-human intelligent collaborators into organizations and teams. A previous NATO Research Group, completed in 2013, focused on validating C2 Agility using case studies and experiments ( NATO-TR-SAS-085) This group received the prestigious 2014 NATO Scientific Achievement Award. The group's findings have important implications for the future of military organizations and the operations they undertake. Their final report is posted on the DoD CCRP website. Previous NATO groups he has chaired have produced a series of seminal C2-related works, including: the NATO NEC C2 Maturity Model the NATO Code of Best Practice for C2 Assessment,] and the NATO Code of Best Practice: Experimentation.
Publications
Alberts is credited with helping to provide the intellectual foundation for an Information Age transformation of military institutions. His works include:
1995. Command Arrangements for Peace Operations. With Richard E. Hayes. Washington, DC: National Defense University Press Publications.
1996. Defensive Information Warfare. Washington, DC: National Defense University Press Publications.
1996. The Unintended Consequences of Information Age Technologies. Washington, DC: National Defense University Press Publications.
1997. Complexity, Global Politics, and National Security. With Thomas J. Czerwinski, eds. Washington, DC: National Defense University Press.
1999. Network Centric Warfare Developing and Leveraging Information Superiority (second edition). With John J. Garstka and Frederick P. Stein. Washington, DC: CCRP Publication Series.
2001. Understanding Information Age Warfare. Washington, DC: CCRP Publication Series.
2003. Power to the Edge. With Richard E. Hayes; with a foreword by John Stenbit. Washington, DC: CCRP Publication Series.
2003. Information Age Transformation. Washington, DC: CCRP Publication Series.
2005. Campaigns of Experimentation : Pathways to Innovation and Transformation. With Richard E. Hayes. Washington, DC : CCRP Publication Series.
2006. Understanding Command and Control. With Richard E. Hayes. Washington, DC: CCRP Publication Series.
2007. Planning: Complex Endeavors. With Richard E. Hayes. Washington, DC: CCRP Publication Series.
2010. The NATO NEC C2 Maturity Model. With SAS-065 Research Task Group. The full membership of SAS-065, along with their national affiliations and organizational homes, can be found in the Acknowledgments section.
2011. The Agility Advantage: A Survival Guide For Complex Enterprises and Endeavors
2012. Megatrends in C2. With Marius Vassiliou.
2015. C2 Re-Envisioned: The Future of the Enterprise with Marius Vassiliou and Jonathan Agre. Chinese edition published 2017.
In 1999,Command Arrangements for Peace Operations and Complexity, Global Politics, and National Security were suggested for The Airpower Professional’s Book Club Top Ten List.
See also
Network-centric warfare
References
1942 births
Living people
United States Department of Defense officials
American operations researchers
City College of New York alumni
Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania alumni |
19041765 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game%20Editor | Game Editor | Game Editor is a 2D game authoring package. It supports multi-platform development to iPhone, iPad, Mac OS X, Windows (Windows 95-Windows 10), Android, Linux, Windows Mobile-based Smartphones, GP2X, Pocket PCs, and Handheld PCs. Compatibility with these platforms is mentioned on Game Discovery, a popular site for game developers, among other software like The 3D Gamemaker, DarkBASIC, and GameMaker.
Game Editor was created by Makslane Rodrigues, who has been developing it since 2002. The current version is 1.4.0 from 2010, with the latest beta 1.4.1 being from 2013; it is still considered to be a work in progress. On February 2, 2021, work on Game Editor 2 was announced, reimplementing it atop of GTK and ORX.
Features
Interface
The interface itself is relatively basic and is the same for Mac OS X, Linux and Windows. Navigating the editor map (where the level is designed and executed) involves panning. The interface is composed of a main menu at the top, which shows the current position on the map, and icons indicating the mode(s) the user is in. The interface is window based. Each action and event has its own window, along with several settings windows.
Target platforms
Target platforms include Mac OS X, Windows, Linux, iPhone, iPad, Windows Mobile based Smartphones, GP2X and Handhelds. It is possible to make builds, or export game data only, so that designers can store the game or its parts in non-executable files. The editor itself runs on Mac OS X, Windows and Linux.
Scripting language
Game Editor uses a scripting language that bears similarities to the C programming language. Scripts are created through the script editor, defined as an action triggered by an event.
The script editor window gives access to the built-in names of objects (actors), variables and functions. It is capable of syntax coloring to make code easier to distinguish.
Actor concept
The objects in Game Editor are known as actors. Notably, this doesn't mean every actor has to be a character. The user can add multiple graphics and animations to an actor from supported formats (listed below).
Game Editor recognizes alpha channels, to enable animation transparencies. In the case of all images, it recognizes the top-left pixel's color as the transparent color, and finally, there's a user-modifiable transparency value, which sets literally how transparent the actor will be overall; this gives various possibilities for adding visual effects to the game, such as fog.
Actors can have either animations or text, which is handy for help sections, menu descriptions, and RPG talk. With actors, the developer can also play sounds, sound effects and add music to the game. Again there are several file formats to choose from. The developer can check your actor's position by clicking on game mod.
A very important aspect of actors is that there are four types of them. The normal actor type is what the above talks about. The additional types of actors are Wire-frame, Filled Regions, and Canvas actors.
Wire Framed regions can serve as borders for some collision, but they're not visible in-game, and cannot receive mouse click events. Filled Regions are also invisible, the difference being they can receive actions from mouse clicks.
Canvas actors let the developer draw any line, image or other elements on them. Additionally, it allows the rotation and scaling of other images on other actors, as well as just a file on disk. Scripting knowledge is needed to perform these effects.
Events
The Game Editor engine is event driven. For something to happen in the game, Game Editor handles events create by the developer using the interaction of actors, and other game elements, the mouse and the keyboard. The actions that are triggered by an event can be customized extensively.
Level creation
Game Editor provides two ways for dividing the levels of the game. One is creating separate files for each level, and then linking them with 1 or 2 functions. But if the levels are small anyway, and the developer doesn't want to separate them so much, all leverls can be stored into one file, and the levels can be surrounded with activation regions which define the surrounded part of the file loaded in and out of the memory together. This loads and unloads actors and regions depending on whether the activation region is touching the view. If the developer has already created a separate level file, then projects can be merged into one file, as long as the actor names merged are different.
Non-actor objects
Game Editor also allows the developer to create Paths, and activation events. Paths are marked as nodes in Game Editor interface, and can specify a route the actor will move on. The speed of the path can also be modified, and the path can be made up of Bézier curves and linear lines too.
Activation events are another important aspect. When one actor receives an event, then if there's an activation event on that actor for that event, then it triggers an activation event on the specified actor. Example:
If two cars crash, during game play and there's a hintbox actor which comments in-game events, and the developer wants the hintbox to say: "2 cars crashed" when they do, then an activation event one of the cars can be created, and the triggering event of a collision with another car actor can be made; then the activation event receiver can be set to Hintbox, and finally, an action can be created for the activation event on hintbox, which is a Set Text. Then the color and font of the displayed text can be specified.
File extension
Game Editor projects can be saved into .ged files before exporting/building into an executable. All versions of Game Editor are backwards compatible. Game Editor also adds a folder named "data" into the directory in which the user saved the .ged to store the related graphics, animations, sounds, and music files. A .ged.undo file is also created to store undo/redo possibilities.
Reference and help
When using game editor, a documentation is accessible reached from the main menu's Help section. This documentation explains the basics of the editor to the concept of individual script functions. The game editor website supports a forum that answers more complex questions involving game design and demos to experiment from. The editor forum also gives access to additional files for the amateur to use.
Game Editor source code
The source code of Game Editor was made available to the public in October 2008. It was subsequently dual-licensed as of October 2009 under the terms of the GPL v3 and a commercial license for use with proprietary projects.
The revenues are shared with all developers that have accepted contributions. It is hoped this can help increase the rate of Game Editor's development.
References
Video game development software
MacOS programming tools
Programming tools for Windows
Linux programming tools
Video game development software for Linux
Free game engines |
2487670 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bundle%20%28macOS%29 | Bundle (macOS) | In NeXTSTEP, OPENSTEP, GNUstep, and their lineal descendants macOS and iOS, a bundle is a file directory with a defined structure and file extension, allowing related files to be grouped together as a conceptually single item.
Examples of bundles that contain executable code include applications, frameworks, and plugins. This kind of bundle usually contains one file representing executable code, and files that represent resources such as nibs, templates, images, sounds, and other media. On some other systems, such as Microsoft Windows, these resources are usually included directly in the executable file itself at compile time. On older Macintoshes, a similar technique is used, where additional metadata can be added to a file's resource fork. Similar in concept are the application directories used in RISC OS and on the ROX Desktop.
Examples of bundles that do not contain executable code include document packages (iWork documents) and media libraries (iPhoto Library).
Bundles are programmatically accessed with the NSBundle class in Cocoa, NeXTSTEP and GNUstep's Foundation frameworks, and with CFBundle in Core Foundation. Bundles often include an file for metadata. The Uniform Type Identifier (UTI) for an Apple bundle is com.apple.bundle.
Application bundles
Application bundles are directory hierarchies, with the top-level directory having a name that ends with a .app extension. In an application bundle, the first directory in the bundle underneath the top-level directory is usually named Contents. Within Contents there is usually another directory (called MacOS on Macs), which contains the application's executable code. Within the Contents folder there is usually also a directory called Resources, which contains the resources of the application.
Among other things, the Resources folder contains localized versions of the application's nib files.
Other common subdirectories include Plugins, Frameworks, and Shared Frameworks. The Frameworks directory contains frameworks used by the application, and are used even if another version of the framework exists on the system. The Shared Frameworks directory contains frameworks that can be used both by the application that contains them, and other applications; they are used only if a newer version does not exist elsewhere on the system. Plugins contains extensible code used by the application.
By default, the Finder displays application bundles, which can also be referred to as packages, as opaque files with no underlying structure; the contents of the bundle can be shown with the "Show Package Contents" context menu item.
GNUstep by default uses the name of the application to name the folder that contains application code. An alternative is to name them by the computer architecture and OS the code is intended for to form a fat binary, so the application can be opened on many platforms.
macOS framework bundles
macOS frameworks are also stored as bundles; the top-level directory of a framework bundle has a name that is the name of the framework followed by the extension .framework. In the top-level directory is a Versions directory, with subdirectories for one or more versions of the framework, each subdirectory containing the dynamic library code for the framework, in a file whose name is the same as the name of the framework, possibly with a Headers folder containing header files for the framework, and other subfolders such as Resources. The Versions directory also contains a symbolic link Current to the directory for the current version of the framework. In the top-level directory are symbolic links to the contents of Versions/Current.
The Finder displays framework bundles as directories rather than as opaque files.
Although GNUstep uses frameworks, they are not usually stored as bundles. This is because the full semantics of framework loading are considered too alien to other platforms.
Loadable bundles
Loadable bundles are bundles which contain code that can be loaded at runtime. Loadable bundles usually have the extension .bundle, and are most often used as plug-ins. On macOS, there is a way to load bundles even into applications that do not support them, allowing for third party hacks for popular applications, such as Safari and Apple Mail. A feature inherited from NeXTSTEP, GNUstep has the interface too.
By default, the Finder displays loadable bundles, which can also be referred to as packages, as opaque files with no underlying structure; the contents of the bundle can be shown with the "Show Package Contents" context menu item.
Other bundle formats
There are many third-party macOS applications which utilize their own custom bundle format (e.g. CandyBar .iContainer, Aperture .aplibrary, VMware Fusion .vmwarevm, etc.).
.lproj
An .lproj file is a bundle that contains localization files for OpenStep, macOS, or GNUstep software. It typically contains the .nib files for a given language along with .strings files and images if needed (for example, ReadMe or license files). These localized files are used by installer makers to customize install packages. They are also included in an application bundle.
See also
Application Directory — the RISC OS analogue to an application bundle
AppImage — A Linux application that makes use of similar principles
References
External links
Bundle Programming Guide at Apple Developer Connection
NSBundle documentation from the GNUstep project
Platypus — a tool to create application bundles around scripts
File extension details
NeXT
MacOS
MacOS development
GNUstep |
10403419 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20institutions%20of%20higher%20education%20in%20Odisha | List of institutions of higher education in Odisha | Odisha is home to some well known reputed institutes in India like IIT Bhubaneswar, IIM Sambalpur, NIT Rourkela and AIIMS Bhubaneswar.
List of Notable Institutions of Higher Education in Odisha includes:
Central University
State Universities
Deemed Universities
Private Universities
Institutes of National Importance
All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Bhubaneswar
Institute of Chemical Technology Mumbai-IndianOil Odisha Campus, Bhubaneswar
Indian Institute of Handloom Technology, Bargarh
Indian Institute of Management, Sambalpur
Indian Institute of Mass Communication, Dhenkanal
Indian Institute of Public Health, Bhubaneswar
Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Berhampur
Indian Institute of Technology, Bhubaneswar
Indian Institute of Tourism and Travel Management, Bhubaneswar
Institute of Life Sciences, Bhubaneswar
Institute of Mathematics and Applications, Bhubaneswar
Institute of Minerals and Materials Technology, Bhubaneswar
Institute of Physics, Bhubaneswar
International Institute of Information Technology, Bhubaneswar
National Institute of Fashion Technology, Bhubaneswar
National Institute of Science Education and Research, Bhubaneswar
National Institute of Technology, Rourkela
National Law University Odisha, Cuttack
Swami Vivekanand National Institute of Rehabilitation Training and Research
Medical Colleges and Hospitals
Government
Private
Hi-Tech Medical College & Hospital, Bhubaneswar
Hi-Tech Medical College & Hospital, Rourkela
Institute of Medical Sciences and Sum Hospital of Siksha 'O' Anusandhan, Bhubaneswar
Kalinga Institute of Medical Sciences, Bhubaneswar
Ayurvedic Colleges and Hospitals
Government
Govt.Ayurvedic college and hospital, Balangir
Gopabandhu Ayurveda Mahavidyalaya, Puri
KATS Ayurvedic College, Berhampur
Private
Mayurbhanj Ayurveda Mahavidyalaya
Sri Nrusingha Nath Ayurveda College & Research Institute
Indira Gandhi Memorial Ayurveda College & Hospital
Homeopathic Colleges and Hospitals
Government
Dr.Avirna Chandra Homeopathy Medical College & Hospital
Orissa Medical College of Homeopathy & Research Sambalpur
Utkalmani Homeopathy Medical College & Hospital Rourkela
Biju Pattnaik Homeopathy Medical College & Hospital
Private
Mayurbhanj Homeopathy Medical College & Hospital
Cuttack Medical College of Homeopathy
Dental Colleges
Government
S.C.B. Dental College and Hospital, Cuttack
Private
Hi-Tech Dental College and hospital, Bhubaneswar
Institute of Dental Sciences, Bhubaneswar
Kalinga Institute of Dental Sciences, Bhubaneswar
Engineering Colleges
Autonomous
Indira Gandhi Institute of Technology, Sarang (Govt)
Silicon Institute of Technology, Bhubaneswar (Private)
Dhaneswar Rath Institute of Engineering and Management Studies (DRIEMS), Tangi, Cuttack (Private)
National Institute of Science and Technology (NIST), Berhampur (Private)
Government
Central Institute of Plastic Engineering and Technology, Bhubaneswar
Government College of Engineering, Keonjhar
Government College of Engineering, Kalahandi, Bhawanipatna
Indira Gandhi Institute of Technology, Sarang
Parala Maharaja Engineering College, PMEC, Berhampur
Utkalmani Gopabandhu Institute of Engineering, Rourkela
Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology, Burla
Sambalpur University Institute of Information Technology, Burla
Private
Ajay Binay Institute of Technology, Cuttack
Balasore College of Engineering & Technology, Balasore
Bhadrak Institute of Engineering & Technology, Bhadrak
Bhadrak Engineering school for Technology
Barrister Ranjit Mohanty Group of Institution, Bhubaneswar
College Of Engineering Bhubaneswar (CEB), Bhubaneshwar
Eastern Academy of Science and Technology, Bhubaneswar
Gandhi Institute of Advanced Computer & Research, Rayagada
Gandhi Institute of Science & Technology(GIST), Rayagada
KMBB College of Engineering & Technology, Bhubaneswar
Gandhi Institute for Education & Technology, Bhubaneswar
Gandhi Institute for Technology, Bhubaneswar
Ghanashyama Hemalata Institute of Technology and Management, Puri
Gopal Krushna College of Engineering & Technology, Jeypore
Indus College of Engineering Bhubaneswar
Kalam Institute of Technology, Berhampur
Konark Institute of Science and Technology, Bhubaneswar
Krupajal Engineering College, Bhubaneswar
Mahavir Institute of Engineering and Technology, Bhubaneswar
Majhighariani Institute of Technology and Science (MITS), Raygada
Modern Institute of Technology and Management, Bhubaneswar
NM Institute of Engineering and Technology, Bhubaneswar
Orissa Engineering College, Bhubaneswar
Orissa School of Mining Engineering, Keonjhar
Padmanava College of Engineering, Rourkela
Purushottam Institute of Engineering and Technology, Rourkela
Roland Institute of Technology, Berhampur
Sanjay Memorial Institute of Technology, Berhampur
Seemanta Engineering College, Jharpokharia (Mayurbhanj)
Synergy Institute of Engineering & Technology (SIET), Dhenkanal
Trident Academy of Technology (TAT), Bhubaneswar
Management Colleges
Academy of Business Administration, Balasore
Affinity Business School, Bhubaneswar
Asian School of Business Management, Bhubaneswar
Asian Workers Development Institute, Rourkela
Centre for IT Education, Bhubaneswar
IIPM School of Management, Rourkela
IMI Bhubaneswar
Indian Institute of Management, Sambalpur
Indian Institute for Production Management, Kansbahal
Institute of Management & Information Science, Bhubaneswar
Institute of Management and Information Technology, Cuttack
Regional College of Management, Bhubaneswar
Rourkela Institute of Management Studies, Rourkela
Sri Sri University, Cuttack
Xavier Institute of Management, Bhubaneswar (XIMB)
Pharmacy Colleges
Government Colleges/University
University Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utkal University, Vani Vihar, Bhubaneswar
Private Colleges
Indira Gandhi Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Bhubaneswar
Institute of Health Sciences Bhubaneswar
Kanak Manjari Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Rourkela
Sri Jayadev College of pharmaceutical sciences, Naharkanta, Bhuabneswar
Roland Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Berhampur, Ganjam
Law Colleges
KIIT School of Law
Madhusudan Law University
National Law University Odisha
Balasore Law College, Balasore
Capital Law College, Bhubaneswar
Dhenkanal Law College, Dhenkanal
Gangadhar Mohapatra Law College, Puri
Ganjam Law College, Berhampur
Lajpat Rai Law College, Sambalpur
Lingaraj Law College, Berhampur
Mayurbhanj Law College, Mayurbhanj
Rourkela Law College, Rourkela
Xavier Law School, Bhubaneswar
Autonomous/Degree Colleges
Autonomous/Degree Colleges affiliated to Utkal University
BJB Autonomous College, Bhubaneswar
Dhenkanal Autonomous College, Dhenkanal
Government Autonomous College, Angul
Kendrapara Autonomous College, Kendrapara
N.C. Autonomous College, Jajpur
Prananath Autonomous College, Khordha
Talcher Autonomous College, Talcher, Angul
Udayanath Autonomous College of Science and Technology, Cuttack
Vyasanagar Autonomous College, Byasanagar, Jajpur
Deba Ray College, Bhubaneswar
Jatiya Kabi Bira Kishore Government and Junior College, Cuttack
Nilakantheswar Mahavidyalaya, Talcher
Rajdhani College, Bhubaneswar
Sadhu Goureswar College, Jajpur
Autonomous/Degree Colleges affiliated to Berhampur University
DAV Autonomous College, Koraput
Rayagada Autonomous College, Rayagada
Vikram Dev Autonomous College, Koraput
Gunupur College, Gunupur
Autonomous/Degree Colleges affiliated to Fakir Mohan University
Bhadrak Autonomous College, Bhadrak
Autonomous/Degree Colleges affiliated to Maharaja Sriram Chandra Bhanja Deo University
Dharanidhar Autonomous College, Kendujhar
Autonomous/Degree Colleges affiliated to Kalahandi University
Khariar Autonomous College, Khariar, Nuapada
Autonomous/Degree Colleges affiliated to Rajendra Narayan University
Sonepur College, Sonepur, Odisha
Subalaya College, Subalaya, Subarnapur
Autonomous/Degree Colleges affiliated to Sambalpur University
Government Autonomous College, Rourkela
Panchayat College, Bargarh
Rehabilitative Science
International Institute of Rehabilitation Sciences and Research
Think tanks / Research institutes
Nabakrushna Choudhury Centre for Development Studies (NCDS), Bhubaneswar
References
Department of Higher Education, Odisha
Universities and colleges in Odisha
Education
Education in Odisha
Odisha |
310992 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Two%20Gentlemen%20of%20Verona | The Two Gentlemen of Verona | The Two Gentlemen of Verona is a comedy by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written between 1589 and 1593. It is considered by some to be Shakespeare's first play, and is often seen as showing his first tentative steps in laying out some of the themes and motifs with which he would later deal in more detail; for example, it is the first of his plays in which a heroine dresses as a boy. The play deals with the themes of friendship and infidelity, the conflict between friendship and love, and the foolish behaviour of people in love. The highlight of the play is considered by some to be Launce, the clownish servant of Proteus, and his dog Crab, to whom "the most scene-stealing non-speaking role in the canon" has been attributed.
Two Gentlemen is often regarded as one of Shakespeare's weakest plays. It has the smallest named cast of any play by Shakespeare.
Characters
Valentine – young man living in Verona
Proteus – his closest friend
Silvia – falls in love with Valentine in Milan
Julia – in love with Proteus in Verona
Duke of Milan – Silvia's father
Lucetta – Julia's waiting woman
Antonio – Proteus' father
Thurio – foolish rival to Valentine for Silvia
Eglamour – aids in Silvia's escape
Speed – a clownish servant to Valentine
Launce – Proteus's servant
Panthino – Antonio's servant
Host – of the inn where Julia lodges in Milan
Outlaws
Crab – Launce's dog
Servants
Musicians
Summary
As the play begins, Valentine is preparing to leave Verona for Milan so as to broaden his horizons. He begs his best friend, Proteus, to come with him, but Proteus is in love with Julia, and refuses to leave. Disappointed, Valentine bids Proteus farewell and goes on alone. Meanwhile, Julia is discussing Proteus with her maid, Lucetta, who tells Julia that she thinks Proteus is fond of her. Julia, however, acts coyly, embarrassed to admit that she likes him. Lucetta then produces a letter; she will not say who gave it to her, but teases Julia that it was Valentine's servant, Speed, who brought it from Proteus. Julia, still unwilling to reveal her love in front of Lucetta, angrily tears up the letter. She sends Lucetta away, but then, realising her own rashness, she picks up the fragments of the letter and kisses them, trying to piece them back together.
Meanwhile, Proteus' father has decided that Proteus should travel to Milan and join Valentine. He orders that Proteus must leave the next day, prompting a tearful farewell with Julia, to whom Proteus swears eternal love. The two exchange rings and vows and Proteus promises to return as soon as he can.
In Milan, Proteus finds Valentine in love with the Duke's daughter, Silvia. Despite being in love with Julia, Proteus falls instantly in love with Silvia and vows to win her. Unaware of Proteus' feelings, Valentine tells him the Duke wants Silvia to marry the foppish but wealthy Thurio, against her wishes. Because the Duke suspects that his daughter and Valentine are in love, he locks her nightly in a tower, to which he keeps the only key. However, Valentine tells Proteus that he plans to free her by means of a corded ladder, and together, they will elope. Proteus immediately informs the Duke, who subsequently captures and banishes Valentine. While wandering outside Milan, Valentine runs afoul of a band of outlaws, who claim they are also exiled gentlemen. Valentine lies, saying he was banished for killing a man in a fair fight, and the outlaws elect him their leader.
Meanwhile, in Verona, Julia decides to join her lover in Milan. She convinces Lucetta to dress her in boy's clothes and help her fix her hair so she will not be harmed on the journey. Once in Milan, Julia quickly discovers Proteus' love for Silvia, watching him attempt to serenade her. She contrives to become his page boy – Sebastian – until she can decide upon a course of action. Proteus sends Sebastian to Silvia with a gift of the ring that Julia gave to him before he left Verona, but Julia learns that Silvia scorns Proteus' affections and is disgusted he would forget his love back home, i.e. Julia herself. Silvia deeply mourns the loss of Valentine, who Proteus has told her is rumoured dead.
Not persuaded of Valentine's death, Silvia determines to flee the city with the help of Sir Eglamour. They escape into the forest but when they are confronted by the outlaws, Eglamour flees and Silvia is taken captive. The outlaws head to their leader (Valentine), but on the way, they encounter Proteus and Julia (still disguised as Sebastian). Proteus rescues Silvia, and then pursues her deeper into the forest. Secretly observed by Valentine, Proteus attempts to persuade Silvia that he loves her, but she rejects his advances.
Proteus insinuates that he will rape her ("I'll force thee yield to my desire"), but at this point, Valentine intervenes and denounces Proteus. Horrified at what has happened, Proteus vows that the hate Valentine feels for him is nothing compared to the hate he feels for himself. Convinced that Proteus' repentance is genuine, Valentine forgives him and seems to offer Silvia to him. At this point, overwhelmed, Julia faints, revealing her true identity. Upon seeing her, Proteus suddenly remembers his love for her and vows fidelity to her once again. The Duke and Thurio are brought as prisoners by the outlaws. Seeing Silvia, Thurio claims her as his, but Valentine warns Thurio that if he makes one move toward her, he will kill him. Terrified, Thurio renounces Silvia. The Duke, disgusted with Thurio's cowardice and impressed by Valentine's actions, approves his and Silvia's love, and consents to their marriage. The two couples are happily united, and the Duke pardons the outlaws, telling them they may return to Milan.
Sources
In writing The Two Gentlemen of Verona, Shakespeare drew on the Spanish prose romance Los Siete Libros de la Diana (The Seven Books of the Diana) by the Portuguese writer Jorge de Montemayor. In the second book of Diana, Don Felix, who is in love with Felismena, sends her a letter explaining his feelings. Like Julia, Felismena pretends to reject the letter, and be annoyed with her maid for delivering it. Like Proteus, Felix is sent away by his father, and is followed by Felismena, who, disguised as a boy, becomes his page, only to subsequently learn that Felix has fallen in love with Celia. Felismena is then employed by Felix to act as his messenger in all communications with Celia, who scorns his love. Instead, Celia falls in love with the page (i.e. Felismena in disguise). Eventually, after a combat in a wood, Felix and Felismena are reunited. Upon Felismena revealing herself however, Celia, having no counterpart to Valentine, dies of grief.
Diana was published in Spanish in 1559 and translated into French by Nicholas Collin in 1578. An English translation was made by Bartholomew Young and published in 1598, though Young claims in his preface to have finished the translation sixteen years earlier (c. 1582). Shakespeare could have read a manuscript of Young's English translation, or encountered the story in French, or learned of it from an anonymous English play, The History of Felix and Philomena, which may have been based on Diana, and which was performed for the court at Greenwich Palace by the Queen's Men on 3 January 1585. The History of Felix and Philiomena is now lost.
Another major influence on Shakespeare was the story of the intimate friendship of Titus and Gisippus as told in Thomas Elyot's The Boke Named the Governour in 1531 (the same story is told in The Decameron by Giovanni Boccaccio, but verbal similarities between The Two Gentlemen and The Governor suggest it was Elyot's work Shakespeare used as his primary source, not Boccaccio's). In this story, Titus and Gisippus are inseparable until Gisippus falls in love with Sophronia. He introduces her to Titus, but Titus is overcome with jealousy and vows to seduce her. Upon hearing of Titus' plan, Gisippus arranges for them to change places on the wedding night, thus placing their friendship above his love.
Also important to Shakespeare in the composition of the play was John Lyly's Euphues: The Anatomy of Wit, published in 1578. Like The Governor, Euphues presents two close friends who are inseparable until a woman comes between them, and, like both The Governor and Two Gentlemen, the story concludes with one friend sacrificing the woman so as to save the friendship. However, as Geoffrey Bullough argues "Shakespeare's debt to Lyly was probably one of technique more than matter." Lyly's Midas may also have influenced the scene where Launce and Speed run through the milkmaid's virtues and defects, as it contains a very similar scene between Lucio and Petulus.
Other minor sources include Arthur Brooke's narrative poem The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet. Obviously Shakespeare's source for Romeo and Juliet, it features a character called Friar Laurence, as does Two Gentlemen, and a scene where a young man attempts to outwit his lover's father by means of a corded ladder (as Valentine does in Two Gentlemen). Philip Sidney's The Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia may also have influenced Shakespeare insofar as it contains a character who follows her betrothed, dressed as his page, and later on, one of the main characters becomes captain of a group of Helots.
Date and text
Date
The exact date of composition of The Two Gentlemen of Verona is unknown, but it is generally believed to have been one of Shakespeare's earliest works. The first evidence of its existence is in a list of Shakespeare's plays in Francis Meres's Palladis Tamia, published in 1598, but it is thought to have been written in the early 1590s. Clifford Leech, for example, argues for 1592/1593; G. Blakemore Evans places the date at 1590–1593; Gary Taylor suggests 1590–1591; Kurt Schlueter posits the late 1580s; William C. Carroll suggests 1590–1592; Roger Warren tentatively suggests 1587, but acknowledges 1590/1591 as more likely.
It has been argued that Two Gentlemen may have been Shakespeare's first work for the stage. This theory was first suggested by Edmond Malone in 1821, in the Third Variorum edition of Shakespeare's plays, edited by James Boswell based on Malone's notes. Malone dated the play 1591, a modification of his earlier 1595 date from the third edition of The Plays of William Shakespeare. At this time, the dominant theory was that the Henry VI trilogy had been Shakespeare's first work. More recently, the play was placed first in The Oxford Shakespeare: The Complete Works of 1986, and again in the 2nd edition of 2005, in The Norton Shakespeare of 1997, and again in the 2nd edition of 2008, and in The Complete Pelican Shakespeare of 2002.
A large part of the theory that this may be Shakespeare's first play is the quality of the work itself. Writing in 1968, Norman Sanders argued "all are agreed on the play's immaturity." The argument is that the play betrays a lack of practical theatrical experience on Shakespeare's part, and as such, it must have come extremely early in his career. Stanley Wells, for example, has written the "dramatic structure is comparatively unambitious, and while some of its scenes are expertly constructed, those involving more than, at the most, four characters betray an uncertainty of technique suggestive of inexperience." This uncertainty can be seen in how Shakespeare handles the distribution of dialogue in such scenes. Whenever there are more than three characters on stage, at least one of those characters tends to fall silent. For example, Speed is silent for almost all of Act 2, Scene 4, as are Thurio, Silvia and Julia for most of the last half of the final scene. It has also been suggested that the handling of the final scene in general, in which the faithful lover seemingly offers his beloved as a token of his forgiveness to the man who has just attempted to rape her, is a sign of Shakespeare's lack of maturity as a dramatist.
In his 2008 edition of the play for the Oxford Shakespeare, Roger Warren argues that the play is the oldest surviving piece of Shakespearean literature, suggesting a date of composition as somewhere between 1587 and 1591. He hypothesizes that the play was perhaps written before Shakespeare came to London, with an idea towards using the famous comic actor Richard Tarlton in the role of Launce (this theory stems from the fact that Tarlton had performed several extremely popular and well known scenes with dogs). However, Tarlton died in September 1588, and Warren notes several passages in Two Gentlemen which seem to borrow from John Lyly's Midas, which wasn't written until at least late-1589. As such, Warren acknowledges that 1590/1591 is most likely the correct date of composition.
Text
The play was not printed until 1623, when it appeared in the First Folio of Shakespeare's plays.
Criticism and analysis
Critical history
Perhaps the most critically discussed issue in the play is the sequence, bizarre by modern Western standards, in Act 5, Scene 4 in which Valentine seems to 'give' Silvia to Proteus as a sign of his friendship. For many years, the general critical consensus on this issue was that the incident revealed an inherent misogyny in the text. For example, Hilary Spurling wrote in 1970, "Valentine is so overcome [by Proteus' apology] that he promptly offers to hand over his beloved to the man who, not three minutes before, had meant to rape her." Modern scholarship, however, is much more divided about Valentine's actions at the end of the play, with some critics arguing that he does not offer to give Silvia to Proteus at all. The ambiguity lies in the line "All that was mine in Silvia I give thee" (5.4.83). Some critics (such as Stanley Wells, for example) interpret this to mean that Valentine is indeed handing Silvia over to her would-be rapist, but another school of thought suggests that Valentine simply means "I will love you [Proteus] with as much love as I love Silvia," thus reconciling the dichotomy of friendship and love as depicted elsewhere in the play. This is certainly how Jeffrey Masten, for example, sees it, arguing that the play as a whole "reveals not the opposition of male friendship and Petrarchan love but rather their interdependence." As such, the final scene "stages the play's ultimate collaboration of male friendship and its incorporation of the plot we would label "heterosexual"."
This is also how Roger Warren interprets the final scene. Warren cites a number of productions of the play as evidence for this argument, including Robin Phillips' Royal Shakespeare Company (RSC) production in 1970, where Valentine kisses Silvia, makes his offer and then kisses Proteus. Another staging cited by Warren is Edward Hall's 1998 Swan Theatre production. In Hall's version of the scene, after Valentine says the controversial line, Silvia approaches him and takes him by the hand. They remain holding hands for the rest of the play, clearly suggesting that Valentine has not 'given' her away. Warren also mentions Leon Rubin's 1984 Stratford Shakespeare Festival production (where the controversial line was altered to "All my love to Silvia I also give to thee"), David Thacker's 1991 Swan Theatre production, and the 1983 BBC Television Shakespeare adaptation as supporting the theory that Valentine is not giving Silvia away, but is simply promising to love Proteus as much as he loves Silvia. Patty S. Derrick also interprets the BBC production in this manner, arguing that "Proteus clearly perceives the offer as a noble gesture of friendship, not an actual offer, because he does not even look towards Silvia but rather falls into an embrace with Valentine" (although Derrick does raise the question that if Valentine is not offering Silvia to Proteus, why does Julia swoon?).
There are other theories regarding this final scene, however. For example, in his 1990 edition of the play for the New Cambridge Shakespeare, Kurt Schlueter suggests that Valentine is indeed handing Silvia over to Proteus, but the audience is not supposed to take it literally; the incident is farcical, and should be interpreted as such. Schlueter argues that the play provides possible evidence it was written to be performed and viewed primarily by a young audience, and as such, to be staged at university theatres, as opposed to public playhouses. Such an audience would be more predisposed to accepting the farcical nature of the scene, and more likely to find humorous the absurdity of Valentine's gift. As such, in Schlueter's theory, the scene does represent what it appears to represent; Valentine does give Silvia to her would-be rapist, but it is done purely for comic effect.
Another theory is provided by William C. Carroll in his 2004 edition for the Arden Shakespeare, Third Series. Carroll argues, like Schlueter, that Valentine is indeed giving Silvia to Proteus, but unlike Schlueter, Carroll detects no sense of farce. Instead, he sees the action as a perfectly logical one in terms of the notions of friendship which were prevalent at the time:
As in Schlueter, Carroll here interprets Valentine's actions as a gift to Proteus, but unlike Schlueter, and more in line with traditional criticism of the play, Carroll also argues that such a gift, as unacceptable as it is to modern eyes, is perfectly understandable when one considers the cultural and social milieu of the play itself.
Language
Language is of primary importance in the play insofar as Valentine and Proteus speak in blank verse, but Launce and Speed speak (for the most part) in prose. More specifically, the actual content of many of the speeches serve to illustrate the pompousness of Valentine and Proteus' exalted outlook, and the more realistic and practical outlook of the servants. This is most apparent in Act 3, Scene 1. Valentine has just given a lengthy speech lamenting his banishment and musing on how he cannot possibly survive without Silvia; "Except I be by Silvia in the night/There is no music in the nightingale./Unless I look on Silvia in the day/There is no day for me to look upon" (ll.178–181). However, when Launce enters only a few lines later, he announces that he too is in love, and proceeds to outline, along with Speed, all of his betrothed's positives ("She brews good ale"; "She can knit"; "She can wash and scour"), and negatives ("She hath a sweet mouth"; "She doth talk in her sleep"; "She is slow in words"). After weighing his options, Launce decides that the woman's most important quality is that "she hath more hair than wit, and more faults than hairs, and more wealth than faults" (ll.343–344). He announces that her wealth "makes the faults gracious" (l.356), and chooses for that reason to wed her. This purely materialistic reasoning, as revealed in the form of language, is in stark contrast to the more spiritual and idealised love espoused by Valentine earlier in the scene.
Themes
One of the dominant theories as regards the value of Two Gentlemen is that thematically, it represents a 'trial run' of sorts, in which Shakespeare deals briefly with themes which he would examine in more detail in later works. E.K. Chambers, for example, believed that the play represents something of a gestation of Shakespeare's great thematic concerns. Writing in 1905, Chambers stated that Two Gentlemen
As such, the play's primary interest for critics has tended to lie in relation to what it reveals about Shakespeare's conception of certain themes before he became the accomplished playwright of later years. Writing in 1879, A.C. Swinburne, for example, states "here is the first dawn of that higher and more tender humour that was never given in such perfection to any man as ultimately to Shakespeare." Similarly, in 1906, Warwick R. Bond writes "Shakespeare first opens the vein he worked so richly afterwards – the vein of crossed love, of flight and exile under the escort of the generous sentiments; of disguised heroines, and sufferings endured and virtues exhibited under their disguise; and of the Providence, kinder than life, that annuls the errors and forgives the sin." More recently, Stanley Wells has referred to the play as a "dramatic laboratory in which Shakespeare first experimented with the conventions of romantic comedy which he would later treat with a more subtle complexity, but it has its own charm."
Other critics have been less kind however, arguing that if the later plays show a skilled and confident writer exploring serious issues of the human heart, Two Gentlemen represents the initial, primarily unsuccessful attempt to do likewise. In 1921, for example, J. Dover Wilson and Arthur Quiller-Couch, in their edition of the play for the Cambridge Shakespeare, famously stated that after hearing Valentine offer Silvia to Proteus "one's impulse, upon this declaration, is to remark that there are, by this time, no gentlemen in Verona." H.B. Charlton, writing in 1938, argues that "clearly, Shakespeare's first attempt to make romantic comedy had only succeeded so far as it had unexpectedly and inadvertently made romance comic." Another such argument is provided by Norman Sanders in 1968; "because the play reveals a relatively unsure dramatist and many effects managed with a tiro's lack of expertise, it offers us an opportunity to see more clearly than anywhere else in the canon what were to become characteristic techniques. It stands as an 'anatomie' or show-through version, as it were, of Shakespeare's comic art." Kurt Schlueter, on the other hand, argues that critics have been too harsh on the play precisely because the later plays are so much superior. He suggests that when looking at Shakespeare's earlier works, scholars put too much emphasis on how they fail to measure up to the later works, rather than looking at them for their own intrinsic merits; "we should not continue the practice of holding his later achievements against him when dealing with his early beginnings."
Love and friendship
Norman Sanders calls the play "almost a complete anthology of the practices of the doctrine of romantic love which inspired the poetic and prose Romances of the period." At the very centre of this is the contest between love and friendship; "an essential part of the comicality of The Two Gentlemen of Verona is created by the necessary conflict between highly stylised concepts of love and friendship." This is manifested in the question of whether the relationship between two male friends is more important than that between lovers, encapsulated by Proteus' rhetorical question at 5.4.54; "In love/Who respects friend?" This question "exposes the raw nerve at the heart of the central relationships, the dark reality lurking beneath the wit and lyricism with which the play has in general presented lovers' behaviour." In the program notes for John Barton's 1981 RSC production at the Royal Shakespeare Theatre, Anne Barton, his wife, wrote that the central theme of the play was "how to bring love and friendship into a constructive and mutually enhancing relationship." As William C. Carroll points out, this is a common theme in Renaissance literature, which often celebrates friendship as the more important relationship (because it is pure and unconcerned with sexual attraction), and contends that love and friendship cannot co-exist. As actor Alex Avery argues, "The love between two men is a greater love for some reason. There seems to be a sense that the function of a male/female relationship is purely for the family and to procreate, to have a family. But a love between two men is something that you choose. You have arranged marriages, [but] a friendship between two men is created by the desires and wills of those two men, whereas a relationship between a man and a girl is actually constructed completely peripheral to whatever the feelings of the said boy and girl are."
Carroll sees this societal belief as vital in interpreting the final scene of the play, arguing that Valentine does give Silvia to Proteus, and in so doing, he is merely acting in accordance with the practices of the day. However, if one accepts that Valentine does not give Silvia to Proteus, as critics such as Jeffrey Masten argue, but instead offers to love Proteus as much as he loves Silvia, then the conclusion of the play can be read as a final triumphant reconciliation between friendship and love; Valentine intends to love his friend as much as he does his betrothed. Love and friendship are shown to be co-existent, not exclusive.
Foolishness of lovers
Another major theme is the foolishness of lovers, what Roger Warren refers to as "mockery of the absurdity of conventional lovers' behaviour." Valentine for example, is introduced into the play mocking the excesses of love; "To be in love, where scorn is bought with groans/Coy looks with heart-sore sighs, one fading moment's mirth/With twenty watchful, weary, tedious nights" (1.1.29–31). Later, however, he becomes as much a prisoner of love as Proteus, exclaiming, "For in revenge of my contempt for love/Love hath chased sleep from my enthrall'd eyes/And made them watchers of my own heart's sorrow" (2.4.131–133).
The majority of the cynicism and mockery as regards conventional lovers, however, comes from Launce and Speed, who serve as foils for the two protagonists, and "supply a mundane view of the idealistic flights of fancy indulged in by Proteus and Valentine." Several times in the play, after either Valentine or Proteus has made an eloquent speech about love, Shakespeare introduces either Launce or Speed (or both), whose more mundane concerns serve to undercut what has just been said, thus exposing Proteus and Valentine to mockery. For example, in Act 2, Scene 1, as Valentine and Silvia engage in a game of flirtation, hinting at their love for one another, Speed provides constant asides which serve to directly mock the couple;
Inconstancy
A third major theme is inconstancy, particularly as manifested in Proteus, whose very name hints at his changeable mind (in Ovid's Metamorphoses, Proteus is a sea-god forever changing its shape). At the start of the play, Proteus has only eyes for Julia. However, upon meeting Silvia, he immediately falls in love with her (although he has no idea why). He then finds himself drawn to the page Sebastian (Julia in disguise) whilst still trying to woo Silvia, and at the end of the play, he announces that Silvia is no better than Julia and vows he now loves Julia again. Indeed, Proteus himself seems to be aware of this mutability, pointing out towards the end of the play; "O heaven, were man/But constant, he were perfect. That one error/Fills him with faults, makes him run through all th'sins;/Inconstancy falls off ere it begins" (5.4.109–112).
Performance
There is no record of a performance during Shakespeare's lifetime, although due to its inclusion in Francis Meres' Palladis Tamia, we know the play had definitely been performed by 1598. The earliest known performance was at Drury Lane in 1762. However, this production was of a version of the play rewritten by Benjamin Victor. The earliest known performance of the straight Shakespearean text was at Covent Garden in 1784, advertised as "Shaxespeare's with alterations." Although the play was supposed to run for several weeks, it closed after the first night.
From the middle of the eighteenth century, even if staging Shakespeare's original (as opposed to Victor's rewrite) it was common to cut the lines in the final scene where Valentine seems to offer Silvia to Proteus. This practice prevailed until William Macready reintroduced the lines in 1841 in a production at Drury Lane, although they were still being removed as late as 1952, in Denis Carey's production at the Bristol Old Vic. Notable nineteenth-century performances include Charles Kean's 1848 production at the Haymarket Theatre, Samuel Phelps' 1857 production at Sadler's Wells Theatre and William Poel's 1892 and 1896 productions.
During the twentieth century, the play has been produced sporadically in the English-speaking world, although it has proved more popular in Europe. Indeed, there have been only a few significant English speaking productions. Little is known, for example, about Harley Granville-Barker's 1904 production at the Court Theatre, F.R. Benson's 1910 production at the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre, Robert Atkins' 1923 production at the Apollo Theatre, or Ben Iden Payne's 1938 production at Stratford-upon-Avon. The earliest production about which we have significant information is Michael Langham's 1957 production at The Old Vic, starring Richard Gale as Valentine, Keith Michell as Proteus, Barbara Jefford as Julia and Ingrid Hafner as Silvia. In this production, set in late nineteenth-century Italy and grounded very much in high Romanticism, Proteus threatens to kill himself with a pistol at the end of the play, prompting Valentine's hasty offer of Silvia.
Perhaps the most notable 20th-century production was Peter Hall's 1960 production at the Royal Shakespeare Theatre. Set in a late medieval milieu, the play starred Denholm Elliott as Valentine, Derek Godfrey as Proteus, Susan Maryott as Silvia, Frances Cuka as Julia, and featured a much lauded performance by Patrick Wymark as Launce. Hall had only recently been appointed as Artistic Director of the RSC, and, somewhat unexpectedly, he chose Two Gentlemen as his inaugural production, billed as the opening show in a re-examination of the development of Shakespearean comedy.
Ten years later, in 1970, Robin Phillips' RSC production starred Peter Egan as Valentine, Ian Richardson as Proteus, Helen Mirren as Julia, Estelle Kohler as Silvia, and Patrick Stewart as Launce. This production concentrated on the issues of friendship and treachery, and set the play in a decadent world of social elitism. Valentine and Proteus were presented as aristocratic students, the Duke was a Don, and Eglamour an old scout master. On the other hand, the poverty-stricken outlaws were dressed in animal skins.
The RSC again staged the play at the Royal Shakespeare Theatre in 1981, as a double bill with Titus Andronicus, with both plays heavily edited. Directed by John Barton, the production starred Peter Chelsom as Valentine, Peter Land as Proteus, Julia Swift as Julia and Diana Hardcastle as Silvia. This production saw the actors not involved in the current on-stage scene sit at the front of the stage and watch the performance. Leon Rubin directed a performance at the Stratford Shakespeare Festival in 1984, where the actors were dressed in modern clothes and contemporary pop music was featured within the play (for example, the outlaws are portrayed as an anarchic rock group).
A 1991 RSC production at the Swan Theatre saw director David Thacker use an on-stage band for the duration of the play, playing music from the 1930s, such as Cole Porter and George Gershwin. Thacker's production featured Richard Bonneville as Valentine, Finbar Lynch as Proteus, Clare Holman as Julia and Saskia Reeves as Silvia. In 1992, Thacker's production moved to the Barbican Centre, and in 1993 went on regional tour. In 1996, Jack Shepherd directed a modern dress version at the Royal National Theatre as part of Shakespeare's Globe's "Prologue Season". The production starred Lenny James as Valentine, Mark Rylance as Proteus, Stephanie Roth Haberle as Julia and Anastasia Hille as Silvia. Another RSC production took place at the Swan in 1998, under the direction of Edward Hall, and starring Tom Goodman-Hill as Valentine, Dominic Rowan as Proteus, Lesley Vickerage as Julia and Poppy Miller as Silvia. This production set the play in a grimy unnamed contemporary city where material obsession was all-encompassing.
In 2004, Fiona Buffini directed a touring production for the RSC. Premiering at the Swan, the production starred Alex Avery as Valentine, Laurence Mitchell as Proteus, Vanessa Ackerman as Julia and Rachel Pickup as Silvia. Buffini set the play in a swinging 1930s milieu, and featuring numerous dance numbers. Additionally, London and New York replaced Verona and Milan; initially, Valentine and Proteus are shown as living in the English countryside, in a rural paradise devoid of any real vitality, the sons of wealthy families who have retired from the city. When Valentine leaves, he heads to New York to pursue the American Dream and falls in love with Silvia, the famous actress daughter of a powerful media magnate. Another change to the play was that the roles of the outlaws (represented here as a group of paparazzi) were increased considerably. Scenes added to the play show them arriving in New York and going about their daily business, although none of the new scenes featured any dialogue. Another performance worth noting occurred at the Courtyard Theatre in Stratford in 2006. A non-professional acting company from Brazil, named Nós do Morro, in collaboration with a Gallery 37 group from Birmingham, gave a single performance of the play during the RSC's presentation of the Complete Works, directed by Guti Fraga. The production was spoken in Portuguese, with the original English text projected as surtitles onto the back of the stage. It also featured two 17-year-olds in the roles of Valentine and Proteus (usually, actors in their 20s are cast), and Crab was played not by a dog, but by a human actor in a dog costume. In 2009, Joe Dowling directed the play at the Guthrie Theater, starring Sam Bardwell as Valentine, Jonas Goslow as Proteus, Sun Mee Chomet as Julia and Valeri Mudek as Silvia. Staged as a 1950s live television production, large black-and-white monitors were set on either side of the stage, with cameras feeding the action to them. Additionally, period advertisements appeared both before the show and during the intermission. The actors spoke the original dialogue, but wore 1950s clothing. Rock and roll music and dance sequences were occasionally mixed with the action.
In 2011, Laura Cole directed a production at the Shakespeare Tavern. Presented as an "in repertory" production, alongside The Taming of the Shrew and The Comedy of Errors, it starred Kenneth Wigley as Valentine, Jonathan Horne as Proteus, Amee Vyas as Julia and Kati Grace Morton as Silvia. In 2012, P.J. Paparelli directed a Shakespeare Theatre Company production at the Lansburgh Theatre, starring Andrew Veenstra as Valentine, Nick Dillenburg as Proteus, Natalie Mitchell as Silvia and Miriam Silverman as Julia. Set in the 1990s, and featuring a contemporary soundtrack, mobile phones and guns, the production downplayed the comedy, and instead presented the play as a semi-tragic coming-of-age story. Reviews were mixed, with most critics impressed with the attempts to do something new with the play, but not universally sure the new ideas worked. Also in 2012, a touring production was staged at various venues throughout the UK, including a performance at the Globe Theatre as part of the Globe to Globe Festival, under the name Vakomana Vaviri Ve Zimbabwe (The Two Gentlemen from Zimbabwe). Directed by Arne Pohlmeier, and spoken in Shona, the entire play was performed with a cast of two; Denton Chikura and Tonderai Munyevu. In 2014, for the first time since Robin Phillips' 1970 production, the RSC performed the play in a full production at the Royal Shakespeare Theatre. Directed by Simon Godwin, the production starred Michael Marcus as Valentine, Mark Arends as Proteus, Pearl Chanda as Julia and Sarah MacRae as Silvia. On 3 September, the play was broadcast live to cinemas around the world as part of the "Live from Stratford-upon-Avon" series. The production received generally positive reviews, with most critics happy to see it back on the RSC stage.
Adaptations
Theatrical
Benjamin Victor rewrote the play for performance in 1762 (the earliest recorded performance we have of the play), at the Theatre Royal in Drury Lane. Starring Richard Yates as Launce, his wife, Mary Ann Yates as Julia and Elizabeth Pope as Silvia, Victor brought all of the Verona scenes together, removed Valentine's 'gift' of Silvia to Proteus and increased the roles of Launce and Crab (especially during the outlaw scenes, where both characters are intimately involved in the action). He also switched the emphasis of the play away from the love-friendship dichotomy and instead focused on the issues of fidelity, with the last line of the play altered to, "Lovers must be faithful to be bless'd." This necessitated rewriting Valentine as a near flawless protagonist who represents such faithfulness, and Proteus as a traditional villain, who doesn't care for such notions. The two are not presented as old friends, but simply as acquaintances. Thurio was also rewritten as a harmless, but lovable fool, not unlike Launce and Speed. Although not a major success (the play initially ran for only six performances), it was still being staged as late as 1895.
In 1790, John Philip Kemble staged his own production of the play at Drury Lane, maintaining many of Victor's alterations whilst also adding many of his own. The production starred Richard Wroughton as Proteus and Elizabeth Satchell as Silvia. The play was again staged at Covent Garden in 1808, with Kemble, who was fifty years old at the time, playing Valentine.
Opera/Musical
Frederic Reynolds staged an operatic version in 1821 at Covent Garden as part of his series of adaptations of the works of Shakespeare. Reynolds wrote the lyrics, with Henry Bishop writing the music. The production ran for twenty-nine performances, and included some of Shakespeare's sonnets set to music. Augustin Daly revived the opera in 1895 at Daly's Theatre, in an elaborate production starring Ada Rehan as Julia.
In 1826, Franz Schubert set a German translation by Eduard von Bauernfeld of Proteus' serenade to Silvia ("Who is Silvia? What is she,/That all our swains commend her?") to music. This song is usually known in English as "Who is Sylvia?," but in German it is known as "An Sylvia" ("Vier Lieder", opus 106, number 4, D. 891). In 1909, Eric Coates's "Four Old English Songs" included a setting of "Who is Sylvia". In 1942, Gerald Finzi included a setting of "Who Is Silvia?" in his song cycle on Shakespearean texts Let Us Garlands Bring; the title of the work is the last line of the song.
In 1971, Galt MacDermot, John Guare and Mel Shapiro adapted the show into a rock musical under the same name as the play. Guare and Shapiro wrote the book, Guare the lyrics, and MacDermot the music. Opening at the St. James Theatre on 1 December 1971, with Shapiro directing and Jean Erdman as choreographer, it ran for 614 performances, closing on 20 May 1973. During its initial run, the play won two Tony Awards; Best Musical and Best Book. The original cast included Clifton Davis as Valentine, Raúl Juliá as Proteus, Jonelle Allen as Silvia and Diana Dávila as Julia. The play moved to the West End in 1973, playing at the Phoenix Theatre from 26 April, and running for 237 performances. It was revived in 1996 at the New Jersey Shakespeare Festival, directed by Robert Duke, and again in 2005, directed and choreographed by Kathleen Marshall as part of the Shakespeare in the Park festival. Marshall's production was performed at the Delacorte Theater in Central Park, and starred Norm Lewis as Valentine, Oscar Isaac as Proteus, Renée Elise Goldsberry as Silvia and Rosario Dawson as Julia.
Film
The only cinematic adaptation of the play is Yī jiǎn méi (more commonly known by its English title A Spray of Plum Blossoms), a 1931 silent film from China, directed by Bu Wancang and written by Huang Yicuo. A loose adaptation of the play, the film tells the story of Bai Lede (Wang Chilong) and Hu Luting (Jin Yan), two military cadets who have been friends since they were children. After graduating, Hu, a playboy uninterested in love, is appointed as a captain in Guangdong and leaves his home town in Shanghai. Bai however, deeply in love with Hu's sister, Hu Zhuli (Ruan Lingyu) stays behind. At Guangdong, Hu falls in love with the local general's daughter, Shi Luohua (Lim Cho Cho), although the general, Shi (Wang Guilin), is unaware of the relationship, and instead wants his daughter to marry the foolish Liao Di'ao (Kao Chien Fei). Meanwhile, Bai's father uses his influence to get Bai posted to Guangdong, and after a sorrowful farewell between himself and Zhuli, he arrives at his new post and instantly falls in love with Luohua. In an effort to have her for himself, Bai betrays his friend, by informing General Shi of his daughter's plans to elope with Hu, leading to Shi dishonourably discharging Hu. Bai tries to win Luohua over, but she is uninterested, only concerned with lamenting the loss of Hu. In the meantime, Hu encounters a group of bandits who ask him to be their leader, to which he agrees, planning on returning for Luohua at some point in the future. Some time passes, and one day, as Luohua, Bai and Liao are passing through the forest, they are attacked. Luohua manages to flee, and Bai pursues her into the forest. They engage in an argument, but just as Bai seems about to lose his temper, Hu intervenes, and he and Luohua are reunited. General Shi arrives in time to see Liao flee the scene, and he now realises that he was wrong to get in the way of the relationship between Hu and his daughter. Hu then forgives Bai his betrayal, and Bai reveals that he has discovered that his only true love is in fact Zhuli back in Shanghai. The film is notable for being one of many Chinese films of the period which, although performed in Mandarin when filming, used English intertitles upon its original release. In the English intertitles and credits, the characters are named after their counterparts in the play; Hu is Valentine, Bai is Proteus, Zhuli is Julia and Luohua is Silvia. Liao is named Tiburio rather than Thurio.
Two Gentlemen is also featured in Shakespeare in Love (1998). Directed by John Philip Madden and written by Marc Norman and Tom Stoppard, the film tells the fictional story of William Shakespeare's (Joseph Fiennes) composition of Romeo and Juliet. Early in the film, Queen Elizabeth (Judi Dench) attends a production of Two Gentlemen, greatly enjoying William Kempe (Patrick Barlow) being thoroughly outperformed by Crab, and then falling asleep during Henry Condell's (Nicholas Boulton) recitation of Proteus' soliloquy from Act 2, Scene 1. Later, after reading the first draft of Romeo and Ethel, theatre manager Philip Henslowe (Geoffrey Rush) suggests that Shakespeare add a dog to liven the play up.
Television
The first television adaptation was in 1952, when BBC Television Service broadcast Act 1 of the play live from the Bristol Old Vic. Directed by Denis Carey, the production starred John Neville as Valentine, Laurence Payne as Proteus, Gudrun Ure as Silvia and Pamela Ann as Julia.
In 1956, the entire play was broadcast on West German TV channel Das Erste from a performance at the Munich Kammerspiele, under the title Zwei Herren aus Verona. The theatrical production was directed by Hans Schalla, with the TV adaptation directed by Ernst Markwardt. The cast included Rolf Schult as Valentine, Hannes Riesenberger as Proteus, Helga Siemers as Julia and Isolde Chlapek as Silvia. In 1964, the play was made into a TV movie in West Germany, again using the title Zwei Herren aus Verona. Screened on ZDF, it was directed by Hans Dieter Schwarze and starred Norbert Hansing as Valentine, Rolf Becker as Proteus, Katinka Hoffman as Julia and Heidelinde Weis as Silvia. Another West German TV movie, under the title Die zwei Herren aus Verona, was screened on Das Erste in 1966. Directed by Harald Benesch, it starred Jürgen Kloth as Valentine, Lothar Berg as Proteus, Anne-Marie Lermon as Julia and Carola Regnier as Silvia. In 1969, the entire play was broadcast on Austrian TV channel ORF eins from a performance at the Theater in der Josefstadt, under the title Zwei aus Verona. The theatrical production was directed by Edwin Zbonek, with the TV adaptation directed by Wolfgang Lesowsky. The cast included Klaus Maria Brandauer as Valentine, Albert Rueprecht as Proteus, Kitty Speiser as Julia and Brigitte Neumeister as Silvia.
In 1983, the play was adapted for the BBC Television Shakespeare series, as the fourth episode of the sixth season. Directed by Don Taylor, it starred Tyler Butterworth as Proteus, John Hudson as Valentine, Tessa Peake-Jones as Julia and Joanne Pearce as Silvia. For the most part, the adaptation is taken verbatim from the First Folio, with some very minor differences. For example, omitted lines include the Duke's "Knowing that tender youth is soon suggested" (3.1.34), and Julia's "Her eyes are grey as glass, and so are mine" (4.4.189). Other differences include a slightly different opening scene to that indicated in the text. Whereas the play seems to open with Valentine and Proteus in mid-conversation, the adaptation begins with Mercatio and Eglamour attempting to formally woo Julia; Mercatio by showing her a coffer overflowing with gold coins, Eglamour by displaying a parchment detailing his ancestry. Neither Eglamour nor Mercatio appear in the text. However, there is no dialogue in this scene, and the first words spoken are the same as in the text ("Cease to persuade my loving Proteus"). Eglamour is also present in the final scene, albeit once again without any dialogue, and, additionally, the capture of Silvia and the flight of Eglamour is seen, as opposed to merely being described. The music for the episode was created by Anthony Rooley, who wrote new arrangements of works from Shakespeare's own time, such as John Dowland's "Lachrimae". Performed by The Consort of Musicke, other musicians whose music was used include William Byrd, Thomas Campion, Anthony Holborne, John Johnson, Thomas Morley and Orazio Vecchi.
Taylor initially planned a representational setting for the film; Verona, Milan and the forest were all to be realistic. However, he changed his mind early in preproduction and had production designer Barbara Gosnold go in the opposite direction – a stylised setting. To this end, the forest is composed of metal poles with bits of green tinsel and brown sticks stuck to them (the cast and crew referred to the set as "Christmas at Selfridges"). Whilst the set for Verona remained relatively realistic, that for Milan featured young actors dressed like cherubs as extras. This was to convey the idea that the characters lived in a 'Garden of Courtly Love', which was slightly divorced from the everyday reality represented by Verona. Working in tandem with this idea, upon Proteus' arrival in Milan, after meeting Silvia, he is left alone on screen, and the weather suddenly changes from calm and sunny to cloudy and windy, accompanied by a thunderclap. The implication being that Proteus has brought a darkness within him into the garden of courtly delights previously experienced by Silvia. Although the production is edited in a fairly conventional manner, much of it was shot in extremely long takes, and then edited into sections, rather than actually shooting in sections. Director Don Taylor would shoot most of the scenes in single takes, as he felt this enhanced performances and allowed actors to discover aspects which they never would were everything broken up into pieces.
In 1995, a production of the play aired on Polish TV channel TVP1 under the title Dwaj panowie z Werony, directed by Roland Rowiński and starring Rafal Krolikowski as Proteus, Marek Bukowski as Valentine, Agnieszka Krukówna as Julia and Edyta Jungowska as Sylvia.
In 2000, episode three of season four of Dawson's Creek, "Two Gentlemen of Capeside" loosely adapted the plot of the play. Written by Chris Levinson and Jeffrey Stepakoff, and directed by Sandy Smolan, the episode depicts how Dawson Leery (James Van Der Beek) and Pacey Witter (Joshua Jackson), formerly best friends, have been driven apart over their love for the same woman. The play is referenced early in the episode as the characters are reading it for their English class.
Radio
In 1923, extracts from the play were broadcast on BBC Radio, performed by the Cardiff Station Repertory Company as the first episode of a series of programs showcasing Shakespeare's plays, entitled Shakespeare Night. In 1924, the entire play was broadcast by 2BD, directed by Joyce Tremayne and R.E. Jeffrey, with Treymane playing Silvia and Jeffrey playing Valentine, alongside G.R. Harvey as Proteus and Daisy Moncur as Julia. In 1927, the scenes between Julia and Lucetta were broadcast on BBC Radio as part of the Echoes from Greenwich Theatre series. Betty Rayner played Julia and Joan Rayner played Lucetta. BBC National Programme broadcast the full play in 1934, adapted for radio by Barbara Burnham and produced by Lance Sieveking. Ion Swinley played Valentine, Robert Craven was Proteus, Helen Horsey was Silvia and Lydia Sherwood played Julia.
In 1958, the entire play was broadcast on BBC Third Programme. Produced and directed by Raymond Raikes, it starred John Westbrook as Valentine, Charles Hodgson as Proteus, Caroline Leigh as Silvia, Perlita Neilson as Julia, and Frankie Howerd as Launce. BBC Third Programme aired another full production of the play in 1968, produced and directed by R.D. Smith and starring Denys Hawthorne as Valentine, Michael N. Harbour as Proteus, Judi Dench as Julia and Kate Coleridge as Silvia.
In 2007, producer Roger Elsgood and director Willi Richards adapted the play into a radio drama called The Two Gentlemen of Valasna. Set in two petty Indian princely states called Malpur and Valasna in the weeks leading up to the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the play was first broadcast on BBC Radio 3 on 29 July 2007. It was recorded on location in Maharashtra, India earlier in 2007 with a cast drawn from Bollywood, Indian television and the Mumbai English-speaking theatre traditions; actors included Nadir Khan as Vishvadev (i.e. Valentine), Arghya Lahiri as Parminder (Proteus), Anuradha Menon as Syoni (Silvia), Avantika Akerkar as Jumaana/Servi (Julia/Sebastian), Sohrab Ardishir as The Maharaja (Duke of Milan) and Zafar Karachiwala as Thaqib (Thurio).
References
Notes
Citations
All references to The Two Gentlemen of Verona, unless otherwise specified, are taken from the Oxford Shakespeare (Warren), based on the First Folio text of 1623. Under its referencing system, 2.3.14 means act 2, scene 3, line 14.
Editions of The Two Gentlemen of Verona
Secondary sources
External links
The Two Gentlemen of Verona at Shakespeare Illustrated.
(BBC Television Shakespeare Version).
1590s plays
British plays adapted into films
Cross-dressing in literature
English Renaissance plays
Love stories
Milan in fiction
Plays set in Italy
Shakespearean comedies
Verona in fiction |
28924443 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freight%20audit | Freight audit | By definition an audit is,
An examination of records or financial accounts to check their accuracy.
An adjustment or correction of accounts.
An examined and verified account.
A freight audit vendor is therefore one who examines, adjusts and verifies freight bills for accuracy.
Therefore, a freight audit is the process of examining, adjusting and verifying freight bills for accuracy.
Freight costs''
Costs incurred by the merchant in moving goods, by whatever means, from one place to another under the terms of the contract of carriage. In addition to transport costs this may include such elements as packing, documentation, loading, unloading and transport insurance.
Complexity of Freight Audit
Rising freight cost is an emerging area of concern as seen in recent years. The cost of freight has been rising due to the increase in oil prices and all freight cost is highly dependent on the cost of transportation which relates directly to fuel prices. With high fluctuations of fuel costs, low visibility of the future freight costs and high complexity of the freight quotes, freight cost verification are vulnerable to human and process errors and this requires proper auditing to ensure that the organization does not overpay for services it did not incur.
The forwarder freight rates are usually maintained in multiple spreadsheets and usually each forwarder has a different freight rate format to the customer. An organization is daunted with the task of calculating the freight rates manually and this task can be challenging when the customer has hundreds of shipments shipped each month. Most organizations do not have the manpower to calculate all the freight invoices issued to them and at best, they perform random sampling to check if the sample invoice is billed correctly. Some organizations have the manpower to perform freight audit themselves, the manual and tedious efforts required for a freight audit will usually end up much more expensive than an outsource vendor might be able to provide.
Many Freight Auditors are now offering Parcel Auditing Services which include UPS, Federal Express, DHL, Purolator etc.
Freight Audit Process
Inbound logistics details the freight audit process as follows:
“To begin the auditing process, a freight bill payment company receives its clients' freight bills directly from carriers. When the bills are received, either via electronic data interchange (EDI) or manually, they are entered into the contractor's system, providing immediate visibility. Once the bills are entered, they are audited for accuracy. Auditors verify the bills' validity, mileage, duplicate payments, accessorial charges, and use of correct tariffs. After auditing, the charges are coded and reconciled, and the bills are paid.”
Some companies have adopted a process called self billing''' to pay freight bills. The customers calculate their freight cost themselves and instruct the freight forwarder to invoice using credit notes. This process transfers the responsibility to correct freight calculation from the customer to the forwarder.
Models of freight audit
There are 3 models of freight audit used today. The 3 models are listed as below.
Manual match—Pay for in-house staff to manually process invoices and conduct audits, with costs, errors and unrecovered charges rising as international transportation volumes grow;
Buy packaged software—Pay an upfront license to acquire a software package (TMS), and then install, operate and maintain the software, rates, and electronic integrations to carriers, using expensive internal resources; or
Outsource—Pay fees to a third-party firm, send them freight invoices, and then absorb additional costs and time to administer the service, track discrepancies, and recoup unrecovered charges. Outsource is typically contingency pricing model
The first option of manual matching is tedious and the cost of auditing a freight invoice rise with the number of freight invoice proportionally.
The 2nd option of buying packaged software allows the company to save time and resources in the invoice processing but the company will need to invest in the training of the staff and system infrastructure to maintain an expert process and system. The freight audit system will be able to eliminate the mundane freight calculation and matching process and the users of the system will be able to perform value add activities such as analyzing freight rates, negotiation with freight forwarders or recovering freight invoice discrepancy with freight forwarders.
For option 3, ideally, the 3rd party firm should use a freight audit system and not handle the freight invoices manually. The freight audit system maintained by a team of expert users will eliminate the cost of training users and infrastructure setup cost. Although the cost of outsource may seem to be higher than buying a packaged software, it includes the maintenance cost of a freight system which may cost more for a team of non experts from the customer to manage.
Freight audit on shipment or freight invoice level
Freight audit can be conducted at the shipment or freight invoice level. A company that has standard weights for standard packages may opt to audit freight invoices at freight invoice level to reduce complexity in the freight audit process. This is known as freight invoice validation and this process is simple as compared to a freight audit at shipment level.
A company that has a more complex shipping process may choose to go for freight invoice verification. This freight invoice verification process is a flexible solution that allows the customer to use their shipment and package measurements and calculate against the freight quotes and finally compare against the freight invoice. By having detail shipment information, customers can analyze freight cost by product line reports or interface payment information into their ERP systems.
Benefits of freight audit
Inbound logistics noted that for many companies, outsourcing could be the most economical way to properly audit and process freight invoices. They have also noted that the cost to verify, process and finally pay an internal freight invoice is around US$11 and the cost of outsourcing is around 5 to 10% of the internal cost and that has not included the cost savings from the invoice discrepancies. The discrepancies can be as much as 8.8% of the freight invoices.
The provider of a freight audit can also provide automated cost allocation, reduction of invoices and comprehensive reports for the customer to make intelligent business decisions such as consolidation of shipments to a certain forwarder and landed costing of each product group. These reports are critical to a product costing and planning strategy in order to make the product successful in the targeted area.
Freight cost reports can be generated to compare the freight costs for forwarders and the customers may use such reports to flag out service failures, negotiate for better freight deals or the opportunity to consolidate the shipments to a forwarder for a better rate. Customers can simulate the freight cost calculation for new freight rates or packages proposed by the forwarder and determine if this is suitable for their business model.
With large fluctuations in the surcharges, the accounts department will have lower visibility in accruing freight cost. By choosing a freight invoice verification model, a customer can forecast the freight cost to be accrued for accounting purposes. This translates to lesser risk and more predictability in cash flow for the company. Akzo Nobel’s automated freight audit process has also instilled tighter controls over their freight accounting by eliminating human communication and intervention from the point of the freight quote to the payment process. By controlling the human communication and minimizing human intervention, the audit process will be unbiased and less likely to deviate from the proper process.
References
Dealer Auditing Software
Freight transport |
30161297 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kig%20%28software%29 | Kig (software) | KIG is free and open-source interactive geometry software, which is part of the KDE Education Project. It has some facilities for scripting in Python, as well as the creating macros from existing constructions.
Import and export
Kig can import files made by DrGeo and Cabri Geometry as well as its own file format, which is XML-encoded. Kig can export figures in LaTeX format and as SVG (vector graphics) files.
Objects
Kig can handle any classical object of the dynamic geometry, but also:
The center of curvature and osculating circle of a curve;
The dilation, generic affinity, inversion, projective application, homography and harmonic homology;
The hyperbola with given asymptotes;
The Bézier curves (2nd and 3rd degree);
The polar line of a point and pole of a line with respect to a conic section;
The asymptotes of a hyperbola;
The cubic curve through 9 points;
The cubic curve with a double point through 6 points;
The cubic curve with a cusp through 4 points.
Scripting language
Inside the figure
Another object is available inside Kig, it is a Python language script. It can accept Kig objects as variables, and always return one object.
For example, if there is already a numeric object inside the figure, for example 3, the following Python object can yield its square (9):
def square(arg1):
return DoubleObject(arg1.value() ** 2)
The variables are always called arg1, arg2 etc. in the order they are clicked upon. Here there is only one variable arg1 and its numerical value is obtained with arg1.value().
If no one wants to implement the square of a complex number (represented by a point in the Argand diagram), the object which has to be selected at the creation of the script must necessarily be a point, and the script is
def csquare(arg1):
x = arg1.coordinate().x
y = arg1.coordinate().y
z = x * x - y * y
y = 2 * x * y
x = z
return Point(Coordinate(x, y))
The abscissa of the point representing the square of the complex number is as can be seen by expanding , Coordinate(x,y) creates a Python list made of the two coordinates of the new point. And Point creates the point which coordinates are precisely given by this list.
But a Python object inside a figure can only create one object and for more complex figures one has to build the figure with a script:
Figure created by a script
Kig comes up with a little program (written in Python) called pykig.py which can
load a Python script, e.g. MyScript.py
build a Kig figure, described by this script
open Kig and display the figure.
For example, here is how a Sierpinski triangle can be made (as an IFS) with pykig:
from random import *
kigdocument.hideobjects()
A = Point(0, 2)
A.show()
B = Point(-2, -1)
B.show()
C = Point(2, -1)
C.show()
M = Point(.1, .1)
for i in range(1, 1000):
d = randrange(3)
if d == 0:
s = Segment(A, M)
M = s.midpoint()
if d == 1:
s = Segment(B, M)
M = s.midpoint()
if d == 2:
s = Segment(C, M)
M = s.midpoint()
M.show()
External links
The Kig Handbook
Thomas G. Pfeiffer: Erstellen geometrischer Skizzen mit kig. Freies Magazin, December 2009 (German)
Mike Diehl: Teaching Math with the KDE Interactive Geometry Program. Linux Journal, 2009-09-19
Abdul Halim Abdullah, Mohini Mohamed: The Use Of Interactive Geometry Software (IGS) To Develop Geometric Thinking. Jurnal Teknologi 49(1), December 2008, DOI: 10.11113/jt.v49.212
Free educational software
Free interactive geometry software
KDE Education Project
KDE software
KDE Software Compilation
Software that uses Qt |
6263651 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variants%20of%20the%20M113%20armored%20personnel%20carrier | Variants of the M113 armored personnel carrier | A huge number of M113 Armored Personnel Carrier variants have been created, ranging from infantry carriers to nuclear missile carriers. The M113 armored personnel carrier has become one of the most prolific armored vehicles of the second half of the 20th century, and continues to serve with armies around the world in many roles.
Military operators
Afghanistan
In 2005, Afghanistan received 15 second-hand M577A2 command and control vehicles from the United States.
Argentina
In 1967, the Argentine Army received from USA 250 M113A1 APC, 10 M577A1 command and control vehicles and 12 M548A1 cargo carriers. In 1992, they received from USA 200 M113A2 APC, 25 M106A1 mortar carrier, 10 M577A1 command and control vehicles and 16 M548A1 cargo carriers. Some variants are modified by the Army's Comando de Arsenales.
M106A2 - M106A1 mortar carrier modified with a 120mm FM mortar.
M113 Defensa Aerea - M113 APC with a 20mm Oerlikon GAI-BO1 cannon.
M113 Sanitario - M113 APC modified to serve as an armoured ambulance.
M113 Recuperador - M113 APC modified to serve as an armoured recovery vehicle
M113 Comunicaciones - M113 APC modified to serve as a communications vehicles
M548A2 - M548A1 cargo carriers modernizated to A2 version.
M113A2 RASIT - M113A2 APC fitted with a RASIT radar to serve as reconnaissance vehicle.
M113A2 w/ 20mm turret - M113A2 APC fitted with a CITEFA 20mm turret.
Australia
Some Australian AFVs have the suffix "AS" (the NATO code for Australia), often appended by a model number.
Generally speaking, Australian models are modified from the original models, in the case of the M113A1 series this included the AN/VIC-1 communications harness, large dust filters for the passenger compartment ventilation blower, heavy steel track manufactured by ADI, provision for 600 kg of belly armor, the Cadillac-Gage T-50 turret mounting twin .30 Brownings (early service) or a .30/.50 Brownings machine guns for APC/LRV versions, a traverse bar to prevent the crew commander traversing the turret to the rear over the troop compartment roof hatch with the guns depressed low. For some reason, besides the M577A1 command vehicle, all of versions of the M113A1 had the passenger compartment heaters removed. In the late 1980s, the fleet was issued with German BM8005 image intensifying night vision driving periscopes, which, with the aid of an adaptor, could be fitted to replace the driver's central periscope for night driving. In the early 90s, the fleet was issued with VINSON family cipher equipment, typically a single KY-57 per vehicle. This allowed the command net to be enciphered, but the admin net would normally work en clair.
M113A1 Fire Support Vehicle (FSV) - Full designation Carrier, Fire Support, Full Track M113A1 (FS) Saladin Turret was a variant fitted with the turret from the Alvis Saladin armored car. The FSV was introduced into Australian Army units in the mid-1960s following the withdrawal of the Saladins and was armed with a 76mm gun, a .30 caliber coaxial machine gun and a .30 caliber machine gun mounted on the roof of the vehicle's turret. The M113 was an interim vehicle and was replaced by the M113 Medium Reconnaissance Vehicle in the late 1970s. It was commonly referred to by Royal Australian Armoured Corps crews as the "Beast".
M113 Fitter - Armored recovery vehicle with HIAB (Hydrauliska Industri AB) crane on hull roof.
M113A1 Light Reconnaissance Vehicle/APC - A standard M113A1 with a Cadillac Gage T50 turret as used on the V100/V150 series of armored cars, mounting two Browning machine guns, a .30 caliber and a M2 .50 caliber machine gun. While the standard armored personnel carrier version in Australian service is also fitted with the T50 turret, it initially carried only twin .30 caliber machine guns. In later service, the LRV and APC versions both carried the 30/50 combination and the only difference between them was roles. LRVs, which carried a crew of 2 or 3 (crew commander, driver and sometimes operator/observer), were used in the sabre (recon) troops of the Cavalry regiment and the recon troop of the Armoured regiment. APCs carried a crew of 2 plus several dismounts, either infantry, assault troops, engineers or other troops. In practise, an LRV was also perfectly capable of carrying troops, though in perhaps somewhat more cramped conditions as LRVs often carried additional stores and ammunition and had seats removed and replaced with storage lockers. For a short period of time in Vietnam, the Aircraft Armaments Incorporated Model 74C Cupola/Command Station was used, but it was quickly replaced by the T50. Also used by the New Zealand Army until the M113 was replaced in 2005. The T50 turret was initially fitted with an optical sight, however in later years this was removed and the guns were solely aimed using ranging bursts of 6-10 rounds (2 tracer). The diesel burning heater is removed from the M113A1 - though numerous diggers note that this is not the case with the Australian Army's M577s (command post vehicles).
M113A1 Medium Reconnaissance Vehicle (MRV) - Full designation Carrier, Fire Support, Full Track M113A1 (FS) Scorpion Turret was an Australian variant similar to the M113 FSV, but using the turret from the FV101 Scorpion light tank, instead of the older turret of the Saladin armoured car, that the FSV had previously used. This turret was equipped with an Image Intensifier sight for the main armament. This II sight was the first effective passive night sight fitted to an Australian AFV, giving the MRVs a night fighting capability exceeding the Leopard AS1 and all other Australian AFVs of the period. Whilst fully amphibious, the MRV was also fitted with a light sheet-metal foam-filled trim vane and side pods. These pods and the trim vane were intended to provide additional flotation and stability on the water; they provided virtually no additional armour protection. Other changes included a modified driver's hatch which pivoted toward the centre-line of the vehicle instead of opening to the rear of the driver's hatch; this feature preventing the open driver's hatch being caught on the traversing turret, as well as the fitting of the British "boiling vessel", an electric vessel for boiling water and heating rations. As indicated by the designation change, the MRVs were roled as reconnaissance vehicles and issued to the Cavalry (medium reconnaissance) regiments with each troop equipped with 3 LRV and 2 MRV; whereas the FSVs were originally issued to APC squadrons and used to provide infantry fire support.
The MRV replaced the FSV in Australian service.
M113AS3 - significantly upgraded M113A1 with new engine, transmission, steering, suspension, brakes and hull protection.
M113AS4 - upgraded to the same standard as the AS3, lengthened to fit an additional road wheel station and fitted with a new Tenix Defence designed electronically driven "one man turret" with 12.7mm heavy machine gun and sight.
Brazil
M113B - Basic M113 modified by Motopeças, of São Paulo. The original Chrysler 75M petrol engine was changed to one Mercedes-Benz OM352A diesel engine, with 180 hp. Transmission and other parts are changed too.
M113BR - Modernization of M113B, made by BAE Systems and the Brazilian Army's Parque Regional de Manutenção/5 (Regional Maintenance Park nº5), in Curitiba. Is a version of M113A2 Mk.1 modernization pack, of BAe Systems, fitted with a Detroit Diesel 6V53T engine, with 265 hp, Allison TX100-1A cross-drive transmission, Harris FALCON III radios and Thales SOTAS intercom.
M113-T - Proposed modernization of M113B by Tractto, Medianeira Mecânica and UFSM. Fitted with a MWM engine.
M577A2 - Command and Control version of M113A2, donated by USA. 34 delivered in September 2016.
Belgium
BMF from Belgium has built the M113A1 with some modifications (using the suspension of the M113A2, NBC protection system etc.) under license as the M113A1-B, The Belgian army received 525 vehicles from 1982.
M113A1-B-ATK - Basic APC version with M2HB .50cal machine gun. This type is no longer used and most have been modified into new versions.
M113A1-B-Amb - Ambulance with room for 4 litters. This type is unarmed but is fitted with six 76mm smoke grenade launchers.
M113A1-B-CP - Command post vehicle that retains the low roofline of the basic version.
M113A1-B-ENG - Squad vehicle for combat engineers. Some of the 113 delivered are fitted with an hydraulic dozerblade.
M113A1-B-TRG - Driver trainer.
M113A1-B-MIL - Tank hunter with pintle-mounted MILAN and two 71mm Lyran mortars. All 56 vehicles have been modified into artillery FO vehicles.
M113A1-B-Mor - The original version was used to carry the M30 4.2" mortar, but all 35 vehicles have been upgraded to tow the Thompson-Brandt MO-120-RT 120mm mortar.
M113A1-B-MT - Maintenance vehicle with folding work table on the right rear.
M113A1-B-MTC - Maintenance vehicle with hydraulic HIAB crane. Similar to the M579.
M113A1-B-Rec - recovery vehicle with a heavy internal winch. Similar to M806.
M113A1-B-SCB - Carrier vehicle for mast-mounted battlefield surveillance (Surveillance de Champ de Bataille) radar EL/M-2130A.
M113A1-B-TACP - Modified command post vehicle for dedicated TACP missions.
M113A1-B-VW - Former MILAN carrier that is now used by artillery forward observers. It retains the .50cal machine gun on the 3rd cupola behind the driver, but the commander's cupola has the MILAN post replaced by a portable laser range finder MLR-N61.
AIFV - A development of the M113A1 APC, upgraded with an enclosed turret and firing ports.
Canada
ADATS Carrier (Air Defence Anti-Tank System) – Air-defence vehicle variant, developed collaboratively between Lockheed Martin and Oerlikon Contraves, first fielded by the Canadian Forces in 1988. The system features a turret with an eight tube ADATS missile launcher based on M113A2 based chassis. On top of the turret is an X-band radar with a range of 25 km. Used solely by the Canadian Forces, the ADATS has been withdrawn from Canadian service with no planned replacement announced as of late 2012. The missile was evaluated by the US Army (LOS-F-H program), but not selected for adoption.
Under the Armoured Personnel Carrier Life Extension (APCLE) program, 341 Canadian M113A2 series vehicles were upgraded: 183 were stretched by 50 cm and fitted with 6 road wheels (Mobile Tactical Vehicle). The remaining 158 vehicles were upgraded to M113A3 standards, retaining 5 road wheels. Modifications include more powerful 400HP Allison diesel engines, upgraded suspension, bolt-on steel armour plates, steel cage armour, and improved armament consisting of either a Cadillac-Gage 1 metre turret or a Nanuk Remotely Controlled Weapon Station. After upgrade, the family of vehicles became known by the acronym LAV-T (Light Armoured Vehicle - Tracked) in Canadian army parlance.
Under the APCLE program, there were a number of variants created, these include:
MTV-E (Mobile Tactical Vehicle Engineer) Military engineering version equipped with a large plough blade on the front, a hydraulically powered auger on the rear driver's side, and hydraulic hoses for use with hydraulic tools opposite the auger.
MTV-R (Mobile Tactical Vehicle Recovery) Recovery vehicle equipped with a 20,000 kg winch and an integrated crane.
LAV-T/CP M577A3 Command Post, nicknamed the 'Queen Mary', carries a communications suite in a heightened hull.
LAV-T (Light Armoured Vehicle - Tracked) Standard version M113A3 equipped with either a Cadillac 1m turret or an RWS system.
Models Removed from Service
M113A2 TUA (TOW Under Armour) - Canadian version of the NM142 anti-tank vehicle. Very similar to the Norwegian version, but with external fuel tanks.
M113A2 EVSEV (Engineering Variant Specially Equipped Vehicle) - Variant of the M113A2 for engineer units. Fitted with a front-mounted dozer blade, hydraulic ground auger and hydraulic power tools. The hydraulic pump and fluid reservoirs were mounted inside the hull necessitating the development of the initial modification for external fuel tanks mounted on each side of the rear ramp.
M113A2 Mk 1 DAREOD (Damaged Airfield Reconnaissance Explosive Ordnance Disposal) - EOD variant of the M113A2 Mk 1 with 265 hp Detroit Diesel engine. This type is equipped with a 1-man turret, additional search lights and Pearson mine-clearing equipment.
MRT/IS MRT
ROFCS
Lynx reconnaissance vehicle
Denmark
M113A2 Mk I DK
Build 1989 - 1993 by E. Falck Schmidt in Odense, and implemented 1992, the M113A2 is armed with a 25 mm Oerlikon-Contraves machine-cannon ranging up to 1,500 m and a German 7.62 mm machine-gun mounted co-axially. The 25 mm Oerlikon-gun has a firing-rate of approx. 600 rounds a minute. The guns are mounted in an Italian Oto Melara turret. The M113A2 has a thermal sight produced by Zeiss. It is used in armoured infantry companies - each company having 2 M113A2s. 50 units were ordered.
The main differences between the A1 and A2 versions is that the latter has a more powerful turbo-charged engine (Detroit Diesel, 6V53T developing 265 hp at 2,800 rpm), improved suspension and an improved cooling- and heating-system.
When implemented at the IFOR/SFOR forces in the former Yugoslavia, 6 M113A2s were retrofitted with "add-on armour". The body is protected with the FMC armoured plates, "spall liner" and "belly armour", the fuel-tanks are filled with "safety foam balls" and the turret with a Danish kit consisting of ceramic and armoured plates developed by E. Falck Schmidt and Roulund in Odense. The M113A2 can resist fire from weapons up to 14.5 mm at a range down to 100 m.
The M113A2 was nicknamed "Wildcat" in the first stages of the project, but due to copyright-problems, it was never officially adopted. The project was worth 357 mil. DKr (1987).
With the Defence Agreement 2005 - 2009 made in 2004, it was decided that the M113A2 would no longer be a part of the Danish Army's inventory. A few have been rebuilt as fire fighting vehicles to supersede the ageing M113A1 fire fighting vehicles.
Germany
In German service, the M113 and M113A1 were known respectively as the M113G and M113A1G, while the M577 and M577A1 command post vehicles were known as the M577G and M577A1G. Most M113A1Gs were later upgraded to A2 standard and got the new designator M113A2 GE. Those vehicles that were fitted with external fuel tanks and the new SEM-80/90 radioset are known as M113A2 EFT GE A0. Under the NDV-2 program, some vehicles had been fitted with a new MTU engine, new steering and brake systems etc. German M113s often have a bank of eight 76mm smoke grenade dischargers at the front of the vehicle, and are armed with Rheinmetall MG3s instead of the more common M2 .50 caliber machine gun. The German Army uses the type not only as APC (MTW - ) but in many different specialized roles as well:
Fahrschulpanzer - Driver trainer.
GefStdPz - () - M557 Command and control vehicle with a raised roof.
FlgLtPz - () - Vehicle for forward air controllers (FAC) (retired from service).
RiFuMuxPz - () - Direction finding station (retired from service).
SchrFuTrpPz VHF-HF - () - Signals vehicle.
TrFzRechnVbuArt - () - Artillery computer vehicle.
FüFlSt - () - Fire direction center for artillery units equipped with the PzH 2000.
BeobPzArt () - Artillery forward observer vehicle with raised roofline and PERI D-11 periscope (retired from service).
FltPzArt () - Artillery fire direction vehicle.
FltPzMrs () - Fire direction vehicle for mortar units (retired from service).
FüFuPz () - Signals and command vehicle (retired from service).
KrKw () - Ambulance, to be replaced by Boxer MRAV.
PzMrs () - Mortar carrier with Tampella 120mm and 63 rounds (reactivated).
TrFz ABRA () - Carrier vehicle for DR-PC 1a RATAC radar, to be resplaced by BÜR (ground surveillance radar system, based on Dingo 2).
TrFz Green Archer () - Carrier vehicle for Green Archer artillery location radar (retired from service).
Waran - Upgrade developed by FFG. Has the same improvement as the NDV-2 versions, but is additionally fitted with a longer hull and improved suspension with 6 road wheels on each side. Also known as M113 King Size.
Egypt
EIFV - Features an enlarged chassis with improved armor, a more powerful engine, and the addition of M2 Bradley turrets. The vehicle carries a crew of three and six dismount soldiers.
Uparmored M113 (also known as SIFV) - Basically an M113 fitted with an armor upgrade kit produced in Egypt, allowing the M113 to withstand up to 23 mm armor-piercing rounds, without affecting the vehicle's mobility or amphibious capability. The weight of the additional armor is about 950 kg and within the vehicle permissible load and equipped with the 25 mm KBA-B02 turret. This armor upgrade can also be fitted to variants such as the AIFV or the above-mentioned EIFV.
Israel
Bardehlas (Hebrew for cheetah) - Israeli designation of the M113 APC. The name is rarely used as the M113 is usually referred to as Nagmash (APC). In the past M113 was colloquially known as Zelda, but by 1990 the name fell out of use.
Vayzata - Upgraded Bardehlas (M113) with Toga/Vayzata armor suite - perforated steel plates mounted on an external frame around the front and sides of the vehicle. There is also a special command version with additional radio equipment and an auxiliary power unit, typically referred to as Nagmash pikud (command APC).
Classical - M113 equipped with reactive armor and armored shields around roof hatches. It was introduced in the mid-1990s and saw action in the Southern Lebanon security zone. The added weight of the armor led to limited mobility and reliability problems and the vehicle was eventually removed from service.
Nagman (Nagmash Memugan - APC with additional protection) - M113 equipped with Toga armor suite, an open-topped hexagonal superstructure around the commander's hatch and armored shields on the sides of the rear roof hatch.
Kasman (Kesem ha-Mangina – The Charm of Music) - An urban warfare / counter insurgency upgrade of Nagman developed just before the Al-Aqsa Intifada. The superstructure became a fully closed one and the shields were extended.
Magen or Kasman Magen or Kasman Meshupar - Equipped with Toga armor suite, a large armored superstructure around the roof hatches and external fuel tanks. Developed in the early 2000s.
Maoz or Kasman Maoz - Similar to Magen, but with a smaller superstruture. Developed in the early 2000s.
Giraf - M113 with a TOW launcher.
Hafiz - M113 with a 6-tube Spike NLOS ATGM launcher.
Hovet, also spelled Chovet - Israeli designation for the M163 VADS.
Machbet - An Israeli upgrade of the M163 VADS. In addition to the 20 mm M61 Vulcan rotary cannon, it is armed with a four-tube FIM-92 Stinger surface-to-air missile launcher.
Nagmash Mahag - Israeli designation of the M579 Fitter.
Nagmash Hatap, also spelled Chatap - A field repair vehicle for carrying spare parts and equipment specific to the vehicles it is tasked to support.
Mugaf - Israeli designation of the M577 command post carrier.
Alfa - Israeli designation of the M548 cargo carrier.
Shilem - Unarmored vehicle equipped with EL-M-2310 radar for artillery forces.
M113 AMEV - Armored Medical Evacuation Vehicle. A specifically modified and equipped M113 for use as an armored ambulance.
M113 HVMS - A prototype armed with a HVMS 60 mm gun in a turret.
M113 L-VAS - A prototype equipped with Light Vehicle Armour System (L-VAS).
Urban Fighter - IMI developed modification, with upgraded "Iron Wall" armor, capable of repelling IED and EFP attacks.
Keshet - 120 mm mortar carrier.
Italy
Arisgator - The Italian company Aris has developed a fully Amphibious version of the M113 called Arisgator. This version carries the same number of troops as the normal M113.
VCC-1 - Oto Melara 7 passengers improved XM765 ( M113A1 ) with rear and side sloped armor, firing ports, Browning M2 shields and smoke-grenade launchers; 600 to 800 produced (200 of them with TUA launchers, exported to Saudi Arabia)
VCC-2 - Oto Melara VCC-1 improved version without rear sloped armor (11 passengers); about 1,230 produced by updating older gasoline M113.
VTC-9
M113 CESV
SIDAM 25 - A Self-propelled anti-aircraft weapon 276 made by upgrading old M113 plus about 150 for 25 mm ammo supply.
M113 with 120 mm mortar, a M113 version developed with a French 120 mm in the place of the 107 mm US mortar. Several hundreds made, 150 of them were exported to Libya in the '80s.
Jordan
Jordan received 150 M577 Command Post vehicles as a gift from the United States in February 2018.
Lebanon
M113A1 with ZU-23
M113A1 with ZPU-4
Netherlands
M113A1 - The normal M113A1 APC, used for the infantry groups of the cavalry reconnaissance battalions and independent cavalry reconnaissance squadrons as well by the Koninklijke Marechaussee, the Dutch military police.
M113A1 PGN - Pantser GeNie. M113A1 equipped with engineering and demolition equipment, in use by armoured engineer companies.
M113 C&V - Commando & Verkenning. Dutch version of the M113 Lynx, initially equipped with a Browning M2 .50 heavy machine gun in a remote controlled cupola, afterwards modified with an Oerlikon KBA 25mm autocannon in a manually operated turret.
M106 - Mortar carrier with 81mm mortar, in service with the cavalry reconnaissance battalions and squadrons.
M113A1 GWT - GeWonden Transport. A specifically modified and equipped M113 for use as an armored ambulance.
M577 - Command post vehicle, used by cavalry reconnaissance battalions and squadrons, artillery battalion and battery headquarters as well as brigade level headquarters.
M113A1 RDR - RaDaR M113A1 equipped with a battlefield surveillance radar system used by cavalry reconnaissance battalions and squadrons.
M806 - Locally known as 'YPR-806 A1 PRB' (PRB = Pantser Rups Berging (Armoured Recovery Vehicle)). Repair and recovery vehicle in use with units equipped with the AIFV.
M578 - Light Recovery vehicle. 25 in use for recovery of M113 and M107, M110 and M109 self-propelled howitzers.
M688 - Lance missile transport/loader vehicle based on the M548.
M752 - Self-propelled launcher for MGM-52 Lance tactical surface-to-surface missile (tactical ballistic missile) system, in service with the nuclear capable 129 Afdeling Veldartillerie (129 Field Artillery Battalion).
AIFV - A development of the M113A1 APC, upgraded with an enclosed turret and firing ports.
Norway
288 M113s have been rebuilt and upgraded as a part of Project 5026, and all vehicles have received new rubber band tracks, exterior fuel tanks (to create more space inside), new intercom, new interior and command and control systems. In addition, the upgraded M113s come in three versions mainly based on the level of protection:
F1 - Vehicle with fragmentation protection (spall-liner).
F2 - Vehicle with fragmentation and mine protection.
F3 - Vehicle with fragmentation and mine protection, additional armor protection and a new engine.
Furthermore, a fourth variant, the M113F4, has been developed, but it was ultimately set aside in favor of FFG's ACSV, which is based on the PMMC G5.
List of Norwegian M113 variants:
NM106 () - Norwegian variant of the M113 similar to the M106 mortar carrier.
NM113 RFK - equipped with M40 recoilless rifle.
NM113 RAKPV - Norwegian variant of the M113 similar to the M150, equipped with BGM-71 TOW anti-tank missile.
NM125 () - Norwegian variant of the M113 similar to the M125 mortar carrier, with a 81mm M29 mortar carrier.
NM135 () - Norwegian variant of the M113A1 with a 20mm Rheinmetall MK2020 machine cannon with a 7.62mm coaxial machine gun in a turret. The 20mm gun had a firing rate of about 900 rounds/min. Retired from service.
NM135F1 - Version with additional spall-liners. Retired from service.
NM142 () - Anti-tank variant of the M113A2 used by the Norwegian army, equipped with the Armoured Launching Turret, developed in Norway by Kvaerner Eureka. The ALT contains a TOW-2 guided anti-tank missile system with one launch tube on either side of the turret. Additionally, mounted on the commander's hatch, there is a Rheinmetall MG3 machine gun for use as secondary armament and in situations where the TOW-2 system is unsuitable. Retired from service.
NM142F1 - Version with additional spall-liners. Retired from service.
NM194 () - M113A2 air-defense command vehicle. Retired from service.
NM195 () - M113A2 air-defense variant with RBS-70. Retired from service.
NM196 () - Medical treatment version of M577A2.
NM196F1 - Version with additional spall-liners.
NM196F3 - Version with upgraded driveline, caterpillar engine, add-on armor and redesigned interior/treatment facilities
NM197 () - Armored maintenance vehicle, based on the M113A2.
NM198 () - Modified command variant of the M577A2.
NM198F1 - Version with additional spall-liners.
NM199 () - New designator for modified M548A1.
NM200 () - Ambulance version of M113A2.
NM200F1 - Version with additional spall-liners.
NM200F3 - Version with upgraded driveline, caterpillar engine, add-on armor and redesigned interior/treatment facilities
NM201 () - M113A2-based vehicle for artillery forward observers. This variant is fitted with the VINTAQS observation system on a 2m mast. It consists of a thermal camera, VingRange laser range finder, VingEye CCD-camera and GPS.
NM201F1 - Version with additional spall-liners.
NM201F3 - Version with additional spall-liners, mine protection, additional passive armor and new power-pack.
NM202 () - Command variant of the M113A2.
NM202F1 - Version with additional spall-liners.
NM202F3 - Version with additional spall-liners, mine protection, additional passive armor and new power-pack.
NM203 ()
NM204 () - Upgrade of the M125A2 mortar carrier.
NM205 () - Variant of the M113A2 for combat engineers, fitted with mine clearing rollers or ploughs.
NM205F1 - Version with additional spall-liners.
NM205F3 - Version with additional spall-liners, mine protection, additional passive armor and new power-pack.
NM209 () - Modified APC, based on the M113A2.
NM216 () - Signals vehicle.
Philippines
M113A1 - The legacy M113A1 vehicles were acquired from 1967 onwards.
XM806E1 - armored recovery vehicle variant.
M113A1 Combat Support Vehicle (CSV) - Philippine Army variant of the M113 fitted with the turret of the V-150 Commando.
M113A1 Fire Support Vehicle (FSV) - Philippine Army variant of the M113A1 fitted with the 76mm low pressure gun turret of the FV101 Scorpion.
M113A1 Mortar Carriers - Philippine Army variant of the M113A1 converted for use as an armoured mortar carrier.
M113A2 - The US 'Excess Defense Articles (EDA)' programme allowed the Philippine Army to acquire 114 M113A2 vehicles from US stocks, with deliveries beginning in 2012. Another acquisition saw the Philippine Army acquire 28 more M113A2 vehicles, which Elbit Systems will upgrade under the terms of a $19.7 million contract.
M113A2 Fire Support Vehicle (FSV) - 14 Fire Support Vehicles (FSV) will be equipped with the turrets of decommissioned Alvis Scorpion armoured reconnaissance vehicles, a new fire control system and thermal imaging system. The two-person Scorpion turret is armed with a 76 mm L23A1 gun and a 7.62 mm co-axial machine gun (MG) with day/image intensification sights. Four of the M113A2 will be equipped a 25 mm cannon mounted in an Elbit Remote Control Weapon Station (RC WS), six will have an RC WS mounting a 12.7mm machine gun.
M113A2 Armoured Recovery Vehicle (ARV) - Four M113A2s will be configured as ARVs.
Portugal
The Portuguese Army operates 190 (of 255 delivered) in the A1 and A2 variants of the basic M113 armored personnel carrier (M113 A1/2 M/76 a 90, or simply, ). Besides the M113 APC, the Portuguese Army operates 107 mm mortar carriers, 81mm Mortar carriers, self-propelled surface-to-air missile systems, TOW anti-tank guided missile tank destroyers, ambulance, command and communications variants of M113.
M577A2 () - The Portuguese Army has received 68 M577A2 Command Post Carriers, the first ones, were received in late 70s. Currently 49 M577A2 are in service:
M577A2 M/81 ACP () - 46 in service, as command vehicles.
M577A2 M/85 Ambulance () - 3 in service, as ambulance vehicles.
M730 / M48A3 () - The Portuguese Army has operated 30 M730 self-propelled surface-to-air missile systems, today it operates 25 vehicles. In service with the Portuguese Army since 1990. Portugal initially received 30 M730 in the A2 variant and afterwards 4 vehicles in the A3 variant.
M901 ITV () - The Portuguese Army received 4 M901 ITV in 1990; these are still in service. The Portuguese Army made 17 similar vehicles using M113A2 APCs and TOW launchers. The major difference between the variants is that the latter type had a single launcher instead of the twin launcher of the M901.
M106 mortar carrier - 10 M106 and 8 M106A2, equipped with 107mm M30 mortar.
M125 mortar carrier - 3 M125A1 and 12 M125A2, equipped with 81mm M29 mortar.
Singapore
M113A2 Ultra IFV - Originally an M113A1, it was upgraded to that of A2 standard and modernized by ST Kinetics with a locally-built gun-turret cupola-mounted CIS 40mm AGL (Automatic Grenade Launcher) and CIS 0.5-inch HMG (Heavy Machine Gun) twin-type weapon station or the Israeli Rafael Overhead Weapon Station with the US M242 Bushmaster 25 mm caliber auto-cannons plus improved armour. This Singapore-upgraded M113 version is operated by the Armour Formation of the Singapore Army. Today, it is gradually being replaced by the locally designed Bionix Infantry Fighting Vehicle (IFV) as well as the Bronco twin-carriage tracked armoured personnel carrier (APC).
M113A2 Ultra Mechanised Igla - Of the same as the one above, but armed with six ready-to-fire Soviet Igla SAMs (surface-to-air missiles) and configured for the role of short-range air defense (SHORAD). The Integrated Fire Unit (IFU) variant is equipped with an advanced fire-control radar to assist in pin-pointing the location of enemy aircraft to be shot down whilst the Weapon Fire Unit (WFU) version lacks the centrally-mounted radar but can be cued and directed by the fire-control radar of the former. This Singapore-modified version of the M113 is fielded by the Republic of Singapore Air Force (RSAF) for use in ground-based air defence.
South Vietnam
M113 w/ M8 turret - The Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN; South Vietnamese Army) fitted a small number of M113 armored personnel carriers with turrets taken from obsolete M8 Greyhound armored cars.
Switzerland
Schützenpanzer 63 - Designation of the basic M113A1 in Swiss service.
Schützenpanzer 63/73 - Variant of the SPz 63 with a front float panel (found on the M113A2), as well as a Swedish Hagglunds turret fitted with an Oerlikon 20 mm cannon Kan 48/73.
Schützenpanzer 63/89 - Upgrade of the SPz 63/73 with additional passive armor, 76mm smoke grenade launchers and RISE power-pack.
Kommando Schützenpanzer 63 - Command vehicle variant with .50cal machine gun.
Kommando Schützenpanzer 63/89 - Command version of the SPz 63/89, which retains the 20mm gun turret.
Kranpanzer 63 - Swiss designator for M579.
Feuerleitpanzer 63 - Improved command vehicle, specifically designed as a fire control center for mobile artillery units.
Feuerleitpanzer 63/98 - Upgraded version with INTAFF system (Integriertes Artillerie Führungs- und Feuerleitsystem).
Geniepanzer 63 - Schützenpanzer 63 fitted with a bulldozer kit.
Minenwerferpanzer 64 - Swiss variantion of the M106A1 mortar carrier, substituting an Eidgenoessische Konstruktionswerkstaette 120mm mortar for the previously installed weapon. Swiss M106A1's initially had substituted a Thompson Brandt mortar of 81mm type for the standard 4.2"/107mm M30 mortar found on US models.
Minenwerferpanzer 64/91 - Upgraded version.
Minenräumpanzer 63/00 - Mineclearing vehicle, based on the SPz 63/89 and fitted with lightweight mine clearing ploughs. The turret was removed and replaced with an armored work station for the operator.
Übermittlungspanzer 63 - Signals vehicle.
Taiwan
CM-21 - a Taiwanese indigenous design based on the M113, with many improvements and design changes to meet Republic of China Army requirements. The size, shape and performance of the CM-21 is almost identical to the M113, but with different engines and transmissions throughout the years. Various variants produced from 1982 to 2009, over 1000 produced.
CM-21/A1 - Personnel carrier.
CM-22 - Mortar carrier for 107mm/120mm mortar (similar to M106).
CM-23 - Mortar carrier for 81mm mortar (similar to M125).
CM-24/A1 - Ammo carrier, can carry either 90 rounds of 155mm or 42 rounds 203mm
CM-25 - TOW launcher.
CM-26 - Command Track (similar to M577)
CM-27/A1 - Artillery Tractor
Turkey
M113A2T1 - Modernized M113A2 with M45 Quadmount.
M113A2T2 - Modernized M113A2 with upgraded armor with a M2 Browning cupola turret.
M113A2T2M - Medical vehicle variant of T2.
ADOP-2000 - Forward observer system variant of T2.
BAİKS -Field artillery battery fire direction variant of T2.
Atılgan PMADS - M113A2T2 with a fully automated firing unit for Very Short-Range Air Defence System (VSHORADS) missiles such as the FIM-92 Stinger, providing autonomous as well as coordinated operation with C3I systems and other air defence assets.
United Kingdom
Tracked Rapier - Octuple surface-to-air missile launcher for the Rapier missile system originally commissioned by Iran but taken over by the British after the 1979 Revolution. No longer in service.
United States
XM45/E1: Lightly armored servicing and refueling vehicle for the M132 based on the M548.
M58: The Wolf Smoke Generator Carrier can produce 90 minutes of visual and 30 minutes of infrared screens.
XM106/M106: Self-propelled Mortar carrier with 107 mm (4.2 inch) M30 mortar firing through large, circular roof hatch in hull rear. Before the US Army changed their designation system, the XM106 was known as the T257E1.
M106A1: M106 with diesel engine.
M106A2: M106A1 with M113A2 improvements.
M113A4 AMEV: Armored Medical Evacuation Vehicle. A specifically modified and equipped M113 for use as an armored ambulance.
M113 OSV: OPFOR Surrogate Vehicle (OSV) used to simulate enemy armored personnel carriers in force-on-force training.
M113 OSV-T: Fitted with a mock turret and used to simulate enemy tanks in force-on-force training.
M113A2 Firefighting Vehicle: an M113A2 modified to carry a system for dispensing fire suppressant liquid to combat petrochemical fires encountered on the battlefield. Only one prototype was built and the system did not go into production.
M125: Mortar carrier similar to M106, but with 81 mm M29 mortar.
M132 Armored Flamethrower: A full-tracked self-propelled flame thrower carrier, with small turret carrying an M10-8 flamethrower and coaxial M73 machine gun, plus fuel and pressure tanks in rear of hull.
M132A1: Modified M113A1s rather than M113s.
M163: The Vulcan Air Defense System (VADS) is an M168 anti-aircraft gun mounted on the M741 carrier.
M474: Carrier used as Pershing 1 nuclear missile Transporter erector launcher (TEL) and as Warhead Carrier, Programmer Test Station/Power Station carrier and Radio Terminal Set carrier.
XM546: Guided missile carrier/launcher for the MIM-46 Mauler surface-to-air missile.
XM546E1: Proposed version with a lengthened chassis featuring a sixth set of road-wheels.
XM548/M548: Unarmored 6 ton cargo carrier.
XM548E1: Unarmored carrier/launcher for the MIM-72 Chaparral surface-to-air missiles of the M54 system. Redesignated XM730.
M577: This variant is used as a command vehicle, generally as a Tactical Operations Center (TOC). The passenger compartment is raised to 74.75 in (189.9 cm). The compartment has a commander's hatch with no weapons mount or vision blocks. A tent is carried on the top rear and attaches directly to the rear of the track to provide greater work space. Multiple M577s can be connected via the tents to form a larger operations center. An additional fuel tank is mounted in the right rear of the compartment. Long-range communications is expedited by the use of a hand-cranked extendible antenna system. A 4.2 kW auxiliary power unit (APU) is mounted on the right front of the vehicle to provide 24 volt power. The APU can be dismounted using a davit (crane) carried on board and sandbagged for noise suppression. A single APU can provide power for two M577s. The compartment includes features such as map boards, folding tables, radio, computer terminals and other command and control equipment. This variant is also used as a medical vehicle serving as a battalion aid station ambulance exchange point and a jump aid station.
M579 Fitter: Repair vehicle.
M667: MGM-52 Lance missile carrier.
M688: Lance missile transport/loader vehicle based on the M548.
XM696: Recovery vehicle based on the M548.
M727: Unarmored carrier/launcher for the MIM-23 Hawk surface-to-air missiles.
XM730/M730: Unarmored carrier/launcher for the MIM-72 Chaparral surface-to-air missiles of the M54 system. The XM730 was formerly the XM548E1. The complete system is known as the M48.
M730A1: M730 with M113A2 improvements.
M730A2: M730/A1 with M113A3 Reliability Improvement of Standard Components (RISE) upgrades.
XM734: Mechanized Infantry Combat Vehicle (MICV) prototype. Variant of the standard M113A1 APC with four firing ports and vision blocks on each side of the hull.
XM741/M741: Carrier vehicle for the M163 Vulcan Air Defense System (VADS).
M752: MGM-52 Lance missile launcher. M667 with Lance launch fixture.
XM806/XM806E1: Armored recovery vehicle variant with winch in rear compartment.
M901 Improved TOW Vehicle (ITV): M113A1 with dual M220A1 launchers for the TOW anti-tank missile.
M901A1: M220A2 launcher permitting the use of the TOW 2 anti-tank missile.
M901A2: Variant with unknown differences, possibly M901s brought up to M901A1 standard or M901/A1s on the M113A2 chassis.
M901A3: Variant based on M113A3.
M981 Fire Support Team Vehicle (FISTV): Artillery forward observer vehicle. Equipped with sights and other targeting instrumentation in a turret deliberately designed to resemble that of the M901. The M981 FISTV has been supplanted by the M7 Bradley and M1131 Stryker fire support vehicles.
M1015 Tracked Electronic Warfare Carrier.
M1059: Lynx Smoke Generator Carrier (SGC). Uses the M157 Smoke Generator Set (SGS) on the M113A2.
M1059A3: M1059 variant using the M157A2 SGS on the M113A3.
M1064 mortar carrier: equipped with an M121 120 mm mortar as replacement for M106.
M1068 Standard Integrated Command Post System Carrier: A modification of the M577 Command Post Carrier.
XM1108 Universal Carrier. A stretched M113A3 chassis with 6 roadwheels per side. Uses a cab from a M270 MLRS. Could be fitted with different weapons and equipment. Never fielded.
M113-1/2 Command and Reconnaissance (Lynx): Smaller command and reconnaissance vehicle built by FMC using M113A1 components, with four drive wheels on each side and the engine in the rear. Lost out in US competition to the M114, but was employed by the Netherlands and Canada (where it was known as the Lynx).
T249 Vigilante: prototype 37 mm self-propelled anti-aircraft gun that never entered service.
Civilian uses
Log Skidder
In 1974, FMC used the M113's drivetrain as a platform for a tracked log skidder.
The skidders use the same 6V53 Detroit Diesel engine and steering gearbox as the M113, but utilized a more heavily built undercarriage and a 4-speed Clark powershift transmission. The skidder either came as a cable arch model, with a tilting tray to set the logs on (A hydraulic grapple attachment was later offered to fit over the cable fairleads), or as a Clam-Bunk forwarder, with a Prentice grapple mounted on the roof of the cab. Dealers also modified the base tractor to handle various forestry and utility jobs.
Because of their mobility and light weight, these skidders are often used in steep and swampy terrain, and the most common alternate use is to fit them with water tanks and use them to fight forest fires.
In 1988, FMC sold the manufacturing rights of the skidder to Kootenay Tractor, their main dealer in British Columbia, Canada, who is selling them under the KMC brandname.
Newer skidder models use Cummins diesel engines, and offer the option of hydrostatic drive alongside the mechanical steering.
NASA Armored Rescue Vehicle
From the early 1960s through to 2013 NASA operated a number of ex-United States Army M113s as armoured rescue vehicles. The vehicles, numbered 1 to 4, were originally painted white with large red numbers but were later repainted luminous yellow-green with a reflective silver stripe along the side interrupted by the vehicle number in red. ).
Located at the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) and operated by the KSC Fire Department, for every crewed spacecraft launch during Mercury, Gemini and Apollo programs two vehicles containing firefighters and emergency rescue personnel wearing fire-proof suits were located approximately one mile from the foot of the launchpad. For the Space Shuttle program a further unmanned vehicle was parked outside the exit of the crew evacuation bunker for use by the spacecraft crew as an emergency evacuation vehicle. As part of their mission training, the Shuttle astronauts were taught to drive and operate the vehicles (usually units 3 and 4), and each crew would affix their respective mission patch upon the vehicle's exterior.
NASA's M113s were replaced in 2013 by more modern - and roomier - Caiman Mine Resistant Ambush Protected (MRAP) trucks.
Firefighting vehicles
M113s and variants such as the M548 are used by various fire departments and private companies around the world as firefighting vehicles, often employed to combat forest fires where terrain makes access for regular firefighting appliances difficult.
In 2017 MythBusters star Jamie Hyneman created the 'Sentry', a prototype firefighting vehicle from a surplus M548A1 Tracked Cargo Carrier. Deluge guns (water cannons) are mounted on the left and right front corners, supplied by two 500 gallon (1900L) water tanks located in the rear cargo tray along with an air compressor and other equipment. The vehicle can be either crewed or remotely operated.
Police vehicles
M113s and variants such as the M577 are used by various law enforcement agencies around the world (mostly North American), usually by tactical response teams (SWAT) as mobile command posts and siege and hostage rescue vehicles.
US law enforcement agencies known to operate or have operated M113s or variants include:
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Calhoun County Sheriff's Office
Central Montgomery County SWAT
Doraville Police Department
Draper City Police Department
Flagler County Sheriff's Office
Fulton County Sheriff's Office
Jefferson County Sheriff
Lakeland Police Department
Leesburg Police Department
Lewiston Police Department
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Los Angeles Police Department
Mason Police Department
Metro SWAT (Hudson, Ohio)
Miami-Dade Police Department
Newtown Township Police Department
New York City Department of Corrections
Orange County Sheriff's Office
Osceola County Sheriff's Office
Richland County Sheriff's Office
Saginaw Police Department
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Solano County Sheriff's Office
Southeast Ohio STAR
Stroud Area Regional Police Department
Tampa Police Department
Toledo Police Department
Troy Police Department
Tucson Police Department
Volusia County Sheriff's Office
Wood County Sheriff's Office
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Global law enforcement agencies known to operate or have operated M113s or variants include:
Royal Canadian Mounted Police
References
Tracked armoured fighting vehicles |
41519417 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dropsy%20%28video%20game%29 | Dropsy (video game) | Dropsy is a 2015 point-and-click adventure video game developed by US-based indie developer Tendershoot (pseudonym of Jay Tholen) and indie development studio A Jolly Corpse, and published by Devolver Digital. The game was released on September 10, 2015 for Microsoft Windows, OS X, Linux. The iOS port of Dropsy was released on December 17, 2015.
Gameplay
Dropsy is a point-and-click adventure centered on a clown named Dropsy. Players control Dropsy while exploring an open world in which they can interact with the environment, solve puzzles, and talk to non-player characters. In the game, Dropsy becomes an outcast after a fire at his family's circus and must work to discover the truth behind it in order to clear his name. The game contains no text, so dialogue is represented by visual icons. The game features over 50 minutes of live music composed and performed by Chris Schlarb.
Development
Dropsy began on the Something Awful forums in 2008 as a choose-your-own adventure game illustrated by Jay Tholen about a clown named Dropsy; forum commentators would suggest what the character would do and the choices would be illustrated and added to the story. The character originated from a platform game created by Tholen in 2004. Demand for a playable version of the story increased and so Tholen began designing a game based around the story with the help of some members of the forum. Tholen cites games such as EarthBound, Grim Fandango, and The Neverhood as inspirations for the game. In 2011 a Kickstarter campaign raised $225 USD to fund a software package to help development, followed by another campaign in July 2013 which did not reach its $25,000 USD goal. A third campaign, started in October 2013, asked for $14,000 USD and finished with nearly $25,000 USD raised. On October 31, 2013, Tholen released a short horror-themed side game titled Dropsy and the Black Lodge. In November it was announced that Devolver Digital would be publishing the game, providing quality assurance and marketing, but not directing where the Kickstarter funds would be spent. On September 17, 2014, indie studio A Jolly Corpse joined the team. One year later on September 10, 2015, the game released for Microsoft Windows, OS X and Linux.
Reception
The game received "generally favorable" reviews.
See also
Hypnospace Outlaw
References
External links
Dropsy at Devolver Digital
Walkthrough of original 2008 thread
2015 video games
Android (operating system) games
Devolver Digital games
Fictional clowns
IOS games
Internet-based works
Kickstarter-funded video games
Linux games
MacOS games
Point-and-click adventure games
Video games developed in the United States
Windows games
Video games about clowns |
8847552 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aras%20Corp | Aras Corp | Aras Corporation is an American developer and publisher of product development software, Aras Innovator. The product is used for product lifecycle management (PLM) and other purposes. Since 2007, Aras has been providing Aras Innovator for free as "Enterprise open-source software", with Aras Corp providing technical support, software updates, and other consulting as a subscription service. Aras Corp was founded in 2000 in Andover, Massachusetts by Peter Schroer.
Aras Innovator is an enterprise software suite for managing product lifecycle management business processes. The product is based on the Microsoft .NET Framework and SQL Server. The product is used for product lifecycle management (PLM), advanced product quality planning (APQP), lean product development, product quality control, collaborative product development and new product introduction (NPI).
Until 2007, Aras sold their product as proprietary software for enterprises.
In 2007, Aras began providing Aras Innovator as open-source software. Clients obtain the software for free, and Aras Corp provides technical support, software updates, and other consulting as a subscription service.
In July 2020, Aras confirmed the introduction of a new framework, Digital Twin Core, which introduces functionality for generating and handling digital twins to the Aras low-code package.
References
Further reading
Boston Globe
Computer World
Boston Business Journal
Design News
Engineering.com
Product Lifecycle Management in the Era of Internet of Things: , ,
External links
Product lifecycle management
Business software companies
Software companies based in Massachusetts
Software companies of the United States
2000 establishments in Massachusetts
Companies based in Massachusetts
Software companies established in 2000
American companies established in 2000 |
47700413 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open%20Network%20Install%20Environment | Open Network Install Environment | Open network install environment ( ONIE ) is an open source "install environment", that acts as an enhanced boot loader utilizing facilities in a Linux/BusyBox environment. This small Linux operating system allows end-users and channel partners to install a network operating system as part of data center provisioning, similar to the way servers are provisioned with an operating system of choice.
ONIE enables network switch hardware suppliers, distributors and resellers to manage their operations based on a small number of hardware stock keeping unit (SKUs). This in turn creates economies of scale in manufacturing, distribution, stocking, and return merchandise authorization (RMA) enabling an ecosystem of both network hardware and operating system alternatives.
See also
Linux
Free and open-source software
Open source
Network switch
Router
Packet switching
Circuit switching
Fully switched network
Cumulus Networks
Software-defined networking
Pica8
Open Compute Project
Open-source computing hardware
References
External links
Official website ONIE
Cumulus networks website
Pica8 website
Open network linux website
Free boot loaders |
191457 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20statistics%20articles | List of statistics articles |
0–9
1.96
2SLS (two-stage least squares) redirects to instrumental variable
3SLS – see three-stage least squares
68–95–99.7 rule
100-year flood
A
A priori probability
Abductive reasoning
Absolute deviation
Absolute risk reduction
Absorbing Markov chain
ABX test
Accelerated failure time model
Acceptable quality limit
Acceptance sampling
Accidental sampling
Accuracy and precision
Accuracy paradox
Acquiescence bias
Actuarial science
Adapted process
Adaptive estimator
Additive Markov chain
Additive model
Additive smoothing
Additive white Gaussian noise
Adjusted Rand index – see Rand index (subsection)
ADMB software
Admissible decision rule
Age adjustment
Age-standardized mortality rate
Age stratification
Aggregate data
Aggregate pattern
Akaike information criterion
Algebra of random variables
Algebraic statistics
Algorithmic inference
Algorithms for calculating variance
All models are wrong
All-pairs testing
Allan variance
Alignments of random points
Almost surely
Alpha beta filter
Alternative hypothesis
Analyse-it – software
Analysis of categorical data
Analysis of covariance
Analysis of molecular variance
Analysis of rhythmic variance
Analysis of variance
Analytic and enumerative statistical studies
Ancestral graph
Anchor test
Ancillary statistic
ANCOVA redirects to Analysis of covariance
Anderson–Darling test
ANOVA
ANOVA on ranks
ANOVA–simultaneous component analysis
Anomaly detection
Anomaly time series
Anscombe transform
Anscombe's quartet
Antecedent variable
Antithetic variates
Approximate Bayesian computation
Approximate entropy
Arcsine distribution
Area chart
Area compatibility factor
ARGUS distribution
Arithmetic mean
Armitage–Doll multistage model of carcinogenesis
Arrival theorem
Artificial neural network
Ascertainment bias
ASReml software
Association (statistics)
Association mapping
Association scheme
Assumed mean
Astrostatistics
Asymptotic distribution
Asymptotic equipartition property (information theory)
Asymptotic normality redirects to Asymptotic distribution
Asymptotic relative efficiency redirects to Efficiency (statistics)
Asymptotic theory (statistics)
Atkinson index
Attack rate
Augmented Dickey–Fuller test
Aumann's agreement theorem
Autocorrelation
Autocorrelation plot redirects to Correlogram
Autocovariance
Autoregressive conditional duration
Autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity
Autoregressive fractionally integrated moving average
Autoregressive integrated moving average
Autoregressive model
Autoregressive–moving-average model
Auxiliary particle filter
Average
Average treatment effect
Averaged one-dependence estimators
Azuma's inequality
B
BA model model for a random network
Backfitting algorithm
Balance equation
Balanced incomplete block design redirects to Block design
Balanced repeated replication
Balding–Nichols model
Banburismus related to Bayesian networks
Bangdiwala's B
Bapat–Beg theorem
Bar chart
Barabási–Albert model
Barber–Johnson diagram
Barnard's test
Barnardisation
Barnes interpolation
Bartlett's method
Bartlett's test
Bartlett's theorem
Base rate
Baseball statistics
Basu's theorem
Bates distribution
Baum–Welch algorithm
Bayes classifier
Bayes error rate
Bayes estimator
Bayes factor
Bayes linear statistics
Bayes' rule
Bayes' theorem
Evidence under Bayes theorem
Bayesian – disambiguation
Bayesian average
Bayesian brain
Bayesian econometrics
Bayesian experimental design
Bayesian game
Bayesian inference
Bayesian inference in marketing
Bayesian inference in phylogeny
Bayesian inference using Gibbs sampling
Bayesian information criterion
Bayesian linear regression
Bayesian model comparison – see Bayes factor
Bayesian multivariate linear regression
Bayesian network
Bayesian probability
Bayesian search theory
Bayesian spam filtering
Bayesian statistics
Bayesian tool for methylation analysis
Bayesian vector autoregression
BCMP network queueing theory
Bean machine
Behrens–Fisher distribution
Behrens–Fisher problem
Belief propagation
Belt transect
Benford's law
Benini distribution
Bennett's inequality
Berkson error model
Berkson's paradox
Berlin procedure
Bernoulli distribution
Bernoulli process
Bernoulli sampling
Bernoulli scheme
Bernoulli trial
Bernstein inequalities (probability theory)
Bernstein–von Mises theorem
Berry–Esseen theorem
Bertrand's ballot theorem
Bertrand's box paradox
Bessel process
Bessel's correction
Best linear unbiased prediction
Beta (finance)
Beta-binomial distribution
Beta-binomial model
Beta distribution
Beta function for incomplete beta function
Beta negative binomial distribution
Beta prime distribution
Beta rectangular distribution
Beverton–Holt model
Bhatia–Davis inequality
Bhattacharya coefficient redirects to Bhattacharyya distance
Bias (statistics)
Bias of an estimator
Biased random walk (biochemistry)
Biased sample – see Sampling bias
Biclustering
Big O in probability notation
Bienaymé–Chebyshev inequality
Bills of Mortality
Bimodal distribution
Binary classification
Bingham distribution
Binomial distribution
Binomial proportion confidence interval
Binomial regression
Binomial test
Bioinformatics
Biometrics (statistics) redirects to Biostatistics
Biostatistics
Biplot
Birnbaum–Saunders distribution
Birth–death process
Bispectrum
Bivariate analysis
Bivariate von Mises distribution
Black–Scholes
Bland–Altman plot
Blind deconvolution
Blind experiment
Block design
Blocking (statistics)
BMDP software
Bochner's theorem
Bonferroni correction
Bonferroni inequalities redirects to Boole's inequality
Boole's inequality
Boolean analysis
Bootstrap aggregating
Bootstrap error-adjusted single-sample technique
Bootstrapping (statistics)
Bootstrapping populations
Borel–Cantelli lemma
Bose–Mesner algebra
Box–Behnken design
Box–Cox distribution
Box–Cox transformation redirects to Power transform
Box–Jenkins
Box–Muller transform
Box–Pierce test
Box plot
Branching process
Bregman divergence
Breusch–Godfrey test
Breusch–Pagan statistic redirects to Breusch–Pagan test
Breusch–Pagan test
Brown–Forsythe test
Brownian bridge
Brownian excursion
Brownian motion
Brownian tree
Bruck–Ryser–Chowla theorem
Burke's theorem
Burr distribution
Business statistics
Bühlmann model
Buzen's algorithm
BV4.1 (software)
C
c-chart
Càdlàg
Calculating demand forecast accuracy
Calculus of predispositions
Calibrated probability assessment
Calibration (probability) subjective probability, redirects to Calibrated probability assessment
Calibration (statistics) the statistical calibration problem
Cancer cluster
Candlestick chart
Canonical analysis
Canonical correlation
Canopy clustering algorithm
Cantor distribution
Carpet plot
Cartogram
Case-control redirects to Case-control study
Case-control study
Catastro of Ensenada a census of part of Spain
Categorical data
Categorical distribution
Categorical variable
Cauchy distribution
Cauchy–Schwarz inequality
Causal Markov condition
CDF-based nonparametric confidence interval
Ceiling effect (statistics)
Cellular noise
Censored regression model
Censoring (clinical trials)
Censoring (statistics)
Centering matrix
Centerpoint (geometry) to which Tukey median redirects
Central composite design
Central limit theorem
Central limit theorem (illustration) redirects to Illustration of the central limit theorem
Central limit theorem for directional statistics
Lyapunov's central limit theorem
Martingale central limit theorem
Central moment
Central tendency
Census
Cepstrum
CHAID – CHi-squared Automatic Interaction Detector
Chain rule for Kolmogorov complexity
Challenge–dechallenge–rechallenge
Champernowne distribution
Change detection
Change detection (GIS)
Chapman–Kolmogorov equation
Chapman–Robbins bound
Characteristic function (probability theory)
Chauvenet's criterion
Chebyshev center
Chebyshev's inequality
Checking if a coin is biased redirects to Checking whether a coin is fair
Checking whether a coin is fair
Cheeger bound
Chemometrics
Chernoff bound a special case of Chernoff's inequality
Chernoff face
Chernoff's distribution
Chernoff's inequality
Chi distribution
Chi-squared distribution
Chi-squared test
Chinese restaurant process
Choropleth map
Chou's invariance theorem
Chow test
Chronux software
Circular analysis
Circular distribution
Circular error probable
Circular statistics redirects to Directional statistics
Circular uniform distribution
Civic statistics
Clark–Ocone theorem
Class membership probabilities
Classic data sets
Classical definition of probability
Classical test theory – psychometrics
Classification rule
Classifier (mathematics)
Climate ensemble
Climograph
Clinical significance
Clinical study design
Clinical trial
Clinical utility of diagnostic tests
Cliodynamics
Closed testing procedure
Cluster analysis
Cluster randomised controlled trial
Cluster sampling
Cluster-weighted modeling
Clustering high-dimensional data
CMA-ES (Covariance Matrix Adaptation Evolution Strategy)
Coalescent theory
Cochran's C test
Cochran's Q test
Cochran's theorem
Cochran–Armitage test for trend
Cochran–Mantel–Haenszel statistics
Cochrane–Orcutt estimation
Coding (social sciences)
Coefficient of coherence redirects to Coherence (statistics)
Coefficient of determination
Coefficient of dispersion
Coefficient of variation
Cognitive pretesting
Cohen's class distribution function – a time-frequency distribution function
Cohen's kappa
Coherence (signal processing)
Coherence (statistics)
Cohort (statistics)
Cohort effect
Cohort study
Cointegration
Collectively exhaustive events
Collider (epidemiology)
Combinatorial data analysis
Combinatorial design
Combinatorial meta-analysis
Common-method variance
Common mode failure
Common cause and special cause (statistics)
Comonotonicity
Comparing means
Comparison of general and generalized linear models
Comparison of statistical packages
Comparisonwise error rate
Complementary event
Complete-linkage clustering
Complete spatial randomness
Completely randomized design
Completeness (statistics)
Compositional data
Composite bar chart
Compound Poisson distribution
Compound Poisson process
Compound probability distribution
Computational formula for the variance
Computational learning theory
Computational statistics
Computer experiment
Computer-assisted survey information collection
Concomitant (statistics)
Concordance correlation coefficient
Concordant pair
Concrete illustration of the central limit theorem
Concurrent validity
Conditional change model
Conditional distribution – see Conditional probability distribution
Conditional dependence
Conditional expectation
Conditional independence
Conditional probability
Conditional probability distribution
Conditional random field
Conditional variance
Conditionality principle
Confidence band redirects to Confidence and prediction bands
Confidence distribution
Confidence interval
Confidence region
Configural frequency analysis
Confirmation bias
Confirmatory factor analysis
Confounding
Confounding factor
Confusion of the inverse
Congruence coefficient
Conjoint analysis
Conjoint analysis (in healthcare)
Conjoint analysis (in marketing)
Conjugate prior
Consensus-based assessment
Consensus clustering
Consensus forecast
Conservatism (belief revision)
Consistency (statistics)
Consistent estimator
Constant elasticity of substitution
Constant false alarm rate
Constraint (information theory)
Consumption distribution
Contact process (mathematics)
Content validity
Contiguity (probability theory)
Contingency table
Continuity correction
Continuous distribution – see Continuous probability distribution
Continuous mapping theorem
Continuous probability distribution
Continuous stochastic process
Continuous-time Markov process
Continuous-time stochastic process
Contrast (statistics)
Control chart
Control event rate
Control limits
Control variate
Controlling for a variable
Convergence of measures
Convergence of random variables
Convex hull
Convolution of probability distributions
Convolution random number generator
Conway–Maxwell–Poisson distribution
Cook's distance
Cophenetic correlation
Copula (statistics)
Cornish–Fisher expansion
Correct sampling
Correction for attenuation
Correlation
Correlation and dependence
Correlation does not imply causation
Correlation clustering
Correlation function
Correlation function (astronomy)
Correlation function (quantum field theory)
Correlation function (statistical mechanics)
Correlation inequality
Correlation ratio
Correlogram
Correspondence analysis
Cosmic variance
Cost-of-living index
Count data
Counternull
Counting process
Covariance
Covariance and correlation
Covariance intersection
Covariance matrix
Covariance function
Covariate
Cover's theorem
Coverage probability
Cox process
Cox's theorem
Cox–Ingersoll–Ross model
Cramér–Rao bound
Cramér–von Mises criterion
Cramér’s decomposition theorem
Cramér's theorem (large deviations)
Cramér's V
Craps principle
Credal set
Credible interval
Cricket statistics
Crime statistics
Critical region redirects to Statistical hypothesis testing
Cromwell's rule
Cronbach's α
Cross-correlation
Cross-covariance
Cross-entropy method
Cross-sectional data
Cross-sectional regression
Cross-sectional study
Cross-spectrum
Cross tabulation
Cross-validation (statistics)
Crossover study
Crystal Ball function – a probability distribution
Cumulant
Cumulant generating function redirects to cumulant
Cumulative accuracy profile
Cumulative distribution function
Cumulative frequency analysis
Cumulative incidence
Cunningham function
CURE data clustering algorithm
Curve fitting
CUSUM
Cuzick–Edwards test
Cyclostationary process
D
d-separation
D/M/1 queue
D'Agostino's K-squared test
Dagum distribution
DAP open source software
Data analysis
Data assimilation
Data binning
Data classification (business intelligence)
Data cleansing
Data clustering
Data collection
Data Desk software
Data dredging
Data fusion
Data generating process
Data mining
Data reduction
Data point
Data quality assurance
Data set
Data-snooping bias
Data stream clustering
Data transformation (statistics)
Data visualization
DataDetective software
Dataplot software
Davies–Bouldin index
Davis distribution
De Finetti's game
De Finetti's theorem
DeFries–Fulker regression
de Moivre's law
De Moivre–Laplace theorem
Decision boundary
Decision theory
Decomposition of time series
Degenerate distribution
Degrees of freedom (statistics)
Delaporte distribution
Delphi method
Delta method
Demand forecasting
Deming regression
Demographics
Demography
Demographic statistics
Dendrogram
Density estimation
Dependent and independent variables
Descriptive research
Descriptive statistics
Design effect
Design matrix
Design of experiments
The Design of Experiments (book by Fisher)
Detailed balance
Detection theory
Determining the number of clusters in a data set
Detrended correspondence analysis
Detrended fluctuation analysis
Deviance (statistics)
Deviance information criterion
Deviation (statistics)
Deviation analysis (disambiguation)
DFFITS a regression diagnostic
Diagnostic odds ratio
Dickey–Fuller test
Difference in differences
Differential entropy
Diffusion process
Diffusion-limited aggregation
Dimension reduction
Dilution assay
Direct relationship
Directional statistics
Dirichlet distribution
Dirichlet-multinomial distribution
Dirichlet process
Disattenuation
Discrepancy function
Discrete choice
Discrete choice analysis
Discrete distribution redirects to section of Probability distribution
Discrete frequency domain
Discrete phase-type distribution
Discrete probability distribution redirects to section of Probability distribution
Discrete time
Discretization of continuous features
Discriminant function analysis
Discriminative model
Disorder problem
Distance correlation
Distance sampling
Distributed lag
Distribution fitting
Divergence (statistics)
Diversity index
Divisia index
Divisia monetary aggregates index
Dixon's Q test
Dominating decision rule
Donsker's theorem
Doob decomposition theorem
Doob martingale
Doob's martingale convergence theorems
Doob's martingale inequality
Doob–Meyer decomposition theorem
Doomsday argument
Dot plot (bioinformatics)
Dot plot (statistics)
Double counting (fallacy)
Double exponential distribution (disambiguation)
Double mass analysis
Doubly stochastic model
Drift rate redirects to Stochastic drift
Dudley's theorem
Dummy variable (statistics)
Duncan's new multiple range test
Dunn index
Dunnett's test
Durbin test
Durbin–Watson statistic
Dutch book
Dvoretzky–Kiefer–Wolfowitz inequality
Dyadic distribution
Dynamic Bayesian network
Dynamic factor
Dynamic topic model
E
E-statistic
Earth mover's distance
Eaton's inequality
Ecological correlation
Ecological fallacy
Ecological regression
Ecological study
Econometrics
Econometric model
Econometric software redirects to Comparison of statistical packages
Economic data
Economic epidemiology
Economic statistics
Eddy covariance
Edgeworth series
Effect size
Efficiency (statistics)
Efficient estimator
Ehrenfest model
Elastic map
Elliptical distribution
Ellsberg paradox
Elston–Stewart algorithm
EMG distribution
Empirical
Empirical Bayes method
Empirical distribution function
Empirical likelihood
Empirical measure
Empirical orthogonal functions
Empirical probability
Empirical process
Empirical statistical laws
Endogeneity (econometrics)
End point of clinical trials
Energy distance
Energy statistics (disambiguation)
Encyclopedia of Statistical Sciences (book)
Engineering statistics
Engineering tolerance
Engset calculation
Ensemble forecasting
Ensemble Kalman filter
Entropy (information theory)
Entropy estimation
Entropy power inequality
Environmental statistics
Epi Info software
Epidata software
Epidemic model
Epidemiological methods
Epilogism
Epitome (image processing)
Epps effect
Equating test equating
Equipossible
Equiprobable
Erdős–Rényi model
Erlang distribution
Ergodic theory
Ergodicity
Error bar
Error correction model
Error function
Errors and residuals in statistics
Errors-in-variables models
An Essay towards solving a Problem in the Doctrine of Chances
Estimating equations
Estimation theory
Estimation of covariance matrices
Estimation of signal parameters via rotational invariance techniques
Estimator
Etemadi's inequality
Ethical problems using children in clinical trials
Event (probability theory)
Event study
Evidence lower bound
Evidence under Bayes theorem
Evolutionary data mining
Ewens's sampling formula
EWMA chart
Exact statistics
Exact test
Examples of Markov chains
Excess risk
Exchange paradox
Exchangeable random variables
Expander walk sampling
Expectation–maximization algorithm
Expectation propagation
Expected mean squares
Expected utility hypothesis
Expected value
Expected value of sample information
Experiment
Experimental design diagram
Experimental event rate
Experimental uncertainty analysis
Experimenter's bias
Experimentwise error rate
Explained sum of squares
Explained variation
Explanatory variable
Exploratory data analysis
Exploratory factor analysis
Exponential dispersion model
Exponential distribution
Exponential family
Exponential-logarithmic distribution
Exponential power distribution redirects to Generalized normal distribution
Exponential random numbers redirect to subsection of Exponential distribution
Exponential smoothing
Exponentially modified Gaussian distribution
Exponentiated Weibull distribution
Exposure variable
Extended Kalman filter
Extended negative binomial distribution
Extensions of Fisher's method
External validity
Extrapolation domain analysis
Extreme value theory
Extremum estimator
F
F-distribution
F-divergence
F-statistics population genetics
F-test
F-test of equality of variances
F1 score
Facet theory
Factor analysis
Factor regression model
Factor graph
Factorial code
Factorial experiment
Factorial moment
Factorial moment generating function
Failure rate
Fair coin
Falconer's formula
False discovery rate
False nearest neighbor algorithm
False negative
False positive
False positive rate
False positive paradox
Familywise error rate
Fan chart (time series)
Fano factor
Fast Fourier transform
Fast Kalman filter
FastICA fast independent component analysis
Fat-tailed distribution
Feasible generalized least squares
Feature extraction
Feller process
Feller's coin-tossing constants
Feller-continuous process
Felsenstein's tree-pruning algorithm statistical genetics
Fides (reliability)
Fiducial inference
Field experiment
Fieller's theorem
File drawer problem
Filtering problem (stochastic processes)
Financial econometrics
Financial models with long-tailed distributions and volatility clustering
Finite-dimensional distribution
First-hitting-time model
First-in-man study
Fishburn–Shepp inequality
Fisher consistency
Fisher information
Fisher information metric
Fisher kernel
Fisher transformation
Fisher's exact test
Fisher's inequality
Fisher's linear discriminator
Fisher's method
Fisher's noncentral hypergeometric distribution
Fisher's z-distribution
Fisher–Tippett distribution redirects to Generalized extreme value distribution
Fisher–Tippett–Gnedenko theorem
Five-number summary
Fixed effects estimator and Fixed effects estimation redirect to Fixed effects model
Fixed-effect Poisson model
FLAME clustering
Fleiss' kappa
Fleming–Viot process
Flood risk assessment
Floor effect
Focused information criterion
Fokker–Planck equation
Folded normal distribution
Forecast bias
Forecast error
Forecast skill
Forecasting
Forest plot
Fork-join queue
Formation matrix
Forward measure
Foster's theorem
Foundations of statistics
Founders of statistics
Fourier analysis
Fowlkes–Mallows index
Fraction of variance unexplained
Fractional Brownian motion
Fractional factorial design
Fréchet distribution
Fréchet mean
Free statistical software
Freedman's paradox
Freedman–Diaconis rule
Freidlin–Wentzell theorem
Frequency (statistics)
Frequency distribution
Frequency domain
Frequency probability
Frequentist inference
Friedman test
Friendship paradox
Frisch–Waugh–Lovell theorem
Fully crossed design
Function approximation
Functional boxplot
Functional data analysis
Funnel plot
Fuzzy logic
Fuzzy measure theory
FWL theorem relating regression and projection
G
G/G/1 queue
G-network
G-test
Galbraith plot
Gallagher Index
Galton–Watson process
Galton's problem
Gambler's fallacy
Gambler's ruin
Gambling and information theory
Game of chance
Gamma distribution
Gamma test (statistics)
Gamma process
Gamma variate
GAUSS (software)
Gauss's inequality
Gauss–Kuzmin distribution
Gauss–Markov process
Gauss–Markov theorem
Gauss–Newton algorithm
Gaussian function
Gaussian isoperimetric inequality
Gaussian measure
Gaussian noise
Gaussian process
Gaussian process emulator
Gaussian q-distribution
Geary's C
GEH statistic – a statistic comparing modelled and observed counts
General linear model
Generalizability theory
Generalized additive model
Generalized additive model for location, scale and shape
Generalized beta distribution
Generalized canonical correlation
Generalized chi-squared distribution
Generalized Dirichlet distribution
Generalized entropy index
Generalized estimating equation
Generalized expected utility
Generalized extreme value distribution
Generalized gamma distribution
Generalized Gaussian distribution
Generalised hyperbolic distribution
Generalized inverse Gaussian distribution
Generalized least squares
Generalized linear array model
Generalized linear mixed model
Generalized linear model
Generalized logistic distribution
Generalized method of moments
Generalized multidimensional scaling
Generalized multivariate log-gamma distribution
Generalized normal distribution
Generalized p-value
Generalized Pareto distribution
Generalized Procrustes analysis
Generalized randomized block design
Generalized Tobit
Generalized Wiener process
Generative model
Genetic epidemiology
GenStat software
Geo-imputation
Geodemographic segmentation
Geometric Brownian motion
Geometric data analysis
Geometric distribution
Geometric median
Geometric standard deviation
Geometric stable distribution
Geospatial predictive modeling
Geostatistics
German tank problem
Gerschenkron effect
Gibbs sampling
Gillespie algorithm
Gini coefficient
Girsanov theorem
Gittins index
GLIM (software) software
Glivenko–Cantelli theorem
GLUE (uncertainty assessment)
Goldfeld–Quandt test
Gompertz distribution
Gompertz function
Gompertz–Makeham law of mortality
Good–Turing frequency estimation
Goodhart's law
Goodman and Kruskal's gamma
Goodman and Kruskal's lambda
Goodness of fit
Gordon–Newell network
Gordon–Newell theorem
Graeco-Latin square
Grand mean
Granger causality
Graph cuts in computer vision a potential application of Bayesian analysis
Graphical model
Graphical models for protein structure
GraphPad InStat software
GraphPad Prism software
Gravity model of trade
Greenwood statistic
Gretl
Group family
Group method of data handling
Group size measures
Grouped data
Grubbs's test for outliers
Guess value
Guesstimate
Gumbel distribution
Guttman scale
Gy's sampling theory
H
h-index
Hájek–Le Cam convolution theorem
Half circle distribution
Half-logistic distribution
Half-normal distribution
Halton sequence
Hamburger moment problem
Hannan–Quinn information criterion
Harris chain
Hardy–Weinberg principle statistical genetics
Hartley's test
Hat matrix
Hammersley–Clifford theorem
Hausdorff moment problem
Hausman specification test redirects to Hausman test
Haybittle–Peto boundary
Hazard function redirects to Failure rate
Hazard ratio
Heaps' law
Health care analytics
Heart rate variability
Heavy-tailed distribution
Heckman correction
Hedonic regression
Hellin's law
Hellinger distance
Helmert–Wolf blocking
Herdan's law
Herfindahl index
Heston model
Heteroscedasticity
Heteroscedasticity-consistent standard errors
Heteroskedasticity – see Heteroscedasticity
Hidden Markov model
Hidden Markov random field
Hidden semi-Markov model
Hierarchical Bayes model
Hierarchical clustering
Hierarchical hidden Markov model
Hierarchical linear modeling
High-dimensional statistics
Higher-order factor analysis
Higher-order statistics
Hirschman uncertainty
Histogram
Historiometry
History of randomness
History of statistics
Hitting time
Hodges' estimator
Hodges–Lehmann estimator
Hoeffding's independence test
Hoeffding's lemma
Hoeffding's inequality
Holm–Bonferroni method
Holtsmark distribution
Homogeneity (statistics)
Homogenization (climate)
Homoscedasticity
Hoover index (a.k.a. Robin Hood index)
Horvitz–Thompson estimator
Hosmer–Lemeshow test
Hotelling's T-squared distribution
How to Lie with Statistics (book)
Howland will forgery trial
Hubbert curve
Huber–White standard error – see Heteroscedasticity-consistent standard errors
Huber loss function
Human subject research
Hurst exponent
Hyper-exponential distribution
Hyper-Graeco-Latin square design
Hyperbolic distribution
Hyperbolic secant distribution
Hypergeometric distribution
Hyperparameter
Hyperprior
Hypoexponential distribution
I
Idealised population
Idempotent matrix
Identifiability
Ignorability
Illustration of the central limit theorem
Image denoising
Importance sampling
Imprecise probability
Impulse response
Imputation (statistics)
Incidence (epidemiology)
Increasing process
Indecomposable distribution
Independence of irrelevant alternatives
Independent component analysis
Independent and identically distributed random variables
Index (economics)
Index number
Index of coincidence
Index of dispersion
Index of dissimilarity
Indicators of spatial association
Indirect least squares
Inductive inference
An inequality on location and scale parameters – see Chebyshev's inequality
Inference
Inferential statistics redirects to Statistical inference
Infinite divisibility (probability)
Infinite monkey theorem
Influence diagram
Info-gap decision theory
Information bottleneck method
Information geometry
Information gain ratio
Information ratio finance
Information source (mathematics)
Information theory
Inherent bias
Inherent zero
Injury prevention application
Innovation (signal processing)
Innovations vector
Institutional review board
Instrumental variable
Intention to treat analysis
Interaction (statistics)
Interaction variable see Interaction (statistics)
Interclass correlation
Interdecile range
Interim analysis
Internal consistency
Internal validity
Interquartile mean
Interquartile range
Inter-rater reliability
Interval estimation
Intervening variable
Intra-rater reliability
Intraclass correlation
Invariant estimator
Invariant extended Kalman filter
Inverse distance weighting
Inverse distribution
Inverse Gaussian distribution
Inverse matrix gamma distribution
Inverse Mills ratio
Inverse probability
Inverse probability weighting
Inverse relationship
Inverse-chi-squared distribution
Inverse-gamma distribution
Inverse transform sampling
Inverse-variance weighting
Inverse-Wishart distribution
Iris flower data set
Irwin–Hall distribution
Isomap
Isotonic regression
Isserlis' theorem
Item response theory
Item-total correlation
Item tree analysis
Iterative proportional fitting
Iteratively reweighted least squares
Itô calculus
Itô isometry
Itô's lemma
J
Jaccard index
Jackknife (statistics) redirects to Resampling (statistics)
Jackson network
Jackson's theorem (queueing theory)
Jadad scale
James–Stein estimator
Jarque–Bera test
Jeffreys prior
Jensen's inequality
Jensen–Shannon divergence
JMulTi software
Johansen test
Johnson SU distribution
Joint probability distribution
Jonckheere's trend test
JMP (statistical software)
Jump process
Jump-diffusion model
Junction tree algorithm
K
K-distribution
K-means algorithm redirects to k-means clustering
K-means++
K-medians clustering
K-medoids
K-statistic
Kalman filter
Kaplan–Meier estimator
Kappa coefficient
Kappa statistic
Karhunen–Loève theorem
Kendall tau distance
Kendall tau rank correlation coefficient
Kendall's notation
Kendall's W Kendall's coefficient of concordance
Kent distribution
Kernel density estimation
Kernel Fisher discriminant analysis
Kernel methods
Kernel principal component analysis
Kernel regression
Kernel smoother
Kernel (statistics)
Khmaladze transformation (probability theory)
Killed process
Khintchine inequality
Kingman's formula
Kirkwood approximation
Kish grid
Kitchen sink regression
Klecka's tau
Knightian uncertainty
Kolmogorov backward equation
Kolmogorov continuity theorem
Kolmogorov extension theorem
Kolmogorov's criterion
Kolmogorov's generalized criterion
Kolmogorov's inequality
Kolmogorov's zero–one law
Kolmogorov–Smirnov test
KPSS test
Kriging
Kruskal–Wallis one-way analysis of variance
Kuder–Richardson Formula 20
Kuiper's test
Kullback's inequality
Kullback–Leibler divergence
Kumaraswamy distribution
Kurtosis
Kushner equation
L
L-estimator
L-moment
Labour Force Survey
Lack-of-fit sum of squares
Lady tasting tea
Lag operator
Lag windowing
Lambda distribution disambiguation
Landau distribution
Lander–Green algorithm
Language model
Laplace distribution
Laplace principle (large deviations theory)
LaplacesDemon software
Large deviations theory
Large deviations of Gaussian random functions
LARS – see least-angle regression
Latent variable, latent variable model
Latent class model
Latent Dirichlet allocation
Latent growth modeling
Latent semantic analysis
Latin rectangle
Latin square
Latin hypercube sampling
Law (stochastic processes)
Law of averages
Law of comparative judgment
Law of large numbers
Law of the iterated logarithm
Law of the unconscious statistician
Law of total covariance
Law of total cumulance
Law of total expectation
Law of total probability
Law of total variance
Law of truly large numbers
Layered hidden Markov model
Le Cam's theorem
Lead time bias
Least absolute deviations
Least-angle regression
Least squares
Least-squares spectral analysis
Least squares support vector machine
Least trimmed squares
Learning theory (statistics)
Leftover hash-lemma
Lehmann–Scheffé theorem
Length time bias
Levene's test
Level of analysis
Level of measurement
Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm
Leverage (statistics)
Levey–Jennings chart redirects to Laboratory quality control
Lévy's convergence theorem
Lévy's continuity theorem
Lévy arcsine law
Lévy distribution
Lévy flight
Lévy process
Lewontin's Fallacy
Lexis diagram
Lexis ratio
Lies, damned lies, and statistics
Life expectancy
Life table
Lift (data mining)
Likelihood function
Likelihood principle
Likelihood-ratio test
Likelihood ratios in diagnostic testing
Likert scale
Lilliefors test
Limited dependent variable
Limiting density of discrete points
Lincoln index
Lindeberg's condition
Lindley equation
Lindley's paradox
Line chart
Line-intercept sampling
Linear classifier
Linear discriminant analysis
Linear least squares
Linear model
Linear prediction
Linear probability model
Linear regression
Linguistic demography
Linnik distribution redirects to Geometric stable distribution
LISREL proprietary statistical software package
List of basic statistics topics redirects to Outline of statistics
List of convolutions of probability distributions
List of graphical methods
List of information graphics software
List of probability topics
List of random number generators
List of scientific journals in statistics
List of statistical packages
List of statisticians
Listwise deletion
Little's law
Littlewood's law
Ljung–Box test
Local convex hull
Local independence
Local martingale
Local regression
Location estimation redirects to Location parameter
Location estimation in sensor networks
Location parameter
Location test
Location-scale family
Local asymptotic normality
Locality (statistics)
Loess curve redirects to Local regression
Log-Cauchy distribution
Log-Laplace distribution
Log-normal distribution
Log-linear analysis
Log-linear model
Log-linear modeling redirects to Poisson regression
Log-log plot
Log-logistic distribution
Logarithmic distribution
Logarithmic mean
Logistic distribution
Logistic function
Logistic regression
Logit
Logit analysis in marketing
Logit-normal distribution
Log-normal distribution
Logrank test
Lomax distribution
Long-range dependency
Long Tail
Long-tail traffic
Longitudinal study
Longstaff–Schwartz model
Lorenz curve
Loss function
Lot quality assurance sampling
Lotka's law
Low birth weight paradox
Lucia de Berk prob/stats related court case
Lukacs's proportion-sum independence theorem
Łukaszyk–Karmowski metric
Lumpability
Lusser's law
Lyapunov's central limit theorem
M
M/D/1 queue
M/G/1 queue
M/M/1 queue
M/M/c queue
M-estimator
Redescending M-estimator
M-separation
Mabinogion sheep problem
Machine learning
Mahalanobis distance
Main effect
Mallows's Cp
MANCOVA
Manhattan plot
Mann–Whitney U
MANOVA
Mantel test
MAP estimator redirects to Maximum a posteriori estimation
Marchenko–Pastur distribution
Marcinkiewicz–Zygmund inequality
Marcum Q-function
Margin of error
Marginal conditional stochastic dominance
Marginal distribution
Marginal likelihood
Marginal model
Marginal variable redirects to Marginal distribution
Mark and recapture
Markov additive process
Markov blanket
Markov chain
Markov chain geostatistics
Markov chain mixing time
Markov chain Monte Carlo
Markov decision process
Markov information source
Markov kernel
Markov logic network
Markov model
Markov network
Markov process
Markov property
Markov random field
Markov renewal process
Markov's inequality
Markovian arrival processes
Marsaglia polar method
Martingale (probability theory)
Martingale difference sequence
Martingale representation theorem
Master equation
Matched filter
Matching pursuit
Matching (statistics)
Matérn covariance function
Mathematica – software
Mathematical biology
Mathematical modelling in epidemiology
Mathematical modelling of infectious disease
Mathematical statistics
Matthews correlation coefficient
Matrix gamma distribution
Matrix normal distribution
Matrix population models
Matrix t-distribution
Mauchly's sphericity test
Maximal ergodic theorem
Maximal information coefficient
Maximum a posteriori estimation
Maximum entropy classifier redirects to Logistic regression
Maximum-entropy Markov model
Maximum entropy method redirects to Principle of maximum entropy
Maximum entropy probability distribution
Maximum entropy spectral estimation
Maximum likelihood
Maximum likelihood sequence estimation
Maximum parsimony
Maximum spacing estimation
Maxwell speed distribution
Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution
Maxwell's theorem
Mazziotta–Pareto index
MCAR (missing completely at random)
McCullagh's parametrization of the Cauchy distributions
McDiarmid's inequality
McDonald–Kreitman test statistical genetics
McKay's approximation for the coefficient of variation
McNemar's test
Meadow's law
Mean
Mean see also expected value
Mean absolute error
Mean absolute percentage error
Mean absolute scaled error
Mean and predicted response
Mean deviation (disambiguation)
Mean difference
Mean integrated squared error
Mean of circular quantities
Mean percentage error
Mean preserving spread
Mean reciprocal rank
Mean signed difference
Mean square quantization error
Mean square weighted deviation
Mean squared error
Mean squared prediction error
Mean time between failures
Mean-reverting process redirects to Ornstein–Uhlenbeck process
Mean value analysis
Measurement, level of – see level of measurement.
Measurement invariance
MedCalc software
Median
Median absolute deviation
Median polish
Median test
Mediation (statistics)
Medical statistics
Medoid
Memorylessness
Mendelian randomization
Meta-analysis
Meta-regression
Metalog distribution
Method of moments (statistics)
Method of simulated moments
Method of support
Metropolis–Hastings algorithm
Mexican paradox
Microdata (statistics)
Midhinge
Mid-range
MinHash
Minimax
Minimax estimator
Minimisation (clinical trials)
Minimum chi-square estimation
Minimum distance estimation
Minimum mean square error
Minimum-variance unbiased estimator
Minimum viable population
Minitab
MINQUE minimum norm quadratic unbiased estimation
Misleading graph
Missing completely at random
Missing data
Missing values – see Missing data
Mittag–Leffler distribution
Mixed logit
Misuse of statistics
Mixed data sampling
Mixed-design analysis of variance
Mixed model
Mixing (mathematics)
Mixture distribution
Mixture model
Mixture (probability)
MLwiN
Mode (statistics)
Model output statistics
Model selection
Model specification
Moderator variable redirects to Moderation (statistics)
Modifiable areal unit problem
Moffat distribution
Moment (mathematics)
Moment-generating function
Moments, method of see method of moments (statistics)
Moment problem
Monotone likelihood ratio
Monte Carlo integration
Monte Carlo method
Monte Carlo method for photon transport
Monte Carlo methods for option pricing
Monte Carlo methods in finance
Monte Carlo molecular modeling
Moral graph
Moran process
Moran's I
Morisita's overlap index
Morris method
Mortality rate
Most probable number
Moving average
Moving-average model
Moving average representation redirects to Wold's theorem
Moving least squares
Multi-armed bandit
Multi-vari chart
Multiclass classification
Multiclass LDA (linear discriminant analysis) redirects to Linear discriminant analysis
Multicollinearity
Multidimensional analysis
Multidimensional Chebyshev's inequality
Multidimensional panel data
Multidimensional scaling
Multifactor design of experiments software
Multifactor dimensionality reduction
Multilevel model
Multilinear principal component analysis
Multinomial distribution
Multinomial logistic regression
Multinomial logit – see Multinomial logistic regression
Multinomial probit
Multinomial test
Multiple baseline design
Multiple comparisons
Multiple correlation
Multiple correspondence analysis
Multiple discriminant analysis
Multiple-indicator kriging
Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey
Multiple of the median
Multiple testing correction redirects to Multiple comparisons
Multiple-try Metropolis
Multiresolution analysis
Multiscale decision making
Multiscale geometric analysis
Multistage testing
Multitaper
Multitrait-multimethod matrix
Multivariate adaptive regression splines
Multivariate analysis
Multivariate analysis of variance
Multivariate distribution – see Joint probability distribution
Multivariate kernel density estimation
Multivariate normal distribution
Multivariate Pareto distribution
Multivariate Pólya distribution
Multivariate probit redirects to Multivariate probit model
Multivariate random variable
Multivariate stable distribution
Multivariate statistics
Multivariate Student distribution redirects to Multivariate t-distribution
Multivariate t-distribution
N
n = 1 fallacy
N of 1 trial
Naive Bayes classifier
Nakagami distribution
National and international statistical services
Nash–Sutcliffe model efficiency coefficient
National Health Interview Survey
Natural experiment
Natural exponential family
Natural process variation
NCSS (statistical software)
Nearest-neighbor chain algorithm
Negative binomial distribution
Negative multinomial distribution
Negative predictive value
Negative relationship
Negentropy
Neighbourhood components analysis
Neighbor joining
Nelson rules
Nelson–Aalen estimator
Nemenyi test
Nested case-control study
Nested sampling algorithm
Network probability matrix
Neural network
Neutral vector
Newcastle–Ottawa scale
Newey–West estimator
Newman–Keuls method
Neyer d-optimal test
Neyman construction
Neyman–Pearson lemma
Nicholson–Bailey model
Nominal category
Noncentral beta distribution
Noncentral chi distribution
Noncentral chi-squared distribution
Noncentral F-distribution
Noncentral hypergeometric distributions
Noncentral t-distribution
Noncentrality parameter
Nonlinear autoregressive exogenous model
Nonlinear dimensionality reduction
Non-linear iterative partial least squares
Nonlinear regression
Non-homogeneous Poisson process
Non-linear least squares
Non-negative matrix factorization
Nonparametric skew
Non-parametric statistics
Non-response bias
Non-sampling error
Nonparametric regression
Nonprobability sampling
Normal curve equivalent
Normal distribution
Normal probability plot see also rankit
Normal score see also rankit and Z score
Normal variance-mean mixture
Normal-exponential-gamma distribution
Normal-gamma distribution
Normal-inverse Gaussian distribution
Normal-scaled inverse gamma distribution
Normality test
Normalization (statistics)
Normally distributed and uncorrelated does not imply independent
Notation in probability and statistics
Novikov's condition
np-chart
Null distribution
Null hypothesis
Null result
Nuisance parameter
Nuisance variable
Numerical data
Numerical methods for linear least squares
Numerical parameter redirects to statistical parameter
Numerical smoothing and differentiation
Nuremberg Code
O
Observable variable
Observational equivalence
Observational error
Observational study
Observed information
Occupancy frequency distribution
Odds
Odds algorithm
Odds ratio
Official statistics
Ogden tables
Ogive (statistics)
Omitted-variable bias
Omnibus test
One- and two-tailed tests
One-class classification
One-factor-at-a-time method
One-tailed test redirects to One- and two-tailed tests
One-way analysis of variance
Online NMF Online Non-negative Matrix Factorisation
Open-label trial
OpenEpi software
OpenBUGS software
Operational confound
Operational sex ratio
Operations research
Opinion poll
Optimal decision
Optimal design
Optimal discriminant analysis
Optimal matching
Optimal stopping
Optimality criterion
Optimistic knowledge gradient
Optional stopping theorem
Order of a kernel
Order of integration
Order statistic
Ordered logit
Ordered probit
Ordered subset expectation maximization
Ordinal regression
Ordinary least squares
Ordination (statistics)
Ornstein–Uhlenbeck process
Orthogonal array testing
Orthogonality
Orthogonality principle
Outlier
Outliers in statistics redirects to Robust statistics (section)
Outliers ratio
Outline of probability
Outline of regression analysis
Outline of statistics
Overdispersion
Overfitting
Owen's T function
OxMetrics software
P
p-chart
p-rep
P-value
P–P plot
Page's trend test
Paid survey
Paired comparison analysis
Paired difference test
Pairwise comparison
Pairwise independence
Panel analysis
Panel data
Panjer recursion a class of discrete compound distributions
Paley–Zygmund inequality
Parabolic fractal distribution
PARAFAC (parallel factor analysis)
Parallel coordinates – graphical display of data
Parallel factor analysis redirects to PARAFAC
Paradigm (experimental)
Parameter identification problem
Parameter space
Parametric family
Parametric model
Parametric statistics
Pareto analysis
Pareto chart
Pareto distribution
Pareto index
Pareto interpolation
Pareto principle
Park test
Partial autocorrelation redirects to Partial autocorrelation function
Partial autocorrelation function
Partial correlation
Partial least squares
Partial least squares regression
Partial leverage
Partial regression plot
Partial residual plot
Particle filter
Partition of sums of squares
Parzen window
Path analysis (statistics)
Path coefficient
Path space (disambiguation)
Pattern recognition
Pearson's chi-squared test (one of various chi-squared tests)
Pearson distribution
Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient
Pedometric mapping
People v. Collins (prob/stats related court case)
Per capita
Per-comparison error rate
Per-protocol analysis
Percentile
Percentile rank
Periodic variation redirects to Seasonality
Periodogram
Peirce's criterion
Pensim2 an econometric model
Percentage point
Permutation test redirects to Resampling (statistics)
Pharmaceutical statistics
Phase dispersion minimization
Phase-type distribution
Phi coefficient
Phillips–Perron test
Philosophy of probability
Philosophy of statistics
Pickands–Balkema–de Haan theorem
Pie chart
Piecewise-deterministic Markov process
Pignistic probability
Pinsker's inequality
Pitman closeness criterion
Pitman–Koopman–Darmois theorem
Pitman–Yor process
Pivotal quantity
Placebo-controlled study
Plackett–Burman design
Plate notation
Plot (graphics)
Pocock boundary
Poincaré plot
Point-biserial correlation coefficient
Point estimation
Point pattern analysis
Point process
Poisson binomial distribution
Poisson distribution
Poisson hidden Markov model
Poisson limit theorem
Poisson process
Poisson regression
Poisson random numbers redirects to section of Poisson distribution
Poisson sampling
Polar distribution – see Circular distribution
Policy capturing
Political forecasting
Pollaczek–Khinchine formula
Pollyanna Creep
Polykay
Poly-Weibull distribution
Polychoric correlation
Polynomial and rational function modeling
Polynomial chaos
Polynomial regression
Polytree (Bayesian networks)
Pooled standard deviation redirects to Pooled variance
Pooling design
Popoviciu's inequality on variances
Population
Population dynamics
Population ecology application
Population modeling
Population process
Population pyramid
Population statistics
Population variance
Population viability analysis
Portmanteau test
Positive predictive value
Post-hoc analysis
Posterior predictive distribution
Posterior probability
Power law
Power transform
Prais–Winsten estimation
Pre- and post-test probability
Precision (statistics)
Precision and recall
Prediction interval
Predictive analytics
Predictive inference
Predictive informatics
Predictive intake modelling
Predictive modelling
Predictive validity
Preference regression (in marketing)
Preferential attachment process – see Preferential attachment
PRESS statistic
Prevalence
Principal component analysis
Multilinear principal-component analysis
Principal component regression
Principal geodesic analysis
Principal stratification
Principle of indifference
Principle of marginality
Principle of maximum entropy
Prior knowledge for pattern recognition
Prior probability
Prior probability distribution redirects to Prior probability
Probabilistic causation
Probabilistic design
Probabilistic forecasting
Probabilistic latent semantic analysis
Probabilistic metric space
Probabilistic proposition
Probabilistic relational model
Probability
Probability bounds analysis
Probability box
Probability density function
Probability distribution
Probability distribution function (disambiguation)
Probability integral transform
Probability interpretations
Probability mass function
Probability matching
Probability metric
Probability of error
Probability of precipitation
Probability plot
Probability plot correlation coefficient redirects to Q–Q plot
Probability plot correlation coefficient plot
Probability space
Probability theory
Probability-generating function
Probable error
Probit
Probit model
Procedural confound
Process control
Process Window Index
Procrustes analysis
Proebsting's paradox
Product distribution
Product form solution
Profile likelihood redirects to Likelihood function
Progressively measurable process
Prognostics
Projection pursuit
Projection pursuit regression
Proof of Stein's example
Propagation of uncertainty
Propensity probability
Propensity score
Propensity score matching
Proper linear model
Proportional hazards models
Proportional reduction in loss
Prosecutor's fallacy
Proxy (statistics)
Psephology
Pseudo-determinant
Pseudo-random number sampling
Pseudocount
Pseudolikelihood
Pseudomedian
Pseudoreplication
PSPP (free software)
Psychological statistics
Psychometrics
Pythagorean expectation
Q
Q test
Q-exponential distribution
Q-function
Q-Gaussian distribution
Q–Q plot
Q-statistic
Quadrat
Quadrant count ratio
Quadratic classifier
Quadratic form (statistics)
Quadratic variation
Qualitative comparative analysis
Qualitative data
Qualitative variation
Quality control
Quantile
Quantile function
Quantile normalization
Quantile regression
Quantile-parameterized distribution
Quantitative marketing research
Quantitative psychological research
Quantitative research
Quantum (Statistical programming language)
Quartile
Quartile coefficient of dispersion
Quasi-birth–death process
Quasi-experiment
Quasi-experimental design – see Design of quasi-experiments
Quasi-likelihood
Quasi-maximum likelihood
Quasireversibility
Quasi-variance
Questionnaire
Queueing model
Queueing theory
Queuing delay
Queuing theory in teletraffic engineering
Quota sampling
R
R programming language – see R (programming language)
R v Adams (prob/stats related court case)
Radar chart
Rademacher distribution
Radial basis function network
Raikov's theorem
Raised cosine distribution
Ramaswami's formula
Ramsey RESET test the Ramsey Regression Equation Specification Error Test
Rand index
Random assignment
Random compact set
Random data see randomness
Random effects estimation – see Random effects model
Random effects model
Random element
Random field
Random function
Random graph
Random matrix
Random measure
Random multinomial logit
Random naive Bayes
Random permutation statistics
Random regular graph
Random sample
Random sampling
Random sequence
Random variable
Random variate
Random walk
Random walk hypothesis
Randomization
Randomized block design
Randomized controlled trial
Randomized decision rule
Randomized experiment
Randomized response
Randomness
Randomness tests
Range (statistics)
Rank abundance curve
Rank correlation mainly links to two following
Spearman's rank correlation coefficient
Kendall tau rank correlation coefficient
Rank product
Rank-size distribution
Ranking
Rankit
Ranklet
RANSAC
Rao–Blackwell theorem
Rao-Blackwellisation – see Rao–Blackwell theorem
Rasch model
Polytomous Rasch model
Rasch model estimation
Ratio distribution
Ratio estimator
Rational quadratic covariance function
Rayleigh distribution
Rayleigh mixture distribution
Raw score
Realization (probability)
Recall bias
Receiver operating characteristic
Reciprocal distribution
Rectified Gaussian distribution
Recurrence period density entropy
Recurrence plot
Recurrence quantification analysis
Recursive Bayesian estimation
Recursive least squares
Recursive partitioning
Reduced form
Reference class problem
Reflected Brownian motion
Regenerative process
Regression analysis see also linear regression
Regression Analysis of Time Series proprietary software
Regression control chart
Regression diagnostic
Regression dilution
Regression discontinuity design
Regression estimation
Regression fallacy
Regression-kriging
Regression model validation
Regression toward the mean
Regret (decision theory)
Reification (statistics)
Rejection sampling
Relationships among probability distributions
Relative change and difference
Relative efficiency redirects to Efficiency (statistics)
Relative index of inequality
Relative likelihood
Relative risk
Relative risk reduction
Relative standard deviation
Relative standard error redirects to Relative standard deviation
Relative variance redirects to Relative standard deviation
Relative survival
Relativistic Breit–Wigner distribution
Relevance vector machine
Reliability (statistics)
Reliability block diagram
Reliability engineering
Reliability theory
Reliability theory of aging and longevity
Rencontres numbers a discrete distribution
Renewal theory
Repeatability
Repeated measures design
Replication (statistics)
Representation validity
Reproducibility
Resampling (statistics)
Rescaled range
Resentful demoralization experimental design
Residual. See errors and residuals in statistics.
Residual sum of squares
Response bias
Response rate (survey)
Response surface methodology
Response variable
Restricted maximum likelihood
Restricted randomization
Reversible-jump Markov chain Monte Carlo
Reversible dynamics
Rind et al. controversy interpretations of paper involving meta-analysis
Rice distribution
Richardson–Lucy deconvolution
Ridge regression redirects to Tikhonov regularization
Ridit scoring
Risk adjusted mortality rate
Risk factor
Risk function
Risk perception
Risk theory
Risk–benefit analysis
Robbins lemma
Robust Bayesian analysis
Robust confidence intervals
Robust measures of scale
Robust regression
Robust statistics
Root mean square
Root-mean-square deviation
Root mean square deviation (bioinformatics)
Root mean square fluctuation
Ross's conjecture
Rossmo's formula
Rothamsted Experimental Station
Round robin test
Rubin causal model
Ruin theory
Rule of succession
Rule of three (medicine)
Run chart
RV coefficient
S
S (programming language)
S-PLUS
Safety in numbers
Sally Clark (prob/stats related court case)
Sammon projection
Sample mean and covariance redirects to Sample mean and sample covariance
Sample mean and sample covariance
Sample maximum and minimum
Sample size determination
Sample space
Sample (statistics)
Sample-continuous process
Sampling (statistics)
Simple random sampling
Snowball sampling
Systematic sampling
Stratified sampling
Cluster sampling
distance sampling
Multistage sampling
Nonprobability sampling
Slice sampling
Sampling bias
Sampling design
Sampling distribution
Sampling error
Sampling fraction
Sampling frame
Sampling probability
Sampling risk
Samuelson's inequality
Sargan test
SAS (software)
SAS language
SAS System – see SAS (software)
Savitzky–Golay smoothing filter
Sazonov's theorem
Saturated array
Scale analysis (statistics)
Scale parameter
Scaled-inverse-chi-squared distribution
Scaling pattern of occupancy
Scatter matrix
Scatter plot
Scatterplot smoothing
Scheffé's method
Scheirer–Ray–Hare test
Schilder's theorem
Schramm–Loewner evolution
Schuette–Nesbitt formula
Schwarz criterion
Score (statistics)
Score test
Scoring algorithm
Scoring rule
SCORUS
Scott's Pi
SDMX a standard for exchanging statistical data
Seasonal adjustment
Seasonality
Seasonal subseries plot
Seasonal variation
Seasonally adjusted annual rate
Second moment method
Secretary problem
Secular variation
Seed-based d mapping
Seemingly unrelated regressions
Seismic to simulation
Selection bias
Selective recruitment
Self-organizing map
Self-selection bias
Self-similar process
Segmented regression
Seismic inversion
Self-similarity matrix
Semantic mapping (statistics)
Semantic relatedness
Semantic similarity
Semi-Markov process
Semi-log graph
Semidefinite embedding
Semimartingale
Semiparametric model
Semiparametric regression
Semivariance
Sensitivity (tests)
Sensitivity analysis
Sensitivity and specificity
Sensitivity index
Separation test
Sequential analysis
Sequential estimation
Sequential Monte Carlo methods redirects to Particle filter
Sequential probability ratio test
Serial dependence
Seriation (archaeology)
SETAR (model) a time series model
Sethi model
Seven-number summary
Sexual dimorphism measures
Shannon–Hartley theorem
Shape of the distribution
Shape parameter
Shapiro–Wilk test
Sharpe ratio
SHAZAM (software)
Shewhart individuals control chart
Shifted Gompertz distribution
Shifted log-logistic distribution
Shifting baseline
Shrinkage (statistics)
Shrinkage estimator
Sichel distribution
Siegel–Tukey test
Sieve estimator
Sigma-algebra
SigmaStat software
Sign test
Signal-to-noise ratio
Signal-to-noise statistic
Significance analysis of microarrays
Silhouette (clustering)
Simfit software
Similarity matrix
Simon model
Simple linear regression
Simple moving average crossover
Simple random sample
Simpson's paradox
Simulated annealing
Simultaneous equation methods (econometrics)
Simultaneous equations model
Single equation methods (econometrics)
Single-linkage clustering
Singular distribution
Singular spectrum analysis
Sinusoidal model
Sinkov statistic
Size (statistics)
Skellam distribution
Skew normal distribution
Skewness
Skorokhod's representation theorem
Slash distribution
Slice sampling
Sliced inverse regression
Slutsky's theorem
Small area estimation
Smearing retransformation
Smoothing
Smoothing spline
Smoothness (probability theory)
Snowball sampling
Sobel test
Social network change detection
Social statistics
SOFA Statistics software
Soliton distribution redirects to Luby transform code
Somers' D
Sørensen similarity index
Spaghetti plot
Sparse binary polynomial hashing
Sparse PCA sparse principal components analysis
Sparsity-of-effects principle
Spatial analysis
Spatial dependence
Spatial descriptive statistics
Spatial distribution
Spatial econometrics
Spatial statistics redirects to Spatial analysis
Spatial variability
Spearman's rank correlation coefficient
Spearman–Brown prediction formula
Species discovery curve
Specification (regression) redirects to Statistical model specification
Specificity (tests)
Spectral clustering – (cluster analysis)
Spectral density
Spectral density estimation
Spectrum bias
Spectrum continuation analysis
Speed prior
Spherical design
Split normal distribution
SPRT redirects to Sequential probability ratio test
SPSS software
SPSS Clementine software (data mining)
Spurious relationship
Square root biased sampling
Squared deviations
St. Petersburg paradox
Stability (probability)
Stable distribution
Stable and tempered stable distributions with volatility clustering – financial applications
Standard deviation
Standard error
Standard normal deviate
Standard normal table
Standard probability space
Standard score
Standardized coefficient
Standardized moment
Standardised mortality rate
Standardized mortality ratio
Standardized rate
Stanine
STAR model a time series model
Star plot redirects to Radar chart
Stata
State space representation
Statgraphics software
Static analysis
Stationary distribution
Stationary ergodic process
Stationary process
Stationary sequence
Stationary subspace analysis
Statistic
STATISTICA software
Statistical arbitrage
Statistical assembly
Statistical assumption
Statistical benchmarking
Statistical classification
Statistical conclusion validity
Statistical consultant
Statistical deviance – see deviance (statistics)
Statistical dispersion
Statistical distance
Statistical efficiency
Statistical epidemiology
Statistical estimation redirects to Estimation theory
Statistical finance
Statistical genetics redirects to population genetics
Statistical geography
Statistical graphics
Statistical hypothesis testing
Statistical independence
Statistical inference
Statistical interference
Statistical Lab software
Statistical learning theory
Statistical literacy
Statistical model
Statistical model specification
Statistical model validation
Statistical noise
Statistical package
Statistical parameter
Statistical parametric mapping
Statistical parsing
Statistical population
Statistical power
Statistical probability
Statistical process control
Statistical proof
Statistical randomness
Statistical range see range (statistics)
Statistical regularity
Statistical relational learning
Statistical sample
Statistical semantics
Statistical shape analysis
Statistical signal processing
Statistical significance
Statistical survey
Statistical syllogism
Statistical theory
Statistical unit
Statisticians' and engineers' cross-reference of statistical terms
Statistics
Statistics education
Statistics Online Computational Resource training materials
StatPlus
StatXact software
Stein's example
Proof of Stein's example
Stein's lemma
Stein's unbiased risk estimate
Steiner system
Stemplot – see Stem-and-leaf display
Step detection
Stepwise regression
Stieltjes moment problem
Stimulus-response model
Stochastic
Stochastic approximation
Stochastic calculus
Stochastic convergence
Stochastic differential equation
Stochastic dominance
Stochastic drift
Stochastic equicontinuity
Stochastic gradient descent
Stochastic grammar
Stochastic investment model
Stochastic kernel estimation
Stochastic matrix
Stochastic modelling (insurance)
Stochastic optimization
Stochastic ordering
Stochastic process
Stochastic rounding
Stochastic simulation
Stopped process
Stopping time
Stratified sampling
Stratonovich integral
Streamgraph
Stress majorization
Strong law of small numbers
Strong prior
Structural break
Structural equation modeling
Structural estimation
Structured data analysis (statistics)
Studentized range
Studentized residual
Student's t-distribution
Student's t-statistic
Student's t-test
Student's t-test for Gaussian scale mixture distributions – see Location testing for Gaussian scale mixture distributions
Studentization
Study design
Study heterogeneity
Subcontrary mean redirects to Harmonic mean
Subgroup analysis
Subindependence
Substitution model
SUDAAN software
Sufficiency (statistics) – see Sufficient statistic
Sufficient dimension reduction
Sufficient statistic
Sum of normally distributed random variables
Sum of squares (disambiguation) general disambiguation
Sum of squares (statistics) – see Partition of sums of squares
Summary statistic
Support curve
Support vector machine
Surrogate model
Survey data collection
Survey sampling
Survey methodology
Survival analysis
Survival rate
Survival function
Survivorship bias
Symmetric design
Symmetric mean absolute percentage error
SYSTAT software
System dynamics
System identification
Systematic error (also see bias (statistics) and errors and residuals in statistics)
Systematic review
T
t-distribution – see Student's t-distribution (includes table)
T distribution (disambiguation)
t-statistic
Tag cloud graphical display of info
Taguchi loss function
Taguchi methods
Tajima's D
Taleb distribution
Tampering (quality control)
Taylor expansions for the moments of functions of random variables
Taylor's law empirical variance-mean relations
Telegraph process
Test for structural change
Test–retest reliability
Test score
Test set
Test statistic
Testimator
Testing hypotheses suggested by the data
Text analytics
The Long Tail possibly seminal magazine article
The Unscrambler software
Theil index
Theil–Sen estimator
Theory of conjoint measurement
Therapeutic effect
Thompson sampling
Three-point estimation
Three-stage least squares
Threshold model
Thurstone scale
Thurstonian model
Time–frequency analysis
Time–frequency representation
Time reversibility
Time series
Time-series regression
Time use survey
Time-varying covariate
Timeline of probability and statistics
TinkerPlots proprietary software for schools
Tobit model
Tolerance interval
Top-coded
Topic model (statistical natural language processing)
Topological data analysis
Tornqvist index
Total correlation
Total least squares
Total sum of squares
Total survey error
Total variation distance a statistical distance measure
TPL Tables software
Tracy–Widom distribution
Traffic equations
Training set
Transect
Transferable belief model
Transiogram
Transition rate matrix
Transmission risks and rates
Treatment and control groups
Trend analysis
Trend estimation
Trend-stationary process
Treynor ratio
Triangular distribution
Trimean
Trimmed estimator
Trispectrum
True experiment
True variance
Truncated distribution
Truncated mean
Truncated normal distribution
Truncated regression model
Truncation (statistics)
Tsallis distribution
Tsallis statistics
Tschuprow's T
Tucker decomposition
Tukey's range test multiple comparisons
Tukey's test of additivity interaction in two-way anova
Tukey–Duckworth test
Tukey–Kramer method
Tukey lambda distribution
Tweedie distribution
Twisting properties
Two stage least squares redirects to Instrumental variable
Two-tailed test
Two-way analysis of variance
Type I and type II errors
Type-1 Gumbel distribution
Type-2 Gumbel distribution
Tyranny of averages
U
u-chart
U-quadratic distribution
U-statistic
U test
Umbrella sampling
Unbiased estimator – see bias (statistics)
Unbiased estimation of standard deviation
Uncertainty
Uncertainty coefficient
Uncertainty quantification
Uncomfortable science
Uncorrelated
Underdispersion redirects to Overdispersion
Underfitting redirects to Overfitting
Underprivileged area score
Unevenly spaced time series
Unexplained variation – see Explained variation
Uniform distribution (continuous)
Uniform distribution (discrete)
Uniformly most powerful test
Unimodal distribution redirects to Unimodal function (has some stats context)
Unimodality
Unistat software
Unit (statistics)
Unit of observation
Unit root
Unit root test
Unit-weighted regression
Unitized risk
Univariate
Univariate analysis
Univariate distribution
Unmatched count
Unseen species problem
Unsolved problems in statistics
Upper and lower probabilities
Upside potential ratio finance
Urn problem
Ursell function
Utility maximization problem
Utilization distribution
V
Validity (statistics)
Van der Waerden test
Van Houtum distribution
Vapnik–Chervonenkis theory
Varadhan's lemma
Variable
Variable kernel density estimation
Variable-order Bayesian network
Variable-order Markov model
Variable rules analysis
Variance
Variance decomposition of forecast errors
Variance gamma process
Variance inflation factor
Variance-gamma distribution
Variance reduction
Variance-stabilizing transformation
Variance-to-mean ratio
Variation ratio
Variational Bayesian methods
Variational message passing
Variogram
Varimax rotation
Vasicek model
VC dimension
VC theory
Vector autoregression
VEGAS algorithm
Violin plot
ViSta – Software, see ViSta, The Visual Statistics system
Voigt profile
Volatility (finance)
Volcano plot (statistics)
Von Mises distribution
Von Mises–Fisher distribution
V-optimal histograms
V-statistic
Vuong's closeness test
Vysochanskiï–Petunin inequality
W
Wait list control group
Wald distribution redirects to Inverse Gaussian distribution
Wald test
Wald–Wolfowitz runs test
Wallenius' noncentral hypergeometric distribution
Wang and Landau algorithm
Ward's method
Watterson estimator
Watts and Strogatz model
Weibull chart redirects to Weibull distribution
Weibull distribution
Weibull modulus
Weight function
Weighted median
Weighted covariance matrix redirects to Sample mean and sample covariance
Weighted mean
Weighted sample redirects to Sample mean and sample covariance
Welch's method spectral density estimation
Welch's t test
Welch–Satterthwaite equation
Well-behaved statistic
Wick product
Wilks' lambda distribution
Wilks' theorem redirects to section of Likelihood-ratio test
Winsorized mean
Whipple's index
White test
White noise
Wide and narrow data
Wiener deconvolution
Wiener filter
Wiener process
Wigner quasi-probability distribution
Wigner semicircle distribution
Wike's law of low odd primes
Wilcoxon signed-rank test
Will Rogers phenomenon
WinBUGS software
Window function
Winpepi software
Winsorising
Wishart distribution
Wold's theorem
Wombling
Working–Hotelling procedure
World Programming System software
Wrapped Cauchy distribution
Wrapped distribution
Wrapped exponential distribution
Wrapped normal distribution
Wrapped Lévy distribution
Writer invariant
X
X-12-ARIMA
chart
and R chart
and s chart
XLispStat software
XploRe software
Y
Yamartino method
Yates analysis
Yates's correction for continuity
Youden's J statistic
Yule–Simon distribution
Z
z-score
z-factor
z statistic
Z-test
Z-transform
Zakai equation
Zelen's design
Zero degrees of freedom
Zero–one law (disambiguation)
Zeta distribution
Ziggurat algorithm
Zipf–Mandelbrot law a discrete distribution
Zipf's law
See also
Supplementary lists
These lists include items which are somehow related to statistics however are not included in this index:
List of statisticians
List of important publications in statistics
List of scientific journals in statistics
Topic lists
Outline of statistics
List of probability topics
Glossary of probability and statistics
Glossary of experimental design
Notation in probability and statistics
List of probability distributions
List of graphical methods
List of fields of application of statistics
List of stochastic processes topics
Lists of statistics topics
List of statistical packages
External links
ISI Glossary of Statistical Terms (multilingual), International Statistical Institute
Statistics
Statistics
Statistics |
37114838 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows%20Phone%207 | Windows Phone 7 | Windows Phone 7 is the first release of the Windows Phone mobile client operating system, released worldwide on October 21, 2010, and in the United States on November 8, 2010. It runs on the Windows CE 6.0 kernel.
It received multiple large updates, the last being Windows Phone 7.8, which was released in January 2013 and added a few features backported from Windows Phone 8, such as a more customizable start screen. Microsoft ended support for Windows Phone 7 on October 14, 2014. It was succeeded by Windows Phone 8, which was released on October 29, 2012.
History
Microsoft officially unveiled the new operating system, Windows Phone 7 Series, at the Mobile World Congress in Barcelona on February 15, 2010, and revealed additional details at MIX 2010 on March 15, 2010. The final SDK was made available on September 16, 2010. HP later decided not to build devices for Windows Phone, citing that it wanted to focus on devices for its newly purchased webOS. As its original name was criticized for being too complex and "wordy", the name of the operating system was officially shortened to just Windows Phone 7 on April 2, 2010.
On October 11, 2010, Microsoft's CEO Steve Ballmer announced the 10 launch devices for Windows Phone 7, made by HTC, Dell, Samsung, and LG, with sales beginning on October 21, 2010 in Europe and Australia and November 8, 2010 in the United States. The devices were made available on 60 carriers in 30 countries, with additional devices to be launched in 2011. Upon the release of Windows Phone 7's "Mango" revision, additional manufacturers became partners, including Acer, Fujitsu, and ZTE.
Windows Phone initially supported twenty-five languages, with applications being available through Windows Phone Store in 35 countries and regions. Support for additional languages and regions were subsequently brought through both the Mango and Tango updates to the OS respectively.
Features
Core
Windows Phone 7 is the only version of Windows Phone that features a kernel based on the Windows Embedded Compact 7 version of Windows Embedded CE, which was also used in Windows Mobile and Pocket PC systems.
User interface
Windows Phone 7 features a user interface based on a design system codenamed and commonly referred to as Metro. The home screen, called "Start screen", is made up of "Live Tiles". Tiles are links to applications, features, functions and individual items (such as contacts, web pages, applications or media items). Users can add, rearrange, or remove tiles. Tiles are dynamic and update in real time – for example, the tile for an email account would display the number of unread messages or a tile could display a live update of the weather.
Several key features of Windows Phone 7 are organized into "hubs", which combine local and online content via Windows Phone's integration with popular social networks such as Facebook, Windows Live, and Twitter. For example, the Pictures hub shows photos captured with the device's camera and the user's Facebook photo albums, and the People hub shows contacts aggregated from multiple sources including Windows Live, Facebook, and Gmail. From the Hub, users can directly comment and 'like' on social network updates. The other built-in hubs are Xbox Music and Video, Xbox Live Games, Windows Phone Store, and Microsoft Office. Due to Facebook Connect service changes, Facebook support is disabled in all bundled apps effective June 8, 2015.
Windows Phone uses multi-touch technology. The default Windows Phone user interface has a dark theme that prolongs battery life on OLED screens as fully black pixels do not emit light. The user may choose a light theme instead, and can also choose from several accent colors. User interface elements such as tiles are shown in the user's chosen accent color. Third-party applications can be automatically themed with these colors.
Text input
Users input text by using an on-screen virtual keyboard, which has a dedicated key for inserting emoticons, and features spell checking and word prediction. App developers (both inhouse and ISV) may specify different versions of the virtual keyboard in order to limit users to certain character sets, such as numeric characters alone. Users may change a word after it has been typed by tapping the word, which will invoke a list of similar words. Pressing and holding certain keys will reveal similar characters. The keys are somewhat larger and spaced farther apart when in landscape mode. Phones may also be made with a hardware keyboard for text input.
Messaging
Windows Phone 7's messaging system is organized into "threads". This allows a conversation with a person to be held through multiple platforms (such as Windows Live Messenger, Facebook messaging, or SMS within a single thread, dynamically switching between services depending on availability.
Web browser
Windows Phone 7.5 features a version of Internet Explorer Mobile with a rendering engine that is based on Internet Explorer 9.
The built-in web browser allows the user to maintain a list of favorite web pages and tiles linking to web pages on the Start screen. The browser supports up to 6 tabs, which can all load in parallel. Other features include multi-touch gestures, a streamlined UI, smooth zoom in/out animations, the ability to save pictures that are on web pages, share web pages via email, and support for inline search which allows the user to search for a word or phrase in a web page by typing it. Microsoft has announced plans to regularly update the Windows Phone web browser and its layout engine independently from the Windows Phone Update system.
Contacts
Contacts are organized via the "People hub", and can be manually entered into contacts or imported from Facebook, Windows Live Contacts, Twitter, LinkedIn and Gmail. Contacts may be manually imported from Outlook using Windows Live Contacts or Gmail. A "What's New" section show news feed and a "Pictures" section show pictures from those social networks made by the contacts. A "Me" section show the phone user's own social networks status and wall, allow the user to update his status, and check into Bing and Facebook Places. Contacts can be added to the home screen by pinning them to the start. The contact's "Live Tile" displays his social network status and profile picture on the homescreen and the contact's hub displays his Facebook wall as well as all of the rest of his contact information and information from his other social networks.
If a contact has information stored on multiple networks, users can link the two separate contact accounts, allowing the information to be viewed and accessed from a single card. As of Windows Phone 7.5, contacts can also be sorted into "Groups". Here, information from each of the contacts is combined into a single page which can be accessed directly from the Hub or pinned to the Start screen.
Email
Windows Phone supports Outlook.com, Exchange, Yahoo! Mail, and Gmail natively and supports many other services via the POP and IMAP protocols. For the native account types, contacts and calendars may be synced as well. Users can also search through their email by searching in the subject, body, senders, and receivers. Emails are shown in threading view and multiple email inboxes can be combined or kept separate.
Multimedia
The “Music + Videos hub also known as zune” allows the user to access music, videos, and podcasts stored on the device, and links directly to the "Xbox Music Store" to buy music, or rent with the Xbox Music Pass subscription service. When browsing the music by a particular artist, users are able to view artist biographies and photos, provided by the Xbox Music. This hub integrates with many other apps that provide video and music services, including, but not limited to, iHeartRadio, YouTube, and Vevo. This hub also includes Smart DJ which compiles a playlist of songs stored on the phone similar to the song or artist selected. Purchased movies and other videos can be played through Xbox Video.
The "Pictures hub" displays the user's Facebook and SkyDrive (Now OneDrive) photo albums, as well as photos taken with the phone's built-in camera. Users can also upload photos to social networks, comment on others photos, and tag photos on social networks. Multi-touch gestures permit zooming in and out of photos.
Media support
Windows Phone 7 supports WAV, MP3, WMA, AMR, AAC/MP4/M4A/M4B, and 3GP/3G2 standards. The video file formats supported include WMV, AVI, MP4/M4V, 3GP/3G2, and MOV (QuickTime) standards. These supported audio and video formats would be dependent on the codecs contained inside them. It has also been previously reported that the DivX and Xvid codecs within AVI are also playable on the system. Unlike the previous Windows Mobile operating system, there are currently no third-party applications for handling other video formats. The image file formats that are supported include JPG/JPEG, PNG, GIF, TIF and Bitmap (BMP).
After the "Mango" update, Windows Phone 7 added the ability for users to have custom ringtones. Ringtone audio files must be under 1MB and less than 40 seconds long. Custom ringtones still cannot be used for text messages, IMs or emails.
Games
The "Games hub" provides access to games on a phone along with Xbox Live functionality, including the ability for a user to interact with their avatar, view and edit their profile, see their achievements and view leaderboards, and send messages to friends on Xbox Live. The Games hub also features an area for managing invitations and turn notifications in turn-based multiplayer games.
Search
Microsoft's hardware requirements stipulate that every device running Windows Phone 7 must have a dedicated Search button on the front of the device that performs different actions. Pressing the search button while an application is open allows users to search within applications that take advantage of this feature; for example, pressing Search in the People hub lets users search their contact list for specific people. This has been changed in Windows Phone 7.5 however – as the search button is reserved for Bing – so applications that previously used this feature (such as the Marketplace) now include soft search buttons.
In other cases, pressing the Search button will allow the user to perform a search of web sites, news, and map locations using the Bing application.
Windows Phone also has a voice recognition function, powered by TellMe, which allows the user to perform a Bing search, call contacts or launch applications simply by speaking. This can be activated by pressing and holding the phone's Start button.
Bing is the default search engine on Windows Phone handsets due to its deep integration of functions into the OS (which also include the utilization of its map service for location-based searches and queries). However, Microsoft has stated that other search engine applications can be used.
Aside from location-based searches, Bing Maps on Windows Phone 7 also provide turn-by-turn navigation service to Windows Phone users, and Local Scout shows interest points such as attractions and restaurants in the nearby area. Bing Audio also allows the user to match a song with its name, while Bing Vision allows the user to read barcodes, QR codes, and tags.
Office suite
The "Office hub" organizes all Microsoft Office apps and documents. Microsoft Office Mobile provides interoperability between Windows Phone and the desktop version of Microsoft Office. Word Mobile, Excel Mobile, PowerPoint Mobile, OneNote Mobile, and SharePoint Workspace Mobile allow most Microsoft Office file formats to be viewed and edited directly on a Windows Phone device.
Microsoft Office can also open files from SkyDrive and Office 365, as well as files stored locally on the phone. Office files on Windows Phone 7 are sorted by tiles: Word documents (blue tile), Excel spreadsheets (green tile), PowerPoint presentations (red tile), and OneNote documents (purple tile).
Multitasking
Windows Phone 7 features a card-based task switcher which can be accessed by pressing and holding the back button. The screenshots of last five open apps are shown as cards. Apps can be kept running even when out of view through "Live Agents".
Sync
Zune software is used to manage and sync content on Windows Phone 7 devices with PCs. Windows Phone 7 can wirelessly sync with the software. In addition to accessing Windows Phone devices, Zune software can also access the Zune Marketplace to purchase music, videos, and apps for Windows Phone and Zune products. While music and videos are both stored locally on the PC and on the phone, apps are only stored on the phone even if purchased from the Zune software. Zune software is also used to deliver software updates to all Windows Phone 7 devices.
The Zune software is unavailable for Mac OS X, but Microsoft has released Windows Phone Connector, which allows Windows Phone devices to sync with iTunes and iPhoto. This has since been succeeded by the Windows Phone App, which is designed for Windows Phone 8 but can sync with Windows Phone 7 devices as well.
Removed features
While Windows Phone contains many new features, a number of capabilities and certain programs that were a part of previous versions up to Windows Mobile 6.5 were removed or changed.
The following is a list of features which were present in Windows Mobile 6.5 but were removed in Windows Phone 7.0.
Calling
The list of past phone calls is now a single list, and cannot be separated into inbound, outbound or missed calls
Sync
Windows Phone does not support USB sync with Microsoft Outlook's Calendar, Contacts, Tasks, and Notes as opposed to older versions of Windows Mobile with Desktop ActiveSync. Syncing Contacts and Appointments is done via cloud-based services (Windows Live, Google, or Exchange Server), and no method to sync this information directly with a PC is provided. Third party software, such as Akruto Sync, provides some of this functionality. A petition to Microsoft was filed to reinstate USB sync for Outlook.
Other
Adobe Flash
Features subsequently implemented in Windows Phone 7.5
Internet sockets
Cut, copy, and paste
Partial multitasking for 3rd party apps
Connecting to Wi-Fi (wireless) access points with hidden SSID, but without WPA
Tethering to a computer
Custom ringtones
Universal email inbox
USSD messages
VoIP calling through a separate app
Features subsequently implemented in Windows Phone 8.0
Removable SD cards
USB mass-storage
Bluetooth file transfers
Connecting to Wi-Fi (wireless) access points with both a hidden SSID and WPA protection
Sideloading for corporate apps
VoIP and IP Videocalling integrated in the Phone app
Support for Office documents with security permissions
On-device encryption
Strong passwords
Full Exchange support
Native applications
Full background multitasking
Features subsequently implemented in Windows Phone 8.1
IPsec security (VPN)
System-wide file manager
The 'Weekly' view in the Calendar app
Universal search
UMTS/LTE Videocalling
Hardware
To provide a more consistent experience between devices, Windows Phone 7 devices are required to meet a certain set of hardware requirements, which Andy Lees, Microsoft's senior vice president of mobile communications business, described as being "tough, but fair." All Windows Phone 7 devices, at minimum, must include the following:
Previously, Windows Phone 7 devices were required to have 512 MB of RAM. As of the "Tango" update, the requirements were revised to allow for chipsets with slower processors, and for devices to have a minimum of 256 MB of RAM. Certain features of the operating system, and the ability to install certain resource-intensive apps are disabled on Windows Phone devices with under 512 MB of RAM.
Version history
Reception
What Engadget and Gizmodo felt were notable omissions in a modern smartphone OS have largely been addressed in the Mango update. ZDNet praised the OS's virtual keyboard and noted the excellent touch precision as well as powerful auto-correct and revision software. The touch responsiveness of the OS has also been universally praised by all three sites with reviewers noting the smoothness of scrolling and gestures like pinch to zoom in web browsing.
PCWorld ran an article called "Windows Phone 7: Microsoft's Disaster" citing what they call a "lack of security, shockingly bad Office apps, an interface not backed up under the hood and abandonment of the full Microsoft customer base."
The reception to the "Metro" UI (also called Modern-Style UI) and overall interface of the OS has also been highly praised for its style, with ZDNet noting its originality and fresh clean look. Engadget and ZDNet applauded the integration of Facebook into the People Hub as well as other built-in capabilities, such as Windows Live, etc.
Awards
Windows Phone 7 was presented with a total of three awards at the 2011 International Design Excellence Awards, voted by an independent jury at an event co-sponsored by Microsoft, among others; Gold in Interactive Product Experience, Silver in Research and Bronze in the Design Strategy.
"The Windows Phone 7 was built around the idea that the end user is king. The design team began by defining and understanding the people who would use this phone. It was convinced that there could be a better user experience for a phone, one that revolves more around who the users are rather than what they do. The Windows Phone 7 lets users quickly get in, get out and back to their lives."
At the awards ceremony, Windows Phone 7 was given "the noteworthy People's Choice Award, an award handed to the favorite IDEA 2011 gold award winner."
See also
Windows Phone 8.0
Windows Phone 8.1
Windows 10 Mobile
List of digital distribution platforms for mobile devices
List of features removed in Windows Vista
List of features removed in Windows 7
List of features removed in Windows 8
Notes
References
External links
Official website (Archive)
Windows Phone 7 for government
Windows Phone
Smartphones |
323710 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MediaWiki | MediaWiki | MediaWiki is a free and open-source wiki software. It was developed for use on Wikipedia in 2002, and given the name "MediaWiki" in 2003. It remains in use on Wikipedia and almost all other Wikimedia websites, including Wiktionary, Wikimedia Commons and Wikidata; these sites continue to define a large part of the requirement set for MediaWiki. MediaWiki was originally developed by Magnus Manske and improved by Lee Daniel Crocker. Its development has since then been coordinated by the Wikimedia Foundation.
MediaWiki is written in the PHP programming language and stores all text content into a database. The software is optimized to efficiently handle large projects, which can have terabytes of content and hundreds of thousands of views per second. Because Wikipedia is one of the world's largest websites, achieving scalability through multiple layers of caching and database replication has been a major concern for developers. Another major aspect of MediaWiki is its internationalization; its interface is available in more than 300 languages. The software has more than 1,000 configuration settings and more than 1,800 extensions available for enabling various features to be added or changed.
Besides its use on Wikimedia sites, MediaWiki has been used as a knowledge management and content management system on many thousands of websites, public and private, including the websites Fandom, wikiHow, and major internal installations like Intellipedia and Diplopedia.
License
MediaWiki is free and open-source and is distributed under the terms of the GNU General Public License version 2 or any later version. Its documentation, located at www.mediawiki.org, is released under the Creative Commons BY-SA 3.0 license and partly in the public domain. Specifically, the manuals and other content at MediaWiki.org are Creative Commons-licensed, while the set of help pages intended to be freely copied into fresh wiki installations and/or distributed with MediaWiki software is public domain. This was done to eliminate legal issues arising from the help pages being imported into wikis with licenses that are incompatible with the Creative Commons license. MediaWiki's development has generally favored the use of open-source media formats.
Development
MediaWiki has an active volunteer community for development and maintenance. Users who have made meaningful contributions to the project by submitting patches are generally, upon request, granted access to commit revisions to the project's Git/Gerrit repository.
There are also paid programmers who primarily develop projects for the Wikimedia Foundation. MediaWiki developers participate in the Google Summer of Code by facilitating the assignment of mentors to students wishing to work on MediaWiki core and extension projects.
During the year prior to November 2012, there were about two hundred developers who had committed changes to the MediaWiki core or extensions.
Major MediaWiki releases are generated approximately every six months by taking snapshots of the development branch, which is kept continuously in a runnable state; minor releases, or point releases, are issued as needed to correct bugs (especially security problems).
MediaWiki is developed on a continuous integration development model, in which software changes are pushed live to Wikimedia sites on regular basis.
MediaWiki also has a public bug tracker, phabricator.wikimedia.org, which runs Phabricator. The site is also used for feature and enhancement requests.
History
When Wikipedia was launched in January 2001, it ran on an existing wiki software system, UseModWiki. UseModWiki is written in the Perl programming language, and stores all wiki pages in text (.txt) files. This software soon proved to be limiting, in both functionality and performance. In mid-2001, Magnus Manske—a developer and student at the University of Cologne, as well as a Wikipedia editor—began working on new software that would replace UseModWiki, specifically designed for use by Wikipedia. This software was written in the PHP scripting language, and stored all of its information in a MySQL engine database. The new software was largely developed by August 24, 2001, and a test wiki for it was established shortly thereafter.
The first full implementation of this software was the new Meta Wikipedia on November 9, 2001. There was a desire to have it implemented immediately on the English-language Wikipedia. However, Manske was apprehensive about any potential bugs harming the nascent website during the period of the final exams he had to complete immediately prior to Christmas; this led to the launch on the English-language Wikipedia being delayed until January 25, 2002. The software was then, gradually, deployed on all the Wikipedia language sites of that time. This software was referred to as "the PHP script" and as "phase II", with the name "phase I", retroactively given to the use of UseModWiki.
Increasing usage soon caused load problems to arise again, and soon after, another rewrite of the software began; this time being done by Lee Daniel Crocker, which became known as "phase III". This new software was also written in PHP, with a MySQL backend, and kept the basic interface of the phase II software, but with the added functionality of a wider scalability. The "phase III" software went live on Wikipedia in July 2002.
The Wikimedia Foundation was announced on June 20, 2003. In July, Wikipedia contributor Daniel Mayer suggested the name "MediaWiki" for the software, as a play on "Wikimedia". The MediaWiki name was gradually phased in, beginning in August 2003. The name has frequently caused confusion due to its (intentional) similarity to the "Wikimedia" name (which itself is similar to "Wikipedia").
The old product logo was created by Erik Möller, using a flower photograph taken by Florence Nibart-Devouard, and was originally submitted to the logo contest for a new Wikipedia logo, held in from July 20 to August 27, 2003. The logo came in third place, and was chosen to represent MediaWiki rather than Wikipedia, with the second place logo being used for the Wikimedia Foundation. The double square brackets ( ) symbolize the syntax MediaWiki uses for creating hyperlinks to other wiki pages; while the sunflower represents the diversity of content on Wikipedia, the constant growth, and also the wildness.
Later, , the Chief Technical Officer of the Wikimedia Foundation, took up the role of Release Manager, and the most active Developer.
Major milestones in MediaWiki's development have included: the categorization system (2004); parser functions, (2006); Flagged Revisions, (2008); the "ResourceLoader", a delivery system for CSS and JavaScript (2011); and the VisualEditor, a "what you see is what you get" (WYSIWYG) editing platform (2013).
The contest of designing a new logo was initiated on June 22, 2020, as the old logo was a bitmap image and had "high details", leading to problems when rendering at high and low resolutions, respectively. After two rounds of voting, the new and current MediaWiki logo designed by Serhio Magpie was selected on October 24, 2020, and officially adopted on April 1, 2021.
Version history
The first version of MediaWiki, 1.1, was released in December 2003.
Sites using MediaWiki
MediaWiki's most famous use has been in Wikipedia and, to a lesser degree, the Wikimedia Foundation's other projects. Fandom, a wiki hosting service formerly known as Wikia, runs on MediaWiki. Other public wikis that run on MediaWiki include wikiHow and SNPedia. WikiLeaks began as a MediaWiki-based site, but is no longer a wiki.
A number of alternative wiki encyclopedias to Wikipedia run on MediaWiki, including Citizendium, Metapedia, Scholarpedia and Conservapedia. MediaWiki is also used internally by a large number of companies, including Novell and Intel.
Notable usages of MediaWiki within governments include Intellipedia, used by the United States Intelligence Community, Diplopedia, used by the United States Department of State, and milWiki, a part of milSuite used by the United States Department of Defense. United Nations agencies such as the United Nations Development Programme and INSTRAW chose to implement their wikis using MediaWiki, because "this software runs Wikipedia and is therefore guaranteed to be thoroughly tested, will continue to be developed well into the future, and future technicians on these wikis will be more likely to have exposure to MediaWiki than any other wiki software."
The Free Software Foundation uses MediaWiki to implement the LibrePlanet site.
Key features
MediaWiki provides a rich core feature set and a mechanism to attach extensions to provide additional functionality.
Internationalization and localisation
Due to the strong emphasis on multilingualism in the Wikimedia projects, internationalization and localization has received significant attention by developers. The user interface has been fully or partially translated into more than 300 languages on translatewiki.net, and can be further customized by site administrators (the entire interface is editable through the wiki).
Several extensions, most notably those collected in the MediaWiki Language Extension Bundle, are designed to further enhance the multilingualism and internationalization of MediaWiki.
Installation and configuration
Installation of MediaWiki requires that the user have administrative privileges on a server running both PHP and a compatible type of SQL database. Some users find that setting up a virtual host is helpful if the majority of one's site runs under a framework (such as Zope or Ruby on Rails) that is largely incompatible with MediaWiki. Cloud hosting can eliminate the need to deploy a new server.
An installation PHP script is accessed via a web browser to initialize the wiki's settings. It prompts the user for a minimal set of required parameters, leaving further changes, such as enabling uploads, adding a site logo, and installing extensions, to be made by modifying configuration settings contained in a file called LocalSettings.php. Some aspects of MediaWiki can be configured through special pages or by editing certain pages; for instance, abuse filters can be configured through a special page, and certain gadgets can be added by creating JavaScript pages in the MediaWiki namespace. The MediaWiki community publishes a comprehensive installation guide.
Markup
One of the earliest differences between MediaWiki (and its predecessor, UseModWiki) and other wiki engines was the use of "free links" instead of CamelCase. When MediaWiki was created, it was typical for wikis to require text like "WorldWideWeb" to create a link to a page about the World Wide Web; links in MediaWiki, on the other hand, are created by surrounding words with double square brackets, and any spaces between them are left intact, e.g. . This change was logical for the purpose of creating an encyclopedia, where accuracy in titles is important.
MediaWiki uses an extensible lightweight wiki markup designed to be easier to use and learn than HTML. Tools exist for converting content such as tables between MediaWiki markup and HTML. Efforts have been made to create a MediaWiki markup spec, but a consensus seems to have been reached that Wikicode requires context-sensitive grammar rules. The following side-by-side comparison illustrates the differences between wiki markup and HTML:
(Quotation above from Alice's Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll)
Editing interface
MediaWiki's default page-editing tools have been described as somewhat challenging to learn. A survey of students assigned to use a MediaWiki-based wiki found that when they were asked an open question about main problems with the wiki, 24% cited technical problems with formatting, e.g. "Couldn't figure out how to get an image in. Can't figure out how to show a link with words; it inserts a number."
To make editing long pages easier, MediaWiki allows the editing of a subsection of a page (as identified by its header). A registered user can also indicate whether or not an edit is minor. Correcting spelling, grammar or punctuation are examples of minor edits, whereas adding paragraphs of new text is an example of a non-minor edit.
Sometimes while one user is editing, a second user saves an edit to the same part of the page. Then, when the first user attempts to save the page, an edit conflict occurs. The second user is then given an opportunity to merge their content into the page as it now exists following the first user's page save.
MediaWiki's user interface has been localized in many different languages. A language for the wiki content itself can also be set, to be sent in the "Content-Language" HTTP header and "lang" HTML attribute.
Application programming interface
MediaWiki has an extensible web API (application programming interface) that provides direct, high-level access to the data contained in the MediaWiki databases. Client programs can use the API to log in, get data, and post changes. The API supports thin web-based JavaScript clients and end-user applications (such as vandal-fighting tools). The API can be accessed by the backend of another web site. An extensive Python bot library, Pywikibot, and a popular semi-automated tool called AutoWikiBrowser, also interface with the API. The API is accessed via URLs such as https://en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=query&list=recentchanges. In this case, the query would be asking Wikipedia for information relating to the last 10 edits to the site. One of the perceived advantages of the API is its language independence; it listens for HTTP connections from clients and can send a response in a variety of formats, such as XML, serialized PHP, or JSON. Client code has been developed to provide layers of abstraction to the API.
Rich content
MediaWiki supports rich content generated through specialized syntax. For example, the software comes with optional support for rendering mathematical formulas using LaTeX and a special parser written in OCaml. Similar functionality for other content, ranging from graphical timelines over mathematical plotting and musical scores to Egyptian hieroglyphs, is available via extensions.
The software has become more powerful at dealing with a wide variety of uploaded media files. Its richest functionality is in the area of images, where image galleries and thumbnails can be generated with relative ease. There is also support for Exif metadata. The use of MediaWiki to operate the Wikimedia Commons, one of the largest free content media archives, has driven the need for further functionality in this area.
For WYSIWYG editing, VisualEditor is available to use in MediaWiki which simplifying editing process for editors and has been bundled since MediaWiki 1.35. Other extensions exist for handling WYSIWYG editing to different degrees.
Tracking edits
Among the features of MediaWiki to assist in tracking edits is a Recent Changes feature that provides a list of recent edits to the wiki. This list contains basic information about those edits such as the editing user, the edit summary, the page edited, as well as any tags (e.g. "possible malware link") added by customizable abuse filters and other extensions to aid in combating unhelpful edits. On more active wikis, so many edits occur that it is hard to track Recent Changes manually. Anti-vandal software, including user-assisted tools, is sometimes employed on such wikis to process Recent Changes items. Server load can be reduced by sending a continuous feed of Recent Changes to an IRC channel that these tools can monitor, eliminating their need to send requests for a refreshed Recent Changes feed to the API.
Another important tool is watchlisting. Each logged-in user has a watchlist to which the user can add whatever pages he or she wishes. When an edit is made to one of those pages, a summary of that edit appears on the watchlist the next time it is refreshed. As with the recent changes page, recent edits that appear on the watchlist contain clickable links for easy review of the article history and specific changes made.
There is also the capability to review all edits made by any particular user. In this way, if an edit is identified as problematic, it is possible to check the user's other edits for issues.
MediaWiki allows one to link to specific versions of articles. This has been useful to the scientific community, in that expert peer reviewers could analyse articles, improve them and provide links to the trusted version of that article.
Navigation
Wikilinks
Navigation through the wiki is largely through internal wikilinks. MediaWiki's wikilinks implement page existence detection, in which a link is colored blue if the target page exists on the local wiki and red if it does not. If a user clicks on a red link, they are prompted to create an article with that title. Page existence detection makes it practical for users to create "wikified" articles—that is, articles containing links to other pertinent subjects—without those other articles being yet in existence.
Interwiki links
Interwiki links function much the same way as namespaces. A set of interwiki prefixes can be configured to cause, for instance, a page title of wikiquote:Jimbo Wales to direct the user to the Jimbo Wales article on Wikiquote. Unlike internal wikilinks, interwiki links lack page existence detection functionality, and accordingly there is no way to tell whether a blue interwiki link is broken or not.
Interlanguage links
Interlanguage links are the small navigation links that show up in the sidebar in most MediaWiki skins that connect an article with related articles in other languages within the same Wiki family. This can provide language-specific communities connected by a larger context, with all wikis on the same server or each on its own server.
Previously, Wikipedia used interlanguage links to link an article to other articles on the same topic in other editions of Wikipedia. This was superseded by the launch of Wikidata.
Content organization
Page tabs and associated pages
Page tabs are displayed at the top of pages. These tabs allow users to perform actions or view pages that are related to the current page. The available default actions include viewing, editing, and discussing the current page. The specific tabs displayed depend on whether the user is logged into the wiki and whether the user has sysop privileges on the wiki. For instance, the ability to move a page or add it to one's watchlist is usually restricted to logged-in users. The site administrator can add or remove tabs by using JavaScript or installing extensions.
Each page has an associated history page from which the user can access every version of the page that has ever existed and generate diffs between two versions of his choice. Users' contributions are displayed not only here, but also via a "user contributions" option on a sidebar. In a 2004 article, Carl Challborn and Teresa Reimann noted that "While this feature may be a slight deviation from the collaborative, 'ego-less' spirit of wiki purists, it can be very useful for educators who need to assess the contribution and participation of individual student users."
Namespaces
MediaWiki provides many features beyond hyperlinks for structuring content. One of the earliest such features is namespaces. One of Wikipedia's earliest problems had been the separation of encyclopedic content from pages pertaining to maintenance and communal discussion, as well as personal pages about encyclopedia editors. Namespaces are prefixes before a page title (such as "User:" or "Talk:") that serve as descriptors for the page's purpose and allow multiple pages with different functions to exist under the same title. For instance, a page titled "", in the default namespace, could describe the 1984 movie starring Arnold Schwarzenegger, while a page titled "" could be a profile describing a user who chooses this name as a pseudonym. More commonly, each namespace has an associated "Talk:" namespace, which can be used to discuss its contents, such as "User talk:" or "Template talk:". The purpose of having discussion pages is to allow content to be separated from discussion surrounding the content.
Namespaces can be viewed as folders that separate different basic types of information or functionality. Custom namespaces can be added by the site administrators. There are 16 namespaces by default for content, with 2 "pseudo-namespaces" used for dynamically generated "Special:" pages and links to media files. Each namespace on MediaWiki is numbered: content page namespaces have even numbers and their associated talk page namespaces have odd numbers.
Category tags
Users can create new categories and add pages and files to those categories by appending one or more category tags to the content text. Adding these tags creates links at the bottom of the page that take the reader to the list of all pages in that category, making it easy to browse related articles. The use of categorization to organize content has been described as a combination of:
Collaborative tagging systems like del.icio.us and
Hierarchical classifications like the Dewey Decimal Classification.
Subpages
In addition to namespaces, content can be ordered using subpages. This simple feature provides automatic breadcrumbs of the pattern from the page after the slash (in this case, "Subpage title") to the page before the slash (in this case, "Page title").
Customization
If the feature is enabled, users can customize their stylesheets and configure client-side JavaScript to be executed with every pageview. On Wikipedia, this has led to a large number of additional tools and helpers developed through the wiki and shared among users. For instance, navigation popups is a custom JavaScript tool that shows previews of articles when the user hovers over links and also provides shortcuts for common maintenance tasks.
The entire MediaWiki user interface can be edited through the wiki itself by users with the necessary permissions (typically called "administrators"). This is done through a special namespace with the prefix "MediaWiki:", where each page title identifies a particular user interface message. Using an extension, it is also possible for a user to create personal scripts, and to choose whether certain sitewide scripts should apply to them by toggling the appropriate options in the user preferences page.
Templates
The "MediaWiki:" namespace was originally also used for creating custom text blocks that could then be dynamically loaded into other pages using a special syntax. This content was later moved into its own namespace, "Template:".
Templates are text blocks that can be dynamically loaded inside another page whenever that page is requested. The template is a special link in double curly brackets (for example "{{Disputed|date=October 2018}}"), which calls the template (in this case located at ) to load in place of the template call.
Templates are structured documents containing attribute–value pairs. They are defined with parameters, to which are assigned values when transcluded on an article page. The name of the parameter is delimited from the value by an equals sign. A class of templates known as infoboxes is used on Wikipedia to collect and present a subset of information about its subject, usually on the top (mobile view) or top right-hand corner (desktop view) of the document.
A related method, called template substitution (called by adding subst: at the beginning of a template link) inserts the contents of the template into the target page (like a copy and paste operation), instead of loading the template contents dynamically whenever the page is loaded. This can lead to inconsistency when using templates, but may be useful in certain cases, and in most cases requires fewer server resources (the actual amount of savings can vary depending on wiki configuration and the complexity of the template).
Templates have found many different uses. Templates enable users to create complex table layouts that are used consistently across multiple pages, and where only the content of the tables gets inserted using template parameters. Templates are frequently used to identify problems with a Wikipedia article by putting a template in the article. This template then outputs a graphical box stating that the article content is disputed or in need of some other attention, and also categorize it so that articles of this nature can be located. Templates are also used on user pages to send users standard messages welcoming them to the site, giving them awards for outstanding contributions, warning them when their behavior is considered inappropriate, notifying them when they are blocked from editing, and so on.
Groups and restriction of access
MediaWiki offers flexibility in creating and defining user groups. For instance, it would be possible to create an arbitrary "ninja" group that can block users and delete pages, and whose edits are hidden by default in the recent changes log. It is also possible to set up a group of "autoconfirmed" users that one becomes a member of after making a certain number of edits and waiting a certain number of days. Some groups that are enabled by default are bureaucrats and sysops. Bureaucrats have the power to change other users' rights. Sysops have power over page protection and deletion and the blocking of users from editing. MediaWiki's available controls on editing rights have been deemed sufficient for publishing and maintaining important documents such as a manual of standard operating procedures in a hospital.
When a page consists only of useless content, there are several ways to remove that content. The simplest way, available to all users, is simply to blank the page. However, this interferes with page existence detection, unless an extension is installed to treat blanked pages as though they were nonexistent. Blanking also leaves the content accessible through the history page, an outcome that, while potentially increasing transparency by allowing non-sysops to easily review the content removal decision for appropriateness, might be unacceptable or even unlawful in some cases. Another option is for a sysop to delete the page, and thereby prevent it from being viewed by non-sysops. Another level of deletion, called RevisionDelete, can be used by a group (e.g. "Oversighters") to prevent a page from being viewed by non-members of that group. It is also possible, using certain extensions, to remove content from being viewed through any of the normal channels on the wiki, or even to completely delete revisions from the database.
MediaWiki comes with a basic set of features related to restricting access, but its original and ongoing design is driven by functions that largely relate to content, not content segregation. As a result, with minimal exceptions (related to specific tools and their related "Special" pages), page access control has never been a high priority in core development and developers have stated that users requiring secure user access and authorization controls should not rely on MediaWiki, since it was never designed for these kinds of situations. For instance, it is extremely difficult to create a wiki where only certain users can read and access some pages. Here, wiki engines like Foswiki, MoinMoin and Confluence provide more flexibility by supporting advanced security mechanisms like access control lists.
Extensibility
The MediaWiki codebase contains various hooks using callback functions to add additional PHP code in an extensible way. This allows developers to write extensions without necessarily needing to modify the core or having to submit their code for review. Installing an extension typically consists of adding a line to the configuration file, though in some cases additional changes such as database updates or core patches are required.
Five main extension points were created to allow developers to add features and functionalities to MediaWiki. Hooks are run every time a certain event happens; for instance, the ArticleSaveComplete hook occurs after a save article request has been processed. This can be used, for example, by an extension that notifies selected users whenever a page edit occurs on the wiki from new or anonymous users. New tags can be created to process data with opening and closing tags (...). Parser functions can be used to create a new command ({{#if:...|...|...}}). New special pages can be created to perform a specific function. These pages are dynamically generated. For example, a special page might show all pages that have one or more links to an external site or it might create a form providing user submitted feedback. Skins allow users to customize the look and feel of MediaWiki. A minor extension point allows the use of Amazon S3 to host image files.
Extensions
Resources to developers
MediaWiki can be made more advanced and useful for various purposes through its extensions. These extensions vary greatly in complexity.
The Wikimedia Foundation operates a Git server where many extensions host their repository. Most of them also have a documentation page on the MediaWiki website.
MediaWiki code review was itself historically facilitated through a MediaWiki extension. As of March 2012, it has been done through Gerrit.
Since version 1.16, MediaWiki uses the jQuery library.
Text manipulation
Among the most popular extensions is a parser function extension, ParserFunctions, which allows different content to be rendered based on the result of conditional statements. These conditional statements can perform functions such as evaluating whether a parameter is empty, comparing strings, evaluating mathematical expressions, and returning one of two values depending on whether a page exists. It was designed as a replacement for a notoriously inefficient template called {{Qif}}. Schindler recounts the history of the ParserFunctions extension as follows:
Another parser functions extension, StringFunctions, was developed to allow evaluation of string length, string position, and so on. Wikimedia communities, having created awkward workarounds to accomplish the same functionality, clamored for it to be enabled on their projects. Much of its functionality was eventually integrated into the ParserFunctions extension, albeit disabled by default and accompanied by a warning from Tim Starling that enabling string functions would allow users "to implement their own parsers in the ugliest, most inefficient programming language known to man: MediaWiki wikitext with ParserFunctions."
Since 2012 an extension, Scribunto, has existed that allows for the creation of "modules"—wiki pages written in the scripting language Lua—which can then be run within templates and standard wiki pages. Scribunto has been installed on Wikipedia and other Wikimedia sites since 2013 and is used heavily on those sites. Scribunto code runs significantly faster than corresponding wikitext code using ParserFunctions.
For footnotes and academic-related display
Another very popular extension is a citation extension that enables footnotes to be added to pages using inline references. This extension has, however, been criticized for being difficult to use and requiring the user to memorize complex syntax. A gadget called RefToolbar attempts to make it easier to create citations using common templates. MediaWiki has some extensions that are well-suited for academia, such as mathematics extensions and an extension that allows molecules to be rendered in 3D.
Integration
A generic Widgets extension exists that allows MediaWiki to integrate with virtually anything. Other examples of extensions that could improve a wiki are category suggestion extensions and extensions for inclusion of Flash Videos, YouTube videos, and RSS feeds. Metavid, a site that archives video footage of the U.S. Senate and House floor proceedings, was created using code extending MediaWiki into the domain of collaborative video authoring.
Combating linkspam
There are many spambots that search the web for MediaWiki installations and add linkspam to them, despite the fact that MediaWiki uses the nofollow attribute to discourage such attempts at search engine optimization. Part of the problem is that third party republishers, such as mirrors, may not independently implement the nofollow tag on their websites, so marketers can still get PageRank benefit by inserting links into pages when those entries appear on third party websites. Anti-spam extensions have been developed to combat the problem by introducing CAPTCHAs, blacklisting certain URLs, and allowing bulk deletion of pages recently added by a particular user.
Searches and queries
MediaWiki comes pre-installed with a standard text-based search. Extensions exist to let MediaWiki use more sophisticated third-party search engines, including Elasticsearch (which since 2014 has been in use on Wikipedia), Lucene and Sphinx.
Various MediaWiki extensions have also been created to allow for more complex, faceted search, on both data entered within the wiki and on metadata such as pages' revision history.
Semantic MediaWiki is one such extension.
Database
MediaWiki can use either the MySQL/MariaDB, PostgreSQL or SQLite relational database management system. Support for Oracle Database and Microsoft SQL Server has been dropped since MediaWiki 1.34. A MediaWiki database contains several dozen tables, including a page table that contains page titles, page ids, and other metadata; and a revision table to which is added a new row every time an edit is made, containing the page id, a brief textual summary of the change performed, the user name of the article editor (or its IP address the case of an unregistered user) and a timestamp.
In a 4½ year period prior to 2008, the MediaWiki database had 170 schema versions. Possibly the largest schema change was done in 2005 with MediaWiki 1.5, when the storage of metadata was separated from that of content, to improve performance flexibility. When this upgrade was applied to Wikipedia, the site was locked for editing, and the schema was converted to the new version in about 22 hours. Some software enhancement proposals, such as a proposal to allow sections of articles to be watched via watchlist, have been rejected because the necessary schema changes would have required excessive Wikipedia downtime.
Performance and storage
Because it is used to run one of the highest-traffic sites on the Web, Wikipedia, MediaWiki's performance and scalability have been highly optimized. MediaWiki supports Squid, load-balanced database replication, client-side caching, memcached or table-based caching for frequently accessed processing of query results, a simple static file cache, feature-reduced operation, revision compression, and a job queue for database operations. MediaWiki developers have attempted to optimize the software by avoiding expensive algorithms, database queries, etc., caching every result that is expensive and has temporal locality of reference, and focusing on the hot spots in the code through profiling.
MediaWiki code is designed to allow for data to be written to a read-write database and read from read-only databases, although the read-write database can be used for some read operations if the read-only databases are not yet up to date. Metadata, such as article revision history, article relations (links, categories etc.), user accounts and settings can be stored in core databases and cached; the actual revision text, being more rarely used, can be stored as append-only blobs in external storage. The software is suitable for the operation of large-scale wiki farms such as Wikimedia, which had about 800 wikis as of August 2011. However, MediaWiki comes with no built-in GUI to manage such installations.
Empirical evidence shows most revisions in MediaWiki databases tend to differ only slightly from previous revisions. Therefore, subsequent revisions of an article can be concatenated and then compressed, achieving very high data compression ratios of up to 100x.
For more information on the architecture, such as how it stores wikitext and assembles a page, see External links.
Limitations
The parser serves as the de facto standard for the MediaWiki syntax, as no formal syntax has been defined. Due to this lack of a formal definition, it has been difficult to create WYSIWYG editors for MediaWiki, although several WYSIWYG extensions do exist, including the popular VisualEditor.
MediaWiki is not designed to be a suitable replacement for dedicated online forum or blogging software, although extensions do exist to allow for both of these.
It is common for new MediaWiki users to make certain mistakes, such as forgetting to sign posts with four tildes (~~~~), or manually entering a plaintext signature, due to unfamiliarity with the idiosyncratic particulars involved in communication on MediaWiki discussion pages. On the other hand, the format of these discussion pages has been cited as a strength by one educator, who stated that it provides more fine-grain capabilities for discussion than traditional threaded discussion forums. For example, instead of 'replying' to an entire message, the participant in a discussion can create a hyperlink to a new wiki page on any word from the original page. Discussions are easier to follow since the content is available via hyperlinked wiki page, rather than a series of reply messages on a traditional threaded discussion forum. However, except in few cases, students were not using this capability, possibly because of their familiarity with the traditional linear discussion style and a lack of guidance on how to make the content more 'link-rich'.
MediaWiki by default has little support for the creation of dynamically assembled documents, or pages that aggregate data from other pages. Some research has been done on enabling such features directly within MediaWiki. The Semantic MediaWiki extension provides these features. It is not in use on Wikipedia, but in more than 1,600 other MediaWiki installations. The Wikibase Repository and Wikibase Repository client are however implemented in Wikidata and Wikipedia respectively, and to some extent provides semantic web features, and linking of centrally stored data to infoboxes in various Wikipedia articles.
Upgrading MediaWiki is usually fully automated, requiring no changes to the site content or template programming. Historically troubles have been encountered when upgrading from significantly older versions.
Security
MediaWiki developers have enacted security standards, both for core code and extensions. SQL queries and HTML output are usually done through wrapper functions that handle validation, escaping, filtering for prevention of cross-site scripting and SQL injection. Many security issues have had to be patched after a MediaWiki version release, and accordingly MediaWiki.org states, "The most important security step you can take is to keep your software up to date" by subscribing to the announcement listserv and installing security updates that are announced.
Developer community
MediaWiki developers are spread around the world, though with a majority in the United States and Europe. Face-to-face meetings and programming sessions for MediaWiki developers have been held once or several times a year since 2004.
Support
Support for MediaWiki users consists of:
MediaWiki.org, including the Support Desk.
An official mailing list, Mediawiki-l.
Several books have been written about MediaWiki administration, including some free online books.
Comparison to other online collaboration software
Users of online collaboration software are familiar with MediaWiki's functions and layout due to its noted use on Wikipedia. A 2006 overview of social software in academia observed that "Compared to other wikis, MediaWiki is also fairly aesthetically pleasing, though simple, and has an easily customized side menu and stylesheet." However, in one assessment in 2006, Confluence was deemed to be a superior product due to its very usable API and ability to better support multiple wikis. As of 2005, wiki providers Socialtext and JotSpot had project management features that MediaWiki was lacking.
A 2009 study at the University of Hong Kong compared TWiki to MediaWiki. The authors noted that TWiki has been considered as a collaborative tool for the development of educational papers and technical projects, whereas MediaWiki's most noted use is on Wikipedia. Although both platforms allow discussion and tracking of progress, TWiki has a "Report" part that MediaWiki lacks. Students perceived MediaWiki as being easier to use and more enjoyable than TWiki. When asked whether they recommended using MediaWiki for knowledge management course group project, 15 out of 16 respondents expressed their preference for MediaWiki giving answers of great certainty, such as "of course", "for sure". TWiki and MediaWiki both have flexible plug-in architecture.
A 2009 study that compared students' experience with MediaWiki to that with Google Docs found that students gave the latter a much higher rating on user-friendly layout.
A 2021 study conducted by the Brazilian Nuclear Engineering Institute compared a MediaWiki-based knowledge management system against two others that were based on DSpace and Open Journal Systems, respectively. It highlighted ease of use as an advantage of the MediaWiki-based system, noting that because the Wikimedia Foundation had been developing MediaWiki for a site aimed at the general public (Wikipedia), "its user interface was designed to be more user-friendly from start, and has received large user feedback over a long time", in contrast to DSpace's and OJS's focus on niche audiences.
See also
List of content management systems
List of wiki software
BlueSpice MediaWiki
Semantic MediaWiki
XOWA – for viewing Wikipedia and other wikis offline
PHP --- a programming language that powers MediaWiki
References
External links
, with Hubs for users, system administrators and developers.
2002 software
Advertising-free websites
Articles containing video clips
Articles with example code
Collaborative software
Cross-platform free software
Free content management systems
Free software programmed in PHP
Free wiki software
Multilingual websites
Version control systems
History of Wikipedia |
335545 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AZERTY | AZERTY | AZERTY () is a specific layout for the characters of the Latin alphabet on typewriter keys and computer keyboards. The layout takes its name from the first six letters to appear on the first row of alphabetical keys; that is, ( ). Similar to the German QWERTZ layout, it is modelled on the English QWERTY layout. It is used in France and Belgium, and even Russia, although each of these countries has its own national variation on the layout. Luxembourg and Switzerland use the Swiss QWERTZ keyboard. Most of the residents of Quebec, the mainly French-speaking province of Canada, use a QWERTY keyboard that has been adapted to the French language such as the Multilingual Standard keyboard CAN/CSA Z243.200-92 which is stipulated by the government of Quebec and the Government of Canada.
The competing layouts devised for French (e.g., the ZHJAYSCPG layout put forward in 1907, Claude Marsan's 1976 layout, the 2002 Dvorak-fr, and the 2005 BÉPO layout) have obtained only limited recognition, although the latter has been included in the 2019 French keyboard layout standard.
History
The AZERTY layout appeared in France in the last decade of the 19th century as a variation on American QWERTY typewriters. Its exact origin is unknown. At the start of the 20th century, the French "ZHJAY" layout, created by Albert Navarre, failed to break into the market partly because secretaries were already accustomed to the AZERTY layout and partly because it differed more from the QWERTY layout than does the AZERTY layout.
In France, the AZERTY layout is the de facto norm for keyboards. In 1976, a QWERTY layout adapted to the French language was put forward, as an experimental standard (NF XP E55-060) by AFNOR. This standard made provision for a temporary adaptation period during which the letters A, Q, Z and W could be positioned as in the traditional AZERTY layout.
In January 2016, the French Culture Ministry has looked to replace the industrial AZERTY layouts with one that will allow a better typing of French and other languages. A standard was published by the French national organization for standardization in 2019.
The AZERTY layout is used on Belgian keyboards, although some non-alphabetic symbols are positioned differently.
General information regarding AZERTY keyboards
There are two key details:
the Alt Gr key allows the user to type the character shown at the bottom right of any key with three characters.
the Alt key is used as a shortcut to commands affecting windows, and is also used in conjunction with ASCII codes for typing special characters.
Dead keys
A dead key serves to modify the appearance of the next character to be typed on the keyboard. Dead keys are mainly used to generate accents (or diacritics) on vowels.
Circumflex accent
A circumflex accent can be generated by first striking the ^ key (located to the right of P in most AZERTY layouts), then the vowel requiring the accent (with the exception of y). For example, pressing '^' then 'a' produces 'â'.
Diaeresis
A diaresis can be generated by striking the ¨ key (in most AZERTY layouts, it is generated by combining the Maj + ^ keys), then the vowel requiring the accent. For example, pressing '¨' then 'a' produces 'ä'.
Grave accent
The grave accent can be generated by striking the ` key (in the French AZERTY layout it is located to the right of the "ù" key) on Macintosh keyboards, while on PC-type keyboards it can be generated by using the combination .
In the Belgian AZERTY layout, the ' key is generated by the combination ; the μ key is located to the right of the ù key on Belgian AZERTY keyboards) then the key for the vowel requiring the accent.
Note that the grave-accented letters à è ù (and the acute-accented é), which are part of French orthography, have their own separate keys. Dead-grave and dead-acute (and dead-tilde) would mostly be reserved to "foreign" letters such as Italian ò, Spanish á í ó ú ñ, Portuguese ã õ, etc., or for accented capital letters (which are not present precomposed in the layout).
Acute accent
The acute accent is available under Windows by the use of , then the vowel requiring the accent. é can be generated using its own key. For Linux users, it can be generated using Caps Lock + é then the vowel. On a Macintosh AZERTY keyboard, the acute accent is generated by a combination of the , keys, followed by the vowel.
In the Belgian AZERTY layout, it can be generated by a combination of , then the vowel.
It is not available in the French layout on Windows.
Tilde
The tilde is available under Windows by using a combination of the keys, followed by the letter requiring the tilde.
On Macintosh, the "ñ" can be obtained by the combination of Alt + N keys, followed by the N key.
In the Belgian AZERTY layout, it can be generated by a combination of .
Alt key
With some operating systems, the Alt key generates characters by means of their individual codes. In order to obtain characters, the Alt key must be pressed and held down while typing the relevant code into the numeric keypad.
On Linux, the alt key gives direct access to French language special characters. The ligatures œ and æ can be keyed in by using either or respectively, in the fr-oss keyboard layout; their upper case equivalents can be generated using the same key combinations plus the French Shift key. Other useful punctuation symbols, such as ≤, ≥, or ≠ can be more easily accessed in the same way.
Guillemets "«" and "»"
Also called angle quotes, French quotation marks, double chevrons are polylines pointed like arrows (« or »), sometimes forming a complementary set of punctuation marks used as a form of quotation mark.
With a US International Keyboard and corresponding layout, and can also be used. The characters are standard on French Canadian keyboards and some others.
Macintosh users can type "«" as and "»" as . (This applies to all English-language keyboard layouts supplied with the operating system, e.g. "Australian", "British", "Canadian", "Irish", "Irish Extended", "U.S." and "U.S. Extended". Other language layouts may differ.) In French-language keyboard layouts and can be used. On Nordic keyboards, for "«", and for "»", can be used.
For users of Unix-like operating systems running the X Window System, creation of the guillemet depends on a number of factors including the keyboard layout that is in effect. For example, with US International Keyboard layout selected a user would type for "«" and for "»". On some configurations they can be written by typing "«" as and "»" as . With the compose key, press and . Additionally with the ibus input method framework enabled, users may enter these characters into those applications that accept it by using followed by their Unicode code points: either or , respectively.
In Microsoft Office applications, typing the US quotation mark (on the 3 key) will produce either a left Guillemet "«" or right Guillemet "»" based on the spacing.
In France
AZERTY under Linux
In X11, the window system common to many flavors of UNIX, the keyboard interface is completely configurable allowing each user to assign different functions to each key in line with their personal preferences. For example, specific combinations of key could be assigned to many other characters.
Layout of the French keyboard under Microsoft Windows
Missing elements
Ever since the AZERTY keyboard was devised, a single key has been dedicated to the letter ⟨ù⟩, which occurs in only one word (où [where]); the œ is completely unrepresented, despite the fact that it is an integral part of the French spelling system and occurs in several common words like œil (eye) and œuvre (work).
æ, as in Lætitia [girl's name] or ex æquo [dead-heat].
The non-breaking space, which prevents having punctuation characters in isolation at the ends or beginnings of lines.
Guillemets – French language opening and closing quotation marks, « and ».
The capital letters, É, Ç, Œ ... (in the word Œdipe [Oedipus], for example), are available neither on the typewriter itself, nor using the operating system mentioned earlier.
It is possible to fill in these gaps by installing a keyboard driver that has been specially enriched for the French language.
One can also use WinCompose in order to easily write all characters, the character Ç could be written by pressing or the character « with , there is also an option to allow to write accentuated capitals with such that Ç is writable with .
Some word-processing software packages sometimes address some of these gaps. The non-breaking space can be obtained by pressing the Ctrl key, followed by a space, in a word-processing package such as OpenOffice.org Writer, or by using Ctrl + Maj [Caps] + Espace [Spacebar] in Microsoft Word.
Apart from these gaps, the French AZERTY layout has some strange features which are still present in the Microsoft Windows Vista operating system:
The combination does not generate any character at all.
The presence of two "^" (one of which is a dead key and is located at the right of the "p", while the other – on the ç9 key — is not).
When a ¦ is required, a | is generated. (However, this is a common situation for many keyboards, not just AZERTY. The main issue for keyboard makers is that a solid vertical | keycap legend could be confused with a Capital letter I and so a broken vertical ¦ keycap helps clarify that it is not a letter but a symbol. In practice, most typists actually need the solid vertical rather than a broken vertical, so using a broken vertical keycap usually doesn't cause problems.)
Typing a period or numerals requires pressing Shift, whereas some rarer characters (ù, the semicolon) do not. This has led to drives to reform the AZERTY keyboard (chiefly by doing away with the ù, which may be typed using AltGr+è and u anyway, and/or swapping the period and semicolon), although to date this has not been successful.
Industrial layouts and French standard
In January 2016, the French Ministry of Culture, which is in charge of language affairs, expressed a will to offer an alternative to the AZERTY layouts traditionally proposed by the industry. The new layout would have to provide full coverage of the symbols required by French spelling (including accented capitals such as É) as well as other languages of France and European languages written with the Latin alphabet. The project, led by the French national organization for standardization AFNOR, released both this improved AZERTY and a BÉPO layout. Initially due in January 2018, the standard was released in April 2019.
The layout keeps the same placement for the 26 Latin letters and 10 digits, but moves others (such as some accented letters and punctuation signs), while it adds a range of other symbols (accessible with Shift, AltGr). There is easy access to guillemets « » (French quotes), accented capital letters: À, É, Ç, as well as Œ/œ, Æ/æ, which was not possible before on basic AZERTY (Windows' AZERTY), previously alt codes were required.
It allows typing words in many languages using dead keys, which are in blue on the picture, to access a variety of diacritics. A few mathematics symbols have also been added.
A website for the new AZERTY layout has been created, offering information, visuals of the changes, links to drivers to install the layout and various other resources.
Differences between the Belgian and French layouts of the AZERTY keyboard
The Belgian AZERTY keyboard allows for the placing of accents on vowels without recourse to encoding via the Alt key + code. This is made possible by the provision of dead keys for each type of accent: ^ ¨ ´ ` (the last two being generated by a combination of and μ respectively).
To recap the list of different keys from left to right and from top to bottom:
First row (symbols and numbers):
By combining the shift and ² keys, ³ is obtained;
The symbol |, is generated by a combination of same key as the 1;
The @ symbol is generated by a combination of same key as the 2;
Unlike the French layout, the ' key (or 4 key) does not contain a third symbol;
Unlike the French layout, the ( key (or 5 key) does not contain a third symbol;
The ^ symbol is generated by a combination of same key as the 6; but, as opposed to the ^ symbol found to the right of the p key, it is not a dead key, and therefore does not generate the placing of a circumflex accent;
Unlike the French layout, the è (or 7) key does not contain a third symbol;
Unlike the French layout, the ! (or 8) key does not contain a third symbol;
The { symbol is obtained by a combination of same key as the 9;
The } symbol is obtained by a combination of same key as the 0;
Unlike the French layout, the ) (or °) key does not contain a third symbol;
The key to the right of the key contains the following symbols: - _ with shift and, unlike the French layout, does not contain a third symbol.
Second row (the letters AZERTYuiop):
the alphabetical keys do not have Alt Gr codes apart from the e, which generates the euro symbol, €;
The [ symbol is obtained by a combination of same key as the ¨ (a partially dead key located to the right of the p key);
the key to the right of the ^ key contains the following symbols: $ * with shift and ] with Alt Gr;
Third row (the letters qsdfghjklm)
the key to the right of m contains the following symbols: ù % with shift and the partially dead key ´ with Alt Gr, which allows acute accents to be generated on accented vowels;
the key to the right of ù contains the following symbols: μ £ with shift and the partially dead key ` with Alt Gr, which allows grave accents to be generated on accented vowels;
Fourth row (the letters wxcvbn and basic punctuation):
The \ symbol is generated by a combination of ;
the key to the right of : contains the following symbols: = + with shift and the partially dead key ~ with Alt Gr, the latter either generating the tilde symbol when combined with the space bar, or positioning a tilde over a letter: a → ã, A → Ã, n → ñ, N → Ñ, o → õ, O → Õ.
The description partially dead means that pressing the key in question sometimes generates the desired symbol directly, but that at least one of the symbols represented on the key will only appear after a second key has been pressed. In order to obtain a symbol in isolation, the space bar must be pressed, otherwise a vowel should be pressed to generate the required accented form.
The other keys are identical, even though traditionally the names of special keys are printed on them in English. This is because Belgium is predominantly bilingual (French-Dutch) and officially trilingual (a third language, German, is spoken in the East Cantons).
The key to the right of 0 on the numeric keypad corresponds either to the full stop or to the comma (which is why there are two distinct keyboard drivers under Windows).
The AZERTY keyboard as used in the Dutch speaking part of Belgium uses the name shift instead of maj and caps lock instead of verr maj.
Variants
The AZERTY layout is used in France, Belgium and some African countries. It differs from the QWERTY layout thus:
and are swapped,
and are swapped,
is moved to the right of (where colon/semicolon is on a US keyboard),
The digits 0 to 9 are on the same keys, but to be typed the shift key must be pressed. The unshifted positions are used for accented characters,
Caps lock is replaced by Shift lock, thus affecting non-letter keys as well. However, there is an ongoing evolution towards a Caps lock key instead of a Shift lock.
The French and Belgian AZERTY keyboards also have special characters used in the French and Dutch language, such as é, è, ê, ï, ë, ... and other characters such as &, ", ' and (ç only for French),, some located under the numbers and some with combinations of keys.
French
Some French people use the Canadian Multilingual standard keyboard.
The Portuguese (Portugal) keyboard layout may also be preferred, as it provides all the French diacritics (acute, grave, diaeresis, circumflex, cedilla, including on capital letters that are not all possible with an industrial French layouts, and also the French quotation marks or guillemets, «»). Furthermore, its dead-letter option for all the diacritical keys allows for easy input of all the possibilities in French and many other languages (áàäãâéèëêíìïîñóòöõôúùüû). 'ç' is, however, a separate key (but only as a lowercase letter in the basic French standard layout).
The US-International keyboard may also used for the same reason (notably by programmers as it allows easier input of ASCII characters, provided that they are trained to a QWERTY layout rather than the most common AZERTY layouts available in most computer shops, including online). An alternative (extremely rarely found) to AZERTY is the Bépo layout : it's not available on any notebook, but may be used by adding an external keyboard, bought separately from some specialized shops.
.
Apple
Apple's keyboards use the same AZERTY layout in both France and Belgium. Based on the Belgian version, the most notable differences are the locations for the @-sign and €-sign, among others. MacOS also supports the standard French layout for non-Apple keyboards; the standard Belgian layout, however, is available through third-party support only.
Arabic
There is an Arabic variant of the AZERTY keyboard. It is especially used in the African countries Algeria, Chad, Comoros, Djibouti, Mauritania, Morocco, Tunisia and in Arab communities in French-speaking countries to be able to type both in Arabic and in French.
Tamazight (Berber)
The Tamazight (Latin) standards-compliant layout is optimised for a wide range of Tamazight (Berber) language variants – including Tuareg variants – rather than French, though French can still be typed quickly. It installs as "Tamazight_L" and can be used both on the French locale and with Tamazight locales.
QWERTY and QWERTZ adaptations of the layout are available for the physical keyboards used by major Amazigh (Berber) communities around the world.
Other layouts exist for closer backwards compatibility with the French layout. They are non-standards-compliant but convenient, allowing typing in Tifinagh script without switching layout:
Tamazight (International) extends the French layout with Tamazight (Berber), and offers secondary Tifinagh script access by deadkey. It installs as "Tamazight (Agraghlan)" or "Français+" and is available from the official site of the Algerian High Council for Amazighity (HCA).
Tamazight (International)+ is optimised for Tamazight (Berber), but retains close French compatibility and provides easy typing in Tifinagh script by Caps Lock. It installs as "Tamazight (Agraghlan)+" or "Tamazight_LF".
All the above layouts were designed by the Universal Amazigh Keyboard Project and are available from there.
Vietnamese
There is also a Vietnamese variant of the AZERTY keyboard. It was especially used in Vietnamese typewriters made until 1980s.
Wolof
Wolof keyboards also use AZERTY and are supported by Microsoft Windows (Windows 7 and later only).
See also
Dvorak layout
Layout of keys on computer keyboards
QWERTY
QWERTZ
References
External links
The typewriter on the site of the National Archives
Accentuate the capital letters
The page on the Microsoft keyboard layouts / keyboard layouts
Latin-script keyboard layouts |
11270454 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy%20of%20Chennai | Economy of Chennai | Chennai, the capital city of the state of Tamil Nadu, India, is the largest industrial and commercial center of South India. Recent estimates of the economy of the Chennai Metropolitan Area is around US$78.6-86 billion (over $200 billion with industrial zones; PPP GDP), ranking it from fifth most productive metro area of India, and the third highest by GDP per capita. The metropolitan area doesn't include the nearby industrial zones of Siruseri and Sriperumbudur, due to which these regions' economy doesn't get included in the total economy of Chennai. If these regions are included, the economy of chennai would be somewhere over $200 billion.
Chennai has an economic base anchored by the automobile, software services, medical tourism, hardware manufacturing and financial services. Other important industries include petrochemicals, textiles and apparels. The Chennai Port and Ennore Port contribute greatly to its importance. The city had a fully computerised stock exchange called the Madras Stock Exchange.
Chennai was recently rated as having the highest quality of life among Indian cities ahead of the other three metros and Bangalore, based on the "Location Ranking Survey" conducted by ECA International. Chennai has improved its global ranking to 138 in 2006–07 from 179 in 2002–03. It is now ranked at 26th position in Asia in terms of livability, up from 31st rank in 2002–03. According to a 2007 worldwide quality of life survey done by Mercer, Chennai received the second highest rating in India, with New Delhi scoring the highest, and came in at a relatively low 157th worldwide. The reason was attributed to poor health and sanitation, and the increasing air pollution. It has the distinction of being called as the Detroit of Asia.
As of 2012, the city has about 34,260 identified companies in its 15 zones. Of these, 5,196 companies has a paid-up capital of over 5 million, about 16,459 companies are in the paid up capital range of 100,000 to 200,000, and 2,304 companies have a paid-up capital of less than 100,000.
Software and Software Services
See also : Software industry in Chennai
Since the late 1990s, software development and business process outsourcing and more recently electronics manufacturing have emerged as major drivers of the city's economic growth. Chennai has been rated as the most attractive Indian city for offshoring services according to A T Kearney's Indian City Services Attractiveness Index 2005. Major software and software services companies including Altran, Accenture, Cognizant, Capgemini, DXC Technology, SAP SE, Oracle Corporation, Cisco Systems, HCL Technologies, Hewlett Packard Enterprise, IBM, CGI Inc., Infosys, Sopra Steria, Symantec, Tata Consultancy Services, Verizon, Wipro, Virtusa, UST Global, Atos, Dassault Systèmes, Fujitsu, NTT DATA, LTI, Honeywell, VMware, Intel, Amazon.com, Inc., Tech Mahindra, Fiserv, Adobe Systems, AT&T, Philips, AstraZeneca, Wolters Kluwer, TransUnion, Ernst & Young, L&T Technology Services, Mindtree, Shell Business Operations, Athenahealth, Ford Global Technology & Business Center, Ramco Systems, Deloitte, Microsoft, Temenos, Synechron, KPMG, PayPal have development centres in the city. A major reason for the growth of the Software industry are the top engineering colleges in Tamil Nadu, of which Chennai is a major contributor, have been a major recruiting hub for the IT firms. According to estimates, these engineering colleges and universities consistently generate about 50 per cent of the human resource requirements for the IT and ITES industry was being sourced from the state, particularly from Chennai. The city is now the second largest exporter of IT and IT enabled Services in the country behind Bangalore. The IT Corridor, on Old Mahabalipuram Road in the southeast of the city houses several technology parks, and, when completed, will provide employment to close to 300,000 people. Besides the existing Tidel Park, two more Tidel Parks are on the anvil in the IT corridor. One is under construction at the Siruseri IT Special Economic Zone ("SEZ") and the other one is being planned at the current location of MGR Film City which is just before the existing Tidel Park, in Taramani on the IT Corridor. A number of SEZ have emerged in and around Chennai. The Mahindra World City, New Chennai, a Special Economic Zone (SEZ) with one of the world's largest high technology business zones, is currently under construction in the outskirts of Chennai. It also includes the World's largest IT Park by Infosys.
Electronics Hardware
In recent years, Chennai has emerged as an electronic manufacturing hub in South Asia with multinational corporations like Dell, Motorola, Cisco, Samsung, Siemens, Ericsson, Emerson Electric, ABB and Flex setting up Electronics / Hardware manufacturing plants, particularly in the Sriperumbudur electronics SEZ . accounting for the sector alone has created investments worth $3.5bn in Chennai. Chennai is currently the largest electronics hardware exporter in India, accounting for 45% of the total exports in 2010–11. Ericsson, Alcatel, Atmel, Texas Instruments, Foxconn, Robert Bosch GmbH, Microchip Technology, Xerox, Nokia Corporation, Siemens have research and development facilities in the city . Semiconductor companies like SPEL and Tessolve have announced plans to set up or expand manufacturing and R&D centers in the city. Companies like Flex, Motorola, Ericsson, Samsung, Cisco and Dell have chosen Chennai as their South Asian manufacturing hub. Chinese smartphone maker Huawei plans to their manufacturing unit in Chennai. Products manufactured include circuit boards and cellular phone handsets. Sanmina-SCI is the latest company to invest in Chennai to create a state of the art manufacturing facility. Nokia Networks has decided to build a manufacturing plant for wireless network equipment in Chennai.
Engineering Procurement and Construction
Chennai serves as the headquarters for some of Asia's largest engineering procurement and construction companies like VA Tech Wabag, BGR Energy, L&T Construction, L&T Infrastructure Engineering, FLSmidth, Ramboll, Hyundai Engineering & Construction, Hyundai Engineering (HEC), Shriram EPC. Chennai has emerged as an Offshore Engineering hub due to the presence of Offshore Technology and Renewable Energy research institutions like Indian Institute of Technology Madras, National Institute of Ocean Technology, Center of Wind Energy Technology (C-WET), Indian Maritime University, Tamil Nadu Energy Development Authority (TEDA), Anna University School of Energy, etc. Big EPC and Energy companies have set up their Engineering centres which include McDermott International, DNV GL, Saipem, Rotork, Technip, Foster Wheeler, Mott MacDonald, Petrofac, Vestas, Siemens Gamesa, Suzlon, and others. Austrian company "Austrian Energy and Environment" have also a design office here besides local giant Larsen & Toubro ECC.
Automobiles
Chennai is known as the Detroit of Asia. The city accounts for 60 per cent of India's automotive exports, which leads it to be called as 'The Detroit of Asia'. Chennai has a market share of around 30% of India's automobile industry and 35% of its auto components industry. A large number of the automotive companies including several global automotive companies such as BMW, Hyundai, Ford, Citroën, Nissan, Renault, Mitsubishi, TVS Motor Company, Ashok Leyland, Caterpillar, Royal Enfield, TI Cycles, TAFE, Dunlop, MRF, Daimler, Yamaha, Brembo, Michelin, Bridgestone, JK Tyres, Apollo Tyres and CEAT have manufacturing plants in and around Chennai. Mahindra & Mahindra have a manufacturing plant under construction in Cheyyar, which is about 100 km from Chennai. The city is a major centre for the auto ancillary industry as well such as Sundaram Clayton and Rane. Hyundai is in the process of setting up engine plant in the city. Ford is planning to invest $500 million in Chennai plant. Several Petrochemical companies like Chennai Petro Chemicals Limited (Manali Refinery), Manali Petrochemicals, Petro Araldite and Orchid Pharmaceuticals are situated in the outskirts of Chennai. Chennai will turn out close to 1.5 million vehicles a year, more than any one U.S. state made last year. The city is also home to some of the world's largest Automotive R&D facilities in the world, which include Nissan, Hyundai, BMW, Caterpillar and Daimler. It houses the world's second largest Research Valley- The Mahindra Research Valley. Schwing Stetter is building a plant in Chennai
The Heavy Vehicles Factory, Avadi produces military vehicles, including India's main battle tank: Arjun MBT. The Railway Coach building factory of the Indian Railways, the Integral Coach Factory manufactures railway coaches and other rolling stock.
Port
Chennai is also a major port city, thats why it is heavily industrialized in a developed way. There are two ports in Chennai - Chennai Port and Ennore Port. Chennai Port was formerly known as Madras Port. This port started establishing from the 1800s itself. It is the second largest major port in India after Mumbai's Nhava Sheva. The Chennai Port contains container and cruise terminal. Kamarajar Port was formerly known as Ennore Port. It is located at Ennore.
Banking and Finance
The first modern bank in Chennai, Bank of Madras was started by the Britishers in 1843. It was followed by the opening of other banks namely - Arbuthnot & Co, Bank of Chettinad, Bank of Madura, that were later merged under the supervision of RBI. The city serves as the headquarters for the second most number of banks and financial institutions in India, only next to the financial Capital Mumbai. The city has been tagged as the Banking Capital of India, for its vibrant banking culture and trading. The city has emerged as an important center for banking and finance in the World Market. Chennai boasts a transaction volume which serves 1.5 billion people across the World through Back office operation. At present, it is home to four large national level commercial banks and many regional and state level co-operative banks. Several large financial companies and insurance companies are headquartered in Chennai. Prominent financial institutions, including the World Bank, Standard Chartered Bank, ABN AMRO, Bank of America, The Royal Bank of Scotland, Goldman Sachs, BNY Mellon, Barclays, JPMorgan Chase, HSBC, Société Générale, Wells Fargo, Deutsche Bank, ING Group, Allianz, Sumitomo Mitsui Banking Corporation, The Bank of Tokyo-Mitsubishi UFJ, Abu Dhabi Commercial Bank, Asian Development Bank, Credit Suisse, BNP Paribas Fortis, DBS Bank, ANZ, and Citibank have back office and Development Center operations in the city. The city serves as a major back-up centre for operations of many banks and financial companies of the world.
The banking sector in Chennai is broadly classified into scheduled banks, non-scheduled banks and Foreign banks. All banks included in the Second Schedule to the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934 are Scheduled Banks. These banks comprise Scheduled Commercial Banks and Scheduled Co-operative Banks. Scheduled Co-operative Banks consist of Scheduled State Co-operative Banks and Scheduled Urban Cooperative Banks. Scheduled Commercial Banks in Chennai are categorised into five different groups according to their ownership and/or nature of operation:
Nationalised Banks
Private Sector Banks
Foreign Banks
Regional Rural Banks
Small Finance Banks
The following are the list of Banks based in Chennai.
Medical tourism
Chennai leads in the health care sector and is considered the Health Capital of India. Home to some of India's best health care institutions such as Apollo Hospitals, the largest health care provider in Asia, MIOT Hospitals, Sankara Nethralaya, Sri Ramachandra Medical Center, Fortis Healthcare, Sir Ivan Stedeford Hospital, Dr.Mehtas Hospitals, Sundaram Medical Foundation, Madras Medical Mission, Frontier Lifeline & K.M. Cherian Heart Foundation, Hindu Mission Hospital, Regional Institute of Ophthalmology and Government Ophthalmic Hospital, Chennai, Chettinad Health City and Adyar Cancer Institute, Chennai is a preferred destination for medical tourists from across the globe. Some of the treatments sought after by the tourists include heart surgery, neurological problems, cancer, plastic surgery and orthopaedic procedures. Chennai attracts about 45% of all health tourists arriving in India from abroad in addition to 30% to 40% of domestic tourists.
Petrochemicals and Textiles
There is also an oil refinery in Manali called as Manali Refinery which is controlled by the CPCL. Other major manufacturing facilities range from small scale manufacturing to large scale heavy industrial manufacturing, petrochemicals and auto ancillary plants. Chennai is a textile industry hub with a large number of apparel industries located in the Ambattur-Padi industrial zone in the northern suburbs of the city. The city also has a large leather apparel and accessory industry. SEZ's for apparel manufacture and footwear are under construction in the southern suburbs of the city. Chennai is the cradle for world-renowned Madras shirts.
Traditional Arts
Chennai, hosts the Madras Music Season, during the months of December and January, annually. It is the capital of the Carnatic Music and Bharatanatyam scene in India, and there are many venues in which artists perform throughout the city. There is also a large theatre scene and contemporary visual art scene in the city.
Entertainment Industry
The city is home to the Tamil entertainment (motion pictures, television, and recorded music) industry which is one of the largest of top 3 film industries in India. Because the film industry is largely centered on a local area called Kodambakkam, the Tamil film industry is popularly referred to as Kollywood.
The Madras Players is the oldest theatre group in India.
Aerospace Industry
Chennai Aero Park, a proposed Aerospace design, manufacturing and maintenance park is set to become the largest integrated aerospace ecosystem in the world. The project is a pioneering initiative to mark India's entry into the global aerospace industry. The aero park will enable global players to design, manufacture and maintain all types of aircraft for both civilian and defense needs. It is to be established as a Public-Private Partnership (PPP) entity.
The city is home to Ashok Leyland Defence Systems, Rane and 56 more aircraft component manufactures. It also has the largest Aerospace R&D facility in India which is controlled by Mahindra Aerospace.
See also
List of districts in Tamil Nadu by Human Development Index
References
Economy of Tamil Nadu |
37167854 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zendesk | Zendesk | Zendesk is an American company headquartered in San Francisco, California. It provides software-as-a-service products related to customer support, sales, and other customer communications. The company was founded in Copenhagen, Denmark, in 2007. Zendesk raised about $86 million in venture capital investments before going public in 2014.
History
Origins and funding
Zendesk was founded in Copenhagen, Denmark in 2007 by three friends: Morten Primdahl, Alexander Aghassipour, and Mikkel Svane. The founders started developing the Zendesk software in Svane's loft. Initially, Zendesk was funded by the cofounders with each doing consulting jobs to support their families. Within a couple months of the Zendesk software-as-a-service product being released in the Fall of 2007, it had about 1,000 trial customers. Initially, interest in the software spread slowly through word-of-mouth predominantly among other startups. Adoption accelerated in 2008, due to an increased interest in responding to customer complaints on social media and after Twitter started using Zendesk.
Venture capital investors were willing to invest in Zendesk only if the company moved to the United States, where most of their customers were. Zendesk moved to Boston, Massachusetts in 2009 for about six months before moving again to San Francisco, California. The company raised $500,000 in seed funding, which was followed by a series A funding round for an undisclosed amount and a series B round for $6 million. Zendesk raised $19 million in a series C funding round in December 2010, followed by $60 million in a series D funding round in 2012. This brought total venture capital funding to about $86 million.
2010–2016
In 2010, many customers threatened to leave Zendesk in response to a substantial price increase after new features were introduced. Zendesk apologized, abandoned the pricing, and promised never to change pricing on pre-existing customers for features they already have. That same year, Zendesk created its first sales team. Zendesk moved to larger offices in the Tenderloin neighborhood of San Francisco in 2011. The city and county of San Francisco provided Zendesk with a six-year payroll tax incentive to move to the area in exchange for doing community service.
Zendesk grew internationally, and offices were established in Ireland, Denmark, and Australia. In 2017, Zendesk opened an office in Singapore. half of Zendesk's customers were outside the United States. Although the company was not yet profitable, Zendesk's revenues grew five-fold from 2010 to 2012. Revenues grew from $38 million in 2012 to $72 million in 2013. Zendesk introduced its first app marketplace for third-party Zendesk software in 2012. By 2013, the company had 450 employees.
In 2014, Zendesk filed an initial public offering and was valued at $1.7 billion. The IPO raised $100 million. That same year, Zendesk announced its first acquisition. It bought a live-chat company called Zopim for $29.8 million. It acquired a French analytics company called BIME for $45 million. It also acquired Outbound.io, which developed software to manage direct communications with customers on social media sites. Additionally, Zendesk acquired Base, who developed sales automation software that competed with Salesforce.com, for $50 million.
In 2015, Zendesk filed oppositions at the United States Patent and Trademark Office to 49 trademarks including the word "zen". The Electronic Frontier Foundation characterized their approach of filing multiple trademark infringement lawsuits covering a wide range of businesses as trademark trolling, and EFF condemned the practice.
Initially, Zendesk's software was focused on assisting small businesses, but it transitioned to aid larger companies over time. Zendesk also transitioned from a focus on inbound customer inquiries into communicating with customers proactively based on comments they made online. In 2016, Zendesk changed its logo and rebranded to emphasize contacting customers proactively. It added features that turn online reviews and comments into a customer help ticket in September 2016 and acquired Outbound.io, which helps businesses respond to online complaints in 2017. Zendesk introduced new analytics and automation products in 2012 and 2016. In 2016, it added features that tell customer service agents which portions of the website a customer visited before contacting customer support. That same year, Zendesk added features that attempt to predict which customers are most likely to cancel their subscription service.
Recent history
In 2017, Zendesk added an AI bot that has conversations with customers and attempts to direct the customer to the answer they're looking for. The bot initially had limited functionality, but was expanded in 2019. In 2018, the company introduced Zendesk Suite, which combines social media, live-chat, email, and other communications into a single ticket system. An enterprise version of the software-as-a-service product was released in 2018. By that time, 40 percent of Zendesk's revenue was coming from larger companies. In 2019, Zendesk first released its "Sunshine" tool, which is focused on direct-messaging customers on social media sites.
Zendesk eventually expanded from just customer service to also managing other customer interactions, such as sales. The company first moved into sales software with its September 2018 acquisition of competitor Base. Base was later renamed Sell and a Sell Marketplace was created for corresponding third-party apps. Part of the social media software acquired from Smooch was rebranded as Sunshine Conversations, a tool that competes with Salesforce.com. Zendesk's sales automation software was later revamped with Zendesk Sell in 2020, which improved integration with Zendesk's customer support software. Since then, Zendesk marketplace has integrated several third parties technologies to provide more services to the end customers. In 2021 for example, several companies joined Zendesk marketplace, such as Crowlingo for multilingual data collection, Verse for lead conversion and ViiBE for remote visual support.
By 2018, Zendesk had annual revenues of $500 million.
In October 2019, Zendesk disclosed that it was hacked in 2016, resulting in a potential leak of information about customer service agents using Zendesk.
In May 2019, Zendesk acquired Montreal-based Smooch, for an undisclosed amount. Smooch provided messaging services on websites for live-chat customer support. In 2020, Zendesk announced more tools for messaging customers on social media and enhancements to its customer relationship management features.
In October 2021, Zendesk announced that it was acquiring Momentive Global Inc., formerly SurveyMonkey, for $4.13 billion. Zendesk's investors rejected the deal on February 25, 2022 and terminated the agreement due to risk.
Software and services
Zendesk develops and markets software for customer service, sales, and other customer interactions. Zendesk generates customer support tickets from social media posts or customer inquiries. The ticket is then assigned to a customer service agent to respond to. Programmed "triggers" and "automations" do something with the ticket based on the passing of time or the actions of a customer service agent. Users can view and organize tickets, as well as generate reports or analytics. It also supports self-help tools like forums. AI-based chatbots and virtual assistants can be integrated into Zendesk Chat to increase the efficiency of the customer support system. In this model, virtual assistant welcomes the customer and responds, and can handover the conversation to a human agent in the Zendesk Chat when necessary.
References
2007 establishments in Denmark
2014 initial public offerings
CRM software companies
Companies based in San Francisco
Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange
Customer relationship management software
Software companies based in the San Francisco Bay Area
Software companies established in 2007
Software companies of the United States |
7387610 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craig%20Fertig | Craig Fertig | Craig Fertig (May 7, 1942 – October 4, 2008) was an American football player and coach. He was the head football coach at Oregon State University from 1976 to 1979, compiling a record of 10–34–1 () in four seasons.
Playing career
Fertig attended the University of Southern California where he was a star quarterback for the Trojans. In 1964, he set eight school passing records and threw the game-winning touchdown against top-ranked Notre Dame.
Coaching career
Selected late in the 1965 NFL Draft, 270th overall, Fertig opted not to play pro football and began coaching in 1965 at USC. From 1965 to 1975, he served as an assistant coach with the Trojans, except for a year in the World Football League (WFL) in 1974. Fertig was hired as an assistant coach with the Portland Storm, but the team only lasted one season. The IRS impounded the franchise at the conclusion of the 1974 season and Fertig returned to USC as an assistant in 1975.
At age 33 in December 1975, Fertig was named the head coach at Oregon State University in Corvallis, with a three-year contract at $26,000 per year. He followed Dee Andros, who stepped down after eleven seasons and became OSU's athletic director. Fertig was fired during his fourth season in October 1979, in the second year of a three-year contract at $33,696 per year. He coached through the end of the season, and lost the finale to Oregon 24–3 in the Civil War, the Beavers' fifth straight loss to the Ducks.
Fertig served as an assistant athletic director for the Trojans, and was later a broadcaster.
Family and death
Born in Bell, California, Fertig was from Huntington Park, where his father was chief of police. He graduated from Huntington Park High School and enrolled at USC. Fertig's sister Trudy also attended USC and married former USC lineman Marv Marinovich; their son Todd Marinovich is Fertig's nephew.
Fertig died in 2008 at age 66 of kidney failure at Hoag Memorial Hospital Presbyterian in Newport Beach on October 4. USC remembered him with a moment of silence at the game against Oregon that evening.
Head coaching record
References
External links
1942 births
2008 deaths
American football quarterbacks
Oregon State Beavers football coaches
People from Bell, California
People from Huntington Park, California
Players of American football from California
Sportspeople from Los Angeles County, California
USC Trojans football coaches
USC Trojans football players
Portland Storm coaches
Deaths from kidney failure |
20087 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modular%20arithmetic | Modular arithmetic | In mathematics, modular arithmetic is a system of arithmetic for integers, where numbers "wrap around" when reaching a certain value, called the modulus. The modern approach to modular arithmetic was developed by Carl Friedrich Gauss in his book Disquisitiones Arithmeticae, published in 1801.
A familiar use of modular arithmetic is in the 12-hour clock, in which the day is divided into two 12-hour periods. If the time is 7:00 now, then 8 hours later it will be 3:00. Simple addition would result in , but clocks "wrap around" every 12 hours. Because the hour number starts over after it reaches 12, this is arithmetic modulo 12. In terms of the definition below, 15 is congruent to 3 modulo 12, so "15:00" on a 24-hour clock is displayed "3:00" on a 12-hour clock.
Congruence
Given an integer , called a modulus, two integers and are said to be congruent modulo , if is a divisor of their difference (i.e., if there is an integer such that ).
Congruence modulo is a congruence relation, meaning that it is an equivalence relation that is compatible with the operations of addition, subtraction, and multiplication. Congruence modulo is denoted:
The parentheses mean that applies to the entire equation, not just to the right-hand side (here ). This notation is not to be confused with the notation (without parentheses), which refers to the modulo operation. Indeed, denotes the unique integer such that and (i.e., the remainder of when divided by ).
The congruence relation may be rewritten as
explicitly showing its relationship with Euclidean division. However, the here need not be the remainder of the division of by Instead, what the statement asserts is that and have the same remainder when divided by . That is,
where is the common remainder. Subtracting these two expressions, we recover the previous relation:
by setting
Examples
In modulus 12, one can assert that:
because , which is a multiple of 12. Another way to express this is to say that both 38 and 14 have the same remainder 2, when divided by 12.
The definition of congruence also applies to negative values. For example:
Properties
The congruence relation satisfies all the conditions of an equivalence relation:
Reflexivity:
Symmetry: if for all , , and .
Transitivity: If and , then
If and or if then:
for any integer (compatibility with translation)
for any integer (compatibility with scaling)
(compatibility with addition)
(compatibility with subtraction)
(compatibility with multiplication)
for any non-negative integer (compatibility with exponentiation)
, for any polynomial with integer coefficients (compatibility with polynomial evaluation)
If , then it is generally false that . However, the following is true:
If where is Euler's totient function, then —provided that is coprime with .
For cancellation of common terms, we have the following rules:
If , where is any integer, then
If and is coprime with , then
If , then
The modular multiplicative inverse is defined by the following rules:
Existence: there exists an integer denoted such that if and only if is coprime with . This integer is called a modular multiplicative inverse of modulo .
If and exists, then (compatibility with multiplicative inverse, and, if , uniqueness modulo )
If and is coprime to , then the solution to this linear congruence is given by
The multiplicative inverse may be efficiently computed by solving Bézout's equation for —using the Extended Euclidean algorithm.
In particular, if is a prime number, then is coprime with for every such that ; thus a multiplicative inverse exists for all that is not congruent to zero modulo .
Some of the more advanced properties of congruence relations are the following:
Fermat's little theorem: If is prime and does not divide , then .
Euler's theorem: If and are coprime, then , where is Euler's totient function
A simple consequence of Fermat's little theorem is that if is prime, then is the multiplicative inverse of . More generally, from Euler's theorem, if and are coprime, then .
Another simple consequence is that if where is Euler's totient function, then provided is coprime with .
Wilson's theorem: is prime if and only if .
Chinese remainder theorem: For any , and coprime , , there exists a unique such that and . In fact, where is the inverse of modulo and is the inverse of modulo .
Lagrange's theorem: The congruence , where is prime, and is a polynomial with integer coefficients such that , has at most roots.
Primitive root modulo : A number is a primitive root modulo if, for every integer coprime to , there is an integer such that . A primitive root modulo exists if and only if is equal to or , where is an odd prime number and is a positive integer. If a primitive root modulo exists, then there are exactly such primitive roots, where is the Euler's totient function.
Quadratic residue: An integer is a quadratic residue modulo , if there exists an integer such that . Euler's criterion asserts that, if is an odd prime, and is not a multiple of , then is a quadratic residue modulo if and only if
Congruence classes
Like any congruence relation, congruence modulo is an equivalence relation, and the equivalence class of the integer , denoted by , is the set }. This set, consisting of all the integers congruent to modulo , is called the congruence class, residue class, or simply residue of the integer modulo . When the modulus is known from the context, that residue may also be denoted .
Residue systems
Each residue class modulo may be represented by any one of its members, although we usually represent each residue class by the smallest nonnegative integer which belongs to that class (since this is the proper remainder which results from division). Any two members of different residue classes modulo are incongruent modulo . Furthermore, every integer belongs to one and only one residue class modulo .
The set of integers } is called the least residue system modulo . Any set of integers, no two of which are congruent modulo , is called a complete residue system modulo .
The least residue system is a complete residue system, and a complete residue system is simply a set containing precisely one representative of each residue class modulo . For example. the least residue system modulo 4 is {0, 1, 2, 3}. Some other complete residue systems modulo 4 include:
{1, 2, 3, 4}
{13, 14, 15, 16}
{−2, −1, 0, 1}
{−13, 4, 17, 18}
{−5, 0, 6, 21}
{27, 32, 37, 42}
Some sets which are not complete residue systems modulo 4 are:
{−5, 0, 6, 22}, since 6 is congruent to 22 modulo 4.
{5, 15}, since a complete residue system modulo 4 must have exactly 4 incongruent residue classes.
Reduced residue systems
Given the Euler's totient function , any set of integers that are relatively prime to and mutually incongruent under modulus is called a reduced residue system modulo . The set {5,15} from above, for example, is an instance of a reduced residue system modulo 4.
Integers modulo n
The set of all congruence classes of the integers for a modulus is called the ring of integers modulo , and is denoted , , or . The notation is, however, not recommended because it can be confused with the set of -adic integers. The ring is fundamental to various branches of mathematics (see below).
The set is defined for n > 0 as:
(When , is not an empty set; rather, it is isomorphic to , since }.)
We define addition, subtraction, and multiplication on by the following rules:
The verification that this is a proper definition uses the properties given before.
In this way, becomes a commutative ring. For example, in the ring , we have
as in the arithmetic for the 24-hour clock.
We use the notation because this is the quotient ring of by the ideal , a set containing all integers divisible by , where is the singleton set }. Thus is a field when is a maximal ideal (i.e., when is prime).
This can also be constructed from the group under the addition operation alone. The residue class is the group coset of in the quotient group , a cyclic group.
Rather than excluding the special case , it is more useful to include (which, as mentioned before, is isomorphic to the ring of integers). In fact, this inclusion is useful when discussing the characteristic of a ring.
The ring of integers modulo is a finite field if and only if is prime (this ensures that every nonzero element has a multiplicative inverse). If is a prime power with k > 1, there exists a unique (up to isomorphism) finite field with elements, but this is not , which fails to be a field because it has zero-divisors.
The multiplicative subgroup of integers modulo n is denoted by . This consists of (where a is coprime to n), which are precisely the classes possessing a multiplicative inverse. This forms a commutative group under multiplication, with order .
Applications
In theoretical mathematics, modular arithmetic is one of the foundations of number theory, touching on almost every aspect of its study, and it is also used extensively in group theory, ring theory, knot theory, and abstract algebra. In applied mathematics, it is used in computer algebra, cryptography, computer science, chemistry and the visual and musical arts.
A very practical application is to calculate checksums within serial number identifiers. For example, International Standard Book Number (ISBN) uses modulo 11 (for 10 digit ISBN) or modulo 10 (for 13 digit ISBN) arithmetic for error detection. Likewise, International Bank Account Numbers (IBANs), for example, make use of modulo 97 arithmetic to spot user input errors in bank account numbers. In chemistry, the last digit of the CAS registry number (a unique identifying number for each chemical compound) is a check digit, which is calculated by taking the last digit of the first two parts of the CAS registry number times 1, the previous digit times 2, the previous digit times 3 etc., adding all these up and computing the sum modulo 10.
In cryptography, modular arithmetic directly underpins public key systems such as RSA and Diffie–Hellman, and provides finite fields which underlie elliptic curves, and is used in a variety of symmetric key algorithms including Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), International Data Encryption Algorithm (IDEA), and RC4. RSA and Diffie–Hellman use modular exponentiation.
In computer algebra, modular arithmetic is commonly used to limit the size of integer coefficients in intermediate calculations and data. It is used in polynomial factorization, a problem for which all known efficient algorithms use modular arithmetic. It is used by the most efficient implementations of polynomial greatest common divisor, exact linear algebra and Gröbner basis algorithms over the integers and the rational numbers. As posted on Fidonet in the 1980s and archived at Rosetta Code, modular arithmetic was used to disprove Euler's sum of powers conjecture on a Sinclair QL microcomputer using just one-fourth of the integer precision used by a CDC 6600 supercomputer to disprove it two decades earlier via a brute force search.
In computer science, modular arithmetic is often applied in bitwise operations and other operations involving fixed-width, cyclic data structures. The modulo operation, as implemented in many programming languages and calculators, is an application of modular arithmetic that is often used in this context. The logical operator XOR sums 2 bits, modulo 2.
In music, arithmetic modulo 12 is used in the consideration of the system of twelve-tone equal temperament, where octave and enharmonic equivalency occurs (that is, pitches in a 1:2 or 2:1 ratio are equivalent, and C-sharp is considered the same as D-flat).
The method of casting out nines offers a quick check of decimal arithmetic computations performed by hand. It is based on modular arithmetic modulo 9, and specifically on the crucial property that 10 ≡ 1 (mod 9).
Arithmetic modulo 7 is used in algorithms that determine the day of the week for a given date. In particular, Zeller's congruence and the Doomsday algorithm make heavy use of modulo-7 arithmetic.
More generally, modular arithmetic also has application in disciplines such as law (e.g., apportionment), economics (e.g., game theory) and other areas of the social sciences, where proportional division and allocation of resources plays a central part of the analysis.
Computational complexity
Since modular arithmetic has such a wide range of applications, it is important to know how hard it is to solve a system of congruences. A linear system of congruences can be solved in polynomial time with a form of Gaussian elimination, for details see linear congruence theorem. Algorithms, such as Montgomery reduction, also exist to allow simple arithmetic operations, such as multiplication and exponentiation modulo , to be performed efficiently on large numbers.
Some operations, like finding a discrete logarithm or a quadratic congruence appear to be as hard as integer factorization and thus are a starting point for cryptographic algorithms and encryption. These problems might be NP-intermediate.
Solving a system of non-linear modular arithmetic equations is NP-complete.
Example implementations
Below are three reasonably fast C functions, two for performing modular multiplication and one for modular exponentiation on unsigned integers not larger than 63 bits, without overflow of the transient operations.
An algorithmic way to compute :
uint64_t mul_mod(uint64_t a, uint64_t b, uint64_t m)
{
if (!((a | b) & (0xFFFFFFFFULL << 32)))
return a * b % m;
uint64_t d = 0, mp2 = m >> 1;
int i;
if (a >= m) a %= m;
if (b >= m) b %= m;
for (i = 0; i < 64; ++i)
{
d = (d > mp2) ? (d << 1) - m : d << 1;
if (a & 0x8000000000000000ULL)
d += b;
if (d >= m) d -= m;
a <<= 1;
}
return d;
}
On computer architectures where an extended precision format with at least 64 bits of mantissa is available (such as the long double type of most x86 C compilers), the following routine is , by employing the trick that, by hardware, floating-point multiplication results in the most significant bits of the product kept, while integer multiplication results in the least significant bits kept:
uint64_t mul_mod(uint64_t a, uint64_t b, uint64_t m)
{
long double x;
uint64_t c;
int64_t r;
if (a >= m) a %= m;
if (b >= m) b %= m;
x = a;
c = x * b / m;
r = (int64_t)(a * b - c * m) % (int64_t)m;
return r < 0 ? r + m : r;
}
Below is a C function for performing modular exponentiation, that uses the function implemented above.
An algorithmic way to compute :
uint64_t pow_mod(uint64_t a, uint64_t b, uint64_t m)
{
uint64_t r = m==1?0:1;
while (b > 0) {
if (b & 1)
r = mul_mod(r, a, m);
b = b >> 1;
a = mul_mod(a, a, m);
}
return r;
}
However, for all above routines to work, must not exceed 63 bits.
See also
Boolean ring
Circular buffer
Division (mathematics)
Finite field
Legendre symbol
Modular exponentiation
Modulo (mathematics)
Multiplicative group of integers modulo n
Pisano period (Fibonacci sequences modulo n)
Primitive root modulo n
Quadratic reciprocity
Quadratic residue
Rational reconstruction (mathematics)
Reduced residue system
Serial number arithmetic (a special case of modular arithmetic)
Two-element Boolean algebra
Topics relating to the group theory behind modular arithmetic:
Cyclic group
Multiplicative group of integers modulo n
Other important theorems relating to modular arithmetic:
Carmichael's theorem
Chinese remainder theorem
Euler's theorem
Fermat's little theorem (a special case of Euler's theorem)
Lagrange's theorem
Thue's lemma
Notes
References
John L. Berggren. "modular arithmetic". Encyclopædia Britannica.
. See in particular chapters 5 and 6 for a review of basic modular arithmetic.
Maarten Bullynck "Modular Arithmetic before C.F. Gauss. Systematisations and discussions on remainder problems in 18th-century Germany"
Thomas H. Cormen, Charles E. Leiserson, Ronald L. Rivest, and Clifford Stein. Introduction to Algorithms, Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. . Section 31.3: Modular arithmetic, pp. 862–868.
Anthony Gioia, Number Theory, an Introduction Reprint (2001) Dover. .
External links
In this modular art article, one can learn more about applications of modular arithmetic in art.
An article on modular arithmetic on the GIMPS wiki
Modular Arithmetic and patterns in addition and multiplication tables
Finite rings
Group theory
Articles with example C code |
8704209 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline%20of%20design | Outline of design | The following outline is provided as an overview of a topical guide to design:
Design (as a verb: to design) is the intentional creation of a plan or specification for the construction or manufacturing of an object or system or for the implementation of an activity or process.
Design (as a noun: a design) can refer to such a plan or specification (e.g. a drawing or other document) or to the created object, etc., and features of it such as aesthetic, functional, economic or socio-political.
Design professions
Architecture – An Architect typically has a B.Arch or M.Arch, as well as professional certification through groups such as the NCARB. Their primary focus is the design of buildings.
Engineering – An Engineer typically has a BS or MS degree, as well as professional certification as a Professional Engineer. They primarily focus on applyi. No professional certification is required. Their primary focus is the design of apparel.
Graphic design – A Graphic Designer typically has a BFA or MFA. No professional certification is required. Their primary focus is the design of visual communication.
Industrial design – An Industrial Designer typically has a BFA or MFA. No professional certification is required. Their primary focus is the design of physical, functional objects.
Interior design – An Interior Designer typically has a Bachelor's degree. No professional certification is required. Their primary focus is the design of human environment, particularly affecting aesthetics and emotions.
Software design – A Software designer typically has a BS or MS degree in computer science. While professional certification is not required, many exist. Their primary focus is the functional design of computer software.
Design approaches and methods
Co-Design
Creative problem solving
Creativity techniques
Design-build
Design for X
Design management
Design methods
Design Science
Design thinking
Engineering design process
Error-tolerant design
Fault tolerant design
Functional design
Metadesign
Mind mapping
Open-design movement
Participatory design
Reliable system design
Strategic design
TRIZ
Universal design
User innovation
Design activities
Creativity
Design methods
Design thinking
Designing objects
Business
New product development
Engineering
Cellular manufacturing
Mechanical engineering
New product development
System design
Fashion
Fashion design
Graphic design
Game design
Packaging design
Industrial design
Automotive design
Industrial design
New product development
Product design
Software design
Game design
New product development
Software engineering
Software design
Software development
Other
Furniture
Floral design
System design
System design
Business
Business design
New product development
Service design
Engineering
Graphic design
Information design
Design tools
Computer-aided design
Graphic organizers
Environments and experiences
Architects
Building design
Urban design
Graphic design
Communication design
Motion graphic design
User interface design
Web design
Interior design
Experience design
Interaction design
Software design
User experience design
Other
Garden design
Landscape design
Sound design
Theatrical design
Impact of design
Creative industries
Design classic
Design organizations
European Design Awards
Chartered Society of Designers
The Design Association
Studying design
Critical design
Design research
Wicked problem – problem that is difficult or impossible to solve because of incomplete, contradictory, and changing requirements that are often difficult to recognize. The use of term "wicked" here has come to denote resistance to resolution, rather than evil. Moreover, because of complex interdependencies, the effort to solve one aspect of a wicked problem may reveal or create other problems.
See also
References
External links
Design Search Engine
Design
Design |
223325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software%20design | Software design | Software design is the process by which an agent creates a specification of a software artifact intended to accomplish goals, using a set of primitive components and subject to constraints. Software design may refer to either "all the activity involved in conceptualizing, framing, implementing, commissioning, and ultimately modifying complex systems" or "the activity following requirements specification and before programming, as ... [in] a stylized software engineering process."
Software design usually involves problem-solving and planning a software solution. This includes both a low-level component and algorithm design and a high-level, architecture design.
Overview
Software design is the process of envisioning and defining software solutions to one or more sets of problems. One of the main components of software design is the software requirements analysis (SRA). SRA is a part of the software development process that lists specifications used in software engineering. If the software is "semi-automated" or user centered, software design may involve user experience design yielding a storyboard to help determine those specifications. If the software is completely automated (meaning no user or user interface), a software design may be as simple as a flow chart or text describing a planned sequence of events. There are also semi-standard methods like Unified Modeling Language and Fundamental modeling concepts. In either case, some documentation of the plan is usually the product of the design. Furthermore, a software design may be platform-independent or platform-specific, depending upon the availability of the technology used for the design.
The main difference between software analysis and design is that the output of a software analysis consists of smaller problems to solve. Additionally, the analysis should not be designed very differently across different team members or groups. In contrast, the design focuses on capabilities, and thus multiple designs for the same problem can and will exist. Depending on the environment, the design often varies, whether it is created from reliable frameworks or implemented with suitable design patterns. Design examples include operation systems, webpages, mobile devices or even the new cloud computing paradigm.
Software design is both a process and a model. The design process is a sequence of steps that enables the designer to describe all aspects of the software for building. Creative skill, past experience, a sense of what makes "good" software, and an overall commitment to quality are examples of critical success factors for a competent design. It is important to note, however, that the design process is not always a straightforward procedure; the design model can be compared to an architect's plans for a house. It begins by representing the totality of the thing that is to be built (e.g., a three-dimensional rendering of the house); slowly, the thing is refined to provide guidance for constructing each detail (e.g., the plumbing lay). Similarly, the design model that is created for software provides a variety of different views of the computer software. Basic design principles enable the software engineer to navigate the design process. Davis suggests a set of principles for software design, which have been adapted and extended in the following list:
The design process should not suffer from "tunnel vision." A good designer should consider alternative approaches, judging each based on the requirements of the problem, the resources available to do the job.
The design should be traceable to the analysis model. Because a single element of the design model can often be traced back to multiple requirements, it is necessary to have a means for tracking how requirements have been satisfied by the design model.
The design should not reinvent the wheel. Systems are constructed using a set of design patterns, many of which have likely been encountered before. These patterns should always be chosen as an alternative to reinvention. Time is short and resources are limited; design time should be invested in representing (truly new) ideas by integrating patterns that already exist (when applicable).
The design should "minimize the intellectual distance" between the software and the problem as it exists in the real world. That is, the structure of the software design should, whenever possible, mimic the structure of the problem domain.
The design should exhibit uniformity and integration. A design is uniform if it appears fully coherent. In order to achieve this outcome, rules of style and format should be defined for a design team before design work begins. A design is integrated if care is taken in defining interfaces between design components.
The design should be structured to accommodate change. The design concepts discussed in the next section enable a design to achieve this principle.
The design should be structured to degrade gently, even when aberrant data, events, or operating conditions are encountered. Well-designed software should never "bomb"; it should be designed to accommodate unusual circumstances, and if it must terminate processing, it should do so in a graceful manner.
Design is not coding, coding is not design. Even when detailed procedural designs are created for program components, the level of abstraction of the design model is higher than the source code. The only design decisions made at the coding level should address the small implementation details that enable the procedural design to be coded.
The design should be assessed for quality as it is being created, not after the fact. A variety of design concepts and design measures are available to assist the designer in assessing quality throughout the development process.
The design should be reviewed to minimize conceptual (semantic) errors. There is sometimes a tendency to focus on minutiae when the design is reviewed, missing the forest for the trees. A design team should ensure that major conceptual elements of the design (omissions, ambiguity, inconsistency) have been addressed before worrying about the syntax of the design model.
Design concepts
The design concepts provide the software designer with a foundation from which more sophisticated methods can be applied. A set of fundamental design concepts has evolved. They are as follows:
Abstraction - Abstraction is the process or result of generalization by reducing the information content of a concept or an observable phenomenon, typically in order to retain only information which is relevant for a particular purpose. It is an act of Representing essential features without including the background details or explanations.
Refinement - It is the process of elaboration. A hierarchy is developed by decomposing a macroscopic statement of function in a step-wise fashion until programming language statements are reached. In each step, one or several instructions of a given program are decomposed into more detailed instructions. Abstraction and Refinement are complementary concepts.
Modularity - Software architecture is divided into components called modules.
Software Architecture - It refers to the overall structure of the software and the ways in which that structure provides conceptual integrity for a system. Good software architecture will yield a good return on investment with respect to the desired outcome of the project, e.g. in terms of performance, quality, schedule and cost.
Control Hierarchy - A program structure that represents the organization of a program component and implies a hierarchy of control.
Structural Partitioning - The program structure can be divided into both horizontally and vertically. Horizontal partitions define separate branches of modular hierarchy for each major program function. Vertical partitioning suggests that control and work should be distributed top down in the program structure.
Data Structure - It is a representation of the logical relationship among individual elements of data.
Software Procedure - It focuses on the processing of each module individually.
Information Hiding - Modules should be specified and designed so that information contained within a module is inaccessible to other modules that have no need for such information.
In his object model, Grady Booch mentions Abstraction, Encapsulation, Modularisation, and Hierarchy as fundamental software design principles. The acronym PHAME (Principles of Hierarchy, Abstraction, Modularisation, and Encapsulation) is sometimes used to refer to these four fundamental principles.
Design considerations
There are many aspects to consider in the design of a piece of software. The importance of each consideration should reflect the goals and expectations that the software is being created to meet. Some of these aspects are:
Compatibility - The software is able to operate with other products that are designed for interoperability with another product. For example, a piece of software may be backward-compatible with an older version of itself.
Extensibility - New capabilities can be added to the software without major changes to the underlying architecture.
Modularity - the resulting software comprises well defined, independent components which leads to better maintainability. The components could be then implemented and tested in isolation before being integrated to form a desired software system. This allows division of work in a software development project.
Fault-tolerance - The software is resistant to and able to recover from component failure.
Maintainability - A measure of how easily bug fixes or functional modifications can be accomplished. High maintainability can be the product of modularity and extensibility.
Reliability (Software durability) - The software is able to perform a required function under stated conditions for a specified period of time.
Reusability - The ability to use some or all of the aspects of the preexisting software in other projects with little to no modification.
Robustness - The software is able to operate under stress or tolerate unpredictable or invalid input. For example, it can be designed with resilience to low memory conditions.
Security - The software is able to withstand and resist hostile acts and influences.
Usability - The software user interface must be usable for its target user/audience. Default values for the parameters must be chosen so that they are a good choice for the majority of the users.
Performance - The software performs its tasks within a time-frame that is acceptable for the user, and does not require too much memory.
Portability - The software should be usable across a number of different conditions and environments.
Scalability - The software adapts well to increasing data or added features or number of users.
Modeling language
A modeling language is any artificial language that can be used to express information, knowledge or systems in a structure that is defined by a consistent set of rules. These rules are used for interpretation of the components within the structure. A modeling language can be graphical or textual. Examples of graphical modeling languages for software design are:
Architecture description language (ADL) is a language used to describe and represent the software architecture of a software system.
Business Process Modeling Notation (BPMN) is an example of a Process Modeling language.
EXPRESS and EXPRESS-G (ISO 10303-11) is an international standard general-purpose data modeling language.
Extended Enterprise Modeling Language (EEML) is commonly used for business process modeling across a number of layers.
Flowcharts are schematic representations of algorithms or other step-wise processes.
Fundamental Modeling Concepts (FMC) is modeling language for software-intensive systems.
IDEF is a family of modeling languages, the most notable of which include IDEF0 for functional modeling, IDEF1X for information modeling, and IDEF5 for modeling ontologies.
Jackson Structured Programming (JSP) is a method for structured programming based on correspondences between data stream structure and program structure.
LePUS3 is an object-oriented visual Design Description Language and a formal specification language that is suitable primarily for modeling large object-oriented (Java, C++, C#) programs and design patterns.
Unified Modeling Language (UML) is a general modeling language to describe software both structurally and behaviorally. It has a graphical notation and allows for extension with a Profile (UML).
Alloy (specification language) is a general purpose specification language for expressing complex structural constraints and behavior in a software system. It provides a concise language base on first-order relational logic.
Systems Modeling Language (SysML) is a new general-purpose modeling language for systems engineering.
Service-oriented modeling framework (SOMF)
Design patterns
A software designer or architect may identify a design problem which has been visited and perhaps even solved by others in the past. A template or pattern describing a solution to a common problem is known as a design pattern. The reuse of such patterns can help speed up the software development process.
Technique
The difficulty of using the term "design" in relation to software is that in some senses, the source code of a program is the design for the program that it produces. To the extent that this is true, "software design" refers to the design of the design. Edsger W. Dijkstra referred to this layering of semantic levels as the "radical novelty" of computer programming, and Donald Knuth used his experience writing TeX to describe the futility of attempting to design a program prior to implementing it:
Usage
Software design documentation may be reviewed or presented to allow constraints, specifications and even requirements to be adjusted prior to computer programming. Redesign may occur after review of a programmed simulation or prototype. It is possible to design software in the process of programming, without a plan or requirement analysis, but for more complex projects this would not be considered feasible. A separate design prior to programming allows for multidisciplinary designers and subject-matter experts (SMEs) to collaborate with highly skilled programmers for software that is both useful and technically sound.
See also
Aspect-oriented software development
Bachelor of Science in Information Technology
Design
Design rationale
Graphic design
Interaction design
Icon design
Outline of software
Outline of software development
Outline of software engineering
Search-based software engineering
Software Design Description (IEEE 1016)
Software development
User experience
User interface design
Web design
Zero One Infinity
References
^
Computer occupations |
151443 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyper-threading | Hyper-threading | Hyper-threading (officially called Hyper-Threading Technology or HT Technology and abbreviated as HTT or HT) is Intel's proprietary simultaneous multithreading (SMT) implementation used to improve parallelization of computations (doing multiple tasks at once) performed on x86 microprocessors. It was introduced on Xeon server processors in February 2002 and on Pentium 4 desktop processors in November 2002. Since then, Intel has included this technology in Itanium, Atom, and Core 'i' Series CPUs, among others.
For each processor core that is physically present, the operating system addresses two virtual (logical) cores and shares the workload between them when possible. The main function of hyper-threading is to increase the number of independent instructions in the pipeline; it takes advantage of superscalar architecture, in which multiple instructions operate on separate data in parallel. With HTT, one physical core appears as two processors to the operating system, allowing concurrent scheduling of two processes per core. In addition, two or more processes can use the same resources: If resources for one process are not available, then another process can continue if its resources are available.
In addition to requiring simultaneous multithreading support in the operating system, hyper-threading can be properly utilized only with an operating system specifically optimized for it.
Overview
Hyper-Threading Technology is a form of simultaneous multithreading technology introduced by Intel, while the concept behind the technology has been patented by Sun Microsystems. Architecturally, a processor with Hyper-Threading Technology consists of two logical processors per core, each of which has its own processor architectural state. Each logical processor can be individually halted, interrupted or directed to execute a specified thread, independently from the other logical processor sharing the same physical core.
Unlike a traditional dual-processor configuration that uses two separate physical processors, the logical processors in a hyper-threaded core share the execution resources. These resources include the execution engine, caches, and system bus interface; the sharing of resources allows two logical processors to work with each other more efficiently, and allows a logical processor to borrow resources from a stalled logical core (assuming both logical cores are associated with the same physical core). A processor stalls when it is waiting for data it has sent for so it can finish processing the present thread. The degree of benefit seen when using a hyper-threaded or multi core processor depends on the needs of the software, and how well it and the operating system are written to manage the processor efficiently.
Hyper-threading works by duplicating certain sections of the processor—those that store the architectural state—but not duplicating the main execution resources. This allows a hyper-threading processor to appear as the usual "physical" processor and an extra "logical" processor to the host operating system (HTT-unaware operating systems see two "physical" processors), allowing the operating system to schedule two threads or processes simultaneously and appropriately. When execution resources would not be used by the current task in a processor without hyper-threading, and especially when the processor is stalled, a hyper-threading equipped processor can use those execution resources to execute another scheduled task. (The processor may stall due to a cache miss, branch misprediction, or data dependency.)
This technology is transparent to operating systems and programs. The minimum that is required to take advantage of hyper-threading is symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) support in the operating system, as the logical processors appear as standard separate processors.
It is possible to optimize operating system behavior on multi-processor hyper-threading capable systems. For example, consider an SMP system with two physical processors that are both hyper-threaded (for a total of four logical processors). If the operating system's thread scheduler is unaware of hyper-threading, it will treat all four logical processors the same. If only two threads are eligible to run, it might choose to schedule those threads on the two logical processors that happen to belong to the same physical processor; that processor would become extremely busy while the other would idle, leading to poorer performance than is possible by scheduling the threads onto different physical processors. This problem can be avoided by improving the scheduler to treat logical processors differently from physical processors; in a sense, this is a limited form of the scheduler changes that are required for NUMA systems.
History
The first published paper describing what is now known as hyper-threading in a general purpose computer was written by Edward S. Davidson and Leonard. E. Shar in 1973.
Denelcor, Inc. introduced multi-threading with the Heterogeneous Element Processor (HEP) in 1982. The HEP pipeline could not hold multiple instructions from the same process. Only one instruction from a given process was allowed to be present in the pipeline at any point in time. Should an instruction from a given process block the pipe, instructions from other processes would continue after the pipeline drained.
US patent for the technology behind hyper-threading was granted to Kenneth Okin at Sun Microsystems in November 1994. At that time, CMOS process technology was not advanced enough to allow for a cost-effective implementation.
Intel implemented hyper-threading on an x86 architecture processor in 2002 with the Foster MP-based Xeon. It was also included on the 3.06 GHz Northwood-based Pentium 4 in the same year, and then remained as a feature in every Pentium 4 HT, Pentium 4 Extreme Edition and Pentium Extreme Edition processor since. The Intel Core & Core 2 processor lines (2006) that succeeded the Pentium 4 model line didn't utilize hyper-threading. The processors based on the Core microarchitecture did not have hyper-threading because the Core microarchitecture was a descendant of the older P6 microarchitecture. The P6 microarchitecture was used in earlier iterations of Pentium processors, namely, the Pentium Pro, Pentium II and Pentium III (plus their Celeron & Xeon derivatives at the time).
Intel released the Nehalem microarchitecture (Core i7) in November 2008, in which hyper-threading made a return. The first generation Nehalem processors contained four physical cores and effectively scaled to eight threads. Since then, both two- and six-core models have been released, scaling four and twelve threads respectively. Earlier Intel Atom cores were in-order processors, sometimes with hyper-threading ability, for low power mobile PCs and low-price desktop PCs. The Itanium 9300 launched with eight threads per processor (two threads per core) through enhanced hyper-threading technology. The next model, the Itanium 9500 (Poulson), features a 12-wide issue architecture, with eight CPU cores with support for eight more virtual cores via hyper-threading. The Intel Xeon 5500 server chips also utilize two-way hyper-threading.
Performance claims
According to Intel, the first hyper-threading implementation used only 5% more die area than the comparable non-hyperthreaded processor, but the performance was 15–30% better. Intel claims up to a 30% performance improvement compared with an otherwise identical, non-simultaneous multithreading Pentium 4. Tom's Hardware states: "In some cases a P4 running at 3.0 GHz with HT on can even beat a P4 running at 3.6 GHz with HT turned off." Intel also claims significant performance improvements with a hyper-threading-enabled Pentium 4 processor in some artificial-intelligence algorithms.
Overall the performance history of hyper-threading was a mixed one in the beginning. As one commentary on high-performance computing from November 2002 notes:
Hyper-Threading can improve the performance of some MPI applications, but not all. Depending on the cluster configuration and, most importantly, the nature of the application running on the cluster, performance gains can vary or even be negative. The next step is to use performance tools to understand what areas contribute to performance gains and what areas contribute to performance degradation.
As a result, performance improvements are very application-dependent; however, when running two programs that require full attention of the processor, it can actually seem like one or both of the programs slows down slightly when Hyper-Threading Technology is turned on. This is due to the replay system of the Pentium 4 tying up valuable execution resources, equalizing the processor resources between the two programs, which adds a varying amount of execution time. The Pentium 4 "Prescott" and the Xeon "Nocona" processors received a replay queue that reduces execution time needed for the replay system and completely overcomes the performance penalty.
According to a November 2009 analysis by Intel, performance impacts of hyper-threading result in increased overall latency in case the execution of threads does not result in significant overall throughput gains, which vary by the application. In other words, overall processing latency is significantly increased due to hyper-threading, with the negative effects becoming smaller as there are more simultaneous threads that can effectively use the additional hardware resource utilization provided by hyper-threading. A similar performance analysis is available for the effects of hyper-threading when used to handle tasks related to managing network traffic, such as for processing interrupt requests generated by network interface controllers (NICs). Another paper claims no performance improvements when hyper-threading is used for interrupt handling.
Drawbacks
When the first HT processors were released, many operating systems were not optimized for hyper-threading technology (e.g. Windows 2000 and Linux older than 2.4).
In 2006, hyper-threading was criticised for energy inefficiency. For example, specialist low-power CPU design company ARM stated that simultaneous multithreading can use up to 46% more power than ordinary dual-core designs. Furthermore, they claimed that SMT increases cache thrashing by 42%, whereas dual core results in a 37% decrease.
In 2010, ARM said it might include simultaneous multithreading in its future chips; however, this was rejected in favor of their 2012 64-bit design.
In 2013, Intel dropped SMT in favor of out-of-order execution for its Silvermont processor cores, as they found this gave better performance with better power efficiency than a lower number of cores with SMT.
In 2017, it was revealed Intel's Skylake and Kaby Lake processors had a bug with their implementation of hyper-threading that could cause data loss. Microcode updates were later released to address the issue.
In 2019, with Coffee Lake, Intel began to move away from including hyper-threading in mainstream Core i7 desktop processors except for highest-end Core i9 parts or Pentium Gold CPUs. It also started recommending disabling hyper-threading as new CPU vulnerability attacks were revealed which could be mitigated by disabling HT.
Security
In May 2005, Colin Percival demonstrated that a malicious thread on a Pentium 4 can use a timing-based side-channel attack to monitor the memory access patterns of another thread with which it shares a cache, allowing the theft of cryptographic information. This is not actually a timing attack, as the malicious thread measures the time of only its own execution. Potential solutions to this include the processor changing its cache eviction strategy or the operating system preventing the simultaneous execution, on the same physical core, of threads with different privileges. In 2018 the OpenBSD operating system has disabled hyper-threading "in order to avoid data potentially leaking from applications to other software" caused by the Foreshadow/L1TF vulnerabilities. In 2019 a set of vulnerabilities led to security experts recommending the disabling of hyper-threading on all devices.
See also
Barrel processor
Computer multitasking
Multi-core processor
References
External links
Intel Demonstrates Breakthrough Processor Design, a press release from August 2001
Intel – high level overview of Hyper-threading
Hyper-threading on MSDN Magazine
introductory article from Ars Technica
US Patent Number 4,847,755
Merom, Conroe, Woodcrest lose HyperThreading
ZDnet: Hyperthreading hurts server performance, say developers
ARM is no fan of HyperThreading - Outlines problems of SMT solutions
The Impact of Hyper-Threading on Processor Resource Utilization in Production Applications
Threads (computing)
X86 architecture |
30090974 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential%20Young%20Investigator%20Award | Presidential Young Investigator Award | The Presidential Young Investigator Award (PYI) was awarded by the National Science Foundation of the United States Federal Government. The program operated from 1984 to 1991, and was replaced by the NSF Young Investigator (NYI) Awards and Presidential Faculty Fellows Program (PFF).
Applicants could not directly apply for the award, but were nominated by others including their own institutions based on their previous record of scientific achievement. The award, a certificate from the White House signed by the President of the United States, included a minimum grant of $25,000 a year for five years from NSF to be used for any scientific research project the awardee wished to pursue, with the possibility of additional funding up to $100,000 annually if the PYI obtained matching funds from industry. Considered to be one of the highest honors granted by the National Science Foundation, the award program was criticized in 1990 as not being the best use of NSF funds in an era of tight budgets.
Recipients
PYI award recipients include:
Narendra Ahuja, computer science, 1984
Alice Agogino, engineering, 1985
Paul Alivisatos, chemistry, 1991
Peter B. Armentrout, chemistry, 1984
David P. Anderson, computer science
Kenneth Balkus, chemistry, 1991
Prithviraj Banerjee, computer systems architecture, 1987
Paul F. Barbara, chemistry, 1984
John Bartholdi, industrial and systems engineering, 1985
Mary Beckman, linguistics, 1988
Mladen Bestvina, mathematics, 1988
Sanjay Banerjee, electrical engineering, 1988
Jonathan Block, mathematics, 1993
Rogers Brubaker, sociology, 1994
Robert Bryant, mathematics, 1984
Stephen Z. D. Cheng, polymer science, 1991
Paul Alan Cox, evolutionary ecology and ethnobotany, 1985
Judith Curry, climate science, 1988
Supriyo Datta, electrical engineering, 1984
Rina Dechter, computer science, 1991
Chris Q. Doe, Biology, 1990
Bruce Donald, computational biology, 1989
David L. Donoho, statistics, 1985
Lin Fanghua, mathematics, 1989
Juli Feigon, biochemistry, 1989
Eric Fossum, electrical engineering, 1986
Jennifer Freyd, psychology
Elaine Fuchs, cell biology, 1984-1989
Gerald Fuller, chemical engineering
Huajian Gao, materials science
Mark S. Ghiorso, geological sciences, 1985
Leslie Greengard, advanced comp research program and computational mathematics, 1990
Mark Henderson, mechanical engineering, 1987
Bruce Hajek, 1984
John L. Hennessy, computer science, 1984
Jacqueline Hewitt, physics, 1991
David Hillis, evolutionary biology, 1987
Laurie Simon Hodrick, economics, 1991
John M. Hollerbach, haptics and tactile perception, 1984
Kathleen Howell, astronomy, 1984
Ellen Hildreth, computer vision, 1987
Paul Hudak, computer science, 1985
Christopher R. Johnson, computer graphics and visualization, 1994
Nan Marie Jokerst, electrical engineering, 1990
Moshe Kam, electrical engineering, 1990
David B. Kaplan, physics, 1990
Mehran Kardar, physics, 1989
Karen Kavanagh, physics, 1991
Susan Kidwell, geology, 1986
David C. Koo, astrophysics, 1988
Ron R. Kopito, cell biology, 1989
Vijay Kumar (roboticist), 1991
Jacqueline Krim, materials research, 1986
James W. LaBelle, physics, 1990
Robert L. Last, plant biology, 1990
Edward A. Lee, electrical engineering, 1997
Kevin K. Lehmann, chemistry, 1985
Charles E. Leiserson, computer science, 1985
John H. Lienhard V, mechanical engineering, 1988
John Edwin Luecke, mathematics, 1992
Udi Manber, computer science, 1985
Eric Mazur, physics
Mark McMenamin, geology, 1988
Eckart Meiburg, mechanical engineering, 1990
Fulvio Melia, astrophysics
Carolyn Meyers, chemical engineering
Michael I. Miller, biomedical engineering
Robert F. Murphy (computational biologist), 1983
Monica Olvera de la Cruz, Materials Physics, 1989
Jon Orloff, physics, 1984
Randy Pausch, computer science
Gregory A. Voth, Chemistry, 1991
Joseph R. Pawlik, biological oceanography, 1991
Ken Perlin, computer graphics, 1991
Ronald T. Raines, chemical biology
Lisa Randall, theoretical physicist, 1992
Eric Sven Ristad, artificial intelligence, 1992
Mark O. Robbins, Materials Research, 1985
Ares J. Rosakis, 1985
Karl Rubin, mathematics
Rob A. Rutenbar, computer engineering, 1987
Sunil Saigal, civil engineering, 1990
Peter Salovey, psychology
Aziz Sancar, molecular biophysics, 1984
Robert Sapolsky, neuroendocrinology
Terrence Sejnowski, neuroscience, 1984
Miroslaw J. Skibniewski, civil engineering, 1986
Philip B. Stark, statistics, 1989
Michael Steer, electrical engineering, 1986
Joann Stock, earth science, 1990
Howard A. Stone, chemical, bioengineering, environmental, and transport systems, 1989
Steven Strogatz, mathematics, 1990
Vish V. Subramaniam, mechanical engineering, 1991
Éva Tardos, algorithm analysis
Patricia Thiel, chemistry, 1985
Masaru Tomita, computational biology, 1988
Craig Tovey, operations research, 1986
Mary K. Vernon, computer science, 1985
Jeffrey Vitter, computer science, 1985
Margaret Werner-Washburne, molecular biology, 1990
Ellen D. Williams (scientist), materials research, 1984
Martin Yarmush, biochemical engineering, 1988
Todd Yeates, biochemistry, 1991
Alex Zettl, physics, 1984
Steven Zimmerman, chemistry
Munther A. Dahleh, 1991.
NSF Presidential Faculty Fellowship
The NSF Presidential Faculty Fellowship (PFF) program was launched by President George H.W. Bush to honor 30 young engineering and science professors. The awards were up to $100,000 per year for 5 years.
PFF recipients
David Culler, Computer Science, 1992
Theodore (Ted) Rappaport, Wireless Communications, 1992
Rebecca Richards-Kortum, Electrical/Bioengineering, 1992
Louise H. Kellogg, Geophysics, 1992
See also
PECASE
References
Federal government of the United States
Science and technology awards |
2367989 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central%20Desktop | Central Desktop | iMeet Central (formerly Central Desktop) is a collaboration software owned by PGi (acquisition announced in October 2014). The company's primary focus is providing a Software-as-a-Service collaboration tool to small and medium-sized businesses. The company and its products are most often compared to other wiki-based and project-centric solutions such as SharePoint and Basecamp. As of November 2013, the company serves more than 650,000 users worldwide with customers such as Gymboree, Nielsen, CBS, The Ritz-Carlton, Netflix and Harvard University.
History
The company was founded by CEO Isaac Garcia and CTO Arnulf Hsu in 2005. Prior to founding Central Desktop, Isaac and Arnulf started Upgradebase in 1997, a product data provider to the computer and consumer electronics industry, and Vendorbase in 1999, a B2B marketplace for computer resellers. Both companies were acquired by CNET Networks in 2002.
In December 2006, the company accused Google of unfairly competing against its own customers by bidding on keywords that Google held an interest in. Google responded to the accusations on its own AdWords blog.
Central Desktop received $7 million in first round funding from OpenView Venture Partners in April 2008.
In October 2014, Central Desktop was acquired by PGI (Premier Global Services, Inc.) and rebranded to iMeet Central in November 2015. There are no more community edition available and so users are now restricted to paid services.
Products
Central Desktop is offered in two editions - Workgroup and Enterprise.
In February 2010, the company released version 2.0 of its software, Central Desktop 2.0. New features in Central Desktop 2.0 include an online file viewer that supports more than 200 different file types, improved wiki navigation and the ability to convert any file type into a downloadable PDF document.
Central Desktop product features include:
Wikis
WYSIWYG editing
Document management
Integrated Lucene search (full text searches for Word, Excel, PowerPoint and PDF files)
Online documents
Online spreadsheets
Task management
Discussion threads
Online file viewer
Web conferencing
Workflow solutions
Microblogging
See also
Comparison of wiki software
List of collaborative software
Comparison of wiki farms
Online office suite
Cloud collaboration
Document collaboration
Document-centric collaboration
References
External links
Central Desktop official website
Groupware
Internet Protocol based network software
Networking software companies |
55746173 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verne%20Swain | Verne Swain | Verne Swain refers to three steamboats built by the Swain Shipyard of Stillwater, Minnesota. Swain built the first one in 1886, the second one in 1904, and the last one in 1913.
First Verne Swain
The first Verne Swain was a steamboat built by David Swain of Stillwater, Minnesota, and put into packet service between Clinton, Iowa and Davenport, Iowa by Swain in 1886.
In 1889, John Streckfus purchased the Verne Swain from the Swain Shipyard in Stillwater, Minnesota for $10,000. Verne Swain had a cargo deck, a passenger deck, and a Texas deck. The boat was propelled by two side-mounted paddlewheels. This was his first steamboat acquisition for the Acme Packet Company of Rock Island, Illinois. He ran Verne Swain on daily service, leaving each morning from Clinton, Iowa at 7am, with arrivals scheduled for Davenport, Iowa at 10am. The return trips started from Davenport at 3pm scheduled to arrive at the home port at 8:15pm.
in 1891, Eagle Packet Company purchased the Verne Swain and commenced packet service between Peoria, Illinois and St. Louis.
in 1900, Dixon Brothers of Peoria, Illinois acquired the Verne Swainand
renamed it Speed.
Second Verne Swain
Also built at the Swain Shipyard in Stillwater, the second Verne Swain was designed for excursion. Completed in 1904, the second Verne Swain was a sternwheeler with a wooden hull ordered for running excursions from Peoria, Illinois to the World's Fair in St. Louis. The steamer was passed through various owners while serving Mississippi and Tennessee. The ship sunk in August 1929 at Dismal Point, Arkansas.
Third Verne Swain
In 1913, Swain Shipyard completed the last known steamboat to be named, Verne Swain. First running on the Illinois River as an excursion boat, Captain Fred Hornbrook acquired Verne Swain in 1918 to deploy the 186-foot sidewheeler as a packet between Wheeling, West Virginia and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Later, Verne Swain was sold and reassigned to excursions.
The steamer persisted long enough to be renamed Rose Island, Roosevelt, and City of Memphis.
References
Further reading
Kathryn Strand Koutsky and Linda Koutsky (2006). "Boat Days." Minnesota Vacation Days. Afton, Minnesota: Minnesota Historical Society Press.
External links
Side wheeler Verne Swain snapshot Indiana History Room Archives, New Albany-Floyd County Public Library.
Verne Swain (Packet, Excursion boat, 1913-1929) UW La Crosse Historic Steamboat Photographs.
Steamboats of the Mississippi River
Paddle steamers of the United States
Steamboats of the Ohio River
Ships built in Minnesota
1889 ships |
58231 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacchylides | Bacchylides | Bacchylides (; , Bakkhylídēs; c. 518 – c. 451 BC) was a Greek lyric poet. Later Greeks included him in the canonical list of Nine Lyric Poets, which included his uncle Simonides. The elegance and polished style of his lyrics have been noted in Bacchylidean scholarship since at least Longinus. Some scholars have characterized these qualities as superficial charm. He has often been compared unfavourably with his contemporary, Pindar, as "a kind of Boccherini to Pindar's Haydn". However, the differences in their styles do not allow for easy comparison, and translator Robert Fagles has written that "to blame Bacchylides for not being Pindar is as childish a judgement as to condemn ... Marvell for missing the grandeur of Milton". His career coincided with the ascendency of dramatic styles of poetry, as embodied in the works of Aeschylus or Sophocles, and he is in fact considered one of the last poets of major significance within the more ancient tradition of purely lyric poetry. The most notable features of his lyrics are their clarity in expression and simplicity of thought, making them an ideal introduction to the study of Greek lyric poetry in general and to Pindar's verse in particular.
Life
This precept, from one of Bacchylides' extant fragments, was considered by his modern editor, Richard Claverhouse Jebb, to be typical of the poet's temperament: "If the utterances scattered throughout the poems warrant a conjecture, Bacchylides was of placid temper; amiably tolerant; satisfied with a modest lot; not free from some tinge of that pensive melancholy which was peculiarly Ionian; but with good sense..."
Bacchylides' lyrics do not seem to have been popular in his own lifetime. Lyrics by his uncle, Simonides, and his rival, Pindar, were known in Athens and were sung at parties, they were parodied by Aristophanes and quoted by Plato, but no trace of Bacchylides' work can be found until the Hellenistic age, when Callimachus began writing some commentaries on them. Like Simonides and Pindar, however, Bacchylides composed lyrics to appeal to the sophisticated tastes of a social elite and his patrons, though relatively few in number, covered a wide geographical area around the Mediterranean, including for example Delos in the Aegean Sea, Thessaly in the north of the Greek mainland, and Sicily or Magna Graecia in the west. It has been inferred from the elegance and quiet charm of his lyrics that he only gradually acquired fame towards the end of his life.
Being drawn from sources compiled long after his death, the details of Bacchylides's life are sketchy and sometimes contradictory. According to Strabo, he was born in Ioulis, on the island of Keos, and his mother was the sister of Simonides. According to Suda, his father's name was Meidon and his grandfather, also named Bacchylides, was a famous athlete, yet according to Etymologicum Magnum his father's name was Meidylus. There is an ancient tradition, upheld for example by Eustathius and Thomas Magister, that he was younger than Pindar and some modern scholars have endorsed it, such as Jebb, who assigns his birth to around 507 BC, whereas Bowra, for example, opted for a much earlier date, around 524–1 BC. Most modern scholars however treat Bacchylides as an exact contemporary of Pindar, placing his birth around 518 BC. According to one account, Bacchylides was banished for a time from his native Keos and spent this period as an exile in Peloponnesus, where his genius ripened and he did the work which established his fame. Plutarch is the only ancient source for this account and yet it is considered credible on the basis of some literary evidence (Pindar wrote a paean celebrating Keos, in which he says on behalf of the island "I am renowned for my athletic achievements among Greeks" [Paean 4, epode 1], a circumstance that suggests that Bacchylides himself was unavailable at the time.) Observations by Eusebius and Georgius Syncellus can be taken to indicate that Bacchylides might have been still alive at the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War, but modern scholars have differed widely in estimates of the year of his death – Jebb, for example sets it at 428 BC and yet a date around 451 BC is more favoured.
Keos, where Bacchylides was born and raised, had long had a history of poetical and musical culture, especially in its association with Delos, the focal point of the Cyclades and the principal sanctuary of the Ionian race, where the people of Keos annually sent choirs to celebrate festivals of Apollo. There was a thriving cult of Apollo on Keos too, including a temple at Carthaea, a training ground for choruses where, according to Athenaeus, Bacchylides's uncle, Simonides, had been a teacher in his early years. Ceans had a strong sense of their national identity, characterized by their own exotic legends, national folklore and a successful tradition of athletic competition, especially in running and boxing – making the island a congenial home for a boy of quick imagination. Athletic victories achieved by Ceans in panhellenic festivals were recorded at Ioulis on slabs of stone and thus Bacchylides could readily announce, in an ode celebrating one such victory (Ode 2), a total of twenty-seven victories won by his countrymen at the Isthmian Games. Ceans had participated in the defeat of the Persians at the Battle of Salamis and they could take pride in the fact that an elegy composed by Bacchylides's uncle was chosen by Athens to commemorate the Athenians who fell at the Battle of Marathon. Being only thirteen miles from the Athenian cape Sunium, Keos was in fact necessarily responsive to Athenian influences.
Bacchylides's career as a poet probably benefited from the high reputation of his uncle, Simonides, whose patrons, when Bacchylides was born, already included Hipparchus (son of Peisistratos), brother of Hippias the tyrant of Athens (527–14 BC) and cultural coordinator of the city at that time. Simonides later introduced his nephew to ruling families in Thessaly and to the Sicilian tyrant, Hieron of Syracuse, whose glittering court attracted artists of the calibre of Pindar and Aeschylus. Bacchylides's first notable success came sometime after 500 BC with commissions from Athens for the great Delian festival (Ode 17) and from Macedonia for a song to be sung at a symposium for the young prince, Alexander I (fr. 20B). Soon he was competing with Pindar for commissions from the leading families of Aegina and, in 476 BC, their rivalry seems to have reached the highest levels when Bacchylides composed an ode celebrating Hieron's first victory at the Olympian Games (Ode 5). Pindar celebrated the same victory but used the occasion to advise the tyrant of the need for moderation in one's personal conduct (Pindar's Olympian Ode 1), whereas Bacchylides probably offered his own ode as a free sample of his skill in the hope of attracting future commissions. Bacchylides was commissioned by Hieron in 470 BC, this time to celebrate his triumph in the chariot race at the Pythian Games (Ode 4). Pindar also composed a celebratory ode for this victory (Pindar's Pythian Ode 1), including however stern, moral advice for the tyrant to rule wisely. Pindar was not commissioned to celebrate Hieron's subsequent victory in the chariot race at the Olympic Games in 468 BC – this, the most prestigious of Hieron's victories, was however celebrated by Bacchylides (Ode 3). The tyrant's apparent preference for Bacchylides over Pindar on this occasion might have been partly due to the Cean poet's simpler language and not just to his less moralizing posture, and yet it is also possible that Bacchylides and his uncle were simply better suited to palace politics than was their more high-minded rival. Alexandrian scholars in fact interpreted a number of passages in Pindar as hostile allusions to Bacchylides and Simonides and this interpretation has been endorsed by modern scholars also.
As a composer of choral lyrics, Bacchylides was probably responsible also for the performance, involving him in frequent travel to venues where musicians and choirs awaited instruction. Ancient authorities testify to his visit to the court of Hieron (478–467) and this is indeed indicated by his fifth Ode (476 BC), where the word xenos (V.11) implies that he had already been Hieron's guest, (probably accompanied by his uncle). Verses 15 and 16 of his third ode (468 BC), also for Hieron, indicate that he might have composed that work at Syracuse.
Work
History
The poems were collected into critical editions sometime in the late 3rd century BC by the Alexandrian scholar, Aristophanes of Byzantium, who probably restored them to their appropriate metres after finding them written in prose form. They were arranged in nine 'books', exemplifying the following genres (Bacchylides in fact composed in a greater variety of genres than any of the other lyric poets who comprise the canonic nine, with the exception of Pindar, who composed in ten):
hymnoi – "hymns"
paianes – "paeans"
dithyramboi – "dithyrambs"
prosodia – "processionals"
partheneia – "songs for maidens"
hyporchemata – "songs for light dances"
enkomia – "songs of praise"
epinikia – "victory odes"
erotica – "songs of love"
The Alexandrian grammarian Didymus (circa 30 BC) wrote commentaries on the work of Bacchylides and the poems appear, from the finding of papyri fragments, to have been popular reading in the first three centuries AD. Their popularity seems to have continued into the 4th century also: Ammianus Marcellinus (xxv. 4) observed that the emperor Julian enjoyed reading Bacchylides, and the largest collection of quotations that survived up until the modern era was assembled by Stobaeus (early 5th century). All that remained of Bacchylides's poetry by 1896, however, were sixty-nine fragments, totalling 107 lines. These few remains of his writings were collected by Brunck, Bergk, Bland, Hartung, and Neue. The oldest sources on Bacchylides and his work are scholia on Homer, Hesiod, Pindar, Aristophanes, Apollonius Rhodius and Callimachus. Other fragments and 'notices' are sprinkled through the surviving works of ancient authors, which they used to illustrate various points they were making, as for example:
Dionysius of Halicarnassus – frag. 11
Strabo – notice 57
Plutarch – frag. 29
Apollonius Dyscolus – frag. 31
Zenobius – frag.s 5, 24
Hephaestion – frag.s 12, 13, 15
Athenaeus – frag.s 13, 16, 17, 18, 22
Clement of Alexandria – frag.s 19, 20, 21, 32
Stobaeus – frag.s 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 28
Priscian – frag. 27
Johannes Siceliota – frag. 26
Etymologicum Magnum – frag.s 25, 30
Palatine Anthology – frag.s 33, 34.
Fortunately for Bacchylidean scholarship, a papyrus came to light in Egypt at the end of the 19th century with a text of Greek uncials, which a local claimed to have found in a ransacked tomb, between the feet of a mummy. It was snapped up for a "preposterous" price by the Egyptologist Wallis Budge, of the British Museum. Budge's plan to return to the museum with the papyrus was unacceptable to the British Consul and to the Egyptian Service of Antiquities so he resorted to desperate measures. In an elaborate plan involving a crate of oranges, switched trains and covert embarkations including a midnight rendezvous with a P&O steamship, he eventually sailed from the Suez with the papyrus dismembered and disguised as a packet of photographs. He presented his find in 1896 to Frederic Kenyon in the British Museum's Department of Manuscripts. Kenyon reassembled 1382 lines, of which 1070 were perfect or easily restored and, the following year, he published an edition of twenty poems, six of them nearly complete. Some more pieces of the Egyptian fragments were fitted together by Friedrich Blass in Germany and then followed the authoritative edition of Bacchylides' poetry by Richard Claverhouse Jebb – a combination of scholars that inspired one academic to comment: "we almost had the Renaissance back again".
As noted by Frederic Kenyon, the papyrus was originally a roll probably about seventeen feet long and about ten inches high, written in the Ptolemaic period, with some Roman characteristics that indicate a transition between styles, somewhere around 50 BC. It reached England in about two hundred torn fragments, the largest about twenty inches in length and containing four and a half columns of writing, the smallest being scraps with barely enough space for one or two letters. The beginning and end sections were missing and the damage done to the roll was not entirely the result of its recent discovery. Kenyon gradually pieced the fragments together, making three independent sections: the first, nine feet long with twenty-two columns of writing; the next section, a little over two feet long with six columns; the third, three and a half feet long with ten columns – a total length of almost fifteen feet and thirty-nine columns, in which form the papyrus remains in the British Library. Friedrich Blass later pieced together some of the still detached fragments and concluded that two of the poems on the restored roll (Odes vi. and vii., as numbered by Kenyon in the editio princeps) must be parts of a single ode (for Lachon of Keos) – hence even today the poems can be found numbered differently, with Jebb for example one of those following Blass's lead and numbering the poems differently from Kenyon from poem 8 onwards (Kenyon 9 = Jebb 8 and so on).
Bacchylides had become, almost overnight, among the best represented poets of the canonic nine, with about half as many extant verses as Pindar, adding about a hundred new words to Greek lexicons. Ironically, his newly discovered poems sparked a renewed interest in Pindar's work, with whom he was compared so unfavourably that "the students of Pindaric poetry almost succeeded in burying Bacchylides all over again."
Style
Much of Bacchylides's poetry was commissioned by proud and ambitious aristocrats, a dominant force in Greek political and cultural life in the 6th and early part of the 5th centuries, yet such patrons were gradually losing influence in an increasingly democratic Greek world. The kind of lofty and stately poetry that celebrated the achievements of these archaic aristocrats was within the reach of 'The Cean nightingale', yet he seems to have been more at home in verses of a humbler and lighter strain, even venturing on folksiness and humour.
Lyric poetry was still a vigorous art-form and its genres were already fully developed when Bacchylides started out on his career. From the time of the Peloponnesian War, around the end of his life, the art-form was in decline, as exemplified by the inferior dithyrambs of Philoxenos of Cythera. Meanwhile, tragedy, as developed by Athenian dramatists of the calibre of Aeschylus and Sophocles, had begun to emerge as the leading poetic genre, borrowing the literary dialect, the metres and poetic devices of lyric poetry in general and the dithyramb in particular (Aristotle Poetics IV 1449a). The debt however was mutual and Bacchylides borrowed from tragedy for some of his effects – thus Ode 16, with its myth of Deianeira, seems to assume audience knowledge of Sophocles's play, Women of Trachis, and Ode 18 echoes three plays – Aeschylus's Persians and Suppliants and Sophocles's Oedipus Rex. His vocabulary shows the influence of Aeschylus with several words being common to both poets and found nowhere else. The use of gripping and exciting narrative and the immediacy gained from the frequent use of direct speech are thought to be among Bacchylides's best qualities, influencing later poets such as Horace (who imitated him, according to Pomponius Porphyrion, in Carmen I. 15, where Nereus predicts the destruction of Troy). These narrative qualities were modelled largely on the work of Stesichorus, whose lyrical treatment of heroic myth influenced, for instance, Ode 5. Whereas however Stesichorus developed graphic images in his poetry that subsequently became established in vase painting, Bacchylides merely employed images already current in his own day.
Simonides, the uncle of Bacchylides, was another strong influence on his poetry, as for example in his metrical range, mostly dactylo-epitrite in form, with some Aeolic rhythms and a few iambics. The surviving poems in fact are not metrically difficult, with the exception of two odes (Odes XV and XVI, Jebb). He shared Simonides's approach to vocabulary, employing a very mild form of the traditional, literary Doric dialect, with some Aeolic words and some traditional epithets borrowed from epic. Like Simonides, he followed the lyric tradition of coining compound adjectives – a tradition in which the poet was expected to be both innovative and tasteful – but the results are thought by some modern scholars to be uneven. Many of his epithets however serve a thematic and not just a decorative function, as for instance in Ode 3, where the "bronze-walled court" and "well-built halls" of Croesus (Ode 3.30–31 and 3.46) contrast architecturally with the "wooden house" of his funeral pyre (Ode 3.49), in an effect that aims at pathos and which underscores the moral of the ode.
Bacchylides is renowned for his use of picturesque detail, giving life and colour to descriptions with small but skilful touches, often demonstrating a keen sense of beauty or splendour in external nature: a radiance, "as of fire," streams from the forms of the Nereids (XVI. 103 if. Jebb); an athlete shines out among his fellows like "the bright moon of the mid-month night" among the stars (VIII. 27 if.); the sudden gleam of hope which comes to the Trojans by the withdrawal of Achilles is like a ray of sunshine "from beneath the edge of a storm-cloud" (XII – 105 if.); the shades of the departed, as seen by Heracles on the banks of the Cocytus, resemble countless leaves fluttering in the wind on "the gleaming headlands of Ida" (V. 65 if ). Imagery is employed sparingly but often with impressive and beautiful results, such as in the simile of the eagle in Ode 5 below.
Ode 5
Bacchylides has often been compared unflatteringly with Pindar, as for example by the French critic, Henri Weil: "There is no doubt that he fails of the elevation, and also of the depth, of Pindar. The soaring wing was refused him, and he should never have compared himself, as he does somewhere, to an eagle."
The image of the eagle occurs in Ode 5, which was composed for Hieron of Syracuse in celebration of his Olympic victory with the race-horse Pherenicus in 476 BC. Pindar's Olympian Ode 1 celebrates the same race and the two poems allow for some interesting comparisons. Bacchylides's Ode 5 includes, in addition to a brief reference to the victory itself, a long mythical episode on a related theme, and a gnomic or philosophical reflection – elements that occur also in Pindar's ode and that seem typical of the victory ode genre. Whereas however Pindar's ode focuses on the myth of Pelops and Tantalus and demonstrates a stern moral about the need for moderation in personal conduct (a reflection on Hieron's political excesses), Bacchylides's ode focuses on the myths of Meleager and Hercules, demonstrating the moral that nobody is fortunate or happy in all things (possibly a reflection on Hieron's chronic illness). This difference in moral posturing was typical of the two poets, with Bacchylides adopting a quieter, simpler and less forceful manner than Pindar. Frederic G. Kenyon, who edited the papyrus poems, took an unsympathetic view of Bacchylides's treatment of myth in general:
Bacchylides however might be better understood as an heir to Stesichorus, being more concerned with story-telling per se, than as a rival of Pindar. But irrespective of any scruples about his treatment of myth, Bacchylides is thought to demonstrate in Ode 5 some of his finest work and the description of the eagle's flight, near the beginning of the poem, has been called by one modern scholar "the most impressive passage in his extant poetry."
...Quickly
cutting the depth of air
on high with tawny wings
the eagle, messenger of Zeus
who thunders in wide lordship,
is bold, relying on his mighty
strength, while other birds
cower, shrill-voiced, in fear.
The great earth's mountain peaks do not hold him back,
nor the tireless sea's
rough-tossing waves, but in
the limitless expanse
he guides his fine sleek plumage
along the West Wind's breezes,
manifest to men's sight.
So now for me too countless paths extend in all directions
by which to praise your [i.e. Hieron's] prowess...(Ode 5.16–33)
Bacchylides's image of the poet as an eagle winging across the sea was not original – Pindar had already used it earlier (Nemean Odes 5.20–21). In fact, in the same year that both poets celebrated Pherenicus's Olympic victory, Pindar also composed an ode for Theron of Acragas (Olympian 2), in which he likens himself to an eagle confronted with chattering ravens – possibly a reference to Bacchylides and his uncle. It is possible in that case that Bacchylides's image of himself as an eagle in Ode 5 was a retort to Pindar. Moreover, Bacchylides's line "So now for me too countless paths extend in all directions" has a close resemblance to lines in one of Pindar's Isthmian Odes (1.1–2), "A thousand ways ... open on every side widespread before me" but, as the date of Pindar's Isthmian Ode is uncertain, it is not clear in this case who was imitating whom. According to Kenyon, Pindar's idiosyncratic genius entitles him to the benefit of a doubt in all such cases: "... if there be actual imitation at all, it is fairly safe to conclude that it is on the part of Bacchylides." In fact one modern scholar has observed in Bacchylides a general tendency towards imitation, sometimes approaching the level of quotation: in this case, the eagle simile in Ode 5 may be thought to imitate a passage in the Homeric Hymn to Demeter (375–83), and the countless leaves fluttering in the wind on "the gleaming headlands of Ida", mentioned later in the ode, recall a passage in Iliad (6.146–9). A tendency to imitate other poets is not peculiar to Bacchylides, however – it was common in ancient poetry, as for example in a poem by Alcaeus (fragment 347), which virtually quotes a passage from Hesiod (Works and Days 582–8).
Pindar's Olympian Ode 1 and Bacchylides's Ode 5 differ also in their description of the race – while Pindar's reference to Pherenicus is slight and general ("...speeding / by Alpheus' bank, / His lovely limbs ungoaded on the course...": Olympian I.20–21), Bacchylides describes the running of the winner more vividly and in rather more detail – a difference that is characteristic of the two poets:
When Pherenicos with his auburn mane
ran like the wind
beside the eddies of broad Alpheios,
Eos, with her arms all golden, saw his victory,
and so too at most holy Pytho.
Calling the earth to witness, I declare
that never yet has any horse outstripped him
in competition, sprinkling him with dust
as he rushed forward to the goal.
For like the North Wind's blast,
keeping the man who steers him safe,
he hurtles onward, bringing to Hieron,
that generous host, victory with its fresh applause.(Ode 5.37–49)
Ultimately, however, Bacchylides and Pindar share many of the same goals and techniques – the difference is largely one of temperament:
Ode 13
Ode 13 of the Bacchylides is a Nemean ode performed to honor the athlete Pytheas of Aegina for winning the pancration event of the Nemean games. Bacchylides begins his ode with the tale of Heracles fighting the Nemean lion, employing the battle to explain why pancration tournaments are now held during the Nemean games. The allusion to Heracles’ fight with the lion is also meant to incite why it is that Pytheas fights for the wreaths of the games: to obtain the undying glory that the heroes of old now possess for their deeds. Bacchylides then sings the praises of Pytheas' home, the island Aegina, and how "her fame excites a dancer’s praise." Bacchylides continues this dancer allusion in praise of Aegina, and ends it by listing some famous men who were born on the island, namely Peleus and Telamon. Bacchylides then tells of the greatness of these men’s sons, Achilles and Ajax, alluding to a second myth, the tale of Ajax repelling Hector on the beaches of Troy, keeping the Trojans from burning the Greek ships. Bacchylides relates how Achilles’ inaction spurred the Trojans to false hope, and how their swollen pride led them to be destroyed at the hands of the men they thought they had vanquished. The ode plays upon the fact that those who are listening to Bacchylides have also read the epics of Homer, and understand the whole story behind this scene that would speak poorly of Achilles if people did not know the role he played in the Trojan war. With this tale complete Bacchylides proclaims once again that the actions he has just told will be forever remembered thanks to the muses, leading once again into his praise of Pytheas and his trainer Menander, who shall be remembered for their great victories in the Pan-Hellenic games, even if an envious rival slights them.
Ode 15
The Sons of Antenor, or Helen Demanded Back, is the first of Bacchylides’s dithyrambs in the text restored in 1896. The opening is incomplete, as part of the papyrus was damaged. The dithyramb treats a moment in myth before the Trojan war, when Menelaus, Antenor, and Antenor’s sons go to King Priam to demand the return of Helen. As is often the case with ancient Greek literature, Bacchylides plays of the audience’s knowledge of Homer without repeating a scene told by Homer. He instead describes a scene which is new to the audience, but which is given context by knowledge of the Iliad and Odyssey. The story of this embassy was known to Homer, who merely alludes to it at Iliad 3.205ff., but it was fully related in the cyclic epic poem Cypria, according to the Chrestomathy of Proclus.
The style also plays off of Homer. Characters are almost always named with their fathers, i.e. Odysseus, son of Laertes (as reconstructed). They are also given epithets, though these are not the traditional Homeric epithets: godly Antenor, upright Justice, reckless Outrage.
Notes
References
. &
. &
Attribution:
Further reading
Barrett, William Spencer. 2007. Bacchylides 10. 11–35. In Greek Lyric, Tragedy, and Textual Criticism. Edited by M. L. West, 214–231. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press
Burnett, Anne Pippin. 1985. The Art of Bacchylides. Martin Classical Lectures 29. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
Calame, Claude. 2011. "Enunciative Fiction and Poetic Performance: Choral Voices in Bacchylides’ Epinicians." In Archaic and Classical Choral Song: Performance, Politics and Dissemination. Edited by L. Athanassaki and E. Bowie, 115–138. Berlin: De Gruyter.
Calame, Claude. 2009. "Gender and Heroic Identity between Legend and Cult: The Political Creation of Theseus by Bacchylides." In Poetic and Performative Memory in Ancient Greece: Heroic Reference and Ritual Gestures in Time and Space. By Claude Calame, 105–148. Washington, DC: Center for Hellenic Studies.
Crane, Gregory. 1996. "The Prosperity of Tyrants: Bacchylides, Herodotus, and the Contest for Legitimacy." Arethusa 29.1: 57- 85
D’Alessio, Giambattista. 2013. "The Name of the Dithyramb: Diachronic and Diatopic Variations." In Dithyramb in Context. Edited by Barbara Kowalzig and Peter Wilson, 113–132. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
Fearn, David. 2007. Bacchylides: Politics, Performance, Poetic Tradition. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
Goldhill, Simon. 1983. "Narrative Structure in Bacchylides 5." Eranos 81: 65–81.
Hadjimichael, Theodora A. 2015. Sports-Writing: Bacchylides’s Athletic Descriptions. Mnemosyne. 68.3: 363-392.
Kyriakou, Poulheria. 2001. "Poet, Victor, and Justice in Bacchylides." Philologus 145.1: 16-33.
McDevitt, Arthur. 2009. Bacchylides: The Victory Poems. London: Bristol.
Nagy, Gregory. 2000. "Reading Greek Poetry Aloud: Reconstruction from the Bacchylides Papyri." Quaderni urbinati di cultural classica, new series 64.1: 7–28.
Segal, Charles. 1997. Aglaia: The Poetry of Alcman, Sappho, Pindar, Bacchylides, and Corinna. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.
Segal, Charles. 1976. "Bacchylides Reconsidered: The Epithets and the Dynamics of Lyric Narrative." Quaderni urbinati di cultura classica 22:99–130.
External links
(in Modern Greek translations)
Works by Bacchylides at Perseus Digital Library
Poems by Bacchylides English translations
Bacchylides Poems - Dithyrambs and Epinicians
People from Kea (island)
Nine Lyric Poets
5th-century BC Greek people
5th-century BC poets
Doric Greek poets
Ancient Syracuse
Year of birth unknown
Year of death unknown
Epigrammatists of the Greek Anthology |
1597853 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xanadu%20Houses | Xanadu Houses | The Xanadu Houses were a series of experimental homes built to showcase examples of computers and automation in the home in the United States. The architectural project began in 1979, and during the early 1980s three houses were built in different parts of the US: one each in Kissimmee, Florida; Wisconsin Dells, Wisconsin; and Gatlinburg, Tennessee. The houses included novel construction and design techniques, and became popular tourist attractions during the 1980s.
The Xanadu Houses were notable for being built with polyurethane insulation foam rather than concrete, for easy, fast, and cost-effective construction. They were ergonomically designed, and contained some of the earliest home automation systems. The Kissimmee Xanadu, designed by Roy Mason, was the most popular, and at its peak was attracting 1000 visitors every day. The Wisconsin Dells and Gatlinburg houses were closed and demolished in the early 1990s; the Kissimmee Xanadu House was closed in 1996 and demolished in October 2005.
History
Early development
Bob Masters was an early pioneer of houses built of rigid insulation. Before conceiving the Xanadu House concept, Masters designed and created inflatable balloons to be used in the construction of houses. He was inspired by architect Stan Nord Connolly's Kesinger House in Denver, Colorado, one of the earliest homes built from insulation. Masters built his first balloon-constructed house exterior in 1969 in less than three days during a turbulent snowstorm, using the same methods later used to build the Xanadu houses.
Masters was convinced that these dome-shaped homes built of foam could work for others, so he decided to create a series of show homes in the United States. Masters's business partner Tom Gussel chose the name "Xanadu" for the homes, a reference to Xanadu, the summer capital of Yuan, which is prominently featured in Samuel Taylor Coleridge's famous poem Kubla Khan. The first Xanadu House opened in Wisconsin Dells, Wisconsin. It was designed by architect Stewart Gordon and constructed by Masters in 1979. It was in area, and featured a geodesic greenhouse. 100,000 people visited the new attraction in its first summer.
Popularity
The most popular Xanadu house was the second house, designed by architect Roy Mason. Masters met Mason in 1980 at a futures conference in Toronto. Mason had worked on a similar project prior to his involvement in the creation of the Kissimmee Xanadu House — an "experimental school" on a hill in Virginia which was also a foam structure. Both Mason and Masters were influenced by other experimental houses and building concepts which emphasized ergonomics, usability, and energy efficiency. These included apartments designed by architect Kisho Kurokawa featuring detachable building modules and more significant designs including a floating habitat made of fiberglass designed by Jacques Beufs for living on water surfaces, concepts for living underwater by architect Jacques Rougerie and the Don Metz house built in the 1970s which took advantage of the earth as insulation. Fifty years before Xanadu House, another house from the 1933 Homes of Tomorrow Exhibition at the Century of Progress Exposition in Chicago introduced air conditioning, forced air heating, circuit breakers and electric eye doors.
Mason believed Xanadu House would alter people's views of houses as little more than inanimate, passive shelters against the elements. "No one's really looked at the house as a total organic system", said Mason, who was also the architecture editor of The Futurist magazine. "The house can have intelligence and each room can have intelligence." The estimated cost of construction for one home was $300,000. Roy Mason also planned a low cost version which would cost $80,000, to show that homes using computers do not have to be expensive. The low cost Xanadu was never built. Approximately 1,000 homes were built using this type of construction.
The Walt Disney Company opened Epcot Center in Florida on October 1, 1982 (originally envisioned as the Experimental Prototype Community of Tomorrow). Masters, fellow Aspen High School teacher, Erik V Wolter, and Mason decided to open a Xanadu House several miles away in Kissimmee. It eventually opened in 1983, after several years of research into the concepts Xanadu would use. It was over in size, considerably larger than the average house because it was built as a showcase. At its peak in the 1980s, under the management of Wolter, more than 1,000 people visited the new Kissimmee attraction every day. A third Xanadu House was built in Gatlinburg, Tennessee. Shortly after the Xanadu Houses were built and opened as visitor attractions, tourism companies began to advertise them as the "home of the future" in brochures encouraging people to visit.
Demise
By the early 1990s, the Xanadu houses began to lose popularity because the technology they used was quickly becoming obsolete, and as a result the houses in Wisconsin and Tennessee were demolished, while the Xanadu House in Kissimmee continued to operate as a public visitor attraction until it was closed in 1996. It was consequently put up for sale in 1997 and was sold for office and storage use. By 2001, the Kissimmee house had suffered greatly from mold and mildew throughout the interior due to a lack of maintenance since being used as a visitor attraction, it was put up for sale again for an asking price of US$2 million. By October 2005, the last of the Xanadu houses had been demolished, following years of abandonment and use by the homeless. The Kissimmee house was also featured in the 2007 movie "Urban Explorers: Into the Darkness". It showed the house in disrepair with doors wide open, mold growing everywhere and a homeless man living inside. The "explorers" walked through the house filming the decay firsthand as the homeless man slept in a chair on the main floor. At the end of the segment, the man wakes up and threatens the "explorers" telling them to leave his home.
Design
Construction
Construction of the Xanadu house in Kissimmee, Florida, began with the pouring of a concrete slab base and the erection of a tension ring in diameter to anchor the domed roof of what would become the "Great Room" of the house. A pre-shaped vinyl balloon was formed and attached to the ring, and then inflated by air pressure from large fans. Once the form was fully inflated, its surface was sprayed with quick-hardening polyurethane plastic foam. The foam, produced by the sudden mixture of two chemicals that expand on contact to 30 times their original volume, hardened almost instantly. Repeated spraying produced a five-to-six-inch-thick structurally sound shell within a few hours. Once the foam cured, the plastic balloon form was removed to be used again. Once the second dome was completed and the balloon form removed, the two rooms were joined together by wire mesh which was also sprayed with foam to form a connecting gallery or hall. This process was repeated until the house was complete. Window, skylight, and door openings were cut and the frames foamed into place. Finally, the interior of the entire structure was sprayed with a 3/4 inch (1.9 cm) coating of fireproof material that also provided a smooth, easy-to-clean finish for walls and ceilings. The exterior was given a coat of white elastomeric paint as the final touch.
Interior
A Xanadu House was ergonomically designed, with future occupants in mind. It used curved walls, painted concrete floors rather than carpets, a light color scheme featuring cool colors throughout, and an open-floor plan linking rooms together without the use of doors. It had at least two entrances, and large porthole-type windows. The interior of the house was cave-like, featuring cramped rooms and low ceilings, although it is not clear whether these accounts describe the same Xanadu House with a thirty-foot dome. The interiors used a cream color for the walls, and a pale green for the floor.
The Xanadu house in Kissimmee, Florida used an automated system controlled by Commodore microcomputers. The house had fifteen rooms; of these the kitchen, party room, health spa, and bedrooms all used computers and other electronic equipment heavily in their design. The automation concepts which Xanadu House used are based on original ideas conceived in the 1950s and earlier. The Xanadu Houses aimed to bring the original concepts into a finished and working implementation. Inside the house, there was an electronic tour guide for the benefit of visitors, and the family room featured video screens that displayed computer-graphics art. These art displays were constantly changing, being displayed on video screens as opposed to static mediums.
The home also featured fire and security systems, along with a master bath that included adjustable weather conditions and a solar-heated steam bath.
At the center of the house was the "great room", the largest in the house. It featured a large false tree supporting the roof, and also acted as part of the built-in heating system. The great room also included a fountain, small television set, and a video projector. Nearby was the dining room, featuring a glass table with a curved seat surrounding it; behind the seats was a large window covering the entire wall. The family room featured walls covered with television monitors and other electronic equipment. The entertainment center in the family room was described as an "electronic hearth" by the home's builders. It was planned as a gathering place for family members and relatives along the same lines as a traditional hearth with a fireplace.
The kitchen was automated by "autochef", an electronic dietitian which planned well-balanced meals. Meals could be cooked automatically at a set date and time. If new food was required, it could either be obtained via tele-shopping through the computer system or from Xanadu's own greenhouse. The kitchen's computer terminal could also be used for the household calendar, records, and home bookkeeping.
The Xanadu homes also suggested a way to do business at home with the office room and the use of computers for electronic mail, access to stock and commodities trading, and news services.
Computers in the master bedroom allowed for other parts of the house to be controlled. This eliminated chores such as having to go downstairs to turn off the coffee pot after one had gone to bed. The children's bedroom featured the latest in teaching microcomputers and "videotexture" windows, whose realistic computer-generated landscapes could shift in a flash from scenes of real places anywhere in the world to imaginary scenes. The beds at the right of the room retreated into the wall to save space and cut down on clutter; the study niches were just the right size for curling up all alone with a pocket computer game or a book.
In the spa, people could relax in a whirlpool, sun sauna, and environmentally-controlled habitat, and exercise with the assistance of spa monitors. One of the advantages of using computers in the home includes security. In Xanadu House, a HAL-type voice spoke when someone entered to make the intruder think someone was home.
Concerns over energy consumption
An initial concern was that electricity costs would be excessive, since several computers would be operating continuously. Mason figured that a central computer could control the energy consumption of all the other computers in the house.
See also
Dymaxion house
House of Innovation
Monolithic dome
Sanzhi UFO houses
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Last of the Xanadus at RoadsideAmerica.com
Architectural theory
Domes
Houses in Osceola County, Florida
Houses in Sevier County, Tennessee
Houses in Wisconsin
House types
Postmodern architecture in the United States
Modernist architecture in Florida
Modernist architecture in Tennessee
Modernist architecture in Wisconsin
Expressionist architecture
Futurist architecture
Organic architecture |
65049156 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chakra%20%282021%20film%29 | Chakra (2021 film) | Chakra () is a 2021 Indian Tamil-language action thriller film written and directed by MS Anandan in his directorial debut. It is an stand-alone sequel to Irumbu Thirai. The film stars Vishal and Shraddha Srinath in the lead roles while Regina Cassandra played the antagonist. Themed on cybercrimes and e-commerce scams, the film follows a soldier and a police officer who work together to bring down a cyber hacker.
The film was released theatrically on 19 February 2021, the film opened to mixed to positive reviews, who appreciated performance of Vishal and Regina, visuals, cinematography and music, but criticised for writing and pace. The film was an average at the box office
Plot
50 robberies occurred on August 15th - Independence Day, with two masked robbers looting houses. The entire police force is clueless without the slightest lead or evidence. Assistant Commissioner Gayathiri (Sharaddha Srinath) is assigned to the case. She realizes that 50 houses were looted in total, with the 50th being the house of Chandru (Vishal), her former love interest. Chandru's grandmother (K. R. Vijaya) gets injured in the theft in an attempt to safeguard the Ashoka Chakra medal, which was bestowed to Chandru's late father (Nassar). However, the thieves knocked her down and stole the medal. Now, it is Chandru's personal mission to avenge them, retrieve the medal, and solve the case.
Chandru looks back at the case details and information from the victims to realize that the robbers had known the exact location of money and jewels in every house. He deduces that the robbers had visited every house beforehand and planned the theft to perfection. Hence, he writes down a list of people who can get access to people's houses and realizes that a company known as Dial For Help, which provides household services like technicians, plumbers, etc., may be involved in the case. Hence, he heads to the headquarters and realizes that all 50 houses had been serviced by the company under a common number belonging to a man named Marimuthu.
Police rush to his house, only to find him already dead. Marimuthu's widow explains that her husband was a good man who had died two years ago. Chandru, with no other clue, returns. Meanwhile, an unknown person calls the Police Commissioner (Vijay Babu) and informs him that he was responsible for all the thefts thus far. He also challenges the entire force that no one would be able to track him down.
Accepting this as a challenge, Chandru tries to provoke the unknown person, which appears to be successful as he gives a clue to his location - 00100. The police realize that it refers to a place, and they rush to the place, only to find destroyed computers. Chandru reveals that he knew the person would have left, but he only rushed to find any clue that he may have left. After some time, Chandru heads back to share his findings.
He reveals that the number 00100 was written on the walls in that place and that it was drawn in such a way that refers to the queen in chess, and that the hacker had left a partial thumbprint on the scanner used to destroy all data. He further reveals that theft would occur in 58 more houses on August 23rd due to the PM's arrival. Lastly, he reveals that the hacker that they were searching for thus far was not a man, but a woman.
The unknown hacker is revealed to be Leela (Regina Cassandra), who works as a chess coach. A flashback shows that a young Leela (Baby Krithika) had loved her mother (Neelima Rani) tremendously, and both of them had a tight bond. Her alcoholic and abusive father (Aruldoss) tortures her mother every day. One day, Leela wakes up to find her mother died while in her sleep. Her father immediately marries another woman and brings with her two young sons. Later Leela's father reveals that he and his new wife had suffocated and killed Leela's mother. An enraged Leela kills both her father and stepmother using electricity and water. She uses her stepmother's two sons as baits for her thefts. Next, a cat-and-mouse chase begins between Leela and Chandru, in which Chandru wins. The movie ends with an open end for a sequel where Leela challenges Chandru by uttering the words "The game has just begun".
Cast
Vishal as Major Chandru
Shraddha Srinath as ACP Gayathri IPS
Regina Cassandra as Leela, a chess player coach, a computer hacker and the main antagonist
Srushti Dange as Rithu Bhatia, "Dial For Help" CEO
Robo Shankar as Inspector Kumar
Nassar as Chandru's late father
Vijay Babu as Police Commissioner
Amit Bhargav as Ganeshan
Manobala as Gayathri's uncle
K. R. Vijaya as Chandru's grandmother
Ravikanth as Dial For Help Board member
Baby Krithika as Young Leela (cameo appearance)
Aruldoss as Leela's late father (cameo appearance)
Neelima Rani as Leela's late mother (cameo appearance)
Rail Ravi as Dial For Help Board member
Pradeep K. Vijayan as Dial For Help Board member
Maha Delhi Ganesh as Leela's brother
Arjunan as a hacker
Production
The film was initially touted to be the sequel of Vishal's previous action thriller hacker film Irumbu Thirai, which became a success at the box office in 2018. The film was rumored to be titled Irumbu Thirai 2 as the film genre was quite similar to the former. However the film was later titled as Chakra by the filmmakers as the film story revolves around Ashoka Chakra which is the highest peacetime military decoration in India. Veteran actress K. R. Vijaya made a comeback through this film after a sabbatical of three years. In preparation for their roles, both Shraddha Srinath and Regina Cassandra underwent training in martial arts and motorcycle riding, respectively.
Music
The film score has been composed by Yuvan Shankar Raja.
Harla Farla - Yuvan Shankar Raja, Sanjana Kalmanje
Amma - Chinmayi, Prarthana
Scream of darkness(Theme)
Release
Theatrical
The film was initially supposed to have its theatrical release on 1 May 2020 coinciding with the May Day but was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic in India. The film was released on 19 February 2021.
Home media
The satellite rights sold by Kalaignar TV. The film was simultaneously released on 19 February 2021 along with its dubbed versions in Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam and Hindi as Chakra Ka Rakshak (English: The Protector of Chakra).
Reception
Box office
Chakra, made on a budget of 31.5 crore, collected 65 crore crore in its theatrical run. The film was a moderate success, despite reportedly incurring a loss of 3.5 crore.
Critical response
M Suganth of The Times of India gave the film 2.5/5, stating that the film was focused on momentary thrills, and it "feels rather tame." Sugandh added that weak writing let down Chakra. A reviewer from Sify termed the film "An average action thriller," rating it 2.5/5. On technical aspects, the reviewer wrote, "the background score of Yuvan Shankar Raja and visuals of Balasubramaniam are average." They opined that the MS Anandan's dialogues on Digital India and how the current generation losing their privacy through mobile phones and online shopping were done and dusted in Irumbu Thirai, and Robo Shankar's comic track was a needless addition.
The Hindu critic Srinivasa Ramanujan opined that the film "cashes in on a timely subject, but does little justice to it." He added: "The absence of a major romantic track and songs is a huge relief, as is the character arc of the villain, but certain key emotional elements get in the way a tad too many times,".
Controversies
Copyright issues
Madras High Court issued a temporary stay order preventing the release of the film over copyright claims. Trident Arts studio which was initially offered to produce the film filed complaint at the High Court stating that the story of the film was initially narrated to them by the film director. It was revealed that the producer of Trident Arts, Ravi entered a contract with the director Anandan to produce the film. However, the production was later handed over to Vishal Film Factory without the consent of Trident Arts. In addition, Madras HC urged actor Vishal to pay compensation for the losses incurred by the producer of his previous film Action. The dispute between Trident Arts and Vishal Film Factory was solved just days before the film's release.
References
External links
2021 films
2021 action thriller films
Films postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic
Indian action thriller films
Indian crime action films
Indian films
Films scored by Yuvan Shankar Raja
Techno-thriller films
2021 directorial debut films |
4981110 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemalto | Gemalto | Gemalto was an international digital security company providing software applications, secure personal devices such as smart cards and tokens, and managed services. Formed in June 2006 by the merger of two companies, Axalto and Gemplus International. Gemalto N.V.'s revenue in 2018 was €2.969 billion.
Purchased by Thales Group in April 2019 and now operating as Thales DIS (Digital Identity and Security), Gemalto was until its acquisition the world's largest manufacturer of SIM cards.
Thales DIS is headquartered in Amsterdam, The Netherlands, and has subsidiaries and group companies in several countries. It has approximately 15,000 employees in 110 offices; along with 24 production sites, 47 personalization centers, and 35 R&D centers in 47 countries.
History
In June 2006, smart card providers Gemplus and Axalto merged to become Gemalto (a portmanteau of the original company names.) Axalto was a Schlumberger IPO spin-off in 2004.
Between the merger and 2015, Gemalto completed a series of acquisitions: the Leigh Mardon's personalization center (Taiwan), Multos International, NamITech in South Africa, NXP mobile services business, the mobile software solution provider O3SIS, Trusted Logic (the secure software platform provider), Serverside (personalization of bank cards with digital images generated by end users), XIRING's banking activity, Netsize (a mobile communications service and commerce enabler), Valimo Wireless, a provider in mobile authentication, the internet banking security specialist Todos AB in Sweden, Cinterion the German specialist of machine-to-machine (M2M), SensorLogic (an M2M service delivery platform provider), Plastkart in Turkey, Ericsson’s mobile payment platform IPX, the information security company SafeNet and Buzzinbees, the automatic SIM activation expert.
Axalto and Schlumberger
Schlumberger began its chip card activities in February 1979 when it licensed and marketed certain chip card technologies developed and patented by Roland Moreno, who is generally credited with the invention of the chip card.
Schlumberger developed the first telephone chip cards for France Telecom and the Swedish telecommunications operator Telia in the early 1980s. The company developed ties with telecommunications operators in several countries, and played a role in industry-wide efforts to develop new digital mobile communication standards, particularly the GSM transmission standard (Global System for Mobile Communication). Schlumberger designed its first SIM card in the early 1990s for the launch of GSM in Europe, and this led to the use of microprocessor card technology as an access and security solution for mobile telephony worldwide, in 3 billion handsets today.
In the early 1980s, the French banking sector decided to migrate from the magnetic stripe card-based payment system to a more modern and secure microprocessor card-based system. Schlumberger received its first contract in June 1981 to provide GIE Cartes Bancaires, the French credit/debit card issuers’ association, with 5,000 microprocessor cards and 200 associated POS terminals. The microprocessor card-based payment system subsequently became standard in France and eventually led to a global standard known as EMV, set up by Europay, MasterCard and Visa.
Schlumberger experienced internal and external growth since the launch of its chip card operations in the early 1980s through the 1990s and 2000s, both in terms of revenue and product portfolio, particularly with the substantial growth in GSM-based mobile telecommunications. Acquisitions of regional companies in card production and personalization included Cowells (United Kingdom), Malco (United States), Printer (Mexico) and Cardtech (Brazil), followed by Solaic in 1996 and Bull-CP8 from Bull in 2001, in France and China.
In 2003, Schlumberger created Axalto as a division to consolidate into one company all of its card and POS terminal activities, which until then had been managed by several subsidiaries and joint ventures of the Schlumberger group. Subsequently, Axalto was listed on the Euronext Paris market on May 18, 2004.
Gemplus
Founded by Marc Lassus, Daniel Le Gal, Philippe Maes, Jean-Pierre Gloton and Gilles Lisimaque, Gemplus started its operations in 1988 as a supplier of prepaid phonecards. Because of its presence in the market of the prepaid phonecards during the 1990s, the company developed ties with the telecommunications industry along with Schlumberger.
Prior to 1999, the business was conducted through Gemplus S.C.A., a French limited partnership. In December 1999, Gemplus Associates, the general partner of Gemplus S.C.A., merged into Gemplus S.C.A., which became a joint stock company, Gemplus SA. In February 2000, the corporate structure was reorganized and a new holding company, Gemplus International SA, a Luxembourg corporation, was created. Texas Pacific Group became a shareholder of Gemplus at the time of its equity contribution in February 2000.
In December 2000, the company completed an initial public offering of its capital stock, in the form of ordinary shares traded on the Eurolist of Euronext Paris, and ADSs traded on the U.S. NASDAQ exchange. In 2004, the company completed the planned reorganization of its corporate structure by transferring most of the subsidiaries of Gemplus SA to Gemplus International SA.
In April 2005, Gemplus acquired Setec Oy, a company headquartered in Finland that, among other things, supplies conventional and electronic travel passports to various government agencies and products involving secure printing.
In June 2006, smart card providers Axalto and Gemplus merged to become Gemalto.
Android patent lawsuit
In October 2010, Gemalto filed a lawsuit against Google, Samsung, HTC and Motorola over the Android operating system in the Eastern District of Texas. Gemalto said that Android phones had memory-utilization features that it had first developed and patented, and accused the defendant companies of infringing three of its patents. Ars Technica quoted ING analysts who estimated that winning this lawsuit could potentially bring the company royalty receipts amounting to 30-50 million Euros per annum. However, in June 2014, a panel of judges in the US Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit ruled in favor of the defendants that Android phones don't infringe on those patents.
Acquisition by Thales
In December 2017, Gemalto was the subject of a bid from the Thales Group for €4.8 billion. This was subsequently approved by the board of directors subject to international clearance. The acquisition was completed in April 2019 not before Thales had to offload the Thales General Purpose HSM unit to Entrust Datacard. This was as part of the agreement with EU competition commission for the necessary regulatory clearance to the acquisition.
Structure
Gemalto N.V. is the holding company of the Group. The Company's authorized share capital amounts to €150 million and is divided into 150 million ordinary shares, with a nominal value of €1 per share. As of October 2012, out of these 150 million shares that are authorized to be issued by the Board, 88,015,844 shares were actually issued and in circulation. Since 2006, Gemalto comprises three market-focused divisions—Telecommunications, secure transactions and Security, as well as functional organizations for marketing; operations including both production and research and development; finance; human resources and legal.
Acquisition by Thales
In April 2019, Thales finished their acquisition of Gemalto for €4.8bn. Gemalto will become Thales' 7th global division which will be named Digital Identity and Security (DIS).
Telecommunications
Gemalto provides software solutions, subscriber identity modules (SIM) and managed services to more than 700 million subscribers in the telecommunications market. Gemalto has more than 400 mobile telecom operator customers worldwide.
In 2007, Gemalto organized the telecom business into four lines—secure operated services, advanced products and data services, value-added products and service deployment, and SIM cards.
Every year since 2000, Axalto and then Gemalto organized the "SIMagine" contest, the Worldwide Mobile Communication & Java Card Developers Contest, aimed at stimulating innovations using SIM-based solutions. Sponsors include Samsung Semiconductor Europe and Sun Microsystems.
In 2016, following the Buzzinbees acquisition, it introduced the concept of SIM reactivation whereby operators can let users reuse expired SIM cards instead of purchasing new ones when they wish to re-subscribe to that operator.
Near field communications (NFC) and mobile payment
On October 30, 2008, Royal Bank of Canada, Visa and Rogers Wireless jointly announced that they were working together on the next phase of the mobile phone payment pilot, testing wireless delivery of mobile payment software and credit card information to a customer's mobile phone. The companies announced that Gemalto would provide this capability by acting as the trusted service manager to bridge banking with mobile phones. Gemalto's role is to manage the transfer of credit card information from RBC to the secure SIM card in the Rogers Wireless NFC-enabled mobile phone.
Gemalto has played the TSM role in other NFC pilots in several countries, including France and Taiwan. In November 2007, Gemalto partnered with Taiwan's Far EasTone Telecommunications Ltd. to start Asia's first mobile contactless SIM-based NFC trial, as part of the GSM Association’s "Pay-Buy Mobile" initiative.
Mobile signatures
In November 2008, Turkcell, a mobile operator in Turkey, began using Gemalto's SIM-based mobile signature solution. The solution allows the 30 million Turkcell subscribers to access services that require strong authentication, such as internet banking or e-government services using their mobile phones to generate a legally binding electronic signature.
Banking & Payment
Gemalto supplies contact, hybrid, dual interface and contactless cards, EMV chip cards, payment terminals, and user authentication solutions for secure online banking.
According to the Nilson report, Gemalto is the largest provider of chip cards, selling 1.5 billion chip cards, representing 49 percent of the market. At the start of 2010 in Germany 20 million ATM cards and 3.5 million credit cards were hit by an end-of-the-decade programming glitch which prevented them working.
Gemalto's customers include 300 banks.
Gemalto worldwide banking and retail customers include Santander UK, ABN AMRO Netherlands, Aktia, Finland, American Express, Banque Accord (France), Accord Italia (Italy), Caisse d'Épargne (France), La Caixa (Spain), Crédit Agricole (France), Diners Club Croatia, Findomestic Italy, Fortis Belgium. Hansabank Estonia, HBOS UK, HSBC UK, ING Belgium, JCB, LHV Pank Estonia, National Bank of Greece, OpBank, Parex Bank (Latvia), Sampo (Finland), Société Générale, Agip France, Arena Netherlands, BMW, B.P., Esso, Sodexo, and Total France.
EMV cards
Gemalto delivered EMV cards to numerous financial institutions worldwide.
In September 2008, Garanti Bank in Turkey began rolling out 300,000 Gemalto EMV contactless bankcards.
In April 2016, National Commercial Bank (NCB) of Saudi Arabia appointed Gemalto as its supplier for dual-interface EMV cards.
Instant Issuance
As of November 2008, Gemalto's Instant Issuance service has been installed in over 300 shopping malls worldwide, enabling one million credit cards to be issued on the spot per year.
CardLikeMe
In July 2008, Gemalto began providing its CardLikeMe service to PlasticNow in Canada, giving consumers the ability to customize their card with the photo of their choice.
eBanking and eCommerce security
Following its acquisition of Swedish security firm Todos AB in April 2010, Gemalto eBanking provides a range of eBanking and eCommerce security solutions under the Ezio brand name. The Ezio Suite includes:
The Ezio Server that supports multiple authentication techniques, including two-factor authentication, one-time passwords, challenge-response, dynamic signatures and sign-what-you-see.
Authentication devices including smart card readers and tokens
Mobile phone authentication using SIM, apps or SMS
Gemalto eBanking supports the Ezio Suite with services including implementation, security audit, design and consulting, training, fulfilment and support.
Ezio technology is in use in banks such as ABN AMRO, Barclays and Nordea.
Barclays
As of July 2008, more than one million Barclays customers are using Gemalto's cryptographic smart card reader, called PINsentry by Barclays for strong authentication for online banking.
FINO PayTech Limited
In June 2007, The Financial Information Network and Operations Ltd. (FINO PayTech Limited) in India began deploying Gemalto smart cards with biometric authentication. to enable microbanking and the underbanked population in rural India.
Biometric cards
Starting from 2018, Gemalto introduced a range of biometric cards including fingerprint sensors.
In October 2019, biometric cards, equipped with fingerprint sensors, were delivered to NatWest in the UK in a project in partnership with Mastercard.
In November 2019, biometric cards, equipped with fingerprint sensors, were delivered to Cornèrcard in Switzerland in a project in partnership with Visa.
Security, public sector (e-Government)
e-Passports
Gemalto supplies electronic passport (e-passport) solutions to Australia, Colombia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, France, India, Italy, Latvia, Morocco, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Qatar, Singapore, Slovenia, Sweden, Turkey, Peru, Malaysia, United States and the United Kingdom among other countries.
As of March 2007, Gemalto has provided technology to more than 10 million e-passports, making them the largest provider of e-passport solutions with an estimated 30 percent market share.
In the United States, Gemalto is one of two vendors picked by the Government Printing Office to supply their e-passport program in 2007.
In September 2017, Gemalto announced that its biometric ePassport technology is currently being used in more than 30 different countries, including Algeria, Denmark, Finland, Hong Kong, France, Italy, Korea, Morocco, Norway, Peru, Portugal, Singapore, Sweden and the United States.
e-Driver’s licenses
Mexico’s licensing authority (ICV) used Gemalto's smart card platform to issue the first e-driver's licenses to the city of Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico, in 2007. Gemalto expects to deliver more than 900,000 licenses to ICV over a three-year period. Gemalto secured a new contract to supply electronic card driver's license to three additional Mexican states in April 2008.
In December 2007, Gemalto began supplying Sweden with e-driver's licenses that contain a transparent window in the polycarbonate structure, aimed at enhanced physical security. Gemalto will supply Sweden with 600,000 e-driver's licenses per year for three years.
e-ID Citizen cards
In February 2007, the Portuguese Mint and National Printing Office (INCM) picked Gemalto to provide their national e-ID Citizen Card. Gemalto provides the operating system, the personalization system and applications, the middleware and associated helpdesk services. All Portuguese citizens will ultimately carry these cards as their national ID document.
e-Healthcare cards
In September 2007, Gemalto delivered its 100 millionth e-healthcare card. Gemalto has delivered e-healthcare cards in Algeria, Belgium, China, Finland, France, Germany Mexico, Puerto Rico, Slovenia, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
In July, Allgemeine Ortskrankenkasse (AOK), a German health insurer, also picked Gemalto to supply and personalize 35 million e-health insurance cards. The cards contain emergency data such as blood group, allergy alerts and ongoing treatments, and e-prescriptions.
e-Government ID
As of December 2009, Gemalto has provided 25 million Common Access Cards to the United States Department of Defense for employee and contractor use.
ID cards issued by the Swedish Tax Agency since September 2017 have electronic identification provided by AB Svenska Pass, a subsidiary of Gemalto.
Transportation
Gemalto has provided contactless payment technology to a nationwide transport project in the Netherlands, and citywide projects in Boston, Paris, London, São Paulo and Santiago.
Gemalto has delivered more than 100 million transit cards internationally.
Security and enterprise
Gemalto supplies its enterprise services through value-added resellers (VARs) and systems integrators. The company's customers include Barclays, Shell, Chevron, Pfizer, Boeing, Telia Sonera, Schlumberger and Microsoft.
In April 2008, Alternative Technology began offering Gemalto's on-demand Device Administration Service (DAS) through its network of 3,000 resellers in the United States and Canada.
In April 2008, Envoy Data Corporation began offering Gemalto's on-demand Device
Administration Service (DAS) through its network of IT security specialized VARs.
Pfizer
At Pfizer, 100,000 employees use Gemalto smart cards as badges.
Virchow Krause
In July 2008, Gemalto began deploying Protiva .NET Dual tokens at Virchow Krause & Company LLP (VK), the 15th largest accounting firm in the United States.
Microsoft partnership
Microsoft employees worldwide use Gemalto .NET smart card technology embedded in their corporate badge to enable access to Microsoft's own information systems.
In June 2008, Gemalto announced that Instant Badge Issuance (IBI), a solution that works directly with Microsoft Active Directory and Identity Lifecycle Manager (ILM) to load digital certificates directly onto the smart card.
At Microsoft's "Heroes Happen Here" event in February 2008, Gemalto and Microsoft demonstrated the only .NET smart card technology with support built into Microsoft Windows Server 2008.
In November 2007, Gemalto made its .NET smart card, Protiva Strong Authentication Server and related Protiva credential devices, and other Windows Smart Card Framework-compatible products available for live simulation at the Microsoft Partner Solutions Center on Microsoft Corp.’s Redmond, Washington, campus.
In November 2007, Gemalto attained Gold Certified Partner status in the Microsoft Partner Program.
In 2006, Gemalto organized a Microsoft-sponsored contest, SecureTheWeb, for the best new development in secure personal devices for Web services, such as smart cards and one-time passwords (OTPs).
Citrix Systems partnership
In December 2007, Gemalto announced that its Protiva platform were recognized by Citrix Systems as compatible with the Citrix Access Gateway. This followed a previous announcement earlier in January 2007 that Gemalto’s .NET and Protiva solutions were recognized by Citrix Systems as compatible with its products.
In January 2007, Gemalto was named a finalist for 2006 Solution Partner of the Year by Citrix Systems.
Verisign
In February 2007, Gemalto announced that its Network Identity Manager (NIM) for online security would support the VeriSign Identity Protection (VIP) Network.
Security breaches
3G/4G SIM card encryption key leak allegations
According to documents leaked by Edward Snowden, NSA's and GCHQ's Mobile Handset Exploitation Team infiltrated Gemalto's infrastructure to steal SIM authentication keys, allowing them to secretly monitor mobile communications. GCHQ codenamed the program "DAPINO GAMMA". The secret GCHQ document leaked by Snowden also claimed the ability to manipulate billing records to conceal their own activity and having access to authentication servers to decrypt voice calls and text messages. Snowden stated that "When the NSA and GCHQ compromised the security of potentially billions of phones (3g/4g encryption relies on the shared secret resident on the sim), they not only screwed the manufacturer, they screwed all of us, because the only way to address the security compromise is to recall and replace every SIM sold by Gemalto."
The breach subsequently refueled suspicions against Gemalto chairman Alex J. Mandl, given his role in the CIA venture capital firm In-Q-Tel.
GCHQ and NSA declined to comment on the matter. Gemalto issued a press release on February 25, 2015 saying there were "reasonable grounds to believe that an operation by NSA and GCHQ probably happened", but denying that the government agencies gained access to any authentication keys.
Smart card weak key vulnerability
In October 2017, it was reported that Gemalto's IDPrime.NET smart cards, which are used internally by Microsoft and many other companies, were affected by the Infineon weak key vulnerability, leaving their private keys deducible to attackers.
Partnerships
Key partners of Gemalto include Wipro, Prodapt, Maya, Sendum, Unique Computing Solutions, Symphony Teleca, Bing, Kore, West, etc.
In 2017, OnKöl, a home care hub device started using Gemalto's M2M Module.
See also
CharlieCard
De La Rue
Estonian id-card and ROCA vulnerability(Estonian Police and Border Guard Board is going to court against Gemalto)
Gemalto M2M
References
Electronics companies established in 2006
Smart cards
Cryptography companies
Manufacturing companies based in Amsterdam
Electronics companies of France
Electronics companies of the Netherlands
Companies formerly listed on Euronext Amsterdam
2019 mergers and acquisitions
Thales Group divisions and subsidiaries
Dutch companies established in 2006
2019 disestablishments in the Netherlands
Electronics companies disestablished in 2019
Defunct companies of the Netherlands |
38327135 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipeline%20Pilot | Pipeline Pilot | Pipeline Pilot is a desktop software program sold by Dassault Systèmes for processing and analyzing data. Originally used in the natural sciences, the product's basic ETL (Extract, transform, load) and analytics capabilities have been broadened. The product is now used for data science, ETL, reporting, prediction and analytics in a number of sectors. The main feature of the product is the ability to design data workflows using a graphical user interface. The program is an example of visual and dataflow programming. It has use in a variety of settings, such as cheminformatics and QSAR, Next Generation Sequencing, image analysis, and text analytics.
History
The product was created by SciTegic. BIOVIA subsequently acquired SciTegic and Pipeline Pilot in 2004. BIOVIA was itself purchased by Dassault Systèmes in 2014. The product expanded from an initial focus on chemistry to include general extract, transform and load (ETL) capabilities. Beyond the base product, Dassault has added analytical and data processing collections for report generation, data visualization and a number of scientific and engineering sectors. Currently, the product is used for ETL, analytics and machine learning in the chemical, energy, consumer packaged goods, aerospace, automotive and electronics manufacturing industries.
Overview
Pipeline Pilot is part of a class of software products that provide user interfaces for manipulating and analyzing data. Pipeline Pilot and similar products allow users with limited or no coding abilities to transform and manipulate datasets. Usually, this is a precursor to conducting analysis of the data. Like other graphical ETL products, it enables users to pull from different data sources, such as CSV files, text files and databases.
Components, pipelines, protocols and data records
The graphical user interface, called the Pipeline Pilot Professional Client, allows users to drag and drop discrete data processing units called "components". Components can load, filter, join or manipulate data. Components can also perform much more advanced data manipulations, such as building regression models, training neural networks or processing datasets into PDF reports.
Pipeline Pilot implements a Components paradigm. Components are represented as nodes in a workflow. In a mathematical sense, components are modeled as nodes in a directed graph: "pipes" (graph edges) connect components and move data along the from node to node where operations are performed on the data. Users have the choice to use predefined components, or to develop their own. To help in industry-specific applications, such as Next Generation Sequencing (see High-throughput sequencing (HTS) methods), BIOVIA has developed components that greatly reduce the amount of time users need to do common industry-specific tasks.
Users can choose from components that come pre-installed or create their own components in workflows called "protocols". Protocols are sets of linked components. Protocols can be saved, reused and shared. Users can mix and match components that are provided with the software from BIOVIA with their own custom components. Connections between two components are called "pipes", and are visualized in the software as two components connected by a pipe. End users design their workflows/protocols, then execute them by running the protocol. Data flows from left to right along the pipes.
Modern data analysis and processing can involve a very large number of manipulations and transformations. One major feature of Pipeline Pilot is the ability to visually condense a lengthy series of data manipulations that involve many components. A workflow of any length can be visually condensed into a component that is used in a high level workflow. This means that a protocol can be saved and used as a component in another protocol. In the terminology used in Pipeline Pilot, protocols that are used as components in other protocols are called "subprotocols". This allows users to add layers of complexity to their data processing and manipulation workflows, then hide that complexity so they can design the workflow at a higher level of abstraction.
Component collections
Pipeline Pilot features a number of add-ons called "collections". Collections are groups of specialized functions like processing genetic information or analyzing polymers offered to end users for an additional licensing fee. Currently, there are a number of these collections.
Given the number of different add-ons now offered by BIOVIA, Pipeline Pilot's use cases are very broad and difficult to summarize succinctly. The product has been used in:
Predictive maintenance
Image analysis, for example the determination of the inhibitory action of a substance on biological processes (IC50) by calculating the dose–response relationship directly from information extracted from high-content screening assay images, associated with dilution in the plate layout and chemistry information about the tested compounds (Imaging, Chemistry, Plate Data Analytics)
A recommender system for scientific literature based on a Bayesian model built using fingerprint and user's reading list or papers ranking
Access to experiment methods and results from electronic laboratory notebook or laboratory information management system, with resulting reports for resource capacity planning
PilotScript and custom scripts
As with other ETL and analytics solutions, Pipeline Pilot is often used when one or more large (1TB+) and/or complex datasets is processed. In these situations, end users may want to utilize programming scripts that they have written. Early in its development, Pipeline Pilot created a simplified, pared-down scripting language called PilotScript that enabled end users to easily write basic programming scripts that could be incorporated into a Pipeline Pilot protocol. Later releases extended support for a variety of programming languages, including Python, .NET, Matlab, Perl, SQL, Java, VBScript and R.
The syntax for PilotScript is based on PLSQL. It can be used in components such as the Custom Manipulator (PilotScript) or the Custom Filter (PilotScript). As an example, the following script can be used to add a property named "Hello" to each record passing through a custom scripting component in a Pipeline Pilot protocol. The value of the property is the string "Hello World!".
Hello := "Hello World!";
Currently, the product supports a number of APIs for different programming languages that can be executed without the program's graphical user interface.
References
Science software
Enterprise application integration
Extract, transform, load tools
Bioinformatics software
Computational chemistry software
Computer vision software
Data analysis software
Data mining and machine learning software
Data visualization software
Laboratory software
Mass spectrometry software
Natural language processing software
Numerical software
Plotting software
Proprietary software
Visual programming languages |
22061527 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E.M.G.%20Yadava%20Women%27s%20College | E.M.G. Yadava Women's College | E.M.G. Yadava Women's College is in Thiruppalai, Madurai, India. It is affiliated to Madurai Kamaraj University and run by the Yadava Community Educational Trust. The motto of the college is "Magalir Arivu, Kudumba Uyarvu" which means "By educating a woman we educate the whole family." It was established with the aim of providing education to the underprivileged women students. The mission of the institution is to achieve gender parity through women education and thereby creating a society in which the women become respectable, self-reliant and self-sufficient.
History
The college was started only with pre-university courses at E.M.G. Kalyana Mandabam at Tallakulam, Madurai in 1974. Then the college was shifted to the present campus at New Natham Road, Thiruppalai on 15 acres of land donated by E.M.G. Charitable Trust in 1980. It was upgraded as First Grade College in 1979 offering undergraduate courses.
Courses offered
Aided courses
B.A., History (E.M & T.M)
B.A., English Literature
B.Sc., Zoology
B.Com
B.Sc., Mathematics
Unaided courses, U.G.
B.B.A.
B.Sc., Computer Science
B.Sc., Information Technology
B.A., Tamil Literature
B.Com (General)
B.Sc., Mathematics
B.Sc., Physics with IT
B.Sc., Nutrition & Dietetics with IT
B.Com (Computer Applications)
BCA
B.Sc., Chemistry
Unaided courses, P.G.
M.Sc., Mathematics with CA
M.Sc., Information Technology
MCA
Certificate courses
Certificate in Gandhian Thought
Add-On Certificate Course in Spoken English
Computerized Accounting - Tally
Diploma courses
Diploma in Gandhian Thought
Computer Applications
Diploma in Biotechnology
Information Technology
Diploma in Food & Nutrition
Computerized Accounting - Tally
Advanced Diploma in Tally
Research Programme
Mphil (Mathematics)
Infrastructure
The college has a women's hostel named after politician former Defence Minister of India Mulayam Singh Yadav of the Samajwadi Party because the hostel was constructed using a donation from him.
See also
Yadava College
References
External links
College Official Website
Women's universities and colleges in Tamil Nadu
Colleges in Madurai
Universities and colleges in Madurai
Educational institutions established in 1974
1974 establishments in Tamil Nadu
Colleges affiliated to Madurai Kamaraj University |
9228804 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi%20Protected%20Setup | Wi-Fi Protected Setup | Wi-Fi Protected Setup (WPS; originally, Wi-Fi Simple Config) is a network security standard to create a secure wireless home network.
Created by Cisco and introduced in 2006, the point of the protocol is to allow home users who know little of wireless security and may be intimidated by the available security options to set up Wi-Fi Protected Access, as well as making it easy to add new devices to an existing network without entering long passphrases. Wi-Fi Protected Setup allows the owner of Wi-Fi privileges to block other users from using their household Wi-Fi. The owner can also allow people to use Wi-Fi. This can be changed by pressing the WPS button on the home router.
A major security flaw was revealed in December 2011 that affects wireless routers with the WPS PIN feature, which most recent models have enabled by default. The flaw allows a remote attacker to recover the WPS PIN in a few hours with a brute-force attack and, with the WPS PIN, the network's WPA/WPA2 pre-shared key (PSK). Users have been urged to turn off the WPS PIN feature, although this may not be possible on some router models.
Modes
The standard emphasizes usability and security, and allows four modes in a home network for adding a new device to the network:
PIN method In which a PIN has to be read from either a sticker or display on the new wireless device. This PIN must then be entered at the "representant" of the network, usually the network's access point. Alternately, a PIN provided by the access point may be entered into the new device. This method is the mandatory baseline mode and everything must support it. The Wi-Fi Direct specification supersedes this requirement by stating that all devices with a keypad or display must support the PIN method.
Push button method In which the user has to push a button, either an actual or virtual one, on both the access point and the new wireless client device. On most devices, this discovery mode turns itself off as soon as a connection is established or after a delay (typically 2 minutes or less), whichever comes first, thereby minimizing its vulnerability. Support of this mode is mandatory for access points and optional for connecting devices. The Wi-Fi Direct specification supersedes this requirement by stating that all devices must support the push button method.
Near-field communication method In which the user has to bring the new client close to the access point to allow a near field communication between the devices. NFC Forum–compliant RFID tags can also be used. Support of this mode is optional.
USB method In which the user uses a USB flash drive to transfer data between the new client device and the network's access point. Support of this mode is optional, but deprecated.
The last two modes are usually referred to as out-of-band methods as there is a transfer of information by a channel other than the Wi-Fi channel itself. Only the first two modes are currently covered by the WPS certification. The USB method has been deprecated and is not part of the Alliance's certification testing.
Some wireless access points have a dual-function WPS button, and holding this button down for a shorter or longer time may have other functions, such as factory-reset or toggling WiFi.
Some manufacturers, such as Netgear, use a different logo and/or name for Wi-Fi Protected Setup; the Wi-Fi Alliance recommends the use of the Wi-Fi Protected Setup Identifier Mark on the hardware button for this function.
Technical architecture
The WPS protocol defines three types of devices in a network:
Registrar A device with the authority to issue and revoke access to a network; it may be integrated into a wireless access point (AP), or provided as a separate device.
Enrollee A client device seeking to join a wireless network.
AP An access point functioning as a proxy between a registrar and an enrollee.
The WPS standard defines three basic scenarios that involve components listed above:
AP with integrated registrar capabilities configures an enrollee station (STA) In this case, the session will run on the wireless medium as a series of EAP request/response messages, ending with the AP disassociating from the STA and waiting for the STA to reconnect with its new configuration (handed to it by the AP just before).
Registrar STA configures the AP as an enrollee This case is subdivided in two aspects: first, the session could occur on either a wired or wireless medium, and second, the AP could already be configured by the time the registrar found it. In the case of a wired connection between the devices, the protocol runs over Universal Plug and Play (UPnP), and both devices will have to support UPnP for that purpose. When running over UPnP, a shortened version of the protocol is run (only two messages) as no authentication is required other than that of the joined wired medium. In the case of a wireless medium, the session of the protocol is very similar to the internal registrar scenario, but with opposite roles. As to the configuration state of the AP, the registrar is expected to ask the user whether to reconfigure the AP or keep its current settings, and can decide to reconfigure it even if the AP describes itself as configured. Multiple registrars should have the ability to connect to the AP. UPnP is intended to apply only to a wired medium, while actually it applies to any interface to which an IP connection can be set up. Thus, having manually set up a wireless connection, the UPnP can be used over it in the same manner as with the wired connection.
Registrar STA configures enrollee STA In this case the AP stands in the middle and acts as an authenticator, meaning it only proxies the relevant messages from side to side.
Protocol
The WPS protocol consists of a series of EAP message exchanges that are triggered by a user action, relying on an exchange of descriptive information that should precede that user's action. The descriptive information is transferred through a new Information Element (IE) that is added to the beacon, probe response, and optionally to the probe request and association request/response messages. Other than purely informative type–length–values, those IEs will also hold the possible and the currently deployed configuration methods of the device.
After this communication of the device capabilities from both ends, the user initiates the actual protocol session. The session consists of eight messages that are followed, in the case of a successful session, by a message to indicate that the protocol is completed. The exact stream of messages may change when configuring different kinds of devices (AP or STA), or when using different physical media (wired or wireless).
Band or radio selection
Some devices with dual-band wireless network connectivity do not allow the user to select the 2.4 GHz or 5 GHz band (or even a particular radio or SSID) when using Wi-Fi Protected Setup, unless the wireless access point has separate WPS button for each band or radio; however, a number of later wireless routers with multiple frequency bands and/or radios allow the establishment of a WPS session for a specific band and/or radio for connection with clients which cannot have the SSID or band (e.g., 2.4/5 GHz) explicitly selected by the user on the client for connection with WPS (e.g. pushing the 5 GHz, where supported, WPS button on the wireless router will force a client device to connect via WPS on only the 5 GHz band after a WPS session has been established by the client device which cannot explicitly allow the selection of wireless network and/or band for the WPS connection method).
Vulnerabilities
Online brute-force attack
In December 2011, researcher Stefan Viehböck reported a design and implementation flaw that makes brute-force attacks against PIN-based WPS feasible to be performed on WPS-enabled Wi-Fi networks. A successful attack on WPS allows unauthorized parties to gain access to the network, and the only effective workaround is to disable WPS. The vulnerability centers around the acknowledgement messages sent between the registrar and enrollee when attempting to validate a PIN, which is an eight-digit number used to add new WPA enrollees to the network. Since the last digit is a checksum of the previous digits, there are seven unknown digits in each PIN, yielding 107 = 10,000,000 possible combinations.
When an enrollee attempts to gain access using a PIN, the registrar reports the validity of the first and second halves of the PIN separately. Since the first half of the pin consists of four digits (10,000 possibilities) and the second half has only three active digits (1000 possibilities), at most 11,000 guesses are needed before the PIN is recovered. This is a reduction by three orders of magnitude from the number of PINs that would be required to be tested. As a result, an attack can be completed in under four hours. The ease or difficulty of exploiting this flaw is implementation-dependent, as Wi-Fi router manufacturers could defend against such attacks by slowing or disabling the WPS feature after several failed PIN validation attempts.
A young developer based out of a small town in eastern New Mexico created a tool that exploits this vulnerability to prove that the attack is feasible. The tool was then purchased by Tactical Network Solutions in Maryland for 1.5 million dollars. They state that they have known about the vulnerability since early 2011 and had been using it.
In some devices, disabling WPS in the user interface does not result in the feature actually being disabled, and the device remains vulnerable to this attack. Firmware updates have been released for some of these devices allowing WPS to be disabled completely. Vendors could also patch the vulnerability by adding a lock-down period if the Wi-Fi access point detects a brute-force attack in progress, which disables the PIN method for long enough to make the attack impractical.
Offline brute-force attack
In the summer of 2014, Dominique Bongard discovered what he called the Pixie Dust attack. This attack works only on the default WPS implementation of several wireless chip makers, including Ralink, MediaTek, Realtek and Broadcom. The attack focuses on a lack of randomization when generating the E-S1 and E-S2 "secret" nonces. Knowing these two nonces, the PIN can be recovered within a couple of minutes. A tool called pixiewps has been developed and a new version of Reaver has been developed to automate the process.
Since both the client and access point (enrollee and registrar, respectively) need to prove they know the PIN to make sure the client is not connecting to a rogue AP, the attacker already has two hashes that contain each half of the PIN, and all they need is to brute-force the actual PIN. The access point sends two hashes, E-Hash1 and E-Hash2, to the client, proving that it also knows the PIN. E-Hash1 and E-Hash2 are hashes of (E-S1 | PSK1 | PKe | PKr) and (E-S2 | PSK2 | PKe | PKr), respectively. The hashing function is HMAC-SHA-256 and uses the "authkey" that is the key used to hash the data.
Physical security issues
All WPS methods are vulnerable to usage by an unauthorized user if the wireless access point is not kept in a secure area. Many wireless access points have security information (if it is factory-secured) and the WPS PIN printed on them; this PIN is also often found in the configuration menus of the wireless access point. If this PIN cannot be changed or disabled, the only remedy is to get a firmware update to enable the PIN to be changed, or to replace the wireless access point.
It is possible to extract a wireless passphrase with the following methods using no special tools:
A wireless passphrase can be extracted using WPS under Windows Vista and newer versions of Windows, under administrative privileges by connecting with this method then bringing up the properties for this wireless network and clicking on "show characters".
A simple exploit in the Intel PROset wireless client utility can reveal the wireless passphrase when WPS is used, after a simple move of the dialog box which asks if you want to reconfigure this access point.
References
External links
Wi-Fi Protected Setup Knowledge Center at the Wi-Fi Alliance
UPnP device architecture
US-CERT VU#723755
Waiting for WPS fix
WPS Pixie Dust Attack (Offline WPS Attack)
Hacklu2014 Offline Bruteforce Attack on WPS
Broken cryptography algorithms
Cryptographic protocols
Wi-Fi |
1786760 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20and%20Ugly%20Rendering%20Project | Big and Ugly Rendering Project | Big and Ugly Rendering Project (BURP) is a non-commercial distributed computing project using the BOINC framework. It was under development to work as a publicly distributed system for the rendering of 3D graphics, but has been abandoned as of late 2004.
BURP also refers to the volunteer and grid computing software BOINC, as BURP needs BOINC in order to distribute computing task among their users. BURP is free software distributed under the GNU General Public License V3 licence. Because BURP is used to refer to both BOINC project and BURP back-end software, some confusion can arise when talking about other services running the BURP software.
BOINC users who are considering joining BURP should know that they will not always have work available, as the projects depend on users to submit sessions that need rendering. This may be confusing to new users, as the BOINC client may report "Got 0 new tasks" or other error messages without explaining the reason for not getting any work.
The BURP idea
The idea of BURP is to use spare CPU cycles on participating computers around the world to render 3D images and animations submitted by the users of the BURP network - in other words to build a large shared render farm that can be freely used by those who also contribute computing power to it. The potential processing power of a system like this is enormous—theoretically the rendering speed would only be limited by available network bandwidth.
The fundamental goal of BURP is to give users access to computing power to render animations that would take an impossibly long time on a single computer. By dividing the work among hundreds of computers, an animation that takes possibly months to render in CPU time could be completed in only a few days. BURP hopes to make animations and images public as soon as they are finished so that all participants will be able to see the outcome.
History
The BURP project was originally started by Danish national Janus Kristensen. The main BURP website went online on 17 June 2004. At that time the only supported renderer was Yafaray and the website was very basic. That August it became clear that Yafray was not the best choice, and focus was shifted towards Blender, a renderer with more features and a compact file format.
By the end of October enough tests had been done to show that not only is the distributed rendering of 3D animations possible, it can achieve performance that rivals many commercial render farms. The current trend of increasing network bandwidth throughout the world will make it even more powerful. The rest of 2004 was used to improve and develop the website frontend for the system.
Until May 2005, the Linux and Windows clients got major code overhauls and loads of tests were done to estimate and improve performance of several aspects of the data transfer systems. Most importantly, code for a mirrored storage and distribution system for the rendered output started to emerge.
In May 2010, the project entered a beta stage, requiring users to agree to a new set of licensing rules based on the Creative Commons.
Although many people have contributed to the source code since the start of the project, the majority of the BURP code base remains authored by Janus Kristensen, who continues as the head developer of the software.
Open Rendering Environment (ORE) and Renderfarm.fi
In 2007–2009, the Open Rendering Environment (ORE) project run by the Laurea University of Applied Sciences in Finland was created under guidance from Janus Kristensen and Julius Tuomisto, a team consisting mainly of undergraduate students started to do research on BURP for applications in Finnish small and medium-sized enterprises and third level education. For the project, an independent BURP server was set up in Finland and given the domain Renderfarm.fi, a name which the project was identified by until its closure in late 2014.
Upon its opening to a public beta in summer 2009, Renderfarm.fi claimed to be the world's first publicly distributed render farm that advocated the use of Creative Commons licensing. The main BURP project later followed suit and took up a similar licensing scheme.
Although they used similar back-end code, Renderfarm.fi and BURP had some notable differences in the way their front ends worked. For example, Renderfarm.fi used the open source Django web application framework for managing information on its website, whereas BURP relies on a custom solution based on BOINC's content management system.
BURP architecture
Open by design
When asked about whether the system encrypts or obfuscates the data it processes, Janus Kristensen stated in an August 2010 AssemblyTV interview: "No. The whole system is based on open ideas. When you send files to people, they can look into the files and see what's inside. Actually that's part of what's cool about a project like this. It's community based and not closed down or DRM protected in any way."
Accessibility
While the ORE project researched the possibilities of using BURP for education and business, it became evident that accessibility would be key in reaching users. The development focus within the ORE project soon shifted towards making BURP more accessible. A script for uploading work to a BURP project directly from within the Blender software was created to address these issues. The script lets the user input a rendering task (the file to be rendered as well as additional information), called a "session" through an XMLRPC interface on the BURP service. Since the release of Blender 2.5 Beta 3, the script has been available as an add-on in the main trunk of Blender.
Supported render software
Blender (software)
See also
Parallel rendering
Distributed computing
References
External links
BURP website
BURP source code
Free entertainment software
Free software Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing projects |
67614065 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonial%20Pipeline%20ransomware%20attack | Colonial Pipeline ransomware attack | On May 7, 2021, Colonial Pipeline, an American oil pipeline system that originates in Houston, Texas, and carries gasoline and jet fuel mainly to the Southeastern United States, suffered a ransomware cyberattack that impacted computerized equipment managing the pipeline. The Colonial Pipeline Company halted all pipeline operations to contain the attack. Overseen by the FBI, the company paid the amount that was asked by the hacker group (75 bitcoin or $4.4 million) within several hours; upon receipt of the ransom, an IT tool was provided to the Colonial Pipeline Company by DarkSide to restore the system. However, the tool had a very long processing time to help get the system back up in time.
The Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration issued a regional emergency declaration for 17 states and Washington, D.C., to keep fuel supply lines open on May 9. It was the largest cyberattack on an oil infrastructure target in the history of the United States. The FBI and various media sources identified the criminal hacking group DarkSide as the responsible party. The same group is believed to have stolen 100 gigabytes of data from company servers the day before the malware attack.
On June 7, the Department of Justice announced that it had recovered 63.7 of the bitcoins (approximately $2.3 million) from the ransom payment.
Background
The Colonial Pipeline carries gasoline, diesel and jet fuel from Texas to as far away as New York. About 45% of all fuel consumed on the East Coast arrives via the pipeline system. The attack came amid growing concerns over the vulnerability of infrastructure (including critical infrastructure) to cyberattacks after several high-profile attacks, including the 2020 SolarWinds hack that hit multiple federal government agencies, including the Defense, Treasury, State, and Homeland Security departments.
Impact
The primary target of the attack was the billing infrastructure of the company. The actual oil pumping systems was still able to work. According to CNN sources in the company, the inability to bill the customers was the reason for halting the pipeline operation. Colonial Pipeline reported that it shut down the pipeline as a precaution due to a concern that the hackers might have obtained information allowing them to carry out further attacks on vulnerable parts of the pipeline. The day after the attack, Colonial could not confirm at that time when the pipeline would resume normal functions. The attackers also stole nearly 100 gigabytes of data and threatened to release it on the internet if the ransom was not paid. It was reported that within hours after the attack the company paid a ransom of nearly 75 Bitcoins ($5 million) to the hackers in exchange for a decryption tool, which proved so slow that the company's business continuity planning tools were more effective in bringing back operational capacity.
On May 9, Colonial stated they planned to substantially repair and restore the pipeline's operations by the end of the week.
In response to fuel shortages at Charlotte Douglas International Airport caused by the pipeline shutdown, American Airlines changed flight schedules temporarily. At least two flights (to Honolulu and London) had fuel stops or plane changes added to their schedules for a four-day period. The shortage also required Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport to use other fuel suppliers, and there are at least five other airports directly serviced by the pipeline.
Fuel shortages began to occur at filling stations amid panic buying as the pipeline shutdown entered its fourth day. Alabama, Florida, Georgia, North Carolina, and South Carolina all reported shortages. Areas from northern South Carolina to southern Virginia were hardest hit, with 71% of filling stations running out of fuel in Charlotte on May 11 and 87 percent of stations out in Washington, D.C. on May 14. Average fuel prices rose to their highest since 2014, reaching more than $3 a gallon.
Responses
U.S. President Joe Biden declared a state of emergency on 9th May 2021. During regular times there were limits on the amount of petroleum products that could be transported by road, rail, etc, domestically within the U.S mainland. However, with the declaration in place, these were temporarily suspended.
On May 10, Georgia Governor Brian Kemp declared a state of emergency, and temporarily waived collection of the state's taxes on motor fuels (diesel and gasoline). In response to panic buying in the Southeast, U.S. Transportation Secretary Pete Buttigieg and U.S. Energy Secretary Jennifer Granholm on May 12 both cautioned against gasoline hoarding, reiterating that the United States was undergoing a "supply crunch" rather than a gas shortage.
On May 12, the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission advised people to "not fill plastic bags with gasoline" or to use any containers not meant for fuel.
Biden signed Executive Order 14028 on May 12, increasing software security standards for sales to the government, tighten detection and security on existing systems, improve information sharing and training, establish a Cyber Safety Review Board, and improve incident response. The United States Department of Justice also convened a cybersecurity task force to increase prosecutions.
The Department of State issued a statement that a $10,000,000 reward would be given out in case of information leading to the arrest of DarkSide members.
Perpetrators
DarkSide released a statement on May 9 that did not directly mention the attack, but claimed that "our goal is to make money, and not creating problems for society".
Pipeline restart
The restart of pipeline operations began at 5 p.m. on May 12, ending a six-day shutdown, although Colonial Pipeline Company warned that it could take several more days for service to return to normal. The pipeline company stated that several markets that are served by the pipeline may experience, or continue to experience, intermittent service interruptions during the restart. The company also stated that they would move as much gasoline, diesel and jet fuel as safely possible until markets return to normal. All Colonial Pipeline systems and operations had returned to normal by May 15. After the shutdown, the average national cost rose to the highest it's been in over six years, to about an average of $3.04 a gallon on May 18. The price increase was more pronounced in the southern states, with prices rising between 9 and 16 cents in the Carolinas, Tennessee, Virginia, and Georgia. Around 10,600 gas stations were still without gas as of May 18.
In a May 19, 2021, interview with The Wall Street Journal, Joseph Blount said why he ultimately decided to pay a $4.4 million ransom to hackers who breached the company's systems; "It was the right thing to do for the country." He also said, "I know that's a highly controversial decision".
Investigations
Biden said on May 10 that though there was no evidence that the Russian government was responsible for the attack, there was evidence that the DarkSide group is in Russia, and that thus, Russian authorities "have some responsibility to deal with this". Independent cybersecurity researchers have also stated the hacking group is Russian as their malware avoids encrypting files in a system where the language is set to Russian.
In the aftermath of the attack, it was revealed at a Senate Armed Services cyber subcommittee hearing that the Department of Homeland Security was not alerted to the ransomware attack and that the Justice Department was not alerted to the ransom type or amount, prompting discussion about the numerous information silos in the government and difficulties of sharing.
Blockchain analytics firm Elliptic published a bitcoin wallet report showing $90 million in bitcoin ransom payments were made to DarkSide or DarkSide affiliates over the last year, originating from 47 distinct wallets. According to a DarkTracer release of 2226 victim organizations since May 2019, 99 organizations have been infected with the DarkSide malware – suggesting that approximately 47% of victims paid a ransom and that the average payment was $1.9 million. The DarkSide developer had received bitcoins worth $15.5 million (17%), with the remaining $74.7 million (83%) going to the various affiliates.
Partial ransom recovery
The U.S. Department of Justice issued a press release on June 7, 2021, stating that it had seized 63.7 Bitcoins from the original ransom payment. The value of the recovered Bitcoins was only $2.3 million, because the trading price of Bitcoin had fallen since the date of the ransom payment. Through possession of the private key of the ransom account, the FBI was able to retrieve the Bitcoin, though it did not disclose how it obtained the private key.
See also
Steamship Authority cyberattack
Health Service Executive cyberattack
References
External links
2021 crimes in the United States
Cyberattacks on energy sector
Data breaches in the United States
Hacking in the 2020s
May 2021 crimes in the United States
Ransomware |
25119219 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mindoro%20State%20University | Mindoro State University | The Mindoro State University (MinSU) is a public state university in the Philippines. It is mandated to provide higher vocational, professional and technical instruction and training in agricultural, fisheries and industrial fields. It is also mandated to promote research, advanced studies and progressive leadership in the fields of agriculture including agricultural education and home technology, with special emphasis given to agricultural industry, fishery, forestry, and industrial education. Its main campus is located in Victoria, Oriental Mindoro.
History
The Mindoro State University (MinSu) was originally the Mindoro National Agricultural School (MINAS) created by R.A. 506 as a national agricultural secondary public school in the island of Mindoro. It formally opened its doors for learning on August 26, 1951.
In 1963, by authority of R.A. 3758, it opened the Collegiate Department. This steered the offering of several collegiate courses. The first two years leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science in agriculture (BSA) was initially offered. This was followed by the two-year course leading to Associate in Agricultural Technology (AAT) in 1973, then the complete course offering of Bachelor of Science in Agricultural Education (BSAE) in 1975 and the BSA curriculum developed by the Technical Panel for Agricultural Education (TPAE) based at Los Baños, Laguna was adopted by the school. This gradually replaced the BSA curriculum as well as the BSAE.
The continued offering of Collegiate courses, in addition to the secondary curriculum which was offered since the founding of the school made MINAS a full-fledged college hence; the change of name from MINAS to MCAT was approved on June 10, 1976, by then Secretary Juan L. Manuel of the Department of Education, Culture and Sports. It was converted in State University and is now MinSu by virtue of R.A. 8007 on May 25, 1995. Virgilio C. Juan became the principal of the Victoria campus and is a well-known parliamentarian and author. His work on parliamentary procedure was circulated in the different parts of Philippines and became the basis for regional competition on parliamentary procedure. Having a curriculum patterned from UP Los Banos, students can easily transferred to UPLB after two years if they had able to maintain good scholastic standing.
Campuses
Bongabong Campus
Labasan, Bongabong
Originally the Bongabong School of Fisheries (BSF), established on September 21, 1964, by virtue of R.A. 3306. IN 1975, the government approved the offering of the Revised Fishery Technical Education Curriculum. It was converted into a full-fledged college as the Bongabong College of Fisheries (BCF) on July 15, 1995, by virtue of R.A. 8143.
The current Campus Director is Brian M. Elaydo, MAEd.
Calapan City Campus
Masipit, Calapan City
Established as a public secondary trade school known as Calapan School of Arts and Trades (CSAT) by virtue of R.A. 3397 in June 1961 but only started operating five years later. In 1972, CSAT merited the approval of Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports (MECS) to offer trade Technical Education Curriculum. Efforts to convert CSAT into a higher education authorized to offer degree courses were realized with the approval of R.A. 8076 on June 19, 1995, converting CSAT to Polytechnic College of Calapan (PCC). With the integration, then PCC has evolved as MinSu Mindoro State University.
The current Campus Director is Dr. Ma. Arlyn M. Redublo.
Courses offered
Victoria Main Campus
Ed. D. major in Educational Management
Ph. D. in Crop Science
Master of Arts in Education
Major in:
Education Management
English
Guidance and Counseling
Filipino
Biological Science
Mathematics
Master of Science in Agriculture
Major in:
Animal Science
Crop Science
Master in Public Administration
Master in Business Administration
Master in Management
Bachelor of Science in Agriculture
Major in:
Crop Science
Animal Science
Bachelor of Science in Eco-Tourism Management
Bachelor of Science in Agro-forestry
Bachelor of Science in Environmental Science
Bachelor of Science in Horticulture
Bachelor of Science in Entrepreneurship
Bachelor in Secondary Education
Major in:
Biological Science
Filipino
English
Mathematics
Bachelor in Elementary Education
Bachelor of Arts in English Language
Bachelor of Science in Agricultural Engineering
Bachelor of Science in Information Technology
Bongabong Campus
Ed. D. major in Educational Management
Master of Arts in Education
Major in:
Education Management
English
Filipino
Biological Science
Mathematics
Master in Management
Bachelor of Science in Fisheries
Major in Aquaculture
Bachelor of Science in Computer Engineering
Bachelor of Science in Hotel and Restaurant Management
Bachelor of Arts in Political Science
Bachelor of Science in Criminology
Bachelor of Secondary Education
Major in:
Biological Science
Technology Education
English
Mathematics
Bachelor in Elementary Education
Bachelor of Science in Information Technology
Housekeeping NC II
Food and Beverage Services NC II
Calapan City Campus
Ed. D. major in Educational Management
Ph. D. in Crop Science
Master of Arts in Education
Major in:
Education Management
English
Guidance and Counseling
Filipino
Biological Science
Mathematics
Master of Science in Agriculture
Major in:
Animal Science
Crop Science
Master in Public Administration
Master in Business Administration
Bachelor of Arts
Major in:
Psychology
English Language
Bachelor of Science in Criminology
Bachelor of Science in Hotel and Restaurant Management
Bachelor of Science in Information Technology
Bachelor of Technical Teacher Education
Major in:
Automotive Technology
Electrical Technology
Drafting Technology
Electronics Technology
Food Service Management
Garments Technology
Bachelor in Secondary Education
Major in:
English
Mathematics
Science
Technology Education
Living former President(s)
Dr. Jesse T. Zamora (2007-2018)
References
State universities and colleges in the Philippines
Universities and colleges in Oriental Mindoro |
1918673 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hacker-Pschorr%20Brewery | Hacker-Pschorr Brewery | Hacker-Pschorr is a brewery in Munich, formed in 1972 out of the merger of two breweries, Hacker and Pschorr. Hacker was founded in 1417, nearly a century before the enactment of the Reinheitsgebot beer purity law of 1516.
As one of six breweries located within Munich's city limits, its beers are among those served at Oktoberfest.
History
In the late 18th century, Joseph Pschorr (1770-1841) bought the Hacker brewery from his father-in-law Peter-Paul Hacker. He subsequently founded a separate brewery under his own name.
In the early 19th century, Joseph Pschorr and Maria Theresia Hacker established Hacker-Pschorr as one of the biggest breweries in Munich. In 1813, they built the „Hacker-Keller“ in Landsbergerstraße in Munich, the biggest storage cellar in Germany. The huge brewing and storage cellar is 4,000 square meters big and has a storage area of over 35,000 hectoliters. When Joseph Pschorr died, his two sons Georg Pschorr and Matthias Pschorr Sr. divided his estate by each assuming one of the two separate breweries.
In 1864 Georg Pschorr Jr. becomes the owner and assumes management of the Pschorr Brewery. During nearly 21 years of uninterrupted construction, he realizes his life’s goal – to build a new large brewery with the most advanced equipment. The Pschorr Brewery is now an industrial company with an annual output that will triple in the years.
In 1972, Hacker and Pschorr merged to form Hacker-Pschorr.
In 2007, Hacker-Pschorr is the first Munich brewery to switch its full range of beers to traditional swing tops.
Oktoberfest
When Crown Prince Ludwig I of Bavaria was about to celebrate his wedding in Munich in 1810, he decided it was an occasion for all of Bavaria to celebrate. He commissioned Josef Pschorr, then the brewmaster of the Hacker-Pschorr brewery, among other Munich brewers, to develop special brews to commemorate the occasion.
Subsequent annual celebrations evolved into the city of Munich’s Oktoberfest, which is attended by over six million people each year, who in 2011 consumed over six million litres of beer. By Munich law, only the six breweries within the city limits of Munich are invited to serve their beer at Oktoberfest. Hacker-Pschorr is one of the six, as is its sister brand, Paulaner. Today’s event is held on land donated by Josef Pschorr.
The Hacker-Pschorr brewery serves various tents at the Oktoberfest such as Hacker-Festzelt and Pschorr Bräurosl as well as Herzkasperl-Festzelt at the Oide Wiesn. In both first tents the beer is distributed to the bars using a modern beer ring line. In Herzkasperl-Festzelt traditional oak barrels are used.
Beers
Hacker-Pschorr produces 13 different products, some of them are only seasonally available. Hacker-Pschorr Weisse is the company's flagship beer.
Sold in Germany
Münchner Hell
Münchener Gold
Hell Alkoholfrei
Münchner Dunkel
Münchner Radler
Natur Radler
Natur Radler Alkoholfrei
Oktoberfest Märzen
Animator: Naturtrüber Doppelbock
Kellerbier
Superior
Hefe Weisse
Stern Weisse
Sold in United States
Munich Gold (Münchener Gold)
Weisse (Hefe Weisse)
Weisse Dark (Dunkel Weisse)
Hubertus Bock
Original Oktoberfest (Oktoberfest Märzen)
Munich Dark (Münchner Dunkel)
Distribution
Prior to 2009, Hacker-Pschorr was imported to the U.S. via Star Brand Imports, based in White Plains, New York and part of Heineken International. In 2009, Paulaner HP USA (formerly Distinguished Brands) of Littleton, Colorado, took over the import business of Hacker-Pschorr and Paulaner in the United States.
Awards and recognition
The Beer from Hacker Pschorr brewery was awarded at the 1876 World Exhibition in Philadelphia.
References
External links
Hacker-Pschorr
Official U.S. Hacker-Pschorr Website
Official U.S.Hacker-Pschorr Blog
1417 establishments in Europe
Beer and breweries in Bavaria
Breweries in Germany
Beer brands of Germany
Food and drink companies based in Munich
Manufacturing companies based in Munich |
69077351 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth%20Social | Truth Social | Truth Social (also stylized as TRUTH Social) is a social media platform created by Trump Media & Technology Group (TMTG), an American media and technology company founded in February 2021 by former U.S. president Donald Trump. The Truth Social platform is based on Mastodon, a free and open-source distributed social network. The site launched on February 21, 2022. , service was only accessible to users in the United States and Canada.
Background
Former U.S. president Donald Trump raised the prospect of building a new social media platform after he was banned from Facebook and Twitter in 2021, following the 2021 United States Capitol attack. In May 2021, Trump launched "From the Desk of Donald J. Trump", a site where he posted short tweet-like announcements; USA Today reported in early June that it was shut down after less than a month.
History
Announcement
On October 20, 2021, Trump Media & Technology Group issued a press release which announced the platform would have its public launch in "the first quarter of 2022." It was slated to enter limited beta for iOS in Apple's App Store in November 2021, and though it did not meet this schedule for its beta testing, Trump claimed in December 2021 that "invited guests" were already using the beta site.
Hours after the press release, a person identifying themselves as a part of the hacker collective Anonymous used Shodan to discover domains related to the company, eventually locating what appeared to be a publicly-accessible mobile beta of the website. The URL, which permitted users to sign up and use the platform, was leaked across social media. Users began trolling on the site, creating parody accounts, and posting rants and memes. Users were able to sign up with usernames of high-profile individuals including Trump, Mike Pence, and Jack Dorsey. The link was later taken offline.
Truth Social is based on Mastodon, free and open-source software that is released under the AGPLv3 license. AGPLv3 requires any derivative source code to be publicly available. On October 21, 2021, the Software Freedom Conservancy group stated that they suspected Truth Social had violated Mastodon's license by not offering its source code to all users. The Mastodon developers then formally requested that Truth Social comply with the terms of the software license. On November 12, 2021, Truth Social published its source code as a ZIP file on its website.
Launch
Trump made the site's first post on February 16, 2022. That day, TMTG CEO Devin Nunes said he expected the platform would not completely open to the public until late March. A beta test with 500 users was in operation during February 2022.
On February 21, 2022, Truth Social was released on Apple iOS, reaching No. 1 on Apple's App Store's top charts. Due to an extensive backlog of applicants, upon downloading the app, about 500,000 people who initially attempted to register as users were automatically waitlisted. Upon its launch, the British automotive solar power company Trailar complained that the Truth Social app logo closely resembled their 'T' logo.
Content policies
Truth Social was launched with the claim that it would be a "big tent" platform without political censorship.
When the company was first announced in October 2021, its terms of service said the company would not be legally responsible for "the content, accuracy, offensiveness, opinions [or] reliability" of anything users might post to the site. Some commentators noted that this self-declared immunity appeared to rely on Section 230 of the Communications Decency Act, a law that Trump firmly opposed during his presidency.
The terms of service further added that users would be forbidden to "disparage, tarnish, or otherwise harm, in our opinion, us and/or the Site". Truth Social said it has the right to "suspend or terminate your account" and also "take appropriate legal action".
Truth Social has blocked accounts for behavior it considers harmful or inappropriate, including creating accounts with parody names and making death threats.
Technology
Software
Truth Social is modeled heavily after Twitter. Reportedly, users will be able to make posts ("truths") and share other users' posts ("retruths"). The platform will also feature a newsfeed, called a "truth feed", as well as a notification system.
The Truth Social platform uses a custom version of the free and open-source social network hosting software Mastodon, which is typically used to connect to a broader collection of social networking websites known as the Fediverse. Truth Social's version of Mastodon had removed several features, including polls and post visibility options.
Infrastructure
According to reports, the Truth Social service is hosted on RightForge, a company aimed at providing internet hosting for conservative causes that describes itself as "The first global Internet infrastructure company committed to American principles online".
On December 14, 2021, TMTG said it had partnered with the Canadian online video platform Rumble and that Rumble was already providing cloud services to the Truth Social beta website.
TMTG is reported to have engaged the services of Hive, a content moderation company, to use machine learning to filter postings for unacceptable content.
Reception
Pre-launch
BBC journalist James Clayton stated that the platform could be a more successful version of other alt-tech social media platforms like Parler and Gab, and is an attempt by Trump to gain his "megaphone" back. Gettr CEO Jason Miller, a former advisor of Trump, praised Truth Social and said that the platform will cause Facebook and Twitter to "lose even more market share". Gab said in a statement that it supports Truth Social and that users of Gab can follow Trump on his reserved Gab account.
Among critical reactions, Chris Cillizza of CNN wrote that the platform was doomed to fail. Noah Berlatsky, writing in The Independent, described it as a potential threat to democracy. The Forward raised concerns of antisemitism becoming prominent on the platform, noting similar platforms that have become known for hosting antisemitic content, such as Parler, Gab, and Telegram. Rolling Stone observed that while Truth Social promises to be an open and free platform, Truth Social's terms of service include a clause stating that users cannot disparage the site. The New York Times expressed skepticism about whether Truth Social would be able to compete effectively against rival services.
Post-launch
The app has been criticised for its poor performance at launch time, with waitlisting of users attempting to register, and extended outages. The Washington Post described its launch as "a disaster".
One week after its launch, Newsweek reported that some early adopters were beginning to lose interest in the app due to low numbers of users and poor engagement, although others were willing to perservere with the app to see if things would improve.
Axios reported that Truth Social had given a verified account to the controversial right-wing activist Nick Fuentes. Axios also reported that Truth Social appeared to have created accounts for brands that were not officially affiliated with those brands.
See also
List of social networking services
Social media use by Donald Trump
References
External links
American social networking websites
Donald Trump and social media
Donald Trump
Internet properties established in 2021
Microblogging services
Upcoming software
Alt-tech |
10606479 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Productora%20de%20Software | Productora de Software | Productora de Software S.A.S. was a Colombian provider of software services that served the US, European and Latin American markets. In 2020, Productora de Software S.A.S. was acquired by Perficient Inc. (Nasdaq: PRFT).
Productora de Software S.A.S. was the first Latin American software company to achieve CMMI 5 Status, and the first in the Spanish-speaking world to receive the Software Process Achievement Award granted by the IEEE Computer Society and Carnegie Mellon's Software Engineering Institute. In 2018, PSL was selected to be part of the Global Outsourcing 100 List by the IOAP (International Association of Outsourcing Professionals)
It was located in Medellín, Colombia, with offices in Mexico and the US, and was one of the largest local software developers.
History
During its history of over 35 years, PSL developed critical software applications for clients that range from organizations such as the Panama Canal and the largest banks in the region, to hundreds of small and medium businesses across different industry verticals.
In 2020, Productora de Software S.A.S. was acquired by Perficient Inc. for around US$70 million, expanding its operations to South America.
References
External links
Official site
Companies based in Medellín
Companies established in 1984
Software companies of Colombia
Colombian brands |
573644 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loyd%20Blankenship | Loyd Blankenship | Loyd Blankenship (born 1965), better known by his pseudonym The Mentor, is a well-known computer hacker and writer. He has been active since the 1970s, when he was a member of the hacker groups Extasyy Elite and Legion of Doom.
Writings
Hacker Manifesto
He is the author of The Conscience of a Hacker (also known as The Hacker Manifesto); the essay was written after he was arrested and was published in the ezine Phrack. Since the essay's publication in 1986, it has been the subject of numerous panels and T-shirts.
Role-playing games
Blankenship was hired by Steve Jackson Games in 1989. He authored the cyberpunk role-playing sourcebook GURPS Cyberpunk, the manuscript of which was seized in a 1990 raid of Steve Jackson Games headquarters by the U.S. Secret Service. The raid resulted in the subsequent legal case Steve Jackson Games, Inc. v. United States Secret Service.
References
External links
ElfQrin.com Interview with The Mentor (July 31, 2000)
"The Conscience of a Hacker", published in Phrack Volume 1 Issue 7
1965 births
GURPS writers
Hacking (computer security)
Legion of Doom (hacker group)
Living people |
9798772 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rational%20Rhapsody | Rational Rhapsody | Rational Rhapsody, a modeling environment based on UML, is a visual development environment for systems engineers and software developers creating real-time or embedded systems and software. Rational Rhapsody uses graphical models to generate software applications in various languages including C, C++, Ada, Java and C#.
Developers use Rational Rhapsody to understand and elaborate requirements, create model designs using industry standard languages (UML, SysML, AUTOSAR, DoDAF, MODAF, UPDM), validate functionality early in development, and automate delivery of high structured products.
Rational Rhapsody Model Manager (previous implementation, Design Manager, will be deprecated) is a web based application that stakeholders, developers, and other team members use to collaborate on the design of products, software, and systems. The product contains a server that hosts model designs which have been developed in Rational Rhapsody. A client extension component included with Rational Rhapsody allows users to connect to a Design Manager server. After connecting to the server, models can be moved into project areas with specific modelling domains based on the industry standard languages supported by Rational Rhapsody. Rhapsody Model Manager also integrates with the Rational solution for Collaborative Lifecycle Management (CLM). In this environment, artifacts can be associated with other lifecycle resources such as requirements (the Doors Next Generation application), change requests and change sets of sources (the Team Concert Application), and Quality Assurance test cases (the Quality Manager application). Global Configuration control allows different teams and different projects to interact in a synchronised setup that integrates deliveries and baselines within each of the tools in the CLM solution.
History
Rhapsody was first released in 1996 by Israeli software company I-Logix Inc. Rhapsody was developed as an object-oriented tool for modeling and executing statecharts, based on work done by David Harel at the Weizmann Institute of Science, who was the first to develop the concept of hierarchical, parallel, and broadcasting statecharts.
In 2006, I-Logix's shareholders sold the company to Swedish software company Telelogic AB. Rhapsody became a Rational Software product after the acquisition of Telelogic AB in 2008, like all former Telelogic products. Since the rebranding, Rational Rhapsody has been integrated with the IBM Rational Systems and Software Engineering Solution.
Rational Rhapsody Design Manager was first released in June, 2011 by IBM. In December 2011, the product was integrated as a design component in IBM Rational Solution for Collaborative Lifecycle Management (CLM).
See also
List of UML tools
References
Real-Time UML by Bruce Powel Douglass
Real-Time UML Workshop by Bruce Powel Douglass
Real-Time Agility by Bruce Powel Douglass
Real-Time Design Patterns by Bruce Powel Douglass
Design Patterns for Embedded Systems in C by Bruce Powel Douglass
Agile Systems Engineering by Bruce Powel Douglass
External links
Rational Rhapsody product home page
Rational Rhapsody Forum
IBM Knowledge Center for Rational Rhapsody
Knowledge Center for Rational solution for Collaborative Lifecycle Management
Rational Rhapsody Wiki on IBM developerWorks
jazz.net
Bruce Douglass' Web Site on MDD and MBSE with Rhapsody
UML tools
Rhapsody
IBM software
Diagramming software
Enterprise architecture
Enterprise architecture frameworks
Modeling languages |
4622578 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interactive%20C | Interactive C | Interactive C is a program which uses a modified version of ANSI C with several libraries and features that allow hobbyists to program small robotics platforms.
Version by Newton Research Labs
Newton Research Labs developed Interactive C as a compiling environment for robots using the Motorola 6811 processor. The MIT LEGO Robot Design Contest (6.270) was the original purpose for the software. It became popular, however, due to its ability to compile on the fly rather than taking time to compile beforehand as other languages had done. The programming environment's newest version is IC Version 8.0.2, which supports these operating systems:
Microsoft Windows XP, 2000, Vista
Macintosh
Unix and Unix-like: IRIX, Solaris, SunOS; Linux
The screenshot to the right shows Interactive C running on a Windows operating system. The program features an Interaction Window where one-line C commands can be sent to the connected controller as well as an editing window, here titled main.c, where a program file is being edited and can be sent to the attached controller.
Here is the basic "Hello World" example for IC programming:
void main()
{
printf("Hello World");
}
Here is another example using motor ports 1 and 3:
void main()
{
motor(1,100);
motor(3,100);
sleep(2.0);
ao();
}
A basic infinite loop that will beep for ever:
void main()
{
while(1)
{
beep();
}
}
Interactive C is used by Ohio State University to program MIT Handy Boards in its Fundamentals of Engineering for Honors Program.
Version by KISS Institute for Practical Robotics
KISS Institute for Practical Robotics developed a third-party alternative to the Newton Labs version of Interactive C for their Botball Educational Robotics Program.
The latest version of Interactive C by KISS Institute for Practical Robotics is IC 8.0.2, which supports these operating systems:
Windows 2000, XP, Vista
Mac OS X 10.3, 10.4, 10.5
Linux (with gcc 3.3)
IC8 supports the following robotics controllers:
Xport Botball Controller (XBC) versions 1, 2, and 3
Xport Botball Controller (XBC) with iRobot Create
MIT Handy Board with Expansion Board
Lego RCX using the serial IR tower
References
External links
Botball IC page
KISS Institute for Practical Robotics IC Beta page
Newton Labs IC page
Interactive C Manual from handyboard.com
C (programming language) |
42316398 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reality%20Labs | Reality Labs | Reality Labs is a business of Meta Platforms (formerly Facebook Inc.) that produces virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) hardware and software, including virtual reality headsets such as Quest, and metaverse platforms such as Horizon Worlds.
Reality Labs is the corporate successor to Oculus, a company that was founded in July 2012 by Palmer Luckey, Brendan Iribe, Michael Antonov and Nate Mitchell in Irvine, California to develop a VR headset for video gaming known as Oculus Rift. Oculus raised over $2.4 million for the project via a crowdfunding campaign on Kickstarter—nearly ten times the original goal of $250,000.
Oculus was acquired by Facebook in March 2014. The company partnered with Samsung Electronics to release the Gear VR accessory for Samsung Galaxy smartphones in 2015. In March 2016, Oculus released the first consumer version of the Rift headset. In 2017, the company released a standalone mobile headset known as Oculus Go, produced by Xiaomi. In 2019, it released a high-end standalone headset known as Oculus Quest (which, since a software update, is capable of operating as both a standalone and PC headset), and Oculus Rift S, a follow-up to the original Oculus Rift manufactured by Lenovo. In 2020, the Oculus Quest 2 was released.
Oculus ceased operating as an autonomous subsidiary of Facebook in 2018, and became a brand of Facebook Technologies, LLC—a subsidiary that includes other Facebook-developed hardware such as Portal. The Oculus team was later amalgamated into Facebook Reality Labs, a business of Facebook dedicated to VR and AR. In October 2021, Facebook announced that Reality Labs would begin to report its revenue separately from Facebook's "family of apps". Facebook subsequently announced that it would change its name to corporate name to Meta, and that the Oculus brand would be replaced on current and existing products by the "Meta" (hardware) and "Horizon" (online communities) brands.
Under Facebook ownership, Oculus products have been increasingly integrated with Facebook and its social networking platforms: since October 2020, all new users, and any user of Facebook-produced VR hardware released since then (beginning with Oculus Quest 2) must log in with a Facebook account in order to use their headsets. Support for standalone Oculus accounts was announced as ending in January 2023, although in October 2021 it was stated that "new ways to log into Quest that won’t require a Facebook account" were being developed. This requirement has faced criticism due to digital privacy concerns and Facebook's real-name policy, and prompted Facebook to suspend sales of all Oculus products in Germany due to concerns from regulators over its compliance with the European Union General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR).
History
Founding
As a head-mounted display (HMD) designer at the University of Southern California Institute for Creative Technologies, Palmer Luckey earned a reputation for having the largest personal collection of HMDs in the world and was a longtime moderator in Meant to be Seen (MTBS)'s discussion forums.
Through MTBS's forums, Palmer developed the idea of creating a new head-mounted display that was both more effective than what was currently on the market and was also inexpensive for gamers. To develop the new product, Luckey founded Oculus VR with Scaleform co-founders Brendan Iribe and Michael Antonov, Nate Mitchell and Andrew Scott Reisse.
Coincidentally, John Carmack of id Software had been doing his research on HMDs and happened upon Palmer's developments as a fellow MTBS member. After sampling an early unit, Carmack favored Luckey's prototype, and just before the 2012 Electronic Entertainment Expo (E3), id Software announced that the BFG Edition of Doom 3 would be compatible with head-mounted display units.
During the convention, Carmack introduced a duct-taped head-mounted display, based on Palmer's Oculus Rift prototype, which ran Carmack's software. The unit featured a high-speed IMU and a LCD, visible via dual lenses that were positioned over the eyes to provide a 90 degree horizontal and 110 degree vertical stereoscopic 3D perspective. Carmack later left id Software as he was hired as Oculus VR's Chief technology officer.
Funding for Oculus Rift and company
The Oculus Rift prototype was demonstrated at E3 in June 2012. On August 1, 2012, the company announced a Kickstarter campaign to further develop the product. Oculus announced that the "dev kit" version of the Oculus Rift would be given as a reward to backers who pledged $300 or more on Kickstarter, with an expected shipping date set of December 2012 (though they did not actually ship until March 2013).
There was also a limited run of 100 unassembled Rift prototype kits for pledges over $275 that would ship a month earlier. Both versions were intended to include Doom 3 BFG Edition, but Rift support in the game was not ready, so to make up for it they included a choice of discount vouchers for either Steam or the Oculus store. Within four hours of the announcement, Oculus secured its intended amount of US$250,000, and in less than 36 hours, the campaign had surpassed $1 million in funding, eventually ending with $2,437,429.
On December 12, 2013, Marc Andreessen joined the company's board when his firm, Andreessen Horowitz, led the $75 million Series B venture funding. In total, Oculus VR has raised $91 million with $2.4 million raised via crowdfunding.
Acquisition by Facebook
Although Oculus only released a development prototype of its headset, on March 25, 2014, Mark Zuckerberg announced that Facebook, Inc. would be acquiring Oculus for US$2 billion, pending regulatory approval. The deal included $400 million in cash and 23.1 million common shares of Facebook, valued at $1.6 billion, as well as an additional $300 million assuming Facebook reaches certain milestones. This move was ridiculed by some backers who felt the acquisition was counter to the independent ideology of crowdfunding.
Many Kickstarter backers and game industry figures, such as Minecraft developer Markus Persson, criticized the sale of Oculus to Facebook. On March 28, 2014, Michael Abrash joined the company as Chief Scientist. As of January 2015, the Oculus headquarters has been moved from Irvine, California to Menlo Park, where Facebook's headquarters are also located. Oculus has stated that this move is for their employees to be closer to Silicon Valley. In May 2015, Oculus VR acquired Surreal Vision, a British startup focused on 3D reconstruction and mixed reality.
In May 2015, Oculus acquired British company Surreal Vision, a company based on 3D scene-mapping reconstruction and augmented reality.
News reported that Oculus and Surreal Vision could create "mixed reality" technology in Oculus' products, similar to the upcoming HMD, Microsoft HoloLens. They reported that Oculus, with Surreal's help, will make telepresence possible.
On March 28, 2016, the first consumer version of Oculus Rift, Oculus Rift "CV1", was released. In October 2017, Oculus unveiled the standalone mobile headset Oculus Go in partnership with Chinese electronics manufacturer Xiaomi. On December 28, 2016, Facebook acquired Danish eye tracking startup The Eye Tribe. In September 2018, Oculus became a division of a new structural entity within Facebook known as Facebook Technologies, LLC. Facebook announced in August 2018 they had entered negotiations to lease the entire Burlingame Point campus in Burlingame, California, then under construction. The lease was executed in late 2018, and the site, owned by Kylli, a subsidiary of Genzon Investment Group, is expected to be complete by 2020. Oculus was expected to move to Burlingame Point when development is complete.
In February 2019, Facebook released Oculus Quest, a high-end standalone headset. In March 2019, Facebook unveiled Oculus Rift S, an updated revision of the original Rift PC headset in partnership with Chinese electronics manufacturer Lenovo, which featured updated hardware and features carried over from the Go and Quest.
On August 13, 2019, Nate Mitchell, Oculus co-founder and VP of product announced his departure from the company. On November 13, 2019, John Carmack wrote in a Facebook post that he would step down as CTO of Oculus to focus on developing artificial general intelligence. He stated he would remain involved with the company as a "Consulting CTO".
In September 2020, Facebook unveiled Oculus Quest 2, an update to the original Quest with a revised design and updated hardware.
Facebook integration
Upon the acquisition of Oculus by Facebook, Inc., Luckey "guaranteed" that "you won't need to log into your Facebook account every time you wanna use the Oculus Rift." Under its ownership, Oculus has been promoted as a brand of Facebook rather than an independent entity and has increasingly integrated Facebook platforms into Oculus products. Support for optional Facebook integration was added to Gear VR in March 2016, with a focus on integration with the social network, and integrations with features such as Facebook Video and social games. By 2016, the division began to be largely marketed as Oculus from Facebook.
In September 2016, support for optional Facebook integration was added to the Oculus Rift software, automatically populating the friends list with Facebook friends who have also linked their accounts (displaying them to each other under their real names, but still displaying screen names to anyone else). Users have been increasingly encouraged to use Facebook accounts to sign into its services (although standalone accounts not directly linked to the service were still supported).
In 2018, Oculus VR became a division of Facebook Technologies, LLC, to create "a single legal entity that can support multiple Facebook technology and hardware products" (such as Facebook Portal).
On August 18, 2020, Facebook announced that all "decisions around use, processing, retention, and sharing of [user] data" on its platforms will be delegated to the Facebook social network moving forward. Users became subject to the unified Facebook privacy policy, code of conduct, and community guidelines, and all users will be required to have a Facebook account to access Oculus products and services. Standalone account registration became unavailable in October 2020, all future Oculus hardware (beginning with Quest 2) will only support Facebook accounts, and support for existing standalone Oculus accounts on already-released products will end on January 1, 2023. Facebook stated that this was needed to facilitate "more Facebook powered multiplayer and social experiences" and make it "easier to share across our platforms". Facebook stated that users would still be able to control sharing from Oculus, maintain a separate friends list within the Oculus platform, and hide their real name to others.
Users and media criticized Facebook for the move. Ars Technica noted that there is no clear way to opt-out of information tracking and that the collected data will likely be used for targeted advertising. Furthermore, Facebook requires the use of a person's real name. In September 2020, Facebook temporarily suspended sales of all Oculus products in Germany; a German watchdog had presented concerns that this integration requirement violates the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), which prohibits making use of a service contingent on consenting to the collection of personally identifiable information, and the requirement that existing users also link to a Facebook account to use Oculus hardware and services.
On August 25, 2020, Facebook announced the formation of Facebook Reality Labs, a new unit that would encompass all of Facebook's virtual and augmented reality (AR) hardware and software, including Oculus, Portal, and Facebook Spark AR. The Oculus Connect conference was also renamed Facebook Connect.
In June 2021, Facebook announced it would do a test launch of targeted advertisements in applications for Oculus Quest. The company claims that movement data, voice recordings and raw images from the headset will not be used in targeting. Instead, the ads will rely on information from the user's Facebook profile and all user activity related to Oculus, including apps used or installed. The company has not stated whether ads will appear only in applications or in the Oculus Home experience as well.
In July 2021, Facebook announced it would be deprecating its proprietary Oculus API and adding full support for OpenXR.
Rebranding of Oculus as Meta
On October 25, 2021 during Connect, Facebook announced that it would invest $10 billion over the next year into Reality Labs, and that it would begin to report its revenue separately from the Facebook "Family of Apps"—which includes Facebook, Messenger, Instagram and WhatsApp. Three days later on October 28, Facebook announced that it would change its corporate name to Meta (legally Meta Platforms, Inc.), as part of the company's long-term focus on metaverses and related technologies.
As a result, CTO Andrew Bosworth announced that the Oculus brand would be phased out in 2022; all Facebook hardware products will be marketed under the Meta name, and Oculus Store would be renamed Quest Store. Likewise, immersive social platforms associated with Oculus will be brought under the Horizon brand (such as Horizon Worlds). He also stated that "as we’ve heard feedback from the VR community more broadly, we’re working on new ways to log into Quest that won’t require a Facebook account, landing sometime next year. This is one of our highest priority areas of work internally".
In January 2022, the Oculus social media accounts were renamed "Meta Quest" in reference to its current VR product line. Concurrently, Meta began to retroactively refer to the Quest 2 as the "Meta Quest 2".
Products
Virtual reality headsets
The initial Oculus headsets, produced under the "Oculus Rift" brand, are traditional VR headsets that require a PC to operate. In February 2019, Facebook first released Oculus Quest—a standalone headset which contains integrated mobile computing hardware and does not require a PC to operate, but can optionally be used with Oculus Rift-compatible VR software by connecting it to a PC over USB-C.
In 2018, Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg stated that the original Oculus Rift "CV1", Oculus Go (a lower-end standalone headset released in 2017), and Quest represented the company's first generation of products, and expected that successors to the three headsets would form its second generation. Oculus began to phase out the original Oculus Rift "CV1" in 2019, in favor of Oculus Rift S — a follow-up to the original model manufactured by Lenovo that incorporates elements of the Go and Quest. In September 2020, the Oculus Quest 2 was unveiled as an updated iteration of the first-generation Quest, and the Rift S was concurrently discontinued—making Quest the division's sole active product line.
Quest
On September 26, 2018, Facebook unveiled Oculus Quest. It is a standalone headset which is not dependent on a PC for operation; the Quest contains embedded mobile hardware running an operating system based on Android source code, including a Snapdragon 835 system-on-chip, and 64 or 128 GB of internal storage. It contains two OLED displays with a resolution of 1600x1440 per-eye and running at 72 Hz. It supports included Oculus Touch controllers via an "inside-out" motion tracking system known as "Oculus insight", which consists of a series of cameras embedded in the headset. The controllers were redesigned to properly function with Insight.
It supports games and applications downloaded via Oculus Store, with ported launch titles such as Beat Saber and Robo Recall. It also supports cross-platform multiplayer and cross-buys between PC and Quest. Facebook stated that they would impose stricter content and quality standards for software distributed for Quest than its other platforms, including requiring developers to undergo a pre-screening of their concepts to demonstrate "quality and probable market success". In June 2019, Facebook announced it sold $5 million worth of content for the Oculus Quest in its first two weeks on sale.
In November 2019, Facebook released a beta for a new feature known as Oculus Link, which allows Oculus Rift-compatible software to be streamed from a PC to a Quest headset over USB. In May 2020, Facebook added additional support for the use of USB 2.0 cables, such as the charging cable supplied with the headset. Support for controller-free hand tracking was also launched that month.
In September 2020, Facebook unveiled an updated version of the Quest, Oculus Quest 2. It is similar to the original Quest, but with the Snapdragon XR2 system-on-chip and additional RAM, an all plastic exterior, new cloth head straps, updated Oculus Touch controllers with improved ergonomics and battery life, and a 1832x1920 display running at 90 Hz, and up to 120 Hz as an experimental option. Similarly to the Rift S, it uses a single display panel rather than individual panels for each eye. Due to this design, it has more limited inter-pupillary distance options than the original Quest, with the ability to physically move the lenses to adjust for 3 common IPD measurements. The Quest 2's models are both priced US$100 cheaper than their first-generation equivalents.
Discontinued models
Oculus Rift
The Oculus Rift CV1, also known as simply the Oculus Rift, was the first consumer model of the Oculus Rift headset. It was released on March 28, 2016, in 20 countries, at a starting price of US$599. The 6,955 backers who received the Development Kit 1 prototype via the original Oculus Rift Kickstarter campaign were eligible to receive the CV1 model for free. On December 6, 2016, Oculus released motion controller accessories for the headset known as Oculus Touch.
Samsung Gear VR
In 2014, Samsung partnered with Oculus to develop the Gear VR, a VR headset accessory for Samsung Galaxy smartphones. It relies on the phone's display, which is viewed through lenses inside the headset. At Oculus Connect in September 2015, the Gear VR was announced for a consumer release in November; the initial model supported the Galaxy S6 and Galaxy S7 product lines, as well as the Galaxy Note 5.
Oculus Go
On October 11, 2017, Oculus unveiled the Oculus Go, a mobile VR headset manufactured by Xiaomi (the device was released in the Chinese market as the Xiaomi Mi VR). Unlike the Oculus Rift, the Go is a standalone headset which is not dependent on a PC for operation. Unlike VR systems such as Cardboard, Daydream, and the Oculus co-developed Samsung Gear VR (where VR software is run on a smartphone inserted into a physical enclosure, and its screen is viewed through lenses), it contains its own dedicated display and mobile computing hardware. The headset includes a 5.5-inch 1440p fast-switching LCD display, integrated speakers with spatial audio and a headphone jack for external audio, a Qualcomm Snapdragon 821 system-on-chip, and 32 or 64 GB of internal storage. It runs an Android-based operating system with access to VR software via the Oculus Home user experience and app store, including games and multimedia apps. The Go includes a handheld controller reminiscent of one designed for the Gear VR, which uses relative motion tracking. The Oculus Go does not use positional tracking.
While official sales numbers have not been released, according to IDC the Oculus Go and Xiaomi Mi VR had sold nearly a quarter million units combined during the third quarter 2018, and in January 2019 market analysis firm SuperData estimated that over a million Oculus Go units had been sold since the device's launch. In his keynote at 2018's Oculus Connect developer conference, John Carmack revealed that the Go's retention rate was as high as the Rift's, something that nobody at the company had predicted. Carmack also noted that the Go had done especially well in Japan despite lacking internationalization support and the company not specifically catering to the Japanese market.
Oculus Go was declared end-of-life in June 2020, with software submissions to end in December 2020, and firmware support ending in 2022.
Oculus Rift S
On March 20, 2019, at the Game Developers Conference, Facebook announced the Oculus Rift S, a successor to the original Oculus Rift headset. It was co-developed with and manufactured by Lenovo, and launched at a price of US$399. The Rift S contains hardware features from the Oculus Go and Oculus Quest, including Oculus Insight, integrated speakers, and a new "halo" strap. The Rift S uses the same 1440p fast-switching LCD display and lenses as the Oculus Go (a higher resolution in comparison to the original model, but lower in comparison to Oculus Quest), running at 80 Hz, and is backwards compatible with all existing Oculus Rift games and software. Unlike the original Oculus Rift, it does not have hardware control for inter-pupillary distance.
In September 2020, Facebook announced it would be discontinuing the Oculus Rift S and in April 2021, shipments of the headset ceased.
Comparison
Smart glasses
In September 2021, Reality Labs and Ray-Ban announced Ray-Ban Stories, a collaboration on camera-equipped smart glasses that can upload video to Facebook.
Oculus Studios
Oculus Studios is a division of Oculus that focuses on funding, publishing and giving technical advice to third party studios to create games and experiences for Oculus Rift. Facebook pledged to invest more than US$500 million in Oculus Studios for games. By 2020, Facebook purchased Beat Games and Sanzaru Games studios and integrated them with Oculus Studios. Ready at Dawn, a game studio composed by former members of Naughty Dog and Blizzard Entertainment, developers of Lone Echo, was acquired by Oculus in June 2020, though will continue to operate as its own subsidiary studios for Oculus.
Oculus Story Studio
Oculus Story Studio was an original animated virtual-reality film studio that existed between 2014 and May 2017, which launched three films. The studio aimed to pioneer animated virtual reality filmmaking and educate, inspire, and foster community for filmmakers interested in VR. Oculus Story Studio was first launched publicly at the 2015 Sundance Film Festival, where it presented three VR films - Dear Angelica, Henry, and Lost. Despite generally positive reception and critical acclaim, the studio did not publish any other works and was closed in May 2017.
Litigation
Following Facebook's acquisition of Oculus VR, ZeniMax Media, the parent company of id Software and John Carmack's previous employer, sought legal action against Oculus, accusing the company of theft of intellectual property relating to the Oculus Rift due to Carmack's transition from id Software to Oculus. The case, ZeniMax v. Oculus, was heard in a jury trial in the United States District Court for the Northern District of Texas, and their verdict was reached in February 2017, finding that Carmack had taken code from ZeniMax and used it in developing the Oculus Rift's software, violating his non-disclosure agreement with ZeniMax, and Oculus' use of the code was considered copyright infringement. ZeniMax was awarded $500 million in the verdict, and both ZeniMax and Oculus are seeking further court actions.
Controversy
In February 2022, a BBC News researcher posing as a 13-year-old girl witnessed grooming, sexual material, racist insults and a rape threat on the VRChat app. The National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children head of online child safety policy Andy Burrows added the investigation had found "a toxic combination of risks". The BBC researcher downloaded VRChat from an app store on Facebook's Meta Quest headset, with no age verification checks - the only requirement being a Facebook account. The BBC News researcher created a fake profile to set up her account - and her real identity was not checked. While Oculus has a form where users can report abuse, the Center for Countering Digital Hate claims Meta rarely takes them seriously, reporting 100 policy violations on Oculus, they did not receive a response. Imran Ahmed, the charity’s chief executive, branded it “a cesspit of hate, pornography and child grooming.”
See also
HTC Vive
Valve Index
VirtualLink
References
External links
Official website
Meta Quest/Oculus official website
Official Oculus developer forum
— special version of Oculus VR's "Tuscany Demo" showcasing GenAudio's AstoundSound with calculations shunted to AMD TrueAudio.
Virtual reality companies
Display technology
Mixed reality
Software companies based in the San Francisco Bay Area
Technology companies based in the San Francisco Bay Area
Companies based in Menlo Park, California
American companies established in 2012
Electronics companies established in 2012
Software companies established in 2012
Technology companies established in 2012
2012 establishments in California
Meta Platforms acquisitions
2014 mergers and acquisitions
Head-mounted displays
Virtual reality
Software companies of the United States
2012 establishments in the United States
Companies based in San Francisco
Companies established in 2012 |
1673722 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeboxing | Timeboxing | In Agile principles, timeboxing allocates a fixed and maximum unit of time to an activity, called a timebox, within which planned activity takes place. It is used by Agile principles-based project management approaches and for personal time management.
In project management
Timeboxing is used as a project planning technique. The schedule is divided into a number of separate time periods (timeboxes), with each part having its own deliverables, deadline and budget. Sometimes referred to as schedule as independent variable (SAIV). "Timeboxing works best in multistage projects or tasks that take little time and you can fit them in the same time slot. It is also worth implementing in case of duties that have foreseeable time-frames of completion."
As an alternative to fixing scope
In project management, there are generally considered to be three constraints of time (sometimes schedule), cost (sometimes budget), and scope; with quality often added as a fourth constraint (represented as the middle of a triangle), The assumption is that a change in one constraint will affect the others.
Without timeboxing, projects usually work to a fixed scope, in which case when it becomes clear that some deliverables cannot be completed within the planned timescales, either the deadline has to be extended (to allow more time to complete the fixed scope) or more people are involved (to complete the fixed scope in the same time). Often both happen, resulting in delayed delivery, increased costs, and often reduced quality (as per The Mythical Man-Month principle).
With timeboxing, the deadline is fixed, meaning that the scope would have to be reduced. As this means organizations have to focus on completing the most important deliverables first, timeboxing often goes hand-in-hand with a scheme for prioritizing of deliverables (such as with the MoSCoW method).
To manage risk
Timeboxes are used as a form of risk management, to explicitly identify uncertain task/time relationships, i.e., work that may easily extend past its deadline. Time constraints are often a primary driver in planning and should not be changed without considering project or sub-project critical paths. That is, it's usually important to meet deadlines. Risk factors for missed deadlines can include complications upstream of the project, planning errors within the project, team-related issues, or faulty execution of the plan. Upstream issues might include changes in project mission or backing/support from management. A common planning error is inadequate task breakdown, which can lead to underestimation of the time required to perform the work. Team-related issues can include trouble with inter-team communication; lack of experience or required cross-functionality; lack of commitment/drive/motivation (i.e. poor team building and management).
To stay on deadline, the following actions against the triple constraints are commonly evaluated:
Reduce scope: drop requirements of lower impact (the ones that will not be directly missed by the user)
Time is the fixed constraint here
Increase cost: e.g., add overtime or resources
Adoption in software development
Many successful software development projects use timeboxing, especially smaller ones. Adopting timeboxing more than tripled developer productivity at DuPont in the '80s. In some cases, applications were completely delivered within the time estimated to complete just a specification. However, Steve McConnell argues that not every product is suitable and that timeboxing should only be used after the customer agrees to cut features, not quality. There is little evidence for strong adoption amongst the largest class of projects.
Timeboxing has been adopted by some notable software development methodologies:
Dynamic systems development method (DSDM)
In lean software development, pull scheduling with Kanban provides short term time management. When developing a large and complex system, when long term planning is required timeboxing is layered above.
Rapid application development (RAD) software development process features iterative development and software prototyping. According to Steve McConnell, timeboxing is a "Best Practice" for RAD and a typical timebox length should be 60–120 days.
Scrum was influenced by ideas of timeboxing and iterative development. Regular timeboxed units known as sprints form the basic unit of development. A typical length for a sprint is less than 30 days. Sprint planning, sprint retrospective and sprint review meetings are timeboxed.
In Extreme programming methodologies, development planning is timeboxed into iterations typically 1, 2 or 3 weeks in length. The business revalues pending user stories before each iteration.
Agile software development advocates moving from plan driven to value driven development. Quality and time are fixed but flexibility allowed in scope. Delivering the most important features first leads to an earlier return on investment than the waterfall model.
A lack of detailed specifications typically is the result of a lack of time, or the lack of knowledge of the desired end result (solution). In many types of projects, and especially in software engineering, analyzing and defining all requirements and specifications before the start of the realization phase is impossible. Timeboxing can be a favorable type of contracting for projects in which the deadline is the most critical aspect and when not all requirements are completely specified up front. This also allows for new feedback or insights discovered during the project to be reflected in the end result.
In personal time management
Timeboxing can be used for personal tasks, in which case it uses a reduced scale of time (e.g., thirty minutes) and of deliverables (e.g., a household chore instead of project deliverable), and is often called timeblocking.
Personal timeboxing is also said to act as a life hack to help curb perfectionist tendencies (by setting a firm time and not overcommitting to a task) which can also enhance creativity and focus (by creating a sense of urgency or increased pressure).
Relationship with other methods
Timeboxing acts as a building block in other personal time management methods:
The Pomodoro Technique is based on 25 minute timeboxes of focused concentration separated by breaks allowing the mind to recover.
Andy Hunt gives timeboxing as his 'T' in SMART.
References
Time management
Dynamic systems development method
Software project management
Agile software development
Lean manufacturing |
56209375 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ExpressVPN | ExpressVPN | ExpressVPN is a VPN service offered by the British Virgin Islands-registered company Express Technologies Ltd. The software is marketed as a privacy and security tool that encrypts users' web traffic and masks their IP addresses.
In September 2021, it was reported that the service was being used by 3 million users. Also in September 2021, ExpressVPN was purchased by software developer Kape Technologies, formerly Crossrider, an adware platform. Kape also owns other VPN services and cybersecurity tools.
History
ExpressVPN's parent company, Express VPN International Ltd, was founded in 2009 by Peter Burchhardt and Dan Pomerantz, two serial entrepreneurs who were also Wharton School alumni. The parent company does business as ExpressVPN.
On January 25, 2016, ExpressVPN announced that it would soon roll out an upgraded CA certificate. Also in December, ExpressVPN released open source leak testing tools on GitHub.
In July 2017, ExpressVPN announced in an open letter that Apple had removed all VPN apps from its App Store in China, a revelation that was later picked up by The New York Times and other outlets. In response to questions from U.S. Senators, Apple stated it had removed 674 VPN apps from the App Store in China in 2017 at the request of the Chinese government. In December, ExpressVPN came into the spotlight in relation to the investigation of the assassination of Russian ambassador to Turkey, Andrei Karlov. Turkish investigators seized an ExpressVPN server which they say was used to delete relevant information from the assassin's Gmail and Facebook accounts. Turkish authorities were unable to find any logs to aid their investigation, which the company said verified its claim that it did not store user activity or connection logs, adding; "while it's unfortunate that security tools like VPNs can be abused for illicit purposes, they are critical for our safety and the preservation of our right to privacy online. ExpressVPN is fundamentally opposed to any efforts to install 'backdoors' or attempts by governments to otherwise undermine such technologies."
In December 2019, ExpressVPN became a founding member of the VPN Trust Initiative, an advocacy group for online safety of consumers.
In May 2020, the company released a new protocol it developed for ExpressVPN called Lightway, designed to improve connectivity speeds and reduce power consumption. In October, Yale Privacy Lab founder Sean O'Brien joined the ExpressVPN Digital Security Lab to conduct original research in the areas of privacy and cybersecurity.
On September 13, 2021, it was reported that ExpressVPN had been acquired by Kape Technologies, an LSE-listed digital privacy and security company which operates three other VPN services: Private Internet Access, CyberGhost and ZenMate; antivirus software maker Intego; and other cybersecurity tools. This raised concerns based on Kape Technologies' predecessor Crossrider's history of making tools that were used for adware. At the time of the acquisition, ExpressVPN reportedly had over 3 million users. ExpressVPN announced in September 2021 that they would remain a separate service from existing Kape brands. On September 14, the US Department of Justice released a statement that ExpressVPN CIO Daniel Gericke, prior to joining the company, had helped the United Arab Emirates hack computers (including those of activists) without having a valid export license from the US government. In exchange for a deferred prosecution agreement, he agreed to pay a $335,000 fine and his security clearance was revoked.
Features
ExpressVPN has released apps for Windows, macOS, iOS, Android, Linux, and routers. The apps use a 4096-bit CA, AES-256-CBC encryption, and TLSv1.2 to secure user traffic. Available VPN protocols include Lightway, OpenVPN (with TCP/UDP), SSTP, L2TP/IPSec, and PPTP.
The software also features a Smart DNS feature called MediaStreamer, to add VPN capabilities to devices that do not support them, and a router app, allowing the VPN to be set up on a router, bypassing unsupported devices such as gaming consoles.
ExpressVPN is incorporated in the British Virgin Islands, a privacy-friendly country that has no data retention laws, and is a separate legal jurisdiction to the United Kingdom.
ExpressVPN's parent company also develops leak testing tools, which enable users to determine if their VPN provider is leaking network traffic, DNS, or true IP addresses while connected to the VPN, such as when switching from a wireless to a wired internet connection.
Servers
, ExpressVPN's 3,000 server network covered 160 VPN server locations across 94 countries. In April 2019, ExpressVPN announced that all their VPN servers ran solely on volatile memory (RAM), not on hard drives. This was the first example in the VPN industry for such a server security setup, and was referred to as TrustedServer.
Lightway protocol
Lightway is ExpressVPN's open source VPN protocol. It is similar to the WireGuard protocol, but uses wolfSSL encryption to improve speed on embedded devices such as routers and smartphones. It does not run in the operating system's Kernel, but is lightweight to support auditing. It is reportedly twice as fast as OpenVPN, and supports TCP and UDP.
Reception
TorrentFreak has included ExpressVPN in their annual comparison of Best VPN providers since 2015.
On January 14, 2016, ExpressVPN was criticized by former Google information security engineer Marc Bevand for using weak encryption. Bevand had discovered that only a 1024-bit RSA key was used to encrypt the service's connections after using it to test the strength of the Great Firewall of China. He described ExpressVPN as "one of the top three commercial VPN providers in China" and asserted that the Chinese government would be able to factor the RSA keys to potentially spy on users. On February 15, Bevand updated his criticism and noted that the company reported to him that it switched to more secure 4096-bit RSA keys.
In a review done by PCMag UK editor Max Eddy in May 2017, the service scored 4 out of 5 with the bottom-line being that although the service was not the fastest, it "certainly protects your data from thieves and spies."
PC World rated the service 3½ out of 5 in their September 2017 review, commending it for its easy-to-use software while criticizing "the secrecy behind who runs the company."
In October 2017, TechRadar gave the service 4½ out of 5 stars, calling it "a premium service with well-crafted clients, an ample choice of locations and reliable performance."
In 2018, Cyber security website Comparitech tested ExpressVPNs leak testing tools with 11 popular VPN services and found leaks across every VPN provider, with the exception of ExpressVPN. However, they clarified, "To be fair, ExpressVPN built the test tools and applied them to its own VPN app prior to publication of this article, so it has already patched leaks that it initially detected."
The service received 4.5 out of 5 stars from VPNSelector in their July 2019 review, putting it in first place among VPN providers.
In 2020, tech publication TechRadar named ExpressVPN its editor's choice.
In 2021, TechRadar and CNET named the service their Editors' Choice.
See also
Comparison of virtual private network services
References
External links
ExpressVPN's official website
Internet privacy
Internet properties established in 2009
Virtual private network services
Software companies
Information technology companies of the British Virgin Islands
YouTube sponsors |
11928098 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack%20Minker | Jack Minker | Jack Minker (4 July 1927 – 9 April 2021) was a leading authority in artificial intelligence, deductive databases, logic programming and non-monotonic reasoning. He was also an internationally recognized leader in the field of human rights of computer scientists. He was an Emeritus Professor in the University of Maryland Department of Computer Science, which is part of the College of Computer, Mathematical, and Natural Sciences.
Education and early life
Minker was born on July 4, 1927 in Brooklyn, New York. He received his Bachelor of Arts degree from Brooklyn College in 1949, Master of Arts degree from the University of Wisconsin in 1950, and PhD from the University of Pennsylvania in 1959 for research supervised by Bernard Epstein.
Career and research
Minker started his career in industry in 1951, working at the Bell Aircraft Corporation, RCA, and the Auerbach Corporation. He joined the University of Maryland in 1967, becoming Professor of Computer Science in 1971 and the first chair of the department in 1974. He became Professor Emeritus in 1998.
Minker was one of the founders of the area of deductive databases and disjunctive logic programming. He has made important contributions to semantic query optimization and to cooperative and informative answers for deductive databases. He has also developed a theoretical basis for disjunctive databases and disjunctive logic programs, developing the Generalized Closed World Assumption (GCWA).
Minker has over 150 refereed publications and has edited or co-edited five books on deductive databases, logic programming, and the use of logic in artificial intelligence. He
was Founding Editor-in-Chief of the journal Theory and Practice of Logic Programming.
Minker has been Vice-Chairman of the Committee of Concerned Scientists since 1973, and Vice-Chairman of the Committee on Scientific Freedom and Human Rights (CSFHR) of the Association for Computing Machinery from 1980 to 1989. He led the struggle for the release of Anatoly Shcharansky and Alexander Lerner from the late Soviet Union. He also campaigned on behalf of Andrei Sakharov and his wife, Yelena Bonner. His memoir, Scientific Freedom & Human Rights: Scientists of Conscience During the Cold War, was published in 2012 by IEEE Computer Society Press. His former doctoral students include Terry Gaasterland.
Honors and awards
Minker was elected a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) in 1989, founding Fellow of the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) in 1990, Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) in 1991, and founding Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) in 1994.
He received the ACM Outstanding Contribution Award for his work on human rights in 1985, the ACM Recognition of Service Award in 1989, the University of Maryland President's Medal for 1996, and the prestigious ACM Allen Newell Award for 2005. The Allen Newell Award is a recognition by the Association for Computing Machinery to individuals that have contributed to the breadth of knowledge within computer science and the bridging between computer science and other disciplines. He also received the 2011 Heinz R. Pagels Human Rights Award from the New York Academy of Sciences for his work on behalf of scientific freedom and human rights for scientists.
References
1927 births
2021 deaths
Scientists from Brooklyn
Jewish American scientists
Brooklyn College alumni
Fellows of the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence
Artificial intelligence researchers
Fellow Members of the IEEE
Fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery
University of Maryland, College Park faculty
21st-century American Jews |
21697800 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Profiles%20in%20Folly | Profiles in Folly | Profiles in Folly is a historical book written by Alan Axelrod which is composed of many other true stories within the book itself, beginning with the Trojan War in "The Decision To Let Danger In", and ending with Hurricane Katrina in "The Decision to Stop Short of Leadership". It is a follow-up book to Profiles in Audacity, and studies 35 of the worst mistakes in history. Each mistake is told in story form and is designed to teach the reader lessons through Axelrod's opinion.
Division of the book
The book is separated into six main parts, all focusing on different decisions leaders made in their actions of folly. These decisions are:
The Decision to Gamble and Hope
The Decision to Manipulate
The Decision to Leap (Without Looking)
The Decision to Retreat
The Decision to Destroy
and The Decision to Drift.
Within each of these decisions are short, historical stories such as "John F. Kennedy and the Bay of Pigs" under The Decision to Drift, or "The British Empire and Gandhi" under The Decision to Retreat. There are a total of thirty-five mini stories within the entire book.
The book focuses on mainly contemporary stories, but goes as far back as to the Trojan War (the very first story) under The Decision to Gamble and Hope.
See also
Alan Axelrod
Sterling Publishing
References
External links
Sterling Publishing website
2008 non-fiction books
21st-century history books
History books by topic
History books about the Trojan War
History books about the United States
History books about the British Empire |
54844744 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setapp | Setapp | Setapp is a subscription-based service for macOS and iOS applications released by the Ukrainian software company MacPaw in 2017. It provides access to a growing collection of software from different developers for a fixed monthly fee. App categories cover productivity, lifestyle, web development, Mac maintenance, creativity, writing, education, and personal finance. There are over 190 apps in the Setapp subscription and 1 million users.
History
Setapp launched in beta in November 2016, and was officially released in January 2017. In June 2017, Setapp reported having 10,000 subscribers worldwide, mostly in the United States but with growing audiences in the United Kingdom, Germany, and France. By November of that year there were more than 200,000 trial users testing the service.
In November 2019, Setapp launched Setapp for Teams, a service adjusted for teams’ and organizations’ use.
Setapp launched an iOS version in August 2020.
Business model
Setapp introduced a subscription model for software usage akin to streaming services like Spotify and Netflix.
Instead of paying a single price for a standalone application, users can use all the apps in the collection for a single monthly fee.
The philosophy behind the initiative was to give users preselected, ready-to-use software that covers both generic and job-specific tasks. Applications on Setapp are automatically updated and contain no in-app purchases or advertisements.
The main part of the revenue generated by Setapp is divided between app developers based on app usage.
System requirements
macOS version:
El Capitan 10.11 (minimum)
Sierra 10.12 and later (recommended; required to install iOS apps)
iOS apps have individual minimum requirements
500 MB of free space for initial installation
Internet connection to install separate apps
Awards and recognition
Finalist at the 21st annual Interactive Innovation Awards in the New Economy category
Awarded "Consumer Product of the Year" by Product Hunt at the 2017 Golden Kitty Awards
Awarded “Best SaaS Product for Productivity” by SaaS Awards in 2019
See also
Subscription business model
References
External links
Utilities for macOS
MacOS software
Software delivery methods
Software distribution |
14748020 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane%20%28software%29 | Jane (software) | Jane is a discontinued GUI-based integrated software package for the Apple II, Commodore 64 and Commodore 128 personal computers. It was developed by Arktronics in 1984, and the Commodore version was published by Commodore in 1985. Like Commodore's earlier Magic Desk software, it used a literal desktop metaphor with the interface consisting of an onscreen graphic of a desktop with icons representing associated business tools - a typewriter represented the word processor component (JaneWrite), a filing cabinet for the database (JaneList), a calculator for the spreadsheet (JaneCalc) and so on. It was designed to be controlled by either a joystick or a mouse. Like most of the other examples of integrated software for home computers, Jane's components were criticized for being slow and limited. It was not a success in the marketplace but represented an early example of a graphical interface on an 8-bit computer.
Arktronics was a software development company in Ann Arbor, Michigan, founded by Howard Marks and Bobby Kotick. Jane was originally intended to be a package not only for the Apple and Commodore lines, but also for the Atari 8-bit family and others. This transportability was engineered by a combination of higher level systems written in the C language and machine specific drivers written in the assembly language for each machine (6502 Assembly for the Apple II and Commodore 64). For the C64, DOS manager was written by Howard K. Weiner, and the font manager/windows manager was written by Daniel J. Weiner. The Weiner brothers, both went on to attend the University of Michigan Integrated Pre-medical-Medical (Inteflex) Program. Other programmers included Andrew Marcheff (z”l) and Thomas Naughton.
References
Apple II software
Commodore 64 software
1984 software
1985 software |
7484062 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West%20Bengal%20Electronics%20Industry%20Development%20Corporation | West Bengal Electronics Industry Development Corporation | West Bengal Electronics Industry Development Corporation Limited (WEBEL) is the government agency responsible for technology development in West Bengal, India. It was incorporated in 1974 with the objective of developing the electronics industry in West Bengal.
Business activities
Through its subsidiary companies, WEBEL engages in the manufacture of electronic components and equipments. It also engages in infrastructure development activities for the electronics industry, including the development of the Taratala Industrial Estate and the Salt Lake Electronics Complex took shape.
It has executed turnkey projects, such as the Automatic Message Switching System at the Tribhuvan International Airport in Nepal, and the Toll Collection System at Vidyasagar Setu, Kolkata. It has also implemented e-governance projects including a private optical fiber network, and the West Bengal State Wide Area Network (WBSWAN). WBSWAN forms the basic backbone of the Indian government's e-governance programme.
The organisation also has brought internet bandwidth to make rural India the back office of urban India for tele-education, telemedicine, e-governance, entertainment, and has followed up with projects in health care, law and order, and commercial tax applications.
The organisation has implemented an application, the first of its kind in the country, networking all 411 police stations of West Benga, with applications such as criminal tracking system, an application which permits messaging and access to data at grass-root levels to track crime.
WEBEL has developed a computerised Braille transcription system [BTS] in twelve Indian languages comprising Braille-to-text software, an electronic tactile reader, automatic braille embosser, and audio-supported Braille keybo The system covers transcription in languages such as Bangla, Hindi, Assamese, Oriya, Marathi, Gujarati, Punjabi, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Nepali and English.
Subsidiaries
Its subsidiary Webel Mediatronics Limited engages in the development, manufacturing, and turnkey project execution in the areas of studio and broadcasting systems, industrial electronics, information technology applications, and systems for the disabled. It has in the last 10 years developed and commercialized a host of systems for visually impaired, cerebral palsy-affected, hearing handicapped, and autistic persons. It has a close working relationship with Prasar Bharati, the Indian Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, the Indian Ministry of Communication and Information Technology, and research institutes and universities in the country.
Its subsidiary Webel Informatics Limited has a mission is to upgrade the level of computer literacy in West Bengal, and produces around 6,000 professionals every year. With more than 140 franchise locations all over the state, including Bhairab Ganguly College, the company also conducts corporate training in 100 government-aided schools. In association with the Indian government and IBM, the organisation has launched an IT literacy programme in secondary and higher secondary schools. WEBEL has set up Toonz Webel Academy, an international animation academy that produces industry-ready animators. Webel Informatic's Information Technology Education and Training divisions conduct diploma and certificate courses in software, hardware with networking and multimedia, and a host of information technology courses for beginners, with special emphasis on training college students to help make them industry-ready professionals after graduation. It is the regional Cisco Network Academy for Eastern India and awards Cisco Certified Network Associate. It is also the authorized training partner of Red Hat, conducting Red Hat Certified System Administrator and Red Hat Certified Engineer for individuals and corporate clients.
Manufacturing activities
Quartz crystals
Electrolytic capacitors
Black-and white picture tubes
Electronically driven tools
Thyristor-controlled AC Drives
Studio and broadcasting equipment
Television sets
Transreceivers
Electronic telephone exchanges
EPBTs
References
West Bengal Electronics Industry Development Corporation Limited – official website
BTS by Webel Mediatronics Limited – electronic Braille repository
State agencies of West Bengal
State industrial development corporations of India
Companies based in Kolkata
1974 establishments in West Bengal
Government agencies established in 1974 |
4169291 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poseidon%20Linux | Poseidon Linux | Poseidon Linux is Linux distribution, a complete operating system, originally based on Kurumin, now based on Ubuntu. It is developed and maintained by a team of young scientists from the Rio Grande Federal University in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, and the MARUM institute in Germany.
Naming
The name Poseidon was chosen after the God of the seas in Greek mythology, since a large number of oceanologists have been involved in the development of the system.
History
The 3.x family was pre-presented in 2008 at the 9th Free Software International Forum (FISL9.0), and received compliments from numerous users, free software enthusiasts, and the Linux community in general, including from Jon "maddog" Hall of Linux International.
Poseidon 3.2 was officially released in the IV Brazilian Oceanography Congress, that took place in May 2010 in Rio Grande, Brazil.
For version 4.0, the project changed the base distribution from Knoppix/Kurumin to Ubuntu. This was due to the wide acceptance of Poseidon outside the Portuguese-speaking scientific community, and because of the shut-down of the Kurumin project. The Ubuntu-based releases allow the installation in Portuguese, Spanish, English, German, French, Greek, and other languages.
The development team stated, that after Poseidon 5.0, the distribution would focus on bathymetry, seafloor mapping, and GIS software. Many of the bundled CAD and scientific programs were removed, but may be separately available for download from compatible repositories.
The current version of Poseidon is 8.0, and is based on 32-bit and 64-bit Ubuntu 16.04 LTS.
Features
Throughout its release history, the distro has contained many free software programs used in science and engineering, such as the Fortran programming language, Kile and Lyx for scientific writing, numerical modeling, 2D/3D/4D visualization, statistics, CAD, genetics, bio-informatics, and several tools that support GIS and mapping. Additionally, LibreOffice, web browsers, and multimedia packages are included.
Releases
References
External links
Official/Original site (in Portuguese)
Official site, updated (English)
Article in Pan American Journal of Aquatic Science (in Portuguese) (PDF file)
New article in Pan American Journal of Aquatic Science (in English) (PDF file)
Ubuntu derivatives
Spanish-language Linux distributions
Portuguese-language Linux distributions
Linux distributions |
27634561 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS%204 | IOS 4 | iOS 4 is the fourth major release of the iOS mobile operating system developed by Apple Inc., being the successor to iPhone OS 3. It was announced at the company's Worldwide Developers Conference on June 7, 2010, and was released on June 21, 2010. iOS 4 is the first iOS version issued under the "iOS" rebranding, dropping the "iPhone OS" naming convention of previous versions. It was succeeded by iOS 5 on October 12, 2011.
iOS 4 introduced folders on the home screen, significantly increasing the number of apps that can be displayed. Support for custom wallpapers was also added, although limited to newer devices due to animation performance requirements. The operating system also added a multitasking feature, letting apps dealing with Internet calling, location and audio playback function in the background, whereas a similar but more restricted "Fast App Switching" technology enabled any app to be left inactive in the background while users switch to other apps. iOS 4 also added a system-wide spell checking feature, enabled iBooks on iPhone, unified the Mail inbox to combine content from different email providers, and introduced both Game Center for social gaming and FaceTime for video calling.
The iOS 4 update introduced performance and battery problems on iPhone 3G devices, with Apple investigating the matter and promising then-upcoming updates. However, the company became the subject of a lawsuit from an unsatisfied customer over the issues. Around the same time, the release of iPhone 4 and its subsequent antenna problems made Apple focus on unsuccessfully attempting to patch the issues with software updates.
Apps
iBooks
Game Center
FaceTime
History
iOS 4 was introduced at the Apple Worldwide Developers Conference keynote address on June 7, 2010. Notably, it was the first iOS release to be named simply "iOS", ending the "iPhone OS" naming pattern of previous versions.
iOS 4 was officially released on June 21, 2010.
Updates
System features
Home screen
iOS 4 raised the maximum number of home screen apps from 180 to 2,160 due to the addition of folders. These folders would automatically be named based on the containing apps' respective App Store category. The ability to add custom wallpapers to the home screen was also added, though the feature was notably absent from iPhone 3G and the second-generation iPod Touch due to poor performance of icon animations.
Multitasking
iOS 4 introduced multitasking. The feature allowed users to switch between apps instantly by double-clicking the home button. It was implemented in such a way that did not cause excessive battery drain. Multitasking was limited to apps dealing with Internet calling, location, and audio playback, while a similar "Fast App Switching" technology meant users could leave an app and enter another, with the original app remaining in the background until the user returns. This feature was notably absent from iPhone 3G and the second-generation iPod Touch due to performance issues.
Spell check
iOS 4 introduced a spell checking feature that underlined misspelled words in red. Tapping on the word would provide a pop-up with a recommended replacement.
Camera
The Camera app could take pictures with 5x digital zoom.
App features
iBooks
iOS 4 introduced iPhone and iPod Touch support in iBooks, which was already included on iPad. Though not a default app, it was available through App Store.
Mail
The Mail app featured a unified inbox on iOS 4, allowing users to see messages from all of their email accounts displayed together in a single inbox. It also gained support for MobileMe e-mail aliases and multiple Exchange accounts for business users.
Game Center
iOS 4.1 added a new app called Game Center, an online multiplayer social gaming network, which allows users to invite friends to play games and to compare their scores on a leaderboard. It was not available on the iPhone 3G.
FaceTime
iOS 4 introduced FaceTime, a videotelephony app that uses the device's camera to allow the user to make video calls with other FaceTime users. This feature was absent from the iPhone 3G, second-generation iPod Touch, iPhone 3GS, and third-generation iPod Touch due to the lack of required features, such as a front-facing camera.
Safari
The Safari mobile web browser on iOS 4 added Bing as a search option in addition to Google and Yahoo!.
Beginning with iOS 4.2.1, specific words or phrases on a page could be searched.
Problems
Performance and battery issues
iPhone 3G users reported performance and battery issues after upgrading to iOS 4. Apple started an investigation of the matter in July 2010. In November, Apple was sued for the issues, with an unsatisfied customer alleging "violating the Consumer Legal Remedies Act, unfair business practices, and false and deceptive advertising", with further allegations that Apple knew its software would cause problems on older models. Apple never responded to the allegations, but wrote in a reply to another unsatisfied customer in August 2010 that updates were "coming soon".
Alarm clock
In all versions of iOS 4, the alarm clock in the clock app had a problem in DST when it would go off an hour too early or too late.
Antenna problems
Upon its release, some iPhone 4 users reported having technical problems with the phone's antennas. Apple attempted to fix the issue with iOS 4.0.1, but failed to do so.
Supported devices
The first-generation iPhone and the first-generation iPod Touch cannot run iOS 4 and above due to hardware limitations. This marked the first time Apple dropped support for older devices.
iPhone
iPhone 3G
iPhone 3GS
iPhone 4
iPod Touch
iPod Touch (2nd generation)
iPod Touch (3rd generation)
iPod Touch (4th generation)
iPad
iPad (1st generation)
iPad 2
Apple TV
Apple TV (2nd generation)
References
External links
Computer-related introductions in 2010
2010 software
Tablet operating systems |
1523590 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20agriculture%20in%20the%20United%20States | History of agriculture in the United States | The history of agriculture in the United States covers the period from the first English settlers to the present day. In Colonial America, agriculture was the primary livelihood for 90% of the population, and most towns were shipping points for the export of agricultural products. Most farms were geared toward subsistence production for family use. The rapid growth of population and the expansion of the frontier opened up large numbers of new farms, and clearing the land was a major preoccupation of farmers. After 1800, cotton became the chief crop in southern plantations, and the chief American export. After 1840, industrialization and urbanization opened up lucrative domestic markets. The number of farms grew from 1.4 million in 1850, to 4.0 million in 1880, and 6.4 million in 1910; then started to fall, dropping to 5.6 million in 1950 and 2.2 million in 2008.
Pre-Colonial era
Prior to the arrival of Europeans in North America, the continent supported a diverse range of indigenous cultures. While some populations were primarily hunter-gatherers, other populations relied on agriculture. Native Americans farmed domesticated crops in the Eastern Woodlands, the Great Plains, and the American Southwest.
Colonial farming: 1610–1775
The first settlers in Plymouth Colony planted barley and peas from England but their most important crop was Indian corn (maize) which they were shown how to cultivate by the native Squanto. To fertilize this crop, they used small fish which they called herrings or shads.
Plantation agriculture, using slaves, developed in Virginia and Maryland (where tobacco was grown), and South Carolina (where indigo and rice was grown). Cotton became a major plantation crop after 1800 in the "Black Belt," that is the region from North Carolina in an arc through Texas where the climate allowed for cotton cultivation.
Apart from the tobacco and rice plantations, the great majority of farms were subsistence, producing food for the family and some for trade and taxes. Throughout the colonial period, subsistence farming was pervasive. Farmers supplemented their income with sales of surplus crops or animals in the local market, or by exports to the slave colonies in the West Indies. Logging, hunting and fishing supplemented the family economy.
Ethnic farming styles
Ethnicity made a difference in agricultural practice. German Americans brought with them practices and traditions that were quite different from those of the English and Scots. They adapted Old World techniques to a much more abundant land supply.
Furthermore, the Germans showed a long-term tendency to keep the farm in the family and to avoid having their children move to towns. For example, they generally preferred oxen to horses for plowing. The Scots Irish built their livelihoods on some farming but more herding (of hogs and cattle). In the American colonies, the Scots-Irish focused on mixed farming. Using this technique, they grew corn for human consumption and for livestock feed, especially for hogs. Many improvement-minded farmers of different backgrounds began using new agricultural practices to increase their output. During the 1750s, these agricultural innovators replaced the hand sickles and scythes used to harvest hay, wheat, and barley with the cradle scythe, a tool with wooden fingers that arranged the stalks of grain for easy collection. This tool was able to triple the amount of work done by a farmer in one day. A few scientifically informed farmers (mostly wealthy planters like George Washington) began fertilizing their fields with dung and lime and rotating their crops to keep the soil fertile.
Before 1720, most colonists in the mid-Atlantic region worked in small-scale farming and paid for imported manufactures by supplying the West Indies with corn and flour. In New York, a fur-pelt export trade to Europe flourished and added additional wealth to the region. After 1720, mid-Atlantic farming was stimulated by the international demand for wheat. A massive population explosion in Europe drove wheat prices up. By 1770, a bushel of wheat cost twice as much as it did in 1720. Farmers also expanded their production of flaxseed and corn since flax was in high demand in the Irish linen industry and a demand for corn existed in the West Indies.
Many poor German immigrants and Scots-Irish settlers began their careers as agricultural wage laborers. Merchants and artisans hired teen-aged indentured servants, paying the transportation over from Europe, as workers for a domestic system for the manufacture of cloth and other goods. Merchants often bought wool and flax from farmers and employed newly arrived immigrants who had been textile workers in Ireland and Germany to work in their homes spinning the materials into yarn and cloth. Large farmers and merchants became wealthy, while farmers with smaller farms and artisans only made enough for subsistence.
New nation: 1776–1860
The U.S. economy was primarily agricultural in the early 19th century. Westward expansion, including the Louisiana Purchase and American victory in the War of 1812 plus the building of canals and the introduction of steamboats opened up new areas for agriculture. Most farming was designed to produce food for the family, and service small local markets. In times of rapid economic growth, a farmer could still improve the land for far more than he paid for it, and then move further west to repeat the process. While the land was cheap and fertile the process of clearing it and building farmsteads wasn't. Frontier life wasn't new for Americans but presented new challenges for farm families who faced the challenges of bringing their produce to market across vast distances.
South
In the South, the poor lands were held by poor white farmers, who generally owned no slaves. The best lands were held by rich plantation owners, were operated primarily with slave labor. These farms grew their own food and also concentrated on a few crops that could be exported to meet the growing demand in Europe, especially cotton, tobacco, and sugar. The cotton gin made it possible to increase cotton production. Cotton became the main export crop, but after a few years, the fertility of the soil was depleted and the plantation was moved to the new land further west. Much land was cleared and put into growing cotton in the Mississippi valley and in Alabama, and new grain growing areas were brought into production in the Mid West. Eventually this put severe downward pressure on prices, particularly of cotton, first from 1820–23 and again from 1840–43. Sugar cane was being grown in Louisiana, where it was refined into granular sugar. Growing and refining sugar required a large amount of capital. Some of the nation's wealthiest men owned sugar plantations, which often had their own sugar mills.
New England
In New England, subsistence agriculture gave way after 1810 to production to provide food supplies for the rapidly growing industrial towns and cities. New specialty export crops were introduced such as tobacco and cranberries.
Western frontier
The British had attempted to restrict westward expansion with the ineffective Proclamation Line of 1763, abolished after the Revolutionary War. The first major movement west of the Appalachian mountains began in Pennsylvania, Virginia and North Carolina as soon as the war was won in 1781. Pioneers housed themselves in a rough lean-to or at most a one-room log cabin. The main food supply at first came from hunting deer, turkeys, and other abundant small game.
Clad in typical frontier garb, leather breeches, moccasins, fur cap, and hunting shirt, and girded by a belt from which hung a hunting knife and a shot pouch – all homemade – the pioneer presented a unique appearance. In a short time he opened in the woods a patch, or clearing, on which he grew corn, wheat, flax, tobacco and other products, even fruit. In a few years the pioneer added hogs, sheep and cattle, and perhaps acquired a horse. Homespun clothing replaced the animal skins. The more restless pioneers grew dissatisfied with over civilized life, and uprooted themselves again to move 50 or hundred miles (80 or 160 km) further west.
In 1788, American pioneers to the Northwest Territory established Marietta, Ohio as the first permanent American settlement in the Northwest Territory. By 1813 the western frontier had reached the Mississippi River. St. Louis, Missouri was the largest town on the frontier, the gateway for travel westward, and a principal trading center for Mississippi River traffic and inland commerce. There was wide agreement on the need to settle the new territories quickly, but the debate polarized over the price the government should charge. The conservatives and Whigs, typified by president John Quincy Adams, wanted a moderated pace that charged the newcomers enough to pay the costs of the federal government. The Democrats, however, tolerated a wild scramble for land at very low prices. The final resolution came in the Homestead Law of 1862, with a moderated pace that gave settlers 160 acres free after they worked on it for five years.
From the 1770s to the 1830s, pioneers moved into the new lands that stretched from Kentucky to Alabama to Texas. Most were farmers who moved in family groups. Historian Louis M. Hacker shows how wasteful the first generation of pioneers was; they were too ignorant to cultivate the land properly and when the natural fertility of virgin land was used up, they sold out and moved west to try again. Hacker describes that in Kentucky about 1812:
Hacker adds that the second wave of settlers reclaimed the land, repaired the damage, and practiced a more sustainable agriculture.
Railroad age: 1860–1910
A dramatic expansion in farming took place from 1860 to 1910. The number of farms tripled from 2.0 million in 1860 to 6.0 million in 1906. The number of people living on farms grew from about 10 million in 1860 to 22 million in 1880 to 31 million in 1905. The value of farms soared from $8 billion in 1860 to $30 billion in 1906. The 1902 Newlands Reclamation Act funded irrigation projects on arid lands in 20 states.
The federal government issued tracts for very cheap costs to about 400,000 families who settled new land under the Homestead Act of 1862. Even larger numbers purchased lands at very low interest from the new railroads, which were trying to create markets. The railroads advertised heavily in Europe and brought over, at low fares, hundreds of thousands of farmers from Germany, Scandinavia, and Britain. The Dominion Lands Act of 1871 served a similar function for establishing homesteads on the prairies in Canada.
The first years of the 20th century were prosperous for all American farmers. The years 1910–1914 became a statistical benchmark, called "parity", that organized farm groups wanted the government to use as a benchmark for the level of prices and profits they felt they deserved.
Rural life
Early settlers discovered that the Great Plains were not the "Great American Desert," but they also found that the very harsh climate—with tornadoes, blizzards, drought, hail, floods, and grasshoppers—made for a high risk of ruined crops. Many early settlers were financially ruined, especially in the early 1890s, and either protested through the Populist movement, or went back east. In the 20th century, crop insurance, new conservation techniques, and large-scale federal aid all lowered the risk. Immigrants, especially Germans, and their children comprised the largest element of settlers after 1860; they were attracted by the good soil, low-priced lands from the railroad companies. The railroads offered attractive Family packages. They brought in European families, with their tools, directly to the new farm, which was purchased on easy credit terms. The railroad needed settlers as much as the settlers needed farmland. Even cheaper land was available through homesteading, although it was usually not as well located as railroad land.
The problem of blowing dust resulted from too little rainfall for growing enough wheat to keep the topsoil from blowing away. In the 1930s, techniques and technologies of soil conservation, most of which had been available but ignored before the Dust Bowl conditions began, were promoted by the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) of the US Department of Agriculture, so that, with cooperation from the weather, soil condition was much improved by 1940.
On the Great Plains, very few single men attempted to operate a farm or ranch; farmers clearly understood the need for a hard-working wife, and numerous children, to handle the many chores, including child-rearing, feeding and clothing the family, managing the housework, feeding the hired hands, and, especially after the 1930s, handling the paperwork and financial details. During the early years of settlement in the late 19th century, farm women played an integral role in assuring family survival by working outdoors. After a generation or so, women increasingly left the fields, thus redefining their roles within the family. New conveniences such as sewing and washing machines encouraged women to turn to domestic roles. The scientific housekeeping movement, promoted across the land by the media and government extension agents, as well as county fairs which featured achievements in home cookery and canning, advice columns for women in the farm papers, and home economics courses in the schools.
Although the eastern image of farm life on the prairies emphasizes the isolation of the lonely farmer and farm life, rural folk created a rich social life for themselves. They often sponsored activities that combined work, food, and entertainment such as barn raisings, corn huskings, quilting bees, grange meeting, church activities, and school functions. The womenfolk organized shared meals and potluck events, as well as extended visits between families.
Ranching
Much of the Great Plains became open range, hosting cattle ranching operations on public land without charge. In the spring and fall, ranchers held roundups where their cowboys branded new calves, treated animals and sorted the cattle for sale. Such ranching began in Texas and gradually moved northward. Cowboys drove Texas cattle north to railroad lines in the cities of Dodge City, Kansas and Ogallala, Nebraska; from there, cattle were shipped eastward. British investors financed many great ranches of the era. Overstocking of the range and the terrible Winter of 1886–87 resulted in a disaster, with many cattle starved and frozen to death. From then on, ranchers generally raised feed to ensure they could keep their cattle alive over winter.
When there was too little rain for row crop farming, but enough grass for grazing, cattle ranching became dominant. Before the railroads arrived in Texas the 1870s cattle drives took large herds from Texas to the railheads in Kansas. A few thousand Indians resisted, notably the Sioux, who were reluctant to settle on reservations. However, most Indians themselves became ranch hands and cowboys. New varieties of wheat flourished in the arid parts of the Great Plains, opening much of the Dakotas, Montana, western Kansas, western Nebraska and eastern Colorado. Where it was too dry for wheat, the settlers turned to cattle ranching.
South, 1860–1940
Agriculture in the South was oriented toward large-scale plantations that produced cotton for export, as well as other export products such as tobacco and sugar. During the Civil War, the Union blockade shut down 95 percent of the export business. Some cotton got out through blockade runners, and in conquered areas much was bought by northern speculators for shipment to Europe. The great majority of white farmers worked on small subsistence farms, that supplied the needs of the family and the local market. After the war, the world price of cotton plunged, the plantations were broken into small farms for the Freedmen, and poor whites started growing cotton because they needed the money to pay taxes.
Sharecropping became widespread in the South as a response to economic upheaval caused by the end of slavery during and after Reconstruction. Sharecropping was a way for very poor farmers, both white and black, to earn a living from land owned by someone else. The landowner provided land, housing, tools and seed, and perhaps a mule, and a local merchant provided food and supplies on credit. At harvest time the sharecropper received a share of the crop (from one-third to one-half, with the landowner taking the rest). The cropper used his share to pay off his debt to the merchant. The system started with blacks when large plantations were subdivided. By the 1880s, white farmers also became sharecroppers. The system was distinct from that of the tenant farmer, who rented the land, provided his own tools and mule, and received half the crop. Landowners provided more supervision to sharecroppers, and less or none to tenant farmers. Poverty was inevitable, because world cotton prices were low.
Sawers (2005) shows how southern farmers made the mule their preferred draft animal in the South during the 1860s–1920s, primarily because it fit better with the region's geography. Mules better withstood the heat of summer, and their smaller size and hooves were well suited for such crops as cotton, tobacco, and sugar. The character of soils and climate in the lower South hindered the creation of pastures, so the mule breeding industry was concentrated in the border states of Missouri, Kentucky, and Tennessee. Transportation costs combined with topography to influence the prices of mules and horses, which in turn affected patterns of mule use. The economic and production advantages associated with mules made their use a progressive step for Southern agriculture that endured until the mechanization brought by tractors. Beginning around the mid-20th century, Texas began to transform from a rural and agricultural state to one that was urban and industrialized.
Grange
The Grange was an organization founded in 1867 for farmers and their wives that was strongest in the Northeast, and which promoted the modernization not only of farming practices but also of family and community life. It is still in operation.
Membership soared from 1873 (200,000) to 1875 (858,050) as many of the state and local granges adopted non-partisan political resolutions, especially regarding the regulation of railroad transportation costs. The organization was unusual in that it allowed women and teens as equal members. Rapid growth infused the national organization with money from dues, and many local granges established consumer cooperatives, initially supplied by the Chicago wholesaler Aaron Montgomery Ward. Poor fiscal management, combined with organizational difficulties resulting from rapid growth, led to a massive decline in membership. By around the start of the 20th century, the Grange rebounded and membership stabilized.
In the mid-1870s, state Granges in the Midwest were successful in passing state laws that regulated the rates they could be charged by railroads and grain warehouses. The birth of the federal government's Cooperative Extension Service, Rural Free Delivery, and the Farm Credit System were largely due to Grange lobbying. The peak of their political power was marked by their success in Munn v. Illinois, which held that the grain warehouses were a "private utility in the public interest," and therefore could be regulated by public law (see references below, "The Granger Movement"). During the Progressive Era (1890s–1920s), political parties took up Grange causes. Consequently, local Granges focused more on community service, although the State and National Granges remain a political force.
World War I
The U.S. in World War I, was a critical supplier to other Allied nations, as millions of European farmers were in the army. The rapid expansion of the farms coupled with the diffusion of trucks and Model T cars, and the tractor, allowed the agricultural market to expand to an unprecedented size.
During World War I prices shot up and farmers borrowed heavily to buy out their neighbors and expand their holdings. This gave them very high debts that made them vulnerable to the downturn in farm prices in 1920. Throughout the 1920s and down to 1934 low prices and high debt were major problems for farmers in all regions.
Beginning with the 1917 US National War Garden Commission, the government encouraged Victory gardens, agricultural plantings in private yards and public parks for personal use and for the war effort. Production from these gardens exceeded $1.2 billion by the end of World War I. Victory gardens were later encouraged during World War II when rationing made for food shortages.
1920s
A popular Tin Pan Alley song of 1919 asked, concerning the United States troops returning from World War I, "How Ya Gonna Keep 'em Down on the Farm (After They've Seen Paree)?". As the song hints, many did not remain "down on the farm"; there was a great migration of youth from farms to nearby towns and smaller cities. The average distance moved was only 10 miles (16 km). Few went to the cities over 100,000. However, agriculture became increasingly mechanized with widespread use of the tractor, other heavy equipment, and superior techniques disseminated through County Agents, who were employed by state agricultural colleges and funded by the Federal government.
The early 1920s saw a rapid expansion in the American agricultural economy largely due to new technologies and especially mechanization. Competition from Europe and Russia had disappeared due to the war and American agricultural goods were being shipped around the world.
The new technologies, such as the combine harvester, meant that the most efficient farms were larger in size and, gradually, the small family farm that had long been the model were replaced by larger and more business-oriented firms. Despite this increase in farm size and capital intensity, the great majority of agricultural production continued to be undertaken by family-owned enterprises.
World War I had created an atmosphere of high prices for agricultural products as European nations demand for exports surged. Farmers had enjoyed a period of prosperity as U.S. farm production expanded rapidly to fill the gap left as European belligerents found themselves unable to produce enough food. When the war ended, supply increased rapidly as Europe's agricultural market rebounded. Overproduction led to plummeting prices which led to stagnant market conditions and living standards for farmers in the 1920s. Worse, hundreds of thousands of farmers had taken out mortgages and loans to buy out their neighbors' property, and now are unable to meet the financial burden. The cause was the collapse of land prices after the wartime bubble when farmers used high prices to buy up neighboring farms at high prices, saddling them with heavy debts. Farmers, however, blamed the decline of foreign markets, and the effects of the protective tariff.
Farmers demanded relief as the agricultural depression grew steadily worse in the middle 1920s, while the rest of the economy flourished. Farmers had a powerful voice in Congress, and demanded federal subsidies, most notably the McNary–Haugen Farm Relief Bill. It was passed but vetoed by President Coolidge. Coolidge instead supported the alternative program of Commerce Secretary Herbert Hoover and Agriculture Secretary William M. Jardine to modernize farming, by bringing in more electricity, more efficient equipment, better seeds and breeds, more rural education, and better business practices. Hoover advocated the creation of a Federal Farm Board which was dedicated to restriction of crop production to domestic demand, behind a tariff wall, and maintained that the farmer's ailments were due to defective distribution. In 1929, the Hoover plan was adopted.
1930s
New Deal farm and rural programs
President Franklin D. Roosevelt, a liberal Democrat, was keenly interested in farm issues and believed that true prosperity would not return until farming was prosperous. Many different New Deal programs were directed at farmers. Farming reached its low point in 1932, but even then millions of unemployed people were returning to the family farm having given up hope for a job in the cities. The main New Deal strategy was to reduce the supply of commodities, thereby raising the prices a little to the consumer, and a great deal to the farmer. Marginal farmers produce too little to be helped by the strategy; specialized relief programs were developed for them. Prosperity largely returned to the farm by 1936.
Roosevelt's "First Hundred Days" produced the Farm Security Act to raise farm incomes by raising the prices farmers received, which was achieved by reducing total farm output. In May 1933 the Agricultural Adjustment Act created the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA). The act reflected the demands of leaders of major farm organizations, especially the Farm Bureau, and reflected debates among Roosevelt's farm advisers such as Secretary of Agriculture Henry A. Wallace, M.L. Wilson, Rexford Tugwell, and George Peek.
The aim of the AAA was to raise prices for commodities through artificial scarcity. The AAA used a system of "domestic allotments", setting total output of corn, cotton, dairy products, hogs, rice, tobacco, and wheat. The farmers themselves had a voice in the process of using government to benefit their incomes. The AAA paid land owners subsidies for leaving some of their land idle with funds provided by a new tax on food processing. The goal was to force up farm prices to the point of "parity", an index based on 1910–1914 prices. To meet 1933 goals, of growing cotton was plowed up, bountiful crops were left to rot, and six million piglets were killed and discarded. The idea was the less produced, the higher the wholesale price and the higher income to the farmer. Farm incomes increased significantly in the first three years of the New Deal, as prices for commodities rose. Food prices remained well below 1929 levels.
The AAA established a long-lasting federal role in the planning of the entire agricultural sector of the economy, and was the first program on such a scale on behalf of the troubled agricultural economy. The original AAA did not provide for any sharecroppers or tenants or farm laborers who might become unemployed, but there were other New Deal programs especially for them, such as the Farm Security Administration.
In 1936, the Supreme Court declared the AAA to be unconstitutional for technical reasons; it was replaced by a similar program that did win Court approval. Instead of paying farmers for letting fields lie barren, the new program instead subsidized them for planting soil enriching crops such as alfalfa that would not be sold on the market. Federal regulation of agricultural production has been modified many times since then, but together with large subsidies the basic philosophy of subsidizing farmers is still in effect in 2015.
Rural relief
Many rural people lived in severe poverty, especially in the South. Major programs addressed to their needs included the Resettlement Administration (RA), the Rural Electrification Administration (REA), rural welfare projects sponsored by the WPA, NYA, Forest Service and CCC, including school lunches, building new schools, opening roads in remote areas, reforestation, and purchase of marginal lands to enlarge national forests. In 1933, the Administration launched the Tennessee Valley Authority, a project involving dam construction planning on an unprecedented scale in order to curb flooding, generate electricity, and modernize the very poor farms in the Tennessee Valley region of the Southern United States.
For the first time, there was a national program to help migrant and marginal farmers, through programs such as the Resettlement Administration and the Farm Security Administration. Their plight gained national attention through the 1939 novel and film The Grapes of Wrath. The New Deal thought there were too many farmers, and resisted demands of the poor for loans to buy farms. However, it made a major effort to upgrade the health facilities available to a sickly population.
Economics and Labor
In the 1930s, during the Great Depression, farm labor organized a number of strikes in various states. 1933 was a particularly active year with strikes including the California agricultural strikes of 1933, the 1933 Yakima Valley strike in Washington, and the 1933 Wisconsin milk strike.
Agriculture was prosperous during World War II, even as rationing and price controls limited the availability of meat and other foods in order to guarantee its availability to the American And Allied armed forces. During World War II, farmers were not drafted, but surplus labor, especially in the southern cotton fields, voluntarily relocated to war jobs in the cities.
During World War II, victory gardens planted at private residences and public parks were an important source of fresh produce. These gardens were encouraged by the United States Department of Agriculture. Around one third of the vegetables produced by the United States came from victory gardens.
1945 until present
Government policies
The New Deal era farm programs were continued into the 1940s and 1950s, with the goal of supporting the prices received by farmers. Typical programs involved farm loans, commodity subsidies, and price supports. The rapid decline in the farm population led to a smaller voice in Congress. So the well-organized Farm Bureau and other lobbyists, worked in the 1970s to appeal to urban Congressman through food stamp programs for the poor. By 2000, the food stamp program was the largest component of the farm bill. In 2010, the Tea Party movement brought in many Republicans committed to cutting all federal subsidies, including those agriculture. Meanwhile, urban Democrats strongly opposed reductions, pointing to the severe hardships caused by the 2008–10 economic recession. Though the Agricultural Act of 2014 saw many rural Republican Congressman voting against the program, it passed with bipartisan support.
Changing technology
Ammonia from plants built during World War II to make explosives became available for making fertilizers, leading to a permanent decline in real fertilizer prices and expanded use. The early 1950s was the peak period for tractor sales in the U.S. as the few remaining mules and work horses were sold for dog food. The horsepower of farm machinery underwent a large expansion. A successful cotton picking machine was introduced in 1949. The machine could do the work of 50 men picking by hand. The great majority of unskilled farm laborers move to urban areas.
Research on plant breeding produced varieties of grain crops that could produce high yields with heavy fertilizer input. This resulted in the Green revolution, beginning in the 1940s. By 2000 yields of corn (maize) had risen by a factor of over four. Wheat and soybean yields also rose significantly.
Economics and labor
After 1945, a continued annual 2% increase in productivity (as opposed to 1% from 1835–1935) led to further increases in farm size and corresponding reductions in the number of farms. Many farmers sold out and moved to nearby towns and cities. Others switched to part-time operation, supported by off-farm employment.
The 1960s and 1970s saw major farm worker strikes including the 1965 Delano grape strike and the 1970 Salad Bowl strike. In 1975, the California Agricultural Labor Relations Act of 1975 was enacted, establishing the right to collective bargaining for farmworkers in California, a first in U.S. history. Individuals with prominent roles in farm worker organizing in this period include Cesar Chavez, Dolores Huerta, Larry Itliong, and Philip Vera Cruz. Chavez mobilized California workers into the United Farm Workers organization.
In 1990, undocumented workers made up an estimated 14 percent of the farm workforce. By the year 2000, the percentage had grown to over 50%, and has remained around 50% in the 2000-2020 period.
In 2015, grain farmers started taking "an extreme step, one not widely seen since the 1980s" by breaching lease contracts with their landowners, reducing the amount of land they sow and risking long legal battles with landlords.
Technology
New machinery—especially large self-propelled combines and mechanical cotton pickers—sharply reduced labor requirements in harvesting.
In addition, electric motors and irrigation pumps opened up new ways to be efficient. Electricity also played a role in making major innovations in animal husbandry possible, especially modern milking parlors, grain elevators, and CAFOs (confined animal-feeding operations). Advances in fertilizers, herbicides, insecticides and fungicides, the use of antibiotics and growth hormones. Significant advances occurred in plant breeding and animal breeding, such as crop hybridization, GMOs (genetically modified organisms), and artificial insemination of livestock. Post-harvest innovations occurred in food processing and food distribution (e.g. frozen foods).
Crops
Wheat
Wheat, used for white bread, pastries, pasta, and pizza, has been the principal cereal crop since the 18th century. It was introduced by the first English colonists and quickly became the main cash crop of farmers who sold it to urban populations and exporters. In colonial times its culture became concentrated in the Middle Colonies, which became known as the "bread colonies". In the mid-18th century, wheat culture spread to the tidewaters of Maryland and Virginia, where George Washington was a prominent grower as he diversified away from tobacco. The crop moved west, with Ohio as the center in 1840 and Illinois in 1860. Illinois replaced its wheat with corn (which was used locally to feed hogs). The invention of mechanical harvesters, drawn first by horses and then tractors, made larger farms much more efficient than small ones. The farmers had to borrow money to buy land and equipment and had to specialize in wheat, which made them highly vulnerable to price fluctuations and gave them an incentive to ask for government help to stabilize or raise prices. Wheat farming depended on significant labor input only during planting, and especially at harvest time. Therefore, successful farmers, especially on the Great Plains, bought up as much land as possible, purchased very expensive mechanical equipment, and depended on migrating hired laborers at harvesting time. The migrant families tended to be social outcasts without local roots and mostly lived near the poverty line, except in the harvesting season. From 1909 to today, North Dakota and Kansas have vied for first place in wheat production, followed by Oklahoma and Montana.
In the colonial era, wheat was sown by broadcasting, reaped by sickles, and threshed by flails. The kernels were then taken to a grist mill for grinding into flour. In 1830, it took four people and two oxen, working 10 hours a day, to produce 200 bushels. New technology greatly increased productivity in the 19th century, as sowing with drills replaced broadcasting, cradles took the place of sickles, and the cradles in turn were replaced by reapers and binders. Steam-powered threshing machines superseded flails. By 1895, in Bonanza farms in the Dakotas, it took six people and 36 horses pulling huge harvesters, working 10 hours a day, to produce 20,000 bushels. In the 1930s the gasoline powered "combine" combined reaping and threshing into one operation that took one person to operate. Production grew from 85 million bushels in 1839, 500 million in 1880, 600 million in 1900, and peaked at 1.0 billion bushels in 1915. Prices fluctuated erratically, with a downward trend in the 1890s that caused great distress in the Plains states.
The marketing of wheat was modernized as well, as the cost of transportation steadily fell and more and more distant markets opened up. Before 1850, the crop was sacked, shipped by wagon or canal boat, and stored in warehouses. With the rapid growth of the nation's railroad network in the 1850s–1870s, farmers took their harvest by wagon for sale to the nearest country elevators. The wheat moved to terminal elevators, where it was sold through grain exchanges to flour millers and exporters. Since the elevators and railroads generally had a local monopoly, farmers soon had targets besides the weather for their complaints. They sometimes accused the elevator men of undergrading, shortweighting, and excessive dockage. Scandinavian immigrants in the Midwest took control over marketing through the organization of cooperatives.
Varieties
Following the invention of the steel roller mill in 1878, hard varieties of wheat such as Turkey Red became more popular than soft, which had been previously preferred because they were easier for grist mills to grind.
Wheat production witnessed major changes in varieties and cultural practices since 1870. Thanks to these innovations, vast expanses of the wheat belt now support commercial production, and yields have resisted the negative impact of insects, diseases, and weeds. Biological innovations contributed roughly half of labor-productivity growth between 1839 and 1909.
In the late 19th century, hardy new wheat varieties from the Russian steppes were introduced on the Great Plains by the Volga Germans who settled in North Dakota, Kansas, Montana and neighboring states. Legend credits the miller Bernhard Warkentin (1847–1908), a German Mennonite from Russia for introducing the "Turkey red" variety from Russia. More exactly, in the 1880s numerous millers and government agricultural agents worked to create "Turkey red" and make Kansas the "Wheat State". The U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, and the state experiment stations, have developed many new varieties, and taught farmers how to plant them. Similar varieties now dominate in the arid regions of the Great Plains.
Exports
Wheat farmers have always produced a surplus for export. The exports run a small-scale until the 1860s, when bad crops in Europe, and lower prices due to cheap railroads and ocean transport, opened the European markets. The British in particular depended on American wheat during the 1860s for a fourth of their food supply. By 1880, 150,000,000 bushels were exported to the value of $190,000,000. World War I saw large numbers of young European farmers conscripted into the army, so some Allied countries, particularly France and Italy depended on American shipments, which ranged from 100,000,000 to 260,000,000 bushels a year. American farmers reacted to the heavy demand and high prices by expanding their production, many taking out mortgages to buy out their neighbors farms. This led to a large surplus in the 1920s. The resulting low prices prompted growers to seek government support of prices, first through the McNary-Haugen bills, which failed in Congress, and later in the New Deal through the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933 and its many versions.
World War II brought an enormous expansion of production, topping off at a billion bushels in 1944. During the war and after large-scale wheat and flour exports were part of Lend Lease and the foreign assistance programs. In 1966 exports reached 860 million bushels of which 570 million were given away as food aid. A major drought in the Soviet Union in 1972 led to the sale of 390 million bushels and an agreement was assigned in 1975 under the détente policy to supply the Soviets with grain over a five-year period.
Marketing
By 1900 private grain exchanges settled the daily prices for North American wheat. Santon (2010) explains how the AAA programs set wheat prices in the U.S. after 1933, and the Canadians established a wheat board to do the same there. The Canadian government required prairie farmers to deliver all their grain to the Canadian Wheat Board (CWB), a single-selling-desk agency that supplanted private wheat marketing in western Canada. Meanwhile, the United States government subsidized farm incomes with domestic-use taxes and import tariffs, but otherwise preserved private wheat marketing.
Cotton
In the colonial era, small amounts of high quality long-staple cotton were produced in the Sea Islands off the coast of South Carolina. Inland, only short-staple cotton could be grown but it was full of seeds and very hard to process into fiber. The invention of the cotton gin in the late 1790s for the first time made short-staple cotton usable. It was generally produced on plantations ranging from South Carolina westward, with the work done by slaves. Simultaneously, the rapid growth of the industrial revolution in Britain, focused on textiles, created a major demand for the fiber. Cotton quickly exhausts the soil, so planters used their large profits to buy fresh land to the west, and purchase more slaves from the border states to operate their new plantations. After 1810, the emerging textile mills in New England also produced a heavy demand. By 1820, over 250,000 bales (of 500 pounds each) were exported to Europe, with a value of $22 million. By 1840, exports reached 1.5 million bales valued at $64 million, two thirds of all American exports. Cotton prices kept going up as the South remained the main supplier in the world. In 1860, the US shipped 3.5 million bales worth $192 million.
After the Civil War, cotton production expanded to small farms, operated by white and black tenant farmers and sharecroppers. The quantity exported held steady, at 3,000,000 bales, but prices on the world market fell. Although there was some work involved in planting the seeds, and cultivating or holding out the weeds, the critical labor input for cotton was in the picking. How much a cotton operation could produce depended on how many hands (men women and children) were available. Finally in the 1950s, new mechanical harvesters allowed a handful of workers to pick as much as 100 had done before. The result was a large-scale exodus of the white and black cotton farmers from the south. By the 1970s, most cotton was grown in large automated farms in the Southwest.
See also
Agriculture in the United States
Cotton production in the United States
Corn production in the United States
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Shannon, Fred Albert. Farmer's Last Frontier: Agriculture, 1860–1897 (1945) online edition comprehensive survey
Wilcox, Walter W. The farmer in the second world war (1947) online edition
Zulauf, Carl, and David Orden. "80 Years of Farm Bills – Evolutionary Reform." Choices (2016) 31#4 pp. 1–7 online
1860-present, regional studies
Cyclopedia of American agriculture; a popular survey of agricultural conditions, ed by L. H. Bailey, 4 vol 1907–1909. online edition highly useful compendium
Black, John D. The Rural Economy of New England: A regional study (1950) online edition
Cannon, Brian Q., "Homesteading Remembered: A Sesquicentennial Perspective," Agricultural History, 87 (Winter 2013), 1–29.
Clawson, Marion. The Western range livestock industry, (1950) online edition
Dale, Edward Everett. The range cattle industry (1930) online edition
Danbom, David B. Sod Busting: How families made farms on the 19th-century Plains (2014)
Fite, Gilbert C. The Farmers' Frontier: 1865–1900 (1966), the west
Friedberger, Mark. "The Transformation of the Rural Midwest, 1945–1985," Old Northwest, 1992, Vol. 16 Issue 1, pp. 13–36
Friedberger, Mark W. "Handing Down the Home Place: Farm Inheritance Strategies in Iowa" Annals of Iowa 47.6 (1984): 518–36. online
Friedberger, Mark. "The Farm Family and the Inheritance Process: Evidence from the Corn Belt, 1870–1950." Agricultural History 57.1 (1983): 1–13. uses Iowa census and sales data
Friedberger, Mark. Shake-Out: Iowa Farm Families in the 1980s (1989)
Fry, John J. "" Good Farming-Clear Thinking-Right Living": Midwestern Farm Newspapers, Social Reform, and Rural Readers in the Early Twentieth Century." Agricultural History (2004): 34–49.
Gisolfi, Monica Richmond, "From Crop Lien to Contract Farming: The Roots of Agribusiness in the American South, 1929–1939," Agricultural History, 80 (Spring 2006), 167–89.
Hahn, Barbara, "Paradox of Precision: Bright Tobacco as Technology Transfer, 1880–1937," Agricultural History, 82 (Spring 2008), 220–35.
Hurt, R. Douglas. "The Agricultural and Rural History of Kansas." Kansas History 2004 27(3): 194–217. Fulltext: in Ebsco
Larson, Henrietta M. The wheat market and the farmer in Minnesota, 1858–1900 (1926). online edition
MacCurdy, Rahno Mabel. The history of the California Fruit Growers Exchange (1925). online edition
Miner, Horace Mitchell. Culture and agriculture; an anthropological study of a corn belt county (1949) online edition
Nordin, Dennis S. and Scott, Roy V. From Prairie Farmer to Entrepreneur: The Transformation of Midwestern Agriculture. Indiana U. Press, 2005. 356 pp.
Sackman, Douglas Cazaux. Orange Empire: California and the Fruits of Eden (2005)
Saloutos, Theodore. "Southern Agriculture and the Problems of Readjustment: 1865–1877," Agricultural history (April, 1956) Vol 30#2 58–76 online edition
Sawers, Larry. "The Mule, the South, and Economic Progress." Social Science History 2004 28(4): 667–90. Fulltext: in Project Muse and Ebsco
Environmental issues
Craven, Avery Odelle. Soil Exhaustion as a Factor in the Agricultural History of Virginia and Maryland, 1606–1860 (1925)
Cronon, William. Changes in the Land, Revised Edition: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England (2nd ed. 2003), excerpt and text search
Cunfer, Geoff. On the Great Plains: Agriculture and Environment. (2005). 240 pp.
McLeman, Robert, "Migration Out of 1930s Rural Eastern Oklahoma: Insights for Climate Change Research," Great Plains Quarterly, 26 (Winter 2006), 27–40.
Majewski, John, and Viken Tchakerian, "The Environmental Origins of Shifting Cultivation: Climate, Soils, and Disease in the Nineteenth-Century U.S. South," Agricultural History, 81 (Fall 2007), 522–49.
Melosi, Martin V., and Charles Reagan Wilson, eds. The New Encyclopedia of Southern Culture: Volume 8: Environment (v. 8) (2007)
Miner, Craig. Next Year Country: Dust to Dust in Western Kansas, 1890–1940 (2006) 371 pp.
Silver, Timothy. A New Face on the Countryside: Indians, Colonists, and Slaves in South Atlantic Forests, 1500–1800 (1990) excerpt and text search
Urban, Michael A., "An Uninhabited Waste: Transforming the Grand Prairie in Nineteenth Century Illinois, U.S.A.," Journal of Historical Geography, 31 (Oct. 2005), 647–65.
Historiography
Atack, Jeremy. "A Nineteenth-century Resource for Agricultural History Research in the Twenty-first Century." Agricultural History 2004 78(4): 389-412. Fulltext: in University of California Journals and Ebsco. Large database of individual farmers from manuscript census.
Bogue, Allan G. "Tilling Agricultural History with Paul Wallace Gates and James C. Malin." Agricultural History 2006 80(4): 436–60. Fulltext: in Ebsco
Levins, Richard A. Willard Cochrane and the American Family Farm (University of Nebraska Press, 2000.) 88p
Peters, Scott J. "'Every Farmer Should Be Awakened': Liberty Hyde Bailey's Vision of Agricultural Extension Work." Agricultural History (2006): 190-219. online
Primary sources
Bruchey, Stuart, ed. Cotton in the Growth of the American Economy: 1790–1860 (1967)
Carter, Susan, at al. eds. The Historical Statistics of the United States (Cambridge U.P. 2006), 6 vol.; online in many academic libraries; 105 tables on agriculture
Phillips, Ulrich B. ed. Plantation and Frontier Documents, 1649–1863; Illustrative of Industrial History in the Colonial and Antebellum South: Collected from MSS. and Other Rare Sources. 2 Volumes. (1909). online vol 1 and online vol 2
Rasmussen, Wayne D., ed. Agriculture in the United States: a documentary history (4 vol, Random House, 1975) 3661pp. vol 4 online
Schmidt, Louis Bernard. ed. Readings in the economic history of American agriculture (1925) online edition
Sorokin, Pitirim et al., eds. A Systematic Sourcebook in Rural Sociology'' (3 vol. 1930), 2000 pages of primary sources and commentary; worldwide coverage
External links
Agricultural History a leading scholarly journal
Agricultural History Society
331 historic photographs of American farmlands, farmers, farm operations and rural areas; These are pre-1923 and out of copyright.
Online Libraries of Historical Agricultural Texts and Images USDA, Alternative Farming Systems Information Center
Economic history of the United States
Natural history of the United States
History of the United States by topic |
9028201 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20BBC%20children%27s%20television%20programmes | List of BBC children's television programmes | This is a list of CBBC and CBeebies programmes that are currently and formerly being broadcast on the children's television strand of the BBC in the United Kingdom.
Current programming
Live action
4 O'Clock Club (2012–)
All Over the Place (2011–)
Almost Never (2019–)
Andy and the Band (2020–)
Art Ninja (2015–)
Big Fat Like (2020-)
Blue Peter (1958–)
Class Dismissed (2016–)
Crackerjack! (1955–1984, 2020–)
Danny and Mick (2019–)
Deadly 60 (2009–2012, 2020–)
Dodger (2022-)
Dwight in Shining Armor (2021-)
First Day (2020-)
Got What It Takes? (2016–)
Hardball (2021-)
Heirs of the Night (2020-)
Hey You What If? (2020-)
Holly Hobbie (2019–)
Horrible Histories (2009-)
Itch (2020-)
Jamie Johnson (2016–)
Lagging (2021–)
Malory Towers (2020–)
Matilda and the Ramsay Bunch (2015–)
Mimi and Co (2020-)
My Life (2011–)
My Perfect Landing (2020–)
Mystic (2020–)
Monster Court (2021–)
Newsround (1972–)
Nova Jones (2021-)
Odd Squad (2015–)
One Zoo Three (2020-)
Operation Ouch! (2012–)
Our School (2014–)
Out of This World (2020-)
Princess Mirror-Belle (2021-)
Saturday Mash-Up! (2017–)
Seriously Raleigh (2021-)
Show Me the Honey (2021-)
Show Me What You're Made Of (2011–)
Sketchy Comedy (2018)
Snaps (2021-)
The Amelia Gething Complex (2019–)
The Demon Headmaster (1996–1998, 2019–)
The Dengineers (2015–)
The Dog Ate My Homework (2014-)
The Dumping Ground (2013–)
The New Legends of Monkey (2021-)
The Next Step (2014–present)
The Pets Factor (2017–)
The Playlist (2017–)
The Story of Tracy Beaker (2002-)
The Zoo (2017–)
Top Class (2016–)
What's Cooking Omari (2020-)
Animation
Arthur (1996-present)
Boy Girl Dog Cat Mouse Cheese (2019–present)
Danger Mouse (2015–present)
The Deep (2016–present)
Dennis & Gnasher: Unleashed! (2017–present)
Dreamworks Dragons Little Big Awesome (2020–present)
Ninja Express (2021–present)
OOglies (2009-2015)
Pokémon The Series: Diamond and Pearl (2022-present)
Scream Street (2015-present)
Shaun the Sheep (2007-present)
She-Ra and the Princesses of Power (2020–present)
Summer Camp Island (2021-present)
Wallace and Gromit (2010-present)
We Bare Bears (2020-present)
Former programming
@
@the Edge1–10
12 Again The 13 Ghosts of Scooby-Doo
2 Stupid Dogs 3rd & Bird 4 O'Clock Files 50/50 64 Zoo Lane The 8:15 from ManchesterA
Abadas Ace Lightning Ace Ventura: Pet Detective Activ8 The Addams Family (1964 TV series)
The Addams Family (1973 animated series)
The Addams Family (1992 animated series)
Adventure Florida The Adventure Game Adventures from the Book of Virtues
The Adventures of Abney & Teal The Adventures of Blinky Bill The Adventures of the Garden Fairies The Adventures of Parsley The Adventures of Raggedy Ann and Andy The Adventures of Robinson Crusoe The Adventures of Shirley Holmes The Adventures of Sir Prancelot The Adventures of Skippy The Adventures of Tintin Aesop's Tales Against All Odds (UK TV series) Agent Z and the Penguin from Mars Albert the Fifth Musketeer Alesha's Street Dance Stars Alfonso Bonzo Ali-A's Superchargers Alienators: Evolution Continues Aliens in the Family The All-New Pink Panther Show The All-New Popeye Show All at Sea All or Nothing All Over the Place All Over the Workplace All Your Own The All-New Pink Panther Show The All-New Popeye Show Alphabet Attack Alphablocks Alvin and the Chipmunks The Amazing Adventures of Morph The Amazing Chan and the Chan Clan Andy Pandy Andy's Baby Animals Andy's Dinosaur Adventures Andy's Dino Toybox Andy's Prehistoric Adventures Andy's Safari Adventures Andy's Secret Hideout Andy's Wild Adventures Andy's Wild Workouts Angelmouse Angus and Cheryl Animal Arc Animal Fair (TV series) Animal Magic The Animal Magic Show Animal World Animaland Animalia Animals at Work The Animals of Farthing Wood Animorphs Anthony Ant The Antics Road Show Anytime Tales Ape Man: Adventures in Human Evolution Apple Tree House Aquila Archer's Goon Arizona (TV series) Around the World with Willy Fog Art Ninja Astro Boy Atlantis High Attack of the Killer Tomatoes: The Animated SeriesB
Babar
The Baby Club Baby Jake Back to the Future Backshall's Deadly Adventures Bad Boyes Bad Penny Badger Girl Badjelly the Witch Baggy Pants and the Nitwits Bagpuss Bailey Kipper's P.O.V. Bailey's Comets The Baker Street Boys Balamory Bamzooki The Banana Splits Bananaman (1983-1986, 1989-1997)
Barbapapa (1975-1978)
Barmy Aunt Boomerang Barnaby the Bear Barney Barney Bear Barney's Barrier Reef Barney's Latin America The Bartons The Basil Brush Show Basil's Game Show Basil's Swap Shop Batfink Battle of the Planets The Batman Batty Adventures Bay City BB3B Bear Behaving Badly A Bear Behind Beat the Boss Beat the Teacher Beau Geste Becky and Barnaby Bear Bedtime Stories Belfry Witches Bernard Bertha Bellamy's Backyard Safari Belle and Sebastian Belle and Sebastian The Bellflower Bunnies Benji, Zax & the Alien Prince Best of Friends Betty Boop Beyond Bionic
Big & Small Big Babies Big Barn Farm Big City Park Big Cook, Little Cook Big Kids The Big Knights Biggleton The Big Performance Big Wolf on Campus Bill and Ben Billy Bean and His Funny Machine Billy Bunter of Greyfriars School Billy Webb's Amazing Stories Bing Binka The Biskitts Bits and Bobs Bitsa Bitz & Bob The Biz Bizzy Lizzy Blackhearts in Battersea Bleep and Booster Blood and Honey (TV series) Blow Your Mind (TV series) Blue Peter Bluebirds Bluey The Bluffers Bobobobs Bob the Builder Bobinogs Bod Bodger & Badger Boj Boo! Boogie Beebies The Bookworms The Boot Street Band Bootleg The Borrowers Bosco B.O.T. and the Beasties The Bots Master Bottersnikes and Gumbles The Box of Delights The Brady Kids Brain Freeze (TV series) Brain-Jitsu Brambly Hedge BraveStarr Break In The Sun Break Point Bric-a-Brac Bright Sparks Bring It On (TV series) The Brollys Brum Bruno the Kid Bucky O'Hare and the Toad Wars Buddy Bump Bump in the Night Bunyip The Busy World of Richard Scarry But First This Butterfly Island Byker GroveC
C Bear and Jamal The C.B. Bears Calimero Camberwick Green Captain Abercromby Captain Caveman and the Teen Angels Captain Pugwash Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons Captain Zep – Space Detective Carrie and David's Popshop Carrie's War Cartoon Critters Casper Casper Classics Caterpillar Trail Catie's Amazing Machines Cats Eyes Cavegirl CB Bears Celebrity Driving Academy Century Falls ChalkZone Champion the Wonder Horse The Changes Charlie and Lola The Charlie Brown and Snoopy Show Charlie Chalk Cheggers Plays Pop Chegwin Checks It Out CBBC @ R1's Teen Awards CBBC does Fame Academy CBBC Official Chart Show CBBC Visits the Wizarding World of Harry Potter and Fantastic Beasts CBeebies Bedtime Stories Chigley Children of Fire Mountain The Children of Green Knowe The Chinese Puzzle Chip 'n' Dale Chipmunks Go to the Movies Chock-A-Block Christopher Crocodile The Chronicles of Narnia Chuck Finn The ChuckleHounds ChuckleVision Chucklewood Critters Chuggington Chute! CINEMANIACS Clangers Clarissa Explains It All Class Class Dismissed Clifford the Big Red Dog Clifford's Puppy Days Clockwise (TV series) Cloudbabies Clowning Around Clutter Nutters Codename Icarus Colour in the Creek Come Outside Comic Relief Does Glee Club Conan the Adventurer Connie the Cow Cop School Copycats Corners The Country Boy (TV series) Crackerjack The Cramp Twins Creeped Out (TV series) Crisis Control Crocadoo Crush (BBC TV series) The Crust Crystal Tipps and Alistair Cubix Cuckoo Land Cupidon MouseD
Da Dick and Dom Dairies Danger Mouse Dance Factory Dani's Castle Dani's House The Dare Devil Dark Season Dark Towers Dastardly and Muttley in Their Flying Machines Dead Entry Dead Gorgeous Dear Heart Dear Mr Barker Deadly 360 Deadly 60 Deadly 60 on a Mission Deadly Art Deadly Top 10s The December Rose The Deep Defenders of the Earth Degrassi Junior High The Demon Headmaster The Dengineers Dennis and Gnasher
Dennis the Menace and Gnasher Deputy Dawg Desperados Dick & Dom in da Bungalow Dick and Dom's Funny Business Dick and Dom's Hoopla Dick 'N' Dom Go Wild Diddy Dick and Dom Diddy Movies Diddy TV Dilly the Dinosaur Dink, the Little Dinosaur Dinky Dog Dinky Duck Dino Babies Dinopaws Dinosapien Dinosaur Detectives Dipdap Dirtgirlworld Disaster Chef Dizzy Heights DNN: Definitely Not Newsround Do Something Different Do You Know? Doctor Dolittle Dodgem Doctor Who: Dreamland Doctor Who: The Infinite Quest The Dog Ate My Homework Dog Loves Books Dogstar Dogtanian and the Three Muskehounds Don and Pete Donald Duck Dooby Duck's Disco Bus Dooby Duck's Euro Tour Dooby's Duck Truck Doodle Do Double Dare Down on the Farm Dr Otter Drak Pack Driver Dan's Story Train Droopy Droopy, Master Detective Dudley Do-Right The Dumping Ground The Dumping Ground Survival Files Duncan Dares Dungeons & Dragons Dustbin Baby DynaMoE
Earthfasts Ed and Oucho's Excellent Inventions The Ed and Zed Show Eek! The Cat Eggs 'n' Baker El Nombre Election The Electric Company Elidor Eliot Kid Emu's Broadcasting Company Endangered Species Enid Blyton's Enchanted Lands Ernie's Incredible Illucinations Escape from Jupiter Escape from Scorpion Island Ethelbert the Tiger Eureka Eureka TV Evacuation Eve Even Stevens Ever After High Everything's Rosie Expo (TV series) The Eye of the DragonF
Fab Lab Fame Academy The Fame Game The Family-Ness Fantastic Max Fantastic Four Fast Forward (UK TV series) Favorite Songs Fear Falls Feather Boy Fee Fi Fo Yum Feeling Better Fergus McPhail Ferne and Rory's Teeny Tiny Creatures Ferne and Rory's Vet Tales Fetch! with Ruff Ruffman Fiddley Foodle Bird Fievel's American Tails Fimbles Fingerbobs Fingermouse Finley the Fire Engine Fireman Sam
Fit Five Children and It Fix & Foxi and Friends Flash Gordon The Flashing Blade Flint the Time Detective The Flintstone Kids The Flintstone Comedy Hour The Flintstone Comedy Show The Flintstones The Flumps Fly-High and Huggy Fly Tales Footy Pups The Fonz and the Happy Days Gang For the Children Forget Me Not Farm Fox Tales Frankenstein's Cat Fred Basset Fred and Barney Meet the Shmoo Free Willy Freefonix Friday Download Friday Film Special Friends and Heroes Fudge Fully Booked Fungus the Bogeyman Funky Fables The Funky Phantom Funnybones The Furchester Hotel The Further Adventures of SuperTedG
Gadget Boy Galaxy Goof-Ups Galidor: Defenders of the Outer Dimension Galloping Galaxies! Garden Tales Garth and Bev Gastronauts The Genie From Down Under Gentle Ben Geronimo Stilton Get 100 Get Squiggling Get Set Get Well Soon Get Your Own Back The Ghost Hunter Ghostwriter The Gift Gigglebiz Gigglequiz Gimme A Break Gina's Laughing Gear The Girl from Tomorrow The Girl from Tomorrow Part II: Tomorrow's End Glad Rags Go Jetters Go with Noakes The Godzilla Power Hour Godzilla: The Series Going Live Goober and the Ghost Chasers Goodbye Year 6 Goofy Goosebumps Gordon the Garden Gnome Gordon the Gopher Grace's Amazing Machines Gran Grandad Grandpa in My Pocket Grange Hill Gravedale High The Great Grape Ape Show The Greedysaurus Gang Green Balloon Club Greenclaws Gruey Guess with Jess Gundrun: The Viking Princess Gym StarsH
Hacker Time Hacker's Birthday Bash: 30 Years of Children's BBC Hacker's CBBC Christmas Carol Hacker's CBBC Top 10 Hacker's Crackers Hacker's Olympic Rundown Hai! Karate – Journey to Japan Hairy Jeremy Half Moon Investigations The Hallo Spencer Show Hangar 17 Hank Zipzer Happy Families Happy Tent Tales Hardball Hartbeat Hard Spell Abbey Harlem Globetrotters Harriet's Army Harry and the Hendersons Harry and Toto Hattytown Tales Heads and Tails Heathcliff Heathcliff and the Catillac Cats Hector Heathcote Hector's House Hedz Help! My Supply Teacher's Magic Help! Teach is Coming to Stay Help!... It's the Hair Bear Bunch! Henry's Cat The Herbs Here Come the Double Deckers Hero Squad Hero to Zero Hetty Feather Hey Duggee Heyyy, It's the King! Hider in the House Higgledy House Highlander: The Animated Series Histeria! Hit The Stage Hokey Cokey Hokey Wolf The Hollies School Hollywood 7 Holly Hobbie Home Farm Twins Hong Kong Phooey Horrible Histories (2009 TV series)
Horrible Histories (2015 TV series)
Horrible Histories: Gory Games Horses Galore Hotch Potch House Hotel Trubble Hounded The House Of Gristle How To Be Epic @ Everything Hububb Huckleberry Finn and His Friends Hushabye Lullabye Hunter's GoldI
I Can Cook I Can Dream I Dare You I Dream I Hate This House I Love Mummy I Want My Own Room I Was a Rat Ice Stars Iconicles The Impossibles Inspector Gadget In the Night Garden... Inch High, Private Eye Incredible Games The Incredible Hulk (1982 series)
The Incredible Hulk (1996 series)
The Infinite Quest Ingenious Inside Life Insides Out Intergalactic Kitchen Ipso Facto Iron Man It'll Never Work Itsy Bitsy Spider Ivor the Engine IznogoudJ
Jackanory Jackie Chan Adventures Jakers! The Adventures of Piggley Winks
Jamie Johnson Jamillah and Aladdin Jana of the Jungle Janosch's Story Time Jedward's Big Adventure Jeopardy Jeremiah in the Dark Woods The Jetsons Jigsaw Jim Henson's Animal Show Jimbo and the Jet-Set Jinx Jockey School Joe Joe 90 Joe All Alone
Johnny and the Bomb The Johnny and Inel Show Johnson and Friends (1991-1999)
JoJo & Gran Gran The Joke Machine Jollywobbles! Jonny Briggs Jonny Quest Joshua Jones Josie and the Pussycats Josie and the Pussycats in Outer Space Jossy's Giants The Journey of Allen Strange The Juggler Julia Jekyll and Harriet Hyde The Jungle Book Junior Bake Off Junior MasterChef Junior Vets Junior Vets on Call Juniper Jungle Junk Rescue Just So Stories Just William (1994 TV series)
Just William (2010 TV series)
Justin's HouseK
Kate and Mim Mim Katie Morag Katy
Kazoops Keep Your Enemies Close Keith Harris and Orville Kenan & Kel Kerching! Kerwhizz Kevin and Co. Kevin's Cousins Kick Start Kickabout+ The Kids from 47a
The Kids of Degrassi Street King Cinder King Greenfingers King Rollo Kiri and Lou Kissyfur Kit & Pup Kizzy Knock, Knock Knowhow The Koala Brothers The Krankies Elektronik Komik The Kwicky Koala Show Krypto the SuperdogL
L.A. 7 Laff-A-Lympics The Lampies The Large Family Lassie Lassie's Rescue Rangers Last Commanders Laurel and Hardy Lay on Five LazyTown* (S1-2 Only)
League of Super Evil The Legend of Dick and Dom Legend of the Dragon The Legend of Prince Valiant The Legend of Tim Tyler Leon Leonardo Let's Celebrate Let's Go for a Walk! The Let's Go Club Let's Play Legend Quest Level Up Lifebabble Lift Music Lift Off! With Coppers and Co! The Likeaballs A Likely Lad Lilly the Witch The Lingo Show Lippy the Lion & Hardy Har Har The Lion, The Witch and The Wardrobe The Littl' Bits Little Bear Little Big Cat Little Charley Bear Little Howard's Big Question Little Human Planet Little Miss (1983-1988)
Little Monsters Little Mouse on the Prairie The Little Polar Bear Little Red Tractor Little Robots Little Roy Little Shop Little Sir Nicholas The Little Vampire The Littlest Hobo Littlest Pet Shop Live & Kicking Lizzie Dripping Lizzie McGuire Lockie Leonard A Long Long Crime Ago Look and Read Looney Tunes Lost & Found Music Studios Love Monster The Lowdown Ludus Ludwig Luna Lunar JimM
M.I. High The Machine Gunners Maddigan's Quest Maggie Magic Door Magic Grandad Magic Hands The Magic Key The Magic Roundabout The Magical Adventures of Quasimodo The Make Shift Maid Marian and Her Merry Men Mama Mirabelle's Home Movies Marine Boy Marlene Marlowe Investigates Marrying Mum and Dad Martha Speaks Martin's Mice The Marvel Action Hour Mary, Mungo and Midge The Mask: Animated Series The Master of Ballantrae Match of the Day Kickabout Matilda and the Ramsay Bunch Maya & Miguel McGee and Me! Me and My Monsters Me Too! Meet the Pups Meet the Kittens Melody Melvin and Maureen's Music-a-grams Merlin Merrie Melodies Messy Goes to Okido MetalHeads Miami 7 Mick and Mac Mickey and Donald Mickey Mouse Microscopic Milton Microsoap Midnight Patrol: Adventures in the Dream Zone Mighty Max Mighty Mites Mighty Mouse Mighty Mouse: The New Adventures Mighty Truck of Stuff Mike the Knight Mike, Mop and the Moke Millie Inbetween Minibeast Adventure with Jess The Minimighty Kids The Minimighty Squad The Ministry of Curious Stuff Minuscule Mio Mao Misery Guts Mission: 2110 Mister Maker Misterjaw Model Millie The Mole Molly and Mack Mona the Vampire Monster Café Monster High Monster Rancher Monster TV
Monty & Co Monty the Dog Moomin Moon & Me The Moon Stallion Moondial Mop and Smiff Morph The Morph Files Morris Minor's Marvellous Motors Mortified Mortimer and Arabel Mother Goose and Grimm Mouse and Mole The Movie Game Mr Benn Mr. Bloom: Here and There Mr. Bloom's Nursery Mr. Magoo Mr. Men (1974-1988)
Mr. Wymi Mud Muddle Earth Muffin the Mule Multi-Coloured Swap Shop The Mummy: The Animated Series The Munsters Muppet Babies My Almost Famous Family My First My Friend Walter My Genius Idea My Life My Mum Tracy Beaker (2021)
My Perfect Landing My Pet and Me My Petsaurus My Story My Team: The Cheerleaders My World Kitchen MySay The Mysterious Cities of Gold The Mysti Show Mythical Magical Creatures MyWishN
Naomi's Nightmares of Nature Nelly and Nora Nelly Nut: Live The New Adventures of Black Beauty The New Adventures of Flash Gordon The New Adventures of Mighty Mouse The New Adventures of Speed Racer The New Adventures of Superman The New Adventures of Winnie the Pooh The New Adventures of Zorro The New Fred and Barney Show The New Lassie The New Scooby-Doo Movies The New Shmoo The New Woody Woodpecker Show The New Yogi Bear Show Newsround Newsround Showbiz Newsround Specials The Next Big Thing The Next Step Nick Cope's Popcast Night of the Red Hunter Nilus the Sandman Nina and the Neurons Ninja Turtles: The Next Mutation No Sweat Noah and Nelly in... SkylArk Noah and Saskia Noah's Island The Noddy Shop Noddy's Toyland Adventures Noggin the Nog Nowhere Boys Now You See It Number 74
Numberblocks Numberjacks Numbertime The Numtums Nuzzle and ScratchO
Oakie Doke Ocean Odyssey Ocean Star The Octonauts Odd Squad Officially Amazing Officially Amazing Extra Officially Amazing Mini Old Jack's Boat Old Jack's Boat: Rockpool Tales Olobob Top One Minute Wonders Only in America OOglies Open A Door Operation Ouch! Opposites Attract Orville and Cuddles Oscar Charlie Oscar's Orchestra Osker and the Ice-Pick Oti's Boogie Beebies Oucho The Cactus Our Family Our Planet Our School' Out of Tune Out There Outback 8 Over the Moon with Mr. Boom Ovide and the Gang The OwlP
Pablo Pablo the Little Red Fox Paddington Paradise Café Parallax Parallel 9 Patchwork Pals Patrick's Planet Patrik Pacard Paw Paws PC Pinkerton The Pebbles and Bamm-Bamm Show Pedro and Frankensheep Penelope K, by the way Penny Crayon The Perishers Perils of Penelope Pitstop Peter Pan & the Pirates Peter Rabbit Pet School Pet Squad The Pets Factor Phantom 2040 Philbert Frog Philomena The Phoenix and the Carpet Picture Book Pie in the Sky Pig Heart Boy Pigeon Street Pingu Pink Panther and Sons The Pink Panther Show Pinky and the Brain Pinky and Perky The Pinky and Perky Show Pinky Dinky Doo Pinny's House Pinocchio Pirates The Pirates of Dark Water Pitt & Kantrop Pixelface Pixie & Dixie Planet Ajay Planet Cook Planet Dinosaur Files Plasmo Play Away Play School Playdays The Playlist Pluto Pocket Dragon Adventures Pocket Money Pitch The POD The Poddington Peas Poetry Pie The Pogles Pole Position Police Academy Polka Dot Shorts Poochini's Yard Pop Slam! The Pop Zone Popeye Popeye and Son Postman Pat Postman Pat Special Delivery Service Potsworth and Company Powers Prank Patrol Prank Patrol Down Under The Prince and the Pauper The Prince of Atlantis Prudence Kitten A Pup Named Scooby-Doo The Puppy's Further Adventures Puppydog Tales Puzzle TrailQ
Q Pootle 5 The Quack Chat Show The Queen's Nose Quick Draw McGrawR
Raa Raa the Noisy Lion The Raccoons The Racing Set Radio Roo Radio Studio Compise Rag, Tag and Bobtail Ragtime Rank the Prank Rastamouse Raven Raven: The Dragon's Eye Raven: The Island Raven: The Secret Temple Razzledazzle The Real Adventures of Jonny Quest The Really Wild Show Record Breakers The Red Hand Gang Relic: Guardians Of The Museum Remotely Funny Rentaghost The Return of the Psammead Return to Jupiter The Revenge Files of Alistair Fury Rewind The Rhyme Rocket Richard Hammond's Blast Lab Richie Rich Rimba's Island Roald Dahl's Revolting Recipes Roar Robinson Sucroe Rocket Boy and Toro Rocket's Island Robotboy The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show Roger and Co Roland and Rattfink Roland Rat Rolf Harris Cartoon Time The Roly Mo Show The Roman Holidays Roman Mysteries Romuald the Reindeer Roobarb Roswell Conspiracies Rotten Ralph Round the Twist Roy The Roy Files Rubbadubbers A Rubovian Legend Rude Dog and the Dweebs Ruff-Ruff, Tweet and Dave Rugrats
Rule The School Run the Risk Running Scared Rupert BearS
S Club 7 Go Wild! S Club Juniors Summer Party S Club Search Saban's Adventures of Pinocchio Sadie J Salty Sam & Mark's Big Friday Wind-Up Sam and Mark's Guide to Dodging Disaster Sam and Mark's Sports Showdown Sam and the River Sam on Boffs' Island Same Smile Sarah & Duck The Sarah Jane Adventures Sarah Jane's Alien Files The Satellite Show Saturday Aardvark Saturday Mash-Up! The Saturday Picture Show Saturday Superstore School For Stars School of Roars School of Silence Scooby-Doo and Scrappy-Doo Scooby-Doo! Mystery Incorporated The Scooby-Doo Show Scooby-Doo, Where Are You! Scoop Score with the Scaffold Screen Test Seaview Secret Life of Boys Secret Life of Toys The Secret Show The Secret Saturdays Secret Squirrel Secret World See How They Run See It Saw It Sergeant Stripes Serious Amazon Serious Andes Serious Arctic Serious Desert Serious Jungle Serious Ocean Seriously Raleigh
Sesame Tree Seven Little Australians Shakespeare: The Animated Tales The Shari Lewis Show Sheeep She-Ra and the Princesses of Power The Shiny Show Ship to Shore Shoebox Zoo Short Change Show and Spell Show Me What You're Made Of Sick as a Parrot Sidekick The Silver Brumby Silver Surfer Simon and the Witch The Singing Kettle Six Classic Fairy Tales Skate Nation Skeleton Warriors Sketchy Comedy Skip and Fuffy Skippy the Bush Kangaroo Skunk Fu! The Slammer Small Potatoes Smalltalk Diaries SMart Smart Guy SMarteenies Smile The Smoggies The Smokehouse The Smurfs Snailsbury Tales Snap! Snorks So Awkward So Little Time So You Want to be Top? The Sorcerer's Apprentice Sorry, I've Got No Head Space Ark Space Pirates Space Sentinels SpaceVets The Sparticle Mystery Speed Buggy Speed Racer Spider Spider Riders Spider-Man (1981 TV series)
Spider-Man (1994 TV series)
Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends Spirit Warriors Splatalot! Spook Squad Spook Up! The Spooktacular New Adventures of Casper Sport Relief Does Glee Club Sportsround Spot Bots Spot the Dog Spot's Musical Adventures Spy Trap Spywatch Square One Television The Stables Stacey Stone Star Trek: The Animated Series Star Wars: Droids Star Wars: Ewoks Starhill Ponies Steel Riders Step Inside Stepping Up Stig of the Dump Stilgoe's On Stingray Stitch Up! Stone Protectors Stoppit and Tidyup The Story Makers The Story of the Treasure Seekers Storytime The Strange Affair of Adelaide Harris Strange Hill High Street Monsters Stuart Little: The Animated Series Student Bodies Studio E Stupid! Sub Zero Summerhill Summerton Mill The Sunday Gang Super Duper Sumos Super Human Challenge Super Junior and Super Tank Show Super Rupert Superbods Superman: The Animated Series SuperTed Suspect Swamp Thing Swashbuckle SWAT Kats: The Radical Squadron Sweet Seventeen Sweet Valley High System 93T
T. and T. T.T.V. Take a Bow Take Hart Take That Take Two Taking the Next Step The Tale of Jack Frost Tales from Europe Tales of Aesop Tales of the Riverbank Tales of the Tooth Fairies Tales of a Wise King Tarzan, Lord of the Jungle Taz-Mania Tea with Grandma Teacup Travels Technobabble Ted Sieger's Wildlife Teddles Teddy Edward Teddy Trucks TeddyBears Tee & Mo Teenage Mutant Hero Turtles TeleQuest Telescope Teletubbies Telling Tales Tellytales The Terrible Thunderlizards Testament: The Bible in Animation Theodore There's a Viking in My Bed These Are the Days Think of a Number This is Daniel Cook This is Emily Yeung Three Delivery Thumb Wrestling Federation ThunderCats Tik Tak Tikkabilla Time Busters Time for School Time Warp Trio Timeless Tales Timeless Tales from Hallmark Timmy Time Tinga Tinga Tales Tinpo Tiny and Mr Duck's Huge Show Tiny Tumble TMi To Me, To You! ToddWorld Tolibob Tom and Jerry Tom & Jerry Kids Tom Tom Tommy Zoom Tom's Midnight Garden Toonatics Top Class Top of the Form Top of the Pops Reloaded Topsy and Tim The Torch Totally Doctor Who Totally Rubbish Tottie: The Story of a Doll's House Tots TV Touché Turtle and Dum Dum Towser Toxic Crusaders Tracy Beaker Returns Tracy Beaker Survival Files Trading Places Transmission Impossible with Ed and Oucho Travel Bug A Traveller in Time Trapped! Treasure Treasure Champs Tree Fu Tom Tricks 'n' Tracks Tricky Business The Tripods Trollz Tronji Troublemakers The True Meaning of Crumbfest True Tilda Trumpton Tucker's Luck Tweenies Twin It to Win It The Twisted Whiskers Show TwirlywoosU
UGetme UK Top 40 Uki UKool Ultimate Book of Spells Ultimate Brain Ultimate Sports Day Ultimate Vets Ulysses 31 Uncle Jack Uncle Max Undercover Dads! Undercover Elephant The Underdog Show Underground Ernie Up on Our StreetV
Val Meets The VIPs Valley of the Dinosaurs Victor & Maria Vision On Visionaries: Knights of the Magical Light Viva S Club Vote For Me The Voyages of Doctor DolittleW
Wacky Races Waffle the Wonder Dog Wait For It...! Walk on the Wild Side Walking the Dog Wallace and Gromit's World of Invention Wally Gator Watch The Watch House Watch My Chops Watch with Mother Waterfalls Watt on Earth The Way Things Work Waybuloo The Wayne Manifesto We Are the Champions What A Mess What? Where? When? Why? What's Inside? What's New, Scooby-Doo? What's on Your Head? Where in the World Whirligig White Peak Farm Whizz Whizz Whizz Bang Bang Who, Sir? Me, Sir? Who Let the Dogs Out? Who Wants To Be A Superhero? Whoops I Missed the Bus Whoops I Missed Newsround Why 5 Why Don't You? Wibbly Pig Wide-Eye Wiggly Park Wild Wild About Animals Wild and Weird The Wild House Wild Tales The Wild Thornberrys Wildbunch William's Wish Wellingtons Willo the Wisp Wingin' It Winsome Witch Wishbone Wishing W.I.T.C.H. The Wizard of Oz Wizards vs Aliens Wizbit Wolfblood Wolfblood Secrets Wolfblood Uncovered Wolverine and the X-Men The Wombles Wonderful World of Weird The Woodentops Woody Woodpecker Woolly and Tig Words and Pictures World of Happy The World of Peter Rabbit and Friends Worst Day of My Life The Worst Witch Worst Year of My Life Again Worzel Gummidge Turns Detective Wowser The WuzzlesX
X-Men X-periMENTAL Xchange The X'sY
Yakka Dee Yo! Diary Yo Yogi! Yoho Ahoy Yoko! Jakamoko! Toto! Yolanda's Band Jam You and Me You Should Be So Lucky Young Dracula The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles Yvon of the YukonZ
Zig and Zag Zigby Zingalong ZingZillas ZingZillas Zingbop Zokko! The Zeta Project Zombie Hotel The Zoo Zoo Factor Zoom BBC children's movie and special programmes
The First Snow of WinterThe Boy In The Dress
Gangsta Granny
Billionaire Boy
Mr Stink
The Littlest Angel Santa's Special Delivery Second Star to the Left The Tangerine Bear The True Meaning of Crumbfest''
References
External links
British television-related lists
Lists of television series by network
Children's television programmes |
4883101 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meanings%20of%20minor%20planet%20names%3A%2058001%E2%80%9359000 | Meanings of minor planet names: 58001–59000 |
58001–58100
|-id=084
| 58084 Hiketaon || 1197 T-3 || Hiketaon, one of the elders of Troy, counselors to Priam; the son of Laomedon, he suggested Helen be returned to Menelaus to avoid the Trojan war ||
|-id=095
| 58095 Oranienstein || 1973 SN || Oranienstein, a baroque castle on the Lahn river near Diez, Germany ||
|-id=096
| 58096 Oineus || || Oeneus, king of Calydonia, son of Porthaon, who sent Meleager out to find heroes to kill the Calydonian Boar; his grandson Diomedes avoided fighting Glaukos because of the friendship between Oeneus and Glaukos' grandfather Bellerophon ||
|-id=097
| 58097 Alimov || || Alexandr Fyodorovich Alimov, Russian founder of the school of functional ecology and president of the Hydrobiological Society ||
|-id=098
| 58098 Quirrenbach || 1977 TC || Andreas Quirrenbach, German astronomer, director of the Landessternwarte Heidelberg-Königstuhl (Königstuhl Observatory) since 2006 ||
|}
58101–58200
|-id=152
| 58152 Natsöderblom || || Nathan Söderblom (Lars Olof Jonathan Söderblom), Swedish archbishop, theologian and Peace Nobelist ||
|-id=163
| 58163 Minnesang || || Minnesang, German sung poetry of the 12th and 13th centuries ||
|-id=164
| 58164 Reiwanohoshi || || Following the April 2019 abdication of Japan's Heisei Emperor, the new Reiwa Era began. As "Reiwa" means peace and harmony, "Reiwanohoshi" ("the star of Reiwa") is named to symbolize Japan going into a new peaceful era, free of natural disasters. ||
|-id=184
| 58184 Masayukiyamamoto || || Masayuki Yamamoto (born 1971), a Japanese planetary scientist. ||
|-id=185
| 58185 Rokkosan || || Rokkosan is a 1000-meter-high mountain behind the city of Kobe, Japan ||
|-id=186
| 58186 Langkavel || || Arno Langkavel (born 1938), a former high school teacher and historian of astronomy. ||
|-id=191
| 58191 Dolomiten || || The Dolomites mountains (Dolomiten is the Swiss-German name) ||
|-id=196
| 58196 Ashleyess || || Ashley Caroline Steel, the discoverer's youngest sister ||
|}
58201–58300
|-id=214
| 58214 Amorim || || Regina Helena Caldas de Amorim, Brazilian neuro-pediatrician at Belo Horizonte (Minas Gerais) ||
|-id=215
| 58215 von Klitzing || || Klaus von Klitzing, German physicist and Nobelist ||
|-id=217
| 58217 Peterhebel || || Peter Hebel (born 1957) is a most interested amateur astronomer, but as a doctor of medicine his chief occupation is that of an operating surgeon at the Medical University of Graz, Austria, where he has saved and improved the life of many patients. ||
|-id=221
| 58221 Boston || || Boston, founded in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England, is the capital and largest city of the American state of Massachusetts. ||
|-id=279
| 58279 Kamerlingh || || Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, 19th–20th-century Dutch physicist, who first liquefied helium ||
|}
58301–58400
|-id=345
| 58345 Moomintroll || || Moomintroll is the central character of the classic 1946 novel Comet in Moominland (Swedish title Kometjakten) by Finnish author Tove Jansson ||
|-id=364
| 58364 Feierberg || || Michael Feierberg, American astronomer, who was involved in the early work connecting C-class minor planets to carbonaceous chondrites ||
|-id=365
| 58365 Robmedrano || 1995 OQ || Technical Sergeant Rob Medrano, of the Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing (AMOS) observatory ||
|-id=373
| 58373 Albertoalonso || 1995 SR || Alberto Alonso, the legendary Cuban choreographer and dance visionary ||
|}
58401–58500
|-id=417
| 58417 Belzoni || || Giovanni Battista Belzoni, an explorer of Egyptian antiquities. ||
|-id=418
| 58418 Luguhu || || Luguhu Lake is situated at the junction of southwestern Sichuan and northwestern Yunnan ||
|-id=424
| 58424 Jamesdunlop || || James Dunlop, Scottish-Australian astronomer ||
|-id=440
| 58440 Zdeněkstuchlík || 1996 HV || Zdeněk Stuchlík (born 1950) is a Czech theoretical physicist and astrophysicist, fine art photographer and professor at the Silesian University in Opava. His field of research is relativistic astrophysics and cosmology, in particular with focus on compact objects like black holes and neutron stars. ||
|-id=441
| 58441 Thomastestoni || || Thomas Testoni (born 1984) is a tourist services technician and a computer store manager. He is the son-in-law of one of the co-discoverers of this minor planet. ||
|-id=460
| 58460 Le Mouélic || || Stephane Le Mouélic, a research engineer at the University of Nantes. ||
|-id=466
| 58466 Santoka || || Santoka Taneda, the Japanese "Wandering Haiku Poet" ||
|-id=495
| 58495 Hajin || || Ha Jin is the pen name of Xuefei Jin (born 1956), a Chinese-American writer, poet and essayist. His 1999 novel Waiting received the National Book Award for Fiction and the PEN/Faulkner Award. He currently teaches at Boston University (MA). ||
|-id=498
| 58498 Octaviopaz || 1996 VF || Octavio Paz Lozano (1914–1998) was a Mexican poet and essayist, who won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1990. ||
|-id=499
| 58499 Stüber || 1996 VY || Eberhard Stüber, Austrian director of the natural science museum "Haus der Natur" in Salzburg ||
|}
58501–58600
|-id=534
| 58534 Logos || || Logos and Zoe ((58534) Logos I Zoe), a paired emanation of the deity in the Gnostic tradition, and part of its creation myth ||
|-id=535
| 58535 Pattillo || 1997 DP || Leonard Pattillo, American founding member and former officer of the Fort Bend Astronomy Club ||
|-id=569
| 58569 Eboshiyamakouen || || Eboshiyama Kouen, the name of the park in the southern part of Nanyo city, Yamagata. ||
|-id=572
| 58572 Romanella || || Russell Romanella (born 1958) is an experienced space engineer involved in human space exploration activities such as the Space Shuttle, International Space Station and Constellation projects ||
|-id=573
| 58573 Serpieri || || Arrigo Serpieri, Italian agricultural economist ||
|-id=578
| 58578 Žídek || || Ivo Žídek, Czech opera singer † ||
|-id=579
| 58579 Ehrenberg || || Eleonora Gayerová z Ehrenberku (Eleonora Gayerová of Ehrenberg), Czech soprano opera singer, who lived in Vila Leonora at Ondřejov and was instrumental in the establishment of the Ondřejov Observatory † ‡ ||
|-id=580
| 58580 Elenacuoghi || || Elena Cuoghi (born 1990) is a European Languages and Cultures graduate of the University of Modena. She is the daughter-in-law of the discoverer of this minor planet. ||
|-id=595
| 58595 Joepollock || || Joseph T. Pollock (born 1950), a professor of astronomy at the Appalachian State University, Boone, North Carolina. ||
|-id=600
| 58600 Iwamuroonsen || || Iwamuroonsen is a town of the southwest of Niigata City ||
|}
58601–58700
|-id=605
| 58605 Liutungsheng || || Liu Tungsheng, Chinese Earth scientist and academician of the Chinese Academy of Sciences ||
|-id=607
| 58607 Wenzel || 1997 UL || Wolfgang Wenzel, German astronomer † ||
|-id=608
| 58608 Geroldrichter || 1997 UY || Gerold A. Richter, German astronomer † ||
|-id=622
| 58622 Setoguchi || 1997 VU || Takashi Setoguchi (born 1961) is a member of the Oriental Astronomical Association. ||
|-id=627
| 58627 Rieko || || Rieko is the wife of the discoverer. ||
|-id=664
| 58664 IYAMMIX || || The International Year of Astronomy (IYA 2009) is a global effort initiated by the IAU and UNESCO to stimulate worldwide interest in astronomy under the central theme "The Universe, Yours to Discover" ||
|-id=671
| 58671 Diplodocus || || one of the largest animals ever to walk on the earth, the Dashing Diplodocus is the premier quarterly publication of the Houston Museum of Natural Science. ||
|-id=672
| 58672 Remigio || || Scarfi Remigio, Italian geologist, mathematics teacher, and amateur astronomer ||
|-id=679
| 58679 Brenig || 1998 AH || Brenig, a part of Bornheim, is located near the Rhine river between Cologne and Bonn. ||
|-id=682
| 58682 Alenašolcová || || Alena Šolcová, Czech mathematician and historian of mathematics and astronomy ||
|-id=691
| 58691 Luigisannino || || Luigi Sannino (born 1981) is an Italian amateur astronomer, studying comets and asteroids. ||
|}
58701–58800
|-id=707
| 58707 Kyoshi || 1998 CS || Kyoshi Takahama, Japanese Haiku poet and novelist ||
|-id=709
| 58709 Zenocolò || || Zeno Colò, 20th-century Italian skier and Olympic gold medalist (Oslo Winter Games, 1952) ||
|}
58801–58900
|-id=896
| 58896 Schlosser || || Wolfhard Schlosser, professor at Bochum University from 1969 until his retirement in 2005 ||
|}
58901–59000
|-id=931
| 58931 Palmys || || Palmys, a Trojan fighting for the relief of the city of Troy set off for the centre of the battlefield, with a group of other Trojans from Ascania. ||
|-id=000
| 59000 Beiguan || || Beijing Planetarium (Beijing Tianwenguan), on the occasion of its fiftieth anniversary year (2007) ||
|}
References
058001-059000 |
28486111 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning%20analytics | Learning analytics | Learning analytics is the measurement, collection, analysis and reporting of data about learners and their contexts, for purposes of understanding and optimizing learning and the environments in which it occurs.
The growth of online learning since the 1990s, particularly in higher education, has contributed to the advancement of Learning Analytics as student data can be captured and made available for analysis. When learners use an LMS, social media, or similar online tools, their clicks, navigation patterns, time on task, social networks, information flow, and concept development through discussions can be tracked. The rapid development of massive open online courses (MOOCs) offers additional data for researchers to evaluate teaching and learning in online environments.
Definition
Although a majority of Learning Analytics literature has started to adopt the aforementioned definition, the definition and aims of Learning Analytics are still contested.
Learning Analytics as a prediction model
One earlier definition discussed by the community suggested that Learning Analytics is the use of intelligent data, learner-produced data, and analysis models to discover information and social connections for predicting and advising people's learning. But this definition has been criticised by George Siemens and Mike Sharkey.
Learning Analytics as a generic design framework
Dr. Wolfgang Greller and Dr. Hendrik Drachsler defined learning analytics holistically as a framework. They proposed that it is a generic design framework that can act as a useful guide for setting up analytics services in support of educational practice and learner guidance, in quality assurance, curriculum development, and in improving teacher effectiveness and efficiency. It uses a general morphological analysis (GMA) to divide the domain into six "critical dimensions".
Learning Analytics as data-driven decision making
The broader term "Analytics" has been defined as the science of examining data to draw conclusions and, when used in decision making, to present paths or courses of action. From this perspective, Learning Analytics has been defined as a particular case of Analytics, in which decision making aims to improve learning and education. During the 2010s, this definition of analytics has gone further to incorporate elements of operations research such as decision trees and strategy maps to establish predictive models and to determine probabilities for certain courses of action.
Learning Analytics as an application of analytics
Another approach for defining Learning Analytics is based on the concept of Analytics interpreted as the process of developing actionable insights through problem definition and the application of statistical models and analysis against existing and/or simulated future data. From this point of view, Learning Analytics emerges as a type of Analytics (as a process), in which the data, the problem definition and the insights are learning-related.
In 2016, a research jointly conducted by the New Media Consortium (NMC) and the EDUCAUSE Learning Initiative (ELI) -an EDUCAUSE Program- describes six areas of emerging technology that will have had significant impact on higher education and creative expression by the end of 2020. As a result of this research, Learning analytics was defined as an educational application of web analytics aimed at learner profiling, a process of gathering and analyzing details of individual student interactions in online learning activities.
Learning analytics as an application of data science
In 2017, Gašević, Коvanović, and Joksimović proposed a consolidated model of learning analytics. The model posits that learning analytics is defined at the intersection of three disciplines: data science, theory, and design. Data science offers computational methods and techniques for data collection, pre-processing, analysis, and presentation. Theory is typically drawn from the literature in the learning sciences, education, psychology, sociology, and philosophy. The design dimension of the model includes: learning design, interaction design, and study design.
In 2015, Gašević, Dawson, and Siemens argued that computational aspects of learning analytics need to be linked with the existing educational research in order for Learning Analytics to deliver its promise to understand and optimize learning.
Learning analytics versus educational data mining
Differentiating the fields of educational data mining (EDM) and learning analytics (LA) has been a concern of several researchers. George Siemens takes the position that educational data mining encompasses both learning analytics and academic analytics, the former of which is aimed at governments, funding agencies, and administrators instead of learners and faculty. Baepler and Murdoch define academic analytics as an area that "...combines select institutional data, statistical analysis, and predictive modeling to create intelligence upon which learners, instructors, or administrators can change academic behavior". They go on to attempt to disambiguate educational data mining from academic analytics based on whether the process is hypothesis driven or not, though Brooks questions whether this distinction exists in the literature. Brooks instead proposes that a better distinction between the EDM and LA communities is in the roots of where each community originated, with authorship at the EDM community being dominated by researchers coming from intelligent tutoring paradigms, and learning anaytics researchers being more focused on enterprise learning systems (e.g. learning content management systems).
Regardless of the differences between the LA and EDM communities, the two areas have significant overlap both in the objectives of investigators as well as in the methods and techniques that are used in the investigation. In the MS program offering in learning analytics at Teachers College, Columbia University, students are taught both EDM and LA methods.
Historical contributions
Learning Analytics, as a field, has multiple disciplinary roots. While the fields of artificial intelligence (AI), statistical analysis, machine learning, and business intelligence offer an additional narrative, the main historical roots of analytics are the ones directly related to human interaction and the education system. More in particular, the history of Learning Analytics is tightly linked to the development of four Social Sciences’ fields that have converged throughout time. These fields pursued, and still do, four goals:
Definition of Learner, in order to cover the need of defining and understanding a learner.
Knowledge trace, addressing how to trace or map the knowledge that occurs during the learning process.
Learning efficiency and personalization, which refers to how to make learning more efficient and personal by means of technology.
Learner – content comparison, in order to improve learning by comparing the learner’s level of knowledge with the actual content that needs to master.()
A diversity of disciplines and research activities have influenced in these 4 aspects throughout the last decades, contributing to the gradual development of learning analytics. Some of most determinant disciplines are Social Network Analysis, User Modelling, Cognitive modelling, Data Mining and E-Learning. The history of Learning Analytics can be understood by the rise and development of these fields.
Social Network Analysis
Social network analysis (SNA) is the process of investigating social structures through the use of networks and graph theory. It characterizes networked structures in terms of nodes (individual actors, people, or things within the network) and the ties, edges, or links (relationships or interactions) that connect them. Social network analysis is prominent in Sociology, and its development has had a key role in the emergence of Learning Analytics.
One of the first examples or attempts to provide a deeper understanding of interactions is by Austrian-American Sociologist Paul Lazarsfeld. In 1944, Lazarsfeld made the statement of “who talks to whom about what and to what effect". That statement forms what today is still the area of interest or the target within social network analysis, which tries to understand how people are connected and what insights can be derived as a result of their interactions, a core idea of Learning Analytics.
Citation analysis
American linguist Eugene Garfield was an early pioneer in analytics in science. In 1955, Garfield led the first attempt to analyse the structure of science regarding how developments in science can be better understood by tracking the associations (citations) between articles (how they reference one another, the importance of the resources that they include, citation frequency, etc). Through tracking citations, scientists can observe how research is disseminated and validated. This was the basic idea of what eventually became a “page rank”, which in the early days of Google (beginning of the 21st century) was one of the key ways of understanding the structure of a field by looking at page connections and the importance of those connections. The algorithm PageRank -the first search algorithm used by Google- was based on this principle. American computer scientist Larry Page, Google's co-founder, defined PageRank as “an approximation of the importance” of a particular resource. Educationally, citation or link analysis is important for mapping knowledge domains.
The essential idea behind these attempts is the realization that, as data increases, individuals, researchers or business analysts need to understand how to track the underlying patterns behind the data and how to gain insight from them. And this is also a core idea in Learning Analytics.
Digitalization of Social network analysis
During the early 1970s, pushed by the rapid evolution in technology, Social network analysis transitioned into analysis of networks in digital settings.
Milgram's 6 degrees experiment. In 1967, American social psychologist Stanley Milgram and other researchers examined the average path length for social networks of people in the United States, suggesting that human society is a small-world-type network characterized by short path-lengths.
Weak ties. American Sociologist Mark Granovetter's work on the strength of what is known as weak ties; his 1973 article “The Strength of Weak Ties” is one of the most influential and most cited articles in Social Sciences.
Networked individualism. Towards the end of the 20th century, Sociologist Barry Wellman’s research extensively contributed the theory of social network analysis. In particular, Wellman observed and described the rise of “networked individualism" – the transformation from group-based networks to individualized networks.
During the first decade of the century, Professor Caroline Haythornthwaite explored the impact of media type on the development of social ties, observing that human interactions can be analyzed to gain novel insight not from strong interactions (i.e. people that are strongly related to the subject) but, rather, from weak ties. This provides Learning Analytics with a central idea: apparently un-related data may hide crucial information. As an example of this phenomenon, an individual looking for a job will have a better chance of finding new information through weak connections rather than strong ones. ()
Her research also focused on the way that different types of media can impact the formation of networks. Her work highly contributed to the development of social network analysis as a field. Important ideas were inherited by Learning Analytics, such that a range of metrics and approaches can define the importance of a particular node, the value of information exchange, the way that clusters are connected to one another, structural gaps that might exist within those networks, etc.
The application of social network analysis in digital learning settings has been pioneered by Professor Shane P. Dawson. He has developed a number of software tools, such as Social Networks Adapting Pedagogical Practice (SNAPP) for evaluating the networks that form in [learning management systems] when students engage in forum discussions.
User modelling
The main goal of user modelling is the customization and adaptation of systems to the user's specific needs, especially in their interaction with computing systems. The importance of computers being able to respond individually to into people was starting to be understood in the decade of 1970s. Dr Elaine Rich in 1979 predicted that "computers are going to treat their users as individuals with distinct personalities, goals, and so forth". This is a central idea not only educationally but also in general web use activity, in which personalization is an important goal.
User modelling has become important in research in human-computer interactions as it helps researchers to design better systems by understanding how users interact with software. Recognizing unique traits, goals, and motivations of individuals remains an important activity in learning analytics.
Personalization and adaptation of learning content is an important present and future direction of learning sciences, and its history within education has contributed to the development of learning analytics.Hypermedia is a nonlinear medium of information that includes graphics, audio, video, plain text and hyperlinks. The term was first used in a 1965 article written by American Sociologist Ted Nelson. Adaptive hypermedia builds on user modelling by increasing personalization of content and interaction. In particular, adaptive hypermedia systems build a model of the goals, preferences and knowledge of each user, in order to adapt to the needs of that user. From the end of the 20th century onwards, the field grew rapidly, mainly due to that the internet boosted research into adaptivity and, secondly, the accumulation and consolidation of research experience in the field. In turn, Learning Analytics has been influenced by this strong development.
Education/cognitive modelling
Education/cognitive modelling has been applied to tracing how learners develop knowledge. Since the end of the 1980s and early 1990s, computers have been used in education as learning tools for decades. In 1989, Hugh Burns argued for the adoption and development of intelligent tutor systems that ultimately would pass three levels of “intelligence”: domain knowledge, learner knowledge evaluation, and pedagogical intervention. During the 21st century, these three levels have remained relevant for researchers and educators.
In the decade of 1990s, the academic activity around cognitive models focused on attempting to develop systems that possess a computational model capable of solving the problems that are given to students in the ways students are expected to solve the problems. Cognitive modelling has contributed to the rise in popularity of intelligent or cognitive tutors. Once cognitive processes can be modelled, software (tutors) can be developed to support learners in the learning process. The research base on this field became, eventually, significantly relevant for learning analytics during the 21st century.
Epistemic Frame Theory
While big data analytics has been more and more widely applied in education, Wise and Shaffer addressed the importance of theory-based approach in the analysis. Epistemic Frame Theory conceptualized the "ways of thinking, acting, and being in the world" in a collaborative learning environment. Specifically, the framework is based on the context of Community of Practice (CoP), which is a group of learners, with common goals, standards and prior knowledge and skills, to solve a complex problem. Due to the essence of CoP, it is important to study the connections between elements (learners, knowledge, concepts, skills and so on). To identify the connections, the co-occurrences of elements in learners' data are identified and analyzed.
Shaffer and Ruis pointed out the concept of closing the interpretive loop, by emphasizing the transparency and validation of model, interpretation and the original data. The loop can be closed by a good theoretical sound analytics approaches, Epistemic Network Analysis.
Other contributions
In a discussion of the history of analytics, Adam Cooper highlights a number of communities from which learning analytics has drawn techniques, mainly during the first decades of the 21st century, including:
Statistics, which are a well established means to address hypothesis testing.
Business intelligence, which has similarities with learning analytics, although it has historically been targeted at making the production of reports more efficient through enabling data access and summarising performance indicators.
Web analytics, tools such as Google Analytics report on web page visits and references to websites, brands and other key terms across the internet. The more "fine grain" of these techniques can be adopted in learning analytics for the exploration of student trajectories through learning resources (courses, materials, etc.).
Operational research, which aims at highlighting design optimisation for maximising objectives through the use of mathematical models and statistical methods. Such techniques are implicated in learning analytics which seek to create models of real world behaviour for practical application.
Artificial intelligence methods (combined with machine learning techniques built on data mining) are capable of detecting patterns in data. In learning analytics such techniques can be used for intelligent tutoring systems, classification of students in more dynamic ways than simple demographic factors, and resources such as "suggested course" systems modelled on collaborative filtering techniques.
Information visualization, which is an important step in many analytics for sensemaking around the data provided, and is used across most techniques (including those above).
Learning analytics programs
The first graduate program focused specifically on learning analytics was created by Ryan S. Baker and launched in the Fall 2015 semester at Teachers College, Columbia University. The program description states that"(...)data about learning and learners are being generated today on an unprecedented scale. The fields of learning analytics (LA) and educational data mining (EDM) have emerged with the aim of transforming this data into new insights that can benefit students, teachers, and administrators. As one of world's leading teaching and research institutions in education, psychology, and health, we are proud to offer an innovative graduate curriculum dedicated to improving education through technology and data analysis."
Analytic methods
Methods for learning analytics include:
Content analysis, particularly of resources which students create (such as essays).
Discourse analytics, which aims to capture meaningful data on student interactions which (unlike social network analytics) aims to explore the properties of the language used, as opposed to just the network of interactions, or forum-post counts, etc.
Social learning analytics, which is aimed at exploring the role of social interaction in learning, the importance of learning networks, discourse used to sensemake, etc.
Disposition analytics, which seeks to capture data regarding student's dispositions to their own learning, and the relationship of these to their learning. For example, "curious" learners may be more inclined to ask questions, and this data can be captured and analysed for learning analytics.
Epistemic Network Analysis, which is an analytics technique that models the co-occurrence of different concepts and elements in the learning process. For example, the online discourse data can be segmented as turn of talk. By coding students' different behaviors of collaborative learning, we could apply ENA to identify and quantify the co-occurrence of different behaviors for any individual in the group.
Applications
Learning Applications can be and has been applied in a noticeable number of contexts.
General purposes
Analytics have been used for:
Prediction purposes, for example to identify "at risk" students in terms of drop out or course failure.
Personalization & adaptation, to provide students with tailored learning pathways, or assessment materials.
Intervention purposes, providing educators with information to intervene to support students.
Information visualization, typically in the form of so-called learning dashboards which provide overview learning data through data visualisation tools.
Benefits for stakeholders
There is a broad awareness of analytics across educational institutions for various stakeholders, but that the way learning analytics is defined and implemented may vary, including:
for individual learners to reflect on their achievements and patterns of behaviour in relation to others. Particularly, the following areas can be set out for measuring, monitoring, analyzing and changing to optimize student performance:
Monitoring individual student performance
Disaggregating student performance by selected characteristics such as major, year of study, ethnicity, etc.
Identifying outliers for early intervention
Predicting potential so that all students achieve optimally
Preventing attrition from a course or program
Identifying and developing effective instructional techniques
Analyzing standard assessment techniques and instruments (i.e. departmental and licensing exams)
Testing and evaluation of curricula.
as predictors of students requiring extra support and attention;
to help teachers and support staff plan supporting interventions with individuals and groups;
for functional groups such as course teams seeking to improve current courses or develop new curriculum offerings; and
for institutional administrators taking decisions on matters such as marketing and recruitment or efficiency and effectiveness measures.
Some motivations and implementations of analytics may come into conflict with others, for example highlighting potential conflict between analytics for individual learners and organisational stakeholders.
Software
Much of the software that is currently used for learning analytics duplicates functionality of web analytics software, but applies it to learner interactions with content. Social network analysis tools are commonly used to map social connections and discussions. Some examples of learning analytics software tools include:
BEESTAR INSIGHT: a real-time system that automatically collects student engagement and attendance, and provides analytics tools and dashboards for students, teachers and management
LOCO-Analyst: a context-aware learning tool for analytics of learning processes taking place in a web-based learning environment
SAM: a Student Activity Monitor intended for personal learning environments
SNAPP: a learning analytics tool that visualizes the network of interactions resulting from discussion forum posts and replies
Solutionpath StREAM: A leading UK based real-time system that leverage predictive models to determine all facets of student engagement using structured and unstructured sources for all institutional roles
Student Success System: a predictive learning analytics tool that predicts student performance and plots learners into risk quadrants based upon engagement and performance predictions, and provides indicators to develop understanding as to why a learner is not on track through visualizations such as the network of interactions resulting from social engagement (e.g. discussion posts and replies), performance on assessments, engagement with content, and other indicators
Epistemic Network Analysis (ENA) web tool: An interactive online tool that allow researchers to upload the coded dataset and create the model by specifying units, conversations and codes. Useful functions within the online tool includes mean rotation for comparison between two groups, specifying the sliding window size for connection accumulation, weighed or unweighted models, and parametric and non-parametric statistical testings with suggested write-up and so on. The web tool is stable and open source.
Ethics and privacy
The ethics of data collection, analytics, reporting and accountability has been raised as a potential concern for learning analytics, with concerns raised regarding:
Data ownership
Communications around the scope and role of learning analytics
The necessary role of human feedback and error-correction in learning analytics systems
Data sharing between systems, organisations, and stakeholders
Trust in data clients
As Kay, Kom and Oppenheim point out, the range of data is wide, potentially derived from:
Recorded activity: student records, attendance, assignments, researcher information (CRIS)
Systems interactions: VLE, library / repository search, card transactions
Feedback mechanisms: surveys, customer care
External systems that offer reliable identification such as sector and shared services and social networks
Thus the legal and ethical situation is challenging and different from country to country, raising implications for:
Variety of data: principles for collection, retention and exploitation
Education mission: underlying issues of learning management, including social and performance engineering
Motivation for development of analytics: mutuality, a combination of corporate, individual and general good
Customer expectation: effective business practice, social data expectations, cultural considerations of a global customer base.
Obligation to act: duty of care arising from knowledge and the consequent challenges of student and employee performance management
In some prominent cases like the inBloom disaster, even full functional systems have been shut down due to lack of trust in the data collection by governments, stakeholders and civil rights groups. Since then, the learning analytics community has extensively studied legal conditions in a series of experts workshops on "Ethics & Privacy 4 Learning Analytics" that constitute the use of trusted learning analytics. Drachsler & Greller released an 8-point checklist named DELICATE that is based on the intensive studies in this area to demystify the ethics and privacy discussions around learning analytics.
D-etermination: Decide on the purpose of learning analytics for your institution.
E-xplain: Define the scope of data collection and usage.
L-egitimate: Explain how you operate within the legal frameworks, refer to the essential legislation.
I-nvolve: Talk to stakeholders and give assurances about the data distribution and use.
C-onsent: Seek consent through clear consent questions.
A-nonymise: De-identify individuals as much as possible
T-echnical aspects: Monitor who has access to data, especially in areas with high staff turn-over.
E-xternal partners: Make sure externals provide highest data security standards
It shows ways to design and provide privacy conform learning analytics that can benefit all stakeholders. The full DELICATE checklist is publicly available.
Privacy management practices of students have shown discrepancies between one's privacy beliefs and one's privacy related actions. Learning analytic systems can have default settings that allow data collection of students if they do not choose to opt-out. Some online education systems such as edX or Coursera do not offer a choice to opt-out of data collection. In order for certain learning analytics to function properly, these systems utilize cookies to collect data.
Open learning analytics
In 2012, a systematic overview on learning analytics and its key concepts was provided by Professor Mohamed Chatti and colleagues through a reference model based on four dimensions, namely:
data, environments, context (what?),
stakeholders (who?),
objectives (why?), and
methods (how?).
Chatti, Muslim and Schroeder note that the aim of open learning analytics (OLA) is to improve learning effectiveness in lifelong learning environments. The authors refer to OLA as an ongoing analytics process that encompasses diversity at all four dimensions of the learning analytics reference model.
See also
Student Engagement
Analytics
Big data
Data Mining
Educational data mining
Educational technology
Machine learning
Pattern recognition
Predictive analytics
Social network analysis
Text analytics
Web analytics
Further reading
For general audience introductions, see:
The Educause learning initiative briefing (2011)
The Educause review on learning analytics (2011)
The UNESCO learning analytics policy brief (2012)
The NMC Horizon Report: 2016 Higher Education Edition
References
External links
Society for Learning Analytics Research (SoLAR) – a research network for learning analytics
US Department of Education report on Learning Analytics. 2012
Learning Analytics Google Group with discussions from researchers and individuals interested in the topic.
International Conference Learning Analytics & Knowledge
Learning Analytics and Educational Data Mining conferences and people
Next Gen Learning definition
Microsoft Education Analytics with information on how to use data to support improved educational outcomes.
Educational Data mining
Educause resources on learning analytics
Learning analytics infographic
New Media Consortium (NMC)
Types of analytics
Learning
Statistics of education
Educational technology |
6100426 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megaphone%20desktop%20tool | Megaphone desktop tool | The Megaphone desktop tool was a Windows "action alert" tool developed by Give Israel Your United Support (GIYUS) and distributed by World Union of Jewish Students, World Jewish Congress, The Jewish Agency for Israel, World Zionist Organization, StandWithUs, Hasbara fellowships, HonestReporting, and other pro-Israel public relations organizations. The tool was released in July during the 2006 Lebanon War. By June 2011, the tool was no longer available through the GIYUS website. An RSS newsfeed is available.
Software
The Megaphone Desktop Tool acted as a wrapper around an RSS feed from the GIYUS website. Originally, it gave the user the option of going to a particular site with a poll, and if the user chooses to go to the site, the software then casts a vote automatically, when this is technically feasible, but that feature had been discontinued.
Giyus tries to save you the time and effort of locating the voting form inside the website, a seemingly simple task that may prove quite confusing at certain sites. Whenever we technically can we direct you straight to the voting action. If you have arrived at the poll results, it means that you were directed straight to the voting action and have already successfully voted. If for some reason you don't care to vote, you can always use the "No Thanks" link in the article alert popup.
In later versions, the voting concept was removed entirely and the tool directed users to anti-Israel websites, giving users and option click a button labeled "act now!" which would direct the user to a poll or email address.
The software license provides for remote updates: "You understand and agree that Giyus.Org may provide updates, patches and/or new versions of the Software from time to time, including automatic updates that will be installed on your computer, with notice to You, as needed to continue to use the Services, and You hereby authorize such installations."
Press coverage
According to The Jerusalem Post, Amir Gissin, head of the Public Affairs Department of the Foreign Ministry of Israel, has expressed support for the tool's use. "The Foreign Ministry itself is now pushing the idea, urging supporters of Israel everywhere to become cyberspace soldiers in the new battleground for Israel's image." it reports.
Computing website The Register has described use of the software as "highly organised mass manipulation of technologies which are supposed to be democratising" and claimed Megaphone is "effectively a high-tech exercise in ballot-stuffing" The Register also reported that the BBC History magazine website "noticed an upsurge in voting on whether holocaust denial should be a criminal offence in Britain. But the closing date had already passed and the result had already been published, so the votes were invalid anyway." Stewart Purvis, former editor-in-chief of ITN, has noted that an independent panel reviewing the BBC's Israeli-Palestinian coverage received a large number of letters from North America which accused the BBC of being anti-Israeli. He states there was evidence of "pressure group involvement".
Commercialization
Following the success of the Megaphone tool, the developers formed the company Collactive. In 2007, Collactive released their "Web Assistant", a general-purpose commercial version of the Megaphone tool.
Reception
The tool has received a wide range of reactions, from praise to criticism. Amir Gissin, head of the Public Affairs Department of the Israeli Foreign Ministry, praised the tool, noting its efficacy during the Adnan Hajj photographs controversy in obtaining an admission from the Reuters news agency that a photograph by Adnan Hajj had been improperly edited with photo editing software. The tool has similarly been praised by a number of pro-Israel organizations for helping to fight what they perceive to be anti-Israel media bias. At the same time, it has been criticized by Independent Television News, and others for stuffing the ballot of online polls, generating excessive comments and 'spam' on internet message boards, and stifling online discussion and what is seen by some as a mass, participatory form of propaganda .
Present
As of June 2011, the Megaphone Desktop Tool was unavailable for download from the creators website. Currently, alerts are displayed only through the GIYUS website RSS feed.
See also
Act.IL
Internet activism
Hasbara
Media coverage of the Arab–Israeli conflict
Arab–Israeli conflict
Watchdog journalism
Media bias
HonestReporting
Committee for Accuracy in Middle East Reporting in America
50 Cent Party
References
External links
Official website and mission statement
Current list of Internet Megaphone alerts
Foreign policy political advocacy groups in the United States
Internet-based activism
Psychological warfare
Windows Internet software
Zionism
Propaganda techniques
Internet manipulation and propaganda |
46842275 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DigiLocker | DigiLocker | DigiLocker is an Indian digitization online service provided by Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY), Government of India under its Digital India initiative. DigiLocker provides an account in cloud to every Aadhaar holder to access authentic documents/certificates such as driving license, vehicle registration, academic mark sheet in digital format from the original issuers of these certificates. It also provides 1GB storage space to each account to upload scanned copies of legacy documents.
Users need to possess an Aadhaar number to use DigiLocker. For sign-up, the Aadhaar number and the one-time password sent to the Aadhaar-registered mobile number, need to be entered.
The beta version of the service was rolled out in February 2015, and launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi on 1 July 2015. The storage space provided was 100 MB initially, and was later increased to 1 GB. The individual file size for upload cannot exceed 10 MB.
In July 2016, DigiLocker recorded 20.13 lakh users with a repository of 24.13 lakh documents. The number of users saw a large jump of 7.53 lakh in April when the government had urged all municipal bodies to use DigiLocker to make their administration paperless.
From 2017, the facility was extended to allow students of ICSE board to store their class X and XII certificates in DigiLocker and share them with agencies as required. In February 2017, Kotak Mahindra Bank started providing access to documents in DigiLocker from within its net-banking application, allowing users to e-sign them and forward as needed. In May 2017, over 108 hospitals, including the Tata Memorial Hospital were planning to launch the use of DigiLocker for storing cancer patients' medical documents and test reports. According to a UIDAI architect,
patients would be provided a number key, which they can share with another hospital to allow them to access their test reports.
As of December 2019, DigiLocker provides access to over 372+ crore authentic documents from 149 issuers. Over 3.3 crore users are registered on DigiLocker. 43 requester organisations are accepting documents from DigiLocker.
There is also an associated facility for e-signing documents. The service is intended to minimise the use of physical documents, reduce administrative expenses, provide authenticity of the e-documents, provide secure access to government-issued documents and to make it easy for the residents to receive services.
Structure of DigiLocker
Each user's digital locker has the following sections.
My Certificates: This section has two subsections:
Digital Documents: This contains the URI's of the documents issued to the user by government departments or other agencies.
Uploaded Documents: This subsection lists all the documents which are uploaded by the user. Each file to be uploaded should not be more than 10MB in size. Only pdf, jpg, jpeg, png, bmp and gif file types can be uploaded.
My Profile: This section displays the complete profile of the user as available in the UIDAI database.
My Issuer: This section displays the issuers' names and the number of documents issued to the user by the issuer.
My Requester: This section displays the requesters' names and the number of documents requested from the user by the requesters.
Directories: This section displays the complete list of registered issuers and requesters along with their URLs.
Amendments to IT Act for Digital Locker
Digital Locker is not merely a technical platform. Ministry of Electronics and IT, Government of India also notified for Digital Locker. Amendments made to these rules in Information Technology Act, 2000 in February 2017 state that the issued documents provided and shared through Digital Locker are at par with the corresponding physical certificates.
According to this Rule, – (1) Issuers may start issuing and Requesters may start accepting digitally (or electronically) signed certificates or documents shared from subscribers’ Digital Locker accounts at par with the physical documents in accordance with the provisions of the Act and rules made thereunder.
(2) When such certificate or document mentioned in sub-rule (1) has been issued or pushed in the Digital Locker System by an issuer and subsequently accessed or accepted by a requester through the URI, it shall be deemed to have been shared by the issuer directly in electronic form.
Important Notifications from Government Departments Regarding DigiLocker
Ministry of Finance (Department of Revenue): Amendment in Prevention of Money-laundering (Maintenance of Records) Rules, 2005 to accept digital KYC document through G.S.R. 582(E) on 20 August 2019.
Ministry of Road Transport and Highways: Amendment in Rule 139 of Central Motor Vehicles Rule 1989 through the notification G.S.R. 1081(E) on 2 November 2018.
Ministry of Railways: Acceptance of digital Aadhaar and Driving License as a proof of identity for train journey (June 2018).
Ministry of Civil Aviation: Notification issued by BCAS (Bureau of Civil Aviation and Security) to accept identity proof produced via DigiLocker for airport entry (October 2018).
Security measures of DigiLocker
Following are the security measures used in the system
256 Bit SSL Encryption
Mobile Authentication based Sign Up
ISO 27001 certified Data Centre
Data Redundancy
Timed Log Out
Security Audit
See also
India Stack
Aadhar
Direct Benefit Transfer
ESign (India)
UMANG
Unified Payments Interface
Common man empowerment:
Har ghar jal (water connection for each house)
One Nation, One Ration Card (food security card's national portability)
Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (affordable housing for all)
Saubhagya electrification scheme (electrification of all houses)
Swachh Bharat (toilet for all houses)
Ujjwala Yojana (clean cooking gas connections for all)
References
External links
Ministry of Communications and Information Technology (India)
Internet in India
E-government in India
Modi administration initiatives
Digital India initiatives
2015 establishments in India
cetegroy:2021 establishments in India |
24073428 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conference%20on%20Computer%20Vision%20and%20Pattern%20Recognition | Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition | The Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR) is an annual conference on computer vision and pattern recognition, which is regarded as one of the most important conferences in its field.
Affiliations
CVPR was first held in Washington DC in 1983 by Takeo Kanade and Dana Ballard (previously the conference was named Pattern Recognition and Image Processing). From 1985 to 2010 it was sponsored by the IEEE Computer Society. In 2011 it was also co-sponsored by University of Colorado Colorado Springs. Since 2012 it has been co-sponsored by the IEEE Computer Society and the Computer Vision Foundation, which provides open access to the conference papers.
Scope
CVPR considers a wide range of topics related to computer vision and pattern recognition—basically any topic that is extracting structures or answers from images or video or applying mathematical methods to data to extract or recognize patterns. Common topics include object recognition, image segmentation, motion estimation, 3D reconstruction, and deep learning.
The conference is highly selective with generally <30% acceptance rates for all papers and <5% for oral presentations. It is managed by a rotating group of volunteers who are chosen in a public election at the PAMI-TC meeting four years before the meeting. CVPR uses a multi-tier double-blind peer review process. The program chairs (who cannot submit papers), select area chairs who manage the reviewers for their subset of submissions.
Location
The conference is usually held in June in North America.
Awards
CVPR Best Paper Award
These awards are picked by committees delegated by the program chairs of the conference.
Longuet-Higgins Prize
The Longuet-Higgins Prize recognizes CVPR papers from ten years ago that have made a significant impact on computer vision research.
PAMI Young Researcher Award
The Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence (PAMI) Young Researcher Award is an award given by the Technical Committee on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence (TCPAMI) of the IEEE Computer Society to a researcher within 7 years of completing their Ph.D. for outstanding early career research contributions. Candidates are nominated by the computer vision community, with winners selected by a committee of senior researchers in the field. This award was originally instituted in 2012 by the journal Image and Vision Computing, also presented at the CVPR, and the IVC continues to sponsor the award.
See also
International Conference on Computer Vision
European Conference on Computer Vision
References
External links
2020 conference website
2019 conference website
Computer vision research infrastructure
IEEE conferences
Signal processing conferences
Computer science conferences |
1331267 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer%20programs%20and%20the%20Patent%20Cooperation%20Treaty | Computer programs and the Patent Cooperation Treaty | There are two provisions in the regulations annexed to the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT) that relate to the search and examination of patent applications concerning computer programs. These two provisions are present in the PCT, which does not provide for the grant of patents but provides a unified procedure for filing, searching and examining patent applications, called international applications. The question of patentability is touched when conducting the search and the examination, which is an examination of whether the invention appears to be patentable.
These two provisions are and , and, in conjunction respectively with and , may have a concrete impact on the procedure under the PCT, in the search and examination performed under the PCT. Indeed, depending on the patent office which is in charge of the search or examination under the PCT, the application filed for an invention relating to a computer program may or may not be searched or examined. In addition, the ISA and IPEA (see background section) that do not search such applications to a certain extent have diverging practices with respect to determinations of exclusions as to computer programs.
In addition to the consequences these legal provisions may have in practice, is also significant from an interpretive perspective to understand the origin of the much debated (see Software patents under the European Patent Convention (EPC) and Article 52 EPC). The computer program exclusion was indeed inserted in the EPC in line with Rule 39.1 PCT, so that Rule 39.1 predates Art. 52(2) and (3) EPC.
Background
The Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT) is an international patent law treaty, which provides a unified procedure for filing patent applications. A patent application filed under the PCT is called an international application or a PCT application.
The filing of an international application results in an international search performed by a patent office, accompanied with a written opinion regarding the patentability of the invention which is the subject of the application. An applicant may also request an international preliminary examination performed by a patent office. The PCT does not provide that the searches and examinations are to be performed by one central patent office, as the WIPO does not perform searches and examinations. In contrast, the European Patent Convention (EPC) places the European Patent Office (EPO) in charge of performing searches and examinations for European patent applications.
Under the PCT, the international search and the optional international preliminary examination are conducted by different national or regional patent offices, referred to as the International Searching Authorities (ISA) and the International Preliminary Examining Authority (IPEA) Applicants, based on nationality and on the Receiving Office where the application was filed, may have an opportunity to have the search performed by one of the ISAs.
The relevant provisions in the regulations
The regulations under the PCT do touch on the search and examination of computer programs.
states that
states that
According to the Board of Appeal 3.5.1 of the EPO, these provisions mean that the ISA and IPEA authorities are not required to carry out searches or preliminary examinations in respect of programs if, for example, they have no examiners trained to do so or are not equipped with appropriate search material. The Board went on to say:
These provisions deal only with the international searches and international preliminary examinations and not with the national and regional searches or examinations.
Practices by ISA and IPEA
The different ISA and IPEA have made use of the legal provisions of Articles 17(2)(a)(i) and 34(4)(a)(i) PCT in conjunction with Rules 39.1 and 67.1 in a different manner. In addition, as mentioned above, the ISA and IPEA that have made use of these provisions have diverging practices with respect to determinations of exclusions as to computer programs.
For instance, the European Patent Office (EPO), acting as ISA and IPEA, is not be obliged to search, by virtue of Article 17(2)(a)(i) PCT, or examine, by virtue of Article 34(4)(a)(i) PCT, any international application to the extent that the EPO considers that such application relates to subject matter which does not comply with the provisions of the European Patent Convention to such an extent that it is not possible to carry out a meaningful search into the state of the art on the basis of all or some of the claims. The EPO acting as ISA or IPEA in the PCT procedure is therefore not obliged to search or examine some PCT applications when not equipped to do so.
Origin and interpretive significance of the provisions
The computer program exclusion of Rule 39.1 PCT, which originally appears to be for "equipment" reasons, dates from 1969:
Rule 39.1 PCT is significant from an interpretive perspective to understand the origin of the much debated (see Software patents under the European Patent Convention (EPC) and Article 52 EPC). The computer program exclusion was indeed inserted in the EPC in line with Rule 39.1 PCT, so that Rule 39.1 predates Art. 52(2) and (3) EPC. However, while the PCT condition for excluding computer programs is a question of equipment, the EPC condition is a question of "computer program as such".
According to some, the fact that the PCT does not deal directly with the scope of patentable subject matter, in relation to computer programs, adds "weight to the contention that, having been born out of administrative inconvenience rather than any great principle, restrictions on patentability of programs should be limited to the maximum possible extent."
In the judgment in CFPH LLC's Applications, Peter Prescott referred to Rule 39.1 PCT when discussing the motivation behind the exclusion from patent protection of programs for computers under UK law. He commented that, at the time the EPC was under consideration (during the 1970s), "it was felt that searching the prior art would be a big problem" and that "Rule 39(1) of the Patent Co-operation Treaty recognised that an International Searching Authority might not be suitably equipped".
Consequences on national and regional phases
These provisions have no legal consequence as regards the patentability in national or regional patent offices designated in a PCT application, as the law of most national or regional offices requires that they draw their own conclusions based on their own national or regional patent law. This is in complete compliance with the PCT since provides that, as far as substantive conditions of patentability are concerned, national and regional patent laws prevail:
References and notes
External links
Patent Cooperation Treaty
Patent Cooperation Treaty |
46494789 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HackerRank | HackerRank | HackerRank is a tech company that focuses on competitive programming challenges for both consumers and businesses, where developers compete by trying to program according to provided specifications. HackerRank's programming challenges can be solved in a variety of programming languages (including Java, C++, PHP, Python, SQL, JavaScript) and span multiple computer science domains.
On the consumer side, when a programmer submits a solution to a programming challenge, their submission is scored on the accuracy of their output. Programmers are then ranked globally on the HackerRank leaderboard and earn badges based on their accomplishments to drive competition among users. In addition to individual coding challenges, HackerRank also hosts contests (often referred to by HackerRank as "CodeSprints") where users compete on the same programming challenges during a set period of time and are then ranked at the conclusion of the event. HackerRank is part of the growing gamification trend within competitive computer programming and the consumer-side of their website is free for coders to use.
History
HackerRank was founded as InterviewStreet Inc. by two NIT Trichy alumni Vivek Ravisankar and Hari Karunanidhi. HackerRank is a Y Combinator-backed company, and was the first Indian company accepted into Y Combinator. They also participated in TechCrunch Disrupt in 2012, and currently have venture capital backing from Khosla Ventures and Battery Ventures.
Funding
In July 2015, HackerRank received $7.5 million funding from a Japanese firm Recruit Holdings’ HR technology fund. On February 13, 2018 HackerRank announced they had raised $30 million in Series C funding, led by JMI Equity.
Acquisition
In December 2019, HackerRank acquired Mimir, a cloud-based service that provides tools for teaching computer science courses. Mimir is used by Google and some universities including Michigan State, UCLA, Oregon State and Purdue. Mimir is HackerRank’s first acquisition.
Computer science domains on HackerRank
Hackerrank provides developers to code in many different languages such as C++, Python, Java, Ruby, Swift, and many more. HackerRank categorizes most of their programming challenges into a number of core computer science domains, including:
Database: involves learning about management and maintenance of databases
Datastructure: involves learning about different types of available data structures and how to use them.
Mathematics: New challenging mathematical problems.
Artificial Intelligence: involves developing AI bots and using them against others.
Algorithms: Traditional algorithmic challenges.
Functional Programming: use functional programming abstractions to solve challenges.
Machine Learning: use predictive modeling and analysis to solve challenges.
HackerRank for Work
Their enterprise-side product, HackerRank for Work, is a subscription service that aims to help companies source, screen, and hire engineers and other technical roles. The HackerRank for Work platform gives businesses the option to leverage a built-in library of programming challenges or write their own so as to tailor that programming challenge directly to a company's open position. Technical recruiters then use those programming challenges to test candidates on their specific programming skills and better understand their qualification for a certain role. Candidate's challenges, once submitted, are auto-scored and the results are then provided to the technical recruiter for review. Companies such as Amplify, Quora, and Capital One are using HackerRank for Work in their technical recruiting screening processes. In addition to screening, HackerRank also hosts programming hackathons, referred to as CodeSprints, as a way for companies to source technical candidates. Companies who have hosted or sponsored these CodeSprints include Addepar, Yahoo!, Quora, and Amazon.
Notable releases
CodePair, released in February 2014, combines programming challenges with real-time video for interviewing.
DroidRank, released in November 2014, adds support for Android-based programming challenges.
SudoRank, released in February 2015, adds support for Linux-based scripting challenges
DbRank, released in July 2015, adds support for Database challenges in IBM DB2, MySQL, MS SQL, and Oracle
Customers
In 2014, HackerRank for work had over 1,000 paying customers for their subscription service. Notable enterprise customers include Adobe, Amazon, Atlassian, Citrix, EA Sports, Evernote, Quora, Facebook, Twitter, Walmart, Yahoo!, D. E. Shaw and Zynga.
See also
CodeChef
Codility
Chase2learn
HackerEarth
CodeFights
Codeforces
CodinGame
Topcoder
Codewars
References
External links
HackerRank
HackerRank for Work
Hackerrank Test: Sample Questions
Programming contests |
60613037 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OctaDist | OctaDist | OctaDist is computer software for crystallography and inorganic chemistry program. It is mainly used for computing distortion parameters of coordination complex such as spin crossover complex (SCO), magnetic metal complex and metal–organic framework (MOF).
The program is developed and maintained in an international collaboration between the members of the Computational Chemistry Research Unit at Thammasat University., the Functional Materials & Nanotechnology CoE at Walailak University and the Switchable Molecules and Materials group at University of Bordeaux
OctaDist is written entirely in Python binding to Tkinter graphical user interface toolkit. It is available for Windows, macOS, and Linux. It is free and open-source software distributed under a GNU General Public License (GPL) 3.0.
Standard abilities
The following are the main features of the latest version of OctaDist:
Structural distortion analysis
Determination of regular and irregular distorted octahedral molecular geometry
Octahedral distortion parameters
Tilting distortion parameter for perovskite complex
Molecular graphics
3D modelling of complex
Display of the eight faces of octahedron
Atomic orthogonal projection and projection plane
Twisting triangular faces
Molecular superposition (Overlay)
Other utilities
Scripting language
Surface area of the faces of octahedron
Jahn-Teller distortion parameters
Root-mean-square deviation of atomic positions
Capabilities
Simple and flexible processes of use
Cross-platform for both 32-bit and 64-bit systems
Graphical user interface (GUI)
Command-line interface (CLI)
User-friendly interactive scripting code
User-adjustable program setting
On top of huge and complicated complexes
Support for several outputs of computational chemistry software, including Gaussian, Q-Chem, ORCA, and NWChem
See also
List of quantum chemistry and solid-state physics software
References
External links
OctaDist official website
OctaDist at Github repository
OctaDist PyPI package
OctaDist at IUCr software archive
Computational chemistry software
Chemistry software
Crystallography software
Free science software
2019 software |
390905 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Horizons | New Horizons | New Horizons is an interplanetary space probe that was launched as a part of NASA's New Frontiers program. Engineered by the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) and the Southwest Research Institute (SwRI), with a team led by Alan Stern, the spacecraft was launched in 2006 with the primary mission to perform a flyby study of the Pluto system in 2015, and a secondary mission to fly by and study one or more other Kuiper belt objects (KBOs) in the decade to follow, which became a mission to 486958 Arrokoth. It is the fifth space probe to achieve the escape velocity needed to leave the Solar System.
On January 19, 2006, New Horizons was launched from Cape Canaveral Space Force Station by an Atlas V rocket directly into an Earth-and-solar escape trajectory with a speed of about . It was the fastest (average speed with respect to Earth) man-made object ever launched from Earth. It is not the fastest speed recorded for a spacecraft, which as of 2021 is that of the Parker Solar Probe. After a brief encounter with asteroid 132524 APL, New Horizons proceeded to Jupiter, making its closest approach on February 28, 2007, at a distance of . The Jupiter flyby provided a gravity assist that increased New Horizons speed; the flyby also enabled a general test of New Horizons scientific capabilities, returning data about the planet's atmosphere, moons, and magnetosphere.
Most of the post-Jupiter voyage was spent in hibernation mode to preserve on-board systems, except for brief annual checkouts. On December 6, 2014, New Horizons was brought back online for the Pluto encounter, and instrument check-out began. On January 15, 2015, the spacecraft began its approach phase to Pluto.
On July 14, 2015, at 11:49 UTC, it flew above the surface of Pluto, which at the time was 34 AU from the Sun, making it the first spacecraft to explore the dwarf planet. In August 2016, New Horizons was reported to have traveled at speeds of more than . On October 25, 2016, at 21:48 UTC, the last of the recorded data from the Pluto flyby was received from New Horizons. Having completed its flyby of Pluto, New Horizons then maneuvered for a flyby of Kuiper belt object 486958 Arrokoth (then nicknamed Ultima Thule), which occurred on January 1, 2019, when it was 43.4 AU from the Sun. In August 2018, NASA cited results by Alice on New Horizons to confirm the existence of a "hydrogen wall" at the outer edges of the Solar System. This "wall" was first detected in 1992 by the two Voyager spacecraft.
History
In August 1992, JPL scientist Robert Staehle called Pluto discoverer Clyde Tombaugh, requesting permission to visit his planet. "I told him he was welcome to it," Tombaugh later remembered, "though he's got to go one long, cold trip." The call eventually led to a series of proposed Pluto missions, leading up to New Horizons.
Stamatios "Tom" Krimigis, head of the Applied Physics Laboratory's space division, one of many entrants in the New Frontiers Program competition, formed the New Horizons team with Alan Stern in December 2000. Appointed as the project's principal investigator, Stern was described by Krimigis as "the personification of the Pluto mission". New Horizons was based largely on Stern's work since Pluto 350 and involved most of the team from Pluto Kuiper Express. The New Horizons proposal was one of five that were officially submitted to NASA. It was later selected as one of two finalists to be subject to a three-month concept study, in June 2001. The other finalist, POSSE (Pluto and Outer Solar System Explorer), was a separate, but similar Pluto mission concept by the University of Colorado Boulder, led by principal investigator Larry W. Esposito, and supported by the JPL, Lockheed Martin and the University of California. However, the APL, in addition to being supported by Pluto Kuiper Express developers at the Goddard Space Flight Center and Stanford University, were at an advantage; they had recently developed NEAR Shoemaker for NASA, which had successfully entered orbit around 433 Eros earlier that year, and would later land on the asteroid to scientific and engineering fanfare.
In November 2001, New Horizons was officially selected for funding as part of the New Frontiers program. However, the new NASA Administrator appointed by the Bush Administration, Sean O'Keefe, was not supportive of New Horizons, and effectively cancelled it by not including it in NASA's budget for 2003. NASA's Associate Administrator for the Science Mission Directorate Ed Weiler prompted Stern to lobby for the funding of New Horizons in hopes of the mission appearing in the Planetary Science Decadal Survey; a prioritized "wish list", compiled by the United States National Research Council, that reflects the opinions of the scientific community. After an intense campaign to gain support for New Horizons, the Planetary Science Decadal Survey of 2003–2013 was published in the summer of 2002. New Horizons topped the list of projects considered the highest priority among the scientific community in the medium-size category; ahead of missions to the Moon, and even Jupiter. Weiler stated that it was a result that "[his] administration was not going to fight". Funding for the mission was finally secured following the publication of the report, and Stern's team was finally able to start building the spacecraft and its instruments, with a planned launch in January 2006 and arrival at Pluto in 2015. Alice Bowman became Mission Operations Manager (MOM).
Mission profile
New Horizons is the first mission in NASA's New Frontiers mission category, larger and more expensive than the Discovery missions but smaller than the missions of the Flagship Program. The cost of the mission (including spacecraft and instrument development, launch vehicle, mission operations, data analysis, and education/public outreach) is approximately $700 million over 15 years (2001–2016). The spacecraft was built primarily by Southwest Research Institute (SwRI) and the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory. The mission's principal investigator is Alan Stern of the Southwest Research Institute (formerly NASA Associate Administrator).
After separation from the launch vehicle, overall control was taken by Mission Operations Center (MOC) at the Applied Physics Laboratory in Howard County, Maryland. The science instruments are operated at Clyde Tombaugh Science Operations Center (T-SOC) in Boulder, Colorado. Navigation is performed at various contractor facilities, whereas the navigational positional data and related celestial reference frames are provided by the Naval Observatory Flagstaff Station through Headquarters NASA and JPL; KinetX is the lead on the New Horizons navigation team and is responsible for planning trajectory adjustments as the spacecraft speeds toward the outer Solar System. Coincidentally the Naval Observatory Flagstaff Station was where the photographic plates were taken for the discovery of Pluto's moon Charon; and the Naval Observatory itself is not far from the Lowell Observatory where Pluto was discovered.
New Horizons was originally planned as a voyage to the only unexplored planet in the SolarSystem. When the spacecraft was launched, Pluto was still classified as a planet, later to be reclassified as a dwarf planet by the International Astronomical Union (IAU). Some members of the New Horizons team, including Alan Stern, disagree with the IAU definition and still describe Pluto as the ninth planet. Pluto's satellites Nix and Hydra also have a connection with the spacecraft: the first letters of their names (N and H) are the initials of New Horizons. The moons' discoverers chose these names for this reason, plus Nix and Hydra's relationship to the mythological Pluto.
In addition to the science equipment, there are several cultural artifacts traveling with the spacecraft. These include a collection of 434,738 names stored on a compact disc, a piece of Scaled Composites's SpaceShipOne, a "Not Yet Explored" USPS stamp, and a Flag of the United States, along with other mementos.
About of Clyde Tombaugh's ashes are aboard the spacecraft, to commemorate his discovery of Pluto in 1930. A Florida-state quarter coin, whose design commemorates human exploration, is included, officially as a trim weight. One of the science packages (a dust counter) is named after Venetia Burney, who, as a child, suggested the name "Pluto" after its discovery.
Goal
The goal of the mission is to understand the formation of the Plutonian system, the Kuiper belt, and the transformation of the early Solar System. The spacecraft collected data on the atmospheres, surfaces, interiors, and environments of Pluto and its moons. It will also study other objects in the Kuiper belt. "By way of comparison, New Horizons gathered 5,000 times as much data at Pluto as Mariner did at the Red Planet."
Some of the questions the mission attempts to answer are: What is Pluto's atmosphere made of and how does it behave? What does its surface look like? Are there large geological structures? How do solar wind particles interact with Pluto's atmosphere?
Specifically, the mission's science objectives are to:
Map the surface compositions of Pluto and Charon
Characterize the geologies and morphologies of Pluto and Charon
Characterize the neutral atmosphere of Pluto and its escape rate
Search for an atmosphere around Charon
Map surface temperatures on Pluto and Charon
Search for rings and additional satellites around Pluto
Conduct similar investigations of one or more Kuiper belt objects
Design and construction
Spacecraft subsystems
The spacecraft is comparable in size and general shape to a grand piano and has been compared to a piano glued to a cocktail bar-sized satellite dish. As a point of departure, the team took inspiration from the Ulysses spacecraft, which also carried a radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) and dish on a box-in-box structure through the outer Solar System. Many subsystems and components have flight heritage from APL's CONTOUR spacecraft, which in turn had heritage from APL's TIMED spacecraft.
New Horizons body forms a triangle, almost thick. (The Pioneers have hexagonal bodies, whereas the Voyagers, Galileo, and Cassini–Huygens have decagonal, hollow bodies.) A 7075 aluminium alloy tube forms the main structural column, between the launch vehicle adapter ring at the "rear", and the radio dish antenna affixed to the "front" flat side. The titanium fuel tank is in this tube. The RTG attaches with a 4-sided titanium mount resembling a gray pyramid or stepstool. Titanium provides strength and thermal isolation. The rest of the triangle is primarily sandwich panels of thin aluminum face sheet (less than ) bonded to aluminum honeycomb core. The structure is larger than strictly necessary, with empty space inside. The structure is designed to act as shielding, reducing electronics errors caused by radiation from the RTG. Also, the mass distribution required for a spinning spacecraft demands a wider triangle.
The interior structure is painted black to equalize temperature by radiative heat transfer. Overall, the spacecraft is thoroughly blanketed to retain heat. Unlike the Pioneers and Voyagers, the radio dish is also enclosed in blankets that extend to the body. The heat from the RTG adds warmth to the spacecraft while it is in the outer Solar System. While in the inner Solar System, the spacecraft must prevent overheating, hence electronic activity is limited, power is diverted to shunts with attached radiators, and louvers are opened to radiate excess heat. While the spacecraft is cruising inactively in the cold outer Solar System, the louvers are closed, and the shunt regulator reroutes power to electric heaters.
Propulsion and attitude control
New Horizons has both spin-stabilized (cruise) and three-axis stabilized (science) modes controlled entirely with hydrazine monopropellant. Additional post launch delta-v of over is provided by a internal tank. Helium is used as a pressurant, with an elastomeric diaphragm assisting expulsion. The spacecraft's on-orbit mass including fuel is over on the Jupiter flyby trajectory, but would have been only for the backup direct flight option to Pluto. Significantly, had the backup option been taken, this would have meant less fuel for later Kuiper belt operations.
There are 16 thrusters on New Horizons: four and twelve plumbed into redundant branches. The larger thrusters are used primarily for trajectory corrections, and the small ones (previously used on Cassini and the Voyager spacecraft) are used primarily for attitude control and spinup/spindown maneuvers. Two star cameras are used to measure the spacecraft attitude. They are mounted on the face of the spacecraft and provide attitude information while in spin-stabilized or 3-axis mode. In between the time of star camera readings, spacecraft orientation is provided by dual redundant miniature inertial measurement units. Each unit contains three solid-state gyroscopes and three accelerometers. Two Adcole Sun sensors provide attitude determination. One detects the angle to the Sun, whereas the other measures spin rate and clocking.
Power
A cylindrical radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) protrudes in the plane of the triangle from one vertex of the triangle. The RTG provided of power at launch, and was predicted to drop approximately every year, decaying to by the time of its encounter with the Plutonian system in 2015 and will decay too far to power the transmitters in the 2030s. There are no onboard batteries since RTG output is predictable, and load transients are handled by a capacitor bank and fast circuit breakers. As of January 2019, the power output of the RTG is about .
The RTG, model "GPHS-RTG", was originally a spare from the Cassini mission. The RTG contains of plutonium-238 oxide pellets. Each pellet is clad in iridium, then encased in a graphite shell. It was developed by the U.S. Department of Energy at the Materials and Fuels Complex, a part of the Idaho National Laboratory.
The original RTG design called for of plutonium, but a unit less powerful than the original design goal was produced because of delays at the United States Department of Energy, including security activities, that delayed plutonium production. The mission parameters and observation sequence had to be modified for the reduced wattage; still, not all instruments can operate simultaneously. The Department of Energy transferred the space battery program from Ohio to Argonne in 2002 because of security concerns.
The amount of radioactive plutonium in the RTG is about one-third the amount on board the Cassini–Huygens probe when it launched in 1997. The Cassini launch had been protested by multiple organizations, due to the risk of such a large amount of plutonium being released into the atmosphere in case of an accident. The United States Department of Energy estimated the chances of a launch accident that would release radiation into the atmosphere at 1 in 350, and monitored the launch because of the inclusion of an RTG on board. It was estimated that a worst-case scenario of total dispersal of on-board plutonium would spread the equivalent radiation of 80% the average annual dosage in North America from background radiation over an area with a radius of .
Flight computer
The spacecraft carries two computer systems: the Command and Data Handling system and the Guidance and Control processor. Each of the two systems is duplicated for redundancy, for a total of four computers. The processor used for its flight computers is the Mongoose-V, a 12 MHz radiation-hardened version of the MIPS R3000 CPU. Multiple redundant clocks and timing routines are implemented in hardware and software to help prevent faults and downtime. To conserve heat and mass, spacecraft and instrument electronics are housed together in IEMs (integrated electronics modules). There are two redundant IEMs. Including other functions such as instrument and radio electronics, each IEM contains 9boards. The software of the probe runs on Nucleus RTOS operating system.
There have been two "safing" events, that sent the spacecraft into safe mode:
On March 19, 2007, the Command and Data Handling computer experienced an uncorrectable memory error and rebooted itself, causing the spacecraft to go into safe mode. The craft fully recovered within two days, with some data loss on Jupiter's magnetotail. No impact on the subsequent mission was expected.
On July 4, 2015, there was a CPU safing event caused by over-assignment of commanded science operations on the craft's approach to Pluto. Fortunately, the craft was able to recover within two days without major impacts on its mission.
Telecommunications and data handling
Communication with the spacecraft is via X band. The craft had a communication rate of at Jupiter; at Pluto's distance, a rate of approximately per transmitter was expected. Besides the low data rate, Pluto's distance also causes a latency of about 4.5 hours (one-way). The NASA Deep Space Network (DSN) dishes are used to relay commands once the spacecraft is beyond Jupiter. The spacecraft uses dual modular redundancy transmitters and receivers, and either right- or left-hand circular polarization. The downlink signal is amplified by dual redundant 12-watt traveling-wave tube amplifiers (TWTAs) mounted on the body under the dish. The receivers are new, low-power designs. The system can be controlled to power both TWTAs at the same time, and transmit a dual-polarized downlink signal to the DSN that nearly doubles the downlink rate. DSN tests early in the mission with this dual polarization combining technique were successful, and the capability is now considered operational (when the spacecraft power budget permits both TWTAs to be powered).
In addition to the high-gain antenna, there are two backup low-gain antennas and a medium-gain dish. The high-gain dish has a Cassegrain reflector layout, composite construction, of diameter providing over of gain and a half-power beam width of about a degree. The prime-focus medium-gain antenna, with a aperture and 10° half-power beam width, is mounted to the back of the high-gain antenna's secondary reflector. The forward low-gain antenna is stacked atop the feed of the medium-gain antenna. The aft low-gain antenna is mounted within the launch adapter at the rear of the spacecraft. This antenna was used only for early mission phases near Earth, just after launch and for emergencies if the spacecraft had lost attitude control.
New Horizons recorded scientific instrument data to its solid-state memory buffer at each encounter, then transmitted the data to Earth. Data storage is done on two low-power solid-state recorders (one primary, one backup) holding up to s each. Because of the extreme distance from Pluto and the Kuiper belt, only one buffer load at those encounters can be saved. This is because New Horizons would require approximately 16 months after leaving the vicinity of Pluto to transmit the buffer load back to Earth. At Pluto's distance, radio signals from the space probe back to Earth took four hours and 25 minutes to traverse 4.7 billion km of space.
Part of the reason for the delay between the gathering of and transmission of data is that all of the New Horizons instrumentation is body-mounted. In order for the cameras to record data, the entire probe must turn, and the one-degree-wide beam of the high-gain antenna was not pointing toward Earth. Previous spacecraft, such as the Voyager program probes, had a rotatable instrumentation platform (a "scan platform") that could take measurements from virtually any angle without losing radio contact with Earth. New Horizons was mechanically simplified to save weight, shorten the schedule, and improve reliability during its 15-year lifetime.
The Voyager 2 scan platform jammed at Saturn, and the demands of long time exposures at outer planets led to a change of plans such that the entire probe was rotated to make photos at Uranus and Neptune, similar to how New Horizons rotated.
Science payload
New Horizons carries seven instruments: three optical instruments, two plasma instruments, a dust sensor and a radio science receiver/radiometer. The instruments are to be used to investigate the global geology, surface composition, surface temperature, atmospheric pressure, atmospheric temperature and escape rate of Pluto and its moons. The rated power is , though not all instruments operate simultaneously. In addition, New Horizons has an Ultrastable Oscillator subsystem, which may be used to study and test the Pioneer anomaly towards the end of the spacecraft's life.
Long-Range Reconnaissance Imager (LORRI)
The Long-Range Reconnaissance Imager (LORRI) is a long-focal-length imager designed for high resolution and responsivity at visible wavelengths. The instrument is equipped with a 1024×1024 pixel by 12-bits-per-pixel monochromatic CCD imager giving a resolution of 5μrad (~1arcsec). The CCD is chilled far below freezing by a passive radiator on the antisolar face of the spacecraft. This temperature differential requires insulation and isolation from the rest of the structure. The aperture Ritchey–Chretien mirrors and metering structure are made of silicon carbide to boost stiffness, reduce weight and prevent warping at low temperatures. The optical elements sit in a composite light shield and mount with titanium and fiberglass for thermal isolation. Overall mass is , with the optical tube assembly (OTA) weighing about , for one of the largest silicon-carbide telescopes flown at the time (now surpassed by Herschel). For viewing on public web sites the 12-bit per pixel LORRI images are converted to 8-bit per pixel JPEG images. These public images do not contain the full dynamic range of brightness information available from the raw LORRI images files.
,
Solar Wind Around Pluto (SWAP)
Solar Wind Around Pluto (SWAP) is a toroidal electrostatic analyzer and retarding potential analyzer (RPA), that makes up one of the two instruments comprising New Horizons Plasma and high-energy particle spectrometer suite (PAM), the other being PEPSSI. SWAP measures particles of up to 6.5keV and, because of the tenuous solar wind at Pluto's distance, the instrument is designed with the largest aperture of any such instrument ever flown.
Pluto Energetic Particle Spectrometer Science Investigation (PEPSSI)
Pluto Energetic Particle Spectrometer Science Investigation (PEPSSI) is a time of flight ion and electron sensor that makes up one of the two instruments comprising New Horizons plasma and high-energy particle spectrometer suite (PAM), the other being SWAP. Unlike SWAP, which measures particles of up to 6.5keV, PEPSSI goes up to 1MeV.
Alice
Alice is an ultraviolet imaging spectrometer that is one of two photographic instruments comprising New Horizons Pluto Exploration Remote Sensing Investigation (PERSI); the other being the Ralph telescope. It resolves 1,024wavelength bands in the far and extreme ultraviolet (from 50–), over 32view fields. Its goal is to determine the composition of Pluto's atmosphere. This Alice instrument is derived from another Alice aboard ESA's Rosetta spacecraft.
In August 2018, NASA confirmed, based on results by Alice on the New Horizons spacecraft, a "hydrogen wall" at the outer edges of the Solar System that was first detected in 1992 by the two Voyager spacecraft.
Ralph telescope
The Ralph telescope, 75 mm in aperture, is one of two photographic instruments that make up New Horizons Pluto Exploration Remote Sensing Investigation (PERSI), with the other being the Alice instrument. Ralph has two separate channels: MVIC (Multispectral Visible Imaging Camera), a visible-light CCD imager with broadband and color channels; and LEISA (Linear Etalon Imaging Spectral Array), a near-infrared imaging spectrometer. LEISA is derived from a similar instrument on the Earth Observing-1 spacecraft. Ralph was named after Alice's husband on The Honeymooners, and was designed after Alice.
On June 23, 2017, NASA announced that it has renamed the LEISA instrument to the "Lisa Hardaway Infrared Mapping Spectrometer" in honor of Lisa Hardaway, the Ralph program manager at Ball Aerospace, who died in January 2017 at age 50.
Venetia Burney Student Dust Counter (VBSDC)
The Venetia Burney Student Dust Counter (VBSDC), built by students at the University of Colorado Boulder, is operating periodically to make dust measurements. It consists of a detector panel, about , mounted on the anti-solar face of the spacecraft (the ram direction), and an electronics box within the spacecraft. The detector contains fourteen polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) panels, twelve science and two reference, which generate voltage when impacted. Effective collecting area is . No dust counter has operated past the orbit of Uranus; models of dust in the outer Solar System, especially the Kuiper belt, are speculative. The VBSDC is always turned on measuring the masses of the interplanetary and interstellar dust particles (in the range of nano- and picograms) as they collide with the PVDF panels mounted on the New Horizons spacecraft. The measured data is expected to greatly contribute to the understanding of the dust spectra of the Solar System. The dust spectra can then be compared with those from observations of other stars, giving new clues as to where Earth-like planets can be found in the universe. The dust counter is named for Venetia Burney, who first suggested the name "Pluto" at the age of 11. A thirteen-minute short film about the VBSDC garnered an Emmy Award for student achievement in 2006.
Radio Science Experiment (REX)
The Radio Science Experiment (REX) used an ultrastable crystal oscillator (essentially a calibrated crystal in a miniature oven) and some additional electronics to conduct radio science investigations using the communications channels. These are small enough to fit on a single card. Because there are two redundant communications subsystems, there are two, identical REX circuit boards.
Journey to Pluto
Launch
On September 24, 2005, the spacecraft arrived at the Kennedy Space Center on board a C-17 Globemaster III for launch preparations. The launch of New Horizons was originally scheduled for January 11, 2006, but was initially delayed until January 17, 2006, to allow for borescope inspections of the Atlas V's kerosene tank. Further delays related to low cloud ceiling conditions downrange, and high winds and technical difficulties—unrelated to the rocket itself—prevented launch for a further two days.
The probe finally lifted off from Pad 41 at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida, directly south of Space Shuttle Launch Complex 39, at 19:00 UTC on January 19, 2006. The Centaur second stage ignited at 19:04:43 UTC and burned for 5 minutes 25 seconds. It reignited at 19:32 UTC and burned for 9 minutes 47 seconds. The ATK Star 48B third stage ignited at 19:42:37 UTC and burned for 1 minute 28 seconds. Combined, these burns successfully sent the probe on a solar-escape trajectory at . New Horizons took only nine hours to pass the Moon's orbit. Although there were backup launch opportunities in February 2006 and February 2007, only the first twenty-three days of the 2006 window permitted the Jupiter flyby. Any launch outside that period would have forced the spacecraft to fly a slower trajectory directly to Pluto, delaying its encounter by five to six years.
The probe was launched by a Lockheed Martin Atlas V 551 rocket, with a third stage added to increase the heliocentric (escape) speed. This was the first launch of the Atlas V 551 configuration, which uses five solid rocket boosters, and the first Atlas V with a third stage. Previous flights had used zero, two, or three solid boosters, but never five. The vehicle, AV-010, weighed at lift-off, and had earlier been slightly damaged when Hurricane Wilma swept across Florida on October 24, 2005. One of the solid rocket boosters was hit by a door. The booster was replaced with an identical unit, rather than inspecting and requalifying the original.
The launch was dedicated to the memory of launch conductor Daniel Sarokon, who was described by space program officials as one of the most influential people in the history of space travel.
Inner Solar System
Trajectory corrections
On January 28 and 30, 2006, mission controllers guided the probe through its first trajectory-correction maneuver (TCM), which was divided into two parts (TCM-1A and TCM-1B). The total velocity change of these two corrections was about . TCM-1 was accurate enough to permit the cancellation of TCM-2, the second of three originally scheduled corrections. On March 9, 2006, controllers performed TCM-3, the last of three scheduled course corrections. The engines burned for 76 seconds, adjusting the spacecraft's velocity by about . Further trajectory maneuvers were not needed until September 25, 2007 (seven months after the Jupiter flyby), when the engines were fired for 15 minutes and 37 seconds, changing the spacecraft's velocity by , followed by another TCM, almost three years later on June 30, 2010, that lasted 35.6 seconds, when New Horizons had already reached the halfway point (in time traveled) to Pluto.
In-flight tests and crossing of Mars orbit
During the week of February 20, 2006, controllers conducted initial in-flight tests of three onboard science instruments, the Alice ultraviolet imaging spectrometer, the PEPSSI plasma-sensor, and the LORRI long-range visible-spectrum camera. No scientific measurements or images were taken, but instrument electronics, and in the case of Alice, some electromechanical systems were shown to be functioning correctly.
On April 7, 2006, the spacecraft passed the orbit of Mars, moving at roughly away from the Sun at a solar distance of 243 million kilometers.
Asteroid 132524 APL
Because of the need to conserve fuel for possible encounters with Kuiper belt objects subsequent to the Pluto flyby, intentional encounters with objects in the asteroid belt were not planned. After launch, the New Horizons team scanned the spacecraft's trajectory to determine if any asteroids would, by chance, be close enough for observation. In May 2006 it was discovered that New Horizons would pass close to the tiny asteroid 132524 APL on June 13, 2006. Closest approach occurred at 4:05 UTC at a distance of (around one quarter of the average Earth-Moon distance). The asteroid was imaged by Ralph (use of LORRI was not possible because of proximity to the Sun), which gave the team a chance to test Ralph capabilities, and make observations of the asteroid's composition as well as light and phase curves. The asteroid was estimated to be in diameter. The spacecraft successfully tracked the rapidly moving asteroid over June 10–12, 2006.
First Pluto sighting
The first images of Pluto from New Horizons were acquired September 21–24, 2006, during a test of LORRI. They were released on November 28, 2006. The images, taken from a distance of approximately , confirmed the spacecraft's ability to track distant targets, critical for maneuvering toward Pluto and other Kuiper belt objects.
Jupiter encounter
New Horizons used LORRI to take its first photographs of Jupiter on September 4, 2006, from a distance of . More detailed exploration of the system began in January 2007 with an infrared image of the moon Callisto, as well as several black-and-white images of Jupiter itself. New Horizons received a gravity assist from Jupiter, with its closest approach at 05:43:40 UTC on February 28, 2007, when it was from Jupiter. The flyby increased New Horizons speed by , accelerating the probe to a velocity of relative to the Sun and shortening its voyage to Pluto by three years.
The flyby was the center of a four-month intensive observation campaign lasting from January to June. Being an ever-changing scientific target, Jupiter has been observed intermittently since the end of the Galileo mission in September 2003. Knowledge about Jupiter benefited from the fact that New Horizons instruments were built using the latest technology, especially in the area of cameras, representing a significant improvement over Galileo cameras, which were modified versions of Voyager cameras, which, in turn, were modified Mariner cameras. The Jupiter encounter also served as a shakedown and dress rehearsal for the Pluto encounter. Because Jupiter is much closer to Earth than Pluto, the communications link can transmit multiple loadings of the memory buffer; thus the mission returned more data from the Jovian system than it was expected to transmit from Pluto.
One of the main goals during the Jupiter encounter was observing its atmospheric conditions and analyzing the structure and composition of its clouds. Heat-induced lightning strikes in the polar regions and "waves" that indicate violent storm activity were observed and measured. The Little Red Spot, spanning up to 70% of Earth's diameter, was imaged from up close for the first time. Recording from different angles and illumination conditions, New Horizons took detailed images of Jupiter's faint ring system, discovering debris left over from recent collisions within the rings or from other unexplained phenomena. The search for undiscovered moons within the rings showed no results. Travelling through Jupiter's magnetosphere, New Horizons collected valuable particle readings. "Bubbles" of plasma that are thought to be formed from material ejected by the moon Io were noticed in the magnetotail.
Jovian moons
The four largest moons of Jupiter were in poor positions for observation; the necessary path of the gravity-assist maneuver meant that New Horizons passed millions of kilometers from any of the Galilean moons. Still, its instruments were intended for small, dim targets, so they were scientifically useful on large, distant moons. Emphasis was put on Jupiter's innermost Galilean moon, Io, whose active volcanoes shoot out tons of material into Jupiter's magnetosphere, and further. Out of eleven observed eruptions, three were seen for the first time. That of Tvashtar reached an altitude of up to . The event gave scientists an unprecedented look into the structure and motion of the rising plume and its subsequent fall back to the surface. Infrared signatures of a further 36 volcanoes were noticed. Callisto's surface was analyzed with LEISA, revealing how lighting and viewing conditions affect infrared spectrum readings of its surface water ice. Minor moons such as Amalthea had their orbit solutions refined. The cameras determined their positions, acting as "reverse optical navigation".
Outer Solar System
After passing Jupiter, New Horizons spent most of its journey towards Pluto in hibernation mode. Redundant components as well as guidance and control systems were shut down to extend their life cycle, decrease operation costs and free the Deep Space Network for other missions. During hibernation mode, the onboard computer monitored the probe's systems and transmitted a signal back to Earth; a "green" code if everything was functioning as expected or a "red" code if mission control's assistance was needed. The probe was activated for about two months a year so that the instruments could be calibrated and the systems checked. The first hibernation mode cycle started on June 28, 2007, the second cycle began on December 16, 2008, the third cycle on August 27, 2009, and the fourth cycle on August 29, 2014, after a 10-week test.
New Horizons crossed the orbit of Saturn on June 8, 2008, and Uranus on March 18, 2011. After astronomers announced the discovery of two new moons in the Pluto system, Kerberos and Styx, mission planners started contemplating the possibility of the probe running into unseen debris and dust left over from ancient collisions between the moons. A study based on 18 months of computer simulations, Earth-based telescope observations and occultations of the Pluto system revealed that the possibility of a catastrophic collision with debris or dust was less than 0.3% on the probe's scheduled course. If the hazard increased, New Horizons could have used one of two possible contingency plans, the so-called SHBOTs (Safe Haven by Other Trajectories). Either the probe could have continued on its present trajectory with the antenna facing the incoming particles so the more vital systems would be protected, or it could have positioned its antenna to make a course correction that would take it just 3000 km from the surface of Pluto where it was expected that the atmospheric drag would have cleaned the surrounding space of possible debris.
While in hibernation mode in July 2012, New Horizons started gathering scientific data with SWAP, PEPSSI and VBSDC. Although it was originally planned to activate just the VBSDC, other instruments were powered on in order to collect valuable heliospheric data. Before activating the other two instruments, ground tests were conducted to make sure that the expanded data gathering in this phase of the mission would not limit available energy, memory and fuel in the future and that all systems were functioning during the flyby. The first set of data was transmitted in January 2013 during a three-week activation from hibernation. The command and data handling software was updated to address the problem of computer resets.
Possible Neptune trojan targets
Other possible targets were Neptune trojans. The probe's trajectory to Pluto passed near Neptune's trailing Lagrange point (""), which may host hundreds of bodies in 1:1 resonance. In late 2013, New Horizons passed within of the high-inclination L5 Neptune trojan , which was discovered shortly before by the New Horizons KBO Search task, a survey to find additional distant objects for New Horizons to fly by after its 2015 encounter with Pluto. At that range, would have been bright enough to be detectable by New Horizons LORRI instrument; however, the New Horizons team eventually decided that they would not target for observations because the preparations for the Pluto approach took precedence.
Observations of Pluto and Charon 2013–14
Images from July 1 to 3, 2013, by LORRI were the first by the probe to resolve Pluto and Charon as separate objects. On July 14, 2014, mission controllers performed a sixth trajectory-correction maneuver (TCM) since its launch to enable the craft to reach Pluto. Between July 19–24, 2014, New Horizons LORRI snapped 12 images of Charon revolving around Pluto, covering almost one full rotation at distances ranging from about . In August 2014, astronomers made high-precision measurements of Pluto's location and orbit around the Sun using the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) (an array of radio telescopes located in Chile) to help NASA's New Horizons spacecraft accurately home in on Pluto. On December 6, 2014, mission controllers sent a signal for the craft to "wake up" from its final Pluto-approach hibernation and begin regular operations. The craft's response that it was "awake" reached Earth on December 7, 2014, at 02:30 UTC.
Pluto approach
Distant-encounter operations at Pluto began on January 4, 2015. On this date, images of the targets with the onboard LORRI imager plus the Ralph telescope were only a few pixels in width. Investigators began taking Pluto images and background starfield images to assist mission navigators in the design of course-correcting engine maneuvers that would precisely modify the trajectory of New Horizons to aim the approach.
On February 12, 2015, NASA released new images of Pluto (taken from January 25 to 31) from the approaching probe. New Horizons was more than away from Pluto when it began taking the photos, which showed Pluto and its largest moon, Charon. The exposure time was too short to see Pluto's smaller, much fainter moons.
Investigators compiled a series of images of the moons Nix and Hydra taken from January 27 through February 8, 2015, beginning at a range of . Pluto and Charon appear as a single overexposed object at the center. The right side image has been processed to remove the background starfield. The other two, even smaller moons, Kerberos and Styx were seen on photos taken on April 25. Starting May 11 a hazard search was performed, looking for unknown objects that could be a danger to the spacecraft, such as rings or hithero undiscovered moons, which could then possibly be avoided by a course change. No rings or additional moons were found.
Also in regard to the approach phase during January 2015, on August 21, 2012, the team announced that they would spend mission time attempting long-range observations of the Kuiper belt object temporarily designated VNH0004 (now designated ), when the object was at a distance from New Horizons of . The object would be too distant to resolve surface features or take spectroscopy, but it would be able to make observations that cannot be made from Earth, namely a phase curve and a search for small moons. A second object was planned to be observed in June 2015, and a third in September after the flyby; the team hoped to observe a dozen such objects through 2018. On April 15, 2015, Pluto was imaged showing a possible polar cap.
Software glitch
On July 4, 2015, New Horizons experienced a software anomaly and went into safe mode, preventing the spacecraft from performing scientific observations until engineers could resolve the problem. On July 5, NASA announced that the problem was determined to be a timing flaw in a command sequence used to prepare the spacecraft for its flyby, and the spacecraft would resume scheduled science operations on July 7. The science observations lost because of the anomaly were judged to have no impact on the mission's main objectives and minimal impact on other objectives.
The timing flaw consisted of performing two tasks simultaneously—compressing previously acquired data to release space for more data, and making a second copy of the approach command sequence—that together overloaded the spacecraft's primary computer. After the overload was detected, the spacecraft performed as designed: it switched from the primary computer to the backup computer, entered safe mode, and sent a distress call back to Earth. The distress call was received the afternoon of July 4 and alerted engineers that they needed to contact the spacecraft to get more information and resolve the issue. The resolution was that the problem happened as part of preparations for the approach, and was not expected to happen again because no similar tasks were planned for the remainder of the encounter.
Pluto system encounter
The closest approach of the New Horizons spacecraft to Pluto occurred at 11:49 UTC on July 14, 2015, at a range of from the surface and from the center of Pluto. Telemetry data confirming a successful flyby and a healthy spacecraft was received on Earth from the vicinity of the Pluto system on July 15, 2015, 00:52:37 UTC, after 22 hours of planned radio silence due to the spacecraft being pointed towards the Pluto system. Mission managers estimated a one in 10,000 chance that debris could have destroyed the probe or its communication-systems during the flyby, preventing it from sending data to Earth. The first details of the encounter were received the next day, but the download of the complete data set through the 2 kbps data downlink took just over 15 months, and analysis of the data continues as of 2021.
Objectives
The mission's science objectives were grouped in three distinct priorities. The "primary objectives" were required. The "secondary objectives" were expected to be met but were not demanded. The "tertiary objectives" were desired. These objectives could have been skipped in favor of the above objectives. An objective to measure any magnetic field of Pluto was dropped, due to mass and budget issues associated with including a magnetometer on the spacecraft. Instead, SWAP and PEPSSI could indirectly detect magnetic fields around Pluto.
Primary objectives (required)
Characterize the global geology and morphology of Pluto and Charon
Map chemical compositions of Pluto and Charon surfaces
Characterize the neutral (non-ionized) atmosphere of Pluto and its escape rate
Secondary objectives (expected)
Characterize the time variability of Pluto's surface and atmosphere
Image select Pluto and Charon areas in stereo
Map the terminators (day/night border) of Pluto and Charon with high resolution
Map the chemical compositions of select Pluto and Charon areas with high resolution
Characterize Pluto's ionosphere (upper layer of the atmosphere) and its interaction with the solar wind
Search for molecular neutral species such as molecular hydrogen, hydrocarbons, hydrogen cyanide and other nitriles in the atmosphere
Search for any Charon atmosphere
Determine bolometric Bond albedos for Pluto and Charon
Map surface temperatures of Pluto and Charon
Map any additional surfaces of outermost moons: Nix, Hydra, Kerberos, and Styx
Tertiary objectives (desired)
Characterize the energetic particle environment at Pluto and Charon
Refine bulk parameters (radii, masses) and orbits of Pluto and Charon
Search for additional moons and any rings
"The New Horizons flyby of the Pluto system was fully successful, meeting and in many cases exceeding, the Pluto objectives set out for it by NASA and the National Academy of Sciences."
Flyby details
New Horizons passed within of Pluto, with this closest approach on July 14, 2015, at 11:50 UTC. New Horizons had a relative velocity of at its closest approach, and came as close as to Charon. Starting 3.2 days before the closest approach, long-range imaging included the mapping of Pluto and Charon to resolution. This is half the rotation period of the Pluto–Charon system and allowed imaging of all sides of both bodies. Close range imaging was repeated twice per day in order to search for surface changes caused by localized snow fall or surface cryovolcanism. Because of Pluto's tilt, a portion of the northern hemisphere would be in shadow at all times. During the flyby, engineers expected LORRI to be able to obtain select images with resolution as high as if closest distance were around 12,500 km, and MVIC was expected to obtain four-color global dayside maps at resolution. LORRI and MVIC attempted to overlap their respective coverage areas to form stereo pairs. LEISA obtained hyperspectral near-infrared maps at globally and for selected areas.
Meanwhile, Alice characterized the atmosphere, both by emissions of atmospheric molecules (airglow), and by dimming of background stars as they pass behind Pluto (occultation). During and after closest approach, SWAP and PEPSSI sampled the high atmosphere and its effects on the solar wind. VBSDC searched for dust, inferring meteoroid collision rates and any invisible rings. REX performed active and passive radio science. The communications dish on Earth measured the disappearance and reappearance of the radio occultation signal as the probe flew by behind Pluto. The results resolved Pluto's diameter (by their timing) and atmospheric density and composition (by their weakening and strengthening pattern). (Alice can perform similar occultations, using sunlight instead of radio beacons.) Previous missions had the spacecraft transmit through the atmosphere, to Earth ("downlink"). Pluto's mass and mass distribution were evaluated by the gravitational tug on the spacecraft. As the spacecraft speeds up and slows down, the radio signal exhibited a Doppler shift. The Doppler shift was measured by comparison with the ultrastable oscillator in the communications electronics.
Reflected sunlight from Charon allowed some imaging observations of the nightside. Backlighting by the Sun gave an opportunity to highlight any rings or atmospheric hazes. REX performed radiometry of the nightside.
Satellite observations
New Horizons best spatial resolution of the small satellites is at Nix, at Hydra, and approximately at Kerberos and Styx. Estimates for the dimensions of these bodies are: Nix at ; Hydra at ; Kerberos at ; and Styx at .
Initial predictions envisioned Kerberos as a relatively large and massive object whose dark surface led to it having a faint reflection. This proved to be wrong as images obtained by New Horizons on July 14 and sent back to Earth in October 2015 revealed that Kerberos was smaller in size, across with a highly reflective surface suggesting the presence of relatively clean water ice similarly to the rest of Pluto's smaller moons.
Post-Pluto events
Soon after the Pluto flyby, in July 2015, New Horizons reported that the spacecraft was healthy, its flight path was within the margins, and science data of the Pluto–Charon system had been recorded. The spacecraft's immediate task was to begin returning the 6.25 gigabytes of information collected. The free-space path loss at its distance of 4.5 light-hours (3,000,000,000 km) is approximately 303 dB at 7 GHz. Using the high gain antenna and transmitting at full power, the signal from EIRP is +83 dBm, and at this distance the signal reaching Earth is −220 dBm. The received signal level (RSL) using one, un-arrayed Deep Space Network antenna with 72 dBi of forward gain equals −148 dBm. Because of the extremely low RSL, it could only transmit data at 1 to 2 kilobits per second.
By March 30, 2016, about nine months after the flyby, New Horizons reached the halfway point of transmitting this data. The transfer was completed on October 25, 2016 at 21:48 UTC, when the last piece of data—part of a Pluto–Charon observation sequence by the Ralph/LEISA imager—was received by the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory.
As of November 2018, at a distance of from the Sun and from 486958 Arrokoth, New Horizons was heading in the direction of the constellation Sagittarius at relative to the Sun. The brightness of the Sun from the spacecraft was magnitude −18.5.
On 17 April 2021, New Horizons reached a distance of 50 astronomical units (AU) from the Sun, while remaining fully operational.
Mission extension
The New Horizons team requested, and received, a mission extension through 2021 to explore additional Kuiper belt objects (KBOs). Funding was secured on July 1, 2016. During this Kuiper Belt Extended Mission (KEM) the spacecraft performed a close fly-by of 486958 Arrokoth and will conduct more distant observations of an additional two dozen objects, and possibly make a fly-by of another KBO.
Kuiper belt object mission
Target background
Mission planners searched for one or more additional Kuiper belt objects (KBOs) of the order of in diameter as targets for flybys similar to the spacecraft's Plutonian encounter. However, despite the large population of KBOs, many factors limited the number of possible targets. Because the flight path was determined by the Pluto flyby, and the probe only had 33 kilograms of hydrazine propellant remaining, the object to be visited needed to be within a cone of less than a degree's width extending from Pluto. The target also needed to be within 55AU, because beyond 55AU, the communications link becomes too weak, and the RTG power output decays significantly enough to hinder observations. Desirable KBOs are well over in diameter, neutral in color (to contrast with the reddish Pluto), and, if possible, have a moon that imparts a wobble.
KBO Search
In 2011, mission scientists started the New Horizons KBO Search, a dedicated survey for suitable KBOs using ground telescopes. Large ground telescopes with wide-field cameras, notably the twin 6.5-meter Magellan Telescopes in Chile, the 8.2-meter Subaru Observatory in Hawaii and the Canada–France–Hawaii Telescope were used to search for potential targets. By participating in a citizen-science project called Ice Hunters the public helped to scan telescopic images for possible suitable mission candidates. The ground-based search resulted in the discovery of about 143 KBOs of potential interest, but none of these were close enough to the flight path of New Horizons. Only the Hubble Space Telescope was deemed likely to find a suitable target in time for a successful KBO mission. On June 16, 2014, time on Hubble was granted for a search. Hubble has a much greater ability to find suitable KBOs than ground telescopes. The probability that a target for New Horizons would be found was estimated beforehand at about 95%.
Suitable KBOs
On October 15, 2014, it was revealed that Hubble's search had uncovered three potential targets, temporarily designated PT1 ("potential target 1"), PT2 and PT3 by the New Horizons team. PT1 was eventually chosen as the target and would be named 486958 Arrokoth.
All objects had estimated diameters in the range and were too small to be seen by ground telescopes. The targets were at distances from the Sun ranging from 43 to 44 AU, which would put the encounters in the 2018–2019 period. The initial estimated probabilities that these objects were reachable within New Horizons fuel budget were 100%, 7%, and 97%, respectively. All were members of the "cold" (low-inclination, low-eccentricity) classical Kuiper belt objects, and thus were very different from Pluto.
PT1 (given the temporary designation "1110113Y" on the HST web site), the most favorably situated object, had a magnitude of 26.8, is in diameter, and was encountered in January 2019. A course change to reach it required about 35% of New Horizons available trajectory-adjustment fuel supply. A mission to PT3 was in some ways preferable, in that it is brighter and therefore probably larger than PT1, but the greater fuel requirements to reach it would have left less for maneuvering and unforeseen events.
Once sufficient orbital information was provided, the Minor Planet Center gave provisional designations to the three target KBOs: (later 486958 Arrokoth) (PT1), (PT2), and (PT3). By the fall of 2014, a possible fourth target, , had been eliminated by follow-up observations. PT2 was out of the running before the Pluto flyby.
KBO selection
On August 28, 2015, 486958 Arrokoth (then known as and nicknamed Ultima Thule) (PT1) was chosen as the flyby target. The necessary course adjustment was performed with four engine firings between October 22 and November 4, 2015. The flyby occurred on January 1, 2019, at 00:33 UTC.
Observations of other KBOs
Aside from its flyby of 486958 Arrokoth, the extended mission for New Horizons calls for the spacecraft to conduct observations of, and look for ring systems around, between 25 and 35 different KBOs. In addition, it will continue to study the gas, dust and plasma composition of the Kuiper belt before the mission extension ends in 2021.
On November 2, 2015, New Horizons imaged KBO 15810 Arawn with the LORRI instrument from . This KBO was again imaged by the LORRI instrument on April 7–8, 2016, from a distance of . The new images allowed the science team to further refine the location of 15810 Arawn to within and to determine its rotational period of 5.47 hours.
In July 2016, the LORRI camera captured some distant images of Quaoar from ; the oblique view will complement Earth-based observations to study the object's light-scattering properties.
On December 5, 2017, when New Horizons was 40.9 AU from Earth, a calibration image of the Wishing Well cluster marked the most distant image ever taken by a spacecraft (breaking the 27-year record set by Voyager 1s famous Pale Blue Dot). Two hours later, New Horizons surpassed its own record, imaging the Kuiper belt objects and from a distance of 0.50 and 0.34 AU, respectively. These were the closest images taken of a Kuiper belt object besides Pluto and Arrokoth .
Encounter with Arrokoth
Objectives
Science objectives of the flyby included characterizing the geology and morphology of Arrokoth and mapping the surface composition (by searching for ammonia, carbon monoxide, methane, and water ice). Searches will be conducted for orbiting moonlets, a coma, rings and the surrounding environment. Additional objectives include:
Mapping the surface geology to learn how it formed and evolved
Measuring the surface temperature
Mapping the 3-D surface topography and surface composition to learn how it is similar to and different from comets such as 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko and dwarf planets such as Pluto
Searching for any signs of activity, such as a cloud-like coma
Searching for and studying any satellites or rings
Measuring or constraining the mass
Targeting maneuvers
Arrokoth is the first object to be targeted for a flyby that was discovered after the spacecraft was launched. New Horizons was planned to come within of Arrokoth, three times closer than the spacecraft's earlier encounter with Pluto. Images with a resolution of up to per pixel were expected.
The new mission began on October 22, 2015, when New Horizons carried out the first in a series of four initial targeting maneuvers designed to send it towards Arrokoth. The maneuver, which started at approximately 19:50 UTC and used two of the spacecraft's small hydrazine-fueled thrusters, lasted approximately 16 minutes and changed the spacecraft's trajectory by about . The remaining three targeting maneuvers took place on October 25, October 28, and November 4, 2015.
Approach phase
The craft was brought out of its hibernation at approximately 00:33 UTC on June 5, 2018 (06:12 UTC ERT, Earth-Received Time), in order to prepare for the approach phase. After verifying its health status, the spacecraft transitioned from a spin-stabilized mode to a three-axis-stabilized mode on August 13, 2018. The official approach phase began on August 16, 2018, and continued through December 24, 2018.
New Horizons made its first detection of Arrokoth on August 16, 2018, from a distance of . At that time, Arrokoth was visible at magnitude 20 against a crowded stellar background in the direction of the constellation Sagittarius.
Flyby
The Core phase began a week before the encounter and continued for two days after the encounter. The spacecraft flew by the object at a speed of and within . The majority of the science data was collected within 48 hours of the closest approach in a phase called the Inner Core. Closest approach occurred January 1, 2019, at 05:33 UTC SCET at which point the probe was from the Sun. At this distance, the one-way transit time for radio signals between Earth and New Horizons was six hours. Confirmation that the craft had succeeded in filling its digital recorders occurred when data arrived on Earth ten hours later, at 15:29 UTC.
Data download
After the encounter, preliminary, high-priority data was sent to Earth on January 1 and 2, 2019. On January 9, New Horizons returned to a spin-stabilized mode to prepare sending the remainder of its data back to Earth. This download is expected to take 20 months at a data rate of 1–2 kilobits per second.
Post Arrokoth events
In April 2020, New Horizons was used, in conjunction with telescopes on Earth, to take pictures of nearby stars Proxima Centauri and Wolf 359; the images from each vantage point – over 4 billion miles (6.4 billion km) apart – were compared to produce "the first demonstration of an easily observable stellar parallax."
Images taken by the LORRI camera while New Horizons was 42 to 45 AU from the Sun were used to measure the cosmic optical background, the visible light analog of the cosmic microwave background, in seven high galactic latitude fields. At that distance New Horizons saw a sky ten times darker than the sky seen by the Hubble Space Telescope because of the absence of diffuse background sky brightness from the zodiacal light in the inner solar system. These measurements indicate that the total amount of light emitted by all galaxies at ultraviolet and visible wavelengths may be lower than previously thought.
The spacecraft reached a distance of 50 AUs from the sun, almost 7.5 billion kilometers (5 billion miles) away, on 17 April 2021 at 12:42 UTC, a feat performed only four times before, by Pioneer 10, Pioneer 11, Voyager 1, and Voyager 2. Voyager 1 is the farthest spacecraft from the sun, more than 152 AUs away when New Horizons reached its landmark in 2021. The support team continued to use the spacecraft in 2021 to study the heliospheric environment (plasma, dust and gas) and to study other Kuiper Belt objects.
Plans
After the spacecraft's passage by Arrokoth, the instruments continue to have sufficient power to be operational until the 2030s.
Team leader Alan Stern stated there is potential for a third flyby in the 2020s at the outer edges of the Kuiper belt. This depends on a suitable Kuiper belt object being found or confirmed close enough to the spacecraft's current trajectory. Since May 2020, the New Horizons team has been using time on the Subaru Telescope to look for suitable candidates within the spacecraft's proximity. As of November 2020, none have been found close enough to the trajectory of New Horizons for it to be able to make a close flyby with its remaining fuel.
In addition, New Horizons may take a picture of Earth from its distance in the Kuiper belt, but only after completing all planned KBO flybys. This is because pointing a camera towards Earth could cause the camera to be damaged by sunlight, as none of New Horizons''' cameras have an active shutter mechanism.
Speed New Horizons has been called "the fastest spacecraft ever launched" because it left Earth at . It is also the first spacecraft launched directly into a solar escape trajectory, which requires an approximate speed while near Earth of , plus additional delta-v to cover air and gravity drag, all to be provided by the launch vehicle.
However, it is not the fastest spacecraft to leave the Solar System. , this record is held by Voyager 1, traveling at relative to the Sun. Voyager 1 attained greater hyperbolic excess velocity than New Horizons due to gravity assists by Jupiter and Saturn. When New Horizons reaches the distance of , it will be travelling at about , around slower than Voyager 1 at that distance. The Parker Solar Probe can also be measured as the fastest object, because of its orbital speed relative to the Sun at perihelion: . Because it remains in solar orbit, its specific orbital energy relative to the Sun is lower than New Horizons and other artificial objects escaping the Solar System.New Horizons Star 48B third stage is also on a hyperbolic escape trajectory from the Solar System, and reached Jupiter before the New Horizons spacecraft; it was expected to cross Pluto's orbit on October 15, 2015. Because it was not in controlled flight, it did not receive the correct gravity assist, and passed within of Pluto. The Centaur second stage did not achieve solar escape velocity, and remains in a heliocentric orbit.
Gallery
Images of the launch
Videos
Timeline
Preparation phase
January 8, 2001: Proposal team meets face-to-face for the first time at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory.
February 5, 2001: New Horizons name chosen.
April 6, 2001: New Horizons proposal submitted to NASA. It was one of five proposals submitted, which were later narrowed to two for Phase A study: POSSE (Pluto and Outer Solar System Explorer) and New Horizons.
November 29, 2001: New Horizons proposal selected by NASA. Started Phase B study.
March 2002: Budget zeroed by Bush administration, later overridden.
June 13, 2005: Spacecraft departed Applied Physics Laboratory for final testing. It undergoes final testing at Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC).
September 24, 2005: Spacecraft shipped to Cape Canaveral. It was moved through Andrews Air Force Base aboard a C-17 Globemaster III cargo aircraft.
December 17, 2005: Spacecraft ready for in rocket positioning. Transported from Hazardous Servicing Facility to Vertical Integration Facility at Space Launch Complex 41.
January 11, 2006: Primary launch window opened. The launch was delayed for further testing.
January 16, 2006: Rocket moved onto launch pad. Atlas V launcher, serial number AV-010, rolled out onto pad.
January 17, 2006: Launch delayed. First day launch attempts scrubbed because of unacceptable weather conditions (high winds).
January 18, 2006: Launch delayed again. Second launch attempt scrubbed because of morning power outage at the Applied Physics Laboratory.
Launch phase
January 19, 2006: Successful launch at 19:00 UTC after a brief delay due to cloud cover.
Jupiter pre-encounter phase
April 7, 2006: The probe passed Mars' orbit 1.5 AU from Earth.
June 13, 2006: Flyby of asteroid 132524 APL. The probe passed closest to the asteroid 132524 APL in the Asteroid Belt at about 101,867 km at 04:05 UTC. Pictures were taken.
November 28, 2006: First image of Pluto. The image of Pluto was taken from a great distance.
Jupiter encounter phase
January 10, 2007: Navigation exercise near Jupiter. Long-distance observations of Jupiter's outer moon Callirrhoe as a navigation exercise.
February 28, 2007: Jupiter flyby. Closest approach occurred at 05:43:40 UTC at 2.305 million km, 21.219 km/s.
Pluto pre-encounter phase
June 8, 2008: The probe passed Saturn's orbit 9.5 AU from Earth.
December 29, 2009: The probe becomes closer to Pluto than to Earth. Pluto was then 32.7 AU from Earth, and the probe was 16.4 AU from Earth.
February 25, 2010: New Horizons completed , half the total travel distance of .
March 18, 2011: The probe passes Uranus' orbit. This is the fourth planetary orbit the spacecraft crossed since its start. New Horizons reached Uranus's orbit at 22:00 UTC.
December 2, 2011: New Horizons draws closer to Pluto than any other spacecraft has ever been. Previously, Voyager 1 held the record for the closest approach. (~10.58 AU)
February 11, 2012: New Horizons reaches the distance of 10 AU from the Pluto system, at around 4:55 UTC.
July 1, 2013: New Horizons captures its first image of Charon. Charon is clearly separated from Pluto using the Long-Range Reconnaissance Imager (LORRI).
October 25, 2013: New Horizons reaches the distance of 5 AU from the Pluto system.
July 10, 2014: Photos of Neptune and Triton from about 4 billion km away.
July 20, 2014: Photos of Pluto and Charon. Images obtained showing both bodies orbiting each other, distance 2.8 AU.
August 25, 2014: The probe passes Neptune's orbit. This was the fifth planetary orbit crossed.
December 7, 2014: New Horizons awakes from hibernation. NASA's Deep Sky Network station at Tidbinbilla, Australia received a signal confirming that it successfully awoke from hibernation.
January 2015: Observation of Kuiper belt object . Distant observations from a distance of roughly 75 million km (~0.5 AU)
January 15, 2015: Start of Pluto observations. New Horizons is now close enough to Pluto and begins observing the system.
March 10–11, 2015: New Horizons reaches a distance of 1 AU from the Pluto system.
March 20, 2015: NASA invites the general public to suggest names for surface features that may be discovered on Pluto and Charon.
May 15, 2015: Images exceed best Hubble Space Telescope resolution.
Pluto science phase
July 14, 2015: Flyby of the Pluto system: Pluto, Charon, Hydra, Nix, Kerberos and Styx. Flyby of Pluto around 11:49:57 UTC at 12,500 km, 13.78 km/s. Pluto is 32.9 AU from Sun. Flyby of Charon around 12:03:50 UTC at 28,858 km, 13.87 km/s.
July 14, 2015 to October 25, 2016: Transmission of collected data sent back to Earth, and ongoing science discovery based on the observations. The bit rate of the downlink is limited to 1–2 kb/s, so it took until October 25, 2016, to transmit all the data.
Arrokoth pre-encounter phase
October 22 – November 4, 2015: Trajectory correction maneuver. A course adjustment for the January 2019 flyby of Arrokoth was performed in a series of four thruster firings of 22 minutes each.
November 2, 2015: Observation of KBO 15810 Arawn. Long-range observations from a distance of , the closest ever for any Trans-Neptunian Object other than Pluto and 486958 Arrokoth. More images were taken on April 7–8, 2016, at a range of as well.
July 13–14, 2016: Observation of KBO 50000 Quaoar. Long-range observations from a distance of gives mission scientists a different perspective in order to study the light-scattering properties of Quaoar's surface.
February 1, 2017: Trajectory correction maneuver. A small course adjustment towards the January 2019 flyby of Arrokoth was performed with a 44-second thruster firing.
March 12, 2017: Arrokoth's orbit is deemed to be sufficiently well-resolved that it is formally catalogued as minor planet #486,958 and announced as such via Minor Planet Circular 103886. From now until its naming in November 2019, the object's official designation is to be .
2017–2020: Observations of Kuiper belt objects (KBOs). The probe will have opportunities to perform observations of 10 to 20 KBOs visible from the spacecraft's trajectory after the Pluto system flyby. Heliosphere data collection is expected to begin.
December 9, 2017: Trajectory correction maneuver. This delays the arrival at Arrokoth by a few hours, optimizing coverage by ground-based radio telescopes.
December 23, 2017 – June 4, 2018: Final hibernation period before the (KBO) Arrokoth encounter.
August 2018 – March 2019: Distant observations of at least a dozen distant KBOs. Recovered by Subaru Telescope in 2014–2017, enabling New Horizons observations
August 13, 2018: Switch from spin stabilization to 3-axis stabilization.
August 16, 2018 – December 24, 2018: Approach phase. Optical navigation, search for hazardous material around Arrokoth
August 16, 2018: First detection of Kuiper belt object Arrokoth
October 4, 2018 – December 2, 2018: Opportunities for trajectory correction maneuvers. Maneuvers scheduled for October 4 and November 20, with backups on October 23 and December 2, respectively
Arrokoth science phase and beyond
January 1, 2019: Flyby of Arrokoth, then nicknamed Ultima Thule. The flyby occurred at 05:33 UTC, and is the outermost close encounter of any Solar System object.
January 9, 2019: Switch from 3-axis stabilization to spin stabilization. This ended the Arrokoth flyby, marking the beginning of the downlink phase.
2019–2020: Downlink of data from the Arrokoth flyby. Predicted to take approximately 20 months.
November 12, 2019: The object previously known by the provisional designation of (later numbered 486958 and nicknamed Ultima Thule) was officially named Arrokoth.
April 22–23, 2020: Stellar distance measurements to both Proxima Centauri, and Wolf 359 using stereoscopic images from New Horizons and Earth-based telescopes for usable parallax observation.
April 15, 2021: New Horizons reaches 50 AU from the Sun, becoming the fifth spacecraft to reach the milestone. From that distance, the probe takes a photograph of Voyager 1 in the distance.
April 30, 2021: End of the current extended mission. It is expected that the mission will be extended further if the spacecraft remains operational.
2020s: The probe may be able to fly by a third KBO. The probe approached Arrokoth along its rotational axis, which simplified trajectory correction maneuvers, saving fuel that could be used to target another KBO. After the flyby, the spacecraft was left with of fuel.
Mid to late 2030s: Expected end of the mission, based on RTG decay. Heliosphere data collection expected to be intermittent if instrument power sharing is required.
Post-mission phase
2038: New Horizons will be 100 AU from the Sun. If still functioning, the probe will explore the outer heliosphere and interstellar space along with the Voyager spacecraft.
See also
2006 in spaceflight
Exploration of Pluto
List of artificial objects leaving the Solar System
List of missions to the outer planets
List of New Horizons topics
Mariner Mark II, a planned family of NASA spacecraft including a Pluto mission
New Horizons 2, a proposed trans-Neptunian object flyby mission
Pioneer 10 Pioneer 11 Pluto Kuiper Express, a cancelled NASA Pluto flyby mission
TAU, a proposed mission to fly by Pluto
Timeline of Solar System exploration
Voyager 1 Voyager 2''
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
New Horizons website by NASA
New Horizons website by the Applied Physics Laboratory
New Horizons profile by NASA's Planetary Science Division
New Horizons profile by the National Space Science Data Center
New Horizons Flyby of Ultima Thule – Best Places to Follow Future News.
New Horizons Flyby – Musical Tribute by astrophysicist Brian May (who consulted on the project) and the band Queen.
New Horizons Mission Archive at the NASA Planetary Data System, Small Bodies Node
New Horizons: Kuiper Belt Extended Mission (KEM) Mission Archive at the NASA Planetary Data System, Small Bodies Node
NASA space probes
New Frontiers program
Missions to Pluto
Missions to Jupiter
Missions to minor planets
Radio frequency propagation
Spacecraft escaping the Solar System
Space probes launched in 2006
Articles containing video clips
Spacecraft launched by Atlas rockets
Nuclear-powered robots |
51634606 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little%20Rock%20Trojans%20women%27s%20basketball | Little Rock Trojans women's basketball | The Little Rock Trojans women's basketball team, formerly branded as Arkansas–Little Rock Trojans represents the University of Arkansas at Little Rock in Little Rock, Arkansas, United States. The school's team currently competes in the Sun Belt Conference.
History
Little Rock has won the West Division in the Sun Belt in 2008, 2009, 2010, and 2013. They won the Sun Belt Conference Tournament in 2011, 2012, and 2015. They have made the WNIT in 2008, 2009, and 2013. They made the Second Round of the NCAA Tournament in 2010 beating Georgia Tech 63–53. They lost to Oklahoma 60–44 in the subsequent game. They made the Second Round in 2015 after beating Texas A&M 69–60. They lost 57–54 to Arizona State in the subsequent game. As of the end of the 2015–16 season, the Trojans have an all-time record of 384–485, with a 288–231 record since joining Division I in 1999.
NCAA Tournament results
References
External links |
2272321 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene%20Kaspersky | Eugene Kaspersky | Yevgeny Valentinovich Kaspersky (Russian: Евгений Валентинович Касперский; born 4 October 1965) is a Russian cybersecurity expert and the CEO of Kaspersky Lab, an IT security company with 4,000 employees. He co-founded Kaspersky Lab in 1997 and helped identify instances of government-sponsored cyberwarfare as the head of research. He has been an advocate for an international treaty prohibiting cyberwarfare.
Kaspersky graduated from The Technical Faculty of the KGB Higher School in 1987 with a degree in mathematics and computer technology. His interest in IT security began when his work computer was infected with the Cascade virus in 1989 and he developed a program to remove it. Kaspersky helped grow Kaspersky Lab through security research and salesmanship. He became the CEO in 2007 and remains so as of 2021.
Early life
Kaspersky was born on 4 October 1965 in Novorossiysk, Soviet Union. He grew up near Moscow, where he moved at age nine. His father was an engineer and his mother a historical archivist. As a child he developed an early interest in math and technology. He spent his free time reading math books and won second place in a math competition at age 14. When he was fourteen, Kaspersky began attending A.N. Kolmogorov boarding school, which is run by Moscow University and specializes in math. He was also a member of the youth division of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
At the age of 16, Kaspersky entered a five-year program with The Technical Faculty of the KGB Higher School, which prepared intelligence officers for the Russian military and KGB. He graduated in 1987 with a degree in mathematical engineering and computer technology. After graduating college, Kaspersky served the Soviet military intelligence service as a software engineer. He met his first wife Natalya Kaspersky at Severskoye, a KGB vacation resort, in 1987.
Kaspersky Lab
Origins
Kaspersky's interest in IT security began in 1989, when his PC was infected by the Cascade virus, while working for the Ministry of Defence. He studied how the virus worked and developed a program to remove it. Afterwards he continually found new viruses and developed software to remove them, as a hobby. Early on Kaspersky's anti-virus software had just 40 virus definitions and was distributed mostly to friends.
In 1991, Kaspersky was granted an early release from his military service and left the defense ministry to take a job at the Information Technology Center of a private company KAMI, in order to work on his antivirus product full-time. There, he and his colleagues improved the software and released it as a product called Antiviral Toolkit Pro in 1992. At first the software was purchased by about ten clients per month. It earned about $100 per month, mostly from companies in Ukraine and Russia. Kaspersky's then-future wife Natalya Kaspersky became his coworker at KAMI.
In 1994, Hamburg University in Germany gave Kaspersky's software first place in a competitive analysis of antivirus software. This led to more business for Kaspersky from European and American companies. Kaspersky Lab was founded three years later by Kaspersky, his wife and Kaspersky's friend Alexey De-Monderik. Natalya, who pushed Eugene to start the company, was the CEO, while Eugene was the head of research. The following year, the CIH virus (AKA the Chernobyl virus) created a boon for Kaspersky's anti-virus products, which Kaspersky said was the only software at the time that could cleanse the virus. According to Wired, "their software was advanced for the time." For example, it was the first software to monitor viruses in an isolated quarantine.
Kaspersky's company grew quickly in the late 1990s. From 1998 to 2000, its annual revenue grew 280 percent and by 2000 almost sixty percent of revenues were international. By 2000, it had a staff of 65 people, starting from 13 in 1997. The antivirus product was renamed to Kaspersky Antivirus in 2000, after an American company started using the product's original name, which wasn't trademarked.
Threat discoveries
As the head of research, Kaspersky authored papers on viruses and went to conferences to promote the software. He was often quoted in the technology press as an antivirus expert. He helped establish the company's Global Research and Expert Analysis Team (GReAT), which helps corporations and governments investigate IT security threats. Initially he told his team not to discuss cyber-terrorism publicly, to avoid giving governments ideas on how to sabotage their political opponents. After the American film Live Free or Die Hard (AKA Die Hard 4.0) (2007) was released, Kaspersky said the idea was now public. He hired the researcher that identified the Stuxnet worm, which is believed to be the first instance of state-sponsored cyberweapon. Afterwards, the company exposed the Flame virus at the request of the International Telecommunication Union. The virus was believed to have been used for cyber-espionage in Middle-Eastern countries.
Kaspersky Lab developed a reputation for discovering cybersecurity threats. In 2015 Kaspersky and Kaspersky Lab discovered a group of hackers known as Carbanak that were stealing money from banks. They also exposed Equation Group, which developed advanced spyware for monitoring computer use and was believed to be affiliated with the National Security Agency in the U.S. According to The Economist, it was these discoveries, Kaspersky's "relentless salesmanship" and the company's anti-virus product that made Kaspersky Lab uncommon as an internationally recognized Russian company.
CEO
Kaspersky became CEO of Kaspersky Lab in 2007. According to a 2008 article in USA Today, he traveled to 20 to 30 countries per year promoting Kaspersky Lab products. In early 2009, CRN said his personality contributed to the company's growth from "relative obscurity to now nipping at the heels of its larger, better-known rivals." At the time, Kaspersky Lab was the fourth largest endpoint security company. It introduced new products for the enterprise market and expanded its channel programs.
In 2011, Kaspersky made a decision against taking the company public, saying it would make decision-making slow and prevent long-term R&D investments. This led to a series of high-level departures from the company, including his ex-wife and co-founder. Another series of departures occurred in 2014 due to disagreements over how to run the company.
Kaspersky Lab has defended itself against allegedly frivolous patent claims more aggressively than most IT companies. In 2012, it was the only one of 35 firms named in a suit by patent troll Information Protection and Authentication (IPAC) to take the case to court, rather than pay a fee. The case was ruled in Kaspersky's favor. Also in 2012, another company, Lodsys, sued Kaspersky and 54 other companies for patent infringement, and that case also resulted in the claimant dropping the case against Kaspersky. According to an article in TechWorld, the company's aversion to settling these claims is most likely because Eugene "just hates" patent trolls. In his blog he called them "parasites" and "IT racketeers."
Kaspersky himself is the co-author of several patents, including one for a constraint-and-attribute-based security system for controlling software component interaction.
As of 2015, Kaspersky Lab employed more than 2,800 people. As of 2012, Kaspersky was working on developing software to protect critical infrastructure, like power plants, from cyberwarfare.
Views
Kaspersky is influential among politicians and security experts. He has warned about the possibility of cyberwarfare that targets critical infrastructure. He speaks at conferences advocating for an international cyberwarfare treaty, that would ban government-sponsored cyberattacks.
After the Stuxnet attack, Kaspersky proposed that the Internet needed more regulation and policing. One idea was to have some parts of the Internet anonymous, while more secure areas require user identification. He argued that anonymity mostly benefited cybercriminals and hackers. For example, accessing a nuclear power plant network could require a verified identity through a digital passport.
Kaspersky said anonymity on the Internet could be protected by using a proxy, whereby a responsible international body maintains a record of which online identities correspond to which real-world ones. For example, a person's identity would be revealed in cases of malicious activity. Some security experts believe that a centralized database of the real-world identities of Internet users would be "a privacy disaster and a highly attractive target for thieves." The Age said it "sounds a little too close for comfort to a Big Brother scenario" and Wired said Kaspersky's views were highly aligned with the Russian government's agenda.
Many organizations have been considering reducing privacy to improve security as a result of Kaspersky's arguments. In a more recent Slashdot interview Kaspersky said the Internet should be divided into three zones: a red zone for voting, online banking, and other "critical transactions" that would require an Internet ID; a grey zone that may require only verification of age to access the site, but not identity; and a green zone for blogs, news, and "everything related to your freedom of speech." He proposes "special proxies" for red zone websites that allow disclosure of the user's identity only in the case of suspected malfeasance.
Controversies
Alleged affiliations with Russian intelligence
Kaspersky's prior work for the Russian military and his education at a KGB-sponsored technical college has led to controversy about whether he uses his position to advance Russian government interests and intelligence efforts. According to Kaspersky, allegations of dubious connections with Russian agencies began after he got his first clients in America. He spends much of his working life trying to get governments and organizations to trust him and his software in spite of the allegations.
Wired said Kaspersky's critics accuse him of using the company to spy on users for Russian intelligence. Russian telecommunications companies for example are required by federal law in Russia to cooperate with the government's military and spy operations if asked. Kaspersky said his company has never been asked to tamper with its software for espionage and called the accusations "cold war paranoia." According to Wired, Kaspersky staffers argue "not unconvincingly" that spying on users would hurt its business and its relationship with the Russian FSB, the KGB's successor, is limited. According to Gartner, "There's no evidence that they have any back doors in their software or any ties to the Russian mafia or state... but there is still a concern that you can’t operate in Russia without being controlled by the ruling party.” Computing mocked some of the more extreme accusations of espionage, but said it would be unlikely for a Russian business to grow to the size of Kaspersky Lab without relationships within the Russian government. NPR journalists also said it was unlikely Kaspersky was using its software for espionage, because it would be risky for the company's business, but said Kaspersky showed an unusual disinterest in Russia-based cybercrime.
In August 2015, Bloomberg reported that Kaspersky Lab changed course in 2012. According to the publication, "high-level managers have left or been fired, their jobs often filled by people with closer ties to Russia’s military or intelligence services. Some of these people actively aid criminal investigations by the FSB using data from some of the 400 million customers". Bloomberg and The New York Times also said Kaspersky was less aggressive about identifying cyberattacks originating from Russia than from other countries, allegations Kaspersky refutes. For example, he allegedly ignored or downplayed a series of denial-of-service attacks in December 2011 that were made to disrupt online discussion criticizing Russian politicians. Kaspersky also allegedly ignored a Russian-based spyware called Sofacy, which is believed to have been used by Russia against NATO and Eastern Europe. On the other hand, Kaspersky also published information on the Russia-based Crouching Yeti cyberattacks two days before Bloomberg accused him of ignoring Russia-based cyberattacks. At the time, the company had published eleven reports on malicious Russian programs. Competitor FireEye said it is awkward even in the U.S. to investigate cybercrimes performed by one's own government.
A March 2015 article in Bloomberg said an increasing number of executive staff at Kaspersky Lab previously worked for Russian military and intelligence agencies. According to News & Observer, Kaspersky "published a mammoth response, tearing down Bloomberg's accusations and accusing them of throwing facts out the window for the sake of a juicy anti-Russian narrative." Competitor FireEye said many U.S. IT companies also have executives that formerly worked for government military and intelligence agencies. NPR reported that Kaspersky has been doing an increasing amount of business with Russian cybersecurity agencies to catch cybercriminals. Kaspersky confirmed that Russian agencies are among its government customers.
In May 2017, the allegations resurfaced when US National Security Agency (NSA) director Mike Rogers told a US Senate Intelligence committee that the NSA was reviewing the US government's use of Kaspersky software for fear it would allow Russian intelligence services to conduct spy operations or launch cyber attacks against American digital infrastructure. ABC reported that the Department of Homeland Security had issued a secret report in February on possible connections between Kaspersky Lab and Russian intelligence, and that the FBI was currently investigating the matter. According to Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) director Vincent Stewart, his agency is "tracking Kaspersky and their software." In a press release, Eugene Kaspersky denied that his software is currently, or could be, used for such purposes, stating that "As a private company, Kaspersky Lab has no ties to any government, and the company has never helped, nor will help, any government in the world with its cyber-espionage efforts." He also stated that the US does not want to use his company's software for political reasons, and called the allegations "unfounded conspiracy theories."
Kaspersky is one of many Russian "oligarchs" named in the Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act, CAATSA, signed into law by President Donald Trump in 2017.
Alleged anti-virus spoofing
In August 2015, two former Kaspersky employees alleged that the company introduced modified files into the VirusTotal community anti-virus database to trick its rivals' programs into triggering false positives. The result of the false positives was that important uninfected files would be disabled or deleted. The allegations also claimed that Kaspersky himself had ordered some of the actions, specifically targeting competitors, including Chinese companies he felt were copying his software. Emails dated 2009, two years after Kaspersky became CEO, were allegedly leaked to Reuters, one of which allegedly had Kaspersky threatening to go after competitors by "rubbing them out in the outhouse," using a phrase popularized by Vladimir Putin. The company denied the allegations.
Forbes ranking
Kaspersky was ranked #1,567 on Forbes "Billionaires List 2017" with a net worth of US$1.3 billion (as of March 2017). He first made the list in 2015 when his net worth reached US$1 billion.
Personal life
Kaspersky lives in Moscow, Russia with his wife and five children. He and his first wife were divorced in 1998. On 21 April 2011, his son, Ivan, then 20, was kidnapped for a $4.4 million ransom. Kaspersky worked with a friend at the FSB and Russian police to trace the ransomer's phone call. They set up a trap for the ransomers, where they rescued his son and arrested many of the kidnappers. The incident had an influence on Kaspersky's sense of personal security. He now travels with a bodyguard and security detail.
Kaspersky is one of the richest people in Russia. His net worth is about $1 billion. According to Wired, he has "cultivated the image of a wild man with cash to burn." He has an interest in racing and drives his sports cars on race tracks as a hobby. He sponsors various "quirky or scientific projects" such as the Ferrari Formula One racing team or archaeological excavations in Akrotiri (prehistoric city). Kaspersky owns a BMW M3. Kaspersky describes himself as an "adrenaline junkie." He has gone hiking on volcanoes in Russia and reserved a trip to space on the Virgin Galactic. He travels often and writes about his experiences in his personal blog. He also enjoys photography as a hobby.
Kaspersky is known for shunning formal attire, typically dressing in jeans and a shirt. He supports university projects and competitions in the IT security field.
Notes
References
External links
Official biography
1965 births
Living people
Russian computer programmers
Russian technology writers
People from Novorossiysk
Moscow State University alumni
Russian billionaires |
11700242 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Conway%20%28archivist%29 | Paul Conway (archivist) | Paul Conway (born 7 September 1953 in Chicago) is associate professor in the University of Michigan School of Information and has worked with Yale University and Duke University Universities after starting his career at the Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library. His research and educational work focuses primarily on digital preservation and electronic media. He has published extensively throughout his career on library preservation, conservation issues, and education of library and archives personnel.
Education
In 1975, Conway received his BA (Honors) in History from Indiana University. He has an MA in History:Administration of archives (1980), and a Ph.D. in Information and Library Studies (1991), both from the University of Michigan. His doctoral dissertation is titled Archival Preservation in the United States and the Role of Information Sources. His research interests mainly focus on the challenges of digital information preservation and management.
Career and significance to preservation
Conway began his career in October, 1977, when he joined the staff of the Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library as an archivist and worked there for 10 years. Between 1987 and 1989, Conway worked for the Society of American Archivists as a Preservation Program Officer. From January 1990 to May 1992, he worked for the National Archives and Records Administration in various research positions. It was here that he conducted research on the Use of Archives and a review of how government agencies implement digital imaging and optical disk technology. Conway also served successfully as Preservation Program Officer for the Society of American Archivists in Chicago in 1988 and 1989. During this period, he carried out a nationwide survey of archival preservation programs. For more than 20 years, Conway has been involved with the Society in which he is now a Fellow.
From 1992 to 2001, Conway headed the Preservation Department at Yale University Library. While at Yale, Conway held several administrative positions and managed digital research and development projects, including (1) Project Open Book; (2) a planning project exploring the complexities of guaranteeing long-term access to e-journal content produced by commercial publishers; and (3) an exploration of the potential value of e-book content to library course reserve programs. While at Yale, Paul developed a framework for understanding preservation in the digital context by creating a bridge from the five core principles of traditional preservation practice.
Prior to coming to University of Michigan, Conway led the library Information Technology programs and services at Duke University from August 2001 to August 2006, as director for information technology services and for digital asset initiatives. At Duke, Conway focused on developing a digital service for provision and preservation of digital resources to serve the university community. From September 2006 to date, Conway is Associate Professor at the University of Michigan, School of Information.
His impact on the archival profession is also realized in his career as a successful educator. His extensive experience in administration of archives and the practice of preservation give him a practical approach to teaching as evidenced in his courses. Among the courses he has developed and taught over the past decade cover preservation management, archival approaches to digital content management, and digital preservation. He has also conducted several specialized workshops and seminars on information technology issues. From August 2001 to 2006, he was an Adjunct Associate Research and Teaching Professor at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. He also was an Adjunct Associate Professor of Public Policy Studies and Faculty Director for Curriculum Development at Duke from July 2005 – August 2006, where he developed a curriculum for first years, "Game2know,". From 1996 to 2006, Conway worked with the Society of American Archivists as an Instructor. He was involved in Designing and teaching full-day workshops on digital imaging technology, including definitions of terms, system requirements, preservation and access issues, project planning, and funding.
Conway has published widely on digital preservation issues, archival users and use of archival information. His contribution to the preservation literature is in form of books, articles in peer-reviewed journals, book chapters, book reviews and conference papers. He is also serving on the American Archivist Editorial Board, 2006-2012.
Fellowships and awards
2005 Paul Banks and Carolyn Harris Preservation Award
2004 Research Libraries Leadership Fellowship, Association of Research Libraries
1997 Fellow, Society of American Archivists
1996 Fellow, Calhoun College, Yale University
1986 H. W. Wilson Scholarship, University of Michigan
1985 Mellon Fellowship, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan
See also
List of archivists
Digital preservation
Preservation (library and archival science)
Library and Information Science
References
External links
The American Institute for Conservation
University of Michigan School of Information
1953 births
Living people
American archivists
Preservation (library and archival science)
University of Michigan faculty
University of Michigan School of Information alumni
Indiana University alumni
Yale University faculty |
19230279 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dana%20%28given%20name%29 | Dana (given name) | Dana is a unisex given name. It was among the 100 most popular names given to girls born in the United States between 1960 and 1990. It has since fallen in popularity and was ranked the 446th most popular name given to girls born in the United States in 2007. As a male forename it is well known in the United States, being in the 314th rank out of 1,219 in the 1990 U.S. Census.
The name has multiple derivations. Dana or Danah, in Arabic, means "the most perfectly sized, valuable and beautiful pearl". This name is used mainly by Arabs of the Arabian Gulf (Eastern Arabia), due to their traditional pearl diving professions wherein they gave different type of pearls names. In Persian, the word Dānā literally means "Wise", and some speculate that the name is first used as a first name in Shahnameh. It may also refer to the mountain Dana or Dena. The name is used in Persian for both female and male sexes. It may also come from "Dane" (from Denmark), the meaning of the common surname. It is also occasionally regarded as a feminine version of Daniel or a short version of feminine names such as Bogdana or Yordana. In Hebrew, the name Dana means "arbiter" or "God is my judge". In Sanskrit and Pali, the word means "generosity". In Romanian and Czech, it is a feminine name, derived from the name Daniela; the masculine form being Dan/Daniel. Dana is also the name of the ancient goddess of water in slavic cultures, and many rivers in eastern Europe have the letters D and N due to this.
People named Dana
Female
Dana Al-Nasrallah (born 1988), Kuwaiti Olympic sprinter
Dana Anderson (born 1973), Canadian former field hockey player
Dana Andrews (musician), American singer and musician, contestant on the TV show Rockstar: Supernova
Dana Angluin, professor of computer science at Yale University
Dana Antal (born 1977), Canadian ice hockey player, gold medalist at the 2002 Winter Olympics
Dana Beth Ardi, American entrepreneur, human capitalist, author, and contemporary art collector
Dana Barron (born 1966), American actress
Dana Bash (born 1971), CNN News reporter and anchorwoman
Dana Belben, American voice actress, animator, screenwriter, effects artist, and comedian
Dana Berger (born 1970), Israeli singer-songwriter and occasional actress
Dana Berliner, American lawyer, litigation director at the Institute for Justice
Dana H. Born (born 1961), brigadier general in the United States Air Force
Dana Bradley (died 1981), Canadian murder victim
Dana Brožková (born 1981), Czech orienteering competitor
Dana Buchman, fashion designer
Dana Cameron (born 1965), American archaeologist, and author of award-winning crime fiction and urban fantasy
Dana Cervantes (born 1978), Spanish Olympic pole vaulter
Dana "Pokey" Chatman (born 1969), general manager and head coach of the Chicago Sky of the WNBA
Dana Chladek (born 1963), Czechoslovak-born American Olympic slalom kayaker and coach
Dana Claxton (born 1959), Hunkpapa Lakota filmmaker, photographer and performance artist
Dana Coons (born 1978), American long distance runner
Dana Cowin, magazine editor (Food & Wine, Mademoiselle, HG)
Dana Cuff, American architect, professor, and founding director of UCLA's cityLAB
Dana Davis (born 1978), American actress, known for 10 Things I Hate About You and Franklin & Bash
Dana Dawson (1974-2010), American actress and singer
Dana DeArmond (born 1979), American pornographic actress
Dana Delany (born 1956), American film, stage, and television actress
Dana Dodd (1985-2006), American woman who was murdered
Dana Dogaru (born 1953), Romanian actress
Dana Dormann (born 1967), American professional golfer, also played as Dana Lofland
Dana Ellis (born 1979), Canadian pole vaulter
Dana Eskelson (born 1965), American television, film, and theater actress
Dana Fabe (born 1951), lawyer, Chief Justice of Alaska Supreme Court
Dana Faletic (born 1977), Australian Olympic rower
Dana Fecková (born 1987), Slovak football striker
Dana Ferguson (born 1987), Canadian curler
Dana Fischer (born 2010), American Magic: The Gathering player
Dana Flynn (born 1975), also known as Didem Erol, Australian-born Turkish-American actress, model, and TV host
Dana Fox (born 1976), American screenwriter
Dana Frankfort (born 1971), New York-based artist, painting professor at Boston University College of Fine Arts
Dana Fuchs (born 1976), American singer, songwriter, actress, and voice actress
Dana Gibson, president of Sam Houston State University
Dana Gilbert (born 1959), American tennis player
Dana Gillespie (born 1949), English actress and singer
Dana E. Glauberman (born 1968), American film editor
Dana Glover (singer) (born 1974), American pop singer and songwriter
Dana Goldstein, American journalist and editor
Dana Goodyear (born 1976), American journalist, poet and author, co-founder of Figment online community
Dana Guth (born 1970), German politician
Dana Sue Gray (born 1957), American serial killer
Dana Hadačová (born 1983), Czech Olympic table tennis player
Dana Haidar (born 1993), Jordanian taekwondo competitor
Dana Hee (born 1961), American Olympic taekwondo competitor, motivational speaker and stuntwoman
Dana Hill (1964-1996), American actress and voice actor
Dana Hoey (born 1966), American photographer
Dana Humby (born 1979), former New Zealand association football player
Dana Hussain (born 1986), sprinter on Iraq's national track and field team
Dana International (born 1969), Israeli singer (stage name of Sharon Cohen), winner of the 1998 Eurovision Song Contest
Dana Ivey (born 1941), American character actress
Dana Ivgy (born 1982), Israeli actress
Dana Jacobson (born 1971), American sports journalist and former ESPN anchor
Dana Jurásková (born 1961), Czech politician, former Minister of Health
Dana Kerem (born 1986), Israeli football defender
Dana Kimmell (born 1959), American actress
Dana King (born 1960), former American TV news anchor
Dana Kirk (born 1984), American Olympic swimmer
Dana Kletter (born 1959), American musician and writer
Dana Kuchtová (born 1961), Czech Green politician, former Minister of Education
Dana Levin (born 1965), American poet and creative writing instructor
Dana Lixenberg (born 1964), Dutch photographer
Dana Loesch, American conservative TV and radio host
Dana Mann, American slalom canoer, formerly competed for Slovakia as Dana Beňušová
Dana Marie, Canadian Christian rock singer
Dana Martanová, former Czechoslovak slalom canoer
Dana Marton, romantic suspense novelist
Dana Mathis, American pop singer and songwriter
Dana McCauley, Canadian chef and food writer
Dana McVicker, American country music singer
Donella H. "Dana" Meadows, American environmental scientist, teacher and writer
Dana Medřická, Czechoslovak film actress
Dana Murphy, American Republican politician from Oklahoma
Dana Nălbaru, Romanian singer, songwriter, and musician, member of Hi-Q
Dana D. Nelson, professor of English at Vanderbilt University, progressive advocate for citizenship and democracy
Dana Nutu, Romanian-Australian chess player and trainer, also known as Daniela Nuțu-Gajić
Dana Oldfather, American oil painter and dinnerware designer
Dana Olmert, Israeli left-wing activist, literary theorist and editor, daughter of Ehud Olmert
Dana Owens, also known as Queen Latifah, American rapper, singer and actress
Dana Parish, American singer and songwriter
Dana Perino, former White House press secretary
Dana Plato, American actress
Dana Plotogea, Romanian Olympic biathlete
Dana Priest, journalist and author, national security correspondent for the Washington Post
Dana Procházková, Czechoslovak orienteering competitor
Dana Protopopescu, Romanian-Belgian pianist and music instructor
Dana Pyritz, German Olympic rower
Dana Randall, professor of theoretical computer science at Georgia Tech
Dana Ranga, Romanian writer and film director
Dana Rayne, American dance and pop singer
Dana Reason, Canadian pianist and composer
Dana Reeve, American actress, wife of Christopher Reeve, also billed as Dana Morosini
Dana Reizniece-Ozola, Latvian politician and chess player
Dana Ron, Israeli computer scientist, professor of electrical engineering
Dana Rosendorff, Australian actress
Dana Rosemary Scallon, Irish singer and politician, winner of the 1970 Eurovision Song Contest, former MEP
Dana Schechter, singer-songwriter with the band Bee and Flower
Dana Schoenfield, American Olympic swimmer
Dana Schutz, American painter
Dana Seetahal, Trinidadian politician and attorney
Dana Shrader, American Olympic swimmer
Dana Simpson, American cartoonist (Heavenly Nostrils, Ozy and Millie)
Dana Spálenská, Czechoslovak Olympic luger
Dana Spiotta, American novelist
Dana Stabenow, Alaskan author
Dana Stephensen, Australian ballerina
Dana Stevens (critic), movie critic at Slate magazine
Dana Stevens (screenwriter), American screenwriter and TV producer
Dana Suesse, American musician, composer and lyricist
Dana Swanson, American singer, actress and writer
Dana Syslová, Czech actress
Dana Telsey, American equity research analyst
Dana Thomas, American fashion and culture journalist
Dana Tyler, American local TV news anchor
Dana Ulery, American computer scientist
Dana Valery (born 1944), Italian-born singer and actress
Dana van Dreven (born 1974), also known as DJ Lady Dana, Dutch DJ
Dana Vavřačová (born 1954), retired Czech competitive race walker
Dana Vávrová (1967-2009), Czech-German film actress and director
Dana Velďáková (born 1981), Slovak Olympic triple jumper
Dana Vespoli, American pornographic actress and director
Dana Vollmer (born 1987), American swimmer
Dana Weigel, NASA flight director
Dana Wheeler-Nicholson (born 1960), American actress
Dana Wilson, actress and novelist, wife of producer Albert R. Broccoli, mother of producer Michael G. Wilson
Dana Winner (born 1965), Belgian singer
Dana Wolfe, American journalist and TV producer
Dana Wortley (born 1959), Australian politician
Dana Wright (born 1959), Canadian former hurdler
Dana Wynter (born Dagmar Winter), actress
Dana Wyse (born 1965), Canadian writer and visual artist
Dana Young (born 1964), American politician
Dana Zátopková (1922-2020), Czech javelin thrower, Olympic gold medal winner, wife of runner Emil Zátopek
Princess Dana Al Khalifa of Bahrain, Bahraini lawyer and fashion blogger
Male
Dana Allison (born 1966), American former professional baseball player
Dana Altman (born 1958), Oregon University basketball coach
Dana Andersen, Canadian actor, improvisor, filmmaker, writer and director
Dana Andrews (1909-1992), American actor
Dana Ashbrook (born 1967), American actor
Dana Reed Bailey (1833-1908), American politician and lawyer
Dana H. Ballard (born 1946), American professor of computer science
Dana Barros (born 1967), American former professional basketball player, owner of the Dana Barros Sports Complex
Dana W. Bartlett (1860-1942), American Congregationalist minister
Dana Beal (born 1947), American social and political activist
Dana Bible (born 1953), American football coach and former player
Dana X. Bible (1891-1980), American football player, coach, and athletic administrator
Dana Boente (born 1954), Acting Attorney General of the United States
Dana Bourgeois (born 1953), American luthier
Dana Brinson (born 1965), former professional American football wide receiver
Dana Brown (born 1959), American surfer and film-maker, son of Bruce Brown
Dana Brunetti, American film producer and social networking entrepreneur
Dana Bullen (born 1973), director of the Press Freedom Committee, former foreign editor of The Washington Star
Dana Bumgardner (born 1954), American politician
Dana Tai Soon Burgess (born 1968), American performance artist and choreographer
Dana Carvey (born 1955), American comedian who has appeared as a cast member of Saturday Night Live and in the Wayne's World movie series
Dana Chambers (1895-1946), pen name of the mystery novelist Albert Leffingwell
Dana Childs (1922-1999), Member of the Maine House of Representatives
Dana K. Chipman (born 1958), American military lawyer, former Judge Advocate General of the United States Army
Dana L. Christensen (born 1951), American federal judge, for the District of Montana
Dana Colley (born 1961), American musician, saxophonist in the alternative rock band Morphine
Dana Countryman (born 1954), American electronic music composer and performer, publisher of Cool and Strange Music Magazine
Dana Dane (born 1965 as Dana McLeese), rap artist
Dana DeMuth (born 1956), Major League Baseball umpire
Dana Deshler (1937-2012), member of the Ohio House of Representatives
Dana Dimel (born 1962), American football coach and former player
Dana A. Dorsey (1872-1940), American businessman, banker, and philanthropist
Dana Dow, Republican former Maine state senator
Dana Elcar (1927-2005), American television and movie character actor
Dana Evans (1874-1924), American athlete, coach and athletics administrator
Dana Eveland (born 1983), American professional baseball pitcher
Dana Ewell (born 1971), American convicted triple murderer
Dana Fillingim (1893-1961), American major league baseball pitcher
Dana Gioia (born 1950), American poet
Dana Karl Glover (born 1958), American trumpet player and music composer for video games, also known as Karl James or Dr. Dana
Dana Goldman, professor of economics at the University of Southern California
Dana Gonzales, American cinematographer
Dana Gould, American comedian and comedy writer
Dana McLean Greeley, founding president of the Unitarian Universalist Association
Dana Hall, former American professional football player
Dana Hall (musician), American jazz drummer, percussionist, composer, bandleader, and ethnomusicologist
Dana Hamilton, American hammered dulcimer player
Dana Hammond, American record producer, composer, songwriter, drummer and bass guitarist
Dana Heitman, trumpeter for the Cherry Poppin' Daddies
Dana Holgorsen, American football coach and former player
Dana Howard (American football), former professional American football player
Dana Jennings, American journalist and author, New York Times editor
Dana Jones (basketball), former American professional basketball player
Dana Kafer, American college football player
Dana Evan Kaplan, rabbi, writer on Reform Judaism and American Judaism
Dana Key, American Christian rock singer and pastor
Dana Kiecker, former major league baseball pitcher, sportscaster
Dana M. King, American college football coach
Dana Kirk (basketball), American college basketball coach
Dana Knutson, American fantasy artist, known for illustrating role-playing games
Dana Kunze, former champion high diver
Dana Lamb, American travel writer, co-wrote with his wife Ginger
Dana Lambert, Canadian author, politician and cannabis legalization activist
Dana LeVangie, American professional baseball player, scout and coach
Dana Lewis, Canadian TV journalist
Dana Lyons, folk music and alternative rock musician
Dana Ahmed Majid, Iraqi Kurdish politician, former governor of Sulaymaniah
Dana Malone, American politician, attorney general of Massachusetts
Dana McLemore, former professional American football cornerback
Dana G. Mead, American businessman, former chairman of MIT's board of trustees
Dana Milbank, American journalist
Dana Mohler-Faria, American education administrator, president of Bridgewater State University
Dana Morgan, Jr., bassist for the Warlocks
Dana Carleton Munro, American historian
Dana Murzyn, former Canadian professional ice hockey league player
Dana S. Nau, professor of computer science and systems research at the University of Maryland, College Park
Dana Nafziger, American football player
Dana Nielsen, American mix engineer, audio engineer, record producer and saxophonist
Dana Olsen, American scriptwriter
Dana Pagett, American professional basketball player and coach
Dana Peterson, American political consultant, husband of Louisiana state senator Karen Carter Peterson
Dana J. H. Pittard, American major general
Dana Porter, Canadian politician and jurist
Dana Quigley, American professional golfer
Dana Redd, American Democratic politician, mayor of Camden, New Jersey
Dana G. "Buck" Rinehart, 50th mayor of Columbus, Ohio
Dana Rohrabacher, U.S. Representative (R-CA)
"Dangerous" Dana Rosenblatt, American world champion middleweight boxer
Dana Fuller Ross, pen name used by Western novelists Noel B. Gerson and James M. Reasoner
Dana P. Rowe, American musical theater composer
Dana Rucker, American college football coach
Dana Makoto Sabraw, United States federal judge
Dana Sawyer, American biographer and professor of religion
Dana Scott, American mathematician
Dana Adam Shapiro, American film director
Dana Sheridan, American flute maker
Dana Shires, American physician, research scientist, and inventor
Dana A. Simmons, American air force general
Dana Snyder, American comedian and actor
Dana Snyman, South African journalist, writer and playwright
Dana Stein, American Democratic politician
Dana Stinson, American hip hop and R&B record producer, rapper and singer, known by the stage name Rockwilder
Dana Stone, American photo-journalist
Dana Strum (born 1958), heavy metal bassist (Slaughter)
Dana Stubblefield (born 1970), American professional football defensive tackle
Dana Summers, American cartoonist (Bound and Gagged, The Middletons)
Dana Tomlin, American cartographer, inventor of map algebra
Dana Tyrell (born 1989), American professional ice hockey player
Dana Veth (born 1987), former Bahamian footballer
Dana Wachs, American lawyer and politician
Dana Ward (born 1957), professor emeritus of political studies at Pitzer College
Dana Wells (born 1966), retired American football nose tackle
Dana White (born 1969), President of the UFC (Ultimate Fighting Championship)
L. Dana Wilgress (1892-1969), Canadian diplomat
Dana Williams (born 1963), retired American professional baseball player
Dana Wilson (born 1946), American composer, jazz pianist, and teacher
Dana Wilson (1983-2011), Cook Islands professional rugby league player
Dana Zimmerman, American paralympic athlete
Fiction
Dana, fictional intern on the podcast Welcome to Night Vale
Dana, on the television show Angel
Dana, the title character's lover in the Italian photo comic Killing (later revived as Sadistik: The Diabolikal Super-Kriminal)
Dana Appleton, the lawyer opposite Jim Carrey's character in the 1997 film Liar Liar
Dana Barrett, featured in the Ghostbusters movies
Dana Carrington, minor character in the American TV series Dynasty
Dana Cruz, character on Zoey 101
Dana Dearden, obsessed Superman fan who called herself Superwoman
Dana Fairbanks, main character from Showtime's lesbian drama series The L Word
Dana Foster, fictional character on Step By Step
Dana Freeling, a female character in the film Poltergeist (1982)
Dana Iclucia female protagonist from the video game Ys VIII: Lacrimosa of Dana
Dana Knightstone, fictional novelist, main character of the Dana Knightstone series of games
Dana Lambert, regular character on the TV show Mission: Impossible
Dana Marschz, main character in Hamlet 2
Dana Mercer, younger sister of main character Alex Mercer in the video game Prototype
Dana Mitchell, on the show Lightspeed Rescue Power Rangers
Dana Monroe, from EastEnders
Dana Scully, one of the main characters on the television show The X-Files
Dana Sterling, from the Robotech anime television series
Dana Stevens, a fictional trans woman featured in Chris Bohjalian's novel Trans-Sister Radio
Dana Tan, Batman's girlfriend on the TV series Batman Beyond
Dana Taylor, the former name of Zach Young on the television show Desperate Housewives
Dana Whitaker, a character in the television series Sports Night
Dana Wolf, on the German soap opera Verbotene Liebe
Mythology
Danu (Irish goddess), mother goddess of the Tuatha Dé Danann, known as Dana in modern Irish
See also
Dana (disambiguation)
Dannah
Danaë
Dayna
Danna
References
Feminine given names
Arabic masculine given names
Arabic feminine given names
Arabic unisex given names
English-language unisex given names
Unisex given names
Masculine given names
English unisex given names
English masculine given names
English-language feminine given names
English feminine given names
English-language masculine given names
Romanian masculine given names
Romanian feminine given names |
3616597 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital%20photography | Digital photography | Digital photography uses cameras containing arrays of electronic photodetectors to produce images focused by a lens, as opposed to an exposure on photographic film. The captured images are digitized and stored as a computer file ready for further digital processing, viewing, electronic publishing, or digital printing. They are combined with other digital images obtained from scanography and other methods that are often used in digital art or media art.
Until the advent of such technology, photographs were made by exposing light sensitive photographic film and paper, which was processed in liquid chemical solutions to develop and stabilize the image. Digital photographs are typically created solely by computer-based photoelectric and mechanical techniques, without wet bath chemical processing.
The first consumer digital cameras were marketed in the late 1990s. Professionals gravitated to digital slowly, and were won over when their professional work required using digital files to fulfill the demands of employers and/or clients, for faster turn-around than conventional methods would allow. Starting around 2000, digital cameras were incorporated in cell phones and in the following years, cell phone cameras became widespread, particularly due to their connectivity to social media websites and email. Since 2010, the digital point-and-shoot and DSLR formats have also seen competition from the mirrorless digital camera format, which typically provides better image quality than the point-and-shoot or cell phone formats but comes in a smaller size and shape than the typical DSLR. Many mirrorless cameras accept interchangeable lenses and have advanced features through an electronic viewfinder, which replaces the through-the-lens finder image of the SLR format.
History
While digital photography has only relatively recently become mainstream, the late 20th century saw many small developments leading to its creation. The history of digital photography as we know it began in the 1950s. In 1951, the first digital signals were saved to magnetic tape via the first video tape recorder. Six years later, in 1957, the first digital image was produced through a computer by Russell Kirsch. It was an image of his son.
The first semiconductor image sensor was the CCD, invented by physicists Willard S. Boyle and George E. Smith at Bell Labs in 1969. While researching the MOS process, they realized that an electric charge was the analogy of the magnetic bubble and that it could be stored on a tiny MOS capacitor. As it was fairly straightforward to fabricate a series of MOS capacitors in a row, they connected a suitable voltage to them so that the charge could be stepped along from one to the next. The CCD is a semiconductor circuit that was later used in the first digital video cameras for television broadcasting, and its invention was recognized by a Nobel Prize in Physics in 2009.
The first image of Mars was taken as the Mariner 4 flew by it on July 15, 1965, with a camera system designed by NASA/JPL. Later, in 1976 the Mars Viking Lander produced digital images from the surface of Mars. While not what we usually define as a digital camera, it used a comparable process. It used a video camera tube, followed by a digitizer, rather than a mosaic of solid state sensor elements. This produced a digital image that was stored on tape for later slow transmission back to Earth.
The first published color digital photograph was produced in 1972 by Michael Francis Tompsett using CCD sensor technology and was featured on the cover of Electronics Magazine. It was a picture of his wife, Margaret Thompsett.
The Cromemco Cyclops, a digital camera developed as a commercial product and interfaced to a microcomputer, was featured in the February 1975 issue of Popular Electronics magazine. It used metal-oxide semiconductor (MOS) technology for its image sensor.
An important development in digital image compression technology was the discrete cosine transform (DCT), a lossy compression technique first proposed by Nasir Ahmed while he was working at the Kansas State University in 1972. DCT compression is used in JPEG image standard, which was introduced by the Joint Photographic Experts Group in 1992. JPEG compresses images down to much smaller file sizes, and has become the most widely used image file format. The JPEG standard was largely responsible for popularizing digital photography.
The first self-contained (portable) digital camera was created later in 1975 by Steven Sasson of Eastman Kodak. Sasson's camera used CCD image sensor chips developed by Fairchild Semiconductor in 1973. The camera weighed 8 pounds (3.6 kg), recorded black and white images to a cassette tape, had a resolution of 0.01 megapixels (10,000 pixels), and took 23 seconds to capture its first image in December 1975. The prototype camera was a technical exercise, not intended for production. While it was not until 1981 that the first consumer camera was produced by Sony, Inc., the groundwork for digital imaging and photography had been laid.
The first digital single-lens reflex (DSLR) camera was the Nikon SVC prototype demonstrated in 1986, followed by the commercial Nikon QV-1000C released in 1988. The first widely commercially available digital camera was the 1990 Dycam Model 1; it also sold as the Logitech Fotoman. It used a CCD image sensor, stored pictures digitally, and connected directly to a computer for downloading images. Originally offered to professional photographers for a hefty price, by the mid-to-late 1990s, due to technology advancements, digital cameras were commonly available to the general public.
The advent of digital photography also gave way to cultural changes in the field of photography. Unlike with traditional photography, dark rooms and hazardous chemicals were no longer required for post-production of an image – images could now be processed and enhanced from behind a computer screen in one's own home. This allowed for photographers to be more creative with their processing and editing techniques. As the field became more popular, types of digital photography and photographers diversified. Digital photography took photography itself from a small somewhat elite circle, to one that encompassed many people.
The camera phone helped popularize digital photography, along with the Internet, social media, and the JPEG image format. The first cell phones with built-in digital cameras were produced in 2000 by Sharp and Samsung. Small, convenient, and easy to use, camera phones have made digital photography ubiquitous in the daily life of the general public.
Number of photos taken
According to research from KeyPoint Intelligence/InfoTrends, an estimated 400 billion digital photos were taken globally in 2011 and this eventually rises to 1.2 trillion photos in 2017. Several billion JPEG images are produced every day as of 2015. An estimated 85 percent of the photos taken in 2017 will be done with the smartphone rather than a traditional digital camera.
Digital camera
Sensors
Image sensors are arrays of electronic devices that convert the optical image created by the camera lens into a digital file that is stored in some digital memory device, inside or outside the camera. Each element of the image sensor array measures the intensity of light hitting a small area of the projected image (a pixel) and converts it to a digital value.
The two main types of sensors are charge-coupled devices (CCD), in which the photocharge is shifted to a central charge-to-voltage converter, and CMOS or active pixel sensors.
Most cameras for the general consumer market create color images, in which each pixel has a color value from a three-dimensional color space like RGB. Although there is light sensing technology that can distinguish the wavelength of the light incident on each pixel, most cameras use monochrome sensors that can only record the intensity of that light, over a broad range of wavelengths that includes all the visible spectrum. To obtain color images, those cameras depend on color filters applied over each pixel, typically in a Bayer pattern, or (rarely) on movable filters or light splitters such as dichroic mirrors. The resulting grayscale images are then combined to produce a color image. This step is usually performed by the camera itself, although some cameras may optionally provide the unprocessed grayscale images in a so-called raw image format.
However, some special-purpose cameras, such as those for thermal mapping, or low light viewing, or high speed capture, may record only monochrome (grayscale) images. The Leica Monochrom cameras, for example, opted for a grayscale-only sensor to get better resolution and dynamic range. The reduction from three-dimensional color to grayscale or simulated sepia toning may also be performed by digital post processing, often as an option in the camera itself. On the other hand, some multispectral cameras may record more than three color coordinates for each pixel.
Multifunctionality and connectivity
Except for some linear array type of cameras at the highest-end and simple webcams at the lowest-end, a digital memory device (usually a memory card; floppy disks and CD-RWs are less common) is used for storing images, which may be transferred to a computer later.
Digital cameras can take pictures, and may also record sound and video. Some can be used as webcams, some can use the PictBridge standard to connect to a printer without using a computer, and some can display pictures directly on a television set. Similarly, many camcorders can take still photographs, and store them on videotape or on flash memory cards with the same functionality as digital cameras.
Digital photography is one of the most exceptional instances of the shift from converting conventional analog information to digital information. This shift is so tremendous because it was a chemical and mechanical process and became an all digital process with a built in computer in all digital cameras.
Performance metrics
The quality of a digital image is a composite of various factors, many of which are similar to those of film cameras. Pixel count (typically listed in megapixels, millions of pixels) is only one of the major factors, though it is the most heavily marketed figure of merit. Digital camera manufacturers advertise this figure because consumers can use it to easily compare camera capabilities. It is not, however, the major factor in evaluating a digital camera for most applications. The processing system inside the camera that turns the raw data into a color-balanced and pleasing photograph is usually more critical, which is why some 4+ megapixel cameras perform better than higher-end cameras.
Resolution in pixels is not the only measure of image quality. A larger sensor with the same number of pixels generally produces a better image than a smaller one. One of the most important differences is an improvement in image noise. This is one of the advantages of digital SLR (single-lens reflex) cameras, which have larger sensors than simpler cameras (so-called point and shoot cameras) of the same resolution.
Lens quality: resolution, distortion, dispersion (see Lens (optics))
Capture medium: CMOS, CCD, negative film, reversal film etc.
Capture format: pixel count, digital file type (RAW, TIFF, JPEG), film format (135 film, 120 film, 5x4, 10x8).
Processing: digital and/or chemical processing of 'negative' and 'print'.
Pixel counts
The number of pixels n for a given maximum resolution (w horizontal pixels by h vertical pixels) is the product n= w × h. This yields e. g. 1.92 megapixels (1,920,000 pixels) for an image of 1600 × 1200.
The pixel count quoted by manufacturers can be misleading as it may not be the number of full-color pixels. For cameras using single-chip image sensors the number claimed is the total number of single-color-sensitive photosensors, whether they have different locations in the plane, as with the Bayer sensor, or in stacks of three co-located photosensors as in the Foveon X3 sensor. However, the images have different numbers of RGB pixels: Bayer-sensor cameras produce as many RGB pixels as photosensors via demosaicing (interpolation), while Foveon sensors produce uninterpolated image files with one-third as many RGB pixels as photosensors. Comparisons of megapixel ratings of these two types of sensors are sometimes a subject of dispute.
The relative increase in detail resulting from an increase in resolution is better compared by looking at the number of pixels across (or down) the picture, rather than the total number of pixels in the picture area. For example, a sensor of 2560 × 1600 sensor elements is described as "4 megapixels" (2560 × 1600= 4,096,000). Increasing to 3200 × 2048 increases the pixels in the picture to 6,553,600 (6.5 megapixels), a factor of 1.6, but the pixels per cm in the picture (at the same image size) increases by only 1.25 times. A measure of the comparative increase in linear resolution is the square root of the increase in area resolution, i.e., megapixels in the entire image.
Dynamic range
Practical imaging systems both digital and film, have a limited "dynamic range": the range of luminosity that can be reproduced accurately. Highlights of the subject that are too bright are rendered as white, with no detail; shadows that are too dark are rendered as black. The loss of detail in the highlights is not abrupt with film, or in dark shadows with digital sensors. "Highlight burn-out" of digital sensors, is not usually abrupt in output images due to the tone mapping required to fit their large dynamic range into the more limited dynamic range of the output (be it SDR display or printing). Because sensor elements for different colours saturate in turn, there can be hue or saturation shift in burnt-out highlights.
Some digital cameras can show these blown highlights in the image review, allowing the photographer to re-shoot the picture with a modified exposure. Others compensate for the total contrast of a scene by selectively exposing darker pixels longer. A third technique is used by Fujifilm in its FinePix S3 Pro digital SLR. The image sensor contains additional photodiodes of lower sensitivity than the main ones; these retain detail in parts of the image too bright for the main sensor.
High-dynamic-range imaging (HDR) addresses this problem by increasing the dynamic range of images by either
increasing the dynamic range of the image sensor or
by using exposure bracketing and post-processing the separate images to create a single image with a higher dynamic range.
Storage
Many camera phones and most digital cameras use memory cards having flash memory to store image data. The majority of cards for separate cameras are Secure Digital (SD) format; many are CompactFlash (CF) and the other formats are rare. XQD card format was the last new form of card, targeted at high-definition camcorders and high-resolution digital photo cameras. Most modern digital cameras also use internal memory for a limited capacity for pictures that can be transferred to or from the card or through the camera's connections; even without a memory card inserted into the camera.
Memory cards can hold vast numbers of photos, requiring attention only when the memory card is full. For most users, this means hundreds of quality photos stored on the same memory card. Images may be transferred to other media for archival or personal use. Cards with high speed and capacity are suited to video and burst mode (capture several photographs in a quick succession).
Because photographers rely on the integrity of image files, it is important to take proper care of memory cards. Common advocacy calls for formatting of the cards after transferring the images onto a computer. However, since all cameras only do quick formatting of cards, it is advisable to carry out a more thorough formatting using appropriate software on a PC once in a while. Effectively, this involves scanning of the cards to search for possible errors.
Market impact
In late 2002, the cheapest digital cameras were available in the United States for around $100. At the same time, many discount stores with photo labs introduced a "digital front end", allowing consumers to obtain true chemical prints (as opposed to ink-jet prints) in an hour. These prices were similar to those of prints made from film negatives.
In July 2003, digital cameras entered the disposable camera market with the release of the Ritz Dakota Digital, a 1.2-megapixel (1280 x 960) CMOS-based digital camera costing only $11 (USD). Following the familiar single-use concept long in use with film cameras, Ritz intended the Dakota Digital for single use. When the pre-programmed 25-picture limit is reached, the camera is returned to the store, and the consumer receives back prints and a CD-ROM with their photos. The camera is then refurbished and resold.
Since the introduction of the Dakota Digital, a number of similar single-use digital cameras have appeared. Most single-use digital cameras are nearly identical to the original Dakota Digital in specifications and function, though a few include superior specifications and more advanced functions (such as higher image resolutions and LCD screens). Most, if not all these single-use digital cameras cost less than $20 (USD), not including processing. However, the huge demand for complex digital cameras at competitive prices has often caused manufacturing shortcuts, evidenced by a large increase in customer complaints over camera malfunctions, high parts prices, and short service life. Some digital cameras offer only a 90-day warranty.
Since 2003, digital cameras have outsold film cameras. Prices of 35mm compact cameras have dropped with manufacturers further outsourcing to countries such as China. Kodak announced in January 2004 that they would no longer sell Kodak-branded film cameras in the developed world. In January 2006, Nikon followed suit and announced they would stop production of all but two models of their film cameras. They will continue to produce the low-end Nikon FM10, and the high-end Nikon F6. In the same month, Konica Minolta announced it was pulling out of the camera business altogether. The price of 35mm and APS (Advanced Photo System) compact cameras have dropped, probably due to direct competition from digital and the resulting growth of the offer of second-hand film cameras. Pentax have reduced production of film cameras but not halted it. The technology has improved so rapidly that one of Kodak's film cameras was discontinued before it was awarded a "camera of the year" award later in the year. The decline in film camera sales has also led to a decline in purchases of film for such cameras. In November 2004, a German division of Agfa-Gevaert, AgfaPhoto, split off. Within six months it filed for bankruptcy. Konica Minolta Photo Imaging, Inc. ended production of Color film and paper worldwide by March 31, 2007. In addition, by 2005, Kodak employed less than a third of the employees it had twenty years earlier. It is not known if these job losses in the film industry have been offset in the digital image industry. Digital cameras have decimated the film photography industry through declining use of the expensive film rolls and development chemicals previously required to develop the photos. This has had a dramatic effect on companies such as Fuji, Kodak, and Agfa. Many stores that formerly offered photofinishing services or sold film no longer do, or have seen a tremendous decline. In 2012, Kodak filed for bankruptcy after struggling to adapt to the changing industry. (See Photographic film.)
In addition, digital photography has resulted in some positive market impacts as well. The increasing popularity of products such as digital photo frames and canvas prints is a direct result of the increasing popularity of digital photography.
Digital camera sales peaked in March 2012 averaging about 11 million units a month, but sales have declined significantly ever since. By March 2014, about 3 million were purchased each month, about 30 percent of the peak sales total. The decline may have bottomed out, with sales average hovering around 3 million a month. The main competitor is smartphones, most of which have built-in digital cameras, which routinely get better. Like most digital cameras, they also offer the ability to record videos. While smartphones continue to improve on a technical level, their form factor is not optimized for use as a camera and battery life is typically more limited compared to a digital camera.
Social impact
Digital photography has made photography available to a larger group of people. The new technology and editing programs available to photographers has changed the way photographs are presented to the public. There are photographs that are so heavily manipulated ("photoshopped") that they end up looking nothing like the original photograph and this changes the way they are perceived. Until the advent of the digital camera, amateur photographers used either print or slide film for their cameras. Slides are developed and shown to an audience using a slide projector. Digital photography revolutionized the industry by eliminating the delay and cost. The ease of viewing, transferring, editing and distributing digital images allowed consumers to manage their digital photos with ordinary home computers rather than specialized equipment.
Camera phones, being the majority of cameras, have arguably the largest impact. The user can set their smartphones to upload their products to the Internet, preserving them even if the camera is destroyed or the images deleted. Some high street photography shops have self-service kiosks that allow images to be printed directly from smartphones via Bluetooth technology.
Archivists and historians have noticed the transitory nature of digital media. Unlike film and print, which are tangible and immediately accessible to a person, digital image storage is ever-changing, with old media and decoding software becoming obsolete or inaccessible by new technologies. Historians are concerned that we are creating a historical void where information and details about an era would have been lost within either failed or inaccessible digital media. They recommend that professional and amateur users develop strategies for digital preservation by migrating stored digital images from old technologies to new. Scrapbookers who may have used film for creating artistic and personal memoirs may need to modify their approach to digital photo books to personalize them and retain the special qualities of traditional photo albums.
The web has been a popular medium for storing and sharing photos ever since the first photograph was published on the web by Tim Berners-Lee in 1992 (an image of the CERN house band Les Horribles Cernettes). Today photo sharing sites such as Flickr, Picasa, and PhotoBucket, as well as social Web sites, are used by millions of people to share their pictures. In today's world digital photography and social media websites allow organizations and corporations to make photographs more accessible to a greater and more diverse population. For example, National Geographic Magazine has a Twitter, Snapchat, Facebook, and Instagram accounts and each one includes content aimed for the type of audience that are part of each social media community. It is also important to remember that digital photography has also had an impact in other fields, such as medicine. It has allowed doctors to help diagnose diabetic retinopathy and it is used in hospitals to diagnose and treat other diseases.
Digitally altered imagery
New technology with digital cameras and computer editing affects the way we perceive photographic images today. The ability to create and fabricate realistic imagery digitally as opposed to untouched photos changes the audience's perception of ‘truth’ in digital photography Manipulation in the digital era allows us to brush up our pictures, shape our memories to be picture perfect and therefore shape our identities.
Recent research and innovation
Research and development continues to refine the lighting, optics, sensors, processing, storage, display, and software used in digital photography. Here are a few examples.
3D models can be created from collections of normal images. The resulting scene can be viewed from novel viewpoints, but creating the model is very computationally intensive. An example is Microsoft's Photosynth, which provided some models of famous places as examples.
Panoramic photographs can be created directly in camera without the need for any external processing. Some cameras feature a 3D Panorama capability, combining shots taken with a single lens from different angles to create a sense of depth.
Virtual-reality photography, the interactive visualization of photos
High-dynamic-range cameras and displays are commercially available. Sensors with dynamic range in excess of 1,000,000:1 are in development, and software is also available to combine multiple non-HDR images (shot with different exposures) into an HDR image.
Motion blur can be dramatically removed by a flutter shutter (a flickering shutter that adds a signature to the blur, which postprocessing recognizes). It is not yet commercially available.
Advanced bokeh techniques use a hardware system of 2 sensors, one to take the photo as usual while the other records depth information. Bokeh effect and refocusing can then be applied to an image after the photo is taken.
In advanced camera or camcorders, manipulating the sensitivity of the sensor not one, but 2 or more neutral density filters are available.
An object's specular reflection can be captured using computer-controlled lights and sensors. This is needed to create attractive images of oil paintings, for instance. It is not yet commercially available, but some museums are starting to use it.
Dust reduction systems help keep dust off of image sensors. Originally introduced only by a few cameras like Olympus DSLRs, have now become standard in most models and brands of detachable lens camera, except the low-end or cheap ones.
Other areas of progress include improved sensors, more powerful software, advanced camera processors (sometimes using more than one processor, e.g., the Canon 7d camera has 2 Digic 4 processors), enlarged gamut displays, built in GPS and WiFi, and computer-controlled lighting.
Comparison with film photography
Advantages already in consumer level cameras
The primary advantage of consumer-level digital cameras is the low recurring cost, as users need not purchase photographic film. Processing costs may be reduced or even eliminated. Digicams tend also to be easier to carry and to use, than comparable film cameras. They more easily adapt to modern use of pictures. Some, particularly those that are smartphones, can send their pictures directly to e-mail or web pages or other electronic distribution.
Advantages of professional digital cameras
Immediate image review and deletion is possible; lighting and composition can be assessed immediately, which ultimately conserves storage space.
Using flash in images can provide a different look such as the lighting of the image
High volume of images to medium ratio; allowing for extensive photography sessions without changing film rolls. To most users a single memory card is sufficient for the lifetime of the camera whereas film rolls are a re-incurring cost of film cameras.
Faster workflow: Management (colour and file), manipulation and printing tools are more versatile than conventional film processes. However, batch processing of RAW files can be time-consuming, even on a fast computer.
Much faster ingest of images, it will take no more than a few seconds to transfer a high resolution RAW file from a memory card vs many minutes to scan film with a high quality scanner.
Precision and reproducibility of processing: since processing in the digital domain is purely numerical, image processing using deterministic (non-random) algorithms is perfectly reproducible and eliminates variations common with photochemical processing that make many image processing techniques difficult if not impractical.
Digital manipulation: A digital image can be modified and manipulated much easier and faster than with traditional negative and print methods. The digital image to the right was captured in raw image format, processed and output in 3 different ways from the source RAW file, then merged and further processed for color saturation and other special effects to produce a more dramatic result than was originally captured with the RAW image.
Manufacturers such as Nikon and Canon have promoted the adoption of digital single-lens reflex cameras (DSLRs) by photojournalists. Images captured at 2+ megapixels are deemed of sufficient quality for small images in newspaper or magazine reproduction. Eight- to 24-megapixel images, found in modern digital SLRs, when combined with high-end lenses, can approximate the detail of film prints from 35 mm film based SLRs.
Disadvantages of digital cameras
As with any sampled signal, the combination of regular (periodic) pixel structure of common electronic image sensors and regular (periodic) structure of (typically man-made) objects being photographed can cause objectionable aliasing artefacts, such as false colors when using cameras using a Bayer pattern sensor. Aliasing is also present in film, but typically manifests itself in less obvious ways (such as increased granularity) due to the stochastic grain structure (stochastic sampling) of film.
A large number of mechanical film camera existed, such as the Leica M2. These battery-less devices had advantages over digital devices in harsh or remote conditions.
Equivalent features
Image noise and grain
Noise in a digital camera's image may sometimes be visually similar to film grain in a film camera.
Speed of use
Turn of the century digital cameras had a long start-up delay compared to film cameras, i.e., the delay from when they are turned on until they are ready to take the first shot, but this is no longer the case for modern digital cameras with start-up times under 1/4 seconds.
Frame rate
While some film cameras could reach up to 14 fps, like the Canon F-1 with rare high speed motor drive., professional digital SLR cameras can take still photographs at highest frame rates. While the Sony SLT technology allows rates of up to 12 fps, the Canon EOS-1Dx can take stills at a 14 fps rate. The Nikon F5 is limited to 36 continuous frames (the length of the film) without the cumbersome bulk film back, while the digital Nikon D5 is able to capture over 100 14-bit RAW images before its buffer must be cleared and the remaining space on the storage media can be used.
Image longevity
Depending on the materials and how they are stored, analog photographic film and prints may fade as they age. Similarly, the media on which digital images are stored or printed can decay or become corrupt, leading to a loss of image integrity.
Colour reproduction
Colour reproduction (gamut) is dependent on the type and quality of film or sensor used and the quality of the optical system and film processing. Different films and sensors have different color sensitivity; the photographer needs to understand his equipment, the light conditions, and the media used to ensure accurate colour reproduction. Many digital cameras offer RAW format (sensor data), which makes it possible to choose color space in the development stage regardless of camera settings.
Even in RAW format, however, the sensor and the camera's dynamics can only capture colors within the gamut supported by the hardware. When that image is transferred for reproduction on any device, the widest achievable gamut is the gamut that the end device supports. For a monitor, it is the gamut of the display device. For a photographic print, it is the gamut of the device that prints the image on a specific type of paper. Color gamut or Color space is an area where points of color fit in a three-dimensional space.
Professional photographers often use specially designed and calibrated monitors that help them to reproduce color accurately and consistently.
Frame aspect ratios
Most digital point & shoot cameras have an aspect ratio of 1.33 (4:3), the same as analog television or early movies. However, a 35 mm picture's aspect ratio is 1.5 (3:2). Several digital cameras take photos in either ratio, and nearly all digital SLRs take pictures in a 3:2 ratio, as most can use lenses designed for 35 mm film. Some photo labs print photos on 4:3 ratio paper, as well as the existing 3:2. In 2005 Panasonic launched the first consumer camera with a native aspect ratio of 16:9, matching HDTV. This is similar to a 7:4 aspect ratio, which was a common size for APS film. Different aspect ratios is one of the reasons consumers have issues when cropping photos. An aspect ratio of 4:3 translates to a size of 4.5"x6.0". This loses half an inch when printing on the "standard" size of 4"x6", an aspect ratio of 3:2. Similar cropping occurs when printing on other sizes, i.e., 5"x7", 8"x10", or 11"x14".
See also
Analog photography
Automatic image annotation
Camcorder
Chimping
Design rule for Camera File system (DCF)
Digital camera
Digital image editing
Digital imaging
Digital microscope
USB microscope
Digital photo frame
Digital Print Order Format (DPOF)
Digital Revolution
Digital single-lens reflex camera
Digital watermarking
Exif (Exchangeable image file format)
Geotagged photograph
High-dynamic-range imaging
Lenses for SLR and DSLR cameras
List of digital camera brands
Online proofing
Raw image format
3D camcorder
References
External links
Digital Photography FAQ |
2303660 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Version%206%20Unix | Version 6 Unix | Sixth Edition Unix, also called Version 6 Unix or just V6, was the first version of the Unix operating system to see wide release outside Bell Labs. It was released in May 1975 and, like its direct predecessor, targeted the DEC PDP-11 family of minicomputers. It was superseded by Version 7 Unix in 1978/1979, although V6 systems remained in regular operation until at least 1985.
AT&T Corporation licensed Version 5 Unix to educational institutions only, but licensed Version 6 also to commercial users for $20,000, and it remained the most widely used version into the 1980s. An enhanced V6 was the basis of the first ever commercially sold Unix version, INTERACTIVE's IS/1. Bell's own PWB/UNIX 1.0 was also based on V6, where earlier (unreleased) versions were based on V4 and V5. Whitesmiths produced and marketed a (binary-compatible) V6 clone under the name Idris.
Source code
V6 Unix was released as a distribution including the full source code. Since source code was available and the license was not explicit enough to forbid it, V6 was taken up as a teaching tool, notably by the University of California, Berkeley, Johns Hopkins University and the University of New South Wales (UNSW).
UC Berkeley distributed a set of add-on programs called the First Berkeley Software Distribution or 1BSD, which later became a complete operating system distribution.
UNSW professor John Lions' famous Commentary on UNIX 6th Edition was an edited selection of the main parts of the kernel as implemented for a Digital PDP-11/40, and was the main source of kernel documentation for many early Unix developers. Due to license restrictions on later Unix versions, the book was mainly distributed by samizdat photo-copying.
The source code for the original V6 Unix was later made available as free software under a BSD License from the SCO Group.
Portability
Interdata 7/32
In 1977, Richard Miller and Ross Nealon, working under the supervision of professor Juris Reinfelds at Wollongong University, completed a port of V6 Unix to the Interdata 7/32, thus proving the portability of Unix and its new systems programming language C in practice. Their "Wollongong Interdata UNIX, Level 6" also included utilities developed at Wollongong, and later releases had features of V7, notably its C compiler. Wollongong Unix was the first ever port to a platform other than the PDP series of computers, proving that portable operating systems were indeed feasible, and that C was the language in which to write them. In 1980, this version was licensed to The Wollongong Group in Palo Alto that published it as Edition 7.
Interdata 8/32
Around the same time, a Bell Labs port to the Interdata 8/32 was completed, but not externally released. The goal of this port was to improve the portability of Unix more generally, as well to produce a portable version of the C compiler. The resulting Portable C Compiler (PCC) was distributed with V7 and many later versions of Unix, and was used to produce the UNIX/32V port to the VAX.
IBM VM/370
A third Unix portability project was completed at Princeton, NJ in 1976–1977, where the Unix kernel was adapted to run as a guest operating on IBM's VM/370 virtualization environment. This version became the nucleus of Amdahl's first internal UNIX offering. (see Amdahl UTS)
Variants and extensions
Bell Labs developed several variants of V6, including the stripped-down MINI-UNIX for low-end PDP-11 models, LSI-UNIX or LSX for the LSI-11, and the real-time operating system UNIX/RT, which merged V6 Unix and the earlier MERT hypervisor.
After AT&T decided the distribution by Bell Labs of a number of pre-V7 bug fixes would constitute support (disallowed by an antitrust settlement) a tape with the patchset was slipped to Lou Katz of USENIX, who distributed them.
The University of Sydney released the Australian Unix Share Accounting Method (AUSAM) in November 1979, a V6 variant with improved security and process accounting.
In the Eastern Bloc, clones of V6 Unix appeared for local-built PDP-11 clones (MNOS, later augmented for partial compatibility with BSD Unix) and for the Elektronika BK personal computer (BKUNIX, based on LSX).
V6 was used for teaching at MIT in 2002 through 2006, and subsequently replaced by a simpler clone called xv6.
See also
Ancient UNIX
References
External links
V6 source code
Wollongong Interdata UNIX source code
Unix V6 Manuals – Web interface to the V6 manual pages.
Unix V6 documents, e.g. C Reference, and man pages
The First Unix Port; Richard Miller's account of porting Unix to the Interdata 7/32
Unix v6 for PDP-11 online emulator
Bell Labs Unices
Discontinued operating systems
Unix history
Unix variants
Free software operating systems
1975 software |
42310037 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NVLink | NVLink | NVLink is a wire-based serial multi-lane near-range communications link developed by Nvidia. Unlike PCI Express, a device can consist of multiple NVLinks, and devices use mesh networking to communicate instead of a central hub. The protocol was first announced in March 2014 and uses a proprietary high-speed signaling interconnect (NVHS).
Principle
NVLink is a wire-based communications protocol for near-range semiconductor communications developed by Nvidia that can be used for data and control code transfers in processor systems between CPUs and GPUs and solely between GPUs. NVLink specifies a point-to-point connection with data rates of 20, 25 and 50 Gbit/s (v1.0/v2.0/v3.0 resp.) per differential pair. Eight differential pairs form a "sub-link" and two "sub-links", one for each direction, form a "link". The total data rate for a sub-link is 25 GByte/s and the total data rate for a link is 50 GByte/s. Each V100 GPU supports up to six links. Thus, each GPU is capable of supporting up to 300 GByte/s in total bi-directional bandwidth. NVLink products introduced to date focus on the high-performance application space. Announced May 14, 2020, NVLink 3.0 increases the data rate per differential pair from 25 Gbit/s to 50 Gbit/s while halving the number of pairs per NVLink from 8 to 4. With 12 links for an Ampere-based A100 GPU this brings the total bandwidth to 600 GB/sec.
Performance
The following table shows a basic metrics comparison based upon standard specifications:
The following table shows a comparison of relevant bus parameters for real world semiconductors that all offer NVLink as one of their options:
Note: Data rate columns were rounded by being approximated by transmission rate, see real world performance paragraph
Ⓐ: sample value; NVLink sub-link bundling should be possible
Ⓑ: sample value; other fractions for the PCIe lane usage should be possible
Ⓒ: a single (no! 16) PCIe lane transfers data over a differential pair
Ⓓ: various limitations of finally possible combinations might apply due to chip pin muxing and board design
dual: interface unit can either be configured as a root hub or an end point
generic: bare semiconductor without any board design specific restrictions applied
Real world performance could be determined by applying different encapsulation taxes as well usage rate. Those come from various sources:
128b/130b line code (see e.g. PCI Express data transmission for versions 3.0 and higher)
Link control characters
Transaction header
Buffering capabilities (depends on device)
DMA usage on computer side (depends on other software, usually negligible on benchmarks)
Those physical limitations usually reduce the data rate to between 90 and 95% of the transfer rate. NVLink benchmarks show an achievable transfer rate of about 35.3 Gbit/s (host to device) for a 40 Gbit/s (2 sub-lanes uplink) NVLink connection towards a P100 GPU in a system that is driven by a set of IBM Power8 CPUs.
Usage with plug-In boards
For the various versions of plug-in boards (a yet small number of high-end gaming and professional graphics GPU boards with this feature exist) that expose extra connectors for joining them into a NVLink group, a similar number of slightly varying, relatively compact, PCB based interconnection plugs does exist. Typically only boards of the same type will mate together due to their physical and logical design. For some setups two identical plugs need to be applied for achieving the full data rate. As of now the typical plug is U-shaped with a fine grid edge connector on each of the end strokes of the shape facing away from the viewer. The width of the plug determines how far away the plug-in cards need to be seated to the main board of the hosting computer system - a distance for the placement of the card is commonly determined by the matching plug (known available plug widths are 3 to 5 slots and also depend on board type). The interconnect is often referred as Scalable Link Interface (SLI) from 2004 for its structural design and appearance, even if the modern NVLink based design is of a quite different technical nature with different features in its basic levels compared to the former design. Reported real world devices are:
Quadro GP100 (a pair of cards will make use of up to 2 bridges; the setup realizes either 2 or 4 NVLink connections with up to 160 GB/s - this might resemble NVLink 1.0 with 20 GT/s)
Quadro GV100 (a pair of cards will need up to 2 bridges and realize up to 200 GB/s - this might resemble NVLink 2.0 with 25 GT/s and 4 links)
GeForce RTX 2080 based on TU104 (with single bridge "GeForce RTX NVLink-Bridge")
GeForce RTX 2080 Ti based on TU102 (with single bridge "GeForce RTX NVLink-Bridge")
Quadro RTX 5000 based on TU104 (with single bridge "NVLink" up to 50 GB/s - this might resemble NVLink 2.0 with 25 GT/s and 1 link)
Quadro RTX 6000 based on TU102 (with single bridge "NVLink HB" up to 100 GB/s - this might resemble NVLink 2.0 with 25 GT/s and 2 links)
Quadro RTX 8000 based on TU102 (with single bridge "NVLink HB" up to 100 GB/s - this might resemble NVLink 2.0 with 25 GT/s and 2 links)
Service software and programming
For the Tesla, Quadro and Grid product lines, the NVML-API (Nvidia Management Library API) offers a set of functions for programmatically controlling some aspects of NVLink interconnects on Windows and Linux systems, such as component evaluation and versions along with status/error querying and performance monitoring. Further, with the provision of the NCCL library (Nvidia Collective Communications Library) developers in the public space shall be enabled for realizing e.g. powerful implementations for artificial intelligence and similar computation hungry topics atop NVLink. The page "3D Settings" » "Configure SLI, Surround, PhysX" in the Nvidia Control panel and the CUDA sample application "simpleP2P" use such APIs to realize their services in respect to their NVLink features. On the Linux platform, the command line application with sub-command "nvidia-smi nvlink" provides a similar set of advanced information and control.
History
On 5 April 2016, Nvidia announced that NVLink would be implemented in the Pascal-microarchitecture-based GP100 GPU, as used in, for example, Nvidia Tesla P100 products. With the introduction of the DGX-1 high performance computer base it was possible to have up to eight P100 modules in a single rack system connected to up to two host CPUs. The carrier board (...) allows for a dedicated board for routing the NVLink connections – each P100 requires 800 pins, 400 for PCIe + power, and another 400 for the NVLinks, adding up to nearly 1600 board traces for NVLinks alone (...). Each CPU has direct connection to 4 units of P100 via PCIe and each P100 has one NVLink each to the 3 other P100s in the same CPU group plus one more NVLink to one P100 in the other CPU group. Each NVLink (link interface) offers a bidirectional 20 GB/sec up 20 GB/sec down, with 4 links per GP100 GPU, for an aggregate bandwidth of 80 GB/sec up and another 80 GB/sec down. NVLink supports routing so that in the DGX-1 design for every P100 a total of 4 of the other 7 P100s are directly reachable and the remaining 3 are reachable with only one hop. According to depictions in Nvidia's blog-based publications, from 2014 NVLink allows bundling of individual links for increased point to point performance so that for example a design with two P100s and all links established between the two units would allow the full NVLink bandwidth of 80 GB/s between them.
At GTC2017, Nvidia presented its Volta generation of GPUs and indicated the integration of a revised version 2.0 of NVLink that would allow total I/O data rates of 300 GB/s for a single chip for this design, and further announced the option for pre-orders with a delivery promise for Q3/2017 of the DGX-1 and DGX-Station high performance computers that will be equipped with GPU modules of type V100 and have NVLink 2.0 realized in either a networked (two groups of four V100 modules with inter-group connectivity) or a fully interconnected fashion of one group of four V100 modules.
In 2017-2018, IBM and Nvidia delivered the Summit and Sierra supercomputers for the US Department of Energy which combine IBM's POWER9 family of CPUs and Nvidia's Volta architecture, using NVLink 2.0 for the CPU-GPU and GPU-GPU interconnects and InfiniBand EDR for the system interconnects.
In 2020, Nvidia announced that they will no longer be adding new SLI driver profiles on RTX 2000 series and older from January 1st, 2021.
See also
Intel QuickPath Interconnect
HyperTransport
Message Passing Interface
INK (operating system)
Compute Node Linux
Intel Xe Link
References
Nvidia
Computer buses
Serial buses |
25256 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QED%20%28text%20editor%29 | QED (text editor) | QED is a line-oriented computer text editor that was developed by Butler Lampson and L. Peter Deutsch for the Berkeley Timesharing System running on the SDS 940. It was implemented by L. Peter Deutsch and Dana Angluin between 1965 and 1966.
QED (for "quick editor") addressed teleprinter usage, but systems "for CRT displays [were] not considered, since many of their design considerations [were] quite different."
Later implementations
Ken Thompson later wrote a version for CTSS; this version was notable for introducing regular expressions. Thompson rewrote QED in BCPL for Multics. The Multics version was ported to the GE-600 system used at Bell Labs in the late 1960s under GECOS and later GCOS after Honeywell took over GE's computer business. The GECOS-GCOS port used I/O routines written by A. W. Winklehoff. Dennis Ritchie, Ken Thompson and Brian Kernighan wrote the QED manuals used at Bell Labs.
Given that the authors were the primary developers of the Unix operating system, it is natural that QED had a strong influence on the classic UNIX text editors ed, sed and their descendants such as ex and sam, and more distantly AWK and Perl.
A version of QED named FRED (Friendly Editor) was written at the
University of Waterloo for Honeywell systems by Peter Fraser. A University of Toronto team consisting of Tom Duff, Rob Pike, Hugh Redelmeier, and David Tilbrook implemented a version of QED that runs on UNIX; David Tilbrook later included QED as part of his QEF tool set.
QED was also used as a character-oriented editor on the Norwegian-made Norsk Data systems, first Nord TSS, then Sintran III. It was implemented for the Nord-1 computer in 1971 by Bo Lewendal who after working with Deutsch and Lampson at Project Genie and at the Berkeley Computer Corporation, had taken a job with Norsk Data (and who developed the Nord TSS later in 1971).
See also
QEdit, a similarly named, but unrelated DOS text editor by SemWare
References
Further reading
FRED - the friendly editor.
QED as part of QEF tools
QED Archive - an archive of source code of several versions of QED
Caltech QED with changes to compile on Linux
Line editor |
19644137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile%20phone | Mobile phone | A mobile phone, cellular phone, cell phone, cellphone, handphone, or hand phone, sometimes shortened to simply mobile, cell, or just phone, is a portable telephone that can make and receive calls over a radio frequency link while the user is moving within a telephone service area. The radio frequency link establishes a connection to the switching systems of a mobile phone operator, which provides access to the public switched telephone network (PSTN). Modern mobile telephone services use a cellular network architecture and, therefore, mobile telephones are called cellular telephones or cell phones in North America. In addition to telephony, digital mobile phones (2G) support a variety of other services, such as text messaging, MMS, email, Internet access, short-range wireless communications (infrared, Bluetooth), business applications, video games and digital photography. Mobile phones offering only those capabilities are known as feature phones; mobile phones which offer greatly advanced computing capabilities are referred to as smartphones.
The development of metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) large-scale integration (LSI) technology, information theory and cellular networking led to the development of affordable mobile communications. The first handheld mobile phone was demonstrated by John F. Mitchell and Martin Cooper of Motorola in New York City in 1973, using a handset weighing c. 2 kilograms (4.4 lbs). In 1979, Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (NTT) launched the world's first cellular network in Japan. In 1983, the DynaTAC 8000x was the first commercially available handheld mobile phone. From 1983 to 2014, worldwide mobile phone subscriptions grew to over seven billion; enough to provide one for every person on Earth. In the first quarter of 2016, the top smartphone developers worldwide were Samsung, Apple and Huawei; smartphone sales represented 78 percent of total mobile phone sales. For feature phones (slang: "dumbphones") , the top-selling brands were Samsung, Nokia and Alcatel.
History
A handheld mobile radio telephone service was envisioned in the early stages of radio engineering. In 1917, Finnish inventor Eric Tigerstedt filed a patent for a "pocket-size folding telephone with a very thin carbon microphone". Early predecessors of cellular phones included analog radio communications from ships and trains. The race to create truly portable telephone devices began after World War II, with developments taking place in many countries. The advances in mobile telephony have been traced in successive "generations", starting with the early zeroth-generation (0G) services, such as Bell System's Mobile Telephone Service and its successor, the Improved Mobile Telephone Service. These 0G systems were not cellular, supported few simultaneous calls, and were very expensive.
The development of metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) large-scale integration (LSI) technology, information theory and cellular networking led to the development of affordable mobile communications, and devices such as the car phone. The first handheld cellular mobile phone was demonstrated by John F. Mitchell and Martin Cooper of Motorola in 1973, using a handset weighing . The first commercial automated cellular network (1G) analog was launched in Japan by Nippon Telegraph and Telephone in 1979. This was followed in 1981 by the simultaneous launch of the Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT) system in Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden. Several other countries then followed in the early to mid-1980s. These first-generation (1G) systems could support far more simultaneous calls but still used analog cellular technology. In 1983, the DynaTAC 8000x was the first commercially available handheld mobile phone.
Digital cellular networks appeared in the 1990s, enabled by the wide adoption of MOSFET-based RF power amplifiers (power MOSFET and LDMOS) and RF circuits (RF CMOS), leading to the introduction of digital signal processing in wireless communications. In 1991, the second-generation (2G) digital cellular technology was launched in Finland by Radiolinja on the GSM standard. This sparked competition in the sector as the new operators challenged the incumbent 1G network operators. The GSM standard is a European initiative expressed at the CEPT ("Conférence Européenne des Postes et Telecommunications", European Postal and Telecommunications conference). The Franco-German R&D cooperation demonstrated the technical feasibility, and in 1987 a Memorandum of Understanding was signed between 13 European countries who agreed to launch a commercial service by 1991. The first version of the GSM (=2G) standard had 6,000 pages. The IEEE and RSE awarded to Thomas Haug and Philippe Dupuis the 2018 James Clerk Maxwell medal for their contributions to the first digital mobile telephone standard. In 2018, the GSM was used by over 5 billion people in over 220 countries. The GSM (2G) has evolved into 3G, 4G and 5G. The standardisation body for GSM started at the CEPT Working Group GSM (Group Special Mobile) in 1982 under the umbrella of CEPT. In 1988, ETSI was established and all CEPT standardization activities were transferred to ETSI. Working Group GSM became Technical Committee GSM. In 1991, it became Technical Committee SMG (Special Mobile Group) when ETSI tasked the committee with UMTS (3G).
The lithium-ion battery, an indispensable energy source for modern mobile phones, was commercialized by Sony and Asahi Kasei in 1991. In 2001, the third generation (3G) was launched in Japan by NTT DoCoMo on the WCDMA standard. This was followed by 3.5G, 3G+ or turbo 3G enhancements based on the high-speed packet access (HSPA) family, allowing UMTS networks to have higher data transfer speeds and capacity.
By 2009, it had become clear that, at some point, 3G networks would be overwhelmed by the growth of bandwidth-intensive applications, such as streaming media. Consequently, the industry began looking to data-optimized fourth-generation technologies, with the promise of speed improvements up to ten-fold over existing 3G technologies. The first two commercially available technologies billed as 4G were the WiMAX standard, offered in North America by Sprint, and the LTE standard, first offered in Scandinavia by TeliaSonera.
5G is a technology and term used in research papers and projects to denote the next major phase in mobile telecommunication standards beyond the 4G/IMT-Advanced standards. The term 5G is not officially used in any specification or official document yet made public by telecommunication companies or standardization bodies such as 3GPP, WiMAX Forum or ITU-R. New standards beyond 4G are currently being developed by standardization bodies, but they are at this time seen as under the 4G umbrella, not for a new mobile generation.
Types
Smartphone
Smartphones have a number of distinguishing features. The International Telecommunication Union measures those with Internet connection, which it calls Active Mobile-Broadband subscriptions (which includes tablets, etc.). In the developed world, smartphones have now overtaken the usage of earlier mobile systems. However, in the developing world, they account for around 50% of mobile telephony.
Feature phone
Feature phone is a term typically used as a retronym to describe mobile phones which are limited in capabilities in contrast to a modern smartphone. Feature phones typically provide voice calling and text messaging functionality, in addition to basic multimedia and Internet capabilities, and other services offered by the user's wireless service provider. A feature phone has additional functions over and above a basic mobile phone which is only capable of voice calling and text messaging. Feature phones and basic mobile phones tend to use a proprietary, custom-designed software and user interface. By contrast, smartphones generally use a mobile operating system that often shares common traits across devices.
Infrastructure
Mobile phones communicate with cell towers that are placed to give coverage across a telephone service area, which is divided up into 'cells'. Each cell uses a different set of frequencies from neighboring cells, and will typically be covered by three towers placed at different locations. The cell towers are usually interconnected to each other and the phone network and the internet by wired connections. Due to bandwidth limitations each cell will have a maximum number of cell phones it can handle at once. The cells are therefore sized depending on the expected usage density, and may be much smaller in cities. In that case much lower transmitter powers are used to avoid broadcasting beyond the cell.
In order to handle the high traffic, multiple towers can be set up in the same area (using different frequencies). This can be done permanently or temporarily such as at special events like at the Super Bowl, Taste of Chicago, State Fair, NYC New Year's Eve, hurricane hit cities, etc. where cell phone companies will bring a truck with equipment to host the abnormally high traffic with a portable cell.
Cellular can greatly increase the capacity of simultaneous wireless phone calls. While a phone company for example, has a license to 1,000 frequencies, each cell must use unique frequencies with each call using one of them when communicating. Because cells only slightly overlap, the same frequency can be reused. Example cell one uses frequency 1–500, next door cell uses frequency 501–1,000, next door can reuse frequency 1–500. Cells one and three are not "touching" and do not overlap/communicate so each can reuse the same frequencies.
This is even more greatly increased when phone companies implemented digital networks. With digital, one frequency can host multiple simultaneous calls increasing capacity even more.
As a phone moves around, a phone will "hand off" - automatically disconnect and reconnect to the tower of another cell that gives the best reception.
Additionally, short-range Wi-Fi infrastructure is often used by smartphones as much as possible as it offloads traffic from cell networks on to local area networks.
Hardware
The common components found on all mobile phones are:
A central processing unit (CPU), the processor of phones. The CPU is a microprocessor fabricated on a metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) integrated circuit (IC) chip.
A battery, providing the power source for the phone functions. A modern handset typically uses a lithium-ion battery (LIB), whereas older handsets used nickel–metal hydride (Ni–MH) batteries.
An input mechanism to allow the user to interact with the phone. These are a keypad for feature phones, and touch screens for most smartphones (typically with capacitive sensing).
A display which echoes the user's typing, and displays text messages, contacts, and more. The display is typically either a liquid-crystal display (LCD) or organic light-emitting diode (OLED) display.
Speakers for sound.
Subscriber identity module (SIM) cards and removable user identity module (R-UIM) cards.
A hardware notification LED on some phones
Low-end mobile phones are often referred to as feature phones and offer basic telephony. Handsets with more advanced computing ability through the use of native software applications are known as smartphones.
Central processing unit
Mobile phones have central processing units (CPUs), similar to those in computers, but optimised to operate in low power environments.
Mobile CPU performance depends not only on the clock rate (generally given in multiples of hertz) but also the memory hierarchy also greatly affects overall performance. Because of these problems, the performance of mobile phone CPUs is often more appropriately given by scores derived from various standardized tests to measure the real effective performance in commonly used applications.
Display
One of the main characteristics of phones is the screen. Depending on the device's type and design, the screen fills most or nearly all of the space on a device's front surface. Many smartphone displays have an aspect ratio of 16:9, but taller aspect ratios became more common in 2017.
Screen sizes are often measured in diagonal inches or millimeters; feature phones generally have screen sizes below . Phones with screens larger than are often called "phablets." Smartphones with screens over in size are commonly difficult to use with only a single hand, since most thumbs cannot reach the entire screen surface; they may need to be shifted around in the hand, held in one hand and manipulated by the other, or used in place with both hands. Due to design advances, some modern smartphones with large screen sizes and "edge-to-edge" designs have compact builds that improve their ergonomics, while the shift to taller aspect ratios have resulted in phones that have larger screen sizes whilst maintaining the ergonomics associated with smaller 16:9 displays.
Liquid-crystal displays are the most common; others are IPS, LED, OLED, and AMOLED displays. Some displays are integrated with pressure-sensitive digitizers, such as those developed by Wacom and Samsung, and Apple's "3D Touch" system.
Sound
In sound, smartphones and feature phones vary little. Some audio-quality enhancing features, such as Voice over LTE and HD Voice, have appeared and are often available on newer smartphones. Sound quality can remain a problem due to the design of the phone, the quality of the cellular network and compression algorithms used in long-distance calls. Audio quality can be improved using a VoIP application over WiFi. Cellphones have small speakers so that the user can use a speakerphone feature and talk to a person on the phone without holding it to their ear. The small speakers can also be used to listen to digital audio files of music or speech or watch videos with an audio component, without holding the phone close to the ear.
Battery
The average phone battery lasts 2–3 years at best. Many of the wireless devices use a Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion) battery, which charges 500–2500 times, depending on how users take care of the battery and the charging techniques used. It is only natural for these rechargeable batteries to chemically age, which is why the performance of the battery when used for a year or two will begin to deteriorate. Battery life can be extended by draining it regularly, not overcharging it, and keeping it away from heat.
SIM card
Mobile phones require a small microchip called a Subscriber Identity Module or SIM card, in order to function. The SIM card is approximately the size of a small postage stamp and is usually placed underneath the battery in the rear of the unit. The SIM securely stores the service-subscriber key (IMSI) and the Ki used to identify and authenticate the user of the mobile phone. The SIM card allows users to change phones by simply removing the SIM card from one mobile phone and inserting it into another mobile phone or broadband telephony device, provided that this is not prevented by a SIM lock. The first SIM card was made in 1991 by Munich smart card maker Giesecke & Devrient for the Finnish wireless network operator Radiolinja.
A hybrid mobile phone can hold up to four SIM cards, with a phone having a different device identifier for each SIM Card. SIM and R-UIM cards may be mixed together to allow both GSM and CDMA networks to be accessed. From 2010 onwards, such phones became popular in emerging markets, and this was attributed to the desire to obtain the lowest calling costs.
When the removal of a SIM card is detected by the operating system, it may deny further operation until a reboot.
Software
Software platforms
Feature phones have basic software platforms. Smartphones have advanced software platforms. Android OS has been the best-selling OS worldwide on smartphones since 2011.
Mobile app
A mobile app is a computer program designed to run on a mobile device, such as a smartphone. The term "app" is a shortening of the term "software application".
Messaging
A common data application on mobile phones is Short Message Service (SMS) text messaging. The first SMS message was sent from a computer to a mobile phone in 1992 in the UK while the first person-to-person SMS from phone to phone was sent in Finland in 1993. The first mobile news service, delivered via SMS, was launched in Finland in 2000, and subsequently many organizations provided "on-demand" and "instant" news services by SMS. Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS) was introduced in March 2002.
Application stores
The introduction of Apple's App Store for the iPhone and iPod Touch in July 2008 popularized manufacturer-hosted online distribution for third-party applications (software and computer programs) focused on a single platform. There are a huge variety of apps, including video games, music products and business tools. Up until that point, smartphone application distribution depended on third-party sources providing applications for multiple platforms, such as GetJar, Handango, Handmark, and PocketGear. Following the success of the App Store, other smartphone manufacturers launched application stores, such as Google's Android Market (later renamed to the Google Play Store), RIM's BlackBerry App World, or Android-related app stores like Aptoide, Cafe Bazaar, F-Droid, GetJar, and Opera Mobile Store. In February 2014, 93% of mobile developers were targeting smartphones first for mobile app development.
Sales
By manufacturer
In 2017, the top five manufacturers worldwide were Samsung (20.9%), Apple (14.0%), Huawei (9.8%), Oppo (5.7%), and Vivo (6.5%). During Q2 2018, Huawei overtook Apple as the world's second-largest phone manufacturer.
History
From 1983 to 1998, Motorola was market leader in mobile phones. Nokia was the market leader in mobile phones from 1998 to 2012. In Q1 2012, Samsung surpassed Nokia, selling 93.5 million units as against Nokia's 82.7 million units. Samsung has retained its top position since then.
Aside from Motorola, European brands such as Nokia, Siemens and Ericsson once held large sway over the global mobile phone market, and many new technologies were pioneered in Europe. By 2010, the influence of European companies had significantly decreased due to fierce competition from American and Asian companies, where most technical innovation had shifted to. Apple and Google, both of the United States, also came to dominate mobile phone software.
By mobile phone operator
The world's largest individual mobile operator by number of subscribers is China Mobile, which has over 902 million mobile phone subscribers . Over 50 mobile operators have over ten million subscribers each, and over 150 mobile operators had at least one million subscribers by the end of 2009. In 2014, there were more than seven billion mobile phone subscribers worldwide, a number that is expected to keep growing.
Use
Mobile phones are used for a variety of purposes, such as keeping in touch with family members, for conducting business, and in order to have access to a telephone in the event of an emergency. Some people carry more than one mobile phone for different purposes, such as for business and personal use. Multiple SIM cards may be used to take advantage of the benefits of different calling plans. For example, a particular plan might provide for cheaper local calls, long-distance calls, international calls, or roaming.
The mobile phone has been used in a variety of diverse contexts in society. For example:
A study by Motorola found that one in ten mobile phone subscribers have a second phone that is often kept secret from other family members. These phones may be used to engage in such activities as extramarital affairs or clandestine business dealings.
Some organizations assist victims of domestic violence by providing mobile phones for use in emergencies. These are often refurbished phones.
The advent of widespread text-messaging has resulted in the cell phone novel, the first literary genre to emerge from the cellular age, via text messaging to a website that collects the novels as a whole.
Mobile telephony also facilitates activism and citizen journalism.
The United Nations reported that mobile phones have spread faster than any other form of technology and can improve the livelihood of the poorest people in developing countries, by providing access to information in places where landlines or the Internet are not available, especially in the least developed countries. Use of mobile phones also spawns a wealth of micro-enterprises, by providing such work as selling airtime on the streets and repairing or refurbishing handsets.
In Mali and other African countries, people used to travel from village to village to let friends and relatives know about weddings, births, and other events. This can now be avoided in areas with mobile phone coverage, which are usually more extensive than areas with just land-line penetration.
The TV industry has recently started using mobile phones to drive live TV viewing through mobile apps, advertising, social TV, and mobile TV. It is estimated that 86% of Americans use their mobile phone while watching TV.
In some parts of the world, mobile phone sharing is common. Cell phone sharing is prevalent in urban India, as families and groups of friends often share one or more mobile phones among their members. There are obvious economic benefits, but often familial customs and traditional gender roles play a part. It is common for a village to have access to only one mobile phone, perhaps owned by a teacher or missionary, which is available to all members of the village for necessary calls.
Content distribution
In 1998, one of the first examples of distributing and selling media content through the mobile phone was the sale of ringtones by Radiolinja in Finland. Soon afterwards, other media content appeared, such as news, video games, jokes, horoscopes, TV content and advertising. Most early content for mobile phones tended to be copies of legacy media, such as banner advertisements or TV news highlight video clips. Recently, unique content for mobile phones has been emerging, from ringtones and ringback tones to mobisodes, video content that has been produced exclusively for mobile phones.
Mobile banking and payment
In many countries, mobile phones are used to provide mobile banking services, which may include the ability to transfer cash payments by secure SMS text message. Kenya's M-PESA mobile banking service, for example, allows customers of the mobile phone operator Safaricom to hold cash balances which are recorded on their SIM cards. Cash can be deposited or withdrawn from M-PESA accounts at Safaricom retail outlets located throughout the country and can be transferred electronically from person to person and used to pay bills to companies.
Branchless banking has also been successful in South Africa and the Philippines. A pilot project in Bali was launched in 2011 by the International Finance Corporation and an Indonesian bank, Bank Mandiri.
Another application of mobile banking technology is Zidisha, a US-based nonprofit micro-lending platform that allows residents of developing countries to raise small business loans from Web users worldwide. Zidisha uses mobile banking for loan disbursements and repayments, transferring funds from lenders in the United States to borrowers in rural Africa who have mobile phones and can use the Internet.
Mobile payments were first trialled in Finland in 1998 when two Coca-Cola vending machines in Espoo were enabled to work with SMS payments. Eventually, the idea spread and in 1999, the Philippines launched the country's first commercial mobile payments systems with mobile operators Globe and Smart.
Some mobile phones can make mobile payments via direct mobile billing schemes, or through contactless payments if the phone and the point of sale support near field communication (NFC). Enabling contactless payments through NFC-equipped mobile phones requires the co-operation of manufacturers, network operators, and retail merchants.
Mobile tracking
Mobile phones are commonly used to collect location data. While the phone is turned on, the geographical location of a mobile phone can be determined easily (whether it is being used or not) using a technique known as multilateration to calculate the differences in time for a signal to travel from the mobile phone to each of several cell towers near the owner of the phone.
The movements of a mobile phone user can be tracked by their service provider and if desired, by law enforcement agencies and their governments. Both the SIM card and the handset can be tracked.
China has proposed using this technology to track the commuting patterns of Beijing city residents. In the UK and US, law enforcement and intelligence services use mobile phones to perform surveillance operations. They possess technology that enables them to activate the microphones in mobile phones remotely in order to listen to conversations which take place near the phone.
Hackers are able to track a phone's location, read messages, and record calls, just by knowing the phone number.
While driving
Mobile phone use while driving, including talking on the phone, texting, or operating other phone features, is common but controversial. It is widely considered dangerous due to distracted driving. Being distracted while operating a motor vehicle has been shown to increase the risk of accidents. In September 2010, the US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) reported that 995 people were killed by drivers distracted by cell phones. In March 2011, a U.S. insurance company, State Farm Insurance, announced the results of a study which showed 19% of drivers surveyed accessed the Internet on a smartphone while driving. Many jurisdictions prohibit the use of mobile phones while driving. In Egypt, Israel, Japan, Portugal, and Singapore, both handheld and hands-free use of a mobile phone (which uses a speakerphone) is banned. In other countries, including the UK and France and in many U.S. states, only handheld phone use is banned while hands-free use is permitted.
A 2011 study reported that over 90% of college students surveyed text (initiate, reply or read) while driving.
The scientific literature on the dangers of driving while sending a text message from a mobile phone, or texting while driving, is limited. A simulation study at the University of Utah found a sixfold increase in distraction-related accidents when texting.
Due to the increasing complexity of mobile phones, they are often more like mobile computers in their available uses. This has introduced additional difficulties for law enforcement officials when attempting to distinguish one usage from another in drivers using their devices. This is more apparent in countries which ban both handheld and hands-free usage, rather than those which ban handheld use only, as officials cannot easily tell which function of the mobile phone is being used simply by looking at the driver. This can lead to drivers being stopped for using their device illegally for a phone call when, in fact, they were using the device legally, for example, when using the phone's incorporated controls for car stereo, GPS or satnav.
A 2010 study reviewed the incidence of mobile phone use while cycling and its effects on behaviour and safety. In 2013, a national survey in the US reported the number of drivers who reported using their cellphones to access the Internet while driving had risen to nearly one of four. A study conducted by the University of Vienna examined approaches for reducing inappropriate and problematic use of mobile phones, such as using mobile phones while driving.
Accidents involving a driver being distracted by talking on a mobile phone have begun to be prosecuted as negligence similar to speeding. In the United Kingdom, from 27 February 2007, motorists who are caught using a hand-held mobile phone while driving will have three penalty points added to their license in addition to the fine of £60. This increase was introduced to try to stem the increase in drivers ignoring the law. Japan prohibits all mobile phone use while driving, including use of hands-free devices. New Zealand has banned hand-held cell phone use since 1 November 2009. Many states in the United States have banned texting on cell phones while driving. Illinois became the 17th American state to enforce this law. , 30 states had banned texting while driving, with Kentucky becoming the most recent addition on 15 July.
Public Health Law Research maintains a list of distracted driving laws in the United States. This database of laws provides a comprehensive view of the provisions of laws that restrict the use of mobile communication devices while driving for all 50 states and the District of Columbia between 1992 when first law was passed, through 1 December 2010. The dataset contains information on 22 dichotomous, continuous or categorical variables including, for example, activities regulated (e.g., texting versus talking, hands-free versus handheld), targeted populations, and exemptions.
In 2010, an estimated 1500 pedestrians were injured in the US while using a cellphone and some jurisdictions have attempted to ban pedestrians from using their cellphones.
Health effects
The effect of mobile phone radiation on human health is the subject of recent interest and study, as a result of the enormous increase in mobile phone usage throughout the world. Mobile phones use electromagnetic radiation in the microwave range, which some believe may be harmful to human health. A large body of research exists, both epidemiological and experimental, in non-human animals and in humans. The majority of this research shows no definite causative relationship between exposure to mobile phones and harmful biological effects in humans. This is often paraphrased simply as the balance of evidence showing no harm to humans from mobile phones, although a significant number of individual studies do suggest such a relationship, or are inconclusive. Other digital wireless systems, such as data communication networks, produce similar radiation.
On 31 May 2011, the World Health Organization stated that mobile phone use may possibly represent a long-term health risk, classifying mobile phone radiation as "possibly carcinogenic to humans" after a team of scientists reviewed studies on mobile phone safety. The mobile phone is in category 2B, which ranks it alongside coffee and other possibly carcinogenic substances.
Some recent studies have found an association between mobile phone use and certain kinds of brain and salivary gland tumors. Lennart Hardell and other authors of a 2009 meta-analysis of 11 studies from peer-reviewed journals concluded that cell phone usage for at least ten years "approximately doubles the risk of being diagnosed with a brain tumor on the same ('ipsilateral') side of the head as that preferred for cell phone use".
One study of past mobile phone use cited in the report showed a "40% increased risk for gliomas (brain cancer) in the highest category of heavy users (reported average: 30 minutes per day over a 10‐year period)". This is a reversal of the study's prior position that cancer was unlikely to be caused by cellular phones or their base stations and that reviews had found no convincing evidence for other health effects. However, a study published 24 March 2012, in the British Medical Journal questioned these estimates because the increase in brain cancers has not paralleled the increase in mobile phone use. Certain countries, including France, have warned against the use of mobile phones by minors in particular, due to health risk uncertainties. Mobile pollution by transmitting electromagnetic waves can be decreased up to 90% by adopting the circuit as designed in mobile phone and mobile exchange.
In May 2016, preliminary findings of a long-term study by the U.S. government suggested that radio-frequency (RF) radiation, the type emitted by cell phones, can cause cancer.
Educational impact
A study by the London School of Economics found that banning mobile phones in schools could increase pupils' academic performance, providing benefits equal to one extra week of schooling per year.
Electronic waste regulation
Studies have shown that around 40–50% of the environmental impact of mobile phones occurs during the manufacture of their printed wiring boards and integrated circuits.
The average user replaces their mobile phone every 11 to 18 months, and the discarded phones then contribute to electronic waste. Mobile phone manufacturers within Europe are subject to the WEEE directive, and Australia has introduced a mobile phone recycling scheme.
Apple Inc. had an advanced robotic disassembler and sorter called Liam specifically for recycling outdated or broken iPhones.[350]
Theft
According to the Federal Communications Commission, one out of three robberies involve the theft of a cellular phone. Police data in San Francisco show that half of all robberies in 2012 were thefts of cellular phones. An online petition on Change.org, called Secure our Smartphones, urged smartphone manufacturers to install kill switches in their devices to make them unusable if stolen. The petition is part of a joint effort by New York Attorney General Eric Schneiderman and San Francisco District Attorney George Gascón and was directed to the CEOs of the major smartphone manufacturers and telecommunication carriers. On 10 June 2013, Apple announced that it would install a "kill switch" on its next iPhone operating system, due to debut in October 2013.
All mobile phones have a unique identifier called IMEI. Anyone can report their phone as lost or stolen with their Telecom Carrier, and the IMEI would be blacklisted with a central registry. Telecom carriers, depending upon local regulation can or must implement blocking of blacklisted phones in their network. There are, however, a number of ways to circumvent a blacklist. One method is to send the phone to a country where the telecom carriers are not required to implement the blacklisting and sell it there, another involves altering the phone's IMEI number. Even so, mobile phones typically have less value on the second-hand market if the phones original IMEI is blacklisted.
An unusual example of a phone bill caused by theft (reported on 28 June 2018) was when a biological group in Poland put a GPS tracker on a white stork and released it; during autumn migration over the Blue Nile valley in eastern Sudan someone got hold of the stork's GPS tracker, and found in it a mobile-phone-type sim card, which he put in his mobile phone, and made 20 hours of calls on it, running up a bill of over 10,000 Polish zlotys (US$2,700) for the biological group.
Conflict minerals
Demand for metals used in mobile phones and other electronics fuelled the Second Congo War, which claimed almost 5.5 million lives. In a 2012 news story, The Guardian reported: "In unsafe mines deep underground in eastern Congo, children are working to extract minerals essential for the electronics industry. The profits from the minerals finance the bloodiest conflict since the second world war; the war has lasted nearly 20 years and has recently flared up again. ... For the last 15 years, the Democratic Republic of the Congo has been a major source of natural resources for the mobile phone industry." The company Fairphone has worked to develop a mobile phone that does not contain conflict minerals.
Kosher phones
Due to concerns by the Orthodox Jewish rabbinate in Britain that texting by youths could waste time and lead to "immodest" communication, the rabbinate recommended that phones with text-messaging capability not be used by children; to address this, they gave their official approval to a brand of "Kosher" phones with no texting capabilities. Although these phones are intended to prevent immodesty, some vendors report good sales to adults who prefer the simplicity of the devices; other Orthodox Jews question the need for them.
In Israel, similar phones to kosher phones with restricted features exist to observe the sabbath; under Orthodox Judaism, the use of any electrical device is generally prohibited during this time, other than to save lives, or reduce the risk of death or similar needs. Such phones are approved for use by essential workers, such as health, security, and public service workers.
See also
Cellular frequencies
Customer proprietary network information
Field telephone
List of countries by number of mobile phones in use
Mobile broadband
Mobile Internet device (MID)
Mobile phone accessories
Mobile phones on aircraft
Mobile phone use in schools
Mobile technology
Mobile telephony
Mobile phone form factor
Optical head-mounted display
OpenBTS
Personal Handy-phone System
Prepaid mobile phone
Two-way radio
Professional mobile radio
Push-button telephone
Rechargeable battery
Smombie
Surveillance
Tethering
VoIP phone
References
Further reading
Agar, Jon, Constant Touch: A Global History of the Mobile Phone, 2004
Glotz, Peter & Bertsch, Stefan, eds. Thumb Culture: The Meaning of Mobile Phones for Society, 2005
Goggin, Gerard, Global Mobile Media (New York: Routledge, 2011), p. 176.
Katz, James E. & Aakhus, Mark, eds. Perpetual Contact: Mobile Communication, Private Talk, Public Performance, 2002
Kavoori, Anandam & Arceneaux, Noah, eds. The Cell Phone Reader: Essays in Social Transformation, 2006
Kennedy, Pagan. Who Made That Cellphone?, The New York Times, 15 March 2013, p. MM19
Kopomaa, Timo. The City in Your Pocket, Gaudeamus 2000
Levinson, Paul, Cellphone: The Story of the World's Most Mobile Medium, and How It Has Transformed Everything!, 2004
Ling, Rich, The Mobile Connection: the Cell Phone's Impact on Society, 2004
Ling, Rich and Pedersen, Per, eds. Mobile Communications: Re-negotiation of the Social Sphere, 2005
Home page of Rich Ling
Nyíri, Kristóf, ed. Mobile Communication: Essays on Cognition and Community, 2003
Nyíri, Kristóf, ed. Mobile Learning: Essays on Philosophy, Psychology and Education, 2003
Nyíri, Kristóf, ed. Mobile Democracy: Essays on Society, Self and Politics, 2003
Nyíri, Kristóf, ed. A Sense of Place: The Global and the Local in Mobile Communication, 2005
Nyíri, Kristóf, ed. Mobile Understanding: The Epistemology of Ubiquitous Communication, 2006
Plant, Dr. Sadie, on the mobile – the effects of mobile telephones on social and individual life, 2001
Rheingold, Howard, Smart Mobs: The Next Social Revolution, 2002
External links
"The Long Odyssey of the Cell Phone", 15 photos with captions from Time magazine
Cell Phone, the ring heard around the world—a video documentary by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation
2000s fads and trends
Embedded systems
Mobile telecommunication services
Mobile telecommunications
New media
Radio technology
Telecommunications-related introductions in 1973
Telephony
Videotelephony
Office equipment |
3549985 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehran%20University%20of%20Engineering%20%26%20Technology | Mehran University of Engineering & Technology | Mehran University of Engineering & Technology () (Often referred as Mehran University or MUET) is a public research university located in Jamshoro, Sindh, Pakistan focused on STEM education.
Established in July 1976, as a campus of the University of Sindh, and a year later was chartered as an independent university. The academician S.M. Qureshi was appointed as the founding Vice Chancellor of the university. It was ranked sixth in engineering category of Higher Education Institutions in the "5th Ranking of Pakistani Higher Education Institutions" in 2016.
History
Established in 1963 in direct response to industrialization as Sind University Engineering College, it was affiliated with the University of Sindh (est. 1951) at Jamshoro until 1973, Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan Afghan was one of the founding principal of the college, later with his efforts college was granted the charter of "Engineering University" under the title of "Mehran University of Engineering & Technology". The first batch of MUET was inducted in January 1974 with the enrollment of 450 students in civil, mechanical, electrical, electronics, metallurgy, chemical, and industrial engineering.
Initially, the classes were started at Government College of Technology, Sakrand Road, Nawabshah, with students residing in college hostels (some classrooms were converted into residential dormitory). Some students acquired private houses in the Society area in Nawabshah, where they lived for two years until newly constructed hostel blocks were made available adjacent to the college campus.
With the induction of the third batch in 1976, the students of the first batch were shifted to Jamshoro to complete their third year and final year of engineering education. This was predominately due to the availability of well-equipped laboratories and highly qualified faculty at MUET Jamshoro campus, and also due to the shortage of space for classrooms and labs at Nawabshah since the number of students had risen to 1500 when the third batch was admitted. The same practice continued for other junior batches who passed their second year of engineering at MUET, Nawabshah, were transferred to MUET Campus at Jamshoro to resume the fifth semester (third year).
Academic profile
Undergraduate studies
The university offers undergraduate, post-graduate, and doctoral studies in engineering, business and industrial management, humanities, philosophy, fine arts and science.
Faculty of Engineering
Dean: Prof Khanji Harijan is the current Dean of this faculty
Chemical Engineering
Industrial Engineering & Management
Mechanical Engineering
Mechatronics Engineering
Metallurgy & Materials Engineering
Mining Engineering
Petroleum Engineering|Petroleum & Natural Gas Engineering
Textile Engineering
Faculty of Electrical, Electronics and Computer System Engineering (FEECE)
Dean: Prof Mukhtiar Ali Unar is Dean of this Faculty.
Biomedical Engineering
Computer Systems Engineering
Electrical Engineering
Electronic Engineering
Institute of Information & Communication Technologies
Software Engineering
Telecommunication Engineering
Faculty of Architecture & Civil Engineering
Dean: Prof Khan Muhammad Brohi is Dean of this Faculty
Architecture
City & Regional Planning
Civil Engineering
Institute of Environmental Engineering & Management
Institute of Water Resources Engineering & Management
Faculty of Basic Sciences
Dean: Prof Abdul Sami Qureshi is Dean of this Faculty
Basic Sciences & Related Studies
English Language Development Center
Mehran University Institute of Science, Technology & Development
Graduate studies
The postgraduate courses were started in 1978 leading to the M.E. degree, initially, in three branches. At present, courses are offered in the specialized fields of:
Biomedical Engineering
Energy & Environmental Engineering
Mechatronics
Industrial Electronics
Mining Engineering
Industrial Engineering and Management
Communication Systems and Networks
Electronics System Engineering
Information Technology
Computer Science And Information Technology
Software Engineering
Structural Engineering
Public Health Engineering
Telecommunication and Control Engineering
Manufacturing Engineering
Electrical Power Engineering
Chemical Engineering
Transportation Engineering
Irrigation and Drainage Engineering
Environmental Engineering & Management
Geotechnical Engineering
Material science and Engineering
Energy Systems Engineering
Some courses are offered full-time during the day while others are part-time, conducted during the evenings. Sometimes, a course may be dropped in a given year because of an inadequate number of students. The degrees to be awarded may be post-graduate diploma (P.G.D.), Master of Engineering (M.E.), Master of Philosophy (M.Phil.), or Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), depending upon the quality and quantity of the research/work completed.
Institutes
The following institutes offer postgraduate studies and research programs.
Institute of Environmental Engineering and Management
Institute of Petroleum & Natural Gas Engineering
Institute of Information & Communication Technologies
Mehran University Institute of Science & Technology Development
Directorates
Office of Research, Innovation & Commercialization (ORIC)
Directorate of English Language Development Center
Directorate of Postgraduate Studies
Directorate of Information & Communication Processing Center
Directorate of Management Information Systems (MIS)
Directorate of Planning & Development
Directorate of Sports
Directorate of Finance
Innovation & Entrepreneurship Center
Coal Research & Resource Center
Centers
USPCASW – U.S.-Pakistan Center for Advanced Studies in Water
The USPCASW – U.S.-Pakistan Center for Advanced Studies in Water, has recently been established at the Mehran University of Engineering and Technology (MUET) Jamshoro, with the financial support of United States Agency for International Development (USAID) Pakistan under the Cooperative Agreement signed with USAID on December 12, 2014, for five years.
The University of Utah (UU), USA is providing technical assistance to MUET for advancing the development and growth of USPCAS-W. The tangible deliverables of the Center include postgraduate degree programs, applied policy research, facilitation of public-private partnerships, and provision of policy advice in a range of water-related disciplines. The main purpose of the applied research component is to deliver relevant and innovative research to meet the needs of industry, civil society, and government.
Centre of Excellence in Art & Design (CEAD)
This center was initially established as the Federal College of Art and Design (FCAD), and it was handed over to the University of Sindh with the status of an affiliated college. The first batch was admitted to the college in 1999.
With the passage of time, the Federal College of Art and Design (FCAD) was converted into the Centre of Excellence in Art & Design (CEAD) vide Notification No. F. 5-7 /2002-NI—1(.) Dated 19-08-2004, by the Ministry of Education, Government of Pakistan Islamabad, and the project was handed over to the Mehran University of Engineering and Technology Jamshoro as its academic part. Following the 18th amendment, vide Notification, No. 4-5/2011-Min.I, dated 5 April 2011, the functions of the Centre of Excellence in art and design retained at the Ministry of Education, Islamabad has also been transferred to the Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro.
The changing structure of the CEAD allowed the proper focus to Fine Art, Design and Architecture, education with emphasis to initiate postgraduate studies & research programs leading to the Ph.D. degree.
Innovation & Entreprunership Center
IEC is established to nurture the innovation and entrepreneurship spirit of students. Programs of IEC are designed to appeal to everyone from students, staff, industry, who are just trying to obtain a primer on entrepreneurship, to serial entrepreneurs.
Research
Mehran University has been publishing the quarterly Mehran University Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (MURJ) since January 1982; the journal is being abstracted/indexed in a number of International indexing agencies and databases including Web of Science, EBSCOhost, ProQuest, Inspec, Directory of Open Access Journals, GALE/Cengage databases and others.
Societies and clubs
IEEE MUET Student Branch
IEEE EMBS, MUET Chapter
IEEE RAS, MUET Chapter
IEEE WIE, MUET Chapter
IEEE IES, MUET Chapter
Mehranian Materials Advantage Chapter (MMAC)
Society for Women Engineers, MUET Chapter (SWE)
Society of Petroleum Engineers, MUET Chapter (SPE)
American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AICHE) MUET Chapter
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
Mehran University of Engineering and Technology Model United Nation (MUETMUN)
Innovation & Entrepreneurship Society (IES)
Mehran University Debating and Dramatic Society (MUDDS)
Mehran University Alumni Association (MUAA)
Mehran University Civil Engineering Society (MUCES)
Software Engineering Society (SES-MUET)
Environmental Engineering Student's Organization(EESO-MUET)
Mehran Arts And Literature Society (MALS)
TEDxMUET
Rankings
According to latest QS World University Rankings 2020 MUET ranks among top 351-400 universities of the Aisa.
MUET is ranked among the top ten institutions of higher learning in Pakistan by the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan (HEC). According to latest rankings of HEC, MUET ranks first in Sindh and eighth in Pakistan, in engineering category.
MUET also ranks as second best public sector university of Pakistan.
MUET placed 271st worldwide and second in Pakistan out of 780 institutions in the Universitas Indonesia (UI) GreenMetric World University Ranking for 2019
In 2010's QS World University Rankings, MUET ranked among the top 400 universities of the world. .
Affiliated campuses and colleges
MUET SZAB Campus, Khairpur Mir's
Mehran University of Engineering and Technology SZAB Campus is the rural campus of the Mehran University of Engineering and Technology located in Khairpur Mir's. This campus was initially established as constituent College of Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro named as Mehran University College of Engineering & Technology at Khairpur Mirs.
In 2009, the Government of Sindh vides its Notification No. SO(C-IV) SGA&CD/4-29/09 dated 2 April 2009 constituted a High Power Board of Directors, established a constituent, and upgraded it from college to campus and renamed as Mehran University of Engineering and Technology Shaheed Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto Campus. The campus is offering education in various undergraduate and post-graduate disciplines.
Being a campus of Mehran University of Engineering & Technology, the campus has the same teachings system, courses of studies, rules, and procedures for admissions and examination systems as the Mehran University of Engineering and Technology contains.
The campus is headed by Pro-VC who will work under the administrative control of Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro.
MUET Jacobabad Campus
MUET has decided to establish a sub-campus at Jacobabad to cater the needs of engineering students of the northern Sindh. Groundbreaking ceremony of sub-campus of MUET at Jacobabad was performed by Prof. Dr. Mohammad Aslam Uqaili, Vice-chancellor MUET in February 2018. Regular classes are expected to be start at 2019 but not started yet.
Government College of Technology, Hyderabad
Government College of Technology, Hyderabad is affiliated with MUET which offers courses in B.Tech.(Pass) and B.Tech.(Hons.) in Civil, Electrical, and Mechanical Technologies. MUET conducts the examinations of this college and awards degrees.
The Hyderabad Institute of Arts, Science, and Technology, Hyderabad
The Hyderabad Institute of Arts, Science, and Technology, Hyderabad offers courses in BS (Information Technology) and MS (Business Information Technology). The Pre-admission Test of the candidates is conducted by the agency prescribed by Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro. Mehran University conducts the examinations and awards the degrees to students of this institute.
Mehran College of Science and Technology, Hyderabad
Mehran College of Science and Technology, Hyderabad offers courses in B.Tech.(Pass) and B.Tech.(Hons.) in Civil, Electrical, and Mechanical Technologies. Mehran University conducts the examinations of this college and awards degrees.
Membership and associations
Memberships
Association of Commonwealth Universities (ACU) U.K., 1998–99.
UNESCO International Centre for Engineering Education (UICEE), Australia, 2000.
Federation of the Universities of the Islamic World (FUIW), Rabat, Morocco, 1999.
Community of Science (COS) USA, 2001.
Commonwealth Universities Study Abroad Consortium (CUSAC), U.K., 2000–2001.
Pakistan National Committee on Irrigation and Drainage (PANCID), 2001.
Associations
The Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission
Azerbaijanian Industrial Institute of Ministry of Education of Azerbaijanian Republic
IUBAT International University of Business Agricultural and Technology, Bangladesh
National Institute of Public Administration (NIPA) Karachi
University of Illinois, Urbana Champaign
Colorado St. University, at Fort Collins
University of Central Florida, Orlando
University of Leeds, UK
University of Nottingham
Mountain University, Leoben, Austria
Kyushu Institute of Technology, Japan
University of Mauritius, Mauritius
University of Putra, Malaysia
University of Natal, South Africa
MoUs
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
International Islamic University Malaysia
University of Southampton
Beijing Technology and Business University
Technische Universität Darmstadt
Al-Futtaim Technologies
Sui Southern Gas Company
Pakistan Bait-ul-Mal
ISO certification
MUET is certified as having ISO 9000 compliant business processes since 2003. The university is also a member of Association of Commonwealth Universities of the United Kingdom.
On April 28, an independent audit by a team of International Organization for Standardization 9001:2008 found glaring omissions in the MUET examination controller's department. These include lack of clarity of the authorities’ matrix as to who is authorized for what; lack of secrecy in department's security where the doors were found open; manual, handwritten ledgers that have yet to be computerized and untrained coordinators for ISO.
Notable alumni
Mubashir Husain Rehmani, global researcher in the field of computer science, recognised by Clarivate Analytics. He is currently serving at Department of Computer Science at the Cork Institute of Technology.
Bhawani Shankar Chowdhry is Professor Emeritus, Distinguished National Professor and former and DEAN FEECE MUET
Mukhtiar Ali Unar is a Meritorious Professor and Dean of the Faculty of Electrical, Electronic, and Computer Engineering
Ayaz Latif Palijo is a politician, lawyer, activist, writer, and teacher. Palijo is the president of Qomi Awami Tahreek and central convener and founder of the Sindh Progressive Anti-Nationalist Alliance.
Rudra Pandey is a Nepali entrepreneur, currently serving as Executive Chairman of Deerwalk Inc
Pesu Mal is a Pakistani politician who has been a Member of the Provincial Assembly of Sindh, since June 2013
Shahid Abdul Salam Thahim is a Pakistani politician who has been a Member of the Provincial Assembly of Sindh, since May 2013
Awais Qadir Shah is a Pakistani politician who has been a Member of the Provincial Assembly of Sindh, since May 2013.
Sharjeel Memon is a Pakistani politician who has been a Member of the Provincial Assembly of Sindh since June 2008
Danish Nawaz sitcom actor
References
External links
Facebook Page of Mehran University of Engineering and Technology
Admissions at Mehran University of Engineering and Technology
MUET Alumni
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Mehran University of Engineering and Technology
Faculty of Mehran University of Engineering and Technology
Mehran University College of Engineering and Technology, Khairpur Mir's
Centre of Excellence Art & Design, MUET
Society of Petroleum Engineers, MUET
IEEE EMBS-MUET Chapter
IEEE RAS-MUET Chapter
Engineering universities and colleges in Pakistan
Universities and colleges in Jamshoro District
Public universities and colleges in Sindh
Educational institutions established in 1963
1963 establishments in Pakistan |
18488570 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Static%20routing | Static routing | Static routing is a form of routing that occurs when a router uses a manually-configured routing entry, rather than information from dynamic routing traffic. In many cases, static routes are manually configured by a network administrator by adding in entries into a routing table, though this may not always be the case. Unlike dynamic routing, static routes are fixed and do not change if the network is changed or reconfigured. Static routing and dynamic routing are not mutually exclusive. Both dynamic routing and static routing are usually used on a router to maximise routing efficiency and to provide backups in case dynamic routing information fails to be exchanged. Static routing can also be used in stub networks, or to provide a gateway of last resort.
Uses
Static routing may have the following uses:
Static routing can be used to define an exit point from a router when no other routes are available or necessary. This is called a default route.
Static routing can be used for small networks that require only one or two routes. This is often more efficient since a link is not being wasted by exchanging dynamic routing information.
Static routing is often used as a complement to dynamic routing to provide a failsafe backup if a dynamic route is unavailable.
Static routing is often used to help transfer routing information from one routing protocol to another (routing redistribution).
Advantages
Static routing, if used without dynamic routing, has the following advantages:
Static routing causes very little load on the CPU of the router, and produces no traffic to other routers.
Static routing leaves the network administrator with full control over the routing behavior of the network.
Static Routing Is very easy to configure on small networks.
Disadvantages
Static routing can have some potential disadvantages:
Human error: In many cases, static routes are manually configured. This increases the potential for input mistakes. Administrators can make mistakes and mistype in network information, or configure incorrect routing paths by mistake.
Fault tolerance: Static routing is not fault tolerant. This means that when there is a change in the network or a failure occurs between two statically defined devices, traffic will not be re-routed. As a result, the network is unusable until the failure is repaired or the static route is manually reconfigured by an administrator.
Administrative distance: Static routes typically take precedence over routes configured with a dynamic routing protocol. This means that static routes may prevent routing protocols from working as intended. A solution is to manually modify the administrative distance.
Administrative overhead: Static routes must be configured on each router in the network(s). This configuration can take a long time if there are many routers. It also means that reconfiguration can be slow and inefficient. Dynamic routing on the other hand automatically propagates routing changes, reducing the need for manual reconfiguration.
Example
To route IP traffic destined for the network 10.10.20.0/24 via the next-hop router with the IPv4 address of 192.168.100.1, the following configuration commands or steps can be used:
Linux
In most Linux distributions, a static route can be added using the iproute2 command. The following is typed at a terminal:-
root@router:~# ip route add 10.10.20.0 via 192.168.100.1
Cisco
Enterprise-level Cisco routers are configurable using the Cisco IOS command line, rather than a web management interface.
Add a static route
The commands to add a static route are as follows:
Router> enable
Router# configure terminal
Router(config)# ip route 10.10.20.0 255.255.255.0 192.168.100.1
Network configurations are not restricted to a single static route per destination:
Router> enable
Router# configure terminal
Router(config)# ip route 197.164.73.0 255.255.255.0 197.164.72.2
Router(config)# ip route 197.164.74.0 255.255.255.0 197.164.72.2
Configuring administrative distance
The administrative distance can be manually (re)configured so that the static route can be configured as a backup route, to be used only if the dynamic route is unavailable.
Router(config)# ip route 10.10.20.0 255.255.255.0 exampleRoute 1 254
Setting the administrative distance to 254 will result in the route being used only as a backup.
See also
Routing
Dynamic routing
Routing protocol
Routing table
Router
Route
Metrics
References
Routing |
82368 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structure%20and%20Interpretation%20of%20Computer%20Programs | Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs | Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs (SICP) is a computer science textbook by Massachusetts Institute of Technology professors Harold Abelson and Gerald Jay Sussman with Julie Sussman. It is known as the Wizard Book in hacker culture. It teaches fundamental principles of computer programming, including recursion, abstraction, modularity, and programming language design and implementation.
The MIT Press published the first edition in 1985, and the second edition in 1996. It was formerly used as the textbook for MIT's introductory course in electrical engineering and computer science. SICP focuses on discovering general patterns for solving specific problems, and building software systems that make use of those patterns.
Content
The book describes computer science concepts using Scheme, a dialect of Lisp. It also uses a virtual register machine and assembler to implement Lisp interpreters and compilers.
Characters
Several fictional characters appear in the book:
Alyssa P. Hacker, a Lisp hacker
Ben Bitdiddle, a hardware expert
Cy D. Fect, a "reformed C programmer"
Eva Lu Ator, an evaluator
Lem E. Tweakit, an irate user
Louis Reasoner, a loose reasoner
License
The book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0) licence.
Coursework
The book was used as the textbook for MIT's former introductory programming course, 6.001. That course was replaced by 6.0001, which uses Python. Other schools also made use of the book as a course textbook. It is used as the textbook for MIT's Large Scale Symbolic Systems class, 6.945.
Reception
Byte recommended SICP "for professional programmers who are really interested in their profession". The magazine said that the book was not easy to read, but that it would expose experienced programmers to both old and new topics.
Influence
SICP has been influential in computer science education, and several later books have been inspired by its style.
Structure and Interpretation of Classical Mechanics (SICM), another book by Gerald Jay Sussman that uses Scheme
How to Design Programs (HtDP), which intends to be a more accessible book for introductory Computer Science, and to address perceived incongruities in SICP
Essentials of Programming Languages (EoPL), a book for Programming Languages courses
See also
Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs, JavaScript Edition
References
External links
Video lectures
Book compiled from TeX source
1985 non-fiction books
1996 non-fiction books
Computer science books
Computer programming books
Creative Commons-licensed books
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Scheme (programming language)
Lisp (programming language) |
579593 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armored%20Core | Armored Core | is a third-person shooter mecha video game series developed by FromSoftware. The series centers on a silent protagonist who takes on work as a mercenary pilot in the far future, operating large robot combat units known as Armored Cores at the behest of corporate and private clients. As the player completes missions for these clients, they gain credits to improve their Armored Core and unlock further opportunities to make money. Some games include an "Arena" mode in which the player fights other Armored Core pilots in head-to-head battles, which can reward the player with further income or prestige.
Several story continuities exist, spread across 13 main games, 3 remastered re-releases, 2 console spin-offs, and 5 mobile spin-offs. The first release of the series, Armored Core, was released in 1997, while its twenty-third and final game, Armored Core: Verdict Day was released in 2013. The series has been released on the PlayStation, PlayStation 2, PlayStation Portable, PlayStation 3, PlayStation Vita, Xbox 360, and Mobile Phone.
Premise
In the original continuity established by 1997's Armored Core through 2001's Armored Core 2: Another Age, Earth experienced a cataclysm known as the "Great Destruction" and humanity has been forced underground. Corporations begin fighting for dominance, leading to the increasing reliance on Armored Core pilots called Ravens. Following the events of 1999's Armored Core: Master of Arena, humanity rebuilds and colonizes Mars. Through 2000's Armored Core 2 and its expansion, Another Age, the fledgling Earth government struggles to maintain power as opportunistic corporations exploit the power gap and rebel groups resist against the hegemony of government and business interests.
The series was rebooted with 2002's Armored Core 3, beginning a new story arc that concluded with Armored Core: Last Raven in 2005. Following a global nuclear war, humanity has retreated underground. Following centuries of rule by an artificial intelligence called The Controller, its decay leads to the destruction of much of humanity's underground network, causing them to look toward the surface for safety. By the end of 2003's Silent Line: Armored Core, humanity has fully returned to the surface of Earth. The final two games of this continuity, 2004's Armored Core: Nexus and 2005's Armored Core: Last Raven involve the end of the existing power dynamic of corporations and Ravens fighting over the surface.
2006's Armored Core 4 rebooted the series yet again. Here, corporations have seized control of Earth governments and are waging war across the surface for dominance. A war waged over the course of the game pollutes the environment, leading to the creation of floating cities in 2008's Armored Core: For Answer. Depending on the player's choices, humanity either barely survives the fallout of For Answer's conflict or is completely eradicated.
The final story arc of the series was introduced with 2012's Armored Core V. A single corporation has dominance over a contaminated Earth and is being opposed by a resistance faction that seeks to overthrow them. 2013's Armored Core: Verdict Day details the outbreak of another war 100 years later following an apocalyptic event.
Gameplay
Within the core games of the franchise, the gameplay is generally focused on the player taking the role of a mech-piloting mercenary, taking on missions for various clients and gaining currency from completing them. Missions can involve multiple objectives and pit the player against computer controlled opponents, some of which pilot mechs as well. Upon completion of a mission, the operating costs of the mech, such as repairs and ammunition, are deducted from the total earnings of the player. If the player loses a mission, those same deductions occur from the player's direct balance.
The game's mechs, called Armored Cores, are highly customizable with hundreds of parts and weapons that can be purchased from an in-game shop or by fulfilling certain requirements. Different parts can provide gameplay advantages in certain terrains or against certain enemies, which forces the player to put thought into how to approach the construction of their mech. Many of the franchise's games feature a branching storyline where taking on certain missions can block off others, with consequences of a player's decision in mission being relayed to them at the end of a mission.
An Arena mode introduced in Armored Core: Project Phantasma gave players the opportunity to fight opponents outside of missions for additional rewards. Project Phantasma also introduced the import feature, allowing players to retain their progress from a previous entry when starting a new one. This import feature would become a mainstay of the franchise, with "expansion" titles like Silent Line: Armored Core allowing for importing save data.
Multiplayer
Since its first release, the Armored Core games have featured multiplayer options in some form. In the original PlayStation era, local split-screen multiplayer modes were the primary method, generally featuring head-to-head battles. A PlayStation Link Cable feature, allowing for the connection of two PlayStation consoles, was included in all three original Armored Core titles.
With the PlayStation 2, split-screen and console linking continue to be the primary source of multiplayer. 2004's Armored Core: Nexus introduced a LAN multiplayer mode that allowed to connect locally through their internet service and allowed up to 4 players to fight in matches together.
Online multiplayer was first introduced in the Japanese released of Armored Core 2: Another Age, but was removed in other regions due to the PlayStation Network Adapter not being ready in time. No PlayStation 2-era game after this release would include online play either, with the first game to do so being Armored Core 4.
Games
Armored Core
The original trilogy of Armored Core games were developed for the original PlayStation by FromSoftware and established many of the core themes and mechanics that would be found in the rest of the series. The debut title, Armored Core, was released on July 10, 1997 in Japan. Story elements like corporate-funded conflicts, post-apocalyptic settings, and silent protagonists were introduced in the first game. The game's mechanics revolve around taking on missions from various clients for pay, using earned money to customize the player's Armored Core unit.
Armored Core: Project Phantasma was released as a stand-alone expansion to the original game, released on December 4, 1997. Project Phantasma introduced an Arena mechanic that would be expanded on in later titles, as well as an import mechanic that would become an important feature through the franchise. Players were able to import save data from earlier Armored Core games and bring their existing Armored Core units into the expansions.
A second stand-alone expansion, Armored Core: Master of Arena, was released on February 4, 1999 and was the final game released for the original PlayStation. It concluded the core arc of the original Armored Core and greatly expanded on the Arena mechanic introduced in Project Phantasma. Like its predecessor, Master of Arena allowed players to import save files from both the original Armored Core and Project Phantasma to continue their progress.
All three games from the original PlayStation era were re-released on the PlayStation Network in 2007 for the tenth anniversary of the original title. The original Armored Core was also released on the Japanese PlayStation Classic in 2018.
Armored Core 2
With the transition to the PlayStation 2, FromSoftware released Armored Core 2 as a launch title in Japan on August 3, 2000. As a narrative sequel to the original trilogy, Armored Core 2 transitioned the series away from the post-apocalyptic setting and added more science fiction elements, such as Mars colonization. Much of the gameplay remained the same, including the mission structure, customization, and Arena modes. The title did overhaul the visuals from the original game, taking advantage of the added power of the new console, but overall designs stayed similar. Unlike Project Phantasma and Master of Arena, players could not import their saves to the new game.
Armored Core 2: Another Age was released on April 12, 2001 as a stand-alone expansion. It allowed players to import their save files from Armored Core 2 and continue with their existing Armored Core units. The game introduced movement controls using the DualShock analog sticks and cooperative mission mode. The Japanese version of Armored Core 2 was the first title to include online broadband play, allowing players to fight each other over the internet.
Armored Core 3
Armored Core 3 was released on April 4, 2002 and served as a reboot for the franchise. The story returned to a post-apocalyptic setting and retained the core concept of corporate warfare and mercenary mission structure. Very little gameplay was changed from the earlier PlayStation 2 titles, instead focusing on incremental improvements and minor features like USB mice, computer-controlled allies, and surround sound. Due to its nature as a reboot, players could not import save data from Armored Core 2 or Another Age.
A stand-alone expansion, Silent Line: Armored Core, was released on January 23, 2003 and was a direct sequel to Armored Core 3. Like other expansions in the franchise, players could import their progress from Armored Core 3 into Silent Line, retaining their parts and credits from the earlier game. Silent Line introduced new gameplay mechanics, including computer-controlled companions and a first person mode.
Armored Core: Nexus was released on March 18, 2004 as a direct sequel to Silent Line. Unlike its predecessor, Nexus was treated as a core entry rather than an expansion and did not allow for save data import. The game was the first in the franchise to include support for dual analog sticks. It also introduced a new LAN multiplayer mode that allowed up to 4 players to participate in matches against each other.
Armored Core: Last Raven was released on August 4, 2005 and served as the conclusion to Armored Core 3's story arc. The game is structured around a 24-hour clock that moves forward as missions progress. At the end of the 24-hour period, choices made by the player can alter the outcome of the plot. The game introduced a component damage system, allowing for individual parts to be broken in combat.
Armored Core 4
Armored Core 4 was released on December 21, 2006 for the PlayStation 3, serving as another reboot for the franchise. An Xbox 360 version, the first instance of a main title in the franchise being released outside of the PlayStation ecosystem, was released on March 22, 2007. Gameplay in Armored Core 4 has been sped up and streamlined from its predecessors in an attempt to make the game more accessible to new players. The game marks the first instance of online multiplayer outside of the Japanese release of Armored Core 2: Another Age.
Armored Core: For Answer was released on March 19, 2008 as a standalone expansion to Armored Core 4. It incorporates an online co-operative mode and a branching storyline. The game was noted for its technical problems on the PlayStation 3 version.
Armored Core V
Armored Core V was released on January 26, 2012 for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 and acts as indirect sequel to Armored Core 4 and Armored Core: For Answer. The game focuses on the online multiplayer component and includes far fewer offline story missions than its predecessors. In the game's online mode, players battle for territory in teams of up to 20 players. A co-operative mode is included for players to fight NPCs alongside other players for various rewards.
Armored Core: Verdict Day was released on September 24, 2013 as a standalone expansion to Armored Core V. The game retains its predecessor's multiplayer focus, though it allows players to create teams of AI companions instead of requiring teams composed entirely of players. A full-length story mode returns alongside a newly implemented "hardcore mode", and players can import their saved games from Armored Core V to retain their personalized mechs.
Spin-offs
In 2004, FromSoftware released two spin-offs from the main Armored Core series. The first, Armored Core: Nine Breaker was released on October 28, 2004 for the PlayStation 2. Removing the focus from story-based missions, the game is instead built around an Arena mode where the player must compete with computer-controlled opponents to increase their rank. Minigames designed as training exercises were included to allow players to practice specific skills.
Armored Core: Formula Front was released on December 12, 2004 for the PlayStation Portable. Like Nine Breaker, its focus was on Arena-style gameplay, though a new mechanic put a focus on building an artificial intelligence strategy for the Armored Core unites to execute. Formula Front was later released for the PlayStation 2 in Japan.
Several mobile games were released in the Armored Core franchise from 2004 to 2008, however they were never released outside of Japan. An American version of these mobile games was in development around 2005, but the title was never released.
Other media
Armored Core: Tower City Blade is a manga by Fujimi Shobo based on the game. It was serialized in Dragon Age Pure between March 14 and April 14, 2007. A project called Armored Core: Fort Tower Song was to consist of a book and an anime also released in 2007. The book was completed but the anime was not. From Software announced in 2011 that the anime had been canceled due to View Works shutting down.
Legacy
The making of Armored Core solidified FromSoftware's development skills, and in July 1999, they released the multiplayer action game Frame Gride for the Sega Dreamcast. The company's focus would shift from RPGs to mech games due in part to the success of the Armored Core series. In 2002, FromSoftware released the mech action game Murakumo: Renegade Mech Pursuit for the Xbox. In 2004, they released another Xbox title, Metal Wolf Chaos. In 2005, FromSoftware would start to produce a series of licensed games based on the various anime properties under the banner Another Century's Episode.
Notes and references
Footnotes
Citations
External links
Third-person shooters
Kadokawa Dwango franchises
Video games about mecha
Video game franchises
Video game franchises introduced in 1997 |
254838 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coherent%20%28operating%20system%29 | Coherent (operating system) | Coherent is a clone of the Unix operating system for IBM PC compatibles and other microcomputers, developed and sold by the now-defunct Mark Williams Company (MWC). Historically, the operating system was a proprietary product, but it became open source in 2015, released under the BSD-3-Clause license.
Development
Coherent was not Unix; the Mark Williams Company had no rights to either the Unix trademark or the AT&T/Bell Labs source code. In the early years of its existence, MWC received a visit from an AT&T delegation looking to determine whether MWC was infringing on AT&T Unix property. The delegation included Dennis Ritchie, who concluded that "it was very hard to believe that Coherent and its basic applications were not created without considerable study of the OS code and details of its applications." However, he also stated that:
Much of the operating system was written by alumni from the University of Waterloo: Tom Duff, Dave Conroy, Randall Howard, Johann George, and Trevor John Thompson. Significant contributions were also made by people such as Nigel Bree (from Auckland, New Zealand), the later author of Ghost.
Versions
Coherent was originally written for the PDP-11 range of minicomputers in 1980, then ported to various early 1980s microcomputer systems including IBM PC compatibles and machines based on the Zilog Z8000 and Motorola 68000. Initially sold to OEMs, starting 1983 it was available on the consumer market from MWC directly. At this point, Coherent 2.3 offered roughly the functionality of Version 7 Unix on PC hardware, including the nroff formatter but not the BSD extensions offered by competing Unix/clone vendors; compared to its competitors, it was a small system distributed on only seven double-sided floppy disks, costing only US$500 for a license.
BYTE in 1984 called Coherent a "highly compatible UNIX Version 7 lookalike". In 1985 it criticized the difficulty of installation, but stated that "as a UNIX clone, Coherent is amazingly complete ... it should be easy to port programs ... the price of $495 is a bargain". Early 1990s reviews of Coherent pointed out that the system was much smaller than other contemporary Unix offerings, as well as less expensive at US$99.95, but lacking in functionality and software support. PC Magazine called Coherent 3.0 a "time capsule" that captured the state of Unix in the late 1970s, without support for mice, LANs or SCSI disks, good for learning basic Unix programming but not for business automation. A review in the AUUG's newsletter was more positive, favorably comparing Coherent to MKS Toolkit, Minix and Xenix, and suggesting it might fill a niche as a low-end training platform.
Coherent was able to run on most Intel-based PCs with Intel 8088, 286, 386, and 486 processors. Coherent version 3 for Intel-based PCs required at least a 286, Coherent version 4 for Intel-based PCs required at least a 386. Like a true Unix, Coherent was able to multitask and support multiple users. From version 4, released 1992, Coherent also had support for X11 and MGR windowing systems.
Later versions of Coherent (version 4 and higher) supported features common in modern Unix-like systems, including a version of MicroEMACS, access to DOS FAT16 file systems, an optimizing C compiler, and a modified version of Taylor UUCP. The final releases of Coherent also fully supported the iBCS COFF binary standard, which allowed binary compatibility with SCO Unix applications, including WordPerfect, Lotus 1-2-3, and several Microsoft applications including QuickBASIC, Microsoft Word, and MultiPlan. The last 386 versions supported virtual memory, but not demand paging.
A Zilog Z8000 port of Coherent was also used by the canceled Commodore 900 system.
In 1983, NCSC (a subsidiary of Nixdorf) announced a port of Coherent to IBM mainframes, in the form of a Unix compatibility subsystem for IBM's DOS/VS and DOS/VSE and Nixdorf's Edos/VS and Edos/VSE operating systems, known as Programmer Work Station/VSE-Advanced Functions, or PWS/VSE-AF for short.
The Mark Williams Company closed in 1995.
On January 3, 2015, Coherent sources were released under the BSD-3-Clause license.
See also
Venix
PC/IX
References
External links
Andrzej Popielewicz's GNU stuff for Coherent website
Coherent history archive
Installation Media for Coherent 4.2.10
Coherent image for qemu
Mark Williams Company Sources
Virtualbox, Qemu and PCem VM's with Coherent 3.x, 4.0, 4.2.x, DDK, X11, sources...
Discontinued operating systems
Formerly proprietary software
Lightweight Unix-like systems
Software using the BSD license
Unix variants
X86 operating systems |
28190241 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WizFolio | WizFolio | WizFolio was a web-based reference management software for researchers to manage, share their research and academic papers and generate citations in scholarly writings. It used plug-ins (HTML parsing technology) to collect bibliographic information, videos and patents from webpages. WizFolio ceased to be available at the end of 2017.
History
Developed by WizPatent Pte Ltd, its alpha version was launched on 12 May 2008, and the beta on 22 June 2008. It has since been released officially and is opened to the general public.
During the 8th International Conference on Bioinformatics (InCOB), Lim Chuan Poh, chairman of Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR) announced that the Asia-Pacific Bioinformatics Network (APBioNet) and Association for Medical and Bio Informatics Singapore (AMBIS) signed an agreement with WizFolio to provide respective members access to the system as well as explore new ways to improve the process of scientific peer review activities.
In January 2015, Wizfolio was acquired by iGroup (Asia Pacific) Ltd.
In March 2016, iGroup (Asia Pacific) Ltd. released EEWOWW, a new authoring tool built upon on Wizfolio. Wizfolio was retired at end of 2017.
Features
These were the WizFolio Features as listed on the WizFolio website.
Cross platform: WizFolio supported all the latest versions of Mac, Windows and Linux.
Browsers: Worked on all major browsers such as Internet Explorer, Firefox, Safari and Chrome.
Import (WizAdd): Imported bibliographic data directly from over 200 scientific publishers (IEEE, Springer Wiley, Nature, Science) and databases (Google Scholar, Scopus, ISI, JSTOR, Proquest, etc.). Also automatically imported free PDFs into your online collection.
Cite: Collaborative citing across OS and document formats with patent pending citation technology. Have plugins for Microsoft Word (Win), OpenOffice (Win, Mac, Linux), Google Docs, Google Sites, Zoho Writer and WordPress.
Searched: Search Pubmed, Google Books, YouTube, Bing, Amazon Books within WizFolio.
Organized: Folders, Flags, Tags, and Notes and on-the-fly handling of duplicates.
Uploaded: WizFolio attempted to get the bibliographic data when you batch upload your PDF's and documents.
Share: Drag-n-Drop share. Publicize research work using the WizFolio Profile page, Email, Twitter or Facebook.
Transfer: WizImporter for transfer from Zotero & Mendeley, and RIS files for Endnote & Refworks.
Locate: Locate PDF for the top open access journals and linkage to over 350 universities' library subscriptions.
iPad version
The company announced the release of its iPad version on 26 July 2010.
Compatibility with word processors
WizCite, the system's citation tool, is compatible with Microsoft Word (Windows), OpenOffice.org (Windows, Mac, Linux), and Zoho Writer.
WizFolio used to be compatible with Google Docs until 12 April 2010 when Google Docs update broke the integration.
Trial with Scholars Portal
Scholars Portal, a consortium of 21 university libraries in Canada, began a trial of the system in early 2010.
References
External links
WizFolio homepage (no longer links to WizFolio but to the webpage of a dissimilar company, EEWOWW -- see below)
WizFolio Introduction
WizFolio Help Page
WizAdd
WizCite
EEWOWW
See also
Comparison of reference management software
Reference management software
Bibliography file formats
BibTeX |
23882 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protocol%20stack | Protocol stack | The protocol stack or network stack is an implementation of a computer networking protocol suite or protocol family. Some of these terms are used interchangeably but strictly speaking, the suite is the definition of the communication protocols, and the stack is the software implementation of them.
Individual protocols within a suite are often designed with a single purpose in mind. This modularization simplifies design and evaluation. Because each protocol module usually communicates with two others, they are commonly imagined as layers in a stack of protocols. The lowest protocol always deals with low-level interaction with the communications hardware. Each higher layer adds additional capabilities. User applications usually deal only with the topmost layers.
General protocol suite description
T ~ ~ ~ T
[A] [B]_[C]
Imagine three computers: A, B, and C. A and B both have radio equipment and can communicate via the airwaves using a suitable network protocol (such as IEEE 802.11). B and C are connected via a cable, using it to exchange data (again, with the help of a protocol, for example Point-to-Point Protocol). However, neither of these two protocols will be able to transport information from A to C, because these computers are conceptually on different networks. An inter-network protocol is required to connect them.
One could combine the two protocols to form a powerful third, mastering both cable and wireless transmission, but a different super-protocol would be needed for each possible combination of protocols. It is easier to leave the base protocols alone, and design a protocol that can work on top of any of them (the Internet Protocol is an example). This will make two stacks of two protocols each. The inter-network protocol will communicate with each of the base protocol in their simpler language; the base protocols will not talk directly to each other.
A request on computer A to send a chunk of data to C is taken by the upper protocol, which (through whatever means) knows that C is reachable through B. It, therefore, instructs the wireless protocol to transmit the data packet to B. On this computer, the lower layer handlers will pass the packet up to the inter-network protocol, which, on recognizing that B is not the final destination, will again invoke lower-level functions. This time, the cable protocol is used to send the data to C. There, the received packet is again passed to the upper protocol, which (with C being the destination) will pass it on to a higher protocol or application on C.
In practical implementation, protocol stacks are often divided into three major sections: media, transport, and applications. A particular operating system or platform will often have two well-defined software interfaces: one between the media and transport layers, and one between the transport layers and applications. The media-to-transport interface defines how transport protocol software makes use of particular media and hardware types and is associated with a device driver. For example, this interface level would define how TCP/IP transport software would talk to the network interface controller. Examples of these interfaces include ODI and NDIS in the Microsoft Windows and DOS environment. The application-to-transport interface defines how application programs make use of the transport layers. For example, this interface level would define how a web browser program would talk to TCP/IP transport software. Examples of these interfaces include Berkeley sockets and System V STREAMS in Unix-like environments, and Winsock for Microsoft Windows.
Examples
Spanning layer
An important feature of many communities of interoperability based on a common protocol stack is a spanning layer, a term coined by David Clark
"Certain protocols are designed with the specific purpose of bridging differences at the lower layers, so that common agreements are not required there. Instead, the layer provides the definitions that permit translation to occur between a range of services or technologies used below. Thus, in somewhat abstract terms, at and above such a layer common standards contribute to interoperation, while below the layer translation is used. Such a layer is called a "spanning layer" in this paper. As a practical matter, real interoperation is achieved by the definition and use of effective spanning layers. But there are many different ways that a spanning layer can be crafted."
In the Internet protocol stack, the Internet Protocol Suite constitutes a spanning layer that defines a best effort service for global routing of datagrams at Layer 3. The Internet is the community of interoperation based on this spanning layer.
See also
Cross-layer optimization
DECnet
Hierarchical internetworking model
Protocol Wars
Recursive Internetwork Architecture
Service layer
Signalling System No. 7
Systems Network Architecture
Wireless Application Protocol
X.25
References
Network protocols
Wikipedia articles with ASCII art |
54642877 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Kruszewski | Paul Kruszewski | Paul Kruszewski (born 1967) is a Canadian AI technologist and serial entrepreneur known for his work in artificial intelligence and computer graphics. He is the founder and CEO of , an AI and computer vision software engineering company based in Montreal, Quebec. He has founded three AI startups, including , specializing in crowd simulation, NPC behaviours, and human pose estimation. His projects have gradually gotten more complex as he's moved from developing AI software capable of understanding many people doing simple tasks to fewer people engaged in more complex tasks to perfect knowledge of individual body language.
Academic life
Kruszewski completed his bachelor's degree in computer science at the University of Alberta. While attending U of A, he was president of the Computer Science Association. After graduating, he went on to obtain an MA and PhD in computer science from McGill University. For graduate school, Kruszewski received a Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) Science and Engineering scholarship in 1992. His PhD thesis on random binary trees suggested a method to produce realistic images of trees digitally. His work was inspired by The Algorithmic Beauty of Plants by Przemysław Prusinkiewicz. After completing his thesis, Kruszewski developed and commercialized the software, naming it the "Tree Druid."
Professional life
Work in industry
After obtaining his PhD, Kruszewski held various positions across North America, Europe, and Asia. During this time he developed the first cloud-based human simulator at My Virtual Model. He also developed both the PS2 and Xbox game engines at Behaviour Interactive.
Entrepreneurial initiatives
BioGraphic Technologies Inc.
Kruszewski founded BioGraphic Technologies (BGT) in 2000. BGT is best known for developing "AI.implant", a crowd simulation program. Working from his previous experience in video game development, Kruszewski focused BGT's vision on the film and gaming industries, collaborating with such companies as Lucas Films, Disney and Sony Computer Entertainment. Engenuity Technologies, now Presagis, a modeling and simulation software provider, saw the benefits of simulating large civilian crowds for training purposes, purchasing the company in 2005. Kruszewski became the CTO of Engenuity.
GripHeavyIndustries
In July 2007, Kruszewski founded GripHeavyIndustries, better known as Grip Entertainment, which created complex AI characters for a range of game developers, such as EA, Disney, and BioWare. The company is credited on such titles as Army of Two: The 40th Day and Deus Ex: Human Revolution.
In 2011, the company experienced some controversy when gamers rallied against Grip's boss fights at the end of the game Deus Ex: Human Revolution. Eidos Montreal had outsourced the development of the game's boss fights to Grip due to time constraints and the complex nature of the open-ended gameplay. Players felt that the fights were inflexible when compared with the rest of the game, causing a stir in the industry. That same year, Autodesk, a multinational software company, acquired Grip Entertainment.
Kruszewski's latest venture builds on previous experience gained from working with computer vision technology. He founded in April 2014 in Montreal's TandemLaunch incubator. With he has developed BodySLAM, a deep learning AI body-tracking software. As a man-machine interface, BodySLAM has multiple possible applications in various industries, such as health care, security, retail and entertainment. Sep. 17, 2021 — Hinge Health, the world’s #1 Digital Musculoskeletal Clinic™, has acquired wrnch, developer of the leading computer vision platform for measuring human motion. wrnch’s three-dimensional motion-tracking technology enables the same precise tracking of full-body movement used by elite athletes and the motion picture industry. Hinge Health now has the largest computer vision team in digital health. (https://www.hingehealth.com/hinge-health-acquires-the-most-advanced-computer-vision-technology/)
Publications and patents
Publications
The Botanical Beauty of Random Binary Trees, (1995)
On the Horton-Strahler Number for Random Tries, (1996)
An algorithm for sculpting trees, (1999)
A probabilistic technique for the synthetic imagery of lightning, (1999)
A Note on the Horton-Strahler Number for Random Binary Search Trees, (1999)
Crowd Modeling For Military Simulations Using Game Technology, (2005)
Believable and Reactive Crowds in Next Generation Games, (2006)
Navigation Challenges in Massively Destructible Worlds (2007)
Integrating Crowd-Behavior Modeling into Military Simulation using Game Technology, (2008)
Engineering Fun, (2011)
Patents
Method and Stem for On-Screen Animation of Digital Objects or Characters, (2004)
System and Method for Displaying Selected Garments on a Computer-Simulated Mannequin, (1999, 2009, 2011, 2012)
References
1967 births
Living people
McGill University alumni
Computer vision researchers
Artificial intelligence researchers
University of Alberta alumni
Canadian software engineers
Businesspeople from Montreal
Scientists from Montreal |
65043467 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C4%20model | C4 model | C4 model is a lean graphical notation technique for modelling the architecture of software systems. It is based on a structural decomposition of a system into containers and components and relies on existing modelling techniques such as the Unified Modelling Language (UML) or Entity Relation Diagrams (ERD) for the more detailed decomposition of the architectural building blocks.
History
C4 model was created by the software architect Simon Brown between 2006 and 2011 on the roots of Unified Modelling Language (UML) and the 4+1 architectural view model. The launch of an official website under a Creative Commons license and an article published in 2018 popularised the emerging technique.
Overview
C4 model documents the architecture of a software system, by showing multiple points of view that explain the decomposition of a system into containers and components, the relationship between these elements, and, where appropriate, the relation with its users.
The viewpoints are organized according to their hierarchical level:
Context diagrams (level 1): show the system in scope and its relationship with users and other systems;
Container diagrams (level 2): decompose a system into interrelated containers. A container represents an application or a data store;
Component diagrams (level 3): decompose containers into interrelated components, and relate the components to other containers or other systems;
Code diagrams (level 4): provide additional details about the design of the architectural elements that can be mapped to code. C4 model relies at this level on existing notations such as Unified Modelling Language (UML), Entity Relation Diagrams (ERD) or diagrams generated by Integrated Development Environments (IDE).
For level 1 to 3, the C4 model uses 5 basic diagramming elements: persons, software systems, containers, components and relationships. The technique is not prescriptive for the layout, shape, colour and style of these elements. Instead, the C4 model recommends using simple diagrams based on nested boxes in order to facilitate interactive collaborative drawing. The technique also promotes good modelling practices such as providing a title and legend on every diagram, and clear unambiguous labelling in order to facilitate the understanding by the intended audience.
C4 model facilitates collaborative visual architecting and evolutionary architecture in the context of agile teams where more formal documentation methods and up-front architectural design are not desired.
See also
Software architecture
References
External links
Official site
Architecture description language
Software architecture
Diagrams
Notation
Knowledge representation
Software modeling language
Modeling languages |
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