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4451026 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Waterloo%20School%20of%20Accounting%20and%20Finance | University of Waterloo School of Accounting and Finance | The School of Accounting and Finance (SAF) at University of Waterloo is a professional school within the Faculty of Arts. The School was established in 1985 under the name 'School of Accountancy'. Its name was changed in 2008 to better reflect its program offering. Today, more than 1,600 students are enrolled in the School's programs. In September 2009, a new building was officially opened to house the School.
The School of Accounting and Finance offers the largest accounting and finance undergraduate cooperative education (co-op) program in Canada.
The School's Master of Accounting (MAcc) Program allows students to complete all required Chartered Professional Accountant (CPA) modules within eight months, and is only open to students who complete the School's undergrad programs. MAcc graduates only need to challenge (and pass) the Common Final Examination and accumulate the required professional experiences in order to become a CPA. MAcc and industry experiences gained from co-op are well known among Canadian accounting and finance industries.
In June 2021, it was announced that the School and the Faculty of Environment will begin offering a new undergrad program, "Sustainability and Financial Management", and accept its first cohort of students starting Fall 2022. The program was created to prepare a new generation of accounting and finance professionals to lead businesses through an era of environmental sustainability, and to respond to the increasing importance of environmental finance and ESG factors.
Programs of Study
The School of Accounting and Finance offers four undergraduate programs, two graduate programs and one doctoral program. Additionally, the School jointly administers one undergraduate program and one graduate program with the Faculty of Mathematics and one undergraduate program with the Faculty of Science.
The Bachelor of Accounting and Financial Management (BAFM) and Bachelor of Computing and Financial Management (BCFM) degrees are both CFA Institute's University Affiliated Programs, which recognize academic institutions that embed a significant portion of the CFA Program Candidate Body of Knowledge (CBOK) into their curriculum.
Undergraduate Education
Bachelor of Accounting and Financial Management Co-op (BAFM):
Graduates of the BAFM program typically aspire to a host of professional accounting and/or finance credentials such as the Chartered Professional Accountant (CPA), Chartered Financial Analyst (CFA) and Chartered Business Valuator (CBV) designations. All BAFM graduates are eligible to apply to the School's Master of Accounting (MAcc) program. Students in BAFM must complete four co-op work terms, in total of 16 months of experiences, which could be eligible for CPA accreditation purposes (30 months required).
AFM Specializations:
The Accounting and Financial Management (AFM) program offers 6 specializations in areas such as public accounting, finance, entrepreneurship, sustainability, Business analytics, and corporate governance. The first two years at AFM is focused on laying the foundations in accounting and finance, with a focus in people skills, learning, and academic success. The initiative includes experiential learning opportunities such as events, workshops, interactive webcasts, and team-based problem-solving situations connected to courses and extra-curricular situations. Students must then select a specialization from the list below in their 3rd and 4th year:
Professional Accountant Career Specialization
Entrepreneurial Mindset Career Specialization
Financial Leadership Career Specialization
Financial Markets Career Specialization
Business Analytics Career Specialization
Sustainability Career Specialization
Students may choose two specializations at most.
Mathematics/Chartered Professional Accountancy Co-op (Math/CPA):
Math/CPA students have less flexibility in their degree as students take math courses along with the accounting and finance courses BAFM students take, leaving very few elective spaces. The work-term sequence is structured similar to the BAFM schedule, with 4 co-op terms. The Math/CA program was renamed to Math/CPA in 2013.
Biotechnology/Chartered Professional Accountancy Co-op (Biotech/CPA):
This program is offered jointly with the Faculty of Science. Students in the Biotech/CPA program take science courses along with the accounting and finance courses. Biotech/CPA students have little flexibility in their degree, and in some terms, are required to take extra courses. Biotech/CPA students composed of the smallest population in the School, with only around 10-15 students admitted per academic year. Students in the program may obtain co-op employment deemed by professional bodies to be qualifying practical experience for accreditation purposes, similar to BAFM and Math/CPA, with 4 required co-op terms. Biotech/CPA students are eligible to apply to the School's MAcc program. The Biotech/CA program was renamed to Biotech/CPA in 2013.
Bachelor of Computing and Financial Management (BCFM):
This program is offered jointly with the David R. Cheriton School of Computer Science in the Faculty of Mathematics. Students take computer science courses along with accounting and finance courses. Stronger emphasis is placed upon computer science and finance, less on accounting. The students receive a unique degree in Canada, "Bachelor of Computing and Financial Management" after graduation. Students in this program typically complete six co-op work terms, with the first commencing between semester two and three. CFM students/graduates are not eligible to apply to the School's MAcc program and are unable to take advantage of the CPA accreditation.
Postgraduate Education
Master of Accounting (MAcc):
This 8-month program is accredited by CPA Canada, so students who successfully complete the program, including all CPA requirements, are exempt from all 6 modules of the CPA Professional Education Program and may proceed directly to the Common Final Examination (CFE). Aside from gaining depth in the CPA elective subjects including Taxation, Assurance, Performance Management and Finance, MAcc students can explore other career options such as business valuations, forensic accounting, data analytics, internal audit and international tax. Approximately 65% of undergrads pursue the MAcc degree in 2016.
Furthermore, students who have taken and passed ACC606 Business Valuations receive advanced standings in the CBV Institute Programme of Studies. Students will receive exemptions for Level I – Introductory Business Valuation and Level II – Intermediate Business Valuation.
Master of Taxation (MTax):
The Master of Taxation program is open to all students from different backgrounds to apply. MTax is offered under a full-time basis (1 year + 1 co-op term) or a part-time basis (2 years). Graduates attain broad-based competencies in tax subject areas that include policy, research, statutory interpretation, estate planning, business structuring, and risk management, with all the classes held in downtown Toronto's Eaton Centre.
Master of Quantitative Finance (MQF):
Focuses on the fundamental disciplines of mathematics, statistics, econometrics, computer science and finance. This program is offered jointly with Faculty of Mathematics.
PhD in Accounting:
The University of Waterloo's School of Accounting and Finance can provide doctoral training in research that is based on economic theory, empirical economics, behavioural science, and other methodologies.
School Reputation and Achievement
According to QS World University Rankings, School of Accounting and Finance ranks 101-150 globally in 2021 for the subject category of Accounting & Finance. SAF also ranks high in the 2020 Global Accounting Research Survey conducted by Brigham Young University:
An overall ranking of 2nd in Canada and 10th globally for accounting research
1st in Canada for accounting information systems research
1st in Canada for managerial accounting research
1st in Canada for tax research
2nd in Canada for financial accounting research
2nd in Canada in Accounting PhD programs
3rd in Canada in audit research
Co-op Success
With co-operative education, over 95% of students secure full-time employment before graduation. The co-op employment rate has been consistently between 95% and 100% with the students working mainly in global, regional, and local accounting firms, chartered banks, asset managers and other financial services firms/intermeriaties, government, and non-financial corporations in accounting/finance related roles.
UFE/CFE Honour Roll and Gold Medalists
The School of Accounting & Finance has had success in its students and faculty research. Notably, many students who have challenged the Common Final Examination achieve honour roll as well as gold medal (Ontario and National).
The National Honour Roll of the Common Final Exam recognizes candidates whose performance in the exam demonstrated academic excellence and exceptional abilities. The candidates listed on the Honour Roll are determined as the top 1% of the first-time writers who wrote all three days. In 2018 and 2019, SAF captured the National Gold Medal (highest CFE score in Canada) consecutively. SAF has obtained 6 national gold medals (best performance in Canada) from the period between 2010 and 2020. The CFE honour roll and successful CFE writers are mostly the Master of Accounting students. From 2018 to 2020, SAF students accounted for 23.5%, 18.5% and 18.9% of the Honour Roll recipients respectively - the best performance in Canada.
1 Honour roll count includes the gold medalists (3 regional + 1 national gold medalist).
2 If winner of the Ontario Gold Medal also wins National Gold Medal, such count is tallied separately.
3 The May 2021 CFE was only offered in the West and Atlantic Canada regions. The exam was not held in Ontario due to COVID-19 pandemic.
CFA Institute Research Challenge
In 2016, School of Accounting & Finance students became the first Canadian team to win the global annual CFA Institute Research Challenge. The CFA Institute Research Challenge leverages the efforts of over 140 CFA member societies, 3,500 member volunteers, and more than 5,000 students from over 1,000 universities. The CFA Institute Research Challenge requires student teams (1 team per university) to research and analyze a publicly-traded company and then write a research report on their assigned company with a buy, sell, or hold recommendation.
In 2021, School of Accounting & Finance was once again awarded the Americas Regional Champion at the 2021 CFA Institute Research Challenge, where 5,000 students across 950 universities and 82 countries participated virtually.
Student life
Aside from the clubs/societies available within the University of Waterloo, there are various extra-curricular activities available to SAF students only. The Accounting and Finance Student Association (AFSA) is the government body for the SAF undergrad students, divided into many sub-committees. AFSA is run and governed by a fully-elected Executive Team and a partially-elected Board of Directors. SAF also holds a student-run orientation week for first year undergrad students after the regular Waterloo orientation week, Accounting and Finance Orientation Week (AFOW).
Furthermore, ACE Consulting Group is also a SAF student-run consulting organization that provides Kitchener-Waterloo entrepreneurs and small business clients with professional consulting services.
The School of Accounting and Finance Outreach & Ambassador Program (SOAP) is a year-long program for current SAF students to represent the School in recruiting, marketing, and connecting with future prospective students.
Other initiatives in relation to SAF academic learning include:
Student Investment Fund
Student Venture Fund
Young Tax Professionals
David T. Carter Financial Review Team
School of Accounting and Finance organizes two national student-run conferences annually:
University of Waterloo Accounting Conference (UWAC)
hEDGE Financial Services Conference
Notable alumni and faculty
Kevin Strain: President & CEO of Sun Life Financial. (MAcc '90)
Michelle Lam: Founder and CEO of True & Co., a direct-to-consumer digital intimate apparel brand, headquartered in San Francisco, California. (MAcc '01)
Tim Jackson: President & CEO of SHAD Canada. (BA '92)
Keith Farlinger: CEO of BDO Global. (BMath '77)
David Cates: President & CEO of Denison Mines. (MAcc '05)
Betty Ann Jarrett: Global Human Capital Leader of PricewaterhouseCoopers. (MAcc '86)
Cindy Ditner: Global Head of Assurance of BDO Global. (MAcc '86)
Anish Chopra: Board Chair of CBV Institute. (MAcc '94)
Paul Langill: CFO of Alberta Investment Management Corporation. (MAcc '91)
Sahezad Pardhan: CFO of Cadillac Fairview. (MAcc '04)
Christine D’Sylva: CFO of Pizza Pizza. (MAcc '03)
Paul Dobson: CFO of Ballard Power Systems. (BA '90)
Jeff Bell: CFO of SNC-Lavalin. (BA '90)
Troy Maxwell: COO of RBC Capital Markets. (MAcc '89)
Allan Brett: CFO of Descartes Systems Group. (BA '91)
See also
Chartered Financial Analyst
CBV Institute
CFA Institute
CFA Institute Research Challenge
CPA Canada
Common Final Examination
University of Waterloo
References
Accountancy and Finance
Accounting schools in Canada
Waterloo
1985 establishments in Ontario |
12810646 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concursive | Concursive | Concursive, until October 2007 named Centric CRM, is a software company located in Norfolk, Virginia that offers the ConcourseSuite product, a customer relationship management application, and ConcourseConnect, a social software application, both based on Java/J2EE. Concursive supplies products under a software as a service (SaaS) model or a license model.
The company was founded in 2000. It competes with major CRM vendors such as Salesforce.com, RightNow Technologies and Oracle’s Siebel.
History
In June 2007, the Open Source Initiative (OSI) president, Michael Tiemann announced plans to crack down on software vendors that claim to be open source without using an OSI-approved license. Although Concursive described their CRM product as "open source", as of July 2007 it was not certified as such by the OSI. However, Concursive quickly announced that they were releasing their Team Elements software components under Larry Rosen's Open Software License.
In August 2007, the company announced a partnership with Loopfuse, a company that provides software to track and rate the activity of customers online, useful in scoring sales leads and rating / segmenting prospects.
In October 2007 the company released a new version of their CRM product with improved support for third party developers including a JSR 168 plug-in architecture. The company changed its name to "Concursive" and its product name to "ConcourseSuite" on 12 December 2007.
Software
On March 27, 2009, the company released the ConcourseConnect product.
References
Software companies based in Virginia
Companies based in Norfolk, Virginia
CRM software companies
Companies established in 2000
Software companies of the United States
2000 establishments in the United States
2000 establishments in Virginia
Software companies established in 2000 |
304871 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movable%20Type | Movable Type | Movable Type is a weblog publishing system developed by the company Six Apart. It was publicly announced on September 3, 2001; version 1.0 was publicly released on October 8, 2001.
The current version is 7.0.
Movable Type is proprietary software. From June 2007 to July 2013, Six Apart ran the Movable Type Open Source Project, which offered a version of Movable Type under the GPL.
Features
Movable Type's features include the ability to host multiple weblogs and standalone content pages, manage files, user roles, templates, tags, categories, and trackback links. The application supports static page generation (in which files for each page are updated whenever the content of the site is changed), dynamic page generation (in which pages are composited from the underlying data as the browser requests them), or a combination of the two techniques. Movable Type optionally supports Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) for user and group management and automatic blog provisioning.
Movable Type is written in Perl, and supports storage of the weblog's content and associated data within MySQL natively. PostgreSQL and SQLite support was available prior to version 5, and can still be used via plug-ins. Movable Type Enterprise also supports the Oracle database and Microsoft SQL Server.
History
Version 1.0 was released in October 2001. Movable Type 2.6 was released February 13, 2003.
The TrackBack feature was introduced in version 2.2, and has since been adopted by a number of other blog systems.
With the release of version 3.0 in 2004, there were marked changes in Movable Type's licensing, most notably placing greater restrictions on its use without paying a licensing fee. This sparked criticism from some users of the software, with some moving to the then-new open-source blogging tool WordPress. With the release of Movable Type 3.2, the ability to create an unlimited number of weblogs at all licensing levels was restored. In Movable Type 3.3, the product once again became completely free for personal users.
Six Apart released a beta version of Movable Type 4 on June 5, 2007 and re-launched movabletype.org as a community site, for purposes of developing an open-source version that was released under the GNU Public License on December 12, 2007. Movable Type 4's Enterprise version provides advanced features such as LDAP management, and enterprise database integration such as Oracle, MySQL, user roles, blog cloning, and automated blog provisioning. It is also available as part of Intel's SuiteTwo professional software offering of Web 2.0 tools.
Movable Type 5 was released in Open Source and Pro versions in January 2010, with several bug-fix and security updates appearing later in the year. Movable Type Enterprise remains based on Movable Type 4.
Movable Type 6 was released in 2013; this release included the termination (once again) of the Open Source licensing option. Movable Type is now available in "Professional" and "Enterprise" closed versions.
Melody was a fork of the open-source Movable Type distribution, announced in June 2009. Its development was being guided by a non-profit group consisting of current and former Six Apart employees, as well as other consultants and volunteers, but development appeared to cease in the middle of 2011.
At various times, Six Apart also maintained three other weblog publishing systems—TypePad, Vox, and LiveJournal. While Movable Type is a system which needs to be installed on a user's own web server, TypePad, Vox, and LiveJournal were all hosted weblog services. LiveJournal, purchased in 2005, was sold in 2007. Shortly before being acquired by web advertising firm VideoEgg to form SAY Media in September 2010, Six Apart announced that it would be shutting down the Vox service at the end of that month, leaving TypePad and Movable Type as the company's only blogging platforms. In January 2011, SAY Media announced that Infocom, a Japanese IT company, had acquired Six Apart Japan and that as part of the transaction, Infocom would assume responsibility for Movable Type.
See also
Weblog software
List of content management systems
WordPress
References
External links
movabletype.com Movable Type marketing website
movabletype.org Movable Type developer documentation in English
movabletype.jp Movable Type developer documentation in Japanese
Content management systems
Perl software
Blog software
2001 software |
23664875 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojanovice | Trojanovice | Trojanovice is a municipality and village in Nový Jičín District in the Moravian-Silesian Region of the Czech Republic. It has about 2,700 inhabitants.
Geography
Trojanovice lies in the Moravian-Silesian Beskids. It lies on the Lomná River. The highest point of the municipality is the Radhošť mountain, its peak lies at the municipal border.
History
The colonization of the area of Trojanovice by Vlachs began in the 16th century, when it belonged to Frenštát pod Radhoštěm. It was settled mostly by pastoralists. In 1748, it separed from Frenštát pod Radhoštěm as a self-governing municipality.
Between 1850 and 1900, almost 500 inhabitants of Trojanovice moved abroad, especially to Texas; their descendants live in Fayetteville, Weimar, Hostyn, Dubina or nearby.
Sport
The Pustevny Ski Resort is located in the southern part of the municipality. The cable car that leads to the Pustevny mountain saddle was built in 1940 and was the first of its kind in the world.
Sights
On the Radhošť mountain there are located the Chapel of Saints Cyril and Methodius, and the Radegast statue by Albin Polasek (the original from 1929 was replaced with a copy in 1998).
The Velký Javorník mountain is one of the most visited tourist destination in the Moravian-Silesian Beskids. There is a -high wooden observation tower, a restaurant built in 1935, and a paragliding ramp.
References
External links
Villages in Nový Jičín District |
53095406 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ECSS-E-TM-10-25A | ECSS-E-TM-10-25A | ECSS-E-TM-10-25 "System Engineering - Engineering Design Model Data Exchange (CDF)" is a Technical Memorandum under the E-10 "System engineering" branch in the ECSS series of standards, handbooks and technical memoranda.
Scope and Purpose
This Technical Memorandum facilitates and promotes common data definitions and exchange among partner Agencies, European space industry and institutes, which are interested to collaborate on concurrent design, sharing analysis and design outputs and related reviews. This comprises a system decomposition up to any level and related standard lists of parameters and disciplines. Further it provides the starting point of the space system life cycle defining the parameter sets required to cover all project phases, although the present Technical Memorandum only addresses Phases 0 and A. This Technical Memorandum is intended to evolve into an ECSS Standard in the future. In conjunction with related development and validation activities, this Technical Memorandum should be regarded as a mechanism for reaching consensus prior to building the standard itself.
The Technical Memorandum provides the basis for creating interoperable Concurrent Design (CD) centers across the European space community. Allowing semantically consistent data exchange between CD centers. Enabling and supporting joint real-time collaborative design activities involving multiple CD centers. The initial objective of the TM is thus to act as a reference for the creation of new CD centers or upgrade of existing ones.
Structure
ECSS-E-TM-10-25A comprises the following parts:
Clause 1: Scope
Clause 2: Normative references
Clause 3: Terms, definitions and abbreviated terms
Clause 4: Background and concepts
Includes the description of the Space Engineering Information Model (SEIM), a conceptual data model for all information needed to conduct concurrent design sessions
Includes the description of the Space Engineering Reference Data Library (SERDL), an agreed collection of concurrent design organization roles, process concepts, disciplines and parameter types. These are predefined instances of SEIM concepts.
Clause 5: A list of requirements that two or more parties that want to exchange data for a concurrent design activity shall comply with.
Annex A: The formal definition of the Space Engineering Information Model (SEIM).
Annex B: The formal definition of the Space Engineering Reference Data Library (SERDL).
Annex C: The formal definition of the Web Services Interface and exchange file format.
Annex D: An informative description of margins and reference frames.
Software Implementations
Multiple software implementations of ECSS-E-TM-10-25A exist. These software implementations allow a team of engineers to collaborate on the design of a complex system such as a satellite, launcher, an oil rig or a building.
Open Concurrent Design Server (OCDS)
The Open Concurrent Design Server is a software package developed under a European Space Agency contract. It was the first attempt of an ECSS-E-TM-10-25A implementation. The software was never used in production and its further development was cancelled. The Open Concurrent Design Tool (OCDT) is the successor of the OCDS
Open Concurrent Design Tool (OCDT)
OCDT is a client / server software package developed under a European Space Agency contract to enable efficient multi-disciplinary concurrent engineering of space systems in the early life cycle phases. The OCDT client is an add-in for Microsoft Excel® 2010/2013, that is integrated with Excel® to perform simple analysis and simulation. Other client tools for engineering analysis and simulation can also be integrated, through the use of OCDT adapters. The OCDT server consists of a front-end web-services processor (using a REST API) and a back-end PostgreSQL database system for the persistent storage of OCDT shareable data. The server is able to support concurrent teams of more than 20 users and synchronising their engineering model content twice a minute or faster. Typically each user would represent a different domain of expertise (discipline). The package is distributed under an ESA community open source software licence available for use and further development to users that qualify as a member of the OCDT Community. OCDT is being used in the ESA CDF
The OCDT implements both Annex A (the formal UML model) and Annex C (the Webservices API).
RHEA Group Concurrent Design Platform™ (CDP4)
The Concurrent Design Platform (CDP™) of the RHEA Group is the main engineering tool to support multidisciplinary teams to perform Concurrent Design of complex systems. The CDP4, an evolution of the CDP3, is an ECSS-E-TM-10-25 Annex A and Annex C compliant implementation, as such it is 100% compatible with the ESA OCDT. The CDP4 is a client / server software solution implemented using C# and a Postgresql RDBMS. The CDP4 Webservices (the server component) can be hosted both on Linux using Mono and Microsoft Windows®. The CDP4-IME is the desktop application that is compatible with Microsoft Windows® 7/10. A Microsoft Excel® 2010/2013 Add-in integrates many of the functionalities of the CDP4 in Microsoft Excel® and is accessible through a dedicated Ribbon and Custom Task Panes. The CDP4 implements both Annex A (the formal UML model) and Annex C (the Webservices API and exchange file format).
The CDP4 Community Edition is available as open source, the source code of the different components is available on GitHub:
The CDP4-SDK can be downloaded from Nuget. The CDP4-WebServices can be installed on any Linux flavor that supports Mono or using Docker.
References
External links
ECSS
ECSS-E-TM-10-25
ESA
ESA CDF
RHEA Group
Annex-C integration test suite
Mono Project
Concurrent Design Linked-In Group
European Space Agency
Space technology |
22016266 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CintaNotes | CintaNotes | CintaNotes is a freemium Microsoft Windows notetaking program. It provides a way to store and retrieve text collected from other documents or websites. Since version 3.0 CintaNotes supports attaching files and images to notes.
CintaNotes supports clipping text from any application via a hotkey and also captures the web or local file link. The program allows tags and has instant search based on tags, text, links or date. The entire database or individually selected notes can be exported into either Unicode text or XML format.
Features
Organization — notes are organized using tags. The main window is divided into two parts: a tag list on the left side (sorted alphabetically) and notes on the right side. Which notes are displayed depend on which tag or tags are selected. Multiple tags can be selected to show only notes with all tags, or to show notes with some tags but not others.
Notes — each note is plain text with an optional title and optional tags. All of these parts are displayed in the notes list.
See also
Comparison of notetaking software
Notetaking
References
External links
Review from Softonic.com
Comparison of CintaNotes to Evernote, OneNote, Simplenote, etc.
OnSoftware.com: CintaNotes - Help for Cluttered Desktops
LifeHacker: CintaNotes Is a Web-Clip Friendly Notes Manager
Freeware
Windows-only software
C++ software
Portable software
Note-taking software |
249027 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%91 | Ñ | Ñ, or ñ (, ), is a letter of the modern Latin alphabet, formed by placing a tilde (also referred to as a virgulilla in Spanish) on top of an upper- or lower-case N. It became part of the Spanish alphabet in the eighteenth century when it was first formally defined, but it has subsequently been used in other languages, such as Galician, Asturian, the Aragonese Grafía de Uesca, Basque, Chavacano, some Philippine languages (especially Filipino and Bisayan), Chamorro, Guarani, Quechua, Mapudungun, Mandinka, and Tetum alphabets, as well as in Latin transliteration of Tocharian and many Indian languages, where it represents or . It represents in Crimean Tatar, Kazakh, ALA-LC romanization for Turkic languages, the Common Turkic Alphabet, Nauruan and romanized Quenya. In Breton and in Rohingya, it denotes nasalization of the preceding vowel. Many Portuguese speakers use this letter in informal internet language to represent the word não (no).
Unlike many other letters that use diacritic marks (such as Ü in Catalan and Spanish and Ç in Catalan, French, Portuguese and sometimes in Spanish), Ñ in Spanish, Galician, Basque, Asturian, Leonese, Guarani and Filipino is considered a letter in its own right, has its own name (in Spanish: ), and its own place in the alphabet (after N). Historically it came from a superscript abbreviation for a doubled N. Its alphabetical independence is similar to the Germanic W, which came from a doubled V.
History
Historically, ñ arose as a ligature of nn; the tilde was shorthand for the second n, written over the first; compare umlaut, of analogous origin. It is a letter in the Spanish alphabet that is used for many words—for example, the Spanish word año (anno in Old Spanish) meaning "year" and derived from Latin annus. Other languages used the macron over an n or m to indicate simple doubling.
Already in medieval Latin palaeography, the sign that in Spanish came to be called virgulilla (meaning "little comma") was used over a vowel to indicate a following nasal consonant (n or m) that had been omitted, as in tãtus for tantus or quã for quam. This usage was passed on to other languages using the Latin alphabet although it was subsequently dropped by most. Spanish retained it, however, in some specific cases, particularly to indicate the palatal nasal, the sound that is now spelt as ñ. The word tilde comes from Spanish, derived by metathesis of the word título as tidlo, this originally from Latin TITVLVS "title" or "heading"; compare cabildo with Latin CAPITULUM.
From spellings of anno abbreviated as año, as explained above, the tilde was thenceforth transferred to the n and kept as a useful expedient to indicate the new palatal nasal sound that Spanish had developed in that position: año. The sign was also adopted for the same palatal nasal in all other cases, even when it did not derive from an original nn, as in leña (from Latin ligna) or señor (from Latin SENIOR).
Other Romance languages have different spellings for this sound: Italian and French use gn, a consonant cluster that had evolved from Latin, whereas Occitan and Portuguese chose nh and Catalan ny even though these digraphs had no etymological precedent.
When Morse code was extended to cover languages other than English, a sequence ( — — · — — ) was allotted for this character.
Although ñ is used by other languages whose spellings were influenced by Spanish, it has recently been chosen to represent the identity of the Spanish language, especially as a result of the battle against its obliteration from computer keyboards by an English-led industry.
Cross-linguistic usage
In Spanish it represents a palatal nasal. This is also the case of Philippine languages, Aymara, Quechua, Mapudungún, Guarani, Basque, Chamorro, Leonese, Yavapai, and Iñupiaq, whose orthographies have some basis in that of Spanish. Many languages of Senegal also use it in the same way. Senegal is unique among countries of West Africa in using this letter.
It also represents a palatal nasal in Galician and Uruguayan Portuguese.
In Tetum, it was adopted to represent the same sound in Portuguese loanwords represented by nh, although this is also used in Tetum, as is ny, influenced by Indonesian.
In Tagalog, Visayan, and other Philippine languages, most Spanish terms that include ñ are respelled with ny. The conventional exceptions (with considerable variations) are proper names, which usually retain ñ and their original Spanish or Hispanicised spelling (Santo Niño, Parañaque, Mañalac, Malacañan). It is collated as the 15th letter of the Filipino alphabet. In old Filipino orthography, the letter was also used, along with g, to represent the velar nasal sound (except at the end of a word, when ng would be used) if appropriate instead of a tilde, which originally spanned a sequence of n and g (as in n͠g), such as pan͠galan ("name"). That is because the old orthography was based on Spanish, and without the tilde, pangalan would have been pronounced with the sequence (therefore pang-GAlan). The form ñg became a more common way to represent n͠g until the early 20th century, mainly because it was more readily available in typesets than the tilde spanning both letters.
It is also used to represent the velar nasal in Crimean Tatar and Nauruan. In Malay, the Congress Spelling System (1957–1972) formerly used it for /ŋ/ before /g/. In Turkmen, it was used for /ŋ/ until 1999. In Latin-script writing of the Tatar language and Lule Sami language, ñ is sometimes used as a substitute for n with descender, which is not available on many computer systems. In addition to Tatar, ñ has the value of /ŋ/ in the Common Turkic Alphabet.
In the Breton language, it nasalises the preceding vowel, as in Jañ , which corresponds to the French name Jean and has the same pronunciation.
It is used in a number of English terms of Spanish origin, such as jalapeño, piña colada, piñata, and El Niño. The Spanish word cañón, however, became naturalized as canyon. Until the middle of the 20th century, adapting it as nn was more common in English, as in the phrase "Battle of Corunna". Now, it is almost always left unmodified. The Society for the Advancement of Spanish Letters in the Anglo Americas (SASLAA) is the preeminent organization focused on promoting the permanent adoption of ñ into the English language.
In Gilbertese, ñ and ñg represents the geminated forms of n and ng.
Cultural significance
The letter Ñ has come to represent the identity of the Spanish language. Latin publisher Bill Teck labeled Hispanic culture and its influence on the United States "Generation Ñ" and later started a magazine with that name. Organizations such as the Instituto Cervantes and the National Association of Hispanic Journalists have adopted the letter as their mark for Hispanic heritage. It was used in the Spanish Republican Air Force for aircraft identification. The circumstances surrounding the crash of serial 'Ñ' Potez 540 plane that was shot down over the Sierra de Gúdar range of the Sistema Ibérico near Valdelinares inspired French writer André Malraux to write the novel L'Espoir (1937), translated into English as Man's Hope and made into the movie named Espoir: Sierra de Teruel.
In 1991, a European Community report recommended the repeal of a regulation preventing the sale in Spain of computer products not supporting "all the characteristics of the Spanish writing system," claiming that it was a protectionist measure against the principles of the free market. This would have allowed the distribution of keyboards without an "Ñ" key. The Real Academia Española stated that the matter was a serious attack against the language. Nobel Prize winner in literature Gabriel García Márquez expressed his disdain over its elimination by saying: "The 'Ñ' is not an archaeological piece of junk, but just the opposite: a cultural leap of a Romance language that left the others behind in expressing with only one letter a sound that other languages continue to express with two."
Among other forms of controversy are those pertaining to the anglicization of Spanish surnames. The replacement of ñ with another letter alters the pronunciation and meaning of a word or name, in the same manner that replacing any letter in a given word with another one would. For example, Peña is a common Spanish surname and a common noun that means "rocky hill"; it is often anglicized as Pena, changing the name to the Spanish word for "pity", often used in terms of sorrow.
When Federico Peña was first running for mayor of Denver in 1983, the Denver Post printed his name without the tilde as "Pena." After he won the election, they began printing his name with the tilde. As Peña's administration had many critics, their objections were sometimes whimsically expressed as "ÑO."
Since 2011, CNN's Spanish-language news channel incorporates a new logo wherein a tilde is placed over two Ns.
Another news channel, TLN en Español, has "tlñ", with an ñ taking the place of the expected n, as its logo.
The Google Doodle for 23 April 2021 celebrated Ñ as part of UN Spanish Language Day.
Computer usage
In Unicode Ñ has the code U+00D1 (decimal 209) while ñ has the code U+00F1 (decimal 241). Additionally, they can be generated by typing N or n followed by a combining tilde modifier, ̃, U+0303, decimal 771.
In HTML character entity reference, the codes for Ñ and ñ are Ñ and ñ or Ñ and ñ.
Ñ and ñ have their own key in the Spanish and Latin American keyboard layouts (see the corresponding sections at keyboard layout and Tilde#Role of mechanical typewriters). The following instructions apply only to English-language keyboards.
On Android devices, holding n or N down on the keyboard makes entry of ñ and Ñ possible.
On Apple Macintosh operating systems (including Mac OS X), it can be typed by pressing and holding the Option key and then typing N, followed by typing either N or n.
On the iPhone and iPad, which use the Apple iOS operating system, the ñ is accessed by holding down the "n" key, which opens a menu (on an English-language keyboard). Apple's Mac OS X 10.7 Lion operating system also made the "ñ" available in the same way.
The lowercase ñ can be made in the Microsoft Windows operating system by typing or on the numeric keypad (with Num Lock turned on); the uppercase Ñ can be made with or . Character Map in Windows identifies the letter as "Latin Small/Capital Letter N With Tilde". A soft (not physical) Spanish-language keyboard is easily installed in Windows.
In Microsoft Word, Ñ can be typed by pressing Control-Shift-Tilde (~) and then an N.
On Linux it can be created by pressing Ctrl+Shift+U and then typing '00d1' or '00f1', followed by space or Ctrl to end the character code input. This produces Ñ or ñ.
Another option (for any operating system) is to configure the system to use the US-International keyboard layout, with which ñ can be produced either by holding Alt Gr and then pressing N, or by typing the tilde (~) followed by n.
Yet another option is to use a compose key (hardware-based or software-emulated). Pressing the compose key, then ~, and then n results in ñ. A capital N can be substituted to produce Ñ, and in most cases the order of ~ and n can be reversed.
Use in URLs
The letter Ñ may be used in internationalized domain names, but it will have to be converted from Unicode to ASCII using punycode during the registration process (i.e. from www.piñata.com to www.xn--piata-pta.com).
In URLs (except for the domain name), Ñ may be replaced by %C3%91, and ñ by %C3%B1. This is not needed for newer browsers. The hex digits represent the UTF-8 encoding of the glyphs Ñ and ñ. This feature allows almost any Unicode character to be encoded, and it is considered important to support languages other than English.
See also
Tilde
English terms with diacritical marks
Other symbols for the palatal nasal
Gn (digraph)
Nh (digraph)
Nj (letter)
Ny (digraph)
Ɲ
Ń
Њ
Ň
(IPA symbol)
Other letters with a tilde
Ã
Ẽ
G̃
Ĩ
M̃
Õ
P̃
Ũ
Ṽ
References
External links
Breton language
Latin letters with diacritics
Phonetic transcription symbols
Spanish language |
31871726 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video%20games%20in%20South%20Korea | Video games in South Korea | In South Korea, video games are considered to be a major social activity, with most of the games being cooperative or competitive. Locally developed role-playing, first-person shooter, MMORPG and mobile games have proven to be very popular in the country. Professional competition surrounding video games (especially those involving real-time strategy games) also enjoy a substantial following in South Koreamajor tournaments are often broadcast on television and have large prizes available.
South Korea has developed a strong economy in Asia through the development of creative industries (i.e. Online Game). New York Times culture writer Seth Schiesel has commented "When it comes to gaming, Korea is the developed market... When you look at gaming around the world, Korea is the leader in many ways..." Statistic provided by Korea Creative Content Agency shows that the industry has gained an average growth of 14.9% in sales since 2008. This statistic may reflects an increasing interest in online gaming, especially the youth. Although it is difficult to mark an exact period that is responsible for increasing trend in online gaming; however, it is quite clear that gaming has become much more than activity for leisure.
South Korea has been known for their pre-eminent infrastructure in video gaming, and their dominance in eSports scenes. Many of the best video game players and coaches in the world were trained or originated from South Korea, and the country's pro leagues and tournaments across numerous video games are often acclaimed by many to be the "most prestigious and competitive".
History
1980s–1990s
In January 1975, three units of the relabeled Pong machine Computer TV were installed in the Midopa Department Store in Seoul. The newspaper explained it as a "TV game" and said that big companies such as Samsung and Goldstar (now LG) were producing new machines, most of them Pong clones. Until the end of the 1970s, "electronic entertainment rooms" quickly spread around the country, despite fierce opposition by conservative parents, media and the regime. By 1980, only 43 arcade establishments were government-approved, while many hundreds were opened illegally. The Korean video game industry started as mostly an import market, getting machines from Japan and the USA. Since it didn't have any form of localization, the arcade manufacturers would put names in Hangul, making some name changes such as "Donkey Kong" becoming "King Kong". Eventually, Korean companies started to develop their own arcade games. One of the first arcade games to be developed by a Korean company is Goindol, released in 1987 by SunA. It was also the first one to be released outside of Korea, with the company Sharp Image Electronics licensing it for North American distribution. Sharp Image licensed three other arcade games from SunA and Philko for release in North America, and also licensed Kaneko's Air Buster for release in North America. In 2001, a company called GameVision licensed six arcade games from Expotato, Andamiro, SemiCom, and Excellent Soft Design for release in North America. GameVision also developed a Game Boy Advance port of Tang Tang, which was released by Take-Two Interactive.
Home computers were a luxury import in Korea in the late 1970s and software programming was the domain of institutes like KIST. In 1983, domestic computers – which were clones of Japanese and American models – started being distributed as well as computer magazines. In March of the same year, companies like Samsung started to offer computers to schools to raise a computer-savvy generation. These same companies would host software competitions, but most of the programmers that won those competitions developing games preferred to use their knowledge for more serious software or jobs. In 1984, the computer models became more standardized, with almost all new models based on either MSX or Apple II standard. This made it easier to import and copy foreign games, as there was no copyright law in Korea at the time for computer programs.
In December 1985, Daewoo released the Zemmix, a MSX-based video game console. It was the first domestic gaming hardware success, owing its sales to the huge number of imported and bootlegged games available. Because of that, domestic game development wasn't seen as necessary until July 1987, when a law protecting copyright ownership of computer programs was enacted. This led to the creation of small businesses with the intention of producing and publishing games. The country's first fully-fledged computer game was Sin'geom-ui Jeonseol, also known as Legend of the Sword, released for the Apple II computer platform in 1987. It was programmed by Nam In-Hwan and distributed by Aproman, being primarily influenced by the Ultima series.
Most of the stores that made unauthorized copies of games started to port them to Zemmix, the most representative publisher being Zemina, the first company to publish a domestic title, Brother Adventure, a Mario Bros. clone. However, the copyright law only covered the code itself, allowing the video game adaptation of foreign games. A group of Japanese companies (including Taito, Konami and Capcom) brought to court cases against Haitai and Young Toys, but failed to win anything because the games in question were released before the enactment of the law. Most of the original Korean games were made by independent teams, such as "Mickey Soft's Kkoedori" and "New Age Team's Legendly Night". The Korean company Topia was one of the first to begin producing action role-playing games, one of which was Pungnyu Hyeopgaek, for MS-DOS, in 1989. It was the first Korean title published for an IBM PC compatible and set in ancient China.
Foreign companies like Sega and Nintendo had difficulty entering the market, so they licensed out their consoles to Korean companies. Samsung took Sega's Master System, which was then released in April 1989 as the "Samsung Gam*Boy". Most of the games were released on Korea on their original languages, being Phantasy Star the first game to be fully translated to Hangul. One year later, the Mega Drive arrived with the name of "Super Gam*Boy", having in 1992 all Samsung consoles renamed to "Aladdin Boy". Samsung also produced its own game, a shoot 'em up called "Uju Geobukseon". Hyundai was the responsible for the releasing the NES, named Comboy. However, it didn't have any translated games.
The development of those systems started slow, as the software necessary was not as available as home computers. Most infringing companies found ways to simply convert MSX games to the Gam*Boy, due to their similar architecture. Two companies, Daou Infosys and Open Production, under the Jaem Jaem Club label, were responsible for a steady flow of domestic games for Gam*Boy consoles. Daou was known for its licensed game from the TV animation series Agi Gongnyong Dooly, which had a game released for the MSX. Open Production, on the other hand, was mainly responsible for original games, although most of them were platformers similar to other famous games, however, having completely original sprites, levels and gameplay. Three Open Production games were published in Australia, but only in 1995 when the Master System was already dead in Korea.
By 1990, the excitement for games developed in Korea declined. The lack of skill, budget, and manpower made it hard for the domestic developers to compete with imported games from Japan and the U.S. However, PC games started to rise. Until 1992, most of the games for PC were ports or adaptations of traditional boardgames or card games. When computers able to display colored graphics became more common, the industry started to produce games that could compete with consoles on the international market. Big companies started to invest in the development of games and Goldstar opened an educational institute for game developers on March 8, 1993. Localization of the games to the Korean language also became more frequent.
1994 saw the release of two major Korean RPGs: Astonishia Story, and an MS-DOS enhanced remake Ys II Special, developed by Mantra. The latter was a mash-up of Nihon Falcom's game Ys II (1988) with the anime Ys II: Castle in the Heavens (1992) along with a large amount of new content, including more secrets than any other version of Ys II. Both games were a success in Korea.
Commercial online gaming became very popular in South Korea from the mid-1990s. Nexus: The Kingdom of the Winds, designed by Jake Song, was commercially released in 1996 and eventually gained over one million subscribers. It was one of the earliest massively multiplayer online role-playing games. Song's next game, Lineage (1998), enjoyed even greater success gaining millions of subscribers in Korea and Taiwan.
During February 24 to 27, 1993, Computer Edutainment and Game Software Festival - the first video game expo in Korea - was held at the electronic store complex in Yongsan, Seoul. The first edition of the festival had high-profile exhibitors such as Hyundai, but on the following years, only small developers would continue to carry it on until its extinction in 1996. On the other hand, the Amuse World expo started as a small event and kept growing steadily, evolving to the nowadays G-Star, the largest game industry event in Korea.
Home console predominance
Around January 1993, home consoles in South Korea were estimated to be present in one of every four houses. However, they are not as popular as they used to be. The console downfall started with a photosensitive epileptic seizure mass hysteria successfully spread by the Korean mass media. Although the initial epileptic fit was proven not to be related to flashing light sensitivity, the newspapers would report new or old cases, connecting them with video games. The media would blame Japanese video games, even stating that the cases happening in the US and Canada were also caused only by video games from Japan. Video game sales were damaged, and Samsung reported a decrease of 71.4% during 1993 and Hyundai, 33%. The industry started to slowly recuperate but was slowed down by the decision of the Ministry of Culture and Sports, on July 1, 1993, to revise the censorship regulation, so that video games on CD-ROM or cartridge have to pass an evaluation by the Korea Public Performance Ethics Committee. The rating system of the Committee was considered one of the most strict of the world in the 90s.
2000s–2009 Korean online gaming
On November 11, 2001, the sprite-based Ragnarok Online, produced by Korean company Gravity Corp, was released. Though unknown to many Western players, the game took Asia by storm as Lineage had done. The publisher has claimed in excess of 25 million subscribers of the game, although this number is based upon a number of registered users (rather than active subscribers). 2002 also saw the release of MapleStory, another sprite-based title, which was completely free-to-play - instead of charging a monthly fee, it generated revenue by selling in-game "enhancements". MapleStory would go on to become a major player in the new market for free-to-play MMORPGs (generating huge numbers of registered accounts across its many versions), if it did not introduce the market by itself.
In October 2003, Lineage II (NCsoft's sequel to Lineage) became the latest MMORPG to achieve huge success across Asia. It received the Presidential Award at the 2003 Korean Game awards and is now the second most popular MMORPG in the world. As of the first half of 2005 Lineage II counted over 2.25 million subscribers worldwide, with servers in Japan, China, North America, Taiwan, and Europe, once the popularity of the game had surged in the West.
2009–present transition to mobile platform
After the release of the iPhone, games like Angry Birds showed up on the market, showing off their success. Like that, in South Korea, the major game company Com2uS and Gamevil started to release their new games, Home Run Battle 3D and ZENONIA, on the market in 2009.
In 2012, Kakao launched their new service called Kakao Games and they released their first game, Anipang, which was a huge success to both Kakao and its developer, SundayToz. After the launch of Kakao Games, major video game companies like Nexon, Netmarble, and many other minor game developers began to give their attention to mobile platform.
In 2016, Netmarble released their new MMORPG game, Lineage 2 Revolution, by using Lineages IP. The game grossed ₩206.5 million in one month, and it became a trend to make a mobile game based on a popular online game, such as Lineage, Black Desert Online, and Tera Online.
Recently in South Korea, gamers have been pessimistic about the video game industry in South Korea, saying the industry is in its Dark Ages. Many companies are still making mobile games, mostly, and focusing more on advertising than actual gameplay.
PC bangs
A PC bang (Korean: PC방; literally "PC room") is a type of LAN gaming center, where patrons can play multiplayer computer games and browse the internet for a small hourly fee. The typical cost for an hour of play ranges from 1000 to 1500 won (approximately $0.90 to $1.35 USD.), but as of 2013, 1200 won per hour is the most common cost in PC bang. Although the per capita penetration of computers and broadband internet access is very high in South Korea, PC bangs remain popular as they provide a social meeting place for gamers (especially school-aged gamers) to play together with their friends. Furthermore, the computer hardware used by PC bangs may be more powerful than the systems available in the players' homes. Most PC bangs allow players to eat, drink and smoke (often with separate smoking and non-smoking sections) while they play. It is common for PC bangs to sell ramen noodles, canned coffee, soft drinks, and other snacks.
PC bangs rose to popularity following the release of the PC game StarCraft in 1998. Although PC bangs are used by all ages and genders, they are most popular with male gamers in their teens and twenties.
Many popular Korean multiplayer games provide players with incentives that encourage them to play from a PC bang. For example, the Nexon games Kart Rider and BnB reward players with bonus "Lucci"—the games' virtual currencies—when they log on from a PC bang and the popular League of Legends provides free access to all characters and extra game currency on each match.
Pro-gaming
South Korea is well known for the fact that professional gaming has a very substantial following in the country, with the top players earning big money prizes in competitions, and spending a significant number of hours practicing every day.
Pro-gaming tournaments in South Korea are broadcast, with millions of people tuning in to watch live or catch the results on one of three channels that are exclusively geared toward e-sports. In South Korea, pro-gaming and e-sports competitions are considered a national past time with approximately 10 million regular viewers. There are also organized leagues throughout the country that are financed generously and train gamers to compete in competitions.
Many South Koreans take pride in the country's high standing position as a pro-gaming powerhouse. The results of this are seen in the fact that more and more tech companies are seeing the profitability of investing in and sponsoring e-sport stars. Companies are starting to finance the coaching of potential gamers, as it is advantageous to them financially and socially. Major technological companies like HTC and three of Korea's largest companies - Samsung, Korea Telecom, and SK Telecom are a few examples. The Korean government has also discovered the promise of investing in e-sports and pro-gaming by funding the world's first e-sports stadium that was built in 2005. Additionally, the Korean government has a department solely focused on the governing of e-sports known as the Korea e-Sports Association (KeSpa).Throughout South Korea, pro-gamers are revered and treated like celebrities. It is not unheard of for successful pro-gamers or e-sport stars to earn 6 figure or more contracts. In turn the spotlight that these stars shine on video games helps the South Korean economy. The video game industry makes up a significant share of South Korea's GDP. It is estimated that the game market pulls in approximately 5 billion dollars annually along with the millions of dollars that are also traded in illegal gambling and betting that stimulates South Korea's informal economy.
Due to the huge popularity of e-sports in South Korea the World Cyber Games was made in 2000. The Republic of Korea's Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Ministry of Information and Communications, Samsung, and Microsoft are the original sponsors. The WCG is considered to be the "Olympics of the online gaming world". The games draw around 500 pro-gamers from around the world into competition with prizes amassing from $200,000 - $500,000.
Two particularly popular video games for pro-gamers are StarCraft and League of Legends. Well-known players include Lim Yo-Hwan, Lee Young-ho, Lee Sang-hyeok, Choi Yeon-Sung, Park Sung-Joon and Lee Jae-Dong.
Video game addiction
With video game addictions, many studies tried to find the connection between video game addiction and psychological conditions like depression and anxiety in Korea. A Korean study reported that there was a connection between video game addiction and constraints involving recreation participation. The study also found that video game addictions were associated with experience in recreational activities as well as family environment. The level of addiction differed depending on family background, family communication, and parental monitoring. To reduce video game addictions, researchers suggested that there should be better family bonding and flexibility, like participating in various recreational activities involving family members.
Due to problems of widespread video game addiction threatening the health safety of players and after different incidents related to it, the Korean government has invested considerable amounts into new clinics, campaigns, and support groups to minimize the problem. By late 2011, the government took a step further and imposed the "Cinderella Law", also known as the Shutdown law, which prevents anyone aged under 16 from playing games online between 10 pm - 6 am. "Minors are required to register their national identification cards online so that they can be monitored and regulated". Another program created by the Korean government is the Jump up Internet Rescue School, a camp created to cure children who are either addicted to online games or the internet. This program was created due to the increasing number of working parents, insufficient space for playgrounds, and a highly competitive educational environment. The program involved having a wide variety of treatments for 12 days and 11 nights. The facility will allow participants to engage in outdoor activities and sports instead of playing video games. The program is divided into two stages which are training activities and educational activities. The education activity consists of mental training, brain education about the frontal lobe, emotional control, and brain system training. The role of mental and brain training is to recall the participant's cognitive skills. People who are addictive thinkers are more likely to worry than an average person which may lead to more addictive internet uses. An emotional approach is implemented so that addicts can move on from gratifying sensations and feelings that make addicts come back to gaming or internet use. The four education activities listed previously are important to prevent or detour behaviours that the internet has, such as providing a mental escape, avoiding problems, and emotional belief, in addition to doing drugs, and gambling (Lyu, 2017).
Due to a failure of establishing a clear definition of online video game addiction, there are complications measuring and identifying those affected by video game addiction. There is no actual percentage regarding individuals that are addicted to video games. Researchers have conducted a questionnaire for Korean High school students to better understand video game addiction. The researchers found only a 2.7% addiction rate when it was distinguished from another peripheral criterion. The results suggest that video game addiction may not have been a prevalent issue as previously believed in South Korea (Chulmo, Yulia, Choong, & Hea Young, 2011).
In a survey that was done in 2018 the South Korean government got a rough estimate that 10 million people were at risk of Internet Addiction. Video game addiction existed back in the early 2000s, a South Korean man died from a heart attack after playing video games for 50 hours in a PC bang where he barely slept and ate. He was also fired from his job because he didn't show up to work due to him playing computer games.
Ratings
Video games in Korea are rated by the Game Rating and Administration Committee, a governmental organization established in 2006. Games were previously rated by the Korea Media Rating Board (KMRB), but the separate board was established in 2006 following a scandal where the KMRB was allegedly bribed to allow a video slot machine known as Sea Story be put on the market after operators hacked the game to increase its payouts beyond legal limits.
See also
History of Eastern role-playing video games
StarCraft professional competition
Video games developed in South Korea
References
South Korean culture
Science and technology in South Korea |
43703280 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keeper%20%28password%20manager%29 | Keeper (password manager) | Keeper is a password manager application and digital vault created by Keeper Security that stores website passwords, financial information and other sensitive documents using 256-bit AES encryption, zero-knowledge architecture and two-factor authentication.
In 2018, Keeper was named "Best Password Manager" by PC Mag and nominated Editors' Choice with an "Excellent" rating. Keeper was rated "Best Security" by Tom's Guide.
Features
Files and passwords in Keeper can be synced, backed up in the cloud, encrypted with a 256-bit AES key derived from the user's master password using PBKDF2. Every record in the user's private vault is encrypted and stored with a unique encryption key. Keeper also addresses the problem of password fatigue, by autofilling login and password fields with stored information. Sharing passwords between Keeper users is performed using 2048-bit RSA encryption.
A feature called "Keeper DNA" provides multi-factor authentication using connected devices, such as a smartwatch, to verify a user's identity when logging into the vault.
BreachWatch is a feature that monitors the dark web for stolen passwords and notifies the user within their vault.
KeeperChat, a secure communications platform was launched in March 2018 that provides encrypted messaging, self-destructing messages, retraction and two-factor authentication.
Keeper is a free service for storing passwords on a single device and has an optional annual subscription with cross-device syncing.
Keeper comes pre-loaded on the Orange Dive 70 smartphone, Samsung phones, América Móvil phones and most AT&T Android phones. As of January 2015, Keeper has more than 9 million registered users and works with over 3,000 companies. Keeper is available for download on Android, iOS, Windows, Mac, Windows Phone, Linux, Kindle, and Nook, and available as a browser extension for IE, Chrome, Firefox, Safari and Opera. Keeper is also available for Microsoft Edge.
Keeper for Business and Enterprise Use
Keeper Enterprise is a multi-tenant password management and secure file storage platform for businesses. Features include file sharing, user provisioning, auditing, reporting, Active Directory integration and delegated administration, all of which are available within a centralized admin console. In June 2019 Keeper launched BreachWatch for business customers, a service which searches the Dark Web for login credentials exposed through a public breach and prevents credential stuffing or account takeover attacks.
History
Keeper Security was founded in 2009 by Darren Guccione and Craig Lurey while on a business trip to China. As of May 15, 2019 the company has 145 employees in Chicago, Northern California and Cork, Ireland.
Incidents
In December 2017, Keeper was bundled with Windows 10 by Microsoft. Google security researcher Tavis Ormandy disclosed that the software recommended installing a browser addon which contained a vulnerability allowing any website to steal any password. A nearly identical vulnerability was already previously discovered and disclosed to Keeper in 2016. Within 24 hours the company issued a patch. Days later, the company that makes Keeper sued Ars Technica claiming their article was defamatory and misleading. The lawsuit was dismissed on March 30, 2018 and Ars Technica added further clarifications to the article. Keeper launched a public vulnerability disclosure program with Bugcrowd following the lawsuit.
See also
List of password managers
Cryptography
References
External links
Official website
Keeper on iOS
Keeper on Google Play
All Keeper Downloads
Best Password Managers
Password managers |
1621281 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacek%20Karpi%C5%84ski | Jacek Karpiński | Jacek Karpiński (9 April 1927 21 February 2010) was a Polish pioneer in computer engineering and computer science.
During World War II, he was a soldier in the Batalion Zośka of the Polish Home Army, and was awarded multiple times with a Cross of Valour. He took part in Operation Kutschera (intelligence) and the Warsaw Uprising, where he was heavily wounded.
Later, he became a developer of one of the first machine learning algorithms, techniques for character and image recognition.
After receiving a UNESCO award in 1960, he travelled for several years around the academic centres in the United States, including MIT, Harvard, Caltech, and many others.
In 1971, he designed one of the first minicomputers, the K-202. Because of the policy on computer development in the People's Republic of Poland, belonging to the Comecon that time, the K-202 was never mass-produced.
Karpiński later became a pig farmer, and in 1981, after receiving a passport, emigrated to Switzerland.
He also founded the Laboratory for Artificial Intelligence of the Polish Academy of Sciences in the early 1960s.
Family and childhood
Jacek Karpiński was born on 9 April 1927 in Turin, Italy into a family of Polish intellectuals and alpinists. His father, Adam 'Akar' Karpiński, was a prominent aeronautic engineer (who co-constructed the SL-1 Akar, the first glider constructed entirely by the Poles) and inventor, credited with projects of innovative climbing equipment (crampons, 'Akar-Ramada' tent). His mother, Wanda Czarnocka-Karpińska, was a respected physician who went on to become Dean of the University of Physical Education in Warsaw. Both were pioneers of winter mountaineering in the Tatra Mountains (first successful winter attacks on Banówka, Nowy Wierch, Lodowy Szczyt and others). Adam Karpiński was also a member of a Polish expedition into the Andes, which was the first to climb the peak Mercedario (6720 m.). Karpiński himself was due to be born in the Vallot winter hut near Mont Blanc, but due to the extreme weather conditions, his parents had to retreat to Turin, where their first child was born.
Karpiński had one younger brother, Marek, who also became an electrical engineer. The family moved from Biała Podlaska to Warsaw in 1934, where Wanda took a job at Physical University of Warsaw and Adam worked in PZL (Polish Aviation Works). Karpiński's father died in September 1939 during an expedition to Nanda Devi in the Himalayas. After an unsuccessful attack on the summit, along with Stefan Bernadzikiewicz, he decided to climb the nearby Tirsuli (7039m), where both were killed by an avalanche.
Wartime
Karpiński's life was changed not only by his father's death but by the outbreak of World War II. Despite his young age (fourteen at the time), by pretending to be seventeen, he managed to join the Gray Ranks, a Polish underground paramilitary boy scouts organization, where he served in Grupy Szturmowe (Assault Groups).
In early 1943, he was severely injured while working on homemade bombs for an underground sabotage operation when one of them accidentally exploded in the basement of his house. He lost sight in both eyes and faced the serious threat of hand-amputation. After his mother's intervention and the help of her fellow physicians, his eyes recovered fully and the hand was saved, but he never regained total control over it. After the recovery, Karpiński resumed his activities in the Home Army.
With the help of his mother, Wanda, and brother, Marek, who both also actively participated in the resistance effort, the family established a secret resistance outpost in their family home on Obserwatorów Street. The place was an outpost for Juliusz "Laudański" Deczkowski's unit and contained a clandestine shooting range. It was also a hideout for Stanisław Miedza-Tomaszewski, a Home Army officer working for its Informational Department.
Karpiński participated in numerous field operations, including Sieczychy Operation (Akcja pod Sieczychami), as a soldier, and Operation Kutschera, as a part of recon under Wiesław "Sem" Krajewski. After the formation of the Home Army's Zośka battalion, Karpiński enrolled, where he befriended poet Krzysztof Kamil Baczyński, both being commanders of smaller sub-units.
Karpiński also participated in the Warsaw Uprising. On the first day of fighting, he was trapped weaponless with around 30 other soldiers in a hospital building on Koszykowa street after the weaponry supply had been mistakenly directed somewhere else. While evacuating the unit, Karpiński's group was caught under heavy fire, which resulted in most of the evacuees dead. Karpiński himself was shot with a 9mm caliber gun a bullet was stuck in his backbone but he survived. Found next day by the hospital's nurses, he received treatment but remained paralyzed. Released from hospital after the Uprising's collapse, he rejoined his family in Pruszków but remained unable to stand or walk. The family moved through Cracow and Zakopane to a small village of Murzasichle in the Tatras, where they remained through the rest of the war. During the course of the war, Karpiński was awarded the Cross of Valour three times.
Post-war
After World War II, Karpiński's family moved to Radomsko, and he started to attend local high school. He was forced to learn how to walk again, which he did during hiking trips in the mountains with his brother and Józef Lityński. He completed the entire high school curriculum in one year and passed the baccalaureate with flying colours. Afterwards, Karpiński moved to Łódź to begin university education at the Faculty of Electro-Mechanical Sciences within the local polytechnic. After two years, he moved to Warsaw University of Technology from which he graduated in 1951.
. Karpiński, just as many other former Zośka battalion veterans, influenced by former Home Army high officer Jan "Radosław" Mazurkiewicz's call, revealed himself to the Communists, but unlike many, he was spared imprisonment. Nevertheless, he was forced to change workplace several times, eventually receiving a work warrant for T-12 factory of electrical components in Żerań. During the time Karpiński was planning to flee Poland, he even worked on designing a mini-submarine in which he would be able cross the Baltic Sea and reach the Danish island of Bornholm. However, after the first sights of the Polish thaw, he decided to stay. In 1955 he was offered a job at the Polish Academy of Sciences' Institute of Basic Problems, which he accepted. There he worked under Leszek Filipkowski on the design of the prototype ultrasonography device.
AAH
His first independent project was the AAH — Analytical Analyzer of Harmonics. Karpiński was asked by a long-time friend, Józef Lityński, an employee of the State Institute of Hydrology and Meteorology, whom he had known from his time in Radomsko, to build a device to help calculate Fourier integrals. The Institute hoped the device could help improve the effectiveness of long-term weather forecasts. Karpiński gathered a team of five people and constructed a computer based on vacuum tubes in 1957. The machine had been used for two years when it was accidentally destroyed. Karpiński himself claimed AAH raised the precision of forecasts by 10%, an estimate which has not been contested. A part of the engineering team was Karpiński's brother Marek, who worked with him successfully until his tragic death in 1957 during a climbing expedition in the Tatras.
AKAT-1
The breakthrough achievement of Karpiński's career was the construction of AKAT-1 in 1959 in co-operation with engineer Janusz Tomaszewski. AKAT-1 was a pioneering work the world's first differential equations analyzer based on transistors. Karpiński built the device during his spell at the Polish Academy of Science's Institute of Automatics, where he found employment after the success of AAH. The aim of AKAT-1 was to simulate various complex dynamic processes like heat transfer or a shock absorber's mechanics. The innovativeness of the device was acknowledged by historians of computer science e.g. Maciej Sysło claims it has to be conceded that Karpiński's effort preceded any other similar device. The construction was also lauded for its aesthetical merits the panel designed by leading Polish artists Emil Cieślar, Olgierd Rutkowski, Stanisław Siemek and Andrzej Wróblewski had been considered to 'innovatively merge all functions in a congruent and attractive form that anticipated the future trends'. The machine has been domestically welcomed warmly, having been covered by a host of country-wide media, including national television TVP1 and Polish Film Chronicle.
Currently, the machine can be seen in the Museum of Technology in Warsaw.
UNESCO scholarship in the United States
The success of AKAT-1 enabled Karpiński to be put forward by Poland as its candidate for UNESCO worldwide award for young engineers in 1960. Karpiński's work was evaluated with around 200 other contestants by an UNESCO international committee, and he turned out to be among the six laureates. As a reward, he was allowed to go on a half-year scholarship in the United States to visit major technological centres in the country. During the scholarship, which has been eventually extended to a full year, Karpiński managed to visit around twenty universities and laboratories, among them Computation Laboratory at Harvard, Caltech, UCLA and Los Alamos National Laboratory. During his stay he met with a number of leading computer scientists of the time including John Eckert, Claude Shannon and Edward F. Moore. Despite the numerous offers to stay in the United States and move his work there, Karpiński decided to come back to Poland. Later, it emerged that before and during his stay in the United States, Karpiński cooperatated with Polish intelligence to collect data, which sparked controversies around his person. Karpiński himself, interviewed on the matter after the fall of communism, was reluctant to comment the matter, but insisted the agreement with intelligence officer cpt. Zygmunt Goć was limited to reporting on the state of technical progress of American facilities.
Perceptron
Shortly after his return from the US, Karpiński, inspired by his American experience, decided to implement some of his newest ideas at home. He convinced the director of the Institute of Automatics Stefan Węgrzyn to build a perceptron a device built according to Frank Rosenblatt's ideas, able to learn how to discern and recognize objects and shapes. The idea was successfully realized, and the Polish perceptron was completed in 1964, being one of the first of such in the world and the first known in the Communist bloc.
KAR-65
Soon after the completion of the perceptron, Karpiński fell out with Węgrzyn, which forced him to leave the Institute of Automatics. He moved to the Polish Academy of Sciences' Institute of Physics led by Jerzy Pniewski. Pniewski's team worked on the analysis of data from CERN pictures from Glaser bubble chambers, traces of colliding electrons and neutrons. The Institute struggled with the amount of data and was looking for a mechanism to speed up the processing of data. In 1965, on Pniewski's request Karpiński designed a scanner, and after its success, began work on the mathematical machine that could compute the scanned data. With the help of newly formed team of seven people including later long-time cooperators Tadeusz Kupniewski and Teresa Pajkowska, Karpiński finished the machine in 1968, dubbed KAR-65, after three years of work. Due to financial constraints, KAR-65 was built using Polish germane transistors TG-40 and DOG-61 diodes, considerably slower than their western counterparts. KAR-65 was asynchronic and used a dedicated operation system, designed by Karpiński. The computer could perform 100 thousand operations per second, which made it the fastest Polish computer at the time. The computer consisted of two parts, both measuring 1,7m x 1,4m x 0,4m, but was still considerably smaller that the leading Polish computers of the time, Odra mainframes. The computer's interface was designed by the artist Stanisław Tomaszewski, who had also worked on the AKAT-1. The total cost of construction was estimated to be 6 million złotys. Only one machine was built and it continued to work in the Institute of Physics for 20 years. It currently resides in the Museum of Technology in Warsaw.
Even though the computer was a technological success, most likely due to the pressure of competing computer manufacturers (chiefly Elwro, producer of Odra mainframes), many reports on KAR-65s were halted by the censorship. Karpiński had his 1969 paper from Polish Informatical Conference in Zakopane blocked from printing. His article on KAR-65 in Maszyny Matematyczne from the same year was blocked, as well. A similar fate befell the articles on the subject by popular journalists Stefan Bratkowski and Aleksander Bocheński. Before his interview with the TV programme Tele-Echo Karpiński received an official ban on talking about the computer. He complained about the matter to the President of the Committee of Science and Technology Jacek Kaczmarek (28.04.1970), but received no backing.
K-202
In 1970, Karpiński decided to establish his own institution to work on his new idea, a minicomputer of original architecture, for which he sought backing from state officials. Karpiński was given permission to found Microcomputers' Construction Plant (Zakład Budowy Mikrokomputerów) in Warszawa-Włochy in 1970. The basis for the computer's construction was the fruit of the joint-venture agreement between the Polish state (represented by Metronex, a foreign trade office) and British private partners companies Data-Loop and MB Metals. Karpiński, who orchestrated the agreement, was appointed technical director, fully responsible for the engineering aspect of the venture. The parts and finances were to be supplied by the British, but the entire construction and production process was to be done in Poland, something that Karpiński strongly insisted on. MB Metals and Data-Loop were given rights to sell the computer in all countries, except Poland. The companies were also solely responsible for the products promotion and distribution.
Karpiński collected a team of 113 employees, including programmers and hardware engineers such as Zbigniew Szwaj, Teresa Pajkowska, Andrzej Ziemkiewicz and Elżbieta Jezierska. The main objective of the project was to build a computer, which would be small, affordable (around 6.5 thousand dollars apiece), easy to produce and failproof. Great emphasis was also put on its modularity Karpiński was determined to build an entire system, with flexible complexity and arrangement in line with user's needs. Production of 1300 units was planned in two initial series. The primary objective was commercial, but Karpiński intended for K-202 to be used in a vast variety of applications in industry, administration, science and military (land and navy).
The team worked for three years and in 1973 first prototypes were completed. The result was a minicomputer highly innovative in many aspects. K-202 was constructed entirely with microchips, using breakthrough 1971 Intel 4004 chips. It was also asynchronic and used floating point representation, as KAR-65. Moreover, K-202 used memory segmentation with paging, the first minicomputer to do so. Additionally, it performed close to a million operations per second. These two things made K-202 faster than its potentially most dangerous competitors DEC's PDP-11 and CTL's Modular One. The computer was small, could fit on the desk and weighed 35 kilograms. It was also highly shock-, water- and temperature-resistant. K-202 used authorial operation system SOK and dedicated ASSK programming language, but also supported ALGOL 60, FORTRAN IV, BASIC and others. The important feature was also a possibility of accessing up to 64 devices in the same time, hence the high level of freedom of architectural composition of a system.
Despite the technical excellence of the computer, it never reached mass production. Only 30 machines were ever produced and the conditions of work in Karpiński's team remained laboratorious rather than industrial. The reasons of this outcome remain unclear and are still a matter of historical debate. Karpiński himself pointed at the intentional efforts of some high-level officials, mostly Jerzy Huk, director at , a local computer engineering giant and monopolist, manufacturer of Odra mainframes. Another possible enemy of Karpiński was col. Ryszard Kulesza, director of the Institute of Mathematical Machines within the Polish Academy of Sciences. Others, among them Stefan Bratkowski and Maciej Sysło, point out the general distrust toward foreign companies and unwillingness to take risks within the ruling class, especially if the project involved consumption of high amount of foreign currency, crucial to the failing communist economy. Another possible explanation for the lack of political will for Karpiński's case is the rise of new, all-Comecon project of building a new family of computers within the communist bloc dubbed Riad. The project gained absolute priority, especially after its director Lavryonov's visit in Warsaw in autumn of 1972. Stefan Bratkowski point out that K-202 had the chance to succeed only as a part subjugated to the entire system, which Karpiński declined outright, considering the Riad project to be much inferior to K-202. A lack of proper industrial and institutional background, as well as Karpiński's personal traits stubbornness, individualism and lack of social skills are also mentioned as possible reasons.
Karpiński found himself unable to find sufficient political backing, despite moderate support from the influential Franciszek Szlachcic and Józef Tejchma. He also rejected signing up for the communist party, which could have raised his chances significantly, according to the then Minister of Culture Józef Tejchma. Critics started to expose the high costs of the project (K-202 cost was $6500 per unit for foreign clients), and the lack of commercial success, accusing Karpiński of mismanagement, fraud and embezzlement. As a result, he lost his position within a project, which was swiftly rebranded as after very minor alterations (around 1% of functional content) and was not developed further, effectively ending the K-202's chances of commercial success. Most of the 30 prototypes worked extensively for several years in 43 different institutions throughout Poland. For example, in 1972, a K-202 machine was used to computerize the calculations of results of the European wrestling championships. Currently, only a few remain; one can be seen in the Museum of Technology in Warsaw. The only working copy is in private hands.
Later life
Disappointed with the outcome of K-202 production, Karpiński in 1978 decided to move to the countryside near Olsztyn (village Dąbrówka Wielka) and started a small animal husbandry ranch. In 1981, on the invitation of Stefan Kudelski, Karpiński moved to Switzerland to work on Nagra tape recorders.
In 1990, after a series of unsuccessful business ventures, Karpiński decided to return to Poland. In the 1990s he served as an advisor on computer science to Andrzej Olechowski and Leszek Balcerowicz. He also tried to kickstart his own business ventures hand-held text-scanner 'Pen-Reader' invented during his stay in Switzerland and cash registers 'Libella', which both failed.
In 2009, he was awarded the Officer's Cross of Polonia Restituta for remarkable achievements in computer engineering.
Jacek Karpiński died on 21 February 2010 in Wrocław, where he had lived since 1996.
In 2010, he was posthumously awarded an even more prestigious Commander's Cross of Polonia Restituta, third-highest level of this order.
Controversies
It has been revealed that Jacek Karpiński worked as a secret informant for the Służba Bezpieczeństwa since 1961. He received considerable financial rewards for his work, including foreign holidays with his wife sponsored by the state. Karpiński's work was mostly dedicated to collecting technological data. This was also stated by him to be the condition under which he is inclined to provide information. Karpiński was a valuable asset, having travelled extensively since the 1950s and possessing a wide range of international contacts. He provided the intelligence with a lot of useful information beginning with the international Expo in Leipzig in 1961. But the peak of his activity was reached during his trip to the United States, during which he amassed and passed an extensive amount of information on both the technological centres, but also personalities of American science and industry.
Historian Adam Kochajkiewicz claims his cooperation was heavily influenced by naivete on the situation in the scientific world and on the goals and methods of the intelligence. The intensity of Karpiński's cooperation decreased significantly in the 1970s, when Karpiński became not a cooperator, but a target for the intelligence. Karpiński had his passport withdrawn, informants were planted in his closest environment to gather information on him, his phone calls and private correspondence was also monitored.
Also, the scale of Karpiński's engineering achievement is hotly debated. It is claimed that his construction, most notably K-202, were innovative enough (or even superior) to successfully compete with the worldwide competition (most notably PDP-11 and Modular One) and as such K-202's failure marks one of the biggest opportunity of People's Republic of Poland's for fast modernization Adrian Markowski compared Karpiński to Bill Gates. It is also stated that Karpiński's defeat was primarily caused by administrative incompetence and intentional sabotage by his enemies. Critics point out the exaggerations in Karpiński's evaluation of his work and claim that the project's fate within state structures was, at least partly, justified. They, among them Maciej Sysło, underline the massive scale of funds and organization needed for the success of a new device and point out the uncertainty about the machine's real capabilities.
References in culture
Jacek Karpiński is portrayed in Roman Bratny's novel Lot ku ziemi as Marek Zych.
Books
P. Lipiński Geniusz i Świnie. Rzecz o Jacku Karpińskim, wyd. JanKa, 2014
B. Kluska Automaty liczą. Komputery PRL., ResNovae, 2013
A. Targowski, Informatyka bez złudzeń. 40 lat między informatyką a polityką i 20 lat między Polską Ameryką, 2001
R. Bratny Lot ku ziemi, PIW, 1976
A. Kochajkiewicz Działania służb specjalnych Polski Ludowej wobec inżyniera Jacka Karpińskiego w latach 1950–1990, Przegląd Archiwalny IPN, 5/2012
See also
Analog computer
K-202
Minicomputer
List of pioneers in computer science
References
External links
"Polski Bill Gates i świnie" Gazeta Wyborcza (Polish)
onet.pl "Zniszczyć konstruktora" (Polish)
"Genialny wynalazca" onet.pl (Polish)
Zmarł genialny konstruktor Jacek Karpiński kopalniawiedzy.pl (Polish)
"Jak powstawało K-202" (Polish)
"50 lat polskich komputerów" (Polish)
"Recenzja książki Geniusz i świnie" (Polish)
Polish computer scientists
1927 births
2010 deaths
Computer designers |
1974016 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux%20Users%27%20Group%20of%20Davis | Linux Users' Group of Davis | Linux Users' Group of Davis (commonly known as LUGOD) is a users' group of students and faculty from the University of California, Davis, Information technology professionals from the Sacramento region, and hobbyists interested in Linux and free and open-source software. It holds regular meetings in Davis, California, and holds installfests on a regular basis. Its members participate with each other online in numerous mailing lists and via Internet Relay Chat.
History
The group was founded in early 1999 by Peter J. Salzman, Bill Kendrick, and about a dozen others, following a USENET posting in which Peter asked whether such a group existed in the Davis area. (Salzman and Kendrick held posts as president and vice president for most of the first five years of the group's existence.)
Activities
When possible, LUGOD participates in many activities, including hands-on demos, exhibit booths at events such as LinuxWorld Expo, classes, fundraisers, and organizing the formerly annual Linux picnic in Sunnyvale, California, together with other SVLUG and other groups.
"Reasons to Avoid Microsoft"
The LUG's website maintains a collection of news articles meant to help convince users to switch from Microsoft products.
Eric S. Raymond linked to this collection in his famous response to Microsoft's eighth Halloween document.
Notable speakers
Despite its distance from the Silicon Valley, numerous notable speakers have presented at LUGOD, including:
Individuals
Jeremy Allison
David Anderson of the SETI@home project
Donald Becker of Scyld Computer Corporation, a wholly owned subsidiary of Penguin Computing
Steve Coast (founder of OpenStreetMap)
Chris DiBona
Asa Dotzler of Mozilla Foundation
Christian Einfeldt (producer of The Digital Tipping Point)
Jon "maddog" Hall
Carsten "Rasterman" Haitzler (creator of Enlightenment)
Leslie Hawthorn (Open Source Project Manager at Google)
Valerie Henson
Simon Horman
Chander Kant of LinuxCertified
Bill Kendrick (creator of Tux Paint)
Sam Lantinga (creator of Simple DirectMedia Layer)
Rasmus Lerdorf
Don Marti of LinuxJournal
Norman Matloff
Patrick McGovern of SourceForge
Sean Perry of Debian
Dave Peticolas
Kyle Rankin
Hans Reiser
Greg Roelofs from PNG
Lawrence Rosen of Open Source Initiative
Bill Saphir from Lawrence Berkeley Labs
Richard Wallace of the A.L.I.C.E. Artificial Intelligence Foundation
Organizations and companies
Apple Computer
AMD
Borland
Cisco Systems
CodeWeavers (creators of CrossOver)
Electronic Frontier Foundation
Embedded Linux Consortium
Encore Technologies (creator of the Simputer)
Google
gumstix
Hitachi
Hewlett-Packard
IBM
Ingres
LynuxWorks
No Starch Press
Oracle Corporation
Silicon Graphics
Slim Devices
Sony Computer Entertainment
Sybase
SpectSoft
VA Linux
References
External links
Official website
"Reasons to Avoid Microsoft" news article collection
OSNews.com interview with Bill Kendrick, co-founder of LUGOD
"LUG of Davis" article in "The Lugger" column, Linux User and Developer, issue 67, November 2006
Davis
Davis, California |
2665857 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharity | Sharity | In computing, Sharity is a program to allow a Unix system to mount SMB fileshares. It is developed by Christian Starkjohann of Objective Development Software GmbH and is proprietary software. , the current version is 3.9.
Linux (using or ), and FreeBSD, NetBSD, and OS X (using ), can mount SMB natively. Most other Unix and Unix-like operating systems cannot. In the proprietary Unix world, Sharity is a common solution to mounting SMB shares, as the usual recommended workaround — to run Services for UNIX on the Windows file server and make the share available via NFS — is frequently unreliable in practice.
Sharity works by making an external SMB share appear to the kernel as an NFS-mounted file system. (Compare to from Samba, which either provides an FTP-like interactive shell or sends commands to the Windows file server to be executed remotely.)
The program runs on the following Unix and Unix-like operating systems: OS X, IRIX, Solaris, HP-UX, FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD, BSD/OS, Tru64, AIX, NEXTSTEP, OPENSTEP, UnixWare, SunOS 4, and Linux.
Sharity is a rewrite of an earlier program, Sharity-Light, which is free software under the GPL (having been derived from in Linux) but is limited in capabilities and is no longer developed. Sharity-Light was originally called Rumba (a pun on "Samba"), but the name was trademarked to another company. Sharity-Light runs in user space rather than kernel space.
References
smbfs support (OpenSolaris RFE forums)
SMB Filesystem Driver (OpenSolaris BugDatabase)
Mounting an SMB share on Solaris. (Solaris x86 FAQ)
External links
Sharity
Internet Protocol based network software
Unix network-related software |
18234113 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ficus%20subg.%20Pharmacosycea | Ficus subg. Pharmacosycea | Pharmacosycea is one of six subgenera currently recognised in the genus Ficus. It was proposed by E. J. H. Corner in 1967 to unite section Pharmacosycea with Oreosycea.
Recent molecular phylogenies has shown that the subgenus is polyphyletic. Section Pharmacosycea is a sister taxa to the rest of the genus Ficus, while section Oreosycea is itself polyphyletic.
Section Oreosycea
Section Oreosycea is Palaeotropical in distribution.
Subsection Glandulosae includes (not complete)
Ficus asperula Bureau
Ficus auriculigera Bureau
Ficus austrocaledonica Bureau
Ficus barraui Guillaumin
Ficus bubulia C.C. Berg
Ficus carinata C.C. Berg
Ficus cataractorum Bureau
Ficus crescentioides Bureau
Ficus dzumacensis Guillaumin
Ficus edelfeltii King
Ficus mutabilis Bureau
Ficus nervosa Heyne ex Roth
Subsection Pedunculatae includes
Ficus albipila (Miquel) King - Abbey tree
Ficus bataanensis Merrill
Ficus callosa Willdenow
Ficus capillipes Gagnepain
Ficus vasculosa Miquel
Section Pharmacosycea
Section Pharmacosycea is Neotropical. Cornelis Berg recognised two subsections: Bergianae and Petenenses.
Subsection Bergianae includes
Ficus adhatodifolia Schott
Ficus carchiana C.C. Berg
Ficus crassiuscula Standl.
Ficus gigantosyce Dugand
Ficus insipida Willd. (subsp. insipida and subsp. scabra C.C. Berg)
Ficus lapathifolia (Liebm.) Miq.
Ficus mutisii Dugand,
Ficus oapana C.C. Berg
Ficus obtusiuscula (Miq.) Miq.
Ficus piresiana Vázq.Avila & C.C. Berg
Ficus rieberiana C.C. Berg
Ficus yoponensis Desv.
Subsection Petenenses includes
Ficus apollinaris Dugand (= F. petenensis Lundell)
Ficus ecuadorensis C.C. Berg
Ficus guajavoides Lundell,
Ficus lacunata Kvitvik
Ficus loxensis C.C. Berg
Ficus macbridei Standl.,
Ficus maxima Mill.
Ficus maximoides C.C. Berg
Ficus pulchella Schott
Ficus tonduzii Standl.
References
Pharmacosycea
Plant subgenera |
804038 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensible%20Software | Sensible Software | Sensible Software was a British software company founded by Jon Hare and Chris Yates that was active from March 1986 to June 1999. It released seven number-one hit games and won numerous industry awards.
The company was well known for the exaggeratedly small sprites as the player characters in many of their games, including Mega Lo Mania, Sensible Soccer, Cannon Fodder, and Sensible Golf.
History
8-bit era
Sensible Software was formed in Chelmsford, Essex in 1986 by two former school friends, Jon Hare (nicknamed Jovial Jops) and Chris Yates (nicknamed Cuddly Krix). They worked for 9 months at LT Software in Basildon, and started Sensible Software in March 1986.
Sensible initially released games for the ZX Spectrum and later the Commodore 64, clinching market praise with Parallax, Shoot'Em-Up Construction Kit, and Wizball (later to be voted Game of the Decade by Zzap!64 magazine). At the time, the pair's output was well known among gamers for its high quality and offbeat sense of humour.
In 1988 Martin Galway joined the team, making it a three-way partnership. In mid-1988, it released Microprose Soccer, its first venture into association football games.
By 1993 there were 6 staff members.
16-bit era
Galway left in 1990 to join Origin Systems in the US, and over the next few years the company swapped the 8 bit machines for the more powerful 16-bit Amiga and Atari ST systems, where games such as Wizkid: The Story of Wizball II, Mega-Lo-Mania, the Sensible Soccer series, and the Cannon Fodder series became classics all over Europe, especially in the UK where various Sensible games were number one for 52 weeks of the 3 year period between June 1992 – 1995. With the rise of the 16-bit home console market, Sensible's games were ported to a wide range of computing platforms, including MS-DOS, the Mega Drive, and Super NES.
32-bit era
Though Sensible had a strong presence on the 8-bit and 16-bit machines that dominated the late 1980s and early 1990s, this success was not repeated on the 32-bit machines such as the PlayStation prominent in the mid 1990s. The trademark look of cute 2D characters had slipped out of vogue with the advent of cheap 3D rendering abilities and games such as Actua Soccer and FIFA turned to 2.5D and 3D gradually shoving the Sensible Soccer series aside though belatedly converting the game to 3D in 1998.
Sensible Golf, a simple golf video game (not a simulation), did not perform well in the market and with most of Sensible's staffing resources having been thrown into Sex 'n' Drugs 'n' Rock 'n' Roll, a game that had initially been signed by Renegade Software (a Time Warner Interactive subsidiary) was dropped by their purchasers, GT Interactive (best known for Doom II, Duke Nukem 3D, Quake, and Unreal Tournament), the owners were looking for a smooth exit.
Though never finished, this final project was discussed in certain sections of the media outside of the game press. It was featured in an Independent on Sunday article in mid-1997. Two years later in 1999, the pre-rendered music videos – created for the game with animation by Khalifa Saber – were showcased within a feature piece on Ex Machina, a TV show covering the CG animation scene on .tv.
Another cancelled game that was being developed during this final development period was a PlayStation action game titled Have a Nice Day, also known as Office Chair Massacre. Though screenshots have never been released, it was a first-person shooter, inspired somewhat by the simplicity of Re-Loaded, a first generation PlayStation game by Gremlin Interactive. Jon Hare has spoken about the project in various interviews, but has never discussed the game's content and gameplay features in depth. Aside from the likelihood that it contained themes as controversial as Sex 'n' Drugs 'n' Rock 'n' Roll, in an interview with Total Video Games Derek dela Fuente, Jon mentioned that the game had "hit some technical barriers" during its development. Sensible was not known to have worked on the PlayStation platform before, which may have made learning the console's problematic 3D libraries a huge issue for the inexperienced team.
Sensible Software was eventually sold in 1999 to veteran UK games publishers Codemasters and since this date Jon Hare has maintained a close working relationship with Codemasters designing many of its games, including a variety of updates of both Sensible Soccer and Cannon Fodder.
Legacy
In 2006 the Sensible Software game Sensible World of Soccer was entered into a Games Canon of the 10 most important video games of all time by Stanford University, it was the only game developed in Europe to make the list which also included Spacewar!, Star Raiders, Zork, Tetris, SimCity, Super Mario Bros. 3, Civilization, Doom, and the Warcraft series.
In 2013, the book Sensible Software 1986–1999 was released. This comprehensive retrospective on the history of the company was written by Zzap!64 games journalist Gary Penn in conversational style. It features 19 different contributors including extensive interviews with Jon Hare, plus luminaries of the era including David Darling (entrepreneur), Dominik Diamond, and Peter Molyneux. Chris Yates declined to be interviewed for the book. Half art book and half retrospective analysis, the book is the first of its kind to cover the creative, business, and technical issues that shaped the whole era of early games development in the UK and Sensible Software in particular. The historical importance of this book has been recognised by BAFTA which hold copies in both its library in Central London and its historical archive.
In 2020, the Royal Mail issued a series of postage stamps celebrating great British computer games with Sensible Soccer commemorated as a first class stamp.
List of games
References
External links
Sensible Software at MobyGames
Sensible Software interview with Jon Hare
Software companies of England
Defunct video game companies of the United Kingdom
Companies based in Chelmsford
Video game companies established in 1986
Video game companies disestablished in 1999
1986 establishments in England
1999 disestablishments in England
Defunct companies of England |
43928984 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air-gap%20malware | Air-gap malware | Air-gap malware is malware that is designed to defeat the air-gap isolation of secure computer systems using various air-gap covert channels.
Operation
Because most modern computers, especially laptops, have built-in microphones and speakers, air-gap malware can be designed to communicate secure information acoustically, at frequencies near or beyond the limit of human hearing. The technique is limited to computers in close physical proximity (about ), and is also limited by the requirement that both the transmitting and receiving machines be infected with the proper malware to form the communication link. The physical proximity limit can be overcome by creating an acoustically linked mesh network, but is only effective if the mesh network ultimately has a traditional Ethernet connection to the outside world by which the secure information can be removed from the secure facility. In 2014, researchers introduced ″AirHopper″, a bifurcated attack pattern showing the feasibility of data exfiltration from an isolated computer to a nearby mobile phone, using FM frequency signals.
In 2015, "BitWhisper", a covert signaling channel between air-gapped computers using thermal manipulations was introduced. "BitWhisper" supports bidirectional communication and requires no additional dedicated peripheral hardware.
Later in 2015, researchers introduced "GSMem", a method for exfiltrating data from air-gapped computers over cellular frequencies. The transmission - generated by a standard internal bus - renders the computer into a small cellular transmitter antenna.
In 2016, researchers categorized various "out-of-band covert channels" (OOB-CCs), which are malware communication channels that require no specialized hardware at the transmitter or receiver. OOB-CCs are not as high-bandwidth as conventional radio-frequency channels; however, they are capable of leaking sensitive information that require low data rates to communicate (e.g., text, recorded audio, cryptographic key material).
In 2020, researchers of ESET Research reported Ramsay Malware, a cyber espionage framework and toolkit that collects and steals sensitive documents like Word documents from systems on air-gapped networks.
In general, researchers demonstrated that air-gap covert channels can be realized over a number of different mediums, including:
acoustic
light
seismic
magnetic
thermal
radio-frequency
physical media
See also
Air gap (networking)
BadBIOS
References
Further reading
Types of malware |
14724 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual%20property | Intellectual property | Intellectual property (IP) is a category of property that includes intangible creations of the human intellect. There are many types of intellectual property, and some countries recognize more than others. The best-known types are copyrights, patents, trademarks, and trade secrets. The modern concept of intellectual property developed in England in the 17th and 18th centuries. The term "intellectual property" began to be used in the 19th century, though it was not until the late 20th century that intellectual property became commonplace in the majority of the world's legal systems.
The main purpose of intellectual property law is to encourage the creation of a wide variety of intellectual goods. To achieve this, the law gives people and businesses property rights to the information and intellectual goods they create, usually for a limited period of time. This gives economic incentive for their creation, because it allows people to benefit from the information and intellectual goods they create, and allows them to protect their ideas and prevent copying. These economic incentives are expected to stimulate innovation and contribute to the technological progress of countries, which depends on the extent of protection granted to innovators.
The intangible nature of intellectual property presents difficulties when compared with traditional property like land or goods. Unlike traditional property, intellectual property is "indivisible", since an unlimited number of people can "consume" an intellectual good without its being depleted. Additionally, investments in intellectual goods suffer from problems of appropriation: Landowners can surround their land with a robust fence and hire armed guards to protect it, but producers of information or literature can usually do little to stop their first buyer from replicating it and selling it at a lower price. Balancing rights so that they are strong enough to encourage the creation of intellectual goods but not so strong that they prevent the goods' wide use is the primary focus of modern intellectual property law.
History
The Statute of Monopolies (1624) and the British Statute of Anne (1710) are seen as the origins of patent law and copyright respectively, firmly establishing the concept of intellectual property.
"Literary property" was the term predominantly used in the British legal debates of the 1760s and 1770s over the extent to which authors and publishers of works also had rights deriving from the common law of property (Millar v Taylor (1769), Hinton v Donaldson (1773), Donaldson v Becket (1774)). The first known use of the term intellectual property dates to this time, when a piece published in the Monthly Review in 1769 used the phrase. The first clear example of modern usage goes back as early as 1808, when it was used as a heading title in a collection of essays.
The German equivalent was used with the founding of the North German Confederation whose constitution granted legislative power over the protection of intellectual property (Schutz des geistigen Eigentums) to the confederation. When the administrative secretariats established by the Paris Convention (1883) and the Berne Convention (1886) merged in 1893, they located in Berne, and also adopted the term intellectual property in their new combined title, the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property.
The organization subsequently relocated to Geneva in 1960 and was succeeded in 1967 with the establishment of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) by treaty as an agency of the United Nations. According to legal scholar Mark Lemley, it was only at this point that the term really began to be used in the United States (which had not been a party to the Berne Convention), and it did not enter popular usage there until passage of the Bayh-Dole Act in 1980.
The history of patents does not begin with inventions, but rather with royal grants by Queen Elizabeth I (1558–1603) for monopoly privileges. Approximately 200 years after the end of Elizabeth's reign, however, a patent represents a legal right obtained by an inventor providing for exclusive control over the production and sale of his mechanical or scientific invention. demonstrating the evolution of patents from royal prerogative to common-law doctrine.
The term can be found used in an October 1845 Massachusetts Circuit Court ruling in the patent case Davoll et al. v. Brown, in which Justice Charles L. Woodbury wrote that "only in this way can we protect intellectual property, the labors of the mind, productions and interests are as much a man's own ... as the wheat he cultivates, or the flocks he rears." The statement that "discoveries are ... property" goes back earlier. Section 1 of the French law of 1791 stated, "All new discoveries are the property of the author; to assure the inventor the property and temporary enjoyment of his discovery, there shall be delivered to him a patent for five, ten or fifteen years." In Europe, French author A. Nion mentioned propriété intellectuelle in his Droits civils des auteurs, artistes et inventeurs, published in 1846.
Until recently, the purpose of intellectual property law was to give as little protection as possible in order to encourage innovation. Historically, therefore, legal protection was granted only when necessary to encourage invention, and it was limited in time and scope. This is mainly as a result of knowledge being traditionally viewed as a public good, in order to allow its extensive dissemination and improvement.
The concept's origin can potentially be traced back further. Jewish law includes several considerations whose effects are similar to those of modern intellectual property laws, though the notion of intellectual creations as property does not seem to exist — notably the principle of Hasagat Ge'vul (unfair encroachment) was used to justify limited-term publisher (but not author) copyright in the 16th century. In 500 BCE, the government of the Greek state of Sybaris offered one year's patent "to all who should discover any new refinement in luxury".
According to Jean-Frédéric Morin, "the global intellectual property regime is currently in the midst of a paradigm shift". Indeed, up until the early 2000s the global IP regime used to be dominated by high standards of protection characteristic of IP laws from Europe or the United States, with a vision that uniform application of these standards over every country and to several fields with little consideration over social, cultural or environmental values or of the national level of economic development. Morin argues that "the emerging discourse of the global IP regime advocates for greater policy flexibility and greater access to knowledge, especially for developing countries." Indeed, with the Development Agenda adopted by WIPO in 2007, a set of 45 recommendations to adjust WIPO's activities to the specific needs of developing countries and aim to reduce distortions especially on issues such as patients’ access to medicines, Internet users’ access to information, farmers’ access to seeds, programmers’ access to source codes or students’ access to scientific articles. However, this paradigm shift has not yet manifested itself in concrete legal reforms at the international level.
Similarly, it is based on these background that the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) agreement requires members of the WTO to set minimum standards of legal protection, but its objective to have a “one-fits-all” protection law on Intellectual Property has been viewed with controversies regarding differences in the development level of countries. Despite the controversy, the agreement has extensively incorporated intellectual property rights into the global trading system for the first time in 1995, and has prevailed as the most comprehensive agreement reached by the world.
Rights
Intellectual property rights include patents, copyright, industrial design rights, trademarks, plant variety rights, trade dress, geographical indications, and in some jurisdictions trade secrets. There are also more specialized or derived varieties of sui generis exclusive rights, such as circuit design rights (called mask work rights in the US), supplementary protection certificates for pharmaceutical products (after expiry of a patent protecting them), and database rights (in European law). The term "industrial property" is sometimes used to refer to a large subset of intellectual property rights including patents, trademarks, industrial designs, utility models, service marks, trade names, and geographical indications.
Patents
A patent is a form of right granted by the government to an inventor or their successor-in-title, giving the owner the right to exclude others from making, using, selling, offering to sell, and importing an invention for a limited period of time, in exchange for the public disclosure of the invention. An invention is a solution to a specific technological problem, which may be a product or a process and generally has to fulfill three main requirements: it has to be new, not obvious and there needs to be an industrial applicability. To enrich the body of knowledge and stimulate innovation, it is an obligation for patent owners to disclose valuable information about their inventions to the public.
Copyright
A copyright gives the creator of an original work exclusive rights to it, usually for a limited time. Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or "works". Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.
Industrial design rights
An industrial design right (sometimes called "design right" or design patent) protects the visual design of objects that are not purely utilitarian. An industrial design consists of the creation of a shape, configuration or composition of pattern or color, or combination of pattern and color in three-dimensional form containing aesthetic value. An industrial design can be a two- or three-dimensional pattern used to produce a product, industrial commodity or handicraft. Generally speaking, it is what makes a product look appealing, and as such, it increases the commercial value of goods.
Plant varieties
Plant breeders' rights or plant variety rights are the rights to commercially use a new variety of a plant. The variety must amongst others be novel and distinct and for registration the evaluation of propagating material of the variety is considered.
Trademarks
A trademark is a recognizable sign, design or expression which distinguishes products or services of a particular trader from similar products or services of other traders.
Trade dress
Trade dress is a legal term of art that generally refers to characteristics of the visual and aesthetic appearance of a product or its packaging (or even the design of a building) that signify the source of the product to consumers.
Trade secrets
A trade secret is a formula, practice, process, design, instrument, pattern, or compilation of information which is not generally known or reasonably ascertainable, by which a business can obtain an economic advantage over competitors and customers. There is no formal government protection granted; each business must take measures to guard its own trade secrets (e.g., Formula of its soft drinks is a trade secret for Coca-Cola.)
Motivation and justification
The main purpose of intellectual property law is to encourage the creation of a wide variety of intellectual goods for consumers. To achieve this, the law gives people and businesses property rights to the information and intellectual goods they create, usually for a limited period of time. Because they can then profit from them, this gives economic incentive for their creation. The intangible nature of intellectual property presents difficulties when compared with traditional property like land or goods. Unlike traditional property, intellectual property is indivisible – an unlimited number of people can "consume" an intellectual good without it being depleted. Additionally, investments in intellectual goods suffer from problems of appropriation – while a landowner can surround their land with a robust fence and hire armed guards to protect it, a producer of information or an intellectual good can usually do very little to stop their first buyer from replicating it and selling it at a lower price. Balancing rights so that they are strong enough to encourage the creation of information and intellectual goods but not so strong that they prevent their wide use is the primary focus of modern intellectual property law.
By exchanging limited exclusive rights for disclosure of inventions and creative works, society and the patentee/copyright owner mutually benefit, and an incentive is created for inventors and authors to create and disclose their work. Some commentators have noted that the objective of intellectual property legislators and those who support its implementation appears to be "absolute protection". "If some intellectual property is desirable because it encourages innovation, they reason, more is better. The thinking is that creators will not have sufficient incentive to invent unless they are legally entitled to capture the full social value of their inventions". This absolute protection or full value view treats intellectual property as another type of "real" property, typically adopting its law and rhetoric. Other recent developments in intellectual property law, such as the America Invents Act, stress international harmonization. Recently there has also been much debate over the desirability of using intellectual property rights to protect cultural heritage, including intangible ones, as well as over risks of commodification derived from this possibility. The issue still remains open in legal scholarship.
Financial incentive
These exclusive rights allow owners of intellectual property to benefit from the property they have created, providing a financial incentive for the creation of an investment in intellectual property, and, in case of patents, pay associated research and development costs. In the United States Article I Section 8 Clause 8 of the Constitution, commonly called the Patent and Copyright Clause, reads; "The Congress shall have power 'To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries.'" ”Some commentators, such as David Levine and Michele Boldrin, dispute this justification.
In 2013 the United States Patent & Trademark Office approximated that the worth of intellectual property to the U.S. economy is more than US $5 trillion and creates employment for an estimated 18 million American people. The value of intellectual property is considered similarly high in other developed nations, such as those in the European Union. In the UK, IP has become a recognised asset class for use in pension-led funding and other types of business finance. However, in 2013, the UK Intellectual Property Office stated: "There are millions of intangible business assets whose value is either not being leveraged at all, or only being leveraged inadvertently".
Economic growth
The WIPO treaty and several related international agreements underline that the protection of intellectual property rights is essential to maintaining economic growth. The WIPO Intellectual Property Handbook gives two reasons for intellectual property laws:
One is to give statutory expression to the moral and economic rights of creators in their creations and the rights of the public in access to those creations. The second is to promote, as a deliberate act of Government policy, creativity and the dissemination and application of its results and to encourage fair trading which would contribute to economic and social development.
The Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement (ACTA) states that "effective enforcement of intellectual property rights is critical to sustaining economic growth across all industries and globally".
Economists estimate that two-thirds of the value of large businesses in the United States can be traced to intangible assets. "IP-intensive industries" are estimated to generate 72% more value added (price minus material cost) per employee than "non-IP-intensive industries".
A joint research project of the WIPO and the United Nations University measuring the impact of IP systems on six Asian countries found "a positive correlation between the strengthening of the IP system and subsequent economic growth."
Morality
According to Article 27 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, "everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author". Although the relationship between intellectual property and human rights is a complex one, there are moral arguments for intellectual property.
The arguments that justify intellectual property fall into three major categories. Personality theorists believe intellectual property is an extension of an individual. Utilitarians believe that intellectual property stimulates social progress and pushes people to further innovation. Lockeans argue that intellectual property is justified based on deservedness and hard work.
Various moral justifications for private property can be used to argue in favor of the morality of intellectual property, such as:
Natural Rights/Justice Argument: this argument is based on Locke's idea that a person has a natural right over the labour and products which are produced by their body. Appropriating these products is viewed as unjust. Although Locke had never explicitly stated that natural right applied to products of the mind, it is possible to apply his argument to intellectual property rights, in which it would be unjust for people to misuse another's ideas. Locke's argument for intellectual property is based upon the idea that laborers have the right to control that which they create. They argue that we own our bodies which are the laborers, this right of ownership extends to what we create. Thus, intellectual property ensures this right when it comes to production.
Utilitarian-Pragmatic Argument: according to this rationale, a society that protects private property is more effective and prosperous than societies that do not. Innovation and invention in 19th century America has been attributed to the development of the patent system. By providing innovators with "durable and tangible return on their investment of time, labor, and other resources", intellectual property rights seek to maximize social utility. The presumption is that they promote public welfare by encouraging the "creation, production, and distribution of intellectual works". Utilitarians argue that without intellectual property there would be a lack of incentive to produce new ideas. Systems of protection such as Intellectual property optimize social utility.
"Personality" Argument: this argument is based on a quote from Hegel: "Every man has the right to turn his will upon a thing or make the thing an object of his will, that is to say, to set aside the mere thing and recreate it as his own". European intellectual property law is shaped by this notion that ideas are an "extension of oneself and of one's personality". Personality theorists argue that by being a creator of something one is inherently at risk and vulnerable for having their ideas and designs stolen and/or altered. Intellectual property protects these moral claims that have to do with personality.
Lysander Spooner (1855) argues "that a man has a natural and absolute right—and if a natural and absolute, then necessarily a perpetual, right—of property, in the ideas, of which he is the discoverer or creator; that his right of property, in ideas, is intrinsically the same as, and stands on identically the same grounds with, his right of property in material things; that no distinction, of principle, exists between the two cases".
Writer Ayn Rand argued in her book Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal that the protection of intellectual property is essentially a moral issue. The belief is that the human mind itself is the source of wealth and survival and that all property at its base is intellectual property. To violate intellectual property is therefore no different morally than violating other property rights which compromises the very processes of survival and therefore constitutes an immoral act.
Infringement, misappropriation, and enforcement
Violation of intellectual property rights, called "infringement" with respect to patents, copyright, and trademarks, and "misappropriation" with respect to trade secrets, may be a breach of civil law or criminal law, depending on the type of intellectual property involved, jurisdiction, and the nature of the action.
As of 2011 trade in counterfeit copyrighted and trademarked works was a $600 billion industry worldwide and accounted for 5–7% of global trade.
Patent infringement
Patent infringement typically is caused by using or selling a patented invention without permission from the patent holder. The scope of the patented invention or the extent of protection is defined in the claims of the granted patent. There is safe harbor in many jurisdictions to use a patented invention for research. This safe harbor does not exist in the US unless the research is done for purely philosophical purposes, or in order to gather data in order to prepare an application for regulatory approval of a drug. In general, patent infringement cases are handled under civil law (e.g., in the United States) but several jurisdictions incorporate infringement in criminal law also (for example, Argentina, China, France, Japan, Russia, South Korea).
Copyright infringement
Copyright infringement is reproducing, distributing, displaying or performing a work, or to make derivative works, without permission from the copyright holder, which is typically a publisher or other business representing or assigned by the work's creator. It is often called "piracy". While copyright is created the instant a work is fixed, generally the copyright holder can only get money damages if the owner registers the copyright. Enforcement of copyright is generally the responsibility of the copyright holder. The ACTA trade agreement, signed in May 2011 by the United States, Japan, Switzerland, and the EU, and which has not entered into force, requires that its parties add criminal penalties, including incarceration and fines, for copyright and trademark infringement, and obligated the parties to actively police for infringement. There are limitations and exceptions to copyright, allowing limited use of copyrighted works, which does not constitute infringement. Examples of such doctrines are the fair use and fair dealing doctrine.
Trademark infringement
Trademark infringement occurs when one party uses a trademark that is identical or confusingly similar to a trademark owned by another party, in relation to products or services which are identical or similar to the products or services of the other party. In many countries, a trademark receives protection without registration, but registering a trademark provides legal advantages for enforcement. Infringement can be addressed by civil litigation and, in several jurisdictions, under criminal law.
Trade secret misappropriation
Trade secret misappropriation is different from violations of other intellectual property laws, since by definition trade secrets are secret, while patents and registered copyrights and trademarks are publicly available. In the United States, trade secrets are protected under state law, and states have nearly universally adopted the Uniform Trade Secrets Act. The United States also has federal law in the form of the Economic Espionage Act of 1996 (), which makes the theft or misappropriation of a trade secret a federal crime. This law contains two provisions criminalizing two sorts of activity. The first, , criminalizes the theft of trade secrets to benefit foreign powers. The second, , criminalizes their theft for commercial or economic purposes. (The statutory penalties are different for the two offenses.) In Commonwealth common law jurisdictions, confidentiality and trade secrets are regarded as an equitable right rather than a property right but penalties for theft are roughly the same as in the United States.
Criticisms
The term "intellectual property"
Criticism of the term intellectual property ranges from discussing its vagueness and abstract overreach to direct contention to the semantic validity of using words like property and rights in fashions that contradict practice and law. Many detractors think this term specially serves the doctrinal agenda of parties opposing reform in the public interest or otherwise abusing related legislations, and that it disallows intelligent discussion about specific and often unrelated aspects of copyright, patents, trademarks, etc.
Free Software Foundation founder Richard Stallman argues that, although the term intellectual property is in wide use, it should be rejected altogether, because it "systematically distorts and confuses these issues, and its use was and is promoted by those who gain from this confusion". He claims that the term "operates as a catch-all to lump together disparate laws [which] originated separately, evolved differently, cover different activities, have different rules, and raise different public policy issues" and that it creates a "bias" by confusing these monopolies with ownership of limited physical things, likening them to "property rights". Stallman advocates referring to copyrights, patents and trademarks in the singular and warns against abstracting disparate laws into a collective term. He argues that "to avoid spreading unnecessary bias and confusion, it is best to adopt a firm policy not to speak or even think in terms of 'intellectual property'."
Similarly, economists Boldrin and Levine prefer to use the term "intellectual monopoly" as a more appropriate and clear definition of the concept, which, they argue, is very dissimilar from property rights. They further argued that "stronger patents do little or nothing to encourage innovation", mainly explained by its tendency to create market monopolies, thereby restricting further innovations and technology transfer.
On the assumption that intellectual property rights are actual rights, Stallman says that this claim does not live to the historical intentions behind these laws, which in the case of copyright served as a censorship system, and later on, a regulatory model for the printing press that may have benefited authors incidentally, but never interfered with the freedom of average readers. Still referring to copyright, he cites legal literature such as the United States Constitution and case law to demonstrate that the law is meant to be an optional and experimental bargain to temporarily trade property rights and free speech for public, not private, benefits in the form of increased artistic production and knowledge. He mentions that "if copyright were a natural right nothing could justify terminating this right after a certain period of time".
Law professor, writer and political activist Lawrence Lessig, along with many other copyleft and free software activists, has criticized the implied analogy with physical property (like land or an automobile). They argue such an analogy fails because physical property is generally rivalrous while intellectual works are non-rivalrous (that is, if one makes a copy of a work, the enjoyment of the copy does not prevent enjoyment of the original). Other arguments along these lines claim that unlike the situation with tangible property, there is no natural scarcity of a particular idea or information: once it exists at all, it can be re-used and duplicated indefinitely without such re-use diminishing the original. Stephan Kinsella has objected to intellectual property on the grounds that the word "property" implies scarcity, which may not be applicable to ideas.
Entrepreneur and politician Rickard Falkvinge and hacker Alexandre Oliva have independently compared George Orwell's fictional dialect Newspeak to the terminology used by intellectual property supporters as a linguistic weapon to shape public opinion regarding copyright debate and DRM.
Alternative terms
In civil law jurisdictions, intellectual property has often been referred to as intellectual rights, traditionally a somewhat broader concept that has included moral rights and other personal protections that cannot be bought or sold. Use of the term intellectual rights has declined since the early 1980s, as use of the term intellectual property has increased.
Alternative terms monopolies on information and intellectual monopoly have emerged among those who argue against the "property" or "intellect" or "rights" assumptions, notably Richard Stallman. The backronyms intellectual protectionism and intellectual poverty, whose initials are also IP, have found supporters as well, especially among those who have used the backronym digital restrictions management.
The argument that an intellectual property right should (in the interests of better balancing of relevant private and public interests) be termed an intellectual monopoly privilege (IMP) has been advanced by several academics including Birgitte Andersen and Thomas Alured Faunce.
Objections to overly broad intellectual property laws
Some critics of intellectual property, such as those in the free culture movement, point at intellectual monopolies as harming health (in the case of pharmaceutical patents), preventing progress, and benefiting concentrated interests to the detriment of the masses, and argue that the public interest is harmed by ever-expansive monopolies in the form of copyright extensions, software patents, and business method patents. More recently scientists and engineers are expressing concern that patent thickets are undermining technological development even in high-tech fields like nanotechnology.
Petra Moser has asserted that historical analysis suggests that intellectual property laws may harm innovation:
Overall, the weight of the existing historical evidence suggests that patent policies, which grant strong intellectual property rights to early generations of inventors, may discourage innovation. On the contrary, policies that encourage the diffusion of ideas and modify patent laws to facilitate entry and encourage competition may be an effective mechanism to encourage innovation.
In support of that argument, Jörg Baten, Nicola Bianchi and Petra Moser find historical evidence that especially compulsory licensing – which allows governments to license patents without the consent of patent-owners – encouraged invention in Germany in the early 20th century by increasing the threat of competition in fields with low pre-existing levels of competition.
Peter Drahos notes, "Property rights confer authority over resources. When authority is granted to the few over resources on which the many depend, the few gain power over the goals of the many. This has consequences for both political and economic freedom within a society."
The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) recognizes that conflicts may exist between the respect for and implementation of current intellectual property systems and other human rights. In 2001 the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights issued a document called "Human rights and intellectual property" that argued that intellectual property tends to be governed by economic goals when it should be viewed primarily as a social product; in order to serve human well-being, intellectual property systems must respect and conform to human rights laws. According to the Committee, when systems fail to do so, they risk infringing upon the human right to food and health, and to cultural participation and scientific benefits. In 2004 the General Assembly of WIPO adopted The Geneva Declaration on the Future of the World Intellectual Property Organization which argues that WIPO should "focus more on the needs of developing countries, and to view IP as one of many tools for development—not as an end in itself".
Ethical problems are most pertinent when socially valuable goods like life-saving medicines are given IP protection. While the application of IP rights can allow companies to charge higher than the marginal cost of production in order to recoup the costs of research and development, the price may exclude from the market anyone who cannot afford the cost of the product, in this case a life-saving drug. "An IPR driven regime is therefore not a regime that is conductive to the investment of R&D of products that are socially valuable to predominately poor populations".
Libertarians have differing views on intellectual property. Stephan Kinsella, an anarcho-capitalist on the right-wing of libertarianism, argues against intellectual property because allowing property rights in ideas and information creates artificial scarcity and infringes on the right to own tangible property. Kinsella uses the following scenario to argue this point:
[I]magine the time when men lived in caves. One bright guy—let's call him Galt-Magnon—decides to build a log cabin on an open field, near his crops. To be sure, this is a good idea, and others notice it. They naturally imitate Galt-Magnon, and they start building their own cabins. But the first man to invent a house, according to IP advocates, would have a right to prevent others from building houses on their own land, with their own logs, or to charge them a fee if they do build houses. It is plain that the innovator in these examples becomes a partial owner of the tangible property (e.g., land and logs) of others, due not to first occupation and use of that property (for it is already owned), but due to his coming up with an idea. Clearly, this rule flies in the face of the first-user homesteading rule, arbitrarily and groundlessly overriding the very homesteading rule that is at the foundation of all property rights.
Thomas Jefferson once said in a letter to Isaac McPherson on 13 August 1813:
If nature has made any one thing less susceptible than all others of exclusive property, it is the action of the thinking power called an idea, which an individual may exclusively possess as long as he keeps it to himself; but the moment it is divulged, it forces itself into the possession of every one, and the receiver cannot dispossess himself of it. Its peculiar character, too, is that no one possesses the less, because every other possesses the whole of it. He who receives an idea from me, receives instruction himself without lessening mine; as he who lights his taper at mine, receives light without darkening me.
In 2005 the Royal Society of Arts launched the Adelphi Charter, aimed at creating an international policy statement to frame how governments should make balanced intellectual property law.
Another aspect of current U.S. Intellectual Property legislation is its focus on individual and joint works; thus, copyright protection can only be obtained in 'original' works of authorship. Critics like Philip Bennet argue that this does not provide adequate protection against cultural appropriation of indigenous knowledge, for which a collective IP regime is needed.
Intellectual property law has been criticized as not recognizing new forms of art such as the remix culture, whose participants often commit what technically constitutes violations of such laws, creation works such as anime music videos and others, or are otherwise subject to unnecessary burdens and limitations which prevent them from fully expressing themselves.
Objections to the expansion in nature and scope of intellectual property laws
Other criticism of intellectual property law concerns the expansion of intellectual property, both in duration and in scope.
As scientific knowledge has expanded and allowed new industries to arise in fields such as biotechnology and nanotechnology, originators of technology have sought IP protection for the new technologies. Patents have been granted for living organisms, and in the United States, certain living organisms have been patentable for over a century.
The increase in terms of protection is particularly seen in relation to copyright, which has recently been the subject of serial extensions in the United States and in Europe. With no need for registration or copyright notices, this is thought to have led to an increase in orphan works (copyrighted works for which the copyright owner cannot be contacted), a problem that has been noticed and addressed by governmental bodies around the world.
Also with respect to copyright, the American film industry helped to change the social construct of intellectual property via its trade organization, the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA). In amicus briefs in important cases, in lobbying before Congress, and in its statements to the public, the MPAA has advocated strong protection of intellectual property rights. In framing its presentations, the association has claimed that people are entitled to the property that is produced by their labor. Additionally Congress's awareness of the position of the United States as the world's largest producer of films has made it convenient to expand the conception of intellectual property. These doctrinal reforms have further strengthened the industry, lending the MPAA even more power and authority.
The growth of the Internet, and particularly distributed search engines like Kazaa and Gnutella, have represented a challenge for copyright policy. The Recording Industry Association of America, in particular, has been on the front lines of the fight against copyright infringement, which the industry calls "piracy". The industry has had victories against some services, including a highly publicized case against the file-sharing company Napster, and some people have been prosecuted for sharing files in violation of copyright. The electronic age has seen an increase in the attempt to use software-based digital rights management tools to restrict the copying and use of digitally based works. Laws such as the Digital Millennium Copyright Act have been enacted that use criminal law to prevent any circumvention of software used to enforce digital rights management systems. Equivalent provisions, to prevent circumvention of copyright protection have existed in EU for some time, and are being expanded in, for example, Article 6 and 7 the Copyright Directive. Other examples are Article 7 of the Software Directive of 1991 (91/250/EEC), and the Conditional Access Directive of 1998 (98/84/EEC). This can hinder legal uses, affecting public domain works, limitations and exceptions to copyright, or uses allowed by the copyright holder. Some copyleft licenses, like the GNU GPL 3, are designed to counter this. Laws may permit circumvention under specific conditions, such as when it is necessary to achieve interoperability with the circumventor's program, or for accessibility reasons; however, distribution of circumvention tools or instructions may be illegal.
In the context of trademarks, this expansion has been driven by international efforts to harmonise the definition of "trademark", as exemplified by the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights ratified in 1994, which formalized regulations for IP rights that had been handled by common law, or not at all, in member states. Pursuant to TRIPs, any sign which is "capable of distinguishing" the products or services of one business from the products or services of another business is capable of constituting a trademark.
Use in corporate tax avoidance
Intellectual property has become a core tool in corporate tax planning and tax avoidance. IP is a key component of the leading multinational tax avoidance base erosion and profit shifting (BEPS) tools, which the OECD estimates costs $100–240 billion in lost annual tax revenues.
In 2017–2018, both the U.S. and the EU Commission simultaneously decided to depart from the OECD BEPS Project timetable, which was set up in 2013 to combat IP BEPS tax tools like the above, and launch their own anti-IP BEPS tax regimes:
U.S. Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017, which has several anti-IP BEPS abuse tax regimes, including GILTI tax and the BEAT tax regimes.
EU Commission 2018 Digital Services Tax, which is less advanced than the U.S. TCJA, but does seek to override IP BEPS tools via a quasi-VAT.
The departure of the U.S. and EU Commission from the OECD BEPS Project process, is attributed to frustrations with the rise in IP as a key BEPS tax tool, creating intangible assets, which are then turned into royalty payment BEPS schemes (double Irish), and/or capital allowance BEPS schemes (capital allowances for intangibles). In contrast, the OECD has spent years developing and advocating intellectual property as a legal and a GAAP accounting concept.
Gender gap in intellectual property
Women have historically been underrepresented in intellectual property rights. According to the World Intellectual Property Organization, women composed only 16.5% of patent holders even as recently as 2020. This disparity is the result of several factors including systemic bias, sexism and discrimination within the intellectual property space, underrepresentation within STEM, and barriers to access of necessary finance and knowledge in order to obtain intellectual property rights, among other reasons.
See also
Defensive publication
Information policy
Freedom of information
Libertarian perspectives on intellectual property
New product development
Copyfraud
References
Citations
Sources
Arai, Hisamitsu. "Intellectual Property Policies for the Twenty-First Century: The Japanese Experience in Wealth Creation", WIPO Publication Number 834 (E). 2000. wipo.int
Bettig, R. V. (1996). Critical Perspectives on the History and Philosophy of Copyright. In R. V. Bettig, Copyrighting Culture: The Political Economy of Intellectual Property. (pp. 9–32). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Boldrin, Michele and David K. Levine. "Against Intellectual Monopoly", 2008. dkleving.com
Hahn, Robert W., Intellectual Property Rights in Frontier Industries: Software and Biotechnology, AEI Press, March 2005.
Branstetter, Lee, Raymond Fishman and C. Fritz Foley. "Do Stronger Intellectual Property Rights Increase International Technology Transfer? Empirical Evidence from US Firm-Level Data". NBER Working Paper 11516. July 2005. weblog.ipcentral.info
Connell, Shaun. "Intellectual Ownership". October 2007. rebithofffreedom.org
De George, Richard T. "14. Intellectual Property Rights." In The Oxford Handbook of Business Ethics, by George G. Brenkert and Tom L. Beauchamp, 1:408–439. 1st ed. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, n.d.
Farah, Paolo and Cima, Elena. "China's Participation in the World Trade Organization: Trade in Goods, Services, Intellectual Property Rights and Transparency Issues" in Aurelio Lopez-Tarruella Martinez (ed.), , Tirant lo Blanch, Valencia (Spain) 2010, pp. 85–121. . Available at SSRN.com
Farah, Paolo Davide, Tremolada Riccardo, Desirability of Commodification of Intangible Cultural Heritage: The Unsatisfying Role of IPRs, in TRANSNATIONAL DISPUTE MANAGEMENT, Special Issues "The New Frontiers of Cultural Law: Intangible Heritage Disputes", Volume 11, Issue 2, March 2014, Available at SSRN.com
Farah, Paolo Davide, Tremolada Riccardo, Intellectual Property Rights, Human Rights and Intangible Cultural Heritage, Journal of Intellectual Property Law, Issue 2, Part I, June 2014, , Giuffre, pp. 21–47. Available at SSRN.com
Gowers, Andrew. "Gowers Review of Intellectual Property". Her Majesty's Treasury, November 2006. hm-treasury.gov.uk .
Greenhalgh, C. & Rogers M., (2010). Innovation, Intellectual Property, and Economic Growth. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
Kinsella, Stephan. "Against Intellectual Property". Journal of Libertarian Studies 15.2 (Spring 2001): 1–53. mises.org
Lai, Edwin. "The Economics of Intellectual Property Protection in the Global Economy". Princeton University. April 2001. dklevine.com
Lee, Richmond K. Scope and Interplay of IP Rights Accralaw offices.
Lessig, Lawrence. "Free Culture: How Big Media Uses Technology and the Law to Lock Down Culture and Control Creativity". New York: Penguin Press, 2004. free-culture.cc .
Lindberg, Van. Intellectual Property and Open Source: A Practical Guide to Protecting Code. O'Reilly Books, 2008. |
Maskus, Keith E. "Intellectual Property Rights and Economic Development". Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law, Vol. 32, 471. journals/jil/32-3/maskusarticle.pdf law.case.edu
Mazzone, Jason. "Copyfraud". Brooklyn Law School, Legal Studies Paper No. 40. New York University Law Review 81 (2006): 1027. (Abstract.)
Miller, Arthur Raphael, and Michael H. Davis. Intellectual Property: Patents, Trademarks, and Copyright. 3rd ed. New York: West/Wadsworth, 2000. .
Moore, Adam, "Intellectual Property", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2011 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
Morin, Jean-Frédéric, Paradigm Shift in the Global IP Regime: The Agency of Academics, Review of International Political Economy, vol. 21(2), 2014, pp. 275–309.
Mossoff, A. 'Rethinking the Development of Patents: An Intellectual History, 1550–1800,' Hastings Law Journal, Vol. 52, p. 1255, 2001
Rozanski, Felix. "Developing Countries and Pharmaceutical Intellectual Property Rights: Myths and Reality" stockholm-network.org
Perelman, Michael. Steal This Idea: Intellectual Property and The Corporate Confiscation of Creativity. Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.
Rand, Ayn. "Patents and Copyrights" in Ayn Rand, ed. 'Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal,' New York: New American Library, 1966, pp. 126–128
Reisman, George. 'Capitalism: A Complete & Integrated Understanding of the Nature & Value of Human Economic Life,' Ottawa, Illinois: 1996, pp. 388–389
Schechter, Roger E., and John R. Thomas. Intellectual Property: The Law of Copyrights, Patents and Trademarks. New York: West/Wadsworth, 2003, .
Schneider, Patricia H. "International Trade, Economic Growth and Intellectual Property Rights: A Panel Data Study of Developed and Developing Countries". July 2004. mtholyoke.edu
Shapiro, Robert and Nam Pham. "Economic Effects of Intellectual Property-Intensive Manufacturing in the United States". July 2007. the-value-of.ip.org. Retrieved 2008-04-09.
Spooner, Lysander. "The Law of Intellectual Property; or An Essay on the Right of Authors and Inventors to a Perpetual Property in their Ideas". Boston: Bela Marsh, 1855.
Vaidhyanathan, Siva. The Anarchist in the Library: How the Clash Between Freedom and Control Is Hacking the Real World and Crashing the System. New York: Basic Books, 2004.
External links
The European Audiovisual Observatory hosts articles on copyright legislature and covers media laws in their newsletter
Internet/Media Piracy: Statistics & Facts—Statista
Intellectual property law
Social information processing
Economics of the arts and literature
Intangible assets |
47626314 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bench%20Accounting | Bench Accounting | Bench Accounting, (branded as "Bench") is a fintech company that uses proprietary software to automate bookkeeping and provide financials for small business owners. Bench was founded in 2012 by Ian Crosby, along with Jordan Menashy, Adam Saint, and Pavel Rodionov. The company provides subscription access to cloud-based software in combination with in-house bookkeepers. Bench has raised $53M in funding to date and currently employs around 550 people out of its Vancouver headquarters.
History
In November 2010, Ian Crosby and Jordan Menashy co-founded 10Sheet Services, Inc., after identifying the need for an online bookkeeping solution for small business owners. Adam Saint and Pavel Rodionov joined Crosby and Menashy as co-founders in 2012. They were accepted into the startup accelerator program Techstars NYC in 2012 and by July 2013, they had raised $2 million in seed capital and settled on the official name, Bench.
Funding
Bench launched their product to the general public in 2013 after raising a $2 million seed round, followed by $7 million in Series A funding led by Altos Ventures, with Contour Venture Partners participating. In January 2014, Bench Accounting raised $1 Million from VCs and angel investors. In 2016, they raised $16 million in Series B funding, led by Bain Capital Investments, with Altos Ventures, and Contour Venture Partners participating. In 2018, Bench secured $18 million in a B-1 funding round led by iNovia Capital with participation from existing investors Bain Capital Ventures, Altos Ventures, and Silicon Valley Bank.
Product
Features and Integrations
Bench is available on desktop and iOS mobile app. Bench’s core product is online bookkeeping software paired with in-house bookkeepers. Services include historical and monthly bookkeeping, cash flow and expense tracking, and financial reporting. Bench Bookkeeping also integrates with several other third-party apps including Stripe, Square, and PayPal.
In June 2019, Bench launched a new cash flow management tool called Pulse.
As of August 2019, Bench announced BenchTax in partnership with Taxfyle in order to provide tax preparation and filing for clients.
As of August 2020, Bench is not yet BBB accredited.
Awards and Recognition
Forbes 30 Under 30
2018 Deloitte Fast 50
2016 Fintech Five
Rated 3.2/5 stars on Apple App Store
See also
Accounting software
BooksTime
Square
Stripe
Shopify
Gusto
FreshBooks
MINDBODY
References
External links
Official site
Bench App in Apple App Store
Accounting firms of Canada
Accounting software
Financial software companies
Companies based in Vancouver |
17332858 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigel%20Shadbolt | Nigel Shadbolt | Sir Nigel Richard Shadbolt (born 9 April 1956) is Principal of Jesus College, Oxford, and Professorial Research Fellow in the Department of Computer Science, University of Oxford. He is Chairman of the Open Data Institute which he co-founded with Tim Berners-Lee. He is also a Visiting Professor in the School of Electronics and Computer Science at the University of Southampton. Shadbolt is an interdisciplinary researcher, policy expert and commentator. His research focuses on understanding how intelligent behaviour is embodied and emerges in humans, machines and, most recently, on the Web, and has made contributions to the fields of Psychology, Cognitive science, Computational neuroscience, Artificial Intelligence (AI), Computer science and the emerging field of Web science.
Education
Shadbolt was born in London but raised in the Derbyshire village of Ashford-in-the-Water, living a "bucolic existence" until he went to university. He went to Lady Manners School, then a grammar school. He studied for an undergraduate degree in philosophy and psychology at Newcastle University. His PhD was from the Department of Artificial Intelligence at the University of Edinburgh. His thesis resulted in a framework for understanding how human dialogue is organised and was supervised by Barry Richards and Henry S. Thompson.
Research and career
Shadbolt's research has been in Artificial Intelligence since the late 1970s working on a broad range of topics; from natural language understanding and robotics through to expert systems, computational neuroscience, memory through to the semantic web and linked data. He also writes on the wider implications of his research. One example is the book he co-authored with Kieron O'Hara that examines privacy and trust in the Digital Age – The Spy in the Coffee Machine. His most recent research is on the topic of social machines – understanding the emergent problem solving that arises from a combination of humans, computers and data at web scale. The SOCIAM project on social machines is funded by the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC).
In 1983, Shadbolt moved to the University of Nottingham and joined the Department of Psychology. From 2000 to 2015 he was Professor of Artificial Intelligence in the School of Electronics and Computer Science at the University of Southampton.
From 2000 to 2007, he led and directed the Advanced Knowledge Technologies (AKT) Interdisciplinary Research Collaboration (IRC). It produced a broad range of Semantic Web research, including how diverse information could be harvested and integrated and how semantics could help computers systems recommend content.
In 2006 Shadbolt was elected a Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering (FREng). He is a Fellow of the British Computer Society (FBCS) and was its President in its 50th jubilee year. That same year, Nigel Shadbolt, Tim Berners-Lee, Wendy Hall and Daniel Weitzner, founded the Web Science Research Initiative, to promote the discipline of Web Science and foster research collaboration between the University of Southampton and Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
From 2007 to 2011 Shadbolt was Deputy Head of the School of Electronics and Computer Science (ECS) at the University of Southampton, from 2011 to 2014 he was Head of the Web and Internet Science Group, the first research group dedicated to the study of Web science and Internet science, within ECS, comprising 140 staff, researchers and PhD students.
His Semantic Web research led to the formation of Garlik, offering identity protection services. In 2008, Garlik was awarded Technology Pioneer status by the Davos World Economic Forum and won the UK BT Flagship IT Award. Experian acquired Garlik in November 2011.
In June 2009 he was appointed together with Tim Berners-Lee as Information Advisor to the UK Government. The two led a team to develop data.gov.uk, a single point of access for UK non-personal Governmental public data. In May 2010 he was appointed by the UK Coalition Government to the Public Sector Transparency Board responsible for setting open data standards across the public sector and developing the legal Right to Data.
In December 2012, Shadbolt and Tim Berners-Lee formally launched the Open Data Institute. The ODI focuses on incubating and nurturing new businesses wanting to harness open data, training and promoting standards. In 2013, Shadbolt and Tim Berners-Lee joined the board of advisors of tech startup State.com, creating a network of structured opinions on the semantic web. On 1 August 2015 he was appointed Principal of Jesus College, Oxford and a Professorial Research Fellow in the Department of Computer Science, University of Oxford.
Appointments
2008–present: Director, Web Science Trust
2010–2015: Chair of Local Public Data Panel, Dept. of Communities and Local Government.
2011–2014: Chair of UK Midata programme, BIS, appointed by Minister of State
2012–2016: UK Health Sector Transparency Board, DHS.
2013–2015: UK Research Sector Transparency Board, appointed by Minister of State
2013–2015: UK Information Economy Council, BIS, appointed by Minister of State
2015–2016: Chair, Shadbolt Review of Computer Science Employability
2015–2016: UK French Data Task Force, appointed by Chancellor of Exchequer
2015–present: Member, HMG Digital Advisory Board. Appointed by Minister of State
Awards and honours
2014: Appointed EPSRC RISE (Recognising Inspirational Scientists and Engineers) Fellow
2016: Elected first Jisc Fellow
2017: Elected Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS)
He was interviewed by Jim Al-Khalili on The Life Scientific on BBC Radio 4 in April 2015. In 2016, he delivered the Hinton Lecture of the Royal Academy of Engineering, entitled "Engineering the Future of Data".
Personal life
Shadbolt is married to Bev Saunders, a designer, and has two children.
Bibliography
Shadbolt, Nigel and Hampson, Roger (2018), The Digital Ape, Scribe Publications, London, UK
References
1956 births
Living people
Scientists from London
Alumni of Newcastle University
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
English computer scientists
Academics of the University of Nottingham
Academics of the University of Southampton
Fellows of the British Computer Society
Fellows of the Royal Academy of Engineering
Knights Bachelor
Presidents of the British Computer Society
Principals of Jesus College, Oxford
Members of the Department of Computer Science, University of Oxford
Semantic Web people
Fellows of the Royal Society |
5356157 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Football%20Ireland | American Football Ireland | American Football Ireland (AFI) is the National Governing Body for American football for Ireland and Northern Ireland. Founded in 1984 the AFI is entirely volunteer run and all American football played in Ireland is played at an amateur level.
History
1980s and 1990s
The first Shamrock Bowl game was played in 1986 between the Craigavon Cowboys and the Dublin Celts. The Cowboys won the first title played in Dublin. The Celts then went on to be the number 1 team in Ireland for the next 10 years, winning the Shamrock Bowl 5 times.
The Celts were also the First Irish team to represent Ireland in the Euro Bowl – the then Champions league of European American Football.
2000s
During 2000, plans were made to resurrect the IAFL. The only fixture to be played in Ireland that year was an Irish selection against a visiting high school team - Mount St. Josephs from Maryland USA. In 2001, the Carrickfergus Knights, Dublin Dragons, Dublin Rebels and University of Limerick Vikings played a full league season of football. The Dublin Rebels defeated the Carrickfergus Knights in Shamrock Bowl XV, which was played in Carrickfergus.
All four teams participated in the reformation of the Irish American Football League (IAFL). A new league structure and administration was put in place and the IAFL helped form the Irish American Football Association (IAFA) - the new national governing body for the sport. During 2002, the sport found a new lease on life in Ireland. Again, four teams contested the league with the Carrickfergus Knights defeating the UL Vikings in Shamrock Bowl XVI. However, during the course of the year there were some significant developments. Firstly, three development teams applied to join the league for 2003. Secondly, an Irish team won an International club competition for the first time ever. In June, the Dublin Rebels travelled to Belgium and won the Charleroi Trophy against the Charleroi Cougars and two French teams - Reims Champs and Forbach Taupes. The season finished on a high note with the visit of Team Canada, the Canadian U21 team. The Carrickfergus Knights played Team Canada in Dublin and performed well in a 34–6 defeat.
2003 turned out to be one of the best years ever for Irish American football. Three more teams – Cork, Belfast & Craigavon – joined the IAFL bringing the total up to seven. The Carrickfergus Knights, Cork Admirals, Dublin Dragons and Dublin Rebels played in Division 1. The Belfast Bulls, Craigavon Cowboys and UL Vikings played in Division 2 which was created to help development teams get competitive game experience.
Membership in the IAFL increased significantly and the standard of play was higher than in previous years. In June 2003, the Dublin Rebels returned to Belgium to defend their Charleroi Trophy title. They were joined in Belgium by the Carrickfergus Knights. The Rebels won the Charleroi Trophy, defeating local team, the Charleroi Cougars in the Tournament final. The Knights came third, ahead of French team, Celtes de Mitry.
The Knights finished first in the league to qualify for the Shamrock Bowl. The Rebels beat the Cork Admirals in the semi-final and then defeated the Knights 24–12 in a spectacular Shamrock Bowl XVII, played at Suttonians RFC in Dublin. The game attracted a large crowd and some media attention - highlights were broadcast on TV3 in Ireland and Sky Sports throughout Europe. The Belfast Bulls won the Division 2 title. The season finished with the first ever IAFL Allstar game in which the North defeated the South 7–0.
During the 2003/2004 off-season, Coach Phil DeMonte (ex-Oxford University Cavaliers) was appointed as the Head Coach of the Irish National Team and IAFL Allstars. Coach DeMonte will also help with the education of coaches throughout Ireland. 2004 promised to be the best season ever for Irish American football both on and off the field and did not fail to deliver. 6 teams played a full competitive league schedule and the standard of play was higher than at any time in the previous 10 years. IAFL membership reached an all-time high of more than 300 registered players. All teams had bigger rosters and most of the rookies were in the 17–21 age group. The Dublin Rebels defeated the Carrickfergus Knights 24–22 in Shamrock Bowl XVIII. The game, which attracted a record attendance for an IAFL game, is regarded as the best ever Shamrock Bowl. 2004 also saw the return of the Ireland team. The team played two fixtures including the inaugural Celtic Classic against John Carroll University from Ohio, USA.
In 2005 the same six teams competed for the Shamrock Bowl. Again the Rebels ran out victorious with a tough fought win against the Belfast Bulls in the big game.
The 2006 season saw the addition of new teams the DCU Saints and Dublin Marshals to the IAFL making the total number of competing teams, 8, the highest it had been in many years. The UL Vikings faced the Rebels in the Bowl game, which the Rebels won, making it their fourth consecutive Shamrock Bowl win.
The 2007 season was contested by nine teams, following the addition of the Belfast Trojans and the Tallaght Outlaws to the league. The 2007 Shamrock Bowl was won by UL Vikings.
After the 2008 season, the Tallaght Outlaws decided to stop playing in the league, after playing two full seasons in the league.
Structure
in 1984, AFI has 3 sections:
Senior American Football (18 year olds and above)
Youth American Football (15-18 year olds)
Flag Football (non-contact, 16 year olds and above)
Within the Senior American Football section, there are 3 separate divisions:
AFI Premier Division - top four teams qualify for the playoffs of which the finalists compete for the Shamrock Bowl. The current champions are the Belfast Trojans.
AFI Division 1 - top four teams qualify for the playoffs of which the finalists compete for the AFI Division 1 Bowl. The current champions are the Craigavon Cowboys.
AFI Division 2 - top two teams qualify for the AFI Division 2 Bowl. The current champions are the Cill Dara Crusaders.
The Youth American Football section expands year on year, with a record 7 teams competing for the AFI Youth Plate in 2019. The Cork Admirals are the current champions.
The Flag Football section is split into 2 separate conferences:
AFI Flag Premier Division - top six teams qualify for the playoffs of which the finalists compete for the Emerald Bowl. The current champions are the Edenderry Eagles.
AFI Flag Division 1 - top six teams qualify for the playoffs of which the finalists compete for the Glas Bowl. The current champions are the Craigavon Cowboys 2nds.
The Premier Division consists of eight senior teams. For the 2021 Season, the Premier Division will consist of:
An 8-game, 16-week regular season running from March to early July
A six-team, four-week single elimination playoff tournament beginning with the wildcard round in July and culminating in the Shamrock Bowl in August
Teams
The League consists of three tiers of football, starting with the Premier Division, also known as the SBC. Below are the IAFL 1 and IAFL 2 divisions. The 2019 season was the last year the League ran due to the Covid-19 pandemic.
Premier Division (SBC)
Division 1 (IAFL 1)
Division 2 (IAFL 2)
Defunct teams
Drogheda Lightning
Belfast Bulls
Carlow Chargers
Dublin Celts
Erris Rams
Midlands Soldiers
Tallaght Outlaws
Dublin Dragons
North Dublin Marshals
North Kildare Reapers
South Kildare Soldiers
Belfast Blitzers
Tennents Giants (Belfast) Founded 1985
East Side Jets (East Belfast)
Belfast Spartans
Antrim Bulldogs
Coleraine Chieftains
Tyrone Titans
East Antrim Cougars
Dublin Tornadoes
Results
2006 season
Note: W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties
League Table
2007 season
Format
In 2007, to cope with the growing number of teams, a divisional format was introduced to replace the old league format. In it, the existing teams were divided into three divisions, Northern, Central and Southern, three teams in each. The idea of the divisional format is that any new teams, such as the up-coming development teams, will easily fit into the divisional format without dramatically increasing the length of the season, which currently runs from February/March to Early August. The top team from each division all go into the play-offs and the two second placed teams, with the highest numbers of points, playing a wildcard game for the 4th spot. The winners of the playoffs battle it out for the Shamrock Bowl.
The 2007 IAFL season, complete with new divisional format was due to begin on 4 March with the College Championship game between DCU Saints and UL Vikings, but the game was delayed due to rain, so the season proper began on 25 March when the Cork Admirals beat the Belfast Bulls, the UL Vikings beat the Tallaght Outlaws and Dublin Rebels (then Shamrock Bowl Holders) beat the DCU Saints. The season continued throughout April and May, with the IAFL College Championship Game eventually been rescheduled on 3 June, with the UL Vikings beating the DCU Saints 50–2.
During the course of the regular season, two non-league games were played against foreign opposition, with CMS College Stags beating the Tallaght Outlaws 67–0 and, in the Claddagh Classic on 2 June, the Team USA All-Stars beat the Carrickfergus Knights 26–0.
Note: W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties
Northern Division
Central Division
Southern Division
The play-off positions were decided on the last day of the regular season, with the Belfast Bulls, Dublin Rebels and UL Vikings securing their respective Divisional titles and the Belfast Trojans and Cork Admirals as the wildcard teams. Cork Admirals won the wildcard game and set up a play-off tie with the Dublin Rebels, strongly fancied to retain the Shamrock Bowl for the 5th consecutive time. However, Cork managed to win a close fought 8–6 victory and secured their first ever bowl appearance against UL Vikings, who beat the Belfast Bulls 44–2 to set the stage for the first ever all-Munster Shamrock Bowl. The UL Vikings won a close game 22–14 to win Shamrock Bowl XXI and claim their first ever title.
2008 season
An AGM held on 25 November decided the format for the 2008 season. It was decided to gradually phase out under 18 kitted players and start a junior (i.e. 16–18 age group) league. It was also decided to run a DV-8's league, where development teams and entrants from already established teams can field rookies in 8 a side matches. This would also help teams who are just starting out to get some playing time and reduce the pressure to find new players, which has plagued new IAFL teams in the past.
It was decided to keep the league format the same. The same teams will compete in the same divisions, with the exception of the Dublin Rhinos, a spin-off from the Dublin Dragons, who will replace the Dragons in the IAFL Central. The league for 2008 looks like this.
The Development League (DV8) consists of the following teams.
2009 season
It was decided to continue running the DV-8's league, where development teams could learn and improve on the basics of football in a competitive league setting. This would also help teams who are just starting out to get some playing time and reduce the pressure to find new players, which has plagued new IAFL teams in the past.
The IAFL format was changed to a single division rather than the previous North, South and Central divisions in which each team would play eight matches, seeded to make the league more competitive. the top four teams would go to the playoffs in which the number 1 seeded team would face the number 4 seeded team, and the number 2 seeded team would face the number 2 seeded team. both winners would then play in the shamrock bowl. the league looks like this:
The Development League (DV8) consists of the following teams.
2010 season
The 2010 IAFL season, has returned to the divisional format. There are now an unprecedented number of teams competing in this fast growing league with a total of 11 teams taking part in the senior IAFL and 3 teams plus a number of rookie teams provided by some of the larger senior teams in the DV-8's. The league format will look like this:
Note: W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties
Northern Division
Central Division
Southern Division
DV8's
2011 season
2012 season
This years IAFL will be contested by a record 11 teams. The Tullamore Phoenix step up from DV8s level to join the ten sides who contested the 2011 season. The regular will start in late February, which is earlier than in previous years. It will conclude on 10 June. The playoffs and Shamrock Bowl will take place from mid June to mid July.
The big change this year is that the structure has been changed from 3 regional divisions to 2 regional divisions – IAFL North and IAFL South. These divisions will have 5 and 6 teams respectively as opposed to either 3 or 4 under last years format. This change gives a better balance between the divisions. Consequently, there will be some changes to the playoff structure. The top team in each division will host a Semi-Final. Each 3rd placed team will travel to the 2nd placed team in their division in the Wildcard round.
As with last year, each team will play 8 regular season games. Most teams will play all the teams in their division once and a selection of teams in the other division. This is a change from last years format whereby teams played home and away against all divisional opponents. However, the change gives teams a greater variety of opponents as well more common opponents.
There are 4 doubleheaders scheduled for the upcoming season where four teams will play at one venue on the same day. Each of these should be great day out for IAFL supporters.
The schedule and divisional standings can be found below. Please note that there are a small number confirmations to be made, so please check this site regularly for updates. One of these confirmations is the annual Colours match between Trinity College and UCD.
Note: W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties
North
South
2013 season
Note: W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties
North
South
2014 season
Note: W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties
North
South
2015 season
Note: W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties
North
South
2016 season
Note: W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties
North
South
2016 Playoffs
Shamrock Bowl Preview
Shamrock Bowl Results
2017 season
2018 season
2018 Playoffs
League MVP award winners
References
External links
Sports leagues established in 1984
1984 establishments in Ireland |
48337822 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logi%20Analytics | Logi Analytics | Logi Analytics, Inc. is a computer software company headquartered in McLean, Virginia, United States with offices in the UK and Ireland. It offers interactive data visualization products for business intelligence and business analytics.
History
Logi Analytics, formerly LogiXML, was founded in 2000 by Arman Eshraghi, a software development and architecture professional. The company claims its mission is "to help application teams create smarter software."
In 2000, Logi Analytics developed LGX AppDev, an XML-based engine that built Web applications and evolved to address the specific task of report-building for BI. Logi Report (then called LGX Report), the first engine-driven, XML-based reporting application. Between 2002 and 2004, more features were added to Logi Report until Eshraghi made the decision to brand the full-featured version separately - as Logi Info - and offer the basic version free of charge.
Then in 2004, Logi Analytics began marketing Logi Report as a free Web-based BI reporting tool. The product was renamed Logi Report or Freereporting.com.
In 2006, Logi Analytics discontinued the LGX branding and introduced the Logi product line, consisting of applications for ad hoc, managed and OLAP reporting, an embedded database to be used between operational databases and reporting servers, and a connector pack for integration of commonly used Web-based sources into the Logi reporting environment. They also started to expand internationally, partnering firstly with Nano Blue in AsiaPac, then Intenda in EMEA.
In 2008, Logi Analytics streamlined its commercial product offering, concentrating on Logi Info (managed reporting, analysis and dashboarding), Logi Ad Hoc (ad hoc reporting, analysis and dashboarding), and the Logi 9 platform (Web-based BI platform including managed and ad hoc reporting, analysis, dashboarding and data integration).
The company changed its name to Logi Analytics in March, 2013.
In October 2013, Logi Analytics received a $27.5 million growth equity investment led by new investor LLR Partners. Updata Partners also participated in the round. The company previously raised $23.1 million from Updata Partners, Grotech Ventures and Summit Partners, who remain invested in the company.
In 2014, Logi Analytics introduced its data discovery product, Logi Vision, to be deployed as a stand-alone application or integrated with its business information platform, Logi Info. Together, these integrated products can be used by customers to address a wide range of analytics use cases across the organisation.
In July 2015, Logi DataHub was introduced as part of the Logi 12 release, designed to simplify data preparation and ensure high performance for self-service analytics. With DataHub, customers can rapidly connect, acquire, and blend data from files, applications or databases, whether on-premise or in the cloud; cache it in a high-performance self-tuning repository; and prepare it using DataHub's smart profiling, joining, and intuitive data enrichment.
In October 2017, Logi Analytics was acquired by Marlin Equity Partners, a global investment firm.
In September 2018 the company announced the release of Logi Predict™, its predictive analytics solution. The tool allows companies to embed machine learning and artificial intelligence capabilities into their own applications.
In December 2018, Logi Analytics and Jinfonet Software, the maker of JReport, tied for the number one rating for embedded analytics by Dresner Advisory Services. It was Logi’s fourth-straight year achieving the rating. In February 2019, Logi acquired Jinfonet. The acquisition added Jinfonet’s operational reporting capabilities to Logi, and allowed Logi to expand its reseller partnerships in Europe and Asia.
In June 2019, Logi Analytics acquired Zoomdata, an analytics platform for big data and live streaming data. The acquisition gives the company's clients access to Zoomdata’s streaming technology, which allows real-time visibility into data that is too big to move and data that changes frequently.
Products
Logi Analytics currently offers the following analytics products:
Logi Analytics Platform- The Logi Analytics Platform is a business analytics platform that enables technology professionals to rapidly create web-based BI and analytic applications . These applications offer self-service analytical capabilities and conditional task processing that can be accessed from anywhere and on any device. The Logi Analytics Platform can also embed analytics directly into a company's operational business applications. Current version: Logi Info 14
Logi Predict - A predictive analytics solution designed to be embedded in applications, and to create predictive models using a 3-step process. Logi Predict uses the Prophet algorithm to account and adjust for seasonality. Prophet is an open source software used to forecast time series data based on an additive model that fits non-linear trends with yearly, weekly, and daily seasonality, and holiday effects. Current version: 3.0
JReport - An analytics platform that embeds operational reports and dashboards into applications. Current version: 16
Market
Logi Analytics serves one primary market:
Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs): independent software vendors (ISVs) and software as a service (SaaS) application providers that want to embed dashboard and reporting capabilities into their products.
References
2000 establishments in Virginia
Business intelligence
Companies based in McLean, Virginia
Software companies established in 2000
Extract, transform, load tools
Software companies based in Virginia
Software companies of the United States |
38709822 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AutoTrack | AutoTrack | AutoTrack is a vehicle swept path analysis software program used for analysing the movements of steered and wheeled vehicles including cars, trucks, trams, aircraft and other more specialist vehicles such as fork lift trucks, wheelchairs and access platforms. AutoTrack was the world's first swept path analysis software program, originally being jointly developed by TRL (the UK's Transport Research Laboratory) and British engineering consultants, Travers Morgan (acquired by Symonds in 1995 who are now part of Capita Symonds, in the form of TRACK. The term track refers to the tracking of a vehicle's simulated movements in relation to geometry, based upon vehicle dimensions, chassis and steering specification. AutoTrack has many similarities and performs the same function as the alternative swept path analysis program AutoTURN, which is developed by Transoft Solutions, Inc..
AutoTrack is generally used by transportation engineers, architects and planners for the analysis and design of highways, intersections, buildings and other facilities to check that provision has been made for the space and geometry required to manoeuvre specified design vehicles. A design vehicle may be a real vehicle modelled within the software's computer environment but will often be a virtual vehicle that does not exist in real life, rather being indicative of the type and configuration of vehicle that the final design is expected to accommodate. Design vehicles are commonly specified by the relevant governing body that also controls the specification for which the design must conform.
The AutoTrack range is divided into modules that service the Road, Rail and Airports industries and operates within several different CAD systems such as AutoCAD by Autodesk, Microstation by Bentley Systems, Bricscad by Bricsys (a former member of the IntelliCAD Technology Consortium) and standalone in Microsoft Windows. When the software was first developed it initially ran as a DOS-based application and when it was ported to operate within AutoCAD, it was given the name AutoTrack. The software, initially developed for consulting purposes, was sold commercially and following the demise of the original company, a management buy out pre-empted the incorporation of Savoy Computing Services Ltd. in 1996. Two of the surviving directors of Savoy Computing were involved with the original development of TRACK.
In August, 2013 Autodesk acquired the technology assets of Savoy Computing Services Ltd, including the AutoTrack technology. Autodesk subsequently released Autodesk Vehicle Tracking, which directly superseded AutoTrack in November, 2013. At this point Savoy Computing Services ceased trading and the AutoTrack software product is since no longer supported.
Brief history of AutoTrack
1988 – AutoTrack introduced "lock to lock" time as a critical factor used in the calculation of manoeuvrability of steered vehicles
1991 – AutoTrack archived all design data within the "parent" CAD drawing
1992 – AutoTrack introduced modelling of tram and light rail vehicle movements
1997 – First swept path program to calculate effective axle positions from vehicle dimensions
1999 – AutoTrack introduced AutoDrive (a mouse point and click system that calculates possible movements from one vehicle position to the next)
1999 – Grip editing was introduced to enable the editing of vehicle paths instead of their deletion
2002 – Recording of scaled animations containing multiple vehicles was introduced, with a movie file being able to be recorded from within the program
2004 – A standalone version that operated in Microsoft Windows was introduced for engineers without CAD systems
2007 – AutoTrack became the first 64-bit swept path analysis software program
2013 – AutoTrack acquired by Autodesk
See also
swept path analysis
AutoTURN
Turning Radius
References
External links
Autodesk acquires the AutoTrack technology
The Freight Trade Association
The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
The Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (DMRB)
The Transportation Research Board
Automotive software
Transportation engineering
Engineering concepts |
15041636 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Openad | Openad | OpenAd.net was an online marketplace for buying and selling creative ideas for use in advertising, marketing and design. The core of its services was giving idea buyers (marketers, advertisers) direct access to a variety of unpublished ideas offered to them by over 11,500 freelance "creatives" from 125 countries worldwide.
The whole process of buying ideas takes place on-line, directly between advertisers/marketers and creatives, disintermediating agencies in the process. Clients have the option of setting a pitch deadline and a license price for pitched ideas, while creatives have the option of setting a licensing price for ideas in the Gallery. Clients receive on average from 20 to 100 creative solutions and can decide to license one, more or none of the ideas proposed. Marketers pay $3,000 to $100,000 to post "briefs" describing proposed assignments on its Web site. Ideas accepted by clients are subject to negotiation with the creator, with OpenAd.net collecting a 22½% commission on the transaction.
OpenAd.net has been used by mainstream advertising purchasers such as FHM, which has used the service three times for various campaigns.
As of January 2, 2010 public records indicate OpenAd.net website is no longer available.
User accounts
The OpenAd.net website offered two types of user accounts for:
Creatives (Sellers): Sellers' accounts enable creatives to upload their ideas to the Gallery or respond to clients’ briefs. Registration is free of charge for creatives. Students also have a chance to compete in the OpenAd Talent pitches.
Buyers (Clients): Clients' account privileges depend on the chosen Membership package. The annual Membership fee depends on:
The number of online briefs the client wishes to post
The number of Gallery categories the clients wishes to have access to
The number of user accounts desired.
History
The author of the idea is Vital Verlic, who established the company in 2003. The majority stake of OpenAd AG in Switzerland is owned by a Slovenian holding company Istrabenz, which backed the project in 2004. OpenAd.net is managed by Katarina Skoberne, a former television and advertising executive in Slovenia.
OpenAd.net's subsidiaries are in New York (OpenAd Inc.), London (OpenAd UK Ltd) and Ljubljana (OpenAd d.o.o), with representatives in Sydney and Buenos Aires. In 2006, OpenAd.net was nominated for the Webby Awards in the "Best service" category.
Case studies
Ontrac Global
AC Intercar
Etam
Emap
Lastminute.com
References
Sources
AdAge
Campaign Brief
Campaign Magazine
The Independent
International Herald Tribune
Webby awards
Bizcommunity
Advertising industry |
5104401 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline%20of%20computer%20vision | Outline of computer vision | The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to computer vision:
Computer vision – interdisciplinary field that deals with how computers can be made to gain high-level understanding from digital images or videos. From the perspective of engineering, it seeks to automate tasks that the human visual system can do. Computer vision tasks include methods for acquiring digital images (through image sensors), image processing, and image analysis, to reach an understanding of digital images. In general, it deals with the extraction of high-dimensional data from the real world in order to produce numerical or symbolic information that the computer can interpret. The image data can take many forms, such as video sequences, views from multiple cameras, or multi-dimensional data from a medical scanner. As a technological discipline, computer vision seeks to apply its theories and models for the construction of computer vision systems. As a scientific discipline, computer vision is concerned with the theory behind artificial systems that extract information from images.
Branches of computer vision
Computer stereo vision
Underwater computer vision
History of computer vision
History of computer vision
Computer vision subsystems
Image enhancement
Image denoising
Image histogram
Inpainting
Histogram equalization
Tone mapping
Retinex
Gamma correction
Anisotropic diffusion (Perona–Malik equation)
Transformations
Affine transform
Homography (computer vision)
Hough transform
Radon transform
Walsh–Hadamard transform
Filtering, Fourier and wavelet transforms and image compression
Image compression
Filter bank
Gabor filter
JPEG 2000
Adaptive filtering
Color vision
Visual perception
Human visual system model
Color matching function
Color space
Color appearance model
Color management system
Color mapping
Color model
Color profile
Feature extraction
Active contour
Blob detection
Canny edge detector
Contour detection
Edge detection
Edge linking
Harris Corner Detector
Histogram of oriented gradients (HOG)
Random sample consensus (RANSAC)
Scale-invariant feature transform (SIFT)
Pose estimation
Bundle adjustment
Articulated body pose estimation (BoPoE)
Direct linear transformation (DLT)
Epipolar geometry
Fundamental matrix
Pinhole camera model
Projective geometry
Trifocal tensor
Registration
Active appearance model (AAM)
Cross-correlation
Geometric hashing
Graph cut segmentation
Least squares estimation
Image pyramid
Image segmentation
Level-set method
Markov random fields
Medial axis
Motion field
Motion vector
Multispectral imaging
Normalized cut segmentation
Optical flow
Particle filtering
Scale space
Visual recognition
Object recognition
Scale-invariant feature transform (SIFT)
Gesture recognition
Bag-of-words model in computer vision
Kadir–Brady saliency detector
Eigenface
Commercial computer vision systems
5DX
Aphelion (software)
Microsoft PixelSense
Poseidon drowning detection system
Visage SDK
Applications
3D reconstruction from multiple images
Audio-visual speech recognition
Augmented reality
Augmented reality-assisted surgery
Automated optical inspection
Automatic image annotation
Automatic number plate recognition
Automatic target recognition
Check weigher
Closed-circuit television
Computer stereo vision
Contextual image classification
DARPA LAGR Program
Digital video fingerprinting
Document mosaicing
Facial recognition systems
GazoPa
Geometric feature learning
Gesture recognition
Image collection exploration
Image retrieval
Content-based image retrieval
Reverse image search
Image-based modeling and rendering
Integrated mail processing
Iris recognition
Machine vision
Mobile mapping
Navigation system components for:
Autonomous cars
Mobile robots
Object detection
Optical braille recognition
Optical character recognition
Intelligent character recognition
Pedestrian detection
People counter
Physical computing
Red light camera
Remote sensing
Smart camera
Traffic enforcement camera
Traffic sign recognition
Vehicle infrastructure integration
Velocity Moments
Video content analysis
View synthesis
Visual sensor network
Visual Word
Water remote sensing
Computer vision companies
3DFLOW
Automatix
Clarifai
Cognex Corporation
Diffbot
IBM
InspecVision
Isra Vision
Kinesense
Mobileye
Scantron Corporation
Teledyne DALSA
VIEW Engineering
Zivid
Warden Machinery
Computer vision publications
Electronic Letters on Computer Vision and Image Analysis
International Journal of Computer Vision
Computer vision organizations
Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition
European Conference on Computer Vision
International Conference on Computer Vision
International Conferences in Central Europe on Computer Graphics, Visualization and Computer Vision
Persons influential in computer vision
See also
Outline of artificial intelligence
Outline of robotics
List of computer graphics and descriptive geometry topics
Virtual Design and Construction
References
External links
USC Iris computer vision conference list
Computer vision papers on the web A complete list of papers of the most relevant computer vision conferences.
Computer Vision Online News, source code, datasets and job offers related to computer vision.
Keith Price's Annotated Computer Vision Bibliography
CVonline Bob Fisher's Compendium of Computer Vision.
British Machine Vision Association Supporting computer vision research within the UK via the BMVC and MIUA conferences, Annals of the BMVA (open-source journal), BMVA Summer School and one-day meetings
Computer vision topics
Computer vision
Computer vision |
57349298 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joost-Pieter%20Katoen | Joost-Pieter Katoen | Joost-Pieter Katoen (born October 6, 1964) is a Dutch theoretical computer scientist based in Germany. He is distinguished professor in Computer Science and head of the Software Modeling and Verification Group at RWTH Aachen University.
Furthermore, he is part-time associated to the Formal Methods & Tools group at the University of Twente.
Education
Katoen received his master's degree with distinction in Computer Science from the University of Twente in 1987. In 1990, he was awarded a Professional Doctorate in Engineering from the Eindhoven University of Technology, and in 1996, he received his Ph.D. in Computer Science from the University of Twente.
Research
Katoen's main research interests are formal methods, computer aided verification, in particular model checking, concurrency theory, and semantics, in particular semantics of probabilistic programming languages. His research is largely tool and application oriented.
Together with Christel Baier he wrote and published the book Principles of Model Checking.
Career
From 1997 to 1999, Katoen was a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Erlangen-Nuremberg.
In 1999, he became an associate professor at the University of Twente, where he still holds a part-time position.
In 2004, he was appointed a full professor at RWTH Aachen University.
In 2013, Katoen became Theodore von Kármán Fellow and Distinguished Professor at RWTH Aachen University. Also in 2013, he was elected member of the Academia Europaea. In 2017, he received an honorary doctorate from Aalborg University. In 2018, Katoen was awarded the highly remunerated ERC Advanced Grant.
Katoen is a founding member of the IFIP Working Group (WG) 1.8 on Concurrency Theory and a member of the WG 2.2 Formal Description of Programming Concepts. From 2006 to 2010, he was engaged in the Review College of the British Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC). Since 2015, he is chair of the Steering Committee of the European Joint Conferences on Theory and Practice of Software (ETAPS).
For his commitment to work-life balance, especially for young Ph.D. students with children, he was awarded the FAMOS Prize by RWTH Aachen University in 2017.
Personal life
Joost-Pieter Katoen was born in Krimpen aan den IJssel in 1964. Katoen is married and has three sons. He lives in Maastricht. In his private time, he enjoys cycling and listening to music.
See also
Joost-Pieter Katoen's homepage.
Software Modeling and Verification Group.
List of publications on computer science bibliography site DBLP.
References
Living people
Dutch computer scientists
German computer scientists
Formal methods people
1964 births |
18597228 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark%20Schlichting | Mark Schlichting | Mark Schlichting (born March 17, 1948) is a publisher, author, and digital pioneer of children's multimedia and interactive design software. He is best known as the creator and subsequent Design and Art Director of Brøderbund's Living Books series, one of the first lines of children's interactive book software on CD-ROM. Schlichting was Design and Art Director for Living Book's first interactive CD-ROM book adaptation, Mercer Mayer’s Just Grandma and Me, which was one of the first software titles accredited as a school textbook and used as a product demonstration by Apple CEO John Sculley.
Brøderbund’s Living Books
Schlichting began working at Brøderbund as a freelance animator, where he suggested his idea of creating interactive software based on existing children’s books with each illustrated page of the digital version of the book filled with clickable, interactive "hot spots". He soon became head of the team of the new division called Living Books, where they first began adapting Mercer Mayer’s Just Grandma and Me and Marc Brown’s Arthur’s Teacher Trouble into interactive children’s software. The software imitated the real-life experience of reading these books but with enhanced computer features and the ability to read them in multiple languages. These interactive animated digital children's books were the first of their kind and included the option of a “read-through”, where the user could digitally turn the illustrated “pages” and hear a narrator read the text, and the “interactive” version, where users could click around on each page to find and activate dozens of animated sequences, often accompanied by music, sound effects, or dialogue.
NoodleWorks Interactive
In 2000 Schlichting founded NoodleWorks Interactive, which specializes in children's interactive design, development, and design consulting. Under Schlighting's supervision, NoodleWorks Interactive has worked with children's learning and entertainment companies and projects such as LeapFrog, eScore - Learning Centers, Pearson Broadband (Educational Division, London), Fisher/Price, Snicker Interactive Toys, Serosity, Electronic Arts (EA), LBS Alchemy, and more.
In November 2011, Schlichting released Noodle Words, an iPad app for children where they may choose a word from a box and tap it to see animated bee characters act out the word's meaning. Noodle Words received the Kids At Play Interactive, or KAPi, Award for Best Educational Product of The Year, the Parent's Choice Gold Award, a KAPi Pioneer Legend Award for Schlichting, and the Children's Technology Review Editor's Choice Award, among others.
Wanderful Apps
In 2012, Schlichting was Chief Creative Officer of the Wanderful interactive storybooks, where he worked with his former Brøderbund and Living Books colleague Mickey W. Mantle to adapt several of his Living Books CD-ROM titles into apps for touchscreen devices. Wanderful released app versions of the Living Books titles The Tortoise and the Hare, Arthur's Teacher Trouble, Little Monster at School, Ruff's Bone, and Schlichting's own children's book Harry and the Haunted House.
Book and Software Authorship
Schlichting is the author and illustrator of Harry and the Haunted House, which he has released in various forms- as a children's book, a Living Books interactive CD-ROM, and, in 2012, an app from Wanderful interactive storybooks. For the iOS app, Schlichting worked with Wanderful in adapting the original Living Books CD-ROM to take advantage of the new touch-screen format, so that "virtually everything" on a page that looked "tappable" could be tapped to "come to life" and activate an animation, sound, or other interactive element, including tapping on the individual words of the text. The Wanderful book app can be in either English or Spanish, and can be purchased to include French as well.
Schlichting released a new nonfiction book in October 2016 on the psychology and art form of interactivity, titled Understanding Kids, Play, and Interactive Design: How to Create Games Children Love.
References
External links
https://web.archive.org/web/20081202095836/http://www.interesting-people.org/archives/interesting-people/199404/msg00017.html
Noodleworks Interactive Products by Mark Schlichting
Mark Schlichting: What I Learned Writing a Book about Interactive Design; video
Living people
20th-century American novelists
American male novelists
American children's writers
Place of birth missing (living people)
1948 births
20th-century American male writers |
1559680 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compose%20key | Compose key | A compose key (sometimes called multi key) is a key on a computer keyboard that indicates that the following (usually 2 or more) keystrokes trigger the insertion of an alternate character, typically a precomposed character or a symbol.
For instance, typing followed by and then will insert ñ.
Compose keys are most popular on Linux and other systems using the X Window System, but software exists to implement them on Windows and macOS.
History
The Compose Character key was introduced by engineers at Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) on the LK201 keyboard, available since 1983 with the VT220 terminal. The keyboard included an LED indicating that a Compose sequence is on-going. While the LK201 introduced the group of command keys between the alphanumerical block and the numerical keypad, and the "inverted T" arrangement of arrow keys, which have become standard, the compose key by contrast did not become a standard.
In 1987, Sun Microsystems released the Sun4, the first dedicated Unix workstation that had a compose key. On the keyboards of Sun Type 5 and 6 workstations, the Compose LED is placed in the keycap (see picture below).
ISO/IEC 9995-7 designed a graphical symbol for this key, in ISO/IEC 9995-7 as symbol 15 "Compose Character", and in ISO 7000 "Graphical symbols for use on equipment" as symbol ISO-7000-2021. This symbol is encoded in Unicode as .
Because Microsoft Windows and macOS do not support a compose key by default, the key does not exist on most keyboards designed for modern PC hardware. When software supports compose key behaviour, some other key is used. Common examples are the right-hand Windows key, the key, or one of the keys. There is no LED or other indicator that a compose sequence is ongoing.
Compose sequences
If the Compose key is not also a modifier key, then key rollover means the compose key does not have to be released before the subsequent keystrokes. This makes it possible for experienced typists to enter composed characters rapidly.
Earlier versions of compose sequences followed handwriting and the overstrike technique by putting the letter first and diacritics second. For example produced the character ñ. This order is still in use, however the inverse order known from accent-mark dead keys present on the last typewriters is used today: for ñ. This allows multiple diacritics, for instance typing for ấ.
Non-accented characters are generally constructed from letters that when overtyped or sequenced would produce something like the character. For instance will produce the copyright symbol ©, and will produce Æ.
There is no intrinsic limit on sequence length, which should respect both the rules of mnemonics and ergonomics, and feasibility within a comprehensive compose tree. For example, might be inserted by , where indicates circled characters, indicates inverse, indicates sans-serif, and indicates the final character.
Compared to other input methods
The primary advantage of a compose key is that the sequence used to select the character can be made up of any letters, numbers, or symbols available on the keyboard. This allows the sequence to be more mnemonic, so it is easier to remember, possible to guess at if unknown, and can support far greater numbers of characters.
A dead key requires the first character in any sequence to be a dead key, and most systems try to make which dead key used be part of the character selection (this makes sense for accent marks, and is extended to other symbols for consistency). For instance a dead key might require inputting for ß, while a compose key solution uses . Another example is ⅔ which is entered by , whereas a single dead key solution uses a less intuitive keystroke such as ( is already taken for ⅓).
Modifier keys such as are even more limited as typically only one other key from the keyboard is utilized to select the character. This means that, for example, if + is chosen to input Á the key is now unavailable for use and other keys must be chosen to input, for instance, À.
Alt codes or Unicode numerical input could almost be considered a compose key, but with unintuitive numbers, instead of mnemonics, as the selector.
Modern GUI character choosers often require a search function that is not much different than the compose sequences to locate a character quickly.
The primary disadvantage is that compose sequences always require at least one more keystroke. Inconvenient placement of the compose key can also slow typing.
Software support
X Window System
X header files call the Compose Key the "Multi_key". On Xorg the default Compose Key is +, (while pressing before is the "fourth keyboard level modifier", a different key). As this is rather inconvenient (especially for keyboards without an ) it is common to select a keyboard layout where another key such as the right-hand or is mapped to the compose key, this option is normally available in the settings of the desktop environment. The X keyboard driver does not allow the key used for Compose to also function as a modifier. On modern systems a vast number of compose sequences are supported.
Windows
On Microsoft Windows, a few programs such as PuTTY provide compose-key support. To emulate the compose key for all software, keyboard shortcut utilities are often involved. There are also a number of open-source utilities (such as WinCompose, AllChars, Compose-Keys, or Compose). Installable keyboard layouts (such as KbdEdit) are available that contain a compose key assigned to one of the keys like or . They work by using the dead-key chaining feature that is more commonly used to input letters with multiple diacritics. Such keyboard layouts can also be programmed directly in C (the language Windows drivers are written in), compiled using the free-of-charge Windows Driver Kit, and packaged using the free-of-charge Microsoft Keyboard Layout Creator 1.4, compatible up to the latest versions of the OS.
macOS
Although the Cocoa text input system allows entry of many alternate and accented characters natively in macOS, a true compose-key solution isn't built in. At least one has been implemented using the Karabiner utility, which works with all applications, as does the use of keyboard drivers where Compose is implemented using the dead key chaining feature.
Chrome OS
Although Chrome OS is supplied with a larger repertoire of glyphs than most competitors, the chords needed to achieve them are not always as obvious as the Compose concept provides. Google has made available an add-on (ComposeKey) to compete in this market.
DOS
Under DOS, compose key support depended on the running application, or on a loadable keyboard driver. For example, Lotus 1-2-3 used as compose key to allow easier input of many special characters of the Lotus International Character Set (LICS) and Lotus Multi-Byte Character Set (LMBCS).
Common compose combinations
The table shown below shows some of the default compositions for the X.Org server. For modern systems which support Unicode, the table below is far from complete.
See also
Alt code
Dead key
Combining character
Digraphs and trigraphs
References
External links
Xlib Compose Keys for en_US.UTF-8 official current X.org X11 Compose Key sequence
Linux Compose Key Sequences with equivalent Unicode mappings
Computer keys |
861433 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common%20Hardware%20Reference%20Platform | Common Hardware Reference Platform |
Common Hardware Reference Platform (CHRP) is a standard system architecture for PowerPC-based computer systems published jointly by IBM and Apple in 1995. Like its predecessor PReP, it was conceptualized as a design to allow various operating systems to run on an industry standard hardware platform, and specified the use of Open Firmware and RTAS for machine abstraction purposes. Unlike PReP, CHRP incorporated elements of the Power Macintosh architecture and was intended to support the classic Mac OS and NetWare, in addition to the four operating systems that had been ported to PReP at the time (Windows NT, OS/2, Solaris, and AIX).
CHRP did not receive industry-wide adoption, however. The only systems to ship with actual CHRP hardware are certain members of IBM's RS/6000 series running AIX, and small amount of Motorola PowerStack workstations. Mac OS 8 contains support for CHRP and New World Power Macintosh computers are partially based on CHRP and PReP.
Power.org has a new Power Architecture Platform Reference (PAPR) that provides the foundation for development of Power ISA-based computers running the Linux operating system. The PAPR was released fourth quarter of 2006.
See also
OpenPIC and IBM MPIC
References
CHRP Specification Version 1.0 and related documents
The PowerPC (TM) Hardware Reference Platform, an overview of CHRP
PREP / CHRP / ofppc / macppc confusion on NetBSD port-powerpc mailing list.
External links
penguinppc.org description of CHRP
FirmWorks CHRP page
Motorola StarMax 6000 at Low End Mac, A CHRP machine that never shipped.
PowerPC mainboards
IBM computer hardware |
549023 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Works%20%28film%29 | The Works (film) | The Works is a shelved 3D computer animated feature film, partially produced from 1979 to 1986. It would have been the first entirely 3D CGI film if it had been finished as intended, and included contributions from individuals who would go on to work at digital animation pioneers Pixar and DreamWorks Animation.
The film was developed by the staff of the Computer Graphics Lab in association with the New York Institute of Technology in Old Westbury, New York. The name was inspired by the original meaning of the word "robot", derived from "robota" ("work"), a word found in many Slavic languages. It was originally intended to be approximately 90 minutes long although less than 10 minutes were known to be produced. A trailer of the film was screened at SIGGRAPH in 1982. The project also resulted in other groundbreaking computer animations such as 3DV, Sunstone, Inside a Quark and some segments of the short film The Magic Egg from 1984.
Plot
The story, written by Lance Williams, was never finalized but centered around "Ipso Facto", a charming elliptical robot, and the heroine, a young female pilot nicknamed "T-Square". The story was set at some time in the distant future when a malfunctioning computer, "The Works", triggered a devastating last World War but then, realizing what it had done, set out to repopulate the planet entirely with robots. T-Square, who worked and lived in a nearby asteroid belt, vowed to journey to Earth and fight to make it safe for the return of her fellow space-faring humanity. Many staff-members contributed designs and modeled characters and sets under the coordination of art director Bil Maher who created blueprint-style designs for T-Square and many of the 25 robots called for by the script. Dick Lundin, legendary for his exhaustive and elaborate creations, designed and animated a huge mining ship and the gigantic robot "Ant" which was to be one of the villains in control of the Earth.
Pre-production
The founder of NYIT, entrepreneur and eccentric millionaire Dr. Alexander Schure, had a long and ardent interest in animation. He was a great admirer of Walt Disney and dreamed of making animated features like those from the golden age of theatrical animation. He had already created a traditional animation facility at NYIT. After visiting the University of Utah and seeing the potential of the computer technology in the form of the computer drawing program Sketchpad created by Ivan Sutherland, he told his people to pore over the Utah research center and get him one of everything they had. He then established the NYIT Computer Graphics Lab, buying state-of-the-art equipment and hiring major researchers from throughout the computer graphics field.
At first, one of CGL's main goals was to use computers to produce 2D animation and invent tools to assist traditional animators in their work. Schure reasoned that it should be possible to develop computer technology that would make the animation process cheaper and faster. An early version of the CAPS system later used by Disney animators were among the tools they created there.
Once its potential became clear, the main focus of the Lab became 3D computer graphics, and when Lance Williams presented his story, "The Works", the idea was to attempt to make it as a 3D computer animated feature. Schure enthusiastically agreed and green-lit the project as he too dreamt of a computer animated movie and had this in mind when he created the facility. This movie project became the center of attention at NYIT CGL. For many of the individuals involved, it became a primary and personal goal to create the first computer generated feature.
While creating a one-of-a-kind film in a method that had never been done before was the motivation, the practical reason for the project was to continue to develop patentable tools while demonstrating what computer animation could accomplish for the entertainment industry. In theory the project's success would lead to significant improvements in visual effects and in the editing process in film and television. Integrating computer power into visual media held promise in terms of speed, cost, creativity, and quality compared to more conventional techniques. The arrival of "The Works" would have been the beginning of a new animation genre. Interested representatives from movie studios and television networks regularly toured the lab as did musicians Laurie Anderson and Peter Gabriel, puppeteer Jim Henson and animation legends Chuck Jones and Shamus Culhane.
Schure was well aware of the challenges and potential for success going into the project and consistently provided very extensive resources to aid the research and development of the necessary technologies. Schure also believed that his staff would work best if they were constantly being supplied with the latest computer hardware. This meant that with each new advance in the field, his staff would have to upgrade their systems, convert existing programs, and rework familiar tools for use on new machines. When these upgrades actually delayed production significantly, Schure kept himself isolated from the complaints of his staff but for his part there were never any budgetary constraints or the pressure of a release date.
Production difficulties
While progress on The Works did manage to advance the level of computer animation technology significantly, the film itself was in development hell for nearly a decade and was eventually abandoned for several reasons. The staff was composed almost entirely of technical experts, such as engineers and programmers, with directors and editors considered unnecessary. When NYIT, with Schure as a director, produced a 2D feature known as Tubby the Tuba, the film did very poorly and shook their confidence in their ability to produce a film that would succeed critically or financially. The lukewarm reception of Disney's heavily computer-themed Tron did little to buoy the group's confidence in their ultimate success.
CGL was not working in a field without competition. George Lucas also realized the potential gains from computer animation, and in 1979, he created a new department of Lucasfilm which had the same goals as CGL, but ensured that movie industry professionals had a hand in the production. As Lucasfilm began headhunting for the best talent in the industry, many individuals struggling on "The Works" felt that Lucasfilm was a company more likely to succeed and abandoned NYIT. The Cornell University was another competitor, and NYIT lost some of its best people to them during the following years.
Losing interest
Another major problem was in the computers themselves. They were among the best and most powerful of their kind but, compared to the computers of today, were too slow and underpowered to generate the number of images required for a theatrical film. Attempting to pick up the pace, Dr. Schure recommitted himself to the project and the NYIT Computer Graphics Lab had more than 60 employees at its peak. Some were dedicated to The Works while others made animations for advertisers as a way to soften the financial toll the prolonged project exacted. Now not only did the computer team have to continue do ground-breaking animation and tool development, but as the quality of their output improved, they attracted outside clients wanting to commission title animations, commercials, and scenes for music videos, jobs which further sapped energy from the production. Scientist Ned Greene looked at the situation, analyzed all the elements needed to the film and crunched the numbers with devastating results: with the technology available, even if all the models and animations were calculated, it would take seven years to output the rendered frames needed to complete the film. The fact was, that in spite of all the resources brought to bear, CGL did not have the human or technical capacity to create film quality sequences on the hardware of the time.
Once it had been shown that the film could not be realized, The Works was officially abandoned. A less ambitious project, 3DV, was attempted. In a bid to circumvent the filmmaking bottleneck, 3DV was intended to be a TV special with a script that would include footage originally intended for The Works repurposed as programming for an imaginary all-computer generated cable TV service. 3DV incorporated some of its own innovations like 3D lip-synching and compositing a CG character into a live-action scene but, other than a promotional edit which was shown at SIGGRAPH, this too went nowhere. Many of those who had been working at CGL were hired by others and took their ideas, techniques and experience to new places. The vision of Dr. Schure and the effort invested in The Works were at the forefront of technology which continued to evolve into both an artform and an industry.
Legacy
People involved in the project were and are among the top computer graphics researchers and developers in the world and their early creations are now in common use in 3D modeling and animation programs and in editors like After Effects, Photoshop, and Flash. When the first computer animated feature was finally released in the form of Toy Story, Edwin Catmull, one of the founding fathers of the NYIT (New York Institute of Technology) Computer Graphics Lab and other Lab alumni had become members of Pixar's staff.
Partial credits
Lance Williams
Paul Heckbert
Dick Lundin
Christie Barton
Bil Maher
References
External links
The Works
Pictures from "The Works" Film Project
Slide Show
Short clip
1980s computer-animated films
Unfinished animated films
1970s unfinished films
1980s unfinished films
Cancelled films
Cancelled projects |
323862 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual%20effects | Visual effects | Visual effects (sometimes abbreviated VFX) is the process by which imagery is created or manipulated outside the context of
a live-action shot in filmmaking and video production.
The integration of live-action footage and other live-action footage or CGI elements to create realistic imagery is called VFX.
VFX involves the integration of live-action footage (which may include in-camera special effects) and generated-imagery (digital or optics, animals or creatures) which look realistic, but would be dangerous, expensive, impractical, time-consuming or impossible to capture on film. Visual effects using computer-generated imagery (CGI) have more recently become accessible to the independent filmmaker with the introduction of affordable and relatively easy-to-use animation and compositing software.
History of effects (special and visual)
Early Developments
In 1857, Oscar Rejlander created the world's first "special effects" image by combining different sections of 32 negatives into a single image, making a montaged combination print. In 1895, Alfred Clark created what is commonly accepted as the first-ever motion picture special effect. While filming a reenactment of the beheading of Mary, Queen of Scots, Clark instructed an actor to step up to the block in Mary's costume.
As the executioner brought the axe above his head, Clark stopped the camera, had all the actors freeze, and had the person playing Mary step off the set. He placed a Mary dummy in the actor's place, restarted filming, and allowed the executioner to bring the axe down, severing the dummy's head. Techniques like these would dominate the production of special effects for a century.
It was not only the first use of trickery in cinema, it was also the first type of photographic trickery that was only possible in a motion picture, and referred to as the "stop trick". Georges Méliès, an early motion picture pioneer, accidentally discovered the same "stop trick."
According to Méliès, his camera jammed while filming a street scene in Paris. When he screened the film, he found that the "stop trick" had caused a truck to turn into a hearse, pedestrians to change direction, and men to turn into women. Méliès, the director of the Théâtre Robert-Houdin, was inspired to develop a series of more than 500 short films, between 1896 and 1913, in the process developing or inventing such techniques as multiple exposures, time-lapse photography, dissolves, and hand painted color.
Because of his ability to seemingly manipulate and transform reality with the cinematograph, the prolific Méliès is sometimes referred to as the "Cinemagician." His most famous film, Le Voyage dans la lune (1902), a whimsical parody of Jules Verne's From the Earth to the Moon, featured a combination of live action and animation, and also incorporated extensive miniature and matte painting work.
Modern Age
VFX today is heavily used in almost all movies produced. The highest-grossing film of all time, Avengers: Endgame (2019), used VFX extensively. Around ninety percent of the film utilised VFX and CGI. Other than films, television series and web series are also known to utilise VFX.
Techniques used
Special Effects: Special effects (often abbreviated as SFX, SPFX, F/X or simply FX) are illusions or visual tricks used in the theatre, film, television, video game and simulator industries to simulate the imagined events in a story or virtual world. Special effects are traditionally divided into the categories of mechanical effects and optical effects. With the emergence of digital film-making a distinction between special effects and visual effects has grown, with the latter referring to digital post-production while "special effects" referring to mechanical and optical effects. Mechanical effects (also called practical or physical effects) are usually accomplished during the live-action shooting. This includes the use of mechanized props, scenery, scale models, animatronics, pyrotechnics and atmospheric effects: creating physical wind, rain, fog, snow, clouds, making a car appear to drive by itself and blowing up a building, etc. Mechanical effects are also often incorporated into set design and makeup. For example, prosthetic makeup can be used to make an actor look like a non-human creature. Optical-effects (also called photographic-effects) are techniques in which images or film frames are created photographically, either "in-camera" using multiple exposure, mattes or the Schüfftan process or in post-production using an optical printer. An optical effect might be used to place actors or sets against a different background.
Motion capture: Motion-capture (sometimes referred as mo-cap or mocap, for short) is the process of recording the movement of objects or people. It is used in military, entertainment, sports, medical applications, and for validation of computer vision and robotics. In filmmaking and video game development, it refers to recording actions of human actors, and using that information to animate digital character models in 2-D or 3-D computer animation. When it includes face and fingers or captures subtle expressions, it is often referred to as performance capture. In many fields, motion capture is sometimes called motion tracking, but in filmmaking and games, motion tracking usually refers more to match moving.
Matte painting: A matte painting is a painted representation of a landscape, set, or distant location that allows filmmakers to create the illusion of an environment that is not present at the filming location. Historically, matte painters and film technicians have used various techniques to combine a matte-painted image with live-action footage. At its best, depending on the skill levels of the artists and technicians, the effect is "seamless" and creates environments that would otherwise be impossible or expensive to film. In the scenes the painting part is static and movements are integrated on it.
Animation: Animation is a method in which figures are manipulated to appear as moving images. In traditional animation, images are drawn or painted by hand on transparent celluloid sheets to be photographed and exhibited on film. Today, most animations are made with computer-generated imagery (CGI). Computer animation can be very detailed 3D animation, while 2D computer animation can be used for stylistic reasons, low bandwidth or faster real-time renderings. Other common animation methods apply a stop-motion technique to two and three-dimensional objects like paper cutouts, puppets or clay figures. Commonly the effect of animation is achieved by a rapid succession of sequential images that minimally differ from each other. The illusion—as in motion pictures in general—is thought to rely on the phi phenomenon and beta movement, but the exact causes are still uncertain. Analog mechanical animation media that rely on the rapid display of sequential images include the phénakisticope, zoetrope, flip book, praxinoscope and film. Television and video are popular electronic animation media that originally were analog and now operate digitally. For display on the computer, techniques like animated GIF and Flash animation were developed.
3D modeling: In 3D computer graphics, 3-D modeling is the process of developing a mathematical representation of any surface of an object (either inanimate or living) in three dimensions via specialized software. The product is called a 3-D model. Someone who works with 3-D models may be referred to as a 3-D artist. It can be displayed as a two-dimensional image through a process called 3D rendering or used in a computer simulation of physical phenomena. The model can also be physically created using 3D printing devices.
Rigging: Skeletal animation or rigging is a technique in computer animation in which a character (or other articulated object) is represented in two parts: a surface representation used to draw the character (called the mesh or skin) and a hierarchical set of interconnected parts (called bones, and collectively forming the skeleton or rig), a virtual armature used to animate (pose and key-frame) the mesh. While this technique is often used to animate humans and other organic figures, it only serves to make the animation process more intuitive, and the same technique can be used to control the deformation of any object—such as a door, a spoon, a building, or a galaxy. When the animated object is more general than, for example, a humanoid character, the set of "bones" may not be hierarchical or interconnected, but simply represent a higher-level description of the motion of the part of mesh it is influencing.
Rotoscoping: Rotoscoping is an animation technique that animator uses to trace over motion picture footage, frame by frame, to produce realistic action. Originally, animators projected photographed live-action movie images onto a glass panel and traced over the image. This projection equipment is referred to as a rotoscope, developed by Polish-American animator Max Fleischer. This device was eventually replaced by computers, but the process is still called rotoscoping. In the visual effects industry, rotoscoping is the technique of manually creating a matte for an element on a live-action plate so it may be composited over another background. Chroma key is more often used for this, as it is faster and requires less work, however rotoscopy is still used on subjects that aren't in front of a green (or blue) screen, due to practical or economic reasons.
Match Moving: In visual effects, match-moving is a technique that allows the insertion of computer graphics into live-action footage with correct position, scale, orientation, and motion-relative to the photographed objects in the shot. The term is used loosely to describe several different methods of extracting camera motion information from a motion picture. Sometimes referred to as motion-tracking or camera-solving, match moving is related to rotoscoping and photogrammetry. Match moving is sometimes confused with motion capture, which records the motion of objects, often human actors, rather than the camera. Typically, motion capture requires special cameras and sensors and a controlled environment (although recent developments such as the Kinect camera and Apple's Face ID have begun to change this). Match moving is also distinct from motion control photography, which uses mechanical hardware to execute multiple identical camera moves. Match moving, by contrast, is typically a software-based technology, applied after the fact to normal footage recorded in uncontrolled environments with an ordinary camera. Match moving is primarily used to track the movement of a camera through a shot so that an identical virtual-camera move can be reproduced in a 3D animation program. When new animated elements are composited back into the original live-action shot, they will appear in perfectly matched perspective and therefore appear seamless.
Compositing: Compositing is the combining of visual elements from separate sources into single images, often to create the illusion that all those elements are parts of the same scene. Live-action shoots for compositing is variously called "chroma key", "blue screen", "green screen" and other names. Today, most, though not all, compositing is achieved through digital image manipulation. Pre-digital compositing techniques, however, go back as far as the trick films of Georges Méliès in the late 19th century, and some are still in use.
Production Pipeline
Visual effects are often integral to a movie's story and appeal. Although most visual effects work is completed during post-production, it usually must be carefully planned and choreographed in pre-production and production. While special effects such as explosions and car chases are made on set, visual effects are primarily executed in post-production with the use of multiple tools and technologies such as graphic design, modeling, animation and similar software. A visual effects supervisor is usually involved with the production from an early stage to work closely with production and the film's director to design, guide and lead the teams required to achieve the desired effects.
Many studios specialize in visual effects; among them are Digital Domain, DreamWorks Animation, Framestore, Weta Digital, Industrial Light & Magic, Pixomondo, Moving Picture Company and Sony Pictures Imageworks.
VFX Industry
The VFX and Animation studios are scattered all over the world; main studios are located in California, Vancouver, Montreal, London, Paris, Australia, New Zealand, Mumbai, Bangalore, Sydney, Tokyo, Beijing and Shanghai.
List of visual effects companies
The Aaron Sims Company (Los Angeles, United States)
ActionVFX (Johnson City, United States)
Adobe Systems Incorporated (San Jose, United States)
Animal Logic (Sydney, AU; Venice, United States and Vancouver, Canada)
Atmosphere Visual Effects (Vancouver, Canada)
Barnstorm VFX (Vancouver, Canada; Los Angeles, United States)
Base FX (Beijing; Wuxi; Xiamen; Kuala Lumpur; Los Angeles, United States)
Bird Studios (London, England)
Bron Studios (Vancouver, Canada)
BUF Compagnie (Paris, France)
Cafe FX (Santa Maria, United States)
Cantina Creative (Los Angeles, United States)
Cinema Research Corporation, 1954–2000 (Hollywood, United States)
Cinesite (London; Hollywood; Montreal, Canada)
Crafty Apes (Los Angeles; Atlanta; New York; Albuquerque; Vancouver; Baton Rouge; Montreal)
Creature Effects, Inc. (Los Angeles, United States)
Digital Domain (Playa Vista, United States; Vancouver, Canada)
Digital Frontier FX (Marina Del Rey, United States)
Double Negative (VFX) (London, England; Vancouver, Montreal, Toronto, Canada; Bangalore, Chandigarh, Chennai, Mumbai, India)
DreamWorks (Los Angeles, United States)
The Embassy Visual Effects (Vancouver, Canada; Los Angeles, United States)
Escape Studios (London, England)
Flash Film Works (Los Angeles, United States)
Framestore (London, England; Los Angeles, Chicago, New York, United States; Montreal, Vancouver, Canada; London, England; Melbourne, Australia; Mumbai, India)
FuseFX (New York and Los Angeles, United States; Vancouver, Canada; Adelaide, Australia (as Rising Sun Pictures))
Hydraulx (Santa Monica, United States)
Image Engine (Vancouver, Canada)
Industrial Light & Magic (San Francisco; Singapore; Vancouver; London; Sydney)
Intelligent Creatures (Toronto, Canada)
Jim Henson's Creature Shop, (Los Angeles; Hollywood; Camden Town, London)
Legacy Effects, (Los Angeles, United States)
Lola Visual Effects (Los Angeles, United States)
Look Effects (Culver City, United States)
Luma Pictures (Melbourne, Australia; Los Angeles, United States; Vancouver, Canada)
M5 Industries (San Francisco, United States)
Mac Guff (Los Angeles; Paris)
Manex Visual Effects (Alameda, United States)
Main Road Post (Moscow, Russia)
Makuta VFX (Universal City, United States) (Hyderabad, India)
Matte World Digital (Novato, United States)
Method Studios (Atlanta, Los Angeles, New York, United States; Montreal, Vancouver, Canada; Melbourne, Australia; Pune, India)
Mikros Image (Paris, Montreal, Bruxelles, Liège)
The Mill (London, England; New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, United States; Berlin, Germany; Bangalore, India)
Modus FX (Montreal, Canada)
Moving Picture Company (Soho, London, England)
Netter Digital (North Hollywood, United States)
The Orphanage (California, United States)
Pixomondo (Frankfurt; Stuttgart; Los Angeles; Toronto; Montreal; Vancouver)
QPPE
Rainmaker Digital Effects (Vancouver, Canada)
Red Chillies Entertainment (Mumbai, India)
Rise FX (Berlin, Germany)
Rising Sun Pictures (Adelaide, Australia)
Robot Communications (Tokyo, Japan)
Rodeo FX (Montreal, Quebec, Munich, Los Angeles)
SAGA VFX (Barcelona, Spain)
Scanline VFX (Munich; Los Angeles; Vancouver; Stuttgart; London; Montreal; Seoul)
Scarecrow VFX (Los Angeles, United States)
Snowmasters (Lexington, United States)
Sony Pictures Imageworks (Culver City, United States; Vancouver, Canada)
Strictly FX, live special effects company
Surreal World (Melbourne, Australia)
The Third Floor, Inc. (London)
Tau Films (United States, Malaysia, India, China, Canada)
Territory Studio (London, United States)
Tippett Studio (Berkeley, United States)
Trixter (Berlin and Munich, Germany)
Tsuburaya Productions (Tokyo, Japan)
VisionArt (Santa Monica, United States)
Vision Crew Unlimited
Weta Digital (Wellington, New Zealand)
ZERO VFX (Boston, United States)
Zoic Studios (Culver City, United States; Vancouver, Canada)
ZFX Inc, a flying effects company
The companies above may use their own software or use software such as Blender, Natron VFX, Nuke, Blackmagic Fusion, Houdini, Autodesk Maya, Zbrush, Adobe After Effects, or other similar (in purpose) software packages.
See also
Animation
Match moving
Bluescreen/greenscreen
Compositing
Computer-generated imagery
Computer animation
Front projection effect
Interactive video compositing
Live-action animated film
Matte painting
Physical effects, another category of special effects
Optics#Visual effects
Rear projection effect
Special effects
VFX Creative Director
Visual Effects Society
References
Further reading
The VES Handbook of Visual Effects: Industry Standard VFX Practices and Procedures, Jeffrey A. Okun & Susan Zwerman, Publisher: Focal Press 2010.
T. Porter and T. Duff, "Compositing Digital Images", Proceedings of SIGGRAPH '84, 18 (1984).
The Art and Science of Digital Compositing ()
Mark Cotta Vaz; Craig Barron: The Invisible Art: The Legends of Movie Matte Painting. San Francisco, Cal.: Chronicle Books, 2002;
Peter Ellenshaw; Ellenshaw Under Glass – Going to the Matte for Disney
Richard Rickitt: Special Effects: The History and Technique. Billboard Books; 2nd edition, 2007; .
External links
Take Five Minutes to Watch 100 Years of Visual Effects by Rosa Golijan – Gizmodo.com – August 27, 2009
Cinematic techniques
Film and video technology
Special effects
Computer graphic techniques |
41118471 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armitage%20%28computing%29 | Armitage (computing) | Armitage is a graphical cyber attack management tool for the Metasploit Project that visualizes targets and recommends exploits. It is a free and open source network security tool notable for its contributions to red team collaboration allowing for: shared sessions, data, and communication through a single Metasploit instance. Armitage is written and supported by Raphael Mudge.
History
Armitage is a GUI front-end for the Metasploit Framework developed by Raphael Mudge with the goal of helping security professionals better understand hacking and to help them realize the power of Metasploit. It was originally made for Cyber Defense Exercises, but has since expanded its user base to other penetration testers.
Features
Armitage is a scriptable red team collaboration tool built on top of the Metasploit Framework. Through Armitage, a user may launch scans and exploits, get exploit recommendations, and use the advanced features of the Metasploit Framework's meterpreter.
References
External links
Cobalt Strike (Strategic Cyber LLC)
Computer security exploits
Computer security software
Cross-platform free software
Free security software
Injection exploits
Software testing
Unix network-related software
Software using the BSD license |
29003813 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freemake%20Video%20Converter | Freemake Video Converter | Freemake Video Converter is a freemium entry-level video editing app (in spite of its name) developed by Ellora Assets Corporation. The program can be used to convert between video formats, rip video DVDs, create photo slideshows and music visualizations. It can also burn compatible video streams to DVD or Blu-ray Discs or upload them directly to YouTube.
Features
In spite of its name, Freemake Video Converter is an entry-level video editing app. It can perform simple non-linear video editing tasks, such as cutting, rotating, flipping, and combining multiple videos into one file with transition effects. It can also create photo slideshows with background music. Users are then able to upload these videos to YouTube.
Freemake Video Converter can read the majority of video, audio, and image formats, and outputs to AVI, MP4, WMV, Matroska, FLV, SWF, 3GP, DVD, Blu-ray, MPEG and MP3. The program also prepares videos supported by various multimedia devices, including Apple devices (iPod, iPhone, iPad), Xbox, Sony PlayStation, and Samsung, Nokia, BlackBerry, and Android mobile devices. The software is able to perform DVD burning and is able to convert videos, photographs, and music into DVD video.
The user interface is based on Windows Presentation Foundation technology. Freemake Video Converter supports NVIDIA CUDA technology for H.264 video encoding (starting with version 1.2.0).
Important updates
Freemake Video Converter 2.0 was a major update which integrated two new functions: ripping video from online portals and Blu-ray Disc creation and burning. Version 2.1 implemented suggestions from users, including support for subtitles, ISO image creation, and DVD to DVD/Blu-ray conversion. With version 2.3 (earlier 2.2 Beta), support for DXVA has been added to accelerate conversion (up to 50% for HD content).
Version 3.0 added HTML5 video creation support and new presets for smartphones.
Version 4.0 (introduced in April 2013) added a freemium "Gold Pack" of extra features that can be added if a "donation" is paid. Starting with version 4.0.4, released on 27 August 2013, the program adds a promotional watermark at the end of every video longer than 5 minutes unless Gold Pack is activated. Version 4.1.9, released on 25 November 2015 added support to Drag & Drop functions which was not available on prior versions.
Since at least version 4.1.9.44 (1 May 2017), the Freemake Welcome Screen is added in the beginning of video and the big Freemake Logo is watermarked in the center of the whole video. This makes the free outputs useless and users are forced to pay money or stop using it. Version 4.1.9.31 (11 August 2016) does not have this restriction.
Licensing issues
FFmpeg has added Freemake Video Converter v1.3 to its Hall of Shame. An issue tracker entry for this product, opened on 16 December 2010, says it is in violation of GNU General Public License as it is distributing components of FFmpeg project without including due credit. Ellora Assets Corporation has not responded yet.
Bundled software from sponsors
Since version 4.0, Freemake Video Converter's installer includes a potentially unwanted search toolbar from Conduit as well as SweetPacks malware. Although users can decline the software during install, the opt-out option is rendered in gray which could mistakenly give the impression that it's disabled.
See also
Related software
Freemake Audio Converter
Freemake Music Box
Freemake Video Downloader
Comparison
Comparison of video converters
Comparison of video editing software
References
External links
Video conversion software
Windows-only freeware
Video editing software |
22508163 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy%20Catalyst | Alchemy Catalyst | Alchemy CATALYST is a software Internationalization and localization suite which is developed by Alchemy Software Development Limited.
History
Alchemy Software Development Limited was founded by Enda McDonnell and Tony O’Dowd, who were the original developers of Corel Catalyst. It acquired the Corel Catalyst software which was initially owned by Corel Corporation, in a deal which saw Corel gain a stake of 24.9% equity interest in the newly formed company. On March 6, 2008 Alchemy Software development merged with Translations.com, a provider of software localisation and Globalization Management system technology. The headquarters of Alchemy Software Development Limited are located in Dublin. The company also has offices located in Japan, Germany and the United States. Catalyst 2019 was released in December 2018.
Alchemy CATALYST 2019
Alchemy CATALYST is a visual software localisation tool and was one of the first tools that contained integrated translation memory technology. The latest version of Alchemy CATALYST version 2019 was released on December 11, 2018. Alchemy CATALYST 2019 is an Object Oriented localization environment.
References
External links
Alchemy CATALYST website
Windows software |
30627449 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene%20Thacker | Eugene Thacker | Eugene Thacker is an American philosopher, poet and author. He is Professor of Media Studies at The New School in New York City. His writing is often associated with the philosophy of nihilism and pessimism. Thacker's books include In the Dust of This Planet (part of his Horror of Philosophy trilogy) and Infinite Resignation.
Education
Thacker received a Bachelor of Arts degree from the University of Washington, and a Master of Arts and Doctor of Philosophy in Comparative Literature from Rutgers University.
Works
Nihilism, Pessimism, Speculative Realism
Thacker's work has been associated with philosophical nihilism and pessimism, as well as to contemporary philosophies of speculative realism and collapsology. His short book Cosmic Pessimism defines pessimism as "the philosophical form of disenchantment." As Thacker states: "Pessimism is the night-side of thought, a melodrama of the futility of the brain, a poetry written in the graveyard of philosophy."
In 2018, Thacker's new book, Infinite Resignation was published by Repeater Books. Infinite Resignation consists of fragments and aphorisms on the nature of pessimism, mixing the personal and philosophical. Thacker engages with writers like Thomas Bernhard, E.M. Cioran, Osamu Dazai, Søren Kierkegaard, Clarice Lispector, Giacomo Leopardi, Fernando Pessoa, and Schopenhauer. The New York Times noted "Thacker has thrown a party for all of these eloquent cranks in Infinite Resignation, and he is an excellent host...This book provides a metric ton of misery and a lot of company." One reviewer writes of the book: "Infinite Resignation belongs on the shelf next to the likes of Nietzsche and Schopenhauer...Like all great works of philosophy, this book will force readers to question their long-held beliefs in the way the world works and the way the world ought to work...Thacker's voice is quiet, a desperate whisper into the void that is both haunting and heartbreaking."
Thacker's major philosophical work is After Life, published by the University of Chicago Press. In it, Thacker argues that the ontology of life operates by way of a split between "Life" and "the living," making possible a "metaphysical displacement" in which life is thought via another metaphysical term, such as time, form, or spirit: "Every ontology of life thinks of life in terms of something-other-than-life...that something-other-than-life is most often a metaphysical concept, such as time and temporality, form and causality, or spirit and immanence" Thacker traces this theme in Aristotle, Dionysius the Areopagite, John Scottus Eriugena, negative theology, Immanuel Kant, and Georges Bataille, showing how this three-fold displacement is also alive in philosophy today. After Life also includes comparisons with Arabic, Japanese, and Chinese philosophy.
Thacker's follow-up essay "Darklife: Negation, Nothingness, and the Will-to-Life in Schopenhauer" discusses the ontology of life in terms of negation, eliminativism, and "the inverse relationship between logic and life." Specifically, Thacker argues that Schopenhauer's philosophy posits a "dark life" in opposition to the "ontology of generosity" of German Idealist thinkers such as Hegel and Schelling. Thacker has also written in a similar vein on the role of negation and "nothingness" in the work of mystical philosopher Meister Eckhart. Ultimately Thacker argues for a skepticism regarding "life": "Life is not only a problem of philosophy, but a problem for philosophy.
Horror and Philosophy
Thacker's most widely read book is In the Dust of This Planet, part of his Horror of Philosophy trilogy. In it, Thacker explores the idea of the "unthinkable world" as represented in the horror fiction genre, in philosophies of pessimism and nihilism, and in the philosophies of apophatic ("darkness") mysticism. In the first volume, In the Dust of This Planet, Thacker calls the horror of philosophy "the isolation of those moments in which philosophy reveals its own limitations and constraints, moments in which thinking enigmatically confronts the horizon of its own possibility." Thacker distinguishes the "world-for-us" (the human-centric view of the world), and the "world-in-itself" (the world as it exists objectively), from what he calls the "world-without-us": "the world-without-us lies somewhere in between, in a nebulous zone that is at once impersonal and horrific." In this and the other volumes of the trilogy Thacker writes about a wide range of work: H.P. Lovecraft, Algernon Blackwood, Edgar Allan Poe, Dante's Inferno, Les Chants de Maldoror by Comte de Lautréamont, the Faust myth, manga artist Junji Ito, contemporary horror authors Thomas Ligotti and Caitlín Kiernan, K-horror film, and the philosophy of Schopenhauer, Rudolph Otto, Medieval mysticism (Meister Eckhart, Angela of Foligno, John of the Cross), occult philosophy, and the philosophy of the Kyoto School.
Thacker's writing on philosophy and horror extends to what he calls dark media, or technologies that mediate between the natural and supernatural, and point to the limit of human perception and knowledge. Similarly, Thacker has written a series of essays on "necrology", defined as the decay or disintegration of the body politic. Thacker discusses plague, demonic possession, and the living dead, drawing upon the history of medicine, biopolitics, political theology, and the horror genre.
Philosophy, Science, Technology
Thacker's earlier works adopt approaches from the philosophy of science & technology, and examine the relation between science and science fiction. Examples are his book Biomedia, and his writings on bioinformatics, nanotechnology, biocomputing, complex adaptive systems, swarm intelligence, and network theory. Thacker's concept of biomedia is defined as follows: "Biomedia entail the informatic recontextualization of biological components and processes, for ends that may be medical or nonmedical...and with effects that are as much cultural, social, and political as they are scientific." Thacker clarifies: "biomedia continuously make the dual demand that information materialize itself...biomedia depend upon an understanding of biological as informational but not immaterial." In his book The Global Genome: Biotechnology, Politics, and Culture, Thacker looks to developments in tissue engineering where techno-mechanical apparatuses disappear altogether so that it appears as though technology is the natural body. In Thacker's words, "biotechnology is thus invisible yet immanent."
In 2013 Thacker, along with Alexander Galloway and McKenzie Wark, published the co-authored book Excommunication: Three Inquiries in Media and Mediation. In the opening of the book the authors ask "Does everything that exists, exist to be presented and represented, to be mediated and remediated, to be communicated and translated? There are mediative situations in which heresy, exile, or banishment carry the day, not repetition, communion, or integration. There are certain kinds of messages that state 'there will be no more messages'. Hence for every communication there is a correlative excommunication." This approach has been referred to as the "New York School of Media Theory."
Other Writings
Thacker's poetry and fiction has appeared in various literary anthologies and magazines. Thacker has produced book arts projects, and an anti-novel titled An Ideal for Living, of which American poet and conceptual writer Kenneth Goldsmith has said: "this an important book...these pages take cues from Burroughs and Gibson, while at the same time presciently pointing to the web-based path writing would take over the next decade." In the 1990s, Thacker, along with Ronald Sukenick and Mark Amerika, established Alt-X Press, for which he edited the anthology of experimental writing Hard_Code.
Thacker is a contributor to The Japan Times Books section, where he has written about the work of Junji Ito, Osamu Dazai, Haruo Sato, Keiji Nishitani, Izumi Kyōka, Edogawa Rampo, and Zen death poetry.
Thacker wrote a column for London-based Mute Magazine called "Occultural Studies," writing about such topics as the Surrealist poet Robert Desnos, Schopenhauer's philosophy, the horror writing of Thomas Ligotti, and the music of And Also The Trees.
Thacker has written Forewords to the English editions of the works of E.M. Cioran, published by Arcade Press. He provided the Preface and Annotations to Clive Barker's 1988 horror novella Cabal, in a special edition published by Fiddleblack Press. Thacker is part of the editorial group of Schism, an underground philosophy and literary press.
Thacker has contributed to limited editions books produced by Zagava Press, including his essay on the life and writings of J.-K. Huysmans. Thacker has also participated in the series of "black metal theory" symposia and publications.
Other Activities
Thacker has also collaborated with artists and musicians. These include the art collective Fakeshop, which presented art & installation at Ars Electronica, ACM SIGGRAPH 2000, and the 2000 Whitney Biennial. Thacker has also collaborated with Biotech Hobbyist, and co-authored an art book Creative Biotechnology: A User's Manual.. In 1998 Thacker produced a CD of noise music released by Extreme Records as well as a split CD with Merzbow/Masami Akita, part of the Extreme Records Merzbow Box Set released in 2000.
Influence
In an interview with the Wall Street Journal, Nic Pizzolatto, creator and writer of True Detective, cites Thacker's In the Dust of This Planet as an influence on the TV series, particularly the worldview of lead character Rust Cohle, along with several other books: Ray Brassier's Nihil Unbound, Thomas Ligotti's The Conspiracy Against the Human Race, Jim Crawford's Confessions of an Antinatalist, and David Benatar's Better Never to Have Been.
In September 2014 the WNYC's Radiolab ran a show entitled "In the Dust of This Planet." The program traced the appropriation of Thacker's book of the same name in contemporary art, fashion, music video, and popular culture. Both Thacker's book and the Radiolab podcast were covered by Glenn Beck on TheBlazeTV. Thacker has commented on 'nihilism memes' in an interview: "Is it any accident that at a time when we have become acutely aware of the challenges concerning global climate change, we have also created this bubble of social media? I find social media and media culture generally to be a vapid, desperate, self-aggrandizing circus of species-specific solipsism — ironically, the stupidity of our species might be its only legacy."
Thacker and his book In the Dust of This Planet are referenced by YouTube channel Wisecrack.
Comic book author Warren Ellis cites as an influence the nihilist philosophies of Thacker and Peter Sjöstedt-H for his 2017 series Karnak: The Flaw in All Things. a re-imagining of the original Marvel Inhumans character Karnak.
The writing of Thacker and Thomas Ligotti is cited as an influence on the 2021 album The Nightmare of Being by the Gothenburg melodic death metal band At The Gates. Thacker also provided lyrics for the song "Cosmic Pessimism."
Bibliography
Hard Code: Narrating the Network Society. Edited by Eugene Thacker. Alt-X Press, 2002. .
Biomedia. University of Minnesota Press, 2004. .
Creative Biotechnology: A User's Manual, co-authored with Natalie Jeremijenko and Heath Bunting. Locus+, 2004. .
The Global Genome: Biotechnology, Politics, and Culture. MIT Press, 2005. .
The Exploit: A Theory of Networks, co-authored with Alexander R. Galloway. University of Minnesota Press, 2007. .
After Life. University of Chicago Press, 2010. .
In the Dust of This Planet (Horror of Philosophy Vol. 1). Zero Books, 2011. .
Leper Creativity: The Cyclonopedia Symposium, co-edited with Ed Keller and Nicola Masciandaro. Punctum Books, 2012. .
Excommunication: Three Inquiries in Media and Mediation, co-authored with Alexander R. Galloway and McKenzie Wark. University of Chicago Press, 2013. .
Dark Nights of the Universe, co-authored with Daniel Colucciello Barber, Nicola Masciandaro, Alexander R. Galloway and François Laruelle. [NAME] Publications, 2013. .
And They Were Two in One and One in Two, co-edited with Nicola Masciandaro. Schism Press, 2014. .
Starry Speculative Corpse (Horror of Philosophy Vol. 2). Zero Books, 2015. .
Tentacles Longer Than Night (Horror of Philosophy Vol. 3). Zero Books, 2015. .
Cosmic Pessimism, with drawings by Keith Tilford. Univocal Publishing, 2015. .
Infinite Resignation. Repeater Books, 2018. .
An Ideal for Living: An Anti-Novel (20th Anniversary Edition). Schism Press, 2020. .
Arthur Schopenhauer, On The Suffering Of The World. Edited with an Introduction by Eugene Thacker. Repeater Books, 2020. .
The Repeater Book of the Occult, co-edited with Tariq Goddard. Repeater Books, 2021. .
References
External links
The New School: Eugene Thacker
Radiolab - In the Dust of This Planet, Radiolab interview with Eugene Thacker, Simon Critchley, Jad Abumrad, and others, WNYC (September 8, 2014)
Horror of Philosophy: Three Volumes, Interviewed by Carla Nappi on New Books Network (2015)
New Yorker feature (9–16 July 2018)
VICE interview with Zachary Siegel (8 August 2018)
The Quietus interview with Michael J. Brooks (October 28, 2018)
Creative Independent interview with Meredith Graves (November 8, 2018)
O32c Magazine interview with Daniel Beatty Garcia (July 2019)
The Patron Saints of Pessimism - A Writer's Pantheon, excerpt from Infinite Resignation @ LitHub (2018)
"Pessimism, Futility, and Extinction" Theory, Culture & Society interview with Thomas Dekeyser (17 March 2020).
"On Suffering" interview with Brad Evans, Los Angeles Review of Books (February 1 2021).
"How Algernon Blackwood Turned Nature Into Sublime Horror" LitHub (2021).
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
21st-century American essayists
21st-century American philosophers
21st-century American poets
American literary critics
Aphorists
Mass media theorists
Philosophers of nihilism
Philosophers of pessimism
Rutgers University alumni
The New School faculty
University of Washington alumni |
7069984 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giles%20Pellerin | Giles Pellerin | Giles L. (Bud) Pellerin (December 23, 1906 – November 21, 1998), nicknamed the Superfan or Super Fan, was an American telephone company executive, USC alumnus, and a fan of the University of Southern California Trojans (USC) college football team, notable for having attended 797 consecutive USC football games over a period of 73 years until his death at age 91. This record was made all the more remarkable by the fact that Pellerin hated flying and, whenever possible, drove or rode the train or bus to every game he attended. He was inducted into the USC Athletic Hall of Fame in 1995.
Pellerin's streak began in 1925, while he was still a student at USC (he graduated in 1930). During his streak he attended USC games in 75 stadiums in over 50 cities. Until his death, he had watched every game played in USC's major football rivalries, including 68 games with UCLA and 69 games with Notre Dame. He had seen the introduction of USC icons such as Traveler in 1927 and Tommy Trojan in 1930. He had witnessed all but one of USC's bowl games, including the regular-season Mirage Bowl in Tokyo, Japan in 1985. During his streak USC went 532-225-40, winning nine national championships, and played under ten different head coaches.
Pellerin never played football himself. A resident of the Pasadena area for his entire life, he attended his first USC football game while still a student at Huntington Park High School, going to the 1923 Rose Bowl Game in which USC defeated Penn State. It was USC's first appearance in the Rose Bowl, and Pellerin would go on to see the Trojans' next 27 appearances as well. In his private life, Pellerin married and became a successful executive with Pacific Telephone Company, completing his career in the 1960s as director of a computerized billing office in Orange, California, with a staff of 450 female and 7 male employees. He delayed his own 1935 honeymoon by eight months in order to combine it with a USC football road game (against the University of Hawaii in Honolulu), and donated over US$1.3 million to USC to endow four athletic scholarships: three for football and one for swimming. Pellerin claimed to have traveled over 650,000 miles and spent $85,000 to attend the games in his streak. In 1949, he walked out of a hospital just five days after an appendectomy in order to attend a home game, telling nurses that he was going for a walk.
USC embraced Pellerin and began including his story in their annual football media guide. By the 1990s he had become a subject for many sports journalists, including stories in USA Today and Sports Illustrated and on the ABC Network. In 1995, Pellerin was enshrined in the USC Athletic Hall of Fame as part of the second class of inductees. He won the first annual Sears Diehard Fan Award as "America's NCAA Division I Diehard College Sports Fan" in 1996.
Death
Pellerin died during the 1998 UCLA–USC rivalry game. During the game, he felt ill and asked his next-younger brother, Oliver Pellerin, who was attending the game with him, to take him home. As he was being brought outside, he died of cardiac arrest in the parking lot of the Rose Bowl, which was coincidentally the same location where he attended his first USC game.
His younger brothers also had long streaks. Oliver viewed 637 consecutive games (1945–2001), passing away in 2002 at age 93; the youngest, Max Pellerin, at one point had a streak of 300+, passing away in 2001 at age 91.
References
External links
Superfan Giles Pellerin – various articles from 1987 to 2002
Super Fan! – USC Athletic Department page
Superfan Pellerin Passes Away: Trojan fan's streak ends Saturday at 797 straight games – AP report, November 21, 1998, Accessed Sept. 19, 2006.
USC Super Fan's Brother Oliver Pellerin, Who Saw 637 Consecutive Trojan Football Games, Dies – USC Athletic Department page, May 14, 2002, Accessed Sept. 19, 2006.
1906 births
1998 deaths
Spectators of American football
USC Trojans football
University of Southern California alumni
People from Pasadena, California
Businesspeople in telecommunications |
15294 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamabad%20Capital%20Territory | Islamabad Capital Territory | Islamabad Capital Territory () is the only federal territory of Pakistan. Located between Punjab and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province. It includes the country's federal capital Islamabad. The territory is represented in the National Assembly constituencies NA-52, NA-53 and NA-54.
History
In 1960, land was transferred from Rawalpindi District of Punjab province to establish Pakistan's new capital. According to the 1960s master plan, the Capital Territory included Rawalpindi, and was to be composed of the following parts:
Rawalpindi,
Islamabad,
Margalla Hills,
Islamabad rural,
However, Rawalpindi was eventually excluded from the Islamabad master plan in the 1980s.
Administration
Zones
Islamabad is subdivided into five zones:
Zone I: Designated for urban development and federal government institutions
Zone II: Designated for urban development
Zone III: Designated for rural development
Zone IV: Designated for rural development
Zone V: Designated for rural development
Sectors
Union Councils
Islamabad Capital Territory comprises urban and rural areas. The rural consists of 23 union councils, comprising 133 villages, while urban has 27 union councils.
Climate
The climate of Islamabad has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen: Cwa), with five seasons: Winter (November–February), Spring (March and April), Summer (May and June), Rainy Monsoon (July and August) and Autumn (September and October). The hottest month is June, where average highs routinely exceed . Wettest month is July, with heavy rainfalls and evening thunderstorms with the possibility of cloudburst and flooding. Coolest month is January. Islamabad's micro-climate is regulated by three artificial reservoirs: Rawal, Simli, and Khanpur Dam. Last one is located on the Haro River near the town of Khanpur, about from Islamabad. Simli Dam is north of Islamabad. of the city consists of Margalla Hills National Park. Loi Bher Forest is situated along the Islamabad Highway, covering an area of . Highest monthly rainfall of was recorded during July 1995. Winters generally feature dense fog in the mornings and sunny afternoons. In the city, temperatures stay mild, with snowfall over the higher elevations points on nearby hill stations, notably Murree and Nathia Gali. The temperatures range from in January to in June. The highest recorded temperature was on 23 June 2005 while the lowest temperature was on 17 January 1967. The city has "recorded" snowfall. On 23 July 2001, Islamabad received a record breaking of rainfall in just 10 hours. It was the heaviest rainfall in Islamabad in the past 100 years and the highest rainfall in 24 hours as well.
Cityscape
Civic administration
The main administrative authority of the city is Islamabad Capital Territory Administration with some help from Metropolitan Corporation Islamabad and Capital Development Authority (CDA), which oversees the planning, development, construction, and administration of the city. Islamabad Capital Territory is divided into eight zones: Administrative Zone, Commercial District, Educational Sector, Industrial Sector, Diplomatic Enclave, Residential Areas, Rural Areas and Green Area.
Islamabad city is divided into five major zones: Zone I, Zone II, Zone III, Zone IV, and Zone V. Out of these, Zone IV is the largest in area. All sectors of Ghouri town (1, 2, 3, VIP, 5, 4-A, 4-B, 4-C, 5-A, 5-B and sector 7) are located in this zone. Zone I consists mainly of all the developed residential sectors, while Zone II consists of the under-developed residential sectors. Each residential sector is identified by a letter of the alphabet and a number, and covers an area of approximately 4 square kilometres. The sectors are lettered from A to I, and each sector is divided into four numbered sub-sectors.
Series A, B, and C are still underdeveloped. The D series has seven sectors (D-11 to D-17), of which only sector D-12 is completely developed. This series is located at the foot of Margalla Hills. The E Sectors are named from E-7 to E-17. Many foreigners and diplomatic personnel are housed in these sectors. In the revised Master Plan of the city, CDA has decided to develop a park on the pattern of Fatima Jinnah Park in sector E-14. Sectors E-8 and E-9 contain the campuses of Bahria University, Air University, and the National Defence University. The F and G series contains the most developed sectors. F series contains sectors F-5 to F-17; some sectors are still under-developed. F-5 is an important sector for the software industry in Islamabad, as the two software technology parks are located here. The entire F-9 sector is covered with Fatima Jinnah Park. The Centaurus complex will be one of the major landmarks of the F-8 sector. G sectors are numbered G-5 through G-17. Some important places include the Jinnah Convention Center and Serena Hotel in G-5, the Red Mosque in G-6, and the Pakistan Institute of Medical Sciences, the largest medical complex in the capital, located in G-8.
The H sectors are numbered H-8 through H-17. The H sectors are mostly dedicated to educational and health institutions. National University of Sciences and Technology covers a major portion of sector H-12. The I sectors are numbered from I-8 to I-18. With the exception of I-8, which is a well-developed residential area, these sectors are primarily part of the industrial zone. Currently two sub-sectors of I-9 and one sub-sector of I-10 are used as industrial areas. CDA is planning to set up Islamabad Railway Station in Sector I-18 and Industrial City in sector I-17. Zone III consists primarily of the Margalla Hills and Margalla Hills National Park. Rawal Lake is in this zone. Zone IV and V consist of Islamabad Park, and rural areas of the city. The Soan River flows into the city through Zone V.
Demographics
Language
While urban Islamabad is home to people from all over Pakistan as well as expatriates, in the rural areas a number of Pothohari speaking tribal communities can still be recognised.
Religion
Islamabad-Rawalpindi metropolitan area
When the master plan for Islamabad was drawn up in 1960, Islamabad and Rawalpindi, along with the adjoining areas, was to be integrated to form a large metropolitan area called Islamabad/Rawalpindi Metropolitan Area. The area would consist of the developing Islamabad, the old colonial cantonment city of Rawalpindi, and Margalla Hills National Park, including surrounding rural areas. However, Islamabad city is part of the Islamabad Capital Territory, while Rawalpindi is part of Rawalpindi District, which is part of province of Punjab.
Initially, it was proposed that the three areas would be connected by four major highways: Murree Highway, Islamabad Highway, Soan Highway, and Capital Highway. However, to date only two highways have been constructed: Kashmir Highway (the former Murree Highway) and Islamabad Highway. Plans of constructing Margalla Avenue are also underway. Islamabad is the hub all the governmental activities while Rawalpindi is the centre of all industrial, commercial, and military activities. The two cities are considered sister cities and are highly interdependent.
Economy
Islamabad is a net contributor to the Pakistani economy, as whilst having only 0.8% of the country's population, it contributes 1% to the country's GDP. Islamabad Stock Exchange, founded in 1989, is Pakistan's third largest stock exchange after Karachi Stock Exchange and Lahore Stock Exchange. The exchange has 118 members with 104 corporate bodies and 18 individual members. The average daily turnover of the stock exchange is over 1 million shares. As of 2012, Islamabad LTU (Large Tax Unit) was responsible for Rs 371 billion in tax revenue, which amounts to 20% of all the revenue collected by Federal Board of Revenue.
Islamabad has seen an expansion in information and communications technology with the addition two Software Technology Parks, which house numerous national and foreign technological and information technology companies. The tech parks are located in Evacuee Trust Complex and Awami Markaz. Awami Markaz houses 36 IT companies while Evacuee Trust house 29 companies. Call centres for foreign companies have been targeted as another significant area of growth, with the government making efforts to reduce taxes by as much as 10% to encourage foreign investments in the information technology sector. Most of Pakistan's state-owned companies like PIA, PTV, PTCL, OGDCL, and Zarai Taraqiati Bank Ltd. are based in Islamabad. Headquarters of all major telecommunication operators such as PTCL, Mobilink, Telenor, Ufone, and China Mobile are located in Islamabad. Being an expensive city, the prices of most of fruits, vegetable and poultry items increased in Islamabad during the year 2015-2020
Tourism
Transport
Airport
Islamabad is connected to major destinations around the world through Islamabad International Airport. The airport is the largest in Pakistan, handling 9 million passengers per annum. The airport was built at a cost of $400 million and opened on 3 May 2018, replacing the former Benazir Bhutto International Airport. It is the first greenfield airport in Pakistan with an area of .
Metrobus
The Rawalpindi-Islamabad Metrobus is a bus rapid transit system that serves the twin cities of Rawalpindi and Islamabad in Pakistan. It uses dedicated bus lanes for all of its route covering 24 bus stations. Islamabad is well connected with other parts of the country through car rental services such as Alvi Transport Network and Pakistan Car Rentals.
Motorways
All major cities and towns are accessible through regular trains and bus services running mostly from the neighbouring city of Rawalpindi. Lahore and Peshawar are linked to Islamabad through a network of motorways, which has significantly reduced travelling times between these cities. M-2 Motorway is long and connect Islamabad and Lahore. M-1 Motorway connects Islamabad with Peshawar and is long. Islamabad is linked to Rawalpindi through the Faizabad Interchange, which has a daily traffic volume of about 48,000 vehicles.
Education
Islamabad has the highest literacy rate of Pakistan at 95%. Islamabad also has some of Pakistan's major universities, including Quaid-i-Azam University, the International Islamic University, and the National University of Sciences and Technology and Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences
Private School Network Islamabad is working for private educational institutions. The president of PSN is Dr. Muhammad Afzal Babur from Bhara Kahu. PSN is divided into eight zones in Islamabad. In Tarlai Zone Chaudhary Faisal Ali from Faisal Academy Tarlai Kalan is Zonal General Sectary of PSN.
Quaid-e-Azam University has several faculties. The institute is located in a semi-hilly area, east of the Secretariat buildings and near the base of Margalla Hills. This Post-Graduate institute is spread over . The nucleus of the campus has been designed as an axial spine with a library as its center.
Other universities include the following:
Bahria University
Air University
Quaid-e-Azam University
Allama Iqbal Open University (AIOU)
Alkauthar Islamic University
COMSATS Institute of Information Technology (CIIT)
Capital University of Science and Technology (CUST) [Formally Mohammad Ali Jinnah University, Islamabad Campus]
Federal Urdu University of Arts, Science & Technology (FUUAST)
National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST)
National Defense University, Islamabad(NDU)
National University of Modern Languages (NUML)
Institute of Space Technology
International Islamic University Islamabad
Institute of Cost and Management Accountants of Pakistan (ICMAP)
Pakistan Institute of Development Economics (PIDE)
Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences (PIEAS)
Shifa College of Medicine
Foundation University Islamabad (FUI)
National University of Computer & Emerging Sciences(FAST-NUCES)
Riphah International University
University of Lahore
Center for Advanced Studies in Engineering
Preston University Islamabad Campus
Iqra University Islamabad Campus
Shaheed Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto Institute of Science and Technology (ZABIST)
Hamdard University Islamabad Campus
The Millennium Universal College Islamabad Campus
Sports
Islamabad United became the first ever team to win Pakistan Super League in 2016. And now the federal team Is participating in the Pakistan Cup. The team is under the captaincy of Misbah-ul-Haq, former captain of Pakistan, The Islamabad United was also under Misbah.
See also
Islamabad Capital Territory Administration
List of cultural heritage sites in Islamabad Capital Territory
Developments in Islamabad
Model Town Humak
References
External links
Islamabad Capital Territory Administration website
Capital Development Authority
Subdivisions of Pakistan
Capital districts and territories
States and territories established in 1960
1960 establishments in Pakistan |
155319 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data%20acquisition | Data acquisition | Data acquisition is the process of sampling signals that measure real world physical conditions and converting the resulting samples into digital numeric values that can be manipulated by a computer. Data acquisition systems, abbreviated by the initialisms DAS, DAQ, or DAU, typically convert analog waveforms into digital values for processing. The components of data acquisition systems include:
Sensors, to convert physical parameters to electrical signals.
Signal conditioning circuitry, to convert sensor signals into a form that can be converted to digital values.
Analog-to-digital converters, to convert conditioned sensor signals to digital values.
Data acquisition applications are usually controlled by software programs developed using various general purpose programming languages such as Assembly, BASIC, C, C++, C#, Fortran, Java, LabVIEW, Lisp, Pascal, etc. Stand-alone data acquisition systems are often called data loggers.
There are also open-source software packages providing all the necessary tools to acquire data from different, typically specific, hardware equipment. These tools come from the scientific community where complex experiment requires fast, flexible and adaptable software. Those packages are usually custom fit but more general DAQ packages like the Maximum Integrated Data Acquisition System can be easily tailored and is used in several physics experiments.
History
In 1963, IBM produced computers which specialized in data acquisition. These include the IBM 7700 Data Acquisition System, and its successor, the IBM 1800 Data Acquisition and Control System. These expensive specialized systems were surpassed in 1974 by general purpose S-100 computers and data acquisitions cards produced by Tecmar/Scientific Solutions Inc. In 1981 IBM introduced the IBM Personal Computer and Scientific Solutions introduced the first PC data acquisition products.
Methodology
Sources and systems
Data acquisition begins with the physical phenomenon or physical property to be measured. Examples of this include temperature, vibration, light intensity, gas pressure, fluid flow, and force. Regardless of the type of physical property to be measured, the physical state that is to be measured must first be transformed into a unified form that can be sampled by a data acquisition system. The task of performing such transformations falls on devices called sensors. A data acquisition system is a collection of software and hardware that allows one to measure or control physical characteristics of something in the real world. A complete data acquisition system consists of DAQ hardware, sensors and actuators, signal conditioning hardware, and a computer running DAQ software. If timing is necessary (such as for event mode DAQ systems), a separate compensated distributed timing system is required.
A sensor, which is a type of transducer, is a device that converts a physical property into a corresponding electrical signal (e.g., strain gauge, thermistor). An acquisition system to measure different properties depends on the sensors that are suited to detect those properties. Signal conditioning may be necessary if the signal from the transducer is not suitable for the DAQ hardware being used. The signal may need to be filtered, shaped or amplified in most cases. Various other examples of signal conditioning might be bridge completion, providing current or voltage excitation to the sensor, isolation, linearization. For transmission purposes, single ended analog signals, which are more susceptible to noise can be converted to differential signals. Once digitized, the signal can be encoded to reduce and correct transmission errors.
DAQ hardware
DAQ hardware is what usually interfaces between the signal and a PC. It could be in the form of modules that can be connected to the computer's ports (parallel, serial, USB, etc.) or cards connected to slots (S-100 bus, AppleBus, ISA, MCA, PCI, PCI-E, etc.) in a PC motherboard or in a modular crate (CAMAC, NIM, VME). Sometimes adapters are needed, in which case an external breakout box can be used.
DAQ cards often contain multiple components (multiplexer, ADC, DAC, TTL-IO, high speed timers, RAM). These are accessible via a bus by a microcontroller, which can run small programs. A controller is more flexible than a hard wired logic, yet cheaper than a CPU so that it is permissible to block it with simple polling loops. For example:
Waiting for a trigger, starting the ADC, looking up the time, waiting for the ADC to finish, move value to RAM, switch multiplexer, get TTL input, let DAC proceed with voltage ramp.
DAQ device drivers
DAQ device drivers are needed in order for the DAQ hardware to work with a PC. The device driver performs low-level register writes and reads on the hardware, while exposing API for developing user applications in a variety of programs.
Input devices
3D scanner
Analog-to-digital converter
Time-to-digital converter
Hardware
Computer Automated Measurement and Control (CAMAC)
Industrial Ethernet
Industrial USB
LAN eXtensions for Instrumentation
Network interface controller
PCI eXtensions for Instrumentation
VMEbus
VXI
DAQ software
Specialized DAQ software may be delivered with the DAQ hardware. Software tools used for building large-scale data acquisition systems include EPICS. Other programming environments that are used to build DAQ applications include ladder logic, Visual C++, Visual Basic, LabVIEW, and MATLAB.
See also
Black box
Data logger
Data storage device
Data science
Sensor
Signal processing
Transducer
References
Further reading
Tomaž Kos, Tomaž Kosar, and Marjan Mernik. Development of data acquisition systems by using a domain-specific modeling language. Computers in Industry, 63(3):181–192, 2012.
Data
Signal processing |
1548508 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xconfig | Xconfig | xconfig is the name of the xconfig Makefile target for the Linux kernel. It is a graphical Linux compilation utility, which uses Qt. The xconfig utility is invoked by running make xconfig in the base Linux source directory.
Qt has only been used since kernel 2.6. Kernel 2.4 uses a Tcl/Tk configuration interface. A GTK+ interface (gconfig) is also available since kernel 2.6.
Inside, there are options to display the configurations in three different hierarchies; single, split, full. A Find function is available to search for text within the config's titles.
A bottom pane displays information on the selected option, and metadata of it (depends, type, short name).
See also
menuconfig
Linux configuration utilities
Linux kernel
Software that uses Qt |
231577 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mavis%20Beacon%20%28character%29 | Mavis Beacon (character) | Mavis Beacon is a fictional character created for the Mavis Beacon Teaches Typing line of computer software.
History
Developed to be a personification of a The Software Toolworks instructional typing program, Mavis Beacon debuted as simply a photo of a model on the software's packaging in 1987. The model chosen to be the face of Mavis was Haitian-born Renée L'Espérance, who was discovered working behind the perfume counter at Saks Fifth Avenue Beverly Hills by former talk-show host and partner at The Software Toolworks Les Crane in 1985. Mavis's name comes from a combination of Mavis Staples (one of the software developer's favorite singers) and the word beacon (an allusion to her role as a guide to typing).
There have been several models chosen to represent the confident efficiency of Mavis Beacon; her image changes to represent a "modern professional typing instructor."
Due to Mavis Beacon being portrayed by a black woman, some retailers were initially reluctant to display the product. However, once the popularity of the program became evident, many distributors reversed their decision and began to display the line of software bearing Mavis Beacon's image.
Since its introduction, Mavis Beacon Teaches Typing has been the best-selling instructional typing software.
Fame
Mavis Beacon has been seen as groundbreaking for being one of the first computer instruction characters and for being a female African-American embodiment of computer software. Throughout the 1990s, Mavis Beacon served as the virtual typing instructor at numerous U.S. schools. As of 1998, she had instructed 6,000,000 school children. Mavis has been compared to U.S. cultural icon Betty Crocker and has been called "the Betty Crocker of cyberspace".
Confusion
Mavis Beacon is often thought to be a living or historical figure by the public. This confusion has led many to contact the software developers seeking to speak to, interview, or book Mavis for an event. Furthermore, as a result of Mavis Beacon's continuous use in computer typing software, and her image on millions of software boxes, many consumers have reported confabulations (i.e. false memories) of Mavis Beacon winning typing contests or appearing on talk shows.
References
See also
Typequick
Female characters in advertising
Fictional African-American people
Mascots introduced in 1987 |
30872197 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthem%20%28company%29 | Anthem (company) | Anthem, Inc., is a provider of health insurance in the United States. It is the largest for-profit managed health care company in the Blue Cross Blue Shield Association. As of 2018, the company had approximately 40 million members.
Anthem is ranked 23rd on the Fortune 500.
Prior to 2014, it was named WellPoint, Inc. The company was formed by the 2004 merger of WellPoint, based in California, and Anthem, based in Indianapolis, after both companies acquired several health insurance companies.
The company operates as Anthem Blue Cross in California, where it has about 800,000 customers and is the largest health insurer. It operates as Empire BlueCross BlueShield in New York State and as Anthem Blue Cross and Blue Shield in 10 states. In October 2021, Anthem had 45.1 million medical members.
History
Anthem
In 1946, Anthem began in Indianapolis, Indiana, as Mutual Hospital Insurance Inc. and Mutual Medical Insurance Inc. The companies grew significantly, controlling 80% of the medical insurance market in Indiana by the 1970s.
In 1972, The two firms, then known as Blue Cross of Indiana and Blue Shield of Indiana, entered into a joint operating agreement.
In 1985, The two companies merged into Associated Insurance Companies, Inc,, later called, The Associated Group, a holding company, but usage of the name "Anthem" persisted.
In 1989, the company purchased American General Insurance Co. for $150 million and in 1991, it acquired The Shelby Insurance Co., based in Shelby, Ohio, for $125 million.
In 1989, The Associated Group founded Acordia, a brokerage that sold and serviced insurance and employee benefit programs.
In 1993, Acordia acquired American Business Insurance for $130 million and the Federal Kemper Insurance Company for $100 million. The Associated Group bought Southeastern Mutual Insurance Company, the operator of Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Kentucky.
In 1994, it sold Raffensperger, Hughes & Co., Inc., Indiana's largest investment bank, to National City Corp.
In 1995, The Associated Group acquired Community Mutual Insurance, a provider of Blue Cross and Blue Shield insurance plans in Ohio with over 1.9 million policy holders), then set up Anthem Blue Cross and Blue Shield.
In 1996, The Associated Group changed its name to Anthem Insurance Company.
In August 1997, Anthem acquired Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Connecticut. It also sold Acordia to management.
In 1999, Anthem acquired Blue Cross and Blue Shield of New Hampshire and Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Colorado and Nevada. The acquisitions made since 1996 added 850,000 policy holders. Among its customer base were 2.4 million PPO and 964,000 HMO enrollees.
In 2000, Anthem acquired Blue Cross Blue Shield of Maine.
In 2001, In October, Anthem underwent demutualization and became a public company via an initial public offering, which made it the 4th largest public managed health care company in the United States.
In 2002, Anthem acquired Trigon Healthcare of Virginia, a Blue Cross and Blue Shield plan, the largest insurer in Virginia, for $4.04 billion. Anthem Insurance Company reached 11.9 million members.
Blue Cross of California
Blue Cross of California was the predecessor of WellPoint Health Network Inc.
In 1982, Blue Cross of California was founded with the consolidation of Blue Cross of Northern California (established in 1936) and Blue Cross of Southern California (established in 1937).
In 1992, WellPoint was formed to operate Blue Cross of California's managed care business.
In January 1993, Blue Cross of California spun off its managed care business into a publicly traded entity, WellPoint Health Networks Inc. Blue Cross of California retained an 80% interest and voting control.
In 1996, Blue Cross of California restructured to a for-profit corporation, designating WellPoint Health Networks Inc. as the parent organization.
In April 1996, WellPoint completed its acquisition of Massachusetts Mutual Life Insurance Company's group life and health insurance subsidiaries for approximately $380 million, making it the second largest publicly held managed health company in the U.S. with 4 million policy holders.
In March 1997, WellPoint acquired the group health and life businesses of John Hancock Financial for $86.7 million. With this acquisition, WellPoint expanded its presence into Michigan, Texas, and the mid-Atlantic, and gained a unit that concentrated on serving the needs of large employers.
In 2000, WellPoint acquired PrecisionRx, a mail service pharmacy fulfillment center in Texas.
In 2001, Wellpoint offered to acquire CareFirst BlueCross BlueShield for $1.37 billion, including $119 million in bonuses to Carefirst executives. In 2003, the offer was rejected by the Maryland insurance commissioner.
In March 2001, WellPoint acquired Rush Prudential Health Plans, a Chicago provider, for $204 million. In March 2001, WellPoint acquired Cerulean Companies, the parent company of Blue Cross Blue Shield of Georgia.
In 2002, WellPoint acquired RightChoice Managed Care, a Missouri-based company, for $1.5 billion. WellPoint also acquired MethodistCare of Houston, Texas and HealthLink.
In 2003, WellPoint acquired Golden West Dental and Vision of Camarillo, California, and Cobalt, including Blue Cross and Blue Shield United of Wisconsin.
In November 2004, Wellpoint, Inc. was formed by the merger of Anthem Insurance Company and WellPoint Health Networks Inc. The merger was structured as Anthem acquiring WellPoint Health Networks and renaming itself WellPoint, Inc. WellPoint continued to use 'Anthem' as the brand name under which it operated. It sold its Blue Cross and Blue Shield products in 11 states.
In 2005, WellPoint acquired Alexandria, Va.–based Lumenos, a provider of consumer-driven health care, for $185 million. Lumenos was the pioneer and market leader in consumer-driven health plans. In December, WellPoint acquired WellChoice, a New York City-based Blue Cross Blue Shield provider, for approximately $6.5 billion, making New York the 14th state in which WellPoint is a Blue Cross Blue Shield licensee.
In 2007, WellPoint acquired Chicago-based American Imaging Management, a radiology benefit management company that creates software to help physicians choose cost-effective locations for their patients to receive medical imaging tests. WellPoint also acquired Chicago based American Imaging Management (AIM), the leading radiology benefit management company.
In January 2008, Leslie Margolin became the president of California operations. She resigned in July 2010.
In 2008, WellPoint acquired Resolution Health, a firm that analyzes patient history for potential medical problems such as adverse drug interactions.
In 2009, WellPoint acquired DeCare Dental, a dental insurance firm.
In 2011, WellPoint acquired CareMore, a Cerritos, California-based provider of insurance and care centers for elderly patients.
In 2012, WellPoint acquired Amerigroup for $4.9 billion, anticipating significant growth due to Medicaid expansion under the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act.
In August 2012, CEO Angela Braly resigned due to pressure from investors.
On August 13, 2014, WellPoint announced it intended to change its name to Anthem, Inc., effective in December.
In February 2015, the company acquired Simply Healthcare Holdings, a Medicaid and Medicare managed care company based in Florida.
In June 2015, Anthem offered to acquire Cigna for more than $54 billion in cash and stock.
In February 2017, a United States district court ruling blocked the Cigna merger on grounds of anti-competitive practices. On February 14, Cigna called off its merger agreement with Anthem.
In October 2017, Anthem announced that it would not renew its pharmacy benefit management relationship with Express Scripts saying it had been overcharged $3 billion and that instead, Anthem would eventually handle the PBM process itself through its new IngenioRx unit. Anthem announced that it would enter a 5-year contract with CVS Health. Cigna then announced plans in March 2018 to acquire Express Scripts for $58 billion.
On November 6, 2017, Gail Koziara Boudreaux was named CEO.
In 2018, the company announced a $20 million expansion of its headquarters and the signing of a lease in Atlanta for its technology center.
In March 2020, Anthem announced the acquisition of Beacon Health Options, and independently held behavioral health organization.
On February 2, 2021, Anthem announced the acquisition of InnovaCare Health's Puerto Rico subsidiaries including MMM Holdings, LLC (“MMM”) and its Medicare Advantage (MA) plan MMM Healthcare, LLC as well as affiliated companies and Medicaid plan.
In November 2021, Anthem announced the acquisition of Integra Managed Care in New York.
Quality of care
In 2011, in the category of "Meeting National Standards of Care," California's state patient advocacy office gave Anthem a rating of 2 out of 4 stars. In 2014, it received 3 out of 4 stars in the same category.
Controversies
Giving for uninsured
In 2007, WellPoint pledged to spend $30 million over three years, through the company's charitable foundation, to help the uninsured. In March 2010, the Los Angeles Times reported that WellPoint's tax records and website showed that the company gave only $6.2 million by 2009. The company disputed that, saying that the foundation did fulfill its $30-million commitment by mid-2009, but the company declined to provide any financial details to support its claim.
Policy cancellations
In 2007, the California Department of Managed Health Care (DMHC) investigated Anthem's policies for revoking (rescinding) health care insurance policies. The DMHC randomly selected 90 instances where Anthem canceled the insurance of policy holders who had been diagnosed with costly or life-threatening illnesses, to find how many of these cancellations were legal. The agency concluded that all these cancellations were illegal.
In July 2008, Anthem Blue Cross agreed to a settlement with the California Department of Managed Health Care; however in doing so, WellPoint did not officially admit liability. To resolve allegations of improper policy rescissions (cancellations), WellPoint paid $10 million and reinstated plans for 1,770 policy-holders who were affected by cancelled policies. The company also agreed to provide compensation for any medical debts incurred by these policy-holders.
In April 2010, Reuters alleged that Wellpoint "using a computer algorithm, identified women recently diagnosed with breast cancer and then singled them out for cancellation of their policies." The story not only caused considerable public outrage, but it also led Secretary of Health and Human Services, Kathleen Sebelius, and President Barack Obama, to call on WellPoint to end the practice.
In 2011, Anthem began cancelling policies of members who had been paying premiums with credit cards, sometimes without calling or emailing the member ahead of time.
Opposition to health care reform
The former Vice President for Public Policy and External Affairs at WellPoint, Elizabeth Fowler, is the Senior Counsel to Max Baucus, the chairman of the Senate Finance Committee and a leading opponent of the public option in health care reform.
In August 2009, Anthem, the largest for-profit insurer in California, contacted its employees and urged them to get involved to oppose health care reforms proposed during the Obama administration. Consumer Watchdog, a nonprofit watchdog organization in Santa Monica, asked California Atty. Gen. Jerry Brown to investigate its claim that WellPoint had illegally pushed workers to write to their elected officials, attend town hall meetings and enlist family and friends to ensure an overhaul that would match the firm’s interests. According to Consumer Watchdog, California's labor code directly prohibits coercive communications, including forbidding employers from controlling, coercing or influencing employees' political activities or affiliations. WellPoint had not been contacted by the California attorney general and had not seen any complaint.
Through 2010 and into 2011, WellPoint senior executives met monthly with executives of other major health insurers to blunt the effect of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act.
2009 premium increase in Maine
In 2009, Anthem Health Plans of Maine, a WellPoint subsidiary, sued the state of Maine for the right to increase premiums further. Since Maine licenses insurance companies through its Department of Insurance, Anthem needed the state's permission to raise rates. The Court disagreed with Anthem and found that, unlike with other forms of insurance, the Maine Insurance Code does not require the Superintendent to consider profits.
2010 premium increase in California
In February 2010, WellPoint announced that rates would increase on some Anthem Blue Cross individual policies in California by as high as 39%. The announcement resulted in an investigation by regulators from the Federal and California governments. Anthem Blue Cross gained worldwide media attention and became a poster child for the problem of rising cost of health care in the U.S. The rate increase came one year after Anthem had raised rates 68% on individual policy holders.
To explain the rate increases, some which were four times the rate of medical inflation, Anthem said the company had experienced a death spiral: the company claimed that with increased unemployment and declining wages, healthy customers dropped their insurance policies. Consequently, the remaining risk pool became sicker and thus more expensive to insure; and, in turn, prices were forced up and pushed more people out of the market.
In response to the outrage from politicians and consumers, Anthem postponed the rate increase until May 1, 2010.
Senator Dianne Feinstein of California proposed giving the Federal government of the United States authority to block insurance premium hikes that it considers to be "unjustified".
Reclassifying expenses
On 17 March 2010, WellPoint announced it was reclassifying some of its administrative costs as medical care costs in order to meet loss ratio requirements under the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, which requires insurers to spend at least 80% or 85% of customer premiums on health care services, depending on the type of plan.
2009-10 security breach
In June 2010, Anthem sent letters to 230,000 customers in California warning them that their personal data might have been accessed online via a data breach. After a routine upgrade in October 2009, a third-party vendor stated that all security measures had been properly reinstated, when in fact they had not. As a result, personal information of thousands of coverage applicants who were under the age of 65 was exposed in the open. After a Los Angeles-area woman found that her application for coverage was publicly available, she filed a class action lawsuit against Anthem. While gathering evidence for the proceeding, the woman's lawyers downloaded some confidential customer information from Anthem's website and alerted Anthem about the breach. According to the lawyers, confidential information had remained exposed for five months.
Denial of benefits
In May 2014, Anthem Blue Cross refused to pay for the hospitalization of a Sonoma County, California man for stage four cancers, although he had paid Anthem over $100,000 in premiums. Anthem ended up paying for coverage following public outcry.
2015 medical data breach
On February 4, 2015, Anthem, Inc. disclosed that criminal hackers had broken into its servers and potentially stolen over 37.5 million records that contain personally identifiable information from its servers. According to Anthem, Inc., the data breach extended into multiple brands Anthem, Inc. uses to market its healthcare plans, including, Anthem Blue Cross, Anthem Blue Cross and Blue Shield, Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Georgia, Empire Blue Cross and Blue Shield, Amerigroup, Caremore, and UniCare. Healthlink was also victimized. Anthem says the medical information and financial data was not compromised. Anthem has offered free credit monitoring in the wake of the breach. According to Bloomberg News, China may be responsible for this data breach. Michael Daniel, chief adviser on cybersecurity for President Barack Obama, said he would be changing his own password. About 80 million company records were hacked, stoking fears that the stolen data could be used for identity theft. The compromised information contained names, birthdays, medical IDs, social security numbers, street addresses, e-mail addresses, employment information and income data. In June 2017, Anthem agreed to spend $115M to settle allegations that it failed to adequately protect the data of its clients, the sum was to be spent on two years of services to protect victims from identity theft. In 2019, two Chinese nationals were indicted for the breach.
Avoidable emergency room program
Beginning in 2015, Anthem has been implementing and expanding its "Avoidable ER Program" which means not reimbursing ER visits when the cause is not covered by the company. A few patients found out that they had been stuck with bills of over $10,000 that Anthem refused to reimburse. Unfortunately, even medical experts can't tell an emergency from a non-emergency based on symptoms alone, as described in a 2013 report by the Journal of the American Medical Association. Critics derided the scheme, citing that it was unlawful by federal law to cover a person based on diagnosis, not symptoms. It was also considered unsafe, as it pressured patients to diagnose themselves before going to the ER.
Regulatory fines
In 2017, the California Department of Managed Health Care fined the company $5 million for untimely response to consumer complaints. In 2019, this was settled at $2.8 million.
2019 Lawsuit
In 2019, Sovereign Health pressed charges against Anthem, alleging that it was using direct payments to compel them to join Anthem's network under unfavorable terms. Sovereign owns facilities that treat people with addiction and mental health problems. Rather than paying those facilities, Anthem sent checks directly to patients, some while they were still in rehab. This put the burden of compensating the facilities on the patients. It placed the already financially troubled organization in a precarious situation, trying to collect sometimes very large sums of money, from the very people they were trying to help.
Diagnostics fraud
In March 2020, Anthem was sued by the Department of Justice. The lawsuit alleges that Anthem had submitted inaccurate diagnostics data in order to obtain increased Medicare reimbursements.
Finances
For the fiscal year 2017, Anthem reported earnings of US$3.843 billion, with an annual revenue of US$90.039 billion, an increase of 6.1% over the previous fiscal cycle. Anthem's shares traded at over $183 per share, and its market capitalization was valued at over US$69.1 billion in October 2018.
References
External links
Health care companies established in 1946
Financial services companies established in 1946
Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange
Companies based in Indianapolis
Health insurance companies of the United States
Health care companies based in Indiana
Members of Blue Cross Blue Shield Association |
23545 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological%20statistics | Psychological statistics | Psychological statistics is application of formulas, theorems, numbers and laws to psychology.
Statistical Methods for psychology include development and application statistical theory and methods for modeling psychological data.
These methods include psychometrics, Factor analysis, Experimental Designs, and Multivariate Behavioral Research. The article also discusses journals in the same field.
Psychometrics
Psychometrics deals with measurement of psychological attributes. It involves developing and applying statistical models for mental measurements. The measurement theories are divided into two major areas: (1) Classical test theory; (2) Item Response Theory.
Classical Test Theory
The classical test theory or true score theory or reliability theory in statistics is a set of statistical procedures useful for development of psychological tests and scales. It is based on a fundamental equation,
X = T + E
where, X is total score, T is a true score and E is error of measurement. For each participant, it assumes that there exist a true score and it need to be obtained score (X) has to be as close to it as possible. The closeness of X has with T is expressed in terms of ratability of the obtained score. The reliability in terms of classical test procedure is correlation between true score and obtained score. The typical test construction procedures has following steps:
(1) Determine the construct
(2) Outline the behavioral domain of the construct
(3) Write 3 to 5 times more items than desired test length
(4) Get item content analyzed by experts and cull items
(5) Obtain data on initial version of the test
(6) Item analysis (Statistical Procedure)
(7) Factor analysis (Statistical Procedure)
(8) After the second cull, make final version
(9) Use it for research
Reliability
The reliability is computed in specific ways.
(A) Inter-Rater reliability: Inter-Rater reliability is estimate of agreement between independent raters. This is most useful for subjective responses. Cohen's Kappa, Krippendorff's Alpha, Intra-Class correlation coefficients, Correlation coefficients, Kendal's concordance coefficient, etc. are useful statistical tools.
(B) Test-Retest Reliability: Test-Retest Procedure is estimation of temporal consistency of the test. A test is administered twice to the same sample with a time interval. Correlation between two sets of scores is used as an estimate of reliability. Testing conditions are assumed to be identical.
(C) Internal Consistency Reliability: Internal consistency reliability estimates consistency of items with each other. Split-half reliability (Spearman- Brown Prophecy) and Cronbach Alpha are popular estimates of this reliability.
(D) Parallel Form Reliability: It is an estimate of consistency between two different instruments of measurement. The inter-correlation between two parallel forms of a test or scale is used as an estimate of parallel form reliability.
Validity
Validity of a scale or test is ability of the instrument to measure what it purports to measure. Construct validity, Content Validity, and Criterion Validity are types of validity.
Construct validity is estimated by convergent and discriminant validity and factor analysis. Convergent and discriminant validity are ascertained by correlation between similar of different constructs.
Content Validity: Subject matter experts evaluate content validity.
Criterion Validity is correlation between the test and a criterion variable (or variables) of the construct. Regression analysis, Multiple regression analysis, and Logistic regression are used as an estimate of criterion validity.
Software applications: The R software has ‘psych’ package that is useful for classical test theory analysis.
Modern test Theory
The modern test theory is based on latent trait model. Every item estimates the ability of the test taker. The ability parameter is called as theta (θ). The difficulty parameter is called b. the two important assumptions are local independence and unidimensionality.
The Item Response Theory has three models. They are one parameter logistic model, two parameter logistic model and three parameter logistic model. In addition, Polychromous IRT Model are also useful.
The R Software has ‘ltm’, packages useful for IRT analysis.
Factor Analysis
Factor analysis is at the core of psychological statistics. It has two schools: (1) Exploratory Factor analysis (2) Confirmatory Factor analysis.
Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA)
The exploratory factor analysis begins without a theory or with a very tentative theory. It is a dimension reduction technique. It is useful in psychometrics, multivariate analysis of data and data analytics.
Typically a k-dimensional correlation matrix or covariance matrix of variables is reduced to k X r factor pattern matrix where r < k. Principal Component analysis and common factor analysis are two ways of extracting data. Principal axis factoring, ML factor analysis, alpha factor analysis and image factor analysis is most useful ways of EFA.
It employs various factor rotation methods which can be classified into orthogonal (resulting in uncorrelated factors) and oblique (resulting correlated factors).
The ‘psych’ package in R is useful for EFA.
Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)
Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) is factor analytic technique that begins with theory and test the theory by carrying out factor analysis.
The CFA is also called as latent structure analysis, which considers factor as latent variables causing actual observable variables. The basic equation of the CFA is
X = Λξ + δ
where, X is observed variables, Λ are structural coefficients, ξ are latent variables (factors) and δ are errors.
The parameters are estimated using ML methods however; other methods of estimation are also available. The chi-square test is very sensitive and hence various fit measures are used.
R package ‘sem’, ‘lavaan’ are useful for the same.
Experimental Design
Experimental Methods are very popular in psychology. It has more than 100 years tradition. Experimental psychology has a status of sub-discipline in psychology .
The statistical methods are applied for designing and analyzing experimental data. They involve, t-test, ANOVA, ANCOVA, MANOVA, MANCOVA, binomial test, chi-square etc. are used for the analysis of the experimental data.
Multivariate Behavioral Research
Multivariate behavioral research is becoming very popular in psychology. These methods include Multiple Regression and Prediction; Moderated and Mediated Regression Analysis; Logistics Regression; Canonical Correlations; Cluster analysis; Multi-level modeling; Survival-Failure analysis; Structural Equations Modeling; hierarchical linear modelling, etc. are very useful for psychological statistics.
Journals for statistical application for psychology
There are many specialized journals that publish advances in statistical analysis for psychology:
Psychometrika
Educational and Psychological Measurement
Assessment
American Journal of Evaluation
Applied Psychological Measurement
Behavior Research Methods
British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology
Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics
Journal of Mathematical Psychology
Multivariate Behavioral Research
Psychological Assessment
Structural Equation Modeling
Software Packages for Psychological Research
Various software packages are available for statistical methods for psychological research. They can be classified as commercial software (e.g., JMP and SPSS) and open-source (e.g., R). Among the open-source offerings, the R software is the most popular. There are many online references for R and specialized books on R for Psychologists are also being written. The "psych" package of R is very useful for psychologists. Among others, "lavaan", "sem", "ltm", "ggplot2" are some of the popular packages. PSPP and KNIME are other free packages. Among the commercial packages include JMP, SPSS and SAS. JMP and SPSS are commonly reported in books.
See also
Quantitative psychology
References
Agresti, A. (1990). Categorical data analysis. Wiley: NJ.
Bollen, KA. (1989). Structural Equations with Latent Variables. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Belhekar, V. M. (2016). Statistics for Psychology Using R, New Delhi: SAGE.
Cohen, B.H. (2007) Explaining Psychological Statistics, 3rd Edition, Wiley.
Cronbach LJ (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika 16, 297–334. doi:10.1007/bf02310555
Hambleton, R. K., & Swaminathan H. (1985). Item Response theory: Principles and Applications. Boston: Kluwer.
Harman, H. H. (1976). Modern Factor Analysis(3rd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis. The Guilford Press: NY.
Howell, D. (2009) Statistical Methods for Psychology, International Edition, Wadsworth.
Kline, T. J. B. (2005)Psychological Testing: A Practical Approach to Design and Evaluation. Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks.
Loehlin, J. E. (1992). Latent Variable Models: An Introduction to Factor, Path, and Structural Analysis (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Lord, F. M. , and Novick, M. R. ( 1 968). Statistical theories of mental test scores. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1968.
Menard, S. (2001). Applied logistic regression analysis. (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks. CA: Sage Publications.
Nunnally, J. & Bernstein, I. (1994). Psychometric Theory. McGraw-Hill.
Raykov, T. & Marcoulides, G.A. (2010) Introduction to Psychometric Theory. New York: Routledge.
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using Multivariate Statistics, 6th ed. Boston: Pearson.
Wilcox, R. (2012). Modern Statistics for the Social and Behavioral Sciences: A Practical Introduction. FL: CRC Press.
Specific
External links
CRAN Webpage for R
Page for R functions for psychological statistics
Matthew Rockloff's tutorials on t-tests, correlation and ANOVA
YouTube videos on statistics for psychology by Vivek Belhekar
Psychometrics
Psychology experiments
Applied statistics |
1756564 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kad%20network | Kad network | The Kad network is a peer-to-peer (P2P) network which implements the Kademlia P2P overlay protocol. The majority of users on the Kad Network are also connected to servers on the eDonkey network, and Kad Network clients typically query known nodes on the eDonkey network in order to find an initial node on the Kad network.
Usage
The Kad network uses a UDP-based protocol to:
Find sources for eD2k hashes.
Search for eD2k hashes based on keywords in the file name.
Find comments and ratings for files (hashes).
Provide buddy services for firewalled (Low ID) nodes.
Store locations, comments and (keywords out of) filenames.
Note that the Kad network is not used to actually transfer files across the P2P network. Instead, when a file transfer is initiated, clients connect directly to each other (using the standard public IP network). This traffic is susceptible to blocking/shaping/tracking by an ISP or any other opportunistic middle-man.
As with all decentralized networks, the Kad network requires no official or common servers. As such, it cannot be disabled by shutting down a given subset of key nodes. While the decentralization of the network prevents a simple shut-down, traffic analysis and deep packet inspection will more readily identify the traffic as P2P due to the high variable-destination packet throughput. The large packet volume typically causes a reduction in available CPU and/or network resources usually associated with P2P traffic.
Clients
Client search
The Kad network supports searching of files by name and a number of secondary characteristics such as size, extension, bit-rate, and more. Features vary based on client used.
Major clients
Only a few major clients currently support the Kad network implementation. However, they comprise over 80% of the user base and are probably closer to 95% of ed2k installations.
eMule: An open source Windows client which is the most popular, with 80% of network users. It also runs on Linux using the Wine libraries.
There are a number of minor variants, or forks, of eMule which support the same basic features as eMule itself. They include: aMule (A Linux client similar to eMule) and eMule Mods (not eMule Plus), possibly others.
aMule: An open source client popular among Linux Operating Systems. Currently aMule (officially) supports a wide variety of platforms and operating systems.
MLDonkey: An open source, cross-platform client that runs on many platforms and supports numerous other file-sharing protocols as well.
iMule: An anonymous, open source, cross-platform client. Supports only the Kad network and I2P network. eDonkey network has been dropped.
Lphant: Supports also eDonkey network and BitTorrent protocol. To use Kad network make sure you have 3.51 version.
Malware/virus
TDL-4: A botnet virus that is reported to use this network as a backup for updates and new instructions if its Command and Control servers are taken down.
See also
Distributed hash table
Kademlia
References
External links
A global view of KAD
Improving Lookup Performance over a Widely-Deployed DHT
File sharing networks
Overlay networks
Key-based routing
Mix networks |
1440496 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Versioning%20file%20system | Versioning file system | A versioning file system is any computer file system which allows a computer file to exist in several versions at the same time. Thus it is a form of revision control. Most common versioning file systems keep a number of old copies of the file. Some limit the number of changes per minute or per hour to avoid storing large numbers of trivial changes. Others instead take periodic snapshots whose contents can be accessed with similar semantics to normal file access.
Similar technologies
Backup
A versioning file system is similar to a periodic backup, with several key differences.
Backups are normally triggered on a timed basis, while versioning occurs when the file changes.
Backups are usually system-wide or partition-wide, while versioning occurs independently on a file-by-file basis.
Backups are normally written to separate media, while versioning file systems write to the same hard drive (and normally the same folder, directory, or local partition).
In comparison to revision control systems
Versioning file systems provide some of the features of revision control systems. However, unlike most revision control systems, they are transparent to users, not requiring a separate "commit" step to record a new revision.
Journaling file system
Versioning file systems should not be confused with journaling file systems. Whereas journaling file systems work by keeping a log of the changes made to a file before committing those changes to that file system (and overwriting the prior version), a versioning file system keeps previous copies of a file when saving new changes. The two features serve different purposes and are not mutually exclusive.
Object Storage
Some Object storage implementations offers object versioning such as Amazon S3.
Implementations
ITS
An early implementation of versioning, possibly the first, was in MIT's ITS. In ITS, a filename consisted of two six-character parts; if the second part was numeric (consisted only of digits), it was treated as a version number. When specifying a file to open for read or write, one could supply a second part of ">"; when reading, this meant to open the highest-numbered version of the file; when writing, it meant to increment the highest existing version number and create the new version for writing.
Another early implementation of versioning was in TENEX, which became TOPS-20.
Files-11 (RSX-11 and OpenVMS)
A powerful example of a file versioning system is built into the RSX-11 and OpenVMS operating system from Digital Equipment Corporation. In essence, whenever an application opens a file for writing, the file system automatically creates a new instance of the file, with a version number appended to the name. Version numbers start at 1 and count upward as new instances of a file are created. When an application opens a file for reading, it can either specify the exact file name including version number, or just the file name without the version number, in which case the most recent instance of the file is opened.
The "purge" DCL/CCL command can be used at any time to manage the number of versions in a specific directory. By default, all but the highest numbered versions of all files in the current directory will be deleted; this behavior can be overridden with the /keep=n switch and/or by specifying directory path(s) and/or filename patterns. VMS systems are often scripted to purge user directories on a regular schedule; this is sometimes misconstrued by end-users as a property of the versioning system.
Linux
On February 8, 2004, Kiran-Kumar Muniswamy-Reddy, Charles P. Wright, Andrew Himmer, and Erez Zadok (all from Stony Brook University) proposed an application that was user friendly to many of the users who tested the app. The system was developed with Linux software, so it was first operated on Linux.
NILFS - A log-structured file system supporting versioning of the entire file system and continuous snapshotting. In this list, this is the only one that is stable and included in the mainline kernel.
Tux3 - Most recent change was in 2014.
Next3 - Most recent update was in 2012.
ext3cow - Most recent release was in 2005.
LMFS
The Lisp Machine File System supports versioning. This was provided by implementations from MIT, LMI, Symbolics and Texas Instruments. Such an operating system was Symbolics Genera.
macOS
Starting with Lion (10.7), macOS has a feature called Versions which allows Time Machine-like saving and browsing of past versions of documents for applications written to use Versions. This functionality, however, takes place at the application layer, not the filesystem layer; Lion and later releases do not incorporate a true versioning file system.
SCO OpenServer
HTFS, adopted as the primary filesystem for SCO OpenServer in 1995, supports file versioning. Versioning is enabled on a per-directory basis by setting the directory's setuid bit, which is inherited when subdirectories are created. If versioning is enabled, a new file version is created when a file or directory is removed, or when an existing file is opened with truncation. Non-current versions remain in the filesystem namespace, under the name of the original file but with a suffix attached consisting of a semicolon and version sequence number. All but the current version are hidden from directory reads (unless the SHOWVERSIONS environment variable is set), but versions are otherwise accessible for all normal operations. The environment variable and general accessibility allow versions to be managed with the usual filesystem utilities, though there is also an "undelete" command that can be used to purge and restore files, enable and disable versioning on directories, etc.
Others
Subversion has a feature called "autoversioning" where a WebDAV source with a subversion backend can be mounted as a file system on systems that support this kind of mount (Linux, Windows and others do) and saves to that file system generate new revisions on the revision control system.
The commercial Clearcase configuration management and revision control software has also supported "MVFS" (multi version file system) on HP-UX, AIX and Windows since the early 1990s.
Related software
The following are not versioning filesystems, but allow similar functionality.
APFS and ZFS support instantaneous snapshots and clones.
Btrfs supports snapshots.
HammerFS in DragonFlyBSD has the ability to store revisions in the filesystem.
NILFS, which supports snapshotting.
Plan 9's Fossil file system can provide a similar feature, taking periodic snapshots (often hourly) and making them available in . Fossil can forever archive a snapshot into Venti (usually one snapshot each day) and make them available in . If multiple changes are made to a file during the interval between snapshots, only the most recent will be recorded in the next snapshot.
Write Anywhere File Layout - NetApp's storage solutions implement a file system called WAFL, which uses snapshot technology to keep different versions of all files in a volume around.
pdumpfs, authored by Satoru Takabayashi, is a simple daily backup system similar to Plan 9's /n/dump, implemented in Ruby. It functions as a snapshotting tool, which makes it possible to copy a whole directory to another location by using hardlinks. Used regularly, this can produce an effect similar to versioning.
Microsoft Windows
Shadow Copy - is a feature introduced by Microsoft with Windows Server 2003. Shadow Copy allows for taking manual or automatic backup copies or snapshots of a file or folder on a specific volume at a specific point in time.
RollBack Rx - Allows snapshots of disk partitions to be taken. Each snapshot contains only the differences between previous snapshots, and take only seconds to create. Can be reliably used to keep a Windows OS stable and/or protected from malware.
GoBack (discontinued) - The GoBack software for Windows from Symantec enables reversion of files, directories or disks to previous states. It can record a maximum of 8GB in changes, and temporarily stops recording each change in the event of high I/O activity.
Versomatic - Versomatic software by Acertant automatically tracks file changes and preemptively archives a copy of a file before it is modified.
Cascade File System exposes a Subversion or Perforce repository via a file system driver. The user must still explicitly decide when to commit changes.
git implementation documents call git a "content addressable filesystem with a VCS user interface written on top of it."
See also
Backup
Comparison of revision control software
Copy on write
Object storage
References
External links
Computer file systems |
3300083 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropes%20Zoom | Tropes Zoom | Tropes Zoom was a desktop search engine and semantic analysis software from Acetic/Semantic-Knowledge. Originally written by Pierre Molette in 1994 in partnership with University Paris 8, it was the first search engine based on semantic networks to be widely known.
Unlike other search engines, Tropes Zoom suggested that the user replace each identified word with a hypernym. Thus, the search is not carried out directly on the words chosen, but on the totality of their semantic equivalents. It let users group files together by subject, and analyze all the texts dealing with one or several themes within a large collection of documents.
Since 2011, Tropes is available as free software under a variant of BSD license, but Tropes Zoom is not available.
Tropes Zoom features
The Tropes Zoom suite for Microsoft Windows consisted of five components:
Tropes, a text analysis and semantic classification software.
Zoom, a semantic search engine.
An integrated web crawler, to collect Internet content.
An integrated report writer.
An optional web module (web repository generator).
Tropes text analysis
Tropes is a semantic analysis software designed to extract relevant information from texts. It uses several analysis tools and techniques including:
Word-sense disambiguation
Summarization and text style identification
Word categorization
Natural language Ontology manager
Chronological analysis
Real-time graphs and hypertext navigation
This software was initially developed in 1994 by Pierre Molette and Agnès Landré on the basis of the work of Rodolphe Ghiglione.
Since June 2013, Tropes V8.4 can export results formatted for Gephi (network analysis and visualization software).
See also
Desktop search
List of desktop search engines
Text mining
References
Further reading
R. Ghiglione, G. Minnini & E. Salès. The intralocutor's diatextual frame. Journal of pragmatics, 1995.
Vander Putten, Jim; Nolen, Amanda L. (2010). Comparing Results from Constant Comparative and Computer Software Methods: A Reflection about Qualitative Data Analysis. Journal of Ethnographic & Qualitative Research, 5(2), 99-112.
W. Visser & M. Wolff. A cognitive approach to spatial discourse production. Combining manual and automatic analyses of route descriptions. Proceedings of European Science Conference 2003. EuroCognSci03 (pp. 355–360). Osnabrück, Germany, 2003.
Y. Kodratoff. Knowledge Discovery in Texts: a definition and applications in Foundation of Intelligent Systems, Ras & Skowron (Eds.) LNAI1609, Springer, 1999.
A.Piolat & R.Bannour. An example of text analysis software (EMOTAIX-Tropes) use: The influence of anxiety on expressive writing Current Psychology Letters, 2009.
S. Despres & B. Delforge. Designing medical law ontology from technical texts and core ontology. 12th International Conference on Knowledge Engineering and Knowledge Management,EKAW Ontology and texts Workshop, 2000.
External links
Semantic-Knowledge homepage
Tropes French Website
Desktop search engines
Defunct internet search engines
Semantics |
4541137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD%20Authentication | BSD Authentication | BSD Authentication, otherwise known as BSD Auth, is an authentication framework and software API employed by OpenBSD and accompanying software such as OpenSSH. It originated with BSD/OS, and although the specification and implementation were donated to the FreeBSD project by BSDi, OpenBSD chose to adopt the framework in release 2.9. Pluggable Authentication Modules (PAM) serves a similar purpose on other operating systems such as Linux, FreeBSD and NetBSD.
BSD Auth performs authentication by executing scripts or programs as separate processes from the one requiring the authentication. This prevents the child authentication process from interfering with the parent except through a narrowly defined inter-process communication API, a technique inspired by the principle of least privilege and known as privilege separation. This behaviour has significant security benefits, notably improved fail-safeness of software, and robustness against malicious and accidental software bugs.
See also
Name Service Switch
References
External links
Berkeley Software Distribution
Computer access control frameworks
Unix authentication-related software |
368817 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zilog%20Z8000 | Zilog Z8000 | The Z8000 ("zee- or zed-eight-thousand") is a 16-bit microprocessor introduced by Zilog in early 1979. The architecture was designed by Bernard Peuto while the logic and physical implementation was done by Masatoshi Shima, assisted by a small group of people. In contrast to most designs of the era, the Z8000 did not use microcode which allowed it to be implemented in only 17,500 transistors.
The Z8000 was not Z80-compatible, although it featured many of the well-received design notes that made the Z80 popular. Among these was the ability for its registers to be combined and used as a single larger register - while the Z80 allowed two 8-bit registers to be used as a single 16-bit register, the Z8000 expanded this by allowing two 16-bit registers to operate as a 32-bit register, or four to operate as a 64-bit register. These combined registers were particularly useful for mathematical operations.
Although it was an attractive design for its era, and saw some use in the early 1980s, it was never as popular as the Z80. Federico Faggin, then CEO of Zilog, believes a reason for this was that Zilog was mainly owned by a single investor, Exxon Enterprises, which had ambitions to compete with IBM. When IBM began the IBM PC, they saw Zilog as a competitor and chose the Intel 8088 over the Z8000. But the Z8000's launch date placed it between the 16-bit Intel 8086 (April 1978), and the Motorola 68000 (September 1979), the latter of which had a 32-bit instruction set architecture and was roughly twice as fast.
The Zilog Z80000 was a 32-bit follow-on design, launched in 1986.
Features
The Z8000 initially shipped in two versions; the Z8001 with a full 23-bit external address bus to allow it to access up to 8 megabytes of memory, and the Z8002, which supported only 16-bit addressing to allow 64 kilobytes of memory. This allowed the Z8002 to have eight fewer pins, shipping in a smaller 40-pin DIP format that made it less expensive to implement.
The series was later expanded to include the Z8003 and Z8004, updated versions of the Z8001 and Z8002, respectively. These versions were designed to provide improved support for virtual memory, adding new status registers to indicate segmentation faults (test and set) and provide an abort capability.
The register set consisted of sixteen 16-bit general purpose registers, labeled R0 through R15. The registers can be concatenated into eight 32-bit registers, labeled RR0/RR2/../RR14, or into four 64-bit registers, labeled RQ0/RQ4/RQ8/RQ12. The first eight registers can be also subdivided into sixteen 8-bit registers, labeled RL0 though RL7 for the lower byte and RH0 through RH7 for the upper (high) byte. Register R15 is designated as stack pointer. On the Z8001, register R14 is used to add a fixed offset to the stack pointer, and the program counter is expanded to 32-bits to include a similar offset.
There was both a user mode ("normal") and a supervisor mode, selected by bit 14 in the flag register. In supervisor mode, the stack registers point to the system stack and all privileged instructions are available. In user mode, the stack registers point to the normal stack and all privileged instructions will generate a fault. Having separate modes and stacks greatly adds to the performance of context switches between user programs and an operating system.
Memory handling
Like the Z80 before it, the Z8000 included a system to automatically refresh dynamic RAM. In most systems this is normally handled by the video display controller or external logic. This was implemented via a separate Refresh Counter (RC) register that held the currently updating page of memory. The feature is turned on by setting the most significant bit of the RC, bit 15, to 1. The following six bits, 14 through 9 are a rate, measured in terms of every 4th clock cycle. With a standard 4 MHz clock, that allows the refresh to be called every 1 to 64 microseconds. The remaining 8 bits select a row in memory to refresh.
The Z8000 used a segmented memory map, with a 7-bit "segment number" and a 16-bit offset. Both numbers were represented by pins on the Z8001, meaning that it could directly address a 23-bit memory, or 8 MB. Instructions could only directly access a 16-bit offset. This allowed the instruction format to be smaller; a system with direct access to a 23-bit address would need to read three bytes (24-bits) from memory for every address referred to in the code, thus requiring two reads on a 16-bit bus. With segments, the addresses needed only a single 16-bit read which is then added to a segment number to produce the complete address. The segment number only needed to be updated when the data crossed the 16-bit/64 KB boundaries.
When represented internally, addresses were all 32-bits long. This consisted of an upper 16-bit word with a leading 0 in bit 15, the 7-bit segment number, and then 8 zeros. This required more memory to store, as each 23-bit address used up 32 bits of register space, but allowed the addresses to be cleanly stored in the 16-bit registers and can be more easily pushed and popped from the stack, which occurred in 16-bit words.
The optional 48-pin Z8010 memory management unit (MMU) expanded the memory map to 16 MB by translating the 23-bit address from the CPU to a 24-bit one. Internally, it held a list of 64 segments and an 8-bit pointer to the physical location of that segment in RAM. When the CPU attempted to access a particular segment, the Z8010 would translate that into an 8-bit address on the address bus, and then pass the 16-bit offset on unchanged. This allowed multiple programs to be spread out in physical RAM, each one given its own space to work in while believing they were accessing the entire 8 MB of RAM. The segments were variable length, expanding up to 64 KB in order to allow the entire memory to be accessed from 64 segments. If more than 64 segments were needed, multiple Z8010s could be used. The Z8010 was not available at the time of launch, and was ultimately nine months to a year late.
With the release of the Z8003/Z8004, the Z8015 was added to the lineup, adding paged memory support. The main difference is that the Z8015 breaks down the memory into 64 2 KB blocks, whereas the Z8010 broke memory into 64 variable-sized blocks, up to 64 KB each. Additionally, the Z8015 expands the segment number from 7 to 12 bits, and then using those as the most significant bits of the 23-bit overall address, overriding the upper bits of the original 16-bit offset. The advantage to this access scheme is that it is easy to read or write 2 KB blocks to a hard drive, so this pattern more closely matches what will ultimately happen on a segfault.
Other features
One uncommon feature found on the Z8000, more commonly associated with minicomputers, was direct support for vectored interrupts. Interrupts are used by external devices to notify the processor that some condition has been met; a common use is to indicate that data from a slow process like reading a floppy disk is now available and the CPU can read the data into memory.
Normally on small machines, an interrupt causes special code to run that examines various status bits and memory locations to decide what device actually called the interrupt and why. In some designs, especially those intended for realtime computing, a bit of memory is set aside as a set of pointers, or vectors, to the code handling a particular device. The devices causing the interrupt then set some state, typically via pins on the CPU, to indicate a particular interrupt number, N. When the interrupt is called, the CPU immediately jumps through Nth entry in the table, avoiding any need to decode the interrupt. This can greatly speed up the interrupt servicing by avoiding having to run additional operations, while also simplifying the interrupt handling code.
In the Z8000, a new register supports vectors, the New Program Status Area Pointer. This was similar to a memory address in a register, consisting of two 16-bit values with the upper 16-bits holding the segment number. The lower 16-bits were then divided in half, the upper 8-bit containing an offset and the lower 8-bits empty. To call a particular vector, the external device presented the lower 8-bits (or 9 in some cases) on the address bus, and the complete vector address was then constructed from the three values.
Z8000 CPU based systems
In the early 1980s, the Zilog Z8000 CPU was popular for desktop-sized Unix machines. These low-cost Unix systems allowed small businesses to run a true multi-user system and share resources (disk, printers) before networking was common. They usually had only RS232 serial ports (4–16) and parallel printer ports instead of built-in graphics, as was typical for servers of the time.
Z8000-based computer systems included Zilog's own System 8000 series, as well as other manufacturers:
January 1980: C8002 made by Onyx Systems used the Z8001, ran Unix System III, came with C and FORTRAN 77 compilers, and had an available COBOL compiler as well. It had 8 serial ports, 1 QIC tape drive, a single 8" hard drive and cost ~$25k. The main processor offloaded the disk, tape, and serial IO operations to a Z80 processor on a second board.
1982: Olivetti M20, a non IBM-compatible PC that ran Olivetti PCOS, a derivative of COSMOS or CP/M.
1980-1986: Olivetti Linea 1 S1000, S6000, M30, M40, M50, M60, M70. These minicomputers from Olivetti all ran BCOS/COSMOS.
1985: the cancelled Commodore 900 computer project
1987–1989: the East German EAW (Elektro-Apparate-Werke) produced the Workstation/Multiuser System P8000 based on the East German U8000 clone of the Z8000.
The Zilog S8000 computer came out with a version of Unix called ZEUS (Zilog Enhanced Unix System). ZEUS was a port of Unix Version 7 and included what were referred to as 'the Berkeley Enhancements'. ZEUS included a version of COBOL called RM/COBOL (Ryan McFarland COBOL). The availability of RM/COBOL allowed many commercial applications to be quickly ported to the S8000 computer although this did not help its long-term success. The S8000 did find some success with the IRS and tax preparers in United States, who used the model for processing of electronically filed tax returns.
There was a Z8000 version of the Xenix Operating System. Namco used the Z8000 series in its Pole Position and Pole Position II arcade games. The machines used two Z8002's, the 64 KB versions of the Z8000.
The reported inclusion of the device within military designs perhaps provides an explanation for the continued survival of the Z8000 today, in the shape of the Z16C01/02 Serial Communication Controllers (SCC). Also, the Standard Central Air Data Computer (SCADC) was utilizing the Z8002. The end of life notice from Zilog was sent in 2012.
Limited success
While the Z8000 did see some use in the early 1980s, it was passed over for other designs relatively quickly.
Federico Faggin, then CEO of Zilog, later suggested this was due to Zilog's financing arrangement with Exxon's venture capital arm, Exxon Enterprises. Enterprises had made a number of investments in the computer field, and by the early 1980s was positioning itself as a competitor to IBM in the large system space. Faggin suggests that IBM thus saw Zilog as a competitor, and refused to consider the Z8000 as a result.
However, an examination of the choices available to designers in the early 1980s suggests there are more prosaic reasons the Z8000 was not more popular:
Comparing assembly language versions of the Byte Sieve, one sees that the 5.5 MHz Z8000's 1.1 seconds is impressive when compared to the 8-bit designs it replaced, including Zilog's 4 MHz Z80 at 6.8 seconds, and the popular 1 MHz MOS 6502 at 13.9. Even the newer 1 MHz Motorola 6809 was much slower, at 5.1 seconds. It also fares well against the 8 MHz Intel 8086 which turned in a time of 1.9 seconds, or the less expensive 5 MHz Intel 8088 at 4 seconds.
While the Intel processors were easily outperformed by the Z8001, they were packaged in 40-pin DIPs, which made them less expensive to implement than the 48-pin Z8001. The Z8002 also used a 40-pin package, but had a 16-bit address bus that could only access 64 KB of RAM, whereas the Intel processors had a 20-bit bus that could access 1 MB of RAM. Internally, the 23-bit addresses of the Z8000 were also more complex to process than Intel's simpler system using 16-bit base addresses and separate segment registers. For those looking for a low-cost option able to access (what was then) large amounts of memory, the Intel designs were competitive and available over a year earlier.
For those looking for pure performance, the Z8000 was the fastest CPU available in early 1979. But this was true only for a period of a few months. The 16/32-bit 8 Mhz Motorola 68000 came to market later the same year and turns in a time of 0.49 seconds on the same Sieve test, over twice as fast as the Z8000. Although it used an even larger 64-pin DIP layout, for those willing to move to more than 40-pins this was a small price to pay for what was by far the fastest processor of its era. Its 32-bit instructions and registers, combined with a 24-bit address bus with flat 16 MB addressing, also made it much more attractive to designers, something Faggin admits to.
To add to its problems, when the Z8000 was first released it contained a number of bugs. This was due to its complex instruction decoder, which, unlike most processors of the era, did not use microcode and was dependent on logic implemented directly in the CPU. This allowed the design to eliminate the microcode storage and the associated decoding logic, which reduced to the transistor count to 17,500. In contrast, the contemporary Intel 8088 used 29,000 transistors, while the Motorola 68000 of a few months later used 68,000.
Second sources
Several third parties manufactured the Z8000 including AMD, SGS-Ates, Toshiba and Sharp.
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Computer-related introductions in 1979
Zilog microprocessors
Japanese inventions
16-bit microprocessors |
15390465 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorgythion | Gorgythion | In Greek mythology, Gorgythion (Ancient Greek: Γοργυθίων, gen.: Γοργυθίωνος) was one of the sons of King Priam of Troy at the time of the Trojan War and appears as a minor character in Homer's Iliad. His mother was Castianeira of Aisyme.
Name and description
In the Iliad, Gorgythion is described as beautiful, and his epithet is the blameless. Jane Ellen Harrison pointed out that "blameless" (άμύμων) was an epithet of the heroized dead, who were venerated and appeased at shrines. Zeus even applies the epithet to Aegisthus, the usurper, Harrison observes.
The epithet άμύμων in Homer is applied to individual heroes, to a hero's tomb [Odyssey xxiv.80], to magical, half-mythical peoples like the Phaeacians and Aethiopians [Iliad x.423] who to the popular imagination are half canonized, to the magic island [Odyssey xii.261] of the god Helios, to the imaginary half-magical Good Old King [Odyssey xix.109]. It is used also of the 'convoy' [Iliad vi.171] sent by the gods, which of course is magical in character; it is never, I believe, an epithet of the Olympians themselves. There is about the word a touch of what is magical and demonic rather than actually divine.
In applying "blameless" to Gorgythion, then, the poet may have been reflecting a tradition of cult among his descendants, that was known to Homer or in the Homeric tradition. John Pairman Brown has suggested that Gorgythion's name "surely echoes the Gergithes; the 'Gergithes remnants of the Teucrians' are projected back into the heroic age as individual antagonists".
According to Herodotus, the Gergithes were "the remnants of the ancient Teucrians" (that is, of the ancient Trojans).
Family
Near the end of the Iliad, Priam himself tells Achilles: "I begat the bravest sons in wide Troy, of whom I say that none are left. Fifty there were to me, when the sons of the Greeks arrived; nineteen indeed from one womb, but the others women bore to me in my palaces. And of the greater number fierce Mars indeed has relaxed the knees under them..." Gorgythion is referred to at his death as "...the brave son
of Priam". Of Gorgythion's mother Castianeira, Homer says (in Samuel Butler's translation) "His mother, fair Castianeira, lovely as a goddess, had been married from Aesyme."
The Bibliotheca says that Priam had nine sons and four daughters by Hecuba (the sons being Hector, Paris, Deiphobus, Helenus, Pammon, Polites, Antiphus, Hipponous, Polydorus, and the daughters Creusa, Laodice, Polyxena, and the prophetess Cassandra), and he names thirty-eight sons by other women, including Troilus, Hippothous, Kebriones, and Gorgythion.
In the Fabulae of Gaius Julius Hyginus, fable 90 consists wholly of a list of "Sons and daughters of Priam to the number of fifty-five", in which Gorgythion is included.
Mythology
Gorgythion is killed by an arrow of Teucer's at lines 303–305 of Book VIII of the Iliad, although Teucer's target is Gorgythion's brother Hector. Teucer aims two arrows at Hector, but kills first Gorgythion and next Hector's friend Archeptolemus, which serves to increase the impression of Hector's elusiveness and strength.
When Gorgythion dies, Homer says –
Susanne Lindgren Wofford comments on this simile "But the poppy is not wilted or dead, just top-heavy; in any case, a poppy will return every spring to bow its head, but Gorgythion's death is final; it is a unique event that does not participate in any natural cycles of renewal or return... to make death seem beautiful is to transform it into something different."
In Alexander Pope's looser but more poetic translation (1715–1720), the death scene reads –
This translation of the Iliad was called by Samuel Johnson "a performance which no age or nation could hope to equal", while Richard Bentley wrote: "It is a pretty poem, Mr Pope, but you must not call it Homer."
In the 4th century AD, a Roman called Q. Septimius published Dictys Cretensis Ephemeridos belli Trojani, purporting to be a translation by Lucius Septimius of a chronicle of the Trojan War by Dictys of Crete, the companion of Idomeneus during the Trojan War. In Book 3, Patroclus, and not Teucer, is said to have killed Gorgythion:
Other uses of the name
The name Gorgythion was given to a genus of Pyrginae, North American butterflies commonly known as Spread-winged Skippers, in Frederick Du Cane Godman and O. Salvin's Biologia Centrali Americana (1896).
48373 Gorgythion is an asteroid of the Solar System, discovered on 16 October 1977, by C. J. van Houten and I. van Houten-Groeneveld.
See also
List of children of Priam
List of Trojan War characters
Notes
References
Dictys Cretensis, from The Trojan War. The Chronicles of Dictys of Crete and Dares the Phrygian translated by Richard McIlwaine Frazer, Jr. (1931–). Indiana University Press. 1966. Online version at the Topos Text Project.
Gaius Julius Hyginus, Fabulae from The Myths of Hyginus translated and edited by Mary Grant. University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies. Online version at the Topos Text Project.
Herodotus, The Histories with an English translation by A. D. Godley. Cambridge. Harvard University Press. 1920. Online version at the Topos Text Project. Greek text available at Perseus Digital Library.
Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PhD in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital xLibrary.
Homer, Homeri Opera in five volumes. Oxford, Oxford University Press. 1920. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Pseudo-Apollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website.
Trojans
Children of Priam
Princes in Greek mythology |
4145914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Settlers%20II | The Settlers II | The Settlers II (), originally released as The Settlers II: Veni, Vidi, Vici, is a city-building game with real-time strategy elements, developed and published by Blue Byte Software. Released in Germany for DOS in April 1996, and in the United Kingdom and North America in August, it is the second game in The Settlers series, following The Settlers (1993). In December, Blue Byte released an expansion, The Settlers II Mission CD, featuring new single-player campaign missions, new maps for both single-player and multiplayer modes, and a map editor. In October 1997, they released The Settlers II: Gold Edition, containing the original game, plus the Mission CD expansion, along with minor graphical enhancements and gameplay tweaks. The Gold Edition was also ported to Mac OS in 1997. In 2006, an enhanced remake, The Settlers II (10th Anniversary), was released for Microsoft Windows. In 2007, the Gold Edition was ported to the Nintendo DS, under the title The Settlers, released in Germany in July, and in the United Kingdom and North America in August. Although adapted for the dual-screen display of the DS, and with controls specifically programmed for use with the DS stylus, the gameplay, game mechanics, graphics and storyline are unaltered. In 2009, the original Gold Edition was released on GOG.com, and in 2018, it was re-released for Microsoft Windows as The Settlers II: Veni, Vidi, Vici - History Edition.
The game can be played in either single-player campaign mode or in "Free game" mode; individual scenarios with predetermined rules set by the player, which can be played with or against either another player, the computer, or both another player and the computer. In the single-player campaign, the player controls a group of Romans who are shipwrecked on an uncharted island. Led by their captain, Octavius, they must use a series of magical portals to try to find their way back to the Empire. During their travels, they come into conflict with Nubians, Vikings and Japanese. In the single-player campaign included with the Mission CD, the player controls Octavius's great-grandson as he attempts to conquer the entire world.
In making The Settlers II, Blue Byte wanted to improve upon the first Settlers title to as much of an extent and in as many ways as they could. To this end, they sought fan feedback from the first game, and hired Thomas Häuser, who had worked on quality assurance for The Settlers, as the lead designer. Although the core supply and demand-based gameplay is broadly the same as in the first game, many other aspects of the gameplay and game mechanics have been altered. For example, the sound effects and graphics have been enhanced, with more on-screen movements and more animations for the settlers themselves, and with four aesthetically distinct races; the economic system is more complex; the battle system is more strategic, with the player able to use scouts and stationary offensive weaponry; and a story-driven single-player campaign has been included.
The original game received positive reviews, with critics especially praising the supply and demand gameplay, the complex economic system and the graphics. The most common criticisms were the lack of direct control during combat, and the absence of an online multiplayer mode. The game was a commercial success, selling over 600,000 units worldwide, considerably more than the original Settlers. The DS remake received negative reviews, with many critics arguing it tarnished the legacy of the original, citing unresponsive controls, a poorly implemented HUD, and, especially, game breaking bugs.
Gameplay
The Settlers II is a city-building game with real-time strategy elements, in which the primary goal on each map is to build a settlement with a functioning economy, producing sufficient military units so as to conquer rival territories, ultimately gaining control of either the entire map, or a certain predetermined section of it.<ref name="Manual12">{{cite book | title=The Settlers II Instruction Manual (NA)''' | last=Dreher | first=Michael | url=http://files.replacementdocs.com/The_Settlers_II_-_Manual_-_PC.pdf | publisher=Blue Byte Software | year=1996 | chapter=Military | page=12 | access-date=April 4, 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180404172459/http://files.replacementdocs.com/The_Settlers_II_-_Manual_-_PC.pdf | archive-date=April 4, 2018 | url-status=live}}</ref> To achieve this end, the player must engage in economic micromanagement, construct buildings, and generate resources. The game is controlled via a point and click interface, and features a HUD navigated primarily through "windows" modeled on Windows 95.
Game modes
The game can be played in one of two modes; "Campaign" or "Free Game". In the single-player Campaign mode, the player must complete a series of missions, the goal of each of which is to defeat the computer controlled opponent or opponents by gaining possession of the territory in which the mission objective is located. In the original release of the game, there were ten missions, with the player limited to controlling the Romans. The Mission CD expansion added a new campaign of nine missions, with the player once again confined to controlling the Romans.
In Free Game mode, the player chooses a map on which to play, and then refines the game in various ways, such as selecting the number of races (from two to four), choosing which race to control (Romans, Nubians, Vikings or Japanese), selecting the victory conditions (how much of the map must be controlled), refining the amount of raw materials available to each player at the start of the game, and determining if each race begins in a predetermined spot, or is instead placed randomly on the map. The player can also select the type of game to be played, choosing from "Every man for himself", "Human vs. Computer" and "People vs. People". This allows for a variety of different game types, such as two human controlled races against one computer controlled race (and vice versa), two human controlled races against two computer controlled races, two human and two computer controlled races all fighting one another, and two human controlled races competing against one another. Games involving two human players are played in split screen, with the second player using a mouse on the same PC.
Settlers and transportation
Whether playing in Campaign or Free Game mode, each game begins the same way; the player has one building, a warehouse/headquarters, in which are a set amount of raw materials and tools. The basic gameplay revolves around serfs (the titular "settlers") who transport materials, tools and produce, and who populate and perform the requisite task of each building. As the player constructs buildings and thus requires settlers to occupy them, the settlers automatically emerge from the warehouse as needed. As the settlement continues to grow in size, the warehouse's quota of settlers will eventually be reached, and the player will need to build an additional warehouse to generate more settlers. At no point does the player directly control any individual settler - instead, general orders are issued (such as ordering the construction of a building), with the AI handling the delegation of orders to specific settlers.
An important game mechanic is the construction of a road network so as to allow for an efficient transportation system, as any settlers transporting goods must use roads. To build a road, the player must place a flag, select the "build road" option, and then place another flag. The computer will then automatically find the best route between the two and build the road, although the player is also free to build the road manually. To maximize distribution, the player must set as many flags as possible on each road. Flags can only be set a certain distance apart, and serve as transport hubs; a settler will carry an item to a flag and set it down, at which point the next settler along will pick up the item and continue, freeing the first settler to return and pick up another item at the previous flag. The more flags the player has, the more settlers will operate on a given road, cutting down the distance each settler must travel, and reducing the time to transport one item and return for the next, thus avoiding item congestion at each flag. When more than one item is placed at a flag, the game has an adjustable goods priority system, which determines the order in which items are transported. Players can also build shipyards, which allow for the manufacture of boats (can transport goods over small stretches of water), and ships (can transport goods across oceans).
Economy
The economy is under the player's control throughout the game, and is adjustable in multiple ways. For example, the player can control the distribution of goods by selecting how much of a given resource is transported to a given building, under six separate headings; foodstuff, grain, iron, coal, boards and water. In a similar manner, the player can select what tools are made when; by increasing the significance of a particular tool, that tool will be produced before others. Tool production is important insofar as all buildings require raw materials and a worker with the right tool. For example, if the player has built a bakery, and the building is still empty despite idle settlers in the headquarters, a rolling pin will need to be manufactured in the toolsmith.
Military
The player's territory can only be expanded by building a military complex near the territory border. Each complex must have at least one soldier garrisoned for the territory to expand. Soldiers are automatically created from the pool of existing settlers in the headquarters, with each individual soldier requiring a sword, shield, and one unit of beer. Once soldiers are garrisoned, gold coins can be transported to the building to increase their rank. The player can also build lookout towers, which can see for great distances, but don't grant new territory.
The player also has control over the structure of their military, and is free to change the number of settlers who become soldiers, the rank of first-line defence soldiers, how many soldiers from each building can be used offensively, how many soldiers counter the enemy if nearby buildings are attacked, and how many soldiers take up positions in buildings in the settlement's centre, further out, and on the borders.
In order for the player to attack an enemy building, they must click on that building, and select both the number of units and what rank they wish to use to carry out the attack. If the player's units defeat all soldiers stationed in the building, they will occupy it, with the player's territory increasing according to the building's radius. The player can also use catapults to attack enemy military buildings. Catapults are immobile, and fire stones at enemy buildings within their range, with each successful hit killing one occupying soldier. If all soldiers are killed, the building burns down, and the enemy loses the territory controlled by that building. Defense of the player's military buildings is automatic; as enemies attack, any soldiers stationed in the building defend.
Plot
The game begins in the fourth year of the reign of Emperor Travianus Augustus Caesar, as Octavius, a captain in the Roman navy, is sailing his ship, the Tortius, through the dangerous "Sea of Storms" to the "Latonic Provinces". However, the ship is hit by a sudden storm, thrown off-course, and, after several days, driven onto the coastline of an island, marooning the crew. Octavius quickly deduces the island is unknown to the Empire, and thus, rescue is unlikely. Seeing a plentiful supply of food, the crew decide to settle.
Setting out to explore, they discover a gateway-like structure with a Latin inscription, "Consiste ut procederas" ("Settle down in order to make progress"). Perplexed at the contradictory nature of this message, they continue to build up their settlement. Thirteen months later, a portal opens in the gateway, and Octavius concludes the inscription means that for the gateway to function, they must first construct a vibrant settlement.
Entering the portal, they are transported to another island, and after several months, find evidence of Nubian inhabitants. The Nubians greet the Romans peacefully, telling them about their "holy relic", which Octavius realises is another portal. He asks for access to it, but the Nubians refuse, and Octavius determines to take it by force. After five months of fighting, the Romans defeat the Nubians, and enter the portal. Over the next few years, as they use a series of portals to jump from island to island, they come into conflict with more Nubians, as well as Vikings and Japanese, before eventually emerging on what they believe to be the final island on their journey home.
Ten years after being shipwrecked, they locate the final portal, but are shocked to learn it is guarded by hostile Romans. However, they are able to fight their way through, finally returning to the Empire.
Development
Blue Byte had always intended to make a sequel to The Settlers if it proved successful. A commercial success, by June 1996, the original game had sold over 215,000 units, considerably more than expected, and so Blue Byte immediately began development on a second game, with a total of twelve people working on the project. As well as enhancing the graphics and sound effects, and increasing the complexity of the supply and demand-based gameplay, there were also certain aspects of the original with which Blue Byte had been unhappy, and which they hoped to address in the sequel. They also sought feedback from fans of the first game, and worked to deal with anything the fanbase disliked or felt could be improved upon. However, Volker Wertich, who had designed and programmed the original, was not involved with the second game, because, as he describes it, "after two years programming The Settlers, I didn't really want to see those little men for a while".
It was Blue Byte's desire to improve upon any aspects of the first game which they felt didn't work which led to Thomas Häuser becoming project manager. When the first game was in development, Häuser was newly employed by Blue Byte, and had done quality assurance work on it. In this capacity, he had made a list of possible gameplay improvements for the developers, who told him there was no time to implement his changes, as the game was almost ready for release. However, they had been impressed with his ideas, and, when the second game was greenlit, they suggested he apply his ideas to this game. This ultimately led to Häuser, a programmer by trade, working as the lead designer on the sequel.
Amongst the graphical enhancements in The Settlers II are more on-screen movements and more animations for the settlers themselves, with four aesthetically distinct races. Gameplay improvements include a more strategic battle system, which allows players to send out scouts, and utilise a stationary offensive weapon in the catapult. Additionally, there is a story-driven single-player campaign, replacing the narratively-unconnected missions from the first game, which simply got harder as the player progressed, without any kind of connective plot. Initially, the team took the concept of a single-player storyline too far, designing maps which placed tight limits on what the player could and couldn't do, and featured time-sensitive scripted incidents. They quickly realised that this went too much against the principles of the game mechanics established in the first game, and so changed the level design accordingly. According to Häuser:
Despite the team's efforts to make The Settlers II as good as they possibly could, speaking in 2006, Häuser comments that, as with the original game, there were elements with which he was unhappy: "Things like the help system. There was none, to be honest. The player had to work really hard to get into the game, and there's lots of details in the game you have to learn the hard way. It would have been a great help to a new gamer if we had some put in". He also agreed with many fans of the game that the shipping system didn't work very well, even after it was patched in the Gold Edition: "It didn't work as we wanted it to work. I remember the ships did not transport the things you wanted to other islands, we couldn't solve this problem at the time. Because at this time, the development systems were much more difficult to use and we didn't have the ability to debug code as we do today. It was just not working as we wanted it to work". When The Settlers III went into development in 1997, Blue Byte again sought feedback from fans, and one of the most requested aspects for the new game was that the shipping system from The Settlers II be reprogrammed.
Mac OS version
In August 1997, Blue Byte announced that they would be releasing the game for Mac OS later that year. Häuser explained: "We could not and would not ignore any longer the constant requests from Mac users. However, converting such a complex game as The Settlers II over to the Macintosh meant breaking new ground, not only for ourselves, but also for the industry. It was not easy to find programmers capable of not only replicating The Settlers high quality, but also meeting the reputed demands of Mac users". Alexander B. Christof of Austrian conversion specialists, Similis, stated, "because the Mac has a completely different processor structure, the complex Settlers animation - with its thousands of animation phases - have had to be totally redesigned. The landscape routines which have been optimised for Intel processors have also had to be reconstructed". However, in April 1998, Blue Byte CEO and producer of The Settlers II, Thomas Hertzler, announced that the company would not be releasing any further titles on Mac, citing poor sales and lack of support from Apple Inc.: "We have recently reviewed the situation and feel that due to the small number of sales for The Settlers II on Macintosh, it would not be beneficial for Blue Byte to continue developing and publishing titles for the Macintosh. As a huge Mac fan, I was disappointed that we didn't receive support from Apple when working on this title".
Nintendo DS version
In July 2006, Ubisoft, who had acquired Blue Byte in February 2001, announced they would be releasing The Settlers II for Nintendo DS, the first time any game in the series had been released for a system other than a home computer. Whilst the press release referred to the game as The Settlers, the description of the port clarified that it was The Settlers II: Gold Edition, with references to "Roman or World Campaigns". Although Ubisoft and Blue Byte were simultaneously working on a remake of The Settlers II for Microsoft Windows, The Settlers II (10th Anniversary), The Settlers for Nintendo DS would rather be a 1:1 re-release of the original Settlers II, with updated controls and a slightly modified interface. For example, the game uses one of the DS's screens for the various menu functions and Activity Windows, and the other displays the main action. Players are able to swap which screen displayed what, whilst the game is completely touch controlled, with the DS stylus substituting for the mouse on both views.
Although the idea of doing a straight re-release of the game initially seemed like a straightforward task, the implementation proved somewhat more complicated, due to the different architectures of a PC and a DS. For example, to get the graphics to look identical to their 1996 incarnation, they had to be completely rewritten for the new device; behind the replication of the original's 2D isometric graphics, a 3D game engine is running, which must convert the graphics in real time.
In March 2007, German gaming website Gameswelt published an interview with Blue Byte in which they discussed adapting the game to a handheld device. Speaking of the logistics of the port, they stated:
Explaining why they had chosen the DS as the platform to which to port the game, they explained:
They also pointed out that aside from the use of the stylus and the two screens, the gameplay and graphics were unaltered from the original.
ReceptionThe Settlers II received positive reviews, with an aggregate score of 84% on GameRankings, based on four reviews. The Nintendo DS re-release received "generally unfavorable" reviews, with a score of 39 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on six reviews, and 38% on GameRankings, based on seven reviews.PC Games Petra Maueröder scored the game 91%, giving it a "PC Games Award", naming it Game of the Month, and calling it "world class". Her main criticisms concerned the notification system, which she felt wasn't entirely reliable when reporting on attacks, the "imposed arbitrariness" of where woodcutters work, and the absence of online multiplayer mode. However, she praised the graphics and gameplay, concluding that "this game will inspire you - regardless of whether you are among The Settlers veterans, or are usually rather sceptical about playing this particular genre".PC Gamers James Flynn scored it 89%, and was especially impressed with the balance between city-building and combat. He particularly praised the economic system on which the game is built, calling it "so sound that everything you do makes perfect sense". He also lauded the graphics and variety of animations. His main criticism was that he felt it was not overly different from the first title, writing "Blue Byte have not fundamentally altered the game in the same way that MicroProse did with Civilization II".PC Players Jörg Langer scored it 4 out of 5, giving it a "Gold Player" award. Although he was critical of the "indirect control" over combat, and felt that "diplomacy has not been implemented in the slightest", he praised the graphical improvements over the first game, the complexity of the economic system, and the story-driven single-player campaign, concluding "Settlers 2 is just as suitable for the patient casual player as for strategy experts - there is no more constructive, more relaxing strategy game".Computer Gaming Worlds Tim Carter scored it 4 out of 5, praising the game's character and the complexity of the economic system, especially lauding the focus on economics over combat; "winning or losing is rooted in economics, and it will be hard to compensate for economic weakness with superior military tactics". He concluded by calling the game "a fun and engrossing experience that challenges your brain without getting on your nerves".Arcanes Andy Butcher rated it 8 out of 10, writing that "as well as adding new buildings and resources, Settlers 2 also has improved graphics and supports multi-player games. Big fans of the original will find more than enough new stuff to keep them occupied, while the simplicity of the game's controls enable newcomers to easily get to grips with it. Settlers 2 is a great strategy game that's deceptively addictive and absorbing".GameSpots Trent Ward scored it 7.3 out of 10, writing that "there really isn't enough to do to make long-term world-building very satisfying". Whilst he praised the graphics and the economic system, especially the complex relationship between the different buildings, he was critical of combat, concluding: "Those who are looking for a more open-ended game may find that Settlers IIs low number of construction options and snore-inducing combat keep the game well within the bounds of strategy game mediocrity". Stephen Poole scored the Gold Edition 6.6 out of 10. He too praised the economic system, but, like Ward, he was critical of combat. He also lamented the absence of online multiplayer, concluding that "the game is definitely not for everyone, but for those who think they're up to the challenge of lording over a sprawling empire, the Gold Edition is an excellent deal".
Sales and awards
The game was a commercial success, considerably outselling the first Settlers title. In the German market alone, by November 1996, it had sold 150,000 units. By August 1997, it had sold over 500,000 units worldwide, and roughly 600,000 by May 1998. In August 1998, it was awarded the "Platinum Award" by the Verband der Unterhaltungssoftware Deutschland e.V. (VUD); an award given to titles costing DM55 or more, which sell over 200,000 units nationally within the first twelve months of their release.
The game was nominated for Computer Games Strategy Pluss 1996 "Real-Time Strategy Game of the Year" award, losing to Command & Conquer: Red Alert. In 1997, PC Gamer (UK) ranked it at #27 on their "PC Gamer Top 100" list, calling it "an outstanding cerebral challenge".
Nintendo DSIGNs Jack Devries scored the DS version 4 out of 10, calling it "tedious, and [...] not even a functional game". He was critical of the saving and loading times, which he argued were so bad as to discourage players from saving. He also criticised the touchscreen as unresponsive, the "frequent" crashes, and the pace of the gameplay. He concluded, "games like these usually get classified as "only for the hardcore fan", but that's an insult to fans of The Settlers. The biggest fans of the game will be the ones that are most disappointed".GameSpots Kevin VanOrd scored it 3.5 out of 10, calling it "a buggy mess." He criticised the touchscreen as unresponsive, and the map and menu scrolling as "sluggish". He was also highly critical of the bugs, citing a mission which couldn't be completed until the sound effects were turned off, and another which crashes when the player zooms in or out: "When it functions, The Settlers can be laid-back fun. But given that you never know how far you're going to get before the next crash, why bother?"Pocket Gamers Mark Walbank scored it 1.5 out of 5, citing "unforgivable technical issues". He found the touchscreen unresponsive, the map scrolling "jerky", and the menu icons too small. He also found the number of bugs "staggering", citing the disappearance of icons, intermittent inability to attack enemies, stored resources disappearing, and zooming directly after saving causing the game to crash. Although he praised the core gameplay, he wrote "The Settlers emerges as a real botched job, and one that desecrates the good name of the series".Eurogamers Dan Whitehead scored it 1 out of 10, calling it "one of the most clumsy and broken games to [ever] receive a commercial release". He criticised the touchscreen as unresponsive, the overly small icons, and the jerky map and menu scrolling. His biggest criticism concerned the bugs: "Settlers II is a great game. A classic. This version isn't. It's a travesty, and one that should never have been released. Without the fatal bugs it'd be a disappointing but passable conversion, but you can't play a game not knowing when, or if, the game will actually work the way it's supposed to".
Expansions
Mission CDThe Settlers II Mission CD was released in Germany in December 1996. The expansion features nine new single-player campaign missions in which the player again controls the Romans, this time under the command of Octavius's great-grandchild, as he attempts to conquer the entire world. It also features twelve new maps for Free Game mode, now renamed "Limitless Play", and a map editor.
Gold Edition
Released in October 1997, The Settlers II: Gold Edition contains the original game plus the Mission CD. It also features minor graphical enhancements and gameplay tweaks. Additionally, the single-player campaign from the original release has been renamed "Roman Campaign", and the Mission CD single-player campaign has been renamed "World Campaign". In 2009, the Gold Edition was released on GOG.com.
LegacyThe Settlers II has given rise to two free, open source games released under the GNU General Public License. Widelands, written in C++ and built on the SDL libraries, is an ongoing project begun in 2001. Inspired by and based upon The Settlers and, to a larger extent, The Settlers II, Widelands is itself a new game with its own storyline, races, buildings, graphics and gameplay. In a 2009 review of Build13 for Linux Journal, John Knight wrote: "Widelands is a breath of fresh air in an extremely stale genre, whose roots ironically stem from way back in the past in RTS history. Whether you're chasing a fix of that original Settlers feel or just want a different direction in RTS, this game is well worth a look".Return to the Roots (originally Settlers 2.5), also written primarily in C++, is an attempt to recreate the original Settlers II, whilst introducing elements not found in the original game, such as online multiplayer, as well as allowing it run natively on operating systems later than Windows XP, as well as Linux and MacOS. Begun in 2005, Return to the Roots still requires the original game files to work, but features higher resolution OpenGL-rendered graphics, reprogrammed sounds, new maps, new missions, and a new race (the Babylonians).
Remake and re-release
In 2006, an enhanced remake with a new storyline was released for Microsoft Windows under the title The Settlers II (10th Anniversary) (). Thomas Häuser, lead designer of the original Settlers II, chose to remake that particular game as it seemed to be the favourite of fans of the Settlers series. The biggest decision regarding the remake was to renovate the game rather than reinvent it:
In November 2018, Ubisoft re-released the Gold Edition as both a standalone History Edition and as part of The Settlers: History Collection. Optimised for Windows 10, the re-release contains both the original game and Mission CD expansion, and features autosave, 4K monitor support, dual monitor support, options for mouse and keyboard inputs, key mapping for keyboard input, and different device support for split-screen. Available only on Uplay, the History Collection also includes re-releases of The Settlers, The Settlers III, The Settlers IV, The Settlers: Heritage of Kings, The Settlers: Rise of an Empire, and The Settlers 7: Paths to a Kingdom''.
References
External links
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1996 video games
Blue Byte games
City-building games
DOS games
Games commercially released with DOSBox
Classic Mac OS games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Nintendo DS games
Real-time strategy video games
The Settlers
Ubisoft games
Video game sequels
Video games developed in Germany
Video games set in antiquity
Video games set in the Roman Empire
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Video games set on islands
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5008465 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/350th%20Electronic%20Systems%20Wing | 350th Electronic Systems Wing | The 350th Spectrum Warfare Wing is an active United States Air Force organization. It was actived in 2021 as a unit located at Eglin AFB, Florida.
Previously, as the 350th Electronic Systems Wing it developed, acquired, fielded, and sustained systems for C2, ISR and communication capabilities for Air Force, joint and coalition operations. It serviced five major commands, three U.S. services, seven combatant commanders, three national agencies, NORAD and NATO. The 350th ELSW executed $14 billion in programs.
History
The 350th ELSW, formerly the Command and Control, Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance Systems Wing, traces its history back to the early establishment of information superiority in the United States Army Air Forces. The newly defined role of the aircraft for reconnaissance purposes resulted in the birth of multiple observation groups in the USAAF.
The 26th Observation Group, the direct predecessor of the 350 ELSW, was activated 1 September 1941, and assigned to the First Air Force. The group, stationed at Fort Devens, Massachusetts, flew various types of missions, including photographic, reconnaissance, tow target, and coast artillery spotting. This was done in cooperation with units along the Eastern seaboard.
The group was later redesignated the 26th Reconnaissance Group, and took part in the Carolina and Tennessee Maneuvers in the fall of 1941 and 1942 in support of Army field training exercises. In both exercises, observation aircraft were used to detail strategic ground positioning and provide an opportunity to train senior commanders and staff in the operational elements of combat.
With Pearl Harbor deeply entrenched in the minds of military leaders, it was clear there was a greater need for coastal surveillance and anti-submarine patrols. The 26th Reconnaissance Group, stationed out of Reading Army Air Field, Pennsylvania, was given that responsibility for the northeastern North American sector of the Atlantic Ocean.
Various aircraft, including the O-46 and O-52 Owl, flew anti-submarine patrols off the East Coast after the United States entered World War II. Other more notable aircraft that flew reconnaissance missions with modifications to their existing frames included the P-39 and B-25, which was designated as the F-10 after being modified for photographic reconnaissance work. The group was disbanded at the end of 1943
The 26th Reconnaissance Group was reestablished as an Air Force Reserve organization in 1947 near Buffalo. New York and was inactivated on 27 June 1949, when Continental Air Command implemented the wing base organization (Hobson Plan) for its reserve organizations. It was redesignated the 350th Tactical Electronics Group in 1985, but remained in inactive status.
The group was redesignated as the 350th Electronics Systems Wing, delivering and sustaining transformational capabilities for operational-level command, control, intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance information dominance.
The 350th Electronics Systems Group, formerly the Operational Command and Control Systems Group, acquired and sustained operational-level command and control assets including the Air and Space Operations Center and Theater Battle Management Core Systems.
The 850th Electronic Systems Group, formerly the Combatant Commanders Command and Control Systems Group, acquired, fielded and sustained global sensing, communication and decision-making capabilities, including missile warning and defense sensors, global command and control systems, space control sensors and battle management systems.
The 950th Electronic Systems Group, formerly the Intelligence Surveillance and Reconnaissance Group developed, acquired, and integrated network-centric intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance information and decision-support systems to fuse data at multiple security levels for Air Force, joint and coalition warfighters. The 950th ELSG was recognized with the AF Outstanding Unit Award for the period of 1 April 2006 to 31 March 2008.
Lineage
350th Tactical Electronic Group
Constituted as 26th Observation Group on 21 August 1941
Activated on 1 September 1941
Redesignated 26th Reconnaissance Group on 2 April 1943
Redesignated 26th Tactical Reconnaissance Group on 11 August 1943.
Disbanded on 11 November 1943
Reconstituted, redesignated 26th Reconnaissance Group and allotted to the Air Force Reserve, on 27 December 1946
Activated on 23 October 1947
Inactivated on 27 June 1949
Redesignated 350th Tactical Electronic Group on 31 July 1985
Consolidated with Command and Control, Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance Wing on 6 April 2006.350th Electronic Systems Wing Constituted as Command and Control, Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance Wing on 23 November 2004
Activated on 17 December 2004
Consolidated with 350th Tactical Electronic Group on 6 April 2006
Redesignated 350th Electronic Systems Wing on 17 April 2006
Inactivated on 30 June 2010.
Redesignated 350th Spectrum Warfare Wing on June 2021
Activated on 28 June 2021
Assignments
First Air Force, 1 September 1941
Third Air Force, unknown – 11 November 1943
Electronic Systems Center, 17 December 2004 – 30 June 2010
United States Air Force Warfare Center, 28 June 2021 – present
ComponentsGroups Operational Command and Control Systems Group (later 350th Electronic Systems Group), 17 December 2004 – 30 June 2010
Combatant Commanders Command and Control Systems Group (later 850th Electronic Systems Group), 17 December 2004 – 30 June 2010
Intelligence Surveillance and Reconnaissance Group (later 950th Electronic Systems Group), 17 December 2004 – 30 June 2010
53d Electronic Warfare Group, 28 June 2021 - presentSquadrons'''
4th Reconnaissance Squadron: 23 October 1947 – 27 June 1949
10th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron: 1947–1949
14th Reconnaissance Squadron 1942–1943
72d Liaison Squadron 1943
91st Reconnaissance Squadron, 23 August – 19 October 1943
101st Observation Squadron 1 September 1941 – Nov 1943
103d Observation Squadron 18 October 1942 – Nov 1943
152d Observation Squadron 1 September 1941 – Nov 1943
Stations
Ayer Army Airfield, Massachusetts, 1 September 1941
Hillsgrove Army Air Field, Rhode Island, c. 12 September 1941
Naval Air Station Quonset Point, Rhode Island, Jun 1942
Hyannis Army Airfield, Massachusetts, July 1942
Middletown Air Depot, Pennsylvania, Sep 1942
Reading Army Air Field, Pennsylvania, – 11 November 1943
Bell Modification Center, New York, 23 October 1947
Buffalo Airport, New York, C. 17 February 1948 – 27 June 1949
Hanscom Air Force Base, Massachusetts, 17 December 2004 – 30 June 2010
Eglin AFB, Florida, 28 June 2021 - present
Aircraft
Douglas O-46, 1941–1943
North American O-47, 1941–1943
O-52 Owl, 1941–1943
L-4 Grasshopper, 1941–1943
A-20 Havoc, 1941–1943
B-25 Mitchell, 1941–1943
P-39 Airacobra, 1941–1943
References
External links
Hanscom AFB Website
Hansconian Article about 350 ELSW
U.S. Air Force Fact Sheet 350 ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS WING (AFMC)
Air Force activates first spectrum warfare wing, 29 June 2021.
0350
Military units and formations in Massachusetts |
32968918 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick%20C.%20Fischer | Patrick C. Fischer | Patrick Carl Fischer (December 3, 1935 – August 26, 2011) was an American computer scientist, a noted researcher in computational complexity theory and database theory, and a target of the Unabomber.
Biography
Fischer was born December 3, 1935, in St. Louis, Missouri. His father, Carl H. Fischer, became a professor of actuarial mathematics at the University of Michigan in 1941, and the family moved to Ann Arbor, Michigan where he grew up. Fischer himself went to the University of Michigan, receiving a bachelor's degree in 1957 and an MBA in 1958. He went on to graduate studies at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, earning a Ph.D. in 1962 under the supervision of Hartley Rogers, Jr., with a thesis on the subject of recursion theory.
After receiving his Ph.D. in 1962, Fischer joined the faculty of Harvard University as an assistant professor of applied mathematics; his students at Harvard included Albert R. Meyer, through whom Fischer has over 250 academic descendants. as well as noted computer scientists Dennis Ritchie and Arnold L. Rosenberg. In 1965, he moved to a tenured position as associate professor of computer science at Cornell University. After teaching at the University of British Columbia from 1967 to 1968 (where he met his second wife Charlotte Froese) he moved to the University of Waterloo where he became a professor of applied analysis and computer science. At Waterloo, he was department chair from 1972 to 1974. He then moved to Pennsylvania State University in 1974, where he headed the computer science department, and moved again to Vanderbilt University as department chair in 1980. He taught at Vanderbilt for 18 years, and was chair for 15 years. He retired in 1998, and died of stomach cancer on August 26, 2011 in Rockville, Maryland.
Like his father, Fischer became a fellow of the Society of Actuaries.
Fischer's second wife, Charlotte Froese Fischer, was also a computer science professor at Vanderbilt University and the University of British Columbia, and his brother, Michael J. Fischer, is a computer science professor at Yale University.
Research
Fischer's thesis research concerned the effects of different models of computation on the efficiency of solving problems. For instance, he showed how to generate the sequence of prime numbers using a one-dimensional cellular automaton, based on earlier solutions to the firing squad synchronization problem, and his work in this area set the foundation for much later work on parallel algorithms. With Meyer and Rosenberg, Fischer performed influential early research on counter machines, showing that they obeyed time hierarchy and space hierarchy theorems analogous to those for Turing machines.
Fischer was an early leader in the field of computational complexity, and helped establish theoretical computer science as a discipline separate from mathematics and electrical engineering. He was the first chair of SIGACT, the Special Interest Group on Algorithms and Computation Theory of the Association for Computing Machinery, which he founded in 1968. He also founded the annual Symposium on Theory of Computing, which together with the Symposium on Foundations of Computer Science is one of the two flagship conferences in theoretical computer science, and he served five times as chair of the conference.
In the 1980s, Fischer's research interests shifted to database theory. His research in that area included the study of the semantics of databases, metadata, and incomplete information. Fischer did important work defining the nested relational model of databases, in which the values in the cells of a relational database may themselves be relations, and his work on the mathematical foundations of database query languages became central to the databases now used by major web servers worldwide.
Fischer was also an expert in information systems and their use by educational institutions.
Unabomber
Ted Kaczynski, known as the Unabomber, was a graduate student of mathematics at the University of Michigan, where Fischer's father was a professor. In 1982, Kaczynski sent the fifth of his mail bombs to Fischer, at his Penn State address; it was forwarded to Vanderbilt, where it was opened on May 5 by Fischer's secretary, Janet Smith, who was hospitalized for three weeks after the attack. Fischer claimed not to have ever met Kaczynski, and speculated that he was targeted because he "went from pure math to theoretical computer science."
Kaczynski was not apprehended until 1996, and is now serving life sentences for his crimes.
References
1935 births
2011 deaths
American computer scientists
Theoretical computer scientists
Cellular automatists
Database researchers
University of Michigan College of Literature, Science, and the Arts alumni
Massachusetts Institute of Technology School of Science alumni
Harvard University faculty
Cornell University faculty
University of Waterloo faculty
Pennsylvania State University faculty
Vanderbilt University faculty
Unabomber targets
Ross School of Business alumni
People from Ann Arbor, Michigan |
44251177 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AP%20Computer%20Science%20Principles | AP Computer Science Principles | Advanced Placement Computer Science Principles (also known as AP Computer Science Principles, AP CS Principles, or APCSP) is an AP Computer Science course and examination offered by the College Board to high school students as an opportunity to earn college credit for a college-level computing course. AP Computer Science Principles is meant to be the equivalent of a first-semester course in computing. Assessment for AP Computer Science Principles is divided into two parts, both an end of course exam as well as the creation of artifacts throughout the course.
AP Computer Science Principles examines a variety of computing topics on a largely conceptual level, and teaches procedural programming. In the Create "Through-Course Assessment", students must develop a program, demonstrated in a video and a written reflection. The course may be taught in any programming language with procedures, mathematical expressions, variables, lists, conditionals, and loops. Coding portions of the AP exam are based in both text-based and block-based pseudocode, as defined by the provided reference sheet.
The AP Computer Science Principles Exam was administered for the first time on May 5, 2017.
Course
The framework focuses on computational thinking practices which are applied throughout the curriculum. The concept outline included in the curriculum is divided into seven units called "Big Ideas". Each unit contains a series of "Learning Objectives". Each "Learning Objective" is a general benchmark of student performance or understanding which has an associated "Enduring Understanding". An "Enduring Understanding" is a core comprehension which students should retain well after completing the course. Each "Learning Objective" is split into multiple "Essential Knowledge" standards, which are specific facts or content which the student must know to demonstrate mastery of the learning objective when assessed.
Through-Course Assessment
The Explore section will be removed in the 2021 exam. The exam prior to 2021 is described as follows:
Task 1: Explore – Implications of Computing Innovations
Task Description: In the classroom, students explore the impacts of computing on social, economic, and cultural areas of our lives
Task Time Limit: 8 hours in Class Time
Task Response Format
Written Response: Innovation: 400 word Max
Written Response: Population and Impact : 300 Word Max
Visual Artifact: Visualization or Graphic
Visual Artifact Summary: 50 Words
Evaluate, Archive and Present Task
Task 2- Create – Applications from Ideas
Task Description: Students create computational artifacts through the design and development of programs.
Task Time Limit: 12 hours in Class Time
Task Response Format
Individual Program: Source Code PDF and Video
Individual Reflection: 300 words
Evaluate, Archive and Present Task
Exam
The AP exam uses paper and pencil. (With the exception of year 2020, only Create and Explore were tested. In 2021, only Create and the multiple choice section were tested.)
It lasts 120 minutes and includes approximately 74 questions.
The exam is composed of two sections:
Single Select Multiple-Choice: Select 1 answer from among 4 options.
Multiple Select Multiple-Choice: Select 2 answers from among 4 options.
References
Computer science education
Advanced Placement |
24533329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MovAlyzeR | MovAlyzeR | MovAlyzeR is a software package for handwriting movement analysis for research and professional applications. Handwriting movements are recorded using a digitizing tablet connected to a computer. MovAlyzeR is used in many different fields ranging from research in kinesiology, psychology, education, geriatrics, neurology, psychiatry, occupational therapy, forensic document examination or questioned document examination, computer science, to educational demonstrations or student projects in these fields.
Features
MovAlyzeR can be customized for many different pen-movement tests, including goal-directed movements, drawing and handwriting up to a full page of text. It can also process scanned handwriting images for use in, e.g., forensic document examination. Immediately after each trial, consistency with the required pen-movement task is verified so that the user can decide to correct or redo a trial. MovAlyzeR can generate animated audiovisual stimuli which can be edited using its Stimulus Editor.
MovAlyzeRx has the same capability as MovAlyzeR except altering a test. It is designed for medical professionals (hence Rx). The user interface is as simple as possible. No left-clicks are required. The screen layout can be customized. To start testing, just type the patient or participant code.
ScriptAlyzeR handwriting analysis software, is a sub-package of MovAlyzeR excluding visual stimuli and sub-movement analysis.
GripAlyzeR is another flavor of MovAlyzeR for bi-manual force coordination using dedicated hardware: Two grip-force units connected via a magnet of programmable force.
History
The original code of the software was the result of many years of research in handwriting movements. At the core of the software, the signal analysis algorithms that are used have been developed since 1976 when Dr. Hans-Leo Teulings conducted research into the development of handwriting motor control in children in comparison to children with developmental disorders at the Department of Experimental Psychology at the University of Nijmegen (KUN), in The Netherlands. The department became part of the Nijmegen Institute for Cognition and Information (NICI) and eventually the Centre for Cognition at the Radboud University Nijmegen (RU).
These signal analysis algorithms were originally coded in Fortran on Digital's PDP11/34 laboratory computers with 54kB of memory. The algorithms use a complex Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) to transform both the x and y signals into frequency domain. This allows low-pass filtering and differentiation with zero-phase and ripple free filtering of both x and y signals simultaneously (Teulings & Maarse, 1984).
The software was expanded and transcribed into plain C during the European ESPRIT projects: P419 "Image and Movement Understanding -- IMU" on Cursive-script recognition (1985–1988) and ESPRIT project P5204 "Pen And Paper Input Recognition Using Script – PAPYRUS (1991–1992).
The software was developed further at the Motor Control Laboratory of Arizona State University, USA (1993–1997) for research on Parkinson's disease and aging.
In 1997, NeuroScript was founded by Dr. Hans-Leo Teulings and Prof. George Stelmach (who has since retired) as a result of a National Institutes of Health (NIH) Small Business and Innovation Research (SBIR) Phase I grant (R43 RR11683: Analysis system for fine motor control) to conduct a feasibility study into the feasibility of a general purpose handwriting movement analysis system for research.
In 1999, an SBIR Phase II grant was awarded to NeuroScript (R44 RR11683 Analysis system for fine motor control). The aim was to develop this system into a usable product. The result: the MovAlyzeR software was born - named, designed and implemented by Gregory M. Baker who joined NeuroScript in 1999.
In 2002, NeuroScript received an SBIR Phase II grant (R44 NS39212 Force measurement and analysis system). This enabled NeuroScript to generalize MovAlyzeR for bi-manual force coordination: GripAlyzeR. Instead of x and y movement components and axial pen pressure, GripAlyzeR used left and right grip forces and a lift force.
In 2002 NeuroScript received another Phase II grant (R44 NS38793: Optimization software for goal-directed movements). MovAlyzeR was expanded with interactive and animated audio-visual stimuli and sub-movement analysis.
In 2006, a Phase II grant was awarded (R44 MH073192: Movement Analysis to Monitor Medication). MovAlyzeR was tested in several major clinics where hundreds of patients were tested for movement side effects due to schizophrenia medication in addition to conventional clinical evaluation (SAEPS - Simpson-Angus Scale for Extrapyramidal Symptoms and parkinsonism, AIMS – Abnormal Involuntary Movement Scale for tardive dyskinesia, BARS – Barnes Akathisia Rating Scale). Results demonstrated that MovAlyzeR measurements were more sensitive for dosage and medication type than the conventional clinical evaluations.
Versions
MovAlyzeR 6 (Apr. 2010) External processing extended to the trial events set in each condition or task. Added Getting-Started Videos window with links to tutorial videos. Example experiments improved. Sample MATLAB® scripts for external processing added to the new sample experiment: MAT. Any PNG, JPG, BMP, GIF and PCX handwriting image processing added. New skins. The licensing interface simplified and improved.
MovAlyzeR 5 (Feb. 2009) Integrated with Matlab scripts. Uninterrupted recordings of 30 minutes. Word extraction in recordings with large numbers of words. MovAlyzeR Quick Reference. Attachments of documents to experiments. Enhanced tutorial. MovAlyzeRx patient-centered experiment and data analysis interface (no right-clicks needed). Customizable application look.
MovAlyzeR 4 (Feb. 2007) Certified for MS Windows Vista. Pen tilt recording. Knowledge of Results after each trial. Summarization of data across trials or up and down strokes. Sequence of condition customization with randomization rules. Sampling rate and device resolution automatically detected per test and stored for each subject. Questionnaire for demographics and clinical data integrated in data summarization. Subject Codes without limitation. Automatic generation of up to 46000 unique subject IDs. Export Wizard for multiple-subject export and automatic website (FTP) uploading. Device setup wizard. Graphical Stimulus Editor. Correction and measurement of data discontinuities due to pen lifts. Importing and processing of handwriting images.
MovAlyzeR 3 (Aug. 2004) Digitally signed by VeriSign using Microsoft Authenticode. Pay per use. Data sharing via LAN or internet URL. Client / Server database interaction. Multiple stroke segmentation methods.
MovAlyzeR 2 (Sep. 2002) Certified for MS Windows XP. Event sounds. Stroke counting during recording. Real-time transformation of visual feedback during recording. Dynamic and animated stimuli. Example user UU1 with example experiments. Tooltips to all screen items. Digitizer accuracy and linearity test. Test signal simulation. Subject privacy protection.
MovAlyzeR 1 (Aug. 2001) Data import wizard. Run experiment wizard. Charts with Standard Error, Mean of the within-subject means and SDs. Replay handwriting movement in real time.
Related file formats and extensions
Comparable software
CSWIN by Science and Motion, OASIS by KikoSoft, Pullman Spiral Acquisition and Analysis by Lafayette, NeuroSkill by Verifax, COMpet by University of Haifa, MedDraw by Universities of Kent and Rouen.
See also
Graphonomics science of handwriting and drawing movement production and processing.
Fine motor skill dexterity and coordination of small muscle movements
Handwriting movement analysis reviewing digitizer tablets and software systems
External links
CSWIN by Science and Motion
OASIS by KikoSoft
Pullman Spiral Acquisition and Analysis (Columbia University, New York) by Lafayette
NeuroSkill by Verifax
COMpet by University of Haifa
MedDraw by Universities of Kent and Rouen
Research
Science software |
22661433 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pbxnsip | Pbxnsip | Pbxnsip is a software implementation of a telephone private branch exchange (PBX) produced by a company of the same name. Like any PBX, it allows attached telephones to make calls to one another, and to connect to other telephone services including the public switched telephone network (PSTN) and Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) services. Its name is a combination of the acronyms PBX and SIP (Session Initiation Protocol).
Pbxnsip is released under a proprietary license with trial versions available on the pbxnsip website. Pbxnsip was acquired on October 4, 2010 by IP Phone maker Snom. Licensing has reportedly not changed. In order to focus on the VoIP handset business in 2012, the IP-PBX product line of Snom technology was spun out into Vodia Networks. The name pbxnsip was dropped in favor of the name "Vodia" which is easier to pronounce.
Originally designed for Linux, pbxnsip now also runs on a variety of different operating systems including Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X and FreeBSD. There are also embedded versions available.
Features
Pbxnsip software includes many features available in traditional PBX systems: voice mail, conference calling, interactive voice response (phone menus), and automatic call distribution.
To attach traditional analogue telephones to a pbxnsip installation, or to connect to PSTN trunk lines, requires the use of a SIP adapter. A number of firms sell PCI cards to attach telephones, telephone lines, T1 and E1 lines, and other analog and digital phone services to a system. Alternatively, a user can use SIP phones and a SIP carrier and use a data network to handle all hardware aspects of connecting telephones.
Pbxnsip can inter-operate with most SIP telephones, acting both as registrar and as a gateway between IP phones and the PSTN. Pbxnsip supports only the SIP protocol (see Comparison of VoIP software for examples).
By supporting a mix of traditional and VoIP telephony services, pbxnsip allows deployers to build new telephone systems, or gradually migrate existing systems to new technologies. Some sites are using pbxnsip servers to replace proprietary PBXes; others to provide additional features (such as voice mail or voice response menus, or virtual call shops) or to reduce costs by carrying long-distance calls over the Internet (toll bypass).
VoIP telephone companies can, as an option, support pbxnsip as a user agent or trunked connection with SIP trunking protocols along with ATAs and other software user agents.
VoIP telephone companies can also support multiple instances of pbxnsip in a multi-tenant mode allowing them to offer Cloud based or "hosted" solutions to businesses.
Security
The PBX has a special focus on security. It was one of the first SIP PBX systems that supported the Secure Real-time Transport Protocol and seems to be robust against forms of Denial of Service, for example the INVITE of Death.
Configuration
There is a graphical user interface (GUI) for pbxnsip which allows administrators to view, edit, and change various aspects of pbxnsip via a web interface.
Regional versions
While initially developed in the United States, pbxnsip has become a popular VOIP PBX worldwide due to its design, extensibility, and excellent feature set. As a result, the American-English female voice prompts for the Interactive voice response and voice mail features of the system have been re-recorded and made available in Danish, Dutch, Spanish, Italian, German, Polish, Greek, French (Both Canadian and French dialects), Swedish, Russian, Brazilian Portuguese, British English, and Turkish.
See also
Voice modem
Comparison of VoIP software
List of SIP software
IP PBX
VoIP
References
External links
pbxnsip wiki
pbxnsip user forum
Telephone exchanges
Communication software |
8501 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed%20computing | Distributed computing | Distributed computing is a field of computer science that studies distributed systems. A distributed system is a system whose components are located on different networked computers, which communicate and coordinate their actions by passing messages to one another from any system. The components interact with one another in order to achieve a common goal. Three significant characteristics of distributed systems are: concurrency of components, lack of a global clock, and independent failure of components. It deals with a central challenge that, when components of a system fails, it doesn't imply the entire system fails. Examples of distributed systems vary from SOA-based systems to massively multiplayer online games to peer-to-peer applications.
A computer program that runs within a distributed system is called a distributed program (and distributed programming is the process of writing such programs). There are many different types of implementations for the message passing mechanism, including pure HTTP, RPC-like connectors and message queues.
Distributed computing also refers to the use of distributed systems to solve computational problems. In distributed computing, a problem is divided into many tasks, each of which is solved by one or more computers, which communicate with each other via message passing.
Introduction
The word distributed in terms such as "distributed system", "distributed programming", and "distributed algorithm" originally referred to computer networks where individual computers were physically distributed within some geographical area. The terms are nowadays used in a much wider sense, even referring to autonomous processes that run on the same physical computer and interact with each other by message passing.
While there is no single definition of a distributed system, the following defining properties are commonly used as:
There are several autonomous computational entities (computers or nodes), each of which has its own local memory.
The entities communicate with each other by message passing.
A distributed system may have a common goal, such as solving a large computational problem; the user then perceives the collection of autonomous processors as a unit. Alternatively, each computer may have its own user with individual needs, and the purpose of the distributed system is to coordinate the use of shared resources or provide communication services to the users.
Other typical properties of distributed systems include the following:
The system has to tolerate failures in individual computers.
The structure of the system (network topology, network latency, number of computers) is not known in advance, the system may consist of different kinds of computers and network links, and the system may change during the execution of a distributed program.
Each computer has only a limited, incomplete view of the system. Each computer may know only one part of the input.
Parallel and distributed computing
Distributed systems are groups of networked computers which share a common goal for their work.
The terms "concurrent computing", "parallel computing", and "distributed computing" have much overlap, and no clear distinction exists between them. The same system may be characterized both as "parallel" and "distributed"; the processors in a typical distributed system run concurrently in parallel. Parallel computing may be seen as a particular tightly coupled form of distributed computing, and distributed computing may be seen as a loosely coupled form of parallel computing. Nevertheless, it is possible to roughly classify concurrent systems as "parallel" or "distributed" using the following criteria:
In parallel computing, all processors may have access to a shared memory to exchange information between processors.
In distributed computing, each processor has its own private memory (distributed memory). Information is exchanged by passing messages between the processors.
The figure on the right illustrates the difference between distributed and parallel systems. Figure (a) is a schematic view of a typical distributed system; the system is represented as a network topology in which each node is a computer and each line connecting the nodes is a communication link. Figure (b) shows the same distributed system in more detail: each computer has its own local memory, and information can be exchanged only by passing messages from one node to another by using the available communication links. Figure (c) shows a parallel system in which each processor has a direct access to a shared memory.
The situation is further complicated by the traditional uses of the terms parallel and distributed algorithm that do not quite match the above definitions of parallel and distributed systems (see below for more detailed discussion). Nevertheless, as a rule of thumb, high-performance parallel computation in a shared-memory multiprocessor uses parallel algorithms while the coordination of a large-scale distributed system uses distributed algorithms.
History
The use of concurrent processes which communicate through message-passing has its roots in operating system architectures studied in the 1960s. The first widespread distributed systems were local-area networks such as Ethernet, which was invented in the 1970s.
ARPANET, one of the predecessors of the Internet, was introduced in the late 1960s, and ARPANET e-mail was invented in the early 1970s. E-mail became the most successful application of ARPANET, and it is probably the earliest example of a large-scale distributed application. In addition to ARPANET (and its successor, the global Internet), other early worldwide computer networks included Usenet and FidoNet from the 1980s, both of which were used to support distributed discussion systems.
The study of distributed computing became its own branch of computer science in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The first conference in the field, Symposium on Principles of Distributed Computing (PODC), dates back to 1982, and its counterpart International Symposium on Distributed Computing (DISC) was first held in Ottawa in 1985 as the International Workshop on Distributed Algorithms on Graphs.
Architectures
Various hardware and software architectures are used for distributed computing. At a lower level, it is necessary to interconnect multiple CPUs with some sort of network, regardless of whether that network is printed onto a circuit board or made up of loosely coupled devices and cables. At a higher level, it is necessary to interconnect processes running on those CPUs with some sort of communication system.
Distributed programming typically falls into one of several basic architectures: client–server, three-tier, n-tier, or peer-to-peer; or categories: loose coupling, or tight coupling.
Client–server: architectures where smart clients contact the server for data then format and display it to the users. Input at the client is committed back to the server when it represents a permanent change.
Three-tier: architectures that move the client intelligence to a middle tier so that stateless clients can be used. This simplifies application deployment. Most web applications are three-tier.
n-tier: architectures that refer typically to web applications which further forward their requests to other enterprise services. This type of application is the one most responsible for the success of application servers.
Peer-to-peer: architectures where there are no special machines that provide a service or manage the network resources. Instead all responsibilities are uniformly divided among all machines, known as peers. Peers can serve both as clients and as servers. Examples of this architecture include BitTorrent and the bitcoin network.
Another basic aspect of distributed computing architecture is the method of communicating and coordinating work among concurrent processes. Through various message passing protocols, processes may communicate directly with one another, typically in a master/slave relationship. Alternatively, a "database-centric" architecture can enable distributed computing to be done without any form of direct inter-process communication, by utilizing a shared database. Database-centric architecture in particular provides relational processing analytics in a schematic architecture allowing for live environment relay. This enables distributed computing functions both within and beyond the parameters of a networked database.
Applications
Reasons for using distributed systems and distributed computing may include:
The very nature of an application may require the use of a communication network that connects several computers: for example, data produced in one physical location and required in another location.
There are many cases in which the use of a single computer would be possible in principle, but the use of a distributed system is beneficial for practical reasons. For example, it may be more cost-efficient to obtain the desired level of performance by using a cluster of several low-end computers, in comparison with a single high-end computer. A distributed system can provide more reliability than a non-distributed system, as there is no single point of failure. Moreover, a distributed system may be easier to expand and manage than a monolithic uniprocessor system.
Examples
Examples of distributed systems and applications of distributed computing include the following:
telecommunication networks:
telephone networks and cellular networks,
computer networks such as the Internet,
wireless sensor networks,
routing algorithms;
network applications:
World Wide Web and peer-to-peer networks,
massively multiplayer online games and virtual reality communities,
distributed databases and distributed database management systems,
network file systems,
distributed cache such as burst buffers,
distributed information processing systems such as banking systems and airline reservation systems;
real-time process control:
aircraft control systems,
industrial control systems;
parallel computation:
scientific computing, including cluster computing, grid computing, cloud computing, and various volunteer computing projects (see the list of distributed computing projects),
distributed rendering in computer graphics.
Theoretical foundations
Models
Many tasks that we would like to automate by using a computer are of question–answer type: we would like to ask a question and the computer should produce an answer. In theoretical computer science, such tasks are called computational problems. Formally, a computational problem consists of instances together with a solution for each instance. Instances are questions that we can ask, and solutions are desired answers to these questions.
Theoretical computer science seeks to understand which computational problems can be solved by using a computer (computability theory) and how efficiently (computational complexity theory). Traditionally, it is said that a problem can be solved by using a computer if we can design an algorithm that produces a correct solution for any given instance. Such an algorithm can be implemented as a computer program that runs on a general-purpose computer: the program reads a problem instance from input, performs some computation, and produces the solution as output. Formalisms such as random-access machines or universal Turing machines can be used as abstract models of a sequential general-purpose computer executing such an algorithm.
The field of concurrent and distributed computing studies similar questions in the case of either multiple computers, or a computer that executes a network of interacting processes: which computational problems can be solved in such a network and how efficiently? However, it is not at all obvious what is meant by "solving a problem" in the case of a concurrent or distributed system: for example, what is the task of the algorithm designer, and what is the concurrent or distributed equivalent of a sequential general-purpose computer?
The discussion below focuses on the case of multiple computers, although many of the issues are the same for concurrent processes running on a single computer.
Three viewpoints are commonly used:
Parallel algorithms in shared-memory model
All processors have access to a shared memory. The algorithm designer chooses the program executed by each processor.
One theoretical model is the parallel random-access machines (PRAM) that are used. However, the classical PRAM model assumes synchronous access to the shared memory.
Shared-memory programs can be extended to distributed systems if the underlying operating system encapsulates the communication between nodes and virtually unifies the memory across all individual systems.
A model that is closer to the behavior of real-world multiprocessor machines and takes into account the use of machine instructions, such as Compare-and-swap (CAS), is that of asynchronous shared memory. There is a wide body of work on this model, a summary of which can be found in the literature.
Parallel algorithms in message-passing model
The algorithm designer chooses the structure of the network, as well as the program executed by each computer.
Models such as Boolean circuits and sorting networks are used. A Boolean circuit can be seen as a computer network: each gate is a computer that runs an extremely simple computer program. Similarly, a sorting network can be seen as a computer network: each comparator is a computer.
Distributed algorithms in message-passing model
The algorithm designer only chooses the computer program. All computers run the same program. The system must work correctly regardless of the structure of the network.
A commonly used model is a graph with one finite-state machine per node.
In the case of distributed algorithms, computational problems are typically related to graphs. Often the graph that describes the structure of the computer network is the problem instance. This is illustrated in the following example.
An example
Consider the computational problem of finding a coloring of a given graph G. Different fields might take the following approaches:
Centralized algorithms
The graph G is encoded as a string, and the string is given as input to a computer. The computer program finds a coloring of the graph, encodes the coloring as a string, and outputs the result.
Parallel algorithms
Again, the graph G is encoded as a string. However, multiple computers can access the same string in parallel. Each computer might focus on one part of the graph and produce a coloring for that part.
The main focus is on high-performance computation that exploits the processing power of multiple computers in parallel.
Distributed algorithms
The graph G is the structure of the computer network. There is one computer for each node of G and one communication link for each edge of G. Initially, each computer only knows about its immediate neighbors in the graph G; the computers must exchange messages with each other to discover more about the structure of G. Each computer must produce its own color as output.
The main focus is on coordinating the operation of an arbitrary distributed system.
While the field of parallel algorithms has a different focus than the field of distributed algorithms, there is much interaction between the two fields. For example, the Cole–Vishkin algorithm for graph coloring was originally presented as a parallel algorithm, but the same technique can also be used directly as a distributed algorithm.
Moreover, a parallel algorithm can be implemented either in a parallel system (using shared memory) or in a distributed system (using message passing). The traditional boundary between parallel and distributed algorithms (choose a suitable network vs. run in any given network) does not lie in the same place as the boundary between parallel and distributed systems (shared memory vs. message passing).
Complexity measures
In parallel algorithms, yet another resource in addition to time and space is the number of computers. Indeed, often there is a trade-off between the running time and the number of computers: the problem can be solved faster if there are more computers running in parallel (see speedup). If a decision problem can be solved in polylogarithmic time by using a polynomial number of processors, then the problem is said to be in the class NC. The class NC can be defined equally well by using the PRAM formalism or Boolean circuits—PRAM machines can simulate Boolean circuits efficiently and vice versa.
In the analysis of distributed algorithms, more attention is usually paid on communication operations than computational steps. Perhaps the simplest model of distributed computing is a synchronous system where all nodes operate in a lockstep fashion. This model is commonly known as the LOCAL model. During each communication round, all nodes in parallel (1) receive the latest messages from their neighbours, (2) perform arbitrary local computation, and (3) send new messages to their neighbors. In such systems, a central complexity measure is the number of synchronous communication rounds required to complete the task.
This complexity measure is closely related to the diameter of the network. Let D be the diameter of the network. On the one hand, any computable problem can be solved trivially in a synchronous distributed system in approximately 2D communication rounds: simply gather all information in one location (D rounds), solve the problem, and inform each node about the solution (D rounds).
On the other hand, if the running time of the algorithm is much smaller than D communication rounds, then the nodes in the network must produce their output without having the possibility to obtain information about distant parts of the network. In other words, the nodes must make globally consistent decisions based on information that is available in their local D-neighbourhood. Many distributed algorithms are known with the running time much smaller than D rounds, and understanding which problems can be solved by such algorithms is one of the central research questions of the field. Typically an algorithm which solves a problem in polylogarithmic time in the network size is considered efficient in this model.
Another commonly used measure is the total number of bits transmitted in the network (cf. communication complexity). The features of this concept are typically captured with the CONGEST(B) model, which is similarly defined as the LOCAL model, but where single messages can only contain B bits.
Other problems
Traditional computational problems take the perspective that the user asks a question, a computer (or a distributed system) processes the question, then produces an answer and stops. However, there are also problems where the system is required not to stop, including the dining philosophers problem and other similar mutual exclusion problems. In these problems, the distributed system is supposed to continuously coordinate the use of shared resources so that no conflicts or deadlocks occur.
There are also fundamental challenges that are unique to distributed computing, for example those related to fault-tolerance. Examples of related problems include consensus problems, Byzantine fault tolerance, and self-stabilisation.
Much research is also focused on understanding the asynchronous nature of distributed systems:
Synchronizers can be used to run synchronous algorithms in asynchronous systems.
Logical clocks provide a causal happened-before ordering of events.
Clock synchronization algorithms provide globally consistent physical time stamps.
Election
Coordinator election (or leader election) is the process of designating a single process as the organizer of some task distributed among several computers (nodes). Before the task is begun, all network nodes are either unaware which node will serve as the "coordinator" (or leader) of the task, or unable to communicate with the current coordinator. After a coordinator election algorithm has been run, however, each node throughout the network recognizes a particular, unique node as the task coordinator.
The network nodes communicate among themselves in order to decide which of them will get into the "coordinator" state. For that, they need some method in order to break the symmetry among them. For example, if each node has unique and comparable identities, then the nodes can compare their identities, and decide that the node with the highest identity is the coordinator.
The definition of this problem is often attributed to LeLann, who formalized it as a method to create a new token in a token ring network in which the token has been lost.
Coordinator election algorithms are designed to be economical in terms of total bytes transmitted, and time. The algorithm suggested by Gallager, Humblet, and Spira for general undirected graphs has had a strong impact on the design of distributed algorithms in general, and won the Dijkstra Prize for an influential paper in distributed computing.
Many other algorithms were suggested for different kinds of network graphs, such as undirected rings, unidirectional rings, complete graphs, grids, directed Euler graphs, and others. A general method that decouples the issue of the graph family from the design of the coordinator election algorithm was suggested by Korach, Kutten, and Moran.
In order to perform coordination, distributed systems employ the concept of coordinators. The coordinator election problem is to choose a process from among a group of processes on different processors in a distributed system to act as the central coordinator. Several central coordinator election algorithms exist.
Properties of distributed systems
So far the focus has been on designing a distributed system that solves a given problem. A complementary research problem is studying the properties of a given distributed system.
The halting problem is an analogous example from the field of centralised computation: we are given a computer program and the task is to decide whether it halts or runs forever. The halting problem is undecidable in the general case, and naturally understanding the behaviour of a computer network is at least as hard as understanding the behaviour of one computer.
However, there are many interesting special cases that are decidable. In particular, it is possible to reason about the behaviour of a network of finite-state machines. One example is telling whether a given network of interacting (asynchronous and non-deterministic) finite-state machines can reach a deadlock. This problem is PSPACE-complete, i.e., it is decidable, but not likely that there is an efficient (centralised, parallel or distributed) algorithm that solves the problem in the case of large networks.
See also
Distributed networking
Decentralized computing
Federation (information technology)
AppScale
BOINC
Code mobility
Distributed algorithm
Distributed algorithmic mechanism design
Distributed cache
Distributed operating system
Edsger W. Dijkstra Prize in Distributed Computing
Fog computing
Folding@home
Grid computing
Inferno
Jungle computing
Layered queueing network
Library Oriented Architecture (LOA)
List of distributed computing conferences
List of distributed computing projects
List of important publications in concurrent, parallel, and distributed computing
Model checking
Parallel distributed processing
Parallel programming model
Plan 9 from Bell Labs
Shared nothing architecture
Notes
References
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Web sites
Further reading
Books
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: Java Distributed Computing by Jim Faber, 1998
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Articles
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Conference Papers
External links
Decentralization |
42286284 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khadir%20Mohideen%20College | Khadir Mohideen College | Khadir Mohideen College is one of the oldest Minority colleges in Tamil Nadu, established on 5 July 1955. This college is nationally re-accredited with 'B' Grade by NAAC. It is affiliated to Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli. It offers more than 52 Undergraduate, Postgraduate, Research, Diploma and Certificate programmes under Government Aided and Unaided streams. Khadir Mohideen College registers an enrollment of over 3000 students annually. It is located in Adirampattinam, Thanjavur District, Tamil Nadu, India. Now the college is celebrating the Birth Centenary of its one and only founder Kalvithanthai Haji .S.M.S. Shaik Jalaludeen
History
after the Independence of India, people of Adirampattinam have visited the far away cities to achieve their goals of higher education. Haji .S.M.S. Shaik Jalaludeen realised how difficult it would be for the poor and the downtrodden to travel and pursue their higher studies. He decided to make his hometown itself a place of higher education. With a secular outlook and with a mission to help the poor and the disadvantaged to develop themselves,Haji .S.M.S. Shaik Jalaludeen extended the benefits of M.K.N. Madarasa Trust, formed by Haji .S.M.S. Shaik Jalaludeen to preserve and utilize 1,500 acres of land in Adirampattinam for the purpose of providing religious education through madarasas to religious and linguistic minority students by founding several educational institutions at Adirampattinam. Thus came into existence Khadir Mohideen College on 5 July 1955 by his visionary efforts.
Under Graduate Courses (Aided)
Arts Courses
B.A Economics
B.A History
B.Com. (General)
B.B.A
Science Courses
B.Sc Chemistry
B.Sc Computer Science
B.Sc Mathematics
B.Sc Zoology
Under Graduate Courses (Unaided)
Arts Courses
B.A - Arabic (Girls only)
B.A. English
B.B.A. (Girls only)
B.Com. (Girls only)
B.Lit. Tamil
Science Courses
B.C.A. (Co-Education)
B.Sc Botany
B.Sc Physics
B.Sc Mathematics (Girls only)
B.Sc Computer Science (Girls only)
B.Sc Home Science (Girls only)
Post Graduate Courses (Aided)
Arts Courses
M.Com
Science Courses
M.Sc Chemistry
M.Sc Zoology
Post Graduate Courses (Unaided)
Arts Courses
M.A. Economics
M.A. English
M.A. History
M.A. Tamil
Science Courses
M.Sc. Chemistry
M.Sc. Computer Science
M.Sc. Information Technology
M.Sc. Mathematics
M.Sc. Physics
Research Programmes
M.Phil.
Chemistry
Commerce
Computer Science
Economics
English
Management
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Tamil
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Ph.D.
Chemistry
Commerce
Computer Science
Economics
English
Management
Mathematics
Physics
Tamil
Zoology
Certificate and Diploma Courses (Part-time)
Foundation Course in Human Rights
Certificate Course in Human Rights
Diploma in Yoga
Post Graduate Diploma in Computer Applications (PGDCA)
Professional Courses
M.B.A (Marketing, HR & Finance)
M.C.A
References
Colleges in Tamil Nadu
1955 establishments in Madras State
Academic institutions formerly affiliated with the University of Madras |
2817795 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic%20Notes%20in%20Theoretical%20Computer%20Science | Electronic Notes in Theoretical Computer Science | Electronic Notes in Theoretical Computer Science is an electronic computer science journal published by Elsevier, started in 1995. Its issues include many post-proceedings for workshops, etc. The journal is abstracted and indexed in Scopus and Science Citation Index.
Electronic Notes in Theoretical Computer Science has been discontinued as of 2021.
References
Computer science journals
Elsevier academic journals
Publications established in 1995 |
354414 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NortonLifeLock | NortonLifeLock | NortonLifeLock Inc., formerly known as Symantec Corporation () is an American software company headquartered in Tempe, Arizona, United States. The company provides cybersecurity software and services. NortonLifeLock is a Fortune 500 company and a member of the S&P 500 stock-market index. The company also has development centers in Pune, Chennai and Bangalore.
On October 9, 2014, Symantec declared it would split into two independent publicly traded companies by the end of 2015. One company would focus on security, the other on information management. On January 29, 2016, Symantec sold its information-management subsidiary, named Veritas Technologies (which Symantec had acquired in 2004) to The Carlyle Group.
The name "Symantec" is a portmanteau of the words "syntax" and "semantics" with "technology".
On August 9, 2019, Broadcom Inc. announced they would be acquiring the Enterprise Security software division of Symantec for $10.7 billion, after having attempted to purchase the whole company. The sale closed November 4, 2019, and subsequently, the company adopted the NortonLifeLock name. It also relocated its headquarters to Tempe, Arizona from Mountain View, California.
History
1982 to 1989
Founded in 1982 by Gary Hendrix with a National Science Foundation grant, Symantec was originally focused on artificial intelligence-related projects, including a database program. Hendrix hired several Stanford University natural language processing researchers as the company's first employees.
In 1984, it became clear that the advanced natural language and database system that Symantec had developed could not be ported from DEC minicomputers to the PC. This left Symantec without a product, but with expertise in natural language database query systems and technology. As a result, later in 1984 Symantec was acquired by another, smaller software startup company, C&E Software, founded by Denis Coleman and Gordon Eubanks and headed by Eubanks. C&E Software developed a combined file management and word processing program called Q&A. Barry Greenstein, now a professional poker player, was the principal developer of the word processor component within Q&A.
The merged company retained the name Symantec. Eubanks became its chairman, Vern Raburn, the former president of the original Symantec, remained as president of the combined company. The new Symantec combined the file management and word processing functionality that C&E had planned, and added an advanced Natural Language query system (designed by Gary Hendrix and engineered by Dan Gordon) that set new standards for ease of database query and report generation. The natural language system was named "The Intelligent Assistant". Turner chose the name of Q&A for Symantec's flagship product, in large part because the name lent itself to use in a short, easily merchandised logo. Brett Walter designed the user interface of Q&A (Brett Walter, director of product management). Q&A was released in November 1985.
During 1986, Vern Raburn and Gordon Eubanks swapped roles, and Eubanks became CEO and president of Symantec, while Raburn became its chairman. After this change, Raburn had little involvement with Symantec, and in a few years, Eubanks added the chairmanship to his other roles. After a slow start for sales of Q&A in the fall of 1985 and spring of 1986, Turner signed up a new advertising agency called Elliott/Dickens, embarked on an aggressive new advertising campaign, and came up with the "Six Pack Program" in which all Symantec employees, regardless of role, went on the road, training and selling dealer sales staff nationwide in the United States. Turner named it Six Pack because employees were to work six days a week, see six dealerships per day, train six sales representatives per store and stay with friends free or at Motel 6. Simultaneously, a promotion was run jointly with SofSell (which was Symantec's exclusive wholesale distributor in the United States for the first year that Q&A was on the market). This promotion was very successful in encouraging dealers to try Q&A.
During this time, Symantec was advised by its board members Jim Lally and John Doerr that if it would cut its expenses and grow revenues enough to achieve cash flow break-even, then Kleiner Perkins Caufield & Byers would back the company in raising more venture capital. To accomplish this, the management team worked out a salary reduction schedule where the chairman and the CEO would take zero pay, all vice presidents would take a 50% pay cut, and all other employees' pay was cut by 15%. Two employees were laid off. Eubanks also negotiated a sizable rent reduction on the office space the company had leased in the days of the original Symantec. These expense reductions, combined with strong international sales of Q&A, enabled the company to attain break-even.
The significantly increased traction for Q&A from this re-launch grew Symantec's revenues substantially, along with early success for Q&A in international markets (uniquely a German version was shipped three weeks after the United States version, and it was the first software in the world that supported German Natural Language) following Turner's having emphasized establishing international sales distribution and multiple language versions of Q&A from the initial shipment.
In 1985, Rod Turner negotiated the publishing agreement with David Whitney for Symantec's second product, which Turner named NoteIt (an annotation utility for Lotus 1-2-3). It was evident to Turner that NoteIt would confuse the dealer channel if it was launched under the Symantec name because Symantec had built up interest by that stage in Q&A (but not yet shipped it), and because the low price for the utility would not be initially attracted to the dealer channel until demand had been built up. Turner felt that the product should be marketed under a unique brand name.
Turner and Gordon E. Eubanks Jr., then chairman of Symantec Corporation, agreed to form a new division of Symantec, and Eubanks delegated the choice of name to Turner. Turner chose the name Turner Hall Publishing, to be a new division of Symantec devoted to publishing third-party software and hardware. The objective of the division was to diversify revenues and accelerate the growth of Symantec. Turner chose the name Turner Hall Publishing, using his last name and that of Dottie Hall (Director of Marketing Communications) to convey the sense of a stable, long-established, company. Turner Hall Publishing's first offering was Note-It, a notation utility add-in for Lotus 1-2-3, which was developed by David Whitney, and licensed to Symantec. Its second product was the Turner Hall Card, which was a 256k RAM, half slot memory card, initially made to inexpensively increase the available memory for Symantec's flagship product, Q&A. The Turner Hall division also marketed the card as a standalone product. Turner Hall's third product, also a 1-2-3 add-in was SQZ! a Lotus 1-2-3 spreadsheet compression utility developed by Chris Graham Synex Systems. In the summer of 1986 Eubanks and Turner recruited Tom Byers from Digital Research, to expand the Turner Hall Publishing product family and lead the Turner Hall effort.
By the winter of 1986–87, the Turner Hall Publishing division had achieved success with NoteIt, the Turner Hall Card and SQZ!. The popularity of these products, while contributing a relatively small portion of revenues to Symantec, conveyed the impression that Symantec was already a diversified company, and indeed, many industry participants were under the impression that Symantec had acquired Turner Hall Publishing. In 1987, Byers recruited Ted Schlein into the Turner Hall Product Group to assist in building the product family and in marketing.
Revenues from Q&A, and Symantec's early launch into the international marketplace, combined with Turner Hall Publishing, generated the market presence and scale that enabled Symantec to make its first merger/acquisition, in February 1987, that of Breakthrough Software, maker of the TimeLine project management software for DOS. Because this was the first time that Symantec had acquired a business that had revenues, inventory, and customers, Eubanks chose to change nothing at BreakThrough Software for six months, and the actual merger logistics started in the summer of 1987, with Turner being appointed by Eubanks as general manager of the TimeLine business unit, Turner was made responsible for the successful integration of the company into Symantec and ongoing growth of the business, with P&L. There was a heavy emphasis placed on making the minimum disruption by Eubanks and Turner.
Soon after the acquisition of TimeLine/Breakthrough Software, Eubanks reorganized Symantec, structuring the company around product-centric groups, each having its development, quality assurance, technical support, and product marketing functions, and a general manager with profit and loss responsibility. Sales, finance, and operations were centralized functions that were shared. This structure lent itself well to Symantec's further growth through mergers and acquisitions. Eubanks made Turner general manager of the new TimeLine Product Group, and simultaneously of the Q&A Product Group, and made Tom Byers general manager of the Turner Hall Product Group. Turner continued to build and lead the company's international business and marketing for the whole company.
At the TimeLine Product Group, Turner drove strong marketing, promotion and sales programs to accelerate momentum. By 1989 this merger was very successful—product group morale was high, TimeLine development continued apace, and the increased sales and marketing efforts applied built the TimeLine into the clear market lead in PC project management software on DOS. Both the Q&A and TimeLine product groups were healthily profitable. The profit stream and merger success set the stage for subsequent merger and acquisition activity by the company, and indeed funded the losses of some of the product groups that were subsequently acquired. In 1989, Eubanks hired John Laing as VP worldwide sales, and Turner transferred the international division to Laing. Eubanks also recruited Bob Dykes to be executive vice president for operations and finance, in anticipation of the upcoming IPO. In July 1989 Symantec had its IPO.
1990 to 1999
In May 1990, Symantec announced its intent to merge with and acquire Peter Norton Computing, a developer of various utilities for DOS. Turner was appointed as product group manager for the Norton business, and made responsible for the merger, with P&L responsibility. Ted Schlein was made product group manager for the Q&A business.
The Peter Norton group merger logistical effort began immediately while the companies sought approval for the merger, and in August 1990, Symantec concluded the purchase—by this time the combination of the companies was already complete. Symantec's consumer antivirus and data management utilities are still marketed under the Norton name. At the time of the merger, Symantec had built upon its Turner Hall Publishing presence in the utility market, by introducing Symantec Antivirus for the Macintosh (SAM), and Symantec Utilities for the Macintosh (SUM). These two products were already market leaders on the Mac, and this success made the Norton merger more strategic. Symantec had already begun the development of a DOS-based antivirus program one year before the merger with Norton. The management team had decided to enter the antivirus market in part because it was felt that the antivirus market entailed a great deal of ongoing work to stay ahead of new viruses. The team felt that Microsoft would be unlikely to find this effort attractive, which would lengthen the viability of the market for Symantec. Turner decided to use the Norton name for obvious reasons, on what became the Norton Antivirus, which Turner and the Norton team launched in 1991. At the time of the merger, Norton revenues were approximately 20 to 25% of the combined entity. By 1993, while being led by Turner, Norton product group revenues had grown to be approximately 82% of Symantec's total.
At one time Symantec was also known for its development tools, particularly the THINK Pascal, THINK C, Symantec C++, Enterprise Developer and Visual Cafe packages that were popular on the Macintosh and IBM PC compatible platforms. These product lines resulted from acquisitions made by the company in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These businesses and the Living Videotext acquisition were consistently unprofitable for Symantec, and these losses diverted expenditures away from both the Q&A for Windows and the TimeLine for Windows development efforts during the critical period from 1988 through 1992. Symantec exited this business in the late-1990s as competitors such as Metrowerks, Microsoft and Borland gained significant market share.
In 1996, Symantec Corporation was alleged of misleading financial statements in violation of GAAP.
2000 to present
From 1999 to April 2009, Symantec was led by CEO John W. Thompson, a former VP at IBM. At the time, Thompson was the only African-American leading a major US technology company. He was succeeded in April 2009 by the company's long-time Symantec executive Enrique Salem. Under Salem, Symantec completed the acquisition of Verisign's Certificate Authority business, dramatically increasing their share of that market.
In 2009, Symantec released a list of the then "100 dirtiest websites", which contain the most malware as detected by Norton Safe Web.
Salem was abruptly fired in 2012 for disappointing earnings performance and replaced by Steve Bennett, a former CEO of Intuit and GE executive. In January 2013, Bennett announced a major corporate reorganization, with a goal of reducing costs and improving Symantec's product line. He said that sales and marketing "had been high costs but did not provide quality outcomes". He concluded that "Our system is just broken".
Robert Enderle of CIO.com reviewed the reorganization and noted that Bennett was following the General Electric model of being product-focused instead of customer-focused. He concluded "Eliminating middle management removes a large number of highly paid employees. This will tactically improve Symantec's bottom line but reduce the skills needed to ensure high-quality products in the long term."
In March 2014, Symantec fired Steve Bennett from his CEO position and named Michael Brown as interim president and chief executive. Including the interim CEO, Symantec has had 3 CEOs in less than two years. On September 25, 2014, Symantec announced the appointment of Michael A. Brown as its president and chief executive officer. Brown had served as the company's interim president and chief executive officer since March 20, 2014. Mr. Brown has served as a member of the company's board of directors since July 2005 following the acquisition of VERITAS Software Corporation. Mr. Brown had served on the VERITAS board of directors since 2003.
In July 2016, Symantec introduced a product to help carmakers protect connected vehicles against zero-day attacks. The Symantec Anomaly Detection for Automotive is an IoT product for manufacturers and uses machine learning to provide in-vehicle security analytics. Greg Clark assumed the position of CEO in August 2016.
In November 2016, Symantec announced its intent to acquire identity theft protection company LifeLock for $2.3 billion.
In August 2017, Symantec announced that it had agreed to sell its business unit that verifies the identity of websites to Thoma Bravo. With this acquisition, Thoma Bravo plans to merge the Symantec business unit with its own web certification company, DigiCert.
On January 4, 2018, Symantec and BT (formerly British Telecom) announced their partnership that provides new endpoint security protection.
In May 2018, Symantec initiated an internal audit to address concerns raised by a former employee, causing it to delay its annual earnings report.
In August 2018, Symantec announced that the hedge fund Starboard Value had put forward five nominees to stand for election to the Symantec board of directors at Symantec's 2018 Annual Meeting of Stockholders. This followed a Schedule 13D filing by Starboard showing that it had accumulated a 5.8% stake in Symantec. In September 2018, Symantec announced that three nominees of Starboard were joining the Symantec board, two with immediate effect (including Starboard Managing Member Peter Feld) and one following the 2018 Annual Meeting of Stockholders.
On May 9, 2019, Symantec announced that Clark would be stepping down and that board member Rick Hill, previously put forward by Starboard, had been appointed interim president and CEO. Vincent Pilette also joined Symantec as its new CFO.
On August 9, 2019, Broadcom announced they would be acquiring the Enterprise software division of Symantec for $10.7 billion. This is after having attempted to purchase the whole company. The Norton family of products will remain in the Symantec portfolio. The sale closed November 4, 2019, and subsequently, the company adopted the NortonLifeLock name and relocated its headquarters from Mountain View, California to LifeLock's offices in Tempe, Arizona.
In 2021 or 2022, there was the first case of a suspected crypto-miner in the Norton 360 product called Norton Crypto. Norton Crypto only mines Ethereum (ETH) and does while your computer is idle. The program creates a secure wallet on your computer.
Demerger
On October 9, 2014, Symantec declared that the company would separate into two independent publicly traded companies by the end of 2015. Symantec will continue to focus on security, while a new company will be established focusing on information management. Symantec confirmed on January 28, 2015, that the information management business would be called Veritas Technologies Corporation, marking a return of the Veritas name. In August 2015, Symantec agreed to sell Veritas to a private equity group led by The Carlyle Group for $8 billion. The sale was completed by February 2016, turning Veritas into a privately owned company.
Norton products
As of 2015, Symantec's Norton product line includes Norton Security, Norton Small Business, Norton Family, Norton Mobile Security, Norton Online Backup, Norton360, Norton Utilities and Norton Computer Tune Up.
In 2012, PCTools iAntiVirus was rebranded as a Norton product under the name iAntivirus, and released to the Mac App Store. Also in 2012, the Norton Partner Portal was relaunched to support sales to consumers throughout the EMEA technologies.
Mergers and acquisitions
ACT!
In 1993, Symantec acquired ACT! from Contact Software International. Symantec sold ACT! to SalesLogix in 1999. At the time it was the world's most popular CRM application for Windows and Macintosh.
Veritas
On December 16, 2004, Veritas Software and Symantec announced their plans for a merger. With Veritas valued at $13.5 billion, it was the largest software industry merger to date. Symantec's shareholders voted to approve the merger on June 24, 2005; the deal closed successfully on July 2, 2005. July 5, 2005, was the first day of business for the U.S. offices of the new, combined software company. As a result of this merger, Symantec includes storage- and availability-related products in its portfolio, namely Veritas File System (VxFS), Veritas Volume Manager (VxVM), Veritas Volume Replicator (VVR), Veritas Cluster Server (VCS), NetBackup (NBU), Backup Exec (BE) and Enterprise Vault (EV).
On January 29, 2016, Symantec sold Veritas Technologies to The Carlyle Group.
Sygate
On August 16, 2005, Symantec acquired Sygate, a security software firm based in Fremont, California, with about 200 staff. As of November 30, 2005, all Sygate personal firewall products were discontinued.
Altiris
On January 29, 2007, Symantec announced plans to acquire Altiris, and on April 6, 2007, the acquisition was completed. Altiris specializes in service-oriented management software that allows organizations to manage IT assets. It also provides software for web services, security and systems management products. Established in 1998, Altiris is headquartered in Lindon, Utah.
Vontu
On November 5, 2007, Symantec announced its acquisition of Vontu, a Data Loss Prevention (DLP) company, for $350 million.
Application Performance Management business
On January 17, 2008, Symantec announced that it was spinning off its Application Performance Management (APM) business and the i3 product line to Vector Capital. Precise Software Solutions took over development, product management, marketing and sales for the APM business, launching as an independent company on September 17, 2008.
PC Tools
On August 18, 2008, Symantec announced the signing of an agreement to acquire PC Tools. Under the agreement, PC Tools would maintain separate operations. The financial terms of the acquisition were not disclosed. In May 2013, Symantec announced they were discontinuing the PC Tools line of internet security software.
In December 2013, Symantec announced they were discontinuing and retiring the entire PC Tools brand and offering a non-expiring license to PC Tools Performance Toolkit, PC Tools Registry Mechanic, PC Tools File Recover and PC Tools Privacy Guardian users with an active subscription as of December 4, 2013.
AppStream
On April 18, 2008, Symantec completed the acquisition of AppStream, Inc. (“AppStream”), a nonpublic Palo Alto, California-based provider of endpoint virtualization software. AppStream was acquired to complement Symantec's endpoint management and virtualization portfolio and strategy.
MessageLabs
On October 9, 2008, Symantec announced its intent to acquire Gloucester-based MessageLabs (spun off from Star Internet in 2007) to boost its Software-as-a-Service (SaaS) business. Symantec purchased the online messaging and Web security provider for about $695 million in cash. The acquisition closed on November 17, 2008.
PGP and GuardianEdge
On April 29, 2010, Symantec announced its intent to acquire PGP Corporation and GuardianEdge. The acquisitions closed on June 4, 2010, and provided access to established encryption, key management and technologies to Symantec's customers.
Verisign authentication
On May 19, 2010, Symantec signed a definitive agreement to acquire Verisign's authentication business unit, which included the Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) Certificate, Public Key Infrastructure (PKI), Verisign Trust and Verisign Identity Protection (VIP) authentication services. The acquisition closed on August 9, 2010. In August 2012, Symantec completed its rebranding of the Verisign SSL Certificate Service by renaming the Verisign Trust Seal the Norton Secured Seal. Symantec sold the SSL unit to Digicert for US$950 million in mid 2017.
Rulespace
Acquired on October 10, 2010, RuleSpace is a web categorisation product first developed in 1996. The categorisation is, automated using what Symantec refers to as the Automated Categorization System (ACS). It is used as the base for content filtering by many UK ISP.
Clearwell Systems
On May 19, 2011, Symantec announced the acquisition of Clearwell Systems for approximately $390 million.
LiveOffice
On January 17, 2012, Symantec announced the acquisition of cloud email-archiving company LiveOffice. The acquisition price was $115 million. Last year, Symantec joined the cloud storage and backup sector with its Enterprise Vault.cloud and Cloud Storage for Enterprise Vault software, in addition to a cloud messaging software, Symantec Instant Messaging Security cloud (IMS.cloud). Symantec stated that the acquisition would add to its information governance products, allowing customers to store information on-premises, in Symantec's data centers, or both.
Odyssey Software
On March 2, 2012, Symantec completed the acquisition of Odyssey Software. Odyssey Software's main product was Athena, which was device management software that extended Microsoft System Center software, adding the ability to manage, support and control mobile and embedded devices, such as smartphones and ruggedized handhelds.
Nukona Inc.
Symantec completed its acquisition of Nukona, a provider of mobile application management (MAM), on April 2, 2012. The acquisition agreement between Symantec and Nukona was announced on March 20, 2012.
NitroDesk Inc.
In May 2014 Symantec acquired NitroDesk, provider of TouchDown, the market-leading third-party EAS mobile application.
Blue Coat Systems
On June 13, 2016, it was announced that Symantec had acquired Blue Coat for $4.65 billion.
LifeLock
In 2017, Symantec acquired LifeLock Inc.; this, in turn, prompted the company to rename itself to its current name.
Avira
On December 7, 2020, NortonLifeLock announced acquisition of Avira. The acquisition was closed in January 2021.
Security concerns and controversies
Restatement
On August 9, 2004, the company announced that it discovered an error in its calculation of deferred revenue, which represented an accumulated adjustment of $20 million.
Endpoint bug
The arrival of the year 2010 triggered a bug in Symantec Endpoint. Symantec reported that malware and intrusion protection updates with "a date greater than December 31, 2009, 11:59 pm [were] considered to be 'out of date.'" The company created and distributed a workaround for the issue.
Scan evasion vulnerability
In March 2010, it was reported that Symantec AntiVirus and Symantec Client Security were prone to a vulnerability that might allow an attacker to bypass on-demand virus scanning, and permit malicious files to escape detection.
Denial-of-service attack vulnerabilities
In January 2011, multiple vulnerabilities in Symantec products that could be exploited by a denial-of-service attack, and thereby compromise a system, were reported. The products involved were Symantec AntiVirus Corporate Edition Server and Symantec System Center.
The November 12, 2012 Vulnerability Bulletin of the United States Computer Emergency Readiness Team (US-CERT) reported the following vulnerability for older versions of Symantec's Antivirus system: "The decomposer engine in Symantec Endpoint Protection (SEP) 11.0, Symantec Endpoint Protection Small Business Edition 12.0, Symantec AntiVirus Corporate Edition (SAVCE) 10.x, and Symantec Scan Engine (SSE) before 5.2.8 does not properly perform bounds checks of the contents of CAB archives, which allows remote attackers to cause a denial of service (application crash) or possibly execute arbitrary code via a crafted file."
The problem relates to older versions of the systems and a patch is available. US-CERT rated the seriousness of this vulnerability as a 9.7 on a 10-point scale. The "decomposer engine" is a component of the scanning system that opens containers, such as compressed files, so that the scanner can evaluate the files within.
Scareware lawsuit
In January 2012, James Gross filed a lawsuit against Symantec for distributing fake scareware scanners that purportedly alerted users of issues with their computers. Gross claimed that after the scan, only some of the errors and problems were corrected, and he was prompted by the scanner to purchase a Symantec app to remove the rest. Gross claimed that he bought the app, but it did not speed up his computer or remove the detected viruses. He hired a digital forensics expert to back up this claim. Symantec denied the allegations and said that it would contest the case. Symantec settled a $11 million fund (up to $9 to more than 1 million eligible customers representing the overpaid amount for the app) and the case was dismissed in court.
Source code theft
On January 17, 2012, Symantec disclosed that its network had been hacked. A hacker known as "Yama Tough" had obtained the source code for some Symantec software by hacking an Indian government server. Yama Tough released parts of the code and threatened to release more. According to Chris Paden, a Symantec spokesman, the source code that was taken was for Enterprise products that were between five and six years old.
On September 25, 2012, an affiliate of the hacker group Anonymous published source code from Norton Utilities. Symantec confirmed that it was part of the code that had been stolen earlier, and that the leak included code for 2006 versions of Norton Utilities, pcAnywhere and Norton Antivirus.
Verisign data breach
In February 2012, it was reported that Verisign's network and data had been hacked repeatedly in 2010, but that the breaches had not been disclosed publicly until they were noted in an SEC filing in October 2011. Verisign did not provide information about whether the breach included its certificate authority business, which was acquired by Symantec in late 2010. Oliver Lavery, director of security and research for nCircle, asked rhetorically, "Can we trust any site using Verisign SSL certificates? Without more clarity, the logical answer is no."
pcAnywhere exploit
On February 17, 2012, details of an exploit of pcAnywhere were posted. The exploit would allow attackers to crash pcAnywhere on computers running Windows. Symantec released a hotfix for the issue twelve days later.
Hacking of The New York Times network
According to Mandiant, Symantec security products used by The New York Times detected only one of 45 pieces of malware that were installed by Chinese hackers on the newspaper's network during three months in late 2012. Symantec responded:
"Advanced attacks like the ones the New York Times described in the following article, <http://nyti.ms/TZtr5z>, underscore how important it is for companies, countries and consumers to make sure they are using the full capability of security solutions. The advanced capabilities in our [E]ndpoint offerings, including our unique reputation-based technology and behavior-based blocking, specifically target sophisticated attacks. Turning on only the signature-based anti-virus components of [E]ndpoint solutions alone [is] not enough in a world that is changing daily from attacks and threats. We encourage customers to be very aggressive in deploying solutions that offer a combined approach to security. Anti-virus software alone is not enough".
Intellectual Ventures suit
In February 2015, Symantec was found guilty of two counts of patent infringement in a suit by Intellectual Ventures Inc and ordered to pay $17 million in compensation and damages, In September 2016, this decision was reversed on appeal by the Federal Circuit.
Sustaining digital certificate security
On September 18, 2015, Google notified Symantec that the latter issued 23 test certificates for five organizations, including Google and Opera, without the domain owners' knowledge. Symantec performed another audit and announced that an additional 164 test certificates were mis-issued for 76 domains and 2,458 test certificates were mis-issued for domains that had never been registered. Google requested that Symantec update the public incident report with proven analysis explaining the details on each of the failures.
The company was asked to report all the certificates issued to the Certificate Transparency log henceforth. Symantec has since reported implementing Certificate Transparency for all its SSL Certificates. Above all, Google has insisted that Symantec execute a security audit by a third party and to maintain tamper-proof security audit logs.
Google and Symantec clash on website security checks
On March 24, 2017, Google stated that it had lost confidence in Symantec, after the latest incident of improper certificate issuance. Google says millions of existing Symantec certificates will become untrusted in Google Chrome over the next 12 months. According to Google, Symantec partners issued at least 30,000 certificates of questionable validity over several years, but Symantec disputes that number. Google said Symantec failed to comply with industry standards and could not provide audits showing the necessary documentation.
Google's Ryan Sleevi said that Symantec partnered with other CAs (CrossCert (Korea Electronic Certificate Authority), Certisign Certificatadora Digital, Certsuperior S. de R. L. de C.V., and Certisur S.A.) who did not follow proper verification procedures leading to the misissuance of certificates.
Following discussions in which Google had required that Symantec migrate Symantec-branded certificate issuance operations a non-Symantec-operated “Managed Partner Infrastructure”, a deal was announced whereby DigiCert acquired Symantec's website security business. In September 2017, Google announced that starting with Chrome 66, "Chrome will remove trust in Symantec-issued certificates issued prior to June 1, 2016". Google further stated that "by December 1, 2017, Symantec will transition issuance and operation of publicly-trusted certificates to DigiCert infrastructure, and certificates issued from the old Symantec infrastructure after this date will not be trusted in Chrome." Google predicted that toward the end of October, 2018, with the release of Chrome 70, the browser would omit all trust in Symantec's old infrastructure and all of the certificates it had issued, affecting most certificates chaining to Symantec roots. Mozilla Firefox planned to distrust Symantec-issued certificates in Firefox 63 (released on October 23, 2018), but delivered the change in Firefox 64 (released on December 11, 2018). Apple has also planned to distrust Symantec root certificates. Subsequently, Symantec exited the TLS/SSL segment by selling the SSL unit to Digicert for $950 million in mid 2017.
See also
Comparison of antivirus software
Comparison of computer viruses
Huawei Symantec, a joint venture between Huawei and Symantec
Web blocking in the United Kingdom - Technologies
Symantec behavior analysis technologies SONAR and AntiBot
References
External links
Computer security companies
Computer security software companies
Content-control software
Former certificate authorities
Companies based in Tempe, Arizona
Software companies established in 1982
1982 establishments in California
Software companies of the United States
Companies listed on the Nasdaq |
42082713 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NaCl%20%28software%29 | NaCl (software) | NaCl (pronounced "salt") is an abbreviation for "Networking and Cryptography library", a public domain "...high-speed software library for network communication, encryption, decryption, signatures, etc".
NaCl was created by the mathematician and programmer Daniel J. Bernstein who is best known for the creation of qmail and Curve25519. The core team also includes Tanja Lange and Peter Schwabe. The main goal while creating NaCl, according to the paper, was to "avoid various types of cryptographic disasters suffered by previous cryptographic libraries".
Basic functions
Public-key cryptography
Signatures using Ed25519.
Key agreement using Curve25519.
Secret-key cryptography
Authenticated encryption using Salsa20-Poly1305.
Encryption using Salsa20 or AES.
Authentication using HMAC-SHA-512-256.
One-time authentication using Poly1305.
Low-level functions
Hashing using SHA-512 or SHA-256 or BLAKE2 using libsodium
String comparison.
Key derivation function (only libsodium)
Password hashing using argon2
Implementations
Reference implementation is written in C, often with several inline assembler. C++ and Python are handled as wrappers.
NaCl has a variety of programming language bindings such as PHP, and forms the basis for Libsodium, a cross-platform cryptography library created in 2013 which is API compatible with NaCl.
Alternative implementations
Libsodium — a portable, cross-compilable, installable, packageable, API-compatible version of NaCl.
dryoc — a pure-Rust implementation of libsodium/NaCl, with support for protected memory.
NaCl Pharo — a Pharo Smalltalk Extension.
TweetNaCl — a tiny C library, which fits in just 100 tweets (140 symbols each), but supports all NaCl functions.
NaCl for Tcl — a port to the Tcl language.
NaCl for JavaScript — a port of TweetNaCl/NaCl cryptographic library to the JavaScript language.
TweetNaCl for Java — a port of TweetNaCl/NaCl cryptographic library to the Java language.
SPARKNaCl — A re-write of TweetNaCl in the SPARK Ada subset, with formal and fully automatic proofs of type safety and some correctness properties.
Crypt::NaCl::Sodium Perl 5 binding to libsodium
See also
Comparison of cryptography libraries
List of free and open-source software packages
References
External links
Public-domain software
Cryptographic software
2008 software |
2262961 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hisarlik | Hisarlik | Hisarlik (Turkish: Hisarlık, "Place of Fortresses"), often spelled Hissarlik, is the Turkish name for an ancient city located in what is known historically as Anatolia. It is part of Çanakkale, Turkey. The archaeological site lies approximately from the Aegean Sea and about the same distance from the Dardanelles. The site is a partial tell, or artificial hill, elevated in layers over an original site. In this case the original site was already elevated, being the west end of a ridge projecting in an east–west direction from a mountain range.
After many decades of scientific and literary study by specialists, the site is generally accepted by most as the location of ancient Troy, the city mentioned in ancient documents of many countries in several ancient languages, especially ancient Greek, where it appears as Ilion in the earliest literary work of Europe, the Iliad. The site is still being excavated under the name of Troja. It also has been promoted as a major tourist attraction visited by many thousands of persons per year. A Turkish village, Tevfikiye, has been created on the east end of Troy Ridge, as it is now universally termed, to service the site and its visitors and students.
Geography
Located at the edge of a cape projecting into the Aegean between the Dardanelles and the Gulf of Edremit, which was known in antiquity as the Troad, Hisarlik was one of many successful pockets of human civilization which arose and prospered in Anatolia. Paleogeographic studies carried out around Hisarlik by John C. Kraft, head of the Geology Department of the University of Delaware and Professors Ilhan Kayan and Oğuz Erol from Ankara University indicate a favourable environment for settlement existed from around the eighth millennium BC, when receding seas left a fertile, well watered plain which over time became a shallow, but navigable estuary. Above this natural harbour, the hill was large enough to support extensive building, providing natural protection from invasion and a commanding view of the sea.
Human settlement in the region
Elsewhere in Anatolia, there is abundant archaeological evidence of a thriving neolithic culture at least as early as the seventh millennium BC. What may have been the world's first urban settlement (c. 7500 BC) has been uncovered at Çatalhüyük in the Konya Ovasi (Konya Basin). Evidence from a cave at Karain near Antalya shows human occupation in the region extending over an estimated 25,000 year period.
The inhabitants of Hisarlik lived among a number of vigorous, interactive and often warlike cultures. Apart from the mainland Greeks whence they may have sprung, the Trojans counted such neighbours as the Hittites, Phrygians and Lydians. It has been suggested that the polity at ancient Hisarlik might be one and the same with that known to the Hittites as Wilusa.
The region around Hisarlik is still inhabited by the descendants of the many and varied peoples who laid claim to the shores and hillsides of Anatolia. Present day Çanakkale is a thriving settlement close to the ancient site of Hisarlik. Çanakkale lies on both sides of the Dardanelles and touches both Europe (Gelibolu Peninsula) and Asia (Biga Peninsula) and, just as it was in the time of Homer, maritime traffic connects both sides of the straits.
Troy
The assumed location of Troy was apparently well known in the ancient world, visited by Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar. In more modern times, a site associated with Ilium (and more readily identifiable as Hisarlik) was being shown to curious visitors as early as the 15th century, when Pedro Tafur was guided from the Genoese port of Fojavecchia (Phocaea):
I travelled by land for two days to that place which they say was Troy, but found no one who could give me any information concerning it, and we came to Ilium, as they call it. This place is situated on the sea opposite the harbour of Tenedos. The whole of this country is strewn with villages, and the Turks regard the ancient buildings as relics and do not destroy anything, but they build their houses adjoining. That which made me understand that this was, indeed, ancient Troy, was the sight of such great ruined buildings, and so many marbles and stones, and that shore, and the harbour of Tenedos over against it, and a great hill which seemed to have been made by the fall of some huge building.
Tafur, like most early visitors, was distracted by the more prominent Hellenistic and Roman remains close to the modern shoreline.
While the archaeological record has much to say about the physical remains, it reveals little about the people who built and rebuilt the fabled city of Troy. The historical record for Troy is dominated by the epic poems of Homer and peopled with gods and heroes whose identities and histories formed part of the oral tradition of the area for centuries before the great Greek poet committed some of them to verse.
Homer was not, however, overly concerned with history. Not surprisingly, the historical context for the epic Iliad and Odyssey is not as clear as one would wish. Various attempts have been made over time to identify the origins of the inhabitants of Troy.
As early as 1946, American classical art historian Rhys Carpenter argued that the Trojan War, far from being a historical event, was in fact a synthesis of many such events involving peoples whose mutual involvement stretched back centuries. In the Iliad, the word most commonly used for the city of the Trojans is not "Troy" but "Ilion". Carpenter saw this as evidence of the possibility that Troy was not the name of a town at all, but rather the name of an area or district inhabited by the Trojans. The Greeks clearly had a legend about a war against the Trojans, but may have disagreed about where these people lived. At least one group of Greeks put them at a place called Teuthrania in the area known as Mysia.
Carpenter suggests that the real "Troy" is located in neither the Troad nor Aeolis but rather that the memory of a pan-Achaean expedition elsewhere was located at two different points in Asia Minor by later poetic traditions: at Ilion by the Ionic poets, because they found in this area a local folk tradition about a strong citadel sacked near the end of the Bronze Age (Hisarlik); and at Teuthrania by the Aeolic poets, to correspond with Aeolic traditions connected with their own occupation of this area.
If one is willing to accept Carpenter's line of argument this far, one can place "Troy" virtually anywhere in the eastern Mediterranean where bands of Mycenaean Greeks may have undertaken joint piratic raids. Carpenter goes so far as to place "Troy" in Egypt and to connect the story of the Trojan War with the raids of the Sea Peoples mentioned in Egyptian sources at the end of the 13th and beginning of the 12th centuries BC.
Whoever the ancient inhabitants may have been, the fact remains that for over two millennia a thriving civilisation existed at Hisarlik.
Archaeological excavation
An alternative site, Hisarlik tell, a thirty-meter-high mound, was identified as a possible site of ancient Troy by a number of amateur archaeologists in the early to mid 19th century. The most dedicated of these was Frank Calvert, whose early work was overshadowed by the German amateur archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann in the 1870s.
The site of Hisarlik has been under near-constant archaeological excavation ever since Schliemann began in 1873. While much has been discovered about the structural layout of the many layers of occupation, there has been a paucity of writing found from before the classical era. In fact, the only written document heretofore discovered is a small cylinder seal with an inscription in Luwian.
Troy VII is an archaeological layer of Hisarlik that chronologically spans from c. 1300 to c. 950 BC. It coincides with the collapse of the Bronze Age and is thought to be the Troy mentioned in Ancient Greece and the site of the Trojan War.
Notes
References
Bibliography
. Copyrighted in 1985, this book was published in a number of paperback and hardcover formats in the later 20th century, all of which, however, kept the same pagination. The year and the publisher varied. This citation is only an example. In the references, "Wood, 1993" can refer to any of them.
External links
"Ancient Troy's Possible Location in Hisarlik"
Former populated places in Turkey
Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Turkey
Archaeological sites of classical Anatolia
Archaeological sites in the Marmara Region
Populated places in Çanakkale Province
Troy |
42975759 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nexidia | Nexidia | Nexidia is an interaction analytics software company that provides indexing and mining software for audio and video.
About
Nexidia software helps government agencies, telecommunications companies, healthcare, technology, retail, insurance, financial services, utilities and technology companies.
History
The creation of the software began in the early 1990s. At that time, Emory University and Georgia Tech worked together with the desire to archive speeches by then United States Senator Sam Nunn.
The company was founded in 2000 as Fast-Talk Communications, Inc. Founder Mark Clements studied speech recognition for 25 years and Georgia Tech graduate student Peter Cardillo created the software over five years to help recognize individual speech sounds. In 2003, the company changed its name to Nexidia.
Acquisition
January 11, 2016 NICE Systems announced the acquisition of Nexidia.
Awards
Technology and Engineering Achievement Emmy Award for Phonetic Indexing and Timing - 2015
Speech Technology Magazine - Star Performer Award for bringing "Advanced Science to Analytics" - 2015
Operational Innovation Award - Customer Excellence for Nexidia Interaction Analytics - 2014
Speech Technology Magazine - 2014 Star Performer
Customer Magazine - Speech Technology Excellence Award - 2014
Speech Technology Magazine, Market Winner for Speech Analytics - 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013
IBC Design and Innovation Award – 2013
StudioDaily Prime Award Winner, Post Production Innovation - 2013 (Boris Soundbite)
Best of Show Vidy Award, 2011
TV Technology, Star Award 2011
Frost & Sullivan, New Product Innovation Award, 2010
NAB Best of Show, Black Diamond Award, 2010
CRM Magazine, Service Rising Star Award, 2010
References
External links
Software companies based in Georgia (U.S. state)
Software companies of the United States
2000 establishments in the United States
2000 establishments in Georgia (U.S. state)
Software companies established in 2000
Companies established in 2000 |
13628514 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Access%20token | Access token | In computer systems, an access token contains the security credentials for a login session and identifies the user, the user's groups, the user's privileges, and, in some cases, a particular application. In some instances, one may be asked to enter an access token (e.g. 40 random characters) rather than the usual password (it therefore should be kept secret just like a password).
Overview
An access token is an object encapsulating the security identity of a process or thread. A token is used to make security decisions and to store tamper-proof information about some system entity. While a token is generally used to represent only security information, it is capable of holding additional free-form data that can be attached while the token is being created. Tokens can be duplicated without special privilege, for example to create a new token with lower levels of access rights to restrict the access of a launched application. An access token is used by Windows when a process or thread tries to interact with objects that have security descriptors (securable objects). In Windows, an access token is represented by the system object of type Token.
An access token is generated by the logon service when a user logs on to the system and the credentials provided by the user are authenticated against the authentication database. The authentication database contains credential information required to construct the initial token for the logon session, including its user id, primary group id, all other groups it is part of, and other information. The token is attached to the initial process created in the user session and inherited by subsequent processes created by the initial process. Whenever such a process opens a handle to any resource which has access control enabled, Windows reconciles the data in the target object's security descriptor with the contents of the current effective access token. The result of this access check evaluation is an indication of whether any access is allowed and, if so, what operations (read, write/modify, etc.) the calling application is allowed to perform.
Types of token
There are two types of tokens available:
Primary token Primary tokens can only be associated to processes, and they represent a process's security subject. The creation of primary tokens and their association to processes are both privileged operations, requiring two different privileges in the name of privilege separation - the typical scenario sees the authentication service creating the token, and a logon service associating it to the user's operating system shell. Processes initially inherit a copy of the parent process's primary token.
Impersonation token Impersonation is a security concept implemented in Windows NT that allows a server application to temporarily "be" the client in terms of access to secure objects. Impersonation has four possible levels: anonymous, giving the server the access of an anonymous/unidentified user, identification, letting the server inspect the client's identity but not use that identity to access objects, impersonation, letting the server act on behalf of the client, and delegation, same as impersonation but extended to remote systems to which the server connects (through the preservation of credentials). The client can choose the maximum impersonation level (if any) available to the server as a connection parameter. Delegation and impersonation are privileged operations (impersonation initially was not, but historical carelessness in the implementation of client APIs failing to restrict the default level to "identification", letting an unprivileged server impersonate an unwilling privileged client, called for it). Impersonation tokens can only be associated to threads, and they represent a client process's security subject. Impersonation tokens are usually created and associated to the current thread implicitly, by IPC mechanisms such as DCE RPC, DDE and named pipes.
Contents of a token
A token is composed of various fields, including:
an identifier.
the identifier of the associated logon session. The session is maintained by the authentication service, and is populated by the authentication packages with a collection of all the information (credentials) the user provided when logging in. Credentials are used to access remote systems without the need for the user to re-authenticate (single sign-on), provided that all the systems involved share an authentication authority (e.g. a Kerberos ticket server)
the user identifier. This field is the most important and it's strictly read-only.
the identifiers of groups the user (or, more precisely, the subject) is part of. Group identifiers cannot be deleted, but they can be disabled or made "deny-only". At most one of the groups is designated as the session id, a volatile group representing the logon session, allowing access to volatile objects associated to the session, such as the display.
the restricting group identifiers (optional). This additional set of groups doesn't grant additional access, but further restricts it: access to an object is only allowed if it's allowed also to one of these groups. Restricting groups cannot be deleted nor disabled. Restricting groups are a recent addition, and they are used in the implementation of sandboxes.
the privileges, i.e. special capabilities the user has. Most privileges are disabled by default, to prevent damage from non-security-conscious programs. Starting in Windows XP Service Pack 2 and Windows Server 2003 privileges can be permanently removed from a token by a call to AdjustTokenPrivileges() with the SE_PRIVILEGE_REMOVED attribute.
the default owner, primary group and ACL for the token
created by the subject associated to the token.
References
Microsoft Windows security technology |
18847 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multics | Multics | Multics ("Multiplexed Information and Computing Service") is an influential early time-sharing operating system based on the concept of a single-level memory. It has been said that Multics "has influenced all modern operating systems since, from microcomputers to mainframes."
Initial planning and development for Multics started in 1964, in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Originally it was a cooperative project led by MIT (Project MAC with Fernando Corbató) along with General Electric and Bell Labs. It was developed on the GE 645 computer, which was specially designed for it; the first one was delivered to MIT in January, 1967.
Multics was conceived as a commercial product for General Electric, and became one for Honeywell, albeit not very successfully. Due to its many novel and valuable ideas, Multics has had a significant influence on computer science despite its faults.
Multics has numerous features intended to ensure high availability so that it would support a computing utility similar to the telephone and electricity utilities. Modular hardware structure and software architecture are used to achieve this. The system can grow in size by simply adding more of the appropriate resource, be it computing power, main memory, or disk storage. Separate access control lists on every file provide flexible information sharing, but complete privacy when needed. Multics has a number of standard mechanisms to allow engineers to analyze the performance of the system, as well as a number of adaptive performance optimization mechanisms.
Novel ideas
Multics implements a single-level store for data access, discarding the clear distinction between files (called segments in Multics) and process memory. The memory of a process consists solely of segments that were mapped into its address space. To read or write to them, the process simply uses normal central processing unit (CPU) instructions, and the operating system takes care of making sure that all the modifications were saved to disk. In POSIX terminology, it is as if every file were mmap()ed; however, in Multics there is no concept of process memory, separate from the memory used to hold mapped-in files, as Unix has. All memory in the system is part of some segment, which appears in the file system; this includes the temporary scratch memory of the process, its kernel stack, etc.
One disadvantage of this was that the size of segments was limited to 256 kilowords, just over 1 MB. This was due to the particular hardware architecture of the machines on which Multics ran, having a 36-bit word size and index registers (used to address within segments) of half that size (18 bits). Extra code had to be used to work on files larger than this, called multisegment files. In the days when one megabyte of memory was prohibitively expensive, and before large databases and later huge bitmap graphics, this limit was rarely encountered.
Another major new idea of Multics was dynamic linking, in which a running process could request that other segments be added to its address space, segments which could contain code that it could then execute. This allowed applications to automatically use the latest version of any external routine they called, since those routines were kept in other segments, which were dynamically linked only when a process first tried to begin execution in them. Since different processes could use different search rules, different users could end up using different versions of external routines automatically. Equally importantly, with the appropriate settings on the Multics security facilities, the code in the other segment could then gain access to data structures maintained in a different process.
Thus, to interact with an application running in part as a daemon (in another process), a user's process simply performed a normal procedure-call instruction to a code segment to which it had dynamically linked (a code segment that implemented some operation associated with the daemon). The code in that segment could then modify data maintained and used in the daemon. When the action necessary to commence the request was completed, a simple procedure return instruction returned control of the user's process to the user's code.
Multics also supported extremely aggressive on-line reconfiguration: central processing units, memory banks, disk drives, etc. could be added and removed while the system continued operating. At the MIT system, where most early software development was done, it was common practice to split the multiprocessor system into two separate systems during off-hours by incrementally removing enough components to form a second working system, leaving the rest still running the original logged-in users. System software development testing could be done on the second system, then the components of the second system were added back to the main user system, without ever having shut it down. Multics supported multiple CPUs; it was one of the earliest multiprocessor systems.
Multics was the first major operating system to be designed as a secure system from the outset. Despite this, early versions of Multics were broken into repeatedly. This led to further work that made the system much more secure and prefigured modern security engineering techniques. Break-ins became very rare once the second-generation hardware base was adopted; it had hardware support for ring-oriented security, a multilevel refinement of the concept of master mode. A US Air Force tiger team project tested Multics security in 1973 under the codeword ZARF. On 28 May 1997, the American National Security Agency declassified this use of the codeword ZARF.
Multics was the first operating system to provide a hierarchical file system, and file names could be of almost arbitrary length and syntax. A given file or directory could have multiple names (typically a long and short form), and symbolic links between directories were also supported. Multics was the first to use the now-standard concept of per-process stacks in the kernel, with a separate stack for each security ring. It was also the first to have a command processor implemented as ordinary user code – an idea later used in the Unix shell. It was also one of the first written in a high-level language (Multics PL/I), after the Burroughs MCP system written in ALGOL.
The deployment of Multics into secure computing environments also spurred the development of innovative supporting applications. In 1975, Morrie Gasser of MITRE Corporation developed a pronounceable random word generator to address password requirements of installations such as the Air Force Data Services Center (AFDSC) processing classified information. To avoid guessable passwords, the AFDSC decided to assign passwords but concluded the manual assignment required too much administrative overhead. Thus, a random word generator was researched and then developed in PL1. Instead of being based on phonemes, the system employed phonemic segments (second order approximations of English) and other rules to enhance pronounceability and randomness, which was statistically modeled against other approaches. A descendant of this generator was added to Multics during Project Guardian.
Project history
In 1964, Multics was developed initially for the GE-645 mainframe, a 36-bit system. GE's computer business, including Multics, was taken over by Honeywell in 1970; around 1973, Multics was supported on the Honeywell 6180 machines, which included security improvements including hardware support for protection rings.
Bell Labs pulled out of the project in 1969; some of the people who had worked on it there went on to create the Unix system. Multics development continued at MIT and General Electric.
Honeywell continued system development until 1985. About 80 multimillion-dollar sites were installed, at universities, industry, and government sites. The French university system had several installations in the early 1980s. After Honeywell stopped supporting Multics, users migrated to other systems like Unix.
In 1985, Multics was issued certification as a B2 level secure operating system using the Trusted Computer System Evaluation Criteria from the National Computer Security Center (NCSC) a division of the NSA, the first operating system evaluated to this level.
Multics was distributed from 1975 to 2000 by Groupe Bull in Europe, and by Bull HN Information Systems Inc. in the United States. In 2006, Bull SAS released the source code of Multics versions MR10.2, MR11.0, MR12.0, MR12.1, MR12.2, MR12.3, MR12.4 & MR12.5 under a free software license.
The last known Multics installation running natively on Honeywell hardware was shut down on October 30, 2000, at the Canadian Department of National Defence in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.
Current status
In 2006 Bull HN released the source code for MR12.5, the final 1992 Multics release, to MIT. Most of the system is now available as free software with the exception of some optional pieces such as TCP/IP.
In 2014 Multics was successfully run on current hardware using an emulator. The 1.0 release of the emulator is now available. Release 12.6f of Multics accompanies the 1.0 release of the emulator, and adds a few new features, including command line recall and editing using the video system.
Commands
The following is a list of programs and commands for common computing tasks that are supported by the Multics command-line interface.
apl
ceil
change_wdir (cwd)
cobol
copy (cp)
echo
emacs
floor
fortran (ft)
gcos (gc)
help
home_dir (hd)
if
list (ls)
login (l)
logout
ltrim
mail (ml)
pascal
pl1
print (pr)
print_wdir (pwd)
runoff (rf)
rtrim
sort
teco
trunc
where (wh)
who
working_dir (wd)
Retrospective observations
Peter H. Salus, author of a book covering Unix's early years, stated one position: "With Multics they tried to have a much more versatile and flexible operating system, and it failed miserably". This position, however, has been widely discredited in the computing community because many of Multics' technical innovations are used in modern commercial computing systems.
The permanently resident kernel of Multics, a system derided in its day as being too large and complex, was only 135 KB of code. In comparison, a Linux system in 2007 might have occupied 18 MB. The first MIT GE-645 had 512 kilowords of memory (2 MiB), a truly enormous amount at the time, and the kernel used only a moderate portion of Multics main memory.
The entire system, including the operating system and the complex PL/1 compiler, user commands, and subroutine libraries, consisted of about 1500 source modules. These averaged roughly 200 lines of source code each, and compiled to produce a total of roughly 4.5 MiB of procedure code, which was fairly large by the standards of the day.
Multics compilers generally optimised more for code density than CPU performance, for example using small sub-routines called operators for short standard code sequences, which makes comparison of object code size with modern systems less useful. High code density was a good optimisation choice for Multics as a multi-user system with expensive main memory.
During its commercial product history, it was often commented internally that the Honeywell Information Systems (HIS) (later Honeywell-Bull) sales and marketing staff were more familiar with and comfortable making the business case for Honeywell’s other computer line, the DPS 6 running GCOS. The DPS-6 and GCOS was a well-regarded and reliable platform for inventory, accounting, word processing, and vertical market applications, such as banking, where it had a sizeable customer base. In contrast, the full potential of Multics’ flexibility for even mundane tasks was not easy to comprehend in that era and its features were generally outside the skill set of contemporary business analysts. The scope of this disconnect was concretized by an anecdote conveyed by Paul Stachour, CNO/CSC:
When American Telephone and Telegraph was changing its name to just AT&T in 1983, a staffer from Honeywell’s legal department showed up and asked a Multician if he could arrange to have the name changed in all of their computerized documents. When asked when the process could be completed, the Multician replied, "It's done." The staffer repeated that he needed hundreds perhaps thousands of documents updated. The Multician explained that he had executed a global search and replace as the staffer was speaking, and the task was in fact completed.
Influence on other projects
Unix
The design and features of Multics greatly influenced the Unix operating system, which was originally written by two Multics programmers, Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie. Superficial influence of Multics on Unix is evident in many areas, including the naming of some commands. But the internal design philosophy was quite different, focusing on keeping the system small and simple, and so correcting some perceived deficiencies of Multics because of its high resource demands on the limited computer hardware of the time.
The name Unix (originally Unics) is itself a pun on Multics. The U in Unix is rumored to stand for uniplexed as opposed to the multiplexed of Multics, further underscoring the designers' rejections of Multics' complexity in favor of a more straightforward and workable approach for smaller computers. (Garfinkel and Abelson cite an alternative origin: Peter Neumann at Bell Labs, watching a demonstration of the prototype, suggested the pun name UNICS – pronounced "eunuchs" – as a "castrated Multics", although Dennis Ritchie is said to have denied this.)
Ken Thompson, in a transcribed 2007 interview with Peter Seibel refers to Multics as "overdesigned and overbuilt and over everything. It was close to unusable. They [Massachusetts Institute of Technology] still claim it's a monstrous success, but it just clearly wasn't". On the influence of Multics on Unix, Thompson stated that "the things that I liked enough (about Multics) to actually take were the hierarchical file system and the shell — a separate process that you can replace with some other process".
Other operating systems
The Prime Computer operating system, PRIMOS, was referred to as "Multics in a shoebox" by William Poduska, a founder of the company. Poduska later moved on to found Apollo Computer, whose AEGIS and later Domain/OS operating systems, sometimes called "Multics in a matchbox", extended the Multics design to a heavily networked graphics workstation environment.
The Stratus VOS operating system of Stratus Computer (now Stratus Technologies) was very strongly influenced by Multics, and both its external user interface and internal structure bear many close resemblances to the older project. The high-reliability, availability, and security features of Multics were extended in Stratus VOS to support a new line of fault tolerant computer systems supporting secure, reliable transaction processing. Stratus VOS is the most directly-related descendant of Multics still in active development and production usage today.
The protection architecture of Multics, restricting the ability of code at one level of the system to access resources at another, was adopted as the basis for the security features of ICL's VME operating system.
See also
Time-sharing system evolution
Peter J. Denning
Jack B. Dennis
Robert Fano – director of Project MAC at MIT (1963–1968)
Robert M. Graham (computer scientist)
J. C. R. Licklider – director of Project MAC at MIT (1968–1971)
Peter G. Neumann
Elliott Organick
Louis Pouzin – introduced the term shell for the command language used in Multics
Jerome H. Saltzer
Roger R. Schell
Glenda Schroeder – implemented the first command line user interface shell and proposed the first email system with Pouzin and Crisman
Victor A. Vyssotsky
References
Further reading
The literature contains a large number of papers about Multics, and various components of it; a fairly complete list is available at the Multics Bibliography page and on a second, briefer 1994 Multics bibliography (text format). The most important and/or informative ones are listed below.
F. J. Corbató, V. A. Vyssotsky, Introduction and Overview of the Multics System (AFIPS 1965) is a good introduction to the system.
F. J. Corbató, C. T. Clingen, J. H. Saltzer, Multics – The First Seven Years (AFIPS, 1972) is an excellent review, written after a considerable period of use and improvement over the initial efforts.
J. J. Donovan, S. Madnick, Operating Systems, is a fundamental read on operating systems.
J. J. Donovan, Systems Programming, is a good introduction into systems programming and operating systems.
Technical details
Jerome H. Saltzer, Introduction to Multics (MIT Project MAC, 1974) is a considerably longer introduction to the system, geared towards actual users.
Elliott I. Organick, The Multics System: An Examination of Its Structure (MIT Press, 1972) is the standard work on the system, although it documents an early version, and some features described therein never appeared in the actual system.
V. A. Vyssotsky, F. J. Corbató, R. M. Graham, Structure of the Multics Supervisor (AFIPS 1965) describes the basic internal structure of the Multics kernel.
Jerome H. Saltzer, Traffic Control in a Multiplexed Computer System (MIT Project MAC, June 1966) is the original description of the idea of switching kernel stacks; one of the classic papers of computer science.
R. C. Daley, P. G. Neumann, A General Purpose File System for Secondary Storage (AFIPS, 1965) describes the file system, including the access control and backup mechanisms.
R. J. Feiertag, E. I. Organick, The Multics Input/Output System. Describes the lower levels of the I/O implementation.
A. Bensoussan, C. T. Clingen, R. C. Daley, The Multics Virtual Memory: Concepts and Design, (ACM SOSP, 1969) describes the Multics memory system in some detail.
Paul Green, Multics Virtual Memory – Tutorial and Reflections is a good in-depth look at the Multics storage system.
Roger R. Schell, Dynamic Reconfiguration in a Modular Computer System (MIT Project MAC, 1971) describes the reconfiguration mechanisms.
Security
Paul A. Karger, Roger R. Schell, Multics Security Evaluation: Vulnerability Analysis (Air Force Electronic Systems Division, 1974) describes the classic attacks on Multics security by a "tiger team".
Jerome H. Saltzer, Michael D. Schroeder, The Protection of Information in Computer Systems (Proceedings of the IEEE, September 1975) describes the fundamentals behind the first round of security upgrades; another classic paper.
M. D. Schroeder, D. D. Clark, J. H. Saltzer, D. H. Wells. Final Report of the Multics Kernel Design Project (MIT LCS, 1978) describes the security upgrades added to produce an even more improved version.
Paul A. Karger, Roger R. Schell, Thirty Years Later: Lessons from the Multics Security Evaluation (IBM, 2002) is an interesting retrospective which compares actual deployed security in today's hostile environment with what was demonstrated to be possible decades ago. It concludes that Multics offered considerably stronger security than most systems commercially available in 2002.
External links
multicians.org is a comprehensive site with a lot of material
Multics papers online
Multics glossary
Myths discusses numerous myths about Multics in some detail, including the myths that it failed, that it was big and slow, as well as a few understandable misapprehensions
Multics security
Unix and Multics
Multics general info and FAQ Includes extensive overview of other software systems influenced by Multics
Honeywell, Inc., MULTICS records, 1965–1982. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. Multics development records include the second MULTICS System Programmers Manual; MULTICS Technical Bulletins that describe procedures, applications, and problems, especially concerning security; and returned "Request for Comments Forms" that include technical papers and thesis proposals.
Official source code archive at MIT
Multics repository at Stratus Computer
Multics at Universitaet Mainz
Active project to emulate the Honeywell dps-8/m Multics CPU
Various scanned Multics manuals
Multicians.org and the History of Operating Systems, a critical review of Multicians.org, plus a capsule history of Multics.
1969 software
AT&T computers
Bell Labs
Discontinued operating systems
Free software operating systems
General Electric mainframe computers
Honeywell mainframe computers
Massachusetts Institute of Technology software
Time-sharing operating systems
Mainframe computer software |
2422384 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent%20troll | Patent troll | In international law and business, patent trolling or patent hoarding is a categorical or pejorative term applied to a person or company that attempts to enforce patent rights against accused infringers far beyond the patent's actual value or contribution to the prior art, often through hardball legal tactics (frivolous litigation, vexatious litigation, strategic lawsuits against public participation (SLAPP), chilling effects, and the like). Patent trolls often do not manufacture products or supply services based upon the patents in question. However, some entities which do not practice their asserted patent may not be considered "patent trolls" when they license their patented technologies on reasonable terms in advance.
Other related concepts include patent holding company (PHC), patent assertion entity (PAE), and non-practicing entity (NPE), which may or may not be considered a "patent troll" depending on the position they are taking and the perception of that position by the public. While in most cases the entities termed "trolls" are operating within the bounds of the legal system, their aggressive tactics achieve outcomes contrary to the origins of the patent system, as a legislated social contract to foster and protect innovation; the rapid rise of the modern information economy has put the global intellectual property system under more strain.
Patent trolling has been less of a problem in Europe than in the United States because Europe has a loser pays costs regime. In contrast, the U.S. generally employs the American rule, under which each party is responsible for paying its own attorney's fees. However, after the U.S. Supreme Court's decision in Octane Fitness, LLC v. ICON Health & Fitness, Inc. on April 29, 2014, it is now easier for courts to award costs for frivolous patent lawsuits.
Etymology and definition
The term patent troll was used at least once in 1993, albeit with a slightly different meaning, to describe countries that file aggressive patent lawsuits. The 1994 educational video, The Patents Video also used the term, depicting a green troll guarding a bridge and demanding fees. The origin of the term patent troll has also been variously attributed to Anne Gundelfinger, or Peter Detkin, both counsel for Intel, during the late 1990s.
Patent troll is currently a controversial term, susceptible to numerous definitions, none of which are considered satisfactory from the perspective of understanding how patent trolls should be treated in law. Definitions include a party that does one or more of the following:
Purchases a patent, often from a bankrupt firm, and then sues another company by claiming that one of its products infringes on the purchased patent;
Enforces patents against purported infringers without itself intending to manufacture the patented product or supply the patented service;
Enforces patents but has no manufacturing or research base;
Focuses its efforts solely on enforcing patent rights; or
Asserts patent infringement claims against non-copiers or against a large industry that is composed of non-copiers.
The term "patent pirate" has been used to describe both patent trolling and acts of patent infringement. Related expressions are "non-practising entity" (NPE) (defined as "a patent owner who does not manufacture or use the patented invention, but rather than abandoning the right to exclude, an NPE seeks to enforce its right through the negotiation of licenses and litigation"), "patent assertion entity" (PAE), "non-manufacturing patentee", "patent shark", "patent marketer", "patent assertion company", and "patent dealer".
Confusion over the usage of the term "patent troll" is clear in research and media reporting. In 2014, PricewaterhouseCoopers published research into patent litigation including a study of non-practicing entities including individual inventors and non-profit organisations such as universities. In quoting that research, media outlets such as the Washington Post labelled all non-practicing entities as patent trolls.
Legal and regulatory history
According to RPX Corporation, a firm that helps reduce company patent-litigation risk by offering licenses to patents it owns in exchange for an agreement not to sue, patent trolls in 2012 filed more than 2,900 infringement lawsuits nationwide (nearly six times higher than the number in 2006).
In addressing the America Invents Act (AIA) passed by Congress in September 2011 reforming US patent law, U.S. President Barack Obama said in February 2013 that US "efforts at patent reform only went about halfway to where we need to go." The next indicated step was to pull together stakeholders and find consensus on "smarter patent laws."
As part of the effort to combat patent trolls, the Patent Trial and Appeals Board was empowered to begin conducting the inter partes review (IPR) process in 2012. IPR allows an executive agency to review the validity of a patent, whereas previously such a review could only be conducted before a court. The Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the IPR process in 2018. In 2015, 45% of all patent cases in the United States were filed in the Eastern District of Texas in Marshall, and 28% of all patents were filed before James Rodney Gilstrap, a court known for favoring plaintiffs and for its expertise in patent suits. However, in May 2017, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled unanimously in TC Heartland LLC v. Kraft Foods Group Brands LLC that patent litigation cases must be heard in the state in which the defendant is incorporated, shutting down this option for plaintiffs.
On June 4, 2013, President Obama referenced patent trolls and directed the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) to take five new actions to help stem the surge in patent-infringement lawsuits tying up the court system. Saying "they don't actually produce anything themselves, they're just trying to essentially leverage and hijack somebody else's idea and see if they can extort some money out of them," the President ordered the USPTO to require companies to be more specific about exactly what their patent covers and how it is being infringed.
The Administration further stated the USPTO will tighten scrutiny of patent claims that appear overly broad, and will aim to curb patent-infringement lawsuits against consumers and small-business owners using off-the-shelf technology. The President asked Congress to enact legislation to more aggressively curb "abusive" lawsuits. David Kravets said "[t]he history ebooks will remember the 44th president for setting off a chain of reforms that made predatory patent lawsuits a virtual memory."
In the U.S. Congress, Senator Orrin Hatch (R-Utah) sponsored legislation in 2013 intended to reduce the incidence of patent trolling. The bill, called the Patent Litigation Integrity Act, would help judges make patent trolls pay for the cost of the lawsuits, especially if the trolls lost the lawsuits.
In February 2014, Apple filed two amicus briefs for cases pending in the U.S. Supreme Court, claiming to be the #1 target for patent trolls, having faced nearly 100 lawsuits in the preceding three years.
In November 2014, the U.S. Federal Trade Commission (FTC) settled its first consumer-protection lawsuit against a company, for using "deceptive sales claims and phony legal threats". The FTC found that defendant MPHJ had sent letters to more than 16,000 small to mid-size businesses threatening patent infringement lawsuits if the companies did not comply with its demand for licensing fees of $1,000 to $1,200 per employee, but never making preparations for such lawsuits. The 2014 settlement provided for a $16,000 fine per letter that MPHJ or its attorneys would send.
State responses in the United States
In May 2013, Vermont's Consumer Protection Act took effect. The Vermont law prohibits bad faith infringement threats, with bad faith indicated by: lack of specificity of the alleged infringement, settlement demands or damage claims that include excessive licensing fees, and unreasonably short deadlines for payment of demanded monies. Vermont's statute gives recipients of threat letters the right to counter-sue in state court, thus making it a less lucrative business model to send out large numbers of threat letters. As of August 2013, the Vermont legislation had not been tested in court as to violation of federal preemption, the legal principle that bars states from interfering in matters regulated or administrated by the federal government (such as aviation), or enforcement of federal law.
In August 2013, Nebraska's Attorney General sent warnings to a patent troll's law firm, asserting that to send frivolous licensing demands to Nebraska businesses may constitute unfair and deceptive business practices and violate Nebraska's unfair competition law.
In 2013, Minnesota's Attorney General obtained a settlement prohibiting MPHJ Technology Investments LLC from continuing its licensing campaign, Minnesota said to be the first state to obtain such a settlement.
In April 2014, the Wisconsin governor signed legislation that would make patent-trolling Wisconsin companies more difficult. The legislation imposes strict notification duties on the entity claiming infringement, and there are potentially strict penalties for non-compliance with the notification process.
In the 2014, legislative session, Idaho Lieutenant Governor Brad Little sponsored Senate Bill 1354, or the "Patent-troll" bill which protected companies from "bad faith assertions of patent infringement", in which a patent holder frequently harasses businesses for purportedly infringing on a patent in order to collect an extortionate licensing fee.
Causes
The cost of defending against a patent infringement suit, as of 2004, was typically $1 million or more before trial, and $2.5 million for a complete defense, even if successful. Because the costs and risks are high, defendants may settle even non-meritorious suits they consider frivolous for several hundred thousand dollars. The uncertainty and unpredictability of the outcome of jury trials in the United States also encourages settlement.
It has been suggested that distortions in the patent market, such as those caused by the examination backlog, promote patent trolling.
If the patent office accepts claims that have been invented, published or even patented before, ignoring material prior art, then even existing technologies in use are subject to patent trolling. Reexamination to invalidate the patent based on prior art can be requested, but requests are typically made only after a lawsuit is filed or threatened (about 0.33% of patents in U.S. have re-examination requested) and often in conjunction with an infringement lawsuit. Only the patent holder will participate in this process, and the party requesting the reexamination has no right of appeal and is estopped from using the same evidence in any subsequent civil action; this risk keeps the popularity of reexamination low despite its lower cost. Furthermore, the most common outcome is not the validation or invalidation of the patent, but narrowing the scope of the claims.
There is also no obligation to defend an unused patent immediately, thus manufacturing companies may produce the patented product for years until the patent troll sues them. For example, the JPEG format, intended to be free of license fees, was subject to two patent attacks, one by Forgent Networks during 2002–2006 and another by Global Patent Holdings during 2007–2009. Both patents were eventually invalidated based on prior art, but before this, Forgent collected more than $100 million in license fees from 30 companies and sued 31 other companies
Effects
In 2011, United States business entities incurred $29 billion in direct costs because of patent trolls. Lawsuits brought by "patent assertion companies" made up 61% of all patent cases in 2012, according to the Santa Clara University School of Law. From 2009 through mid-2013, Apple Inc. was the defendant in 171 lawsuits brought by non-practicing entities (NPEs), followed by Hewlett-Packard (137), Samsung (133), AT&T (127), and Dell (122). Patent troll-instigated litigation, once mostly confined to large companies in patent-dependent industries such as pharmaceuticals, came to involve companies of all sizes in a wide variety of industries. In 2005, patent trolls sued 800 small firms (those with less than $100 million annual revenue), the number growing to nearly 2,900 such firms in 2011; the median defendant's annual revenue was $10.3 million. A July 2014 PricewaterhouseCoopers study concluded that non-practicing entities (NPEs) accounted for 67 percent of all patent lawsuits filed—up from 28 percent five years earlier—and though the median monetary award size has shrunk over time, the median number of awards to NPEs was three times higher than those of practicing companies.
A 2014 study from Harvard University, Harvard Business School and the University of Texas concluded that firms forced to pay patent trolls reduce R&D spending, averaging $211 million less than firms having won a lawsuit against a troll. That 2014 study also found that trolls tend to sue firms with fewer attorneys on staff, in effect encouraging firms to invest in legal representation at the expense of technology development. The 2014 study reported that trolls tend to opportunistically sue firms with more available cash, even if the firm's available cash was not earned in the technology that is the subject of the patent lawsuit, and targeting the firms long before a product begins turning a profit, thus disincentivizing investment in new technologies.
Emphasis became progressively focused on patents covering software rather than chemical or mechanical inventions, given the difficulty in defining the scope of software patent claims in comparison to the more easily defined specific compounds in chemical patents. A GAO study concluded that the proportion of patent lawsuits initiated by trolls hadn't changed significantly from 2007 through 2011, the GAO speculating that the raw numerical increase in both troll and non-troll instituted lawsuits may be due to the "inherently imprecise" language and a lack of common, standardized, scientific vocabulary in constantly evolving emerging technologies such as software. Software patents were described as "particularly prone" to abuse because software is "inherently conceptual", with research indicating that a software patent is four times as likely as a chemical patent to be involved in litigation, and a software "business method patent" is thirteen times more likely to be litigated.
On June 4, 2013, the National Economic Council and Council of Economic Advisers released a report entitled Patent Assertion and U.S. Innovation that found significant harm to the economy from such entities and made recommendations to address them. The report further stated: "Specific policies should focus on fostering clearer patents with a high standard of novelty and non-obviousness, reducing disparity in the costs of litigation for patent owners and technology users, and increasing the adaptability of the innovation system to challenges posed by new technologies and new business models, would likely have a similar effect today."
A core criticism of patent trolls is that "they are in a position to negotiate licensing fees that are grossly out of alignment with their contribution to the alleged infringer's product or service", notwithstanding their non-practising status or the possible weakness of their patent claims. The risk of paying high prices for after-the-fact licensing of patents they were not aware of, and the costs for extra vigilance for competing patents that might have been issued, in turn increases the costs and risks of manufacturing.
On the other hand, the ability to buy, sell and license patents is seen by some as generally productive. The Wall Street Journal argued that by creating a secondary market for patents, these activities make the ownership of patents more liquid, thereby creating incentives to innovate and patent. Patent Licensing Entities also argue that aggregating patents in the hands of specialized licensing companies facilitates access to technology by more efficiently organizing ownership of patent rights.
In an interview conducted in 2011, former U.S. federal judge Paul R. Michel regarded "the 'problem' [of non-practicing entities, the so-called "patent trolls"] to be greatly exaggerated." Although there are a number of problems with the U.S. patent system, i.e. "most NPE infringement suits are frivolous because the defendant plainly does not infringe or the patent is invalid", "patent infringement suits are very slow and expensive", and "NPEs may add value to the patents by buying them up when manufacturers decline to do so. Inventors may have benefited from the developing market in patent acquisition."
This view was supported in an article in 2014 that suggests that the pejorative term patent troll works in the benefit of large organisations who infringe patents and resent smaller inventors being represented by someone with the clout to take them on. The argument against the use of the term is that NPEs, in the main, return the majority of a settlement to the original inventor. Similarly, New York Times columnist Joe Nocera wrote that legislation on patent reforms considered by the United States Congress that are "allegedly aimed at trolls" often instead "effectively tilt the playing field even further towards big companies with large lobby budget".
Mechanics
Patent trolls operate much like any other company that is protecting and aggressively exploiting a patent portfolio. However, their focus is on obtaining additional money from existing uses, not from seeking out new applications for the technology. They monitor the market for possibly infringing technologies by watching popular products, news coverage and analysis. They also review published patent applications for signs that another company is developing infringing technology, possibly unaware of their own patents. They then develop a plan for how to proceed. They may start by suing a particularly vulnerable company that has much to lose, or little money to defend itself, hoping that an early victory or settlement will establish a precedent to encourage other peer companies to acquiesce to licenses. Alternately they may attack an entire industry at once, hoping to overwhelm it.
An individual case often begins with a perfunctory infringement complaint, or even a mere threat of suit, which is often enough to encourage settlement for the nuisance or "threat value" of the suit by purchasing a license to the patent. In the United States, patent suits previously could be filed in any United States District Court, allowing plaintiffs to "shop around" to find the court with the highest chances of success; in 2015, 45% of all patent cases were filed in the Eastern District of Texas in Marshall, as this court was known for favoring plaintiffs and for its expertise in patent suits. However, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled in a unanimous May 2017 decision in TC Heartland LLC v. Kraft Foods Group Brands LLC that patent litigation cases must be heard in the state which the defendant is incorporated, shutting down this option for plaintiffs.
The uncertainty and unpredictability of the outcome of jury trials also encourages settlement. If it wins, the plaintiff is entitled as damages an award of at least a "reasonable" royalty determined according to the norms of the field of the patented invention.
Patent trolls are at a disadvantage in at least two ways. First, patent owners who make and sell their invention are entitled to awards of lost profits. However, patent trolls, being non-manufacturers, typically do not qualify. Further, patent owners' rights to bar infringers from manufacture, use, or sale of technologies that infringe their patents has been curtailed in the 2006 court decision eBay v. MercExchange. Rather than automatically granting an injunction, the US Supreme Court stated that courts must apply a standard reasonableness test to determine if an injunction is warranted. Writing in Forbes about the impact of this case on patent trolls, writer Jessica Holzer concludes: "The high court's decision deals a blow to patent trolls, which are notorious for using the threat of permanent injunction to extort hefty fees in licensing negotiations as well as huge settlements from companies they have accused of infringing. Often, those settlements can be far greater than the value of the infringing technology: Recall the $612.5 million that Canada's Research in Motion forked over to patent-holding company NTP, Inc., to avoid the shutting down of its popular BlackBerry service."
The non-manufacturing status of a patent troll has a strategic advantage, in that the target infringer cannot counter-sue for infringement. In litigation between businesses who make, use or sell patented technology, the defendant will often use its own patent portfolio as a basis to file a counterclaim for infringement. The counterclaim becomes an incentive for settlement, and in many industries, discourages patent infringement suits. Additionally, a patent suit carries with it the threat of an injunction or mutual injunction, which could shut down manufacturing or other business operations. If a patent owner does not make, use or sell technology, then the possibility of a counter-suit for infringement would not exist. For this reason, a patent troll is able to enforce patents against large companies which have substantial patent portfolios of their own. Furthermore, patent trolls may use shell companies.
Responses to patent trolls
Patent trolls are neither using nor marketing the inventions covered by their patents, but instead plan to make money by threatening or filing lawsuits. Using the justice system to make money gives patent trolls a financial advantage because patent troll plaintiffs are typically immune from defense strategies large business employ against legitimate smaller patent plaintiffs (e.g., litigation costs are significantly higher for the defendant or infringer than for a purported damaged plaintiff who has a "no recovery, no fee" contingency-fee lawyer; until recently trolls had an almost-unrestricted ability to choose plaintiff-friendly forums, frequently the Eastern District of Texas).
Strategies used by companies to protect themselves from legitimate competition are ineffective against patent trolls. Defensive techniques include: monitoring patent activities of competitors to avoid infringing patents (since patent trolls are not competitors, productive companies usually have no way to find out about the troll or its patents until after significant investments have been made to produce and market a product); going on the offensive with counterclaims that accuse the patent plaintiff of infringing patents owned by the defendant (the mutual threat often leads the parties to arrive at a mutually beneficial cross-licensing arrangement); or a "scorched earth" defense designed to drive up litigation costs (which is equally ineffective because patent trolls plan for and have the finances to fully litigate a case; in fact, some are able to draw on hedge funds and institutional investors to finance their patent cases). Patent "pooling" arrangements where many companies collaborate to bring their patented knowledge together to create new products are also inapplicable to patent trolls because they do not produce products. It is possible to perform offensive techniques to ward off patent trolls with the open source release of concepts preemptively to prevent patent trolls from establishing intellectual property on building block technology. A Google-led initiative, LOT Network, was formed in 2014 to combat PAEs by cross-licensing patents that fall into the hands of enforcers. Another Google-affiliated organization, Unified Patents, seeks to reduce the number and effectiveness of patent trolls by filing inter partes reviews (IPR) on patents owned by trolls.
Large companies who use patent litigation as a competitive tool risk losing their patent rights if a defendant claims patent misuse. However, the misuse defense is difficult against a patent troll because antitrust violations typically involved require significant market power on the part of the patent holder. Nevertheless, manufacturers do use various tactics to limit their exposure to patent trolls. Most have broader uses as well for defending their technologies against competitors. These include:
Design arounds can be a defense against patent trolls. The amount of license fee that a patent troll can demand is limited by the alternative of the cost of designing around the troll's patent(s).
Patent watch. Companies routinely monitor new patents and patent applications, most of which are published, to determine if any are relevant to their business activities.
Clearance search. A standard practice is to perform a clearance search for patents or pending patent applications that cover important features of a potential product, before its initial development or commercial introduction. For example, a search by Thomas Edison uncovered a prior patent by two Canadian inventors, Henry Woodward and Mathew Evans, for carbon filament in a non-oxidizing environment, (), the type of light bulb Edison wanted to develop. Edison bought the patent for US$5,000 ($ in present-day terms) to eliminate the possibility of a later challenge by Woodward and Evans.
Opposition proceeding. In Europe (under the European Patent Convention), any person may initiate proceedings to oppose a European patent. There is a more limited process in the United States, known as a reexamination. As an example, Research In Motion, filed reexaminations against broad NTP, Inc. patents related to BlackBerry technology.
Litigation. Whereas some companies acquiesce to a troll's demands, others go on the offensive by challenging the patents themselves, for example by finding prior art that calls into question their patentability. They may also broadly challenge whether the technology in question is infringing, or attempt to show patent misuse. If successful, such a defense not only wins the case at hand but destroys the patent troll's underlying ability to sue. Knowing this, the patent troll may back down or lessen its demands.
Early settlement. An early settlement is often far less expensive than litigation costs and later settlement values.
Patent infringement insurance. Insurance is available to help protect companies from inadvertently infringing a third party's patents.
Defensive patent aggregation, the practice of purchasing patents or patent rights from patent holders so they don't end up in the hands of an individual or enterprise that can assert them. Increasingly aggregations are focused on purchasing patents and patent rights off the open market, or out of NPE assertion and litigation, which directly impact the businesses of the aggregation's members. The aggregator then provides members a broad license to everything it owns in exchange for an annual fixed-fee. Defensive aggregators purchased 15% of all brokered patent sales in 2014.
Action for unjustified threats. In Australia, the UK and other countries, a legal action may be brought against anyone who makes unjustifiable threats to begin patent infringement proceedings. Concerning the Australian threats provisions, Lisa L. Mueller says that "if a patent troll is found to have engaged in a threat, the only way it could defend itself against an injunction or an award of monetary damages would be to commence patent infringement proceedings and have the court find that infringement occurred."
Bounties. Monetary bounties have been offered to the public to find prior art or provide other information, such as arguments showing the obviousness or material defects in a patent application, that would invalidate a patent troll's patents. This tactic has been used not only against the patent in question but also against other patents held by the patent troll in order to undermine its business model.
See also
Copyright troll
Cybersquatting
Patent monetization
Patent privateer
Patent war
Rent-seeking
Stick licensing
Strike suit
Submarine patent
Trademark troll
Wright brothers patent war
References
Further reading
Christian Helmers, Brian Love and Luke McDonagh, 'Is there a Patent Troll Problem in the UK?,' Fordham Intellectual Property, Media and Entertainment Law Journal 24 (2014) 509–553 – available at SSRN
Catherine Tucker, The Effect of Patent Litigation and Patent Assertion Entities on Entrepreneurial Activity, Arstechnica 2014
Connell O'Neill, The Battle Over Blackberry: Patent Trolls and Information Technology, The Journal of Law, Information, and Science, 2008, Vol. 17, pp. 99–133.
Maggie Shiels, Technology industry hits out at "patent trolls", BBC News, June 2, 2004.
Lorraine Woellert, A Patent War Is Breaking Out On The Hill, Business Week, July 2005.
Joe Beyers, Rise of the patent trolls, ZDNet, October 12, 2005.
Raymond P. Niro, The Patent Troll Myth, Professional Inventors Alliance web site, August 4, 2005.
Raymond P. Niro, Who is Really Undermining the Patent System – "Patent Trolls" or Congress?. 6 J. Marshall Rev. Intell. Prop. L. 185 (2007).
Jennifer Kahaulelio Gregory, "The Troll Next Door", 6 J. Marshall Rev. Intell. Prop. L. 292 (2007).
Simon Phipps, On Cane Toads, Fire Ants and Patents, SunMink, February 13, 2005.
Bakos, Tom, "Patent Trolls", Insurance IP Bulletin, Vol. 2005.3, June 2005.
Ferrill, Elizabeth, "Patent Investment Trusts: Let's Build a PIT to Catch the Patent Trolls", N.C. J. of Law & Tech., Vol 6, Iss. 2: Spring 2005.
Kurt Leyendecker, "Patent Trolls!", Control, Protect & Leverage, A Leyendecker & Lemire Blog, March 14, 2006.
Colleen V. Chien, Of Trolls, Davids, Goliaths, and Kings: Narratives and Evidence in the Litigation of High-Tech Patents, 87 N.C. L. Rev. 1571 (2009), available at SSRN. Summarized at Jotwell.
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Patent law
Ethically disputed business practices
Pejorative terms
Criticism of intellectual property
Discovery and invention controversies |
62047937 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne%20Neuberger | Anne Neuberger | Anne Neuberger (born 1976) is an American cybersecurity official, who serves as the Deputy National Security Advisor for Cyber and Emerging Technology in the Biden Administration. Prior to this role, she served for over a decade at NSA, as Director of Cybersecurity, as Assistant Deputy Director of Operations and as the Agency's first Chief Risk Officer. She joined the federal government as a White House Fellow, working at the Pentagon, and subsequently served as Deputy Chief Management Officer of the Navy, before joining NSA. Before entering into government service, Neuberger was Senior Vice President of Operations at American Stock Transfer & Trust Company.
Early life and education
Neuberger grew up in Brooklyn, New York, and in 1997, she received a BA from Lander College for Women of Touro College. In 2005, she graduated from Columbia University with an MBA and Master of International Affairs (MIA) in Operations Management, International Affairs, Security Policy, Persian Gulf. She was also selected to the White House Fellows. Anne Neuberger grew up in the Hasidic community of Boro Park in Brooklyn, New York City, spoke Yiddish with a Hasidic accent at home and attended Bais Yaakov and Bais Yaakov High School, a full-time Haredi Jewish all-girls schools.
Career
Anne Neuberger worked in the private sector in various technology roles, where she was responsible for directing and automating financial sector operations, and overseeing the acquisition and integration of Wachovia's custody and trust operations. She entered government as a White House Fellow in 2007, working for the Secretary of Defense and then served as Deputy Chief Management Officer of the Navy. Neuberger joined the National Security Agency (NSA) in 2009 and has served in key positions prior to her current role, including leading a joint NSA/USCC Task Force called the Election Security Group which played a key role in the federal government's efforts to secure the 2018 midterm elections, the Assistant Deputy Director of Operations, NSA's first Chief Risk Officer and Director of NSA's Commercial Solutions Center, an organization responsible for NSA's partnerships with private industry.
In 2019, General Nakasone formed the NSA's Cybersecurity Directorate and named Neuberger as the first Director of Cybersecurity. The directorate focuses on "preventing and eradicating" cyber threats from countries such as Russia, China, Iran, and North Korea.
Neuberger left her role as NSA's Director of Cybersecurity in April 2021 after becoming President Joe Biden's Deputy National Security Advisor for Cyber and Emerging Technology and joining the National Security Council.
Personal life
Neuberger's grandparents are Holocaust survivors, and her parents were among the passengers on the hijacked Air France flight in 1976, rescued by Israeli commandos in Operation Thunderbolt from Uganda's Entebbe Airport. Neuberger is also the founder of a nonprofit organization, Sister to Sister, that serves single mothers across the United States. She serves on the board of Bridging Voice and JDC.
References
American people of Hungarian-Jewish descent
1976 births
Living people
National Security Agency people
American Hasidim
Satmar Hasidim
American Orthodox Jews
White House Fellows
School of International and Public Affairs, Columbia University alumni
United States Deputy National Security Advisors |
37020286 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pillars%20of%20Eternity | Pillars of Eternity | Pillars of Eternity is a role-playing video game developed by Obsidian Entertainment and published by Paradox Interactive. It was released for Microsoft Windows, OS X, and Linux on March 26, 2015. The game is a spiritual successor to the Baldur's Gate and Icewind Dale series, along with Planescape: Torment. Obsidian started a crowdfunding campaign on Kickstarter for it in September 2012. The campaign raised over US$4 million, which was the highest funded video game at the time. The game uses the Unity engine.
The game takes place in the fantasy world of Eora, mainly inside the nation of Dyrwood. The infants in the Dyrwood are plagued by a recent phenomenon in which they become "hollowborn" upon birth, meaning they are born with no soul. During the beginning of the game, the protagonist experiences an awakening of power due to a disastrous supernatural event, discovering they are a "Watcher": a person who can see past lives and interact with souls. The objective of the game is to find out what caused their awakening and how to solve the hollowborn problem.
Pillars of Eternity received critical acclaim upon its release; many critics praised the game for its world and immersive writing, along with the strategic combat, and also said that it is a worthy successor to the games it was inspired by. The game also won various awards and accolades, including best RPG of 2015. A two-part expansion pack, The White March was released in August 2015 and February 2016, respectively. A sequel, Pillars of Eternity II: Deadfire, was released in May 2018.
Gameplay
Pillars of Eternity sees players assume the role of a character defined as a "Watcher"a person able to see and interact with the souls of people, viewing the memories of those deceased or communing with those who lingeroperating on role-playing mechanics that include party-based real-time-with-pause tactical gameplay. The game is played from a fixed isometric viewpoint consisting of 3D models against two-dimensional pre-rendered backdrops, in a similar vein as its spiritual predecessors Baldur's Gate, Icewind Dale, and Planescape: Torment.
New games begins with players creating a character, with the choices they make on the character's race, background, stats, and class except their appearance impacting what choices can be made in dialogues with NPCs or interactive objects. Each class of the eleven available fighter, rogue, ranger, barbarian, monk, paladin, wizard, druid, priest, chanter, and cipher benefits from certain prominent stats in the game, and features a set of abilities unique to them, which can be used in battles with hostile enemies and creatures: for example, the cipher can use the soul of an enemy in order to attack them, and druids can shapeshift into a beast and cast spells. In addition to these, the character may also make use of five skills Stealth, Athletics, Lore, Mechanics and Survival which confer bonuses in various situations, such as unlocking containers and gaining bonuses when resting outside inns. The character classes and game mechanics are similar to Dungeons & Dragons, but are a proprietary system created for the game. Characters level up upon acquiring experience points from completing quests and certain situations battling enemies does not reward experience, meaning conducting non-violent approaches can be just as rewarding.
Exploration of the game world involves visiting locations as they become unlocked some only accessible after progressing the main story whereupon players can freely explore the location to find enemies, items, and objectives for quests they are on. Most locations feature a fog of war effect a dark, black one for regions not explored, and a lighter effect for areas that have already been explored and have been moved away from. Alongside the main story quests of the game, players can also engage in optional side quests which feature fleshed out supporting characters and multiple outcomes most of which are not typical "fetch quests" in RPGs. To assist in their adventures, players can create a party of up to six characters with the help of both companions characters found in certain locations, each with their own personal story and quest, and unique personalities and appearances, who will join when they offer assistance, of which the player can recruit up to eight to make a party from and player-created characters these can be made at inns, for a fee based on the level the player wishes their creation to be at.
During the course of the game, the player will build up a reputation with various factions, depending on the decisions they make in conversations and with resolving quests. This system effective denotes how Non-playable characters of that faction will react to them and how traders will treat them when buying items. In addition, such choices will also impact the outcome of events when the game is completed. Players can enter scouting mode with certain characters or the whole party, which, impacted by a character's skill in Stealth, allows them to sneak around enemies as well as spot hidden items and traps, the latter of which can be disarmed (per a character's Mechanics skill) and be later used against enemies. After making some progress in the game's main story, the protagonist will take over a stronghold, which acts as a base where players can improve it with new buildings.
Battles in Pillars of Eternity focus on a system in which each enemy in the game has a set of different defensive stats alongside a general defence bonus, they also have different resistances to certain weapon types and element types, which impacts how much damage they take, as well as certain status resistances that impact the effect of spells and abilities. Thus, players will find it useful to sometimes equip characters with different weapon types and use different spells to take advantage of enemies with weaker defences against certain types for example, an enemy who can resist harm from piercing weapons would be better attacked with a different weapon type. A bestiary is provided which records information on creatures and enemies encountered, and adds more information the more they are encountered, effectively allowing players to see their stats during combat and determine how best to combat them. When an enemy attacks and damages a character, it impacts both their endurance and health: while characters will be knocked out when they are drained of all their endurance, which regenerates after combat is over (to a certain level based on damage to health), being drained of all their health effectively causes them to die permanently. To recover lost health and endurance, as well as certain abilities, players can either rest by setting up a camp or buying a room at an inn.
Story
Setting
The story takes place in the world of Eora, in a region placed in the southern hemisphere called the Eastern Reach, an area roughly the size of Spain. The Eastern Reach contains several nations, including the Free Palatinate of Dyrwood, a former colony of the mighty Aedyr Empire that won its independence through a revolutionary war; the Vailian Republics, a confederation of sovereign city-states; and the Penitential Regency of Readceras, a quasi-theocratic state ruled by priests of the god Eothas.
Technologically and socially, most of the civilizations in Eora are in what roughly corresponds to the early stages of the Renaissance. Firearms are still a relatively new invention and are quite cumbersome to use; as a result, their use is not widespread. They have, however, proven quite effective against magic users.
A factor of great conflict all over Eora is the recent scientific discovery that souls are real and can be transferred, stored, or molded. Souls are the basis of magic, as accessing their power is what allows certain people to use it. Souls leave the body upon death, and go through a largely unknown process before reincarnating into a newborn body. Every soul does, however, have embedded memories from their previous lives, and through certain processes a person's soul can be "Awakened," meaning they gain awareness of these past lives. There are also people in the world who have the supernatural ability to perceive people's souls, which allows them to access past memories, among other things; these individuals are called "Watchers." Though the study of souls, called animancy, is still a young field of science, the implications for society at large has been vast, led to rapid advances in technology, and caused several rifts and clashes in the different religious communities, which has marked the era as a time of great turmoil.
Characters
The player character can be male or female and one of six available races, and the game typically refers to him or her as "The Watcher." Over the course of the adventure, the player can recruit up to eight secondary characters as companions. Available companions include: Edér, a fighter and worshiper of one of the game's gods, Eothas; Aloth, a wizard and child of parents who served nobility; Durance, a disillusioned priest and follower of Magran, a goddess of war and fire; Sagani, a ranger who is on a quest to search for an elder from her village; Grieving Mother, a strange cipher who cannot normally be fully seen by other people, and has a personal connection to the hollowborn problem; Pallegina, a paladin who works for the Vailian Republics; Kana Rua, a chanter who was sent by his people to recover a book of sacred text; and Hiravias, a druid who has been banished from his tribe.
Plot
The player is a foreigner who arrives in the Dyrwood. Their caravan is hit by a mysterious storm that kills everyone but them. Taking refuge in a cave, the player character witnesses some cultists perform a ritual on a machine that can strip souls from their bodies. Exposed to these energies, the player character becomes a Watcher, a person able to read souls. The player character also becomes Awakened, able to access memories of their past lives. This curses the Watcher with waking visions and an inability to sleep. In time, the Watcher will go insane from this, so they must track down the cultists and reverse the curse.
Dyrwood is cursed by the Hollowborn Plague: children are being born without souls, leaving them totally unresponsive, in a way similar to a permanent vegetative state. Many people blame animancers, the scientists who study and manipulate souls. Investigating the curse, the Watcher discovers that the Hollowborns' souls have in fact been stolen by a cult known as the Leaden Key, led by a priest named Thaos, and that Thaos is framing animancers for the Plague. This eventually leads to a riot in the capital city where animancers are lynched and their college is destroyed.
The Watcher and their companions pursue Thaos to the city of Twin Elms, where they finally learn the truth behind Thaos' actions. The gods of Eora are in fact synthetic beings created by an ancient civilization known as the Engwithans. The Engwithans were master animancers, and through their science they discovered that the world of Eora had no real gods. This created an existential crisis for the Engwithans. The world of Eora was plagued by religious conflicts, and the Engwithans had hoped to end these by discovering the true gods. Furthermore, most societies used gods to validate their moral systems, and the Engwithans feared that if others discovered that there were no real gods, this would cause amoral behavior to spread. So the Engwithans decided to create some artificial gods by fusing their own souls into magical constructs. These constructs then presented themselves to the mortals of Eora as the true gods of the Universe. The people of Eora were then united in worship of a common pantheon, ending centuries of religious conflict and promoting the spread of civilization. Thaos is an Engwithan animancer who has survived the centuries by transferring his soul from one body to the next. His eternal mission is to ensure that nobody discovers the truth about the Engwithans' artificial gods, otherwise people might question their legitimacy. Part of this involves suppressing the science of animancy, because animancers might discover the truth through their science, just as the Engwithans did. Thaos stole the souls of the Hollowborn to empower the goddess Woedica, who hates animancy and would see it destroyed.
Though the other gods have an interest in protecting their secret, they do not want Woedica to dominate them, and so they help the Watcher breach the defenses of Thaos' lair. The Watcher slays Thaos in his lair. The ending varies depending on the Watcher's choices in the game.
Development
Pillars of Eternity was developed by Obsidian Entertainment and published by Paradox Interactive. The game uses a game engine developed in Unity specifically for Pillars of Eternity. The game was directed by Josh Sawyer. There were multiple competing pitches for Pillars of Eternitys storyline within the studio, and the one worked on by Eric Fenstermaker and George Ziets ultimately won, after which Fenstermaker, who previously worked as a writer on the company's Fallout: New Vegas, was designated the game's lead narrative designer. Also involved in production were Adam Brennecke, Chris Avellone and Tim Cain. The audio director of Pillars of Eternity was Justin Bell, who also composed the game's score. Bell stated he was inspired by the music of Baldur's Gate and Icewind Dale when composing the game's music.
On September 10, 2012, Obsidian's webpage began teasing about a brand new game (entitled "Project X"), it initially was a number 4 encircled by an Ouroboros. The next day it was revealed to be a countdown. On September 14, 2012, the Kickstarter campaign went live revealing further details of the project. It completed its 1.1 million dollars objective in just over 24 hours, and the first set of "stretch goals" were announced. Pillars of Eternity surpassed the $1.6 million mark five days after the fund-raising began. It was announced an OS X version of the game would be provided together with a DRM-free option through GOG.com. A Linux version was announced on September 21, 2012. It passed the $2 million mark on September 26, 2012. On October 8, 2012, it was announced that Wasteland 2 would be offered to backers who pledged US$165 (and above). In the last day of the campaign, Pillars of Eternity surpassed Double Fine Adventure as Kickstarter's most-funded videogame at the time.
The project was part of a broader trend during the early 2010s of veteran game developers using nostalgia-driven crowdfunding campaigns to fund development in genres considered too obsolete or niche for major publishers. Feargus Urquhart, Obsidian's CEO, explained why they chose to use a crowd funding model for Pillars of Eternity instead of the traditional developer and publisher arrangement: "What Kickstarter does is let us make a game that is absolutely reminiscent of those great games, since trying to get that funded through a traditional publisher would be next to impossible." In an interview, Josh Sawyer said that being free of the limitations of a publisher would enable them to "delve into more mature subject matter[...] slavery, hostile prejudice (racial, cultural, spiritual, sexual), drug use and trade, and so on will all help flesh out the story". Obsidian was said to be inspired by InXile Entertainment's success of using Kickstarter to fund Wasteland 2. Chris Avellone said during the project's announcement that if the campaign were to succeed, Pillars of Eternity would become a franchise. He also ruled out a possible console port of the game, saying, "Those [console] limitations affect RPG mechanics and content more than players may realize (especially for players who've never played a PC RPG and realize what's been lost over the years), and often doesn't add to the RPG experience." Nevertheless, the game was successfully ported to consoles later. Additionally, he pledged to write a novella set in the game world. Four novellas were later made available on the company's website.
On October 16, 2012, Pillars of Eternitys Kickstarter funding campaign concluded with a total of $3,986,929, becoming the most highly funded video game on the Kickstarter platform at the time. Together with further funds collected via PayPal, its budget rose to $4,163,208. In December 2013, Obsidian announced that the official title for the game would be Pillars of Eternity, dropping the working title Project Eternity. They also launched a poll asking backers whether or not they would support further fundraising.
In March 2014, it was announced that Paradox Interactive would publish the game. It was stated that Paradox's role would be taking care of marketing and distribution of the game, while Obsidian would still retain the rights to the intellectual property. On March 11, 2015, a preview video of the documentary series titled Road to Eternity, was released. It has been revealed that the money Obsidian Entertainment raised for the game through its Kickstarter campaign saved it from closure, as it had been suffering from financial problems following its cancellation of a game for "next-generational consoles" in 2012.
On February 8, 2021, the Nintendo Switch port was abandoned by the publisher while still containing significant bugs, with no refunds offered.
Release
On March 17, 2015, Obsidian confirmed that Pillars of Eternity went gold, indicating it was being prepared for production and release. The game was released for Microsoft Windows, OS X, and Linux on March 26, 2015. Several editions of the game were released, including a Champion Edition which has a campaign almanac, a map of the game, the soundtrack of the game, wallpapers, and ringtones; and a Royal Edition which includes the Champion Edition items along with a strategy guide, concept art, and a novella which was written by Chris Avellone. PlayStation 4 and Xbox One versions of the game were released on August 29, 2017, with the title Pillars of Eternity: Complete Edition. Ported by Paradox Arctic, it contains the updated game and both parts of the expansion pack. There is a version for release to the Nintendo Switch that is planned to be released on August 8, 2019.
Expansion pack
A two-part expansion, Pillars of Eternity: The White March, was announced by Obsidian at Electronic Entertainment Expo 2015. Part I was released on August 25, 2015, and Part II was released on February 16, 2016. It extended the game, raised the level cap, and added new party members and abilities. Part I and II currently hold a score of 76% and 79% on Metacritic respectively, indicating "generally favorable reviews".
Sequel
A sequel to Pillars of Eternity was confirmed by Obsidian in May 2016 along with possible plans to crowdfund the game. The campaign was launched on Fig on January 26, 2017, where it was officially announced as Pillars of Eternity II: Deadfire. It was released on May 8, 2018 for Windows, macOS, and Linux.
Reception
Pillars of Eternity was met with positive reviews upon its release; it is currently listed on Metacritic with a score of 89/100, indicating "generally favorable reviews" according to the site. The Escapist wrote that while it caters to a nostalgic fan base, it is an "excellent" role-playing game on its own merit, and also said that it is the best isometric role-playing game to come out "in years". PC Gamer said that Obsidian made their best game thus far with Pillars of Eternity, and also wrote that it is a worthy successor to the games it was inspired by. IGN praised the game, saying that it is a representation of what is good about old school role-playing games. Digital Spy lauded Pillars of Eternity, writing that it is a "masterclass in role-playing game development."
Game Revolution said that Pillars of Eternity combat is "deep and engaging"; similarly, Metro wrote that the combat is "highly complex". GameSpot said that the combat is the game's best component, and also gave praise to the battle music. Gameplanet praised the game for its strategic combat and level-based progression. Game Informer noted the combat's customizability in the game, including the ability to change the difficulty and set options for auto-pausing. However, the review criticized the pathfinding in the game.
Pillars of Eternity graphics and artwork were well received. Gameplanet called the art design in the game "excellent". Game Informer said that the game's maps are "thoughtfully crafted", and that the detail on the characters and their equipment is "incredible". Metro noted the game's higher resolution than older isometric games such as Baldur's Gate, saying that it benefits its "gorgeous" artwork. The review also praised the game's lighting and particle effects. The Escapist said that the spell effects in the game are "quite visually impressive" and that the character models are an improvement from traditional isometric games; however, the reviewer said that the backgrounds are not as impressive as "some of the more picturesque older titles". IGN criticized the game's art style, calling it "dated". Gameplanet found the game's voice acting to be "excellent" and free of over-acting. Game Informer echoed this statement, and also wrote that the game's sound and music is "delicate and beautiful".
GameSpot called Pillars of Eternity writing "lovely". Particular praise was given by the reviewer to the character of the Grieving Mother, whose personal story he said was intriguing and "mysterious". PC Gamer also praised the writing, saying that it is "rich" and "evocative". Destructoid praised the plot and the world's reactivity to the player, writing, "the main plot is packed with twists and surprises with staggering ramifications for a world players will feel they have become part of." An IGN reviewer found characters in the game, both major and minor, to have well-developed characterization, but found it annoying that only some characters have voice acting. Eurogamer criticized the game for lack of humor compared with Baldur's Gate and Morte from Planescape: Torment, called the quests as "fairly stock" and the characters "forgettable".
Sales
In October 2015, Obsidian and Paradox confirmed that more than 500,000 copies were sold. As of February 2016, the game had sold over 700,000 copies.
Awards
References
External links
Official Pillars of Eternity Wiki
2015 video games
Crowdfunded video games
Fantasy video games
Kickstarter-funded video games
Linux games
MacOS games
Microsoft franchises
Nintendo Switch games
Obsidian Entertainment games
Paradox Interactive games
PlayStation 4 games
Role-playing video games
Single-player video games
Video games developed in the United States
Video games featuring protagonists of selectable gender
Video games with alternate endings
Video games with commentaries
Video games with expansion packs
Video games with isometric graphics
Windows games
Xbox Cloud Gaming games
Xbox One games |
51121410 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meanings%20of%20minor-planet%20names%3A%201001%E2%80%932000 | Meanings of minor-planet names: 1001–2000 |
1001–1100
|-
| 1001 Gaussia || 1923 OA || Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855), German mathematician ||
|-id=002
| 1002 Olbersia || 1923 OB || Heinrich Olbers (1758–1840), German astronomer ||
|-id=003
| 1003 Lilofee || 1923 OK || Lilofee, a legendary character and title figure in an old German folk-song Die schöne junge Lilofee ||
|-id=004
| 1004 Belopolskya || 1923 OS || Aristarkh Belopolsky (1854–1934), Russian astrophysicist ||
|-id=005
| 1005 Arago || 1923 OT || François Arago (1786–1853), French astronomer ||
|-id=006
| 1006 Lagrangea || 1923 OU || Joseph-Louis Lagrange (1736–1813), French astronomer ||
|-id=007
| 1007 Pawlowia || 1923 OX || Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936), Russian physiologist ||
|-id=008
| 1008 La Paz || 1923 PD || The city of La Paz, capital of Bolivia ||
|-id=009
| 1009 Sirene || 1923 PE || The Sirens of mythology ||
|-id=010
| 1010 Marlene || 1923 PF || Marlene Dietrich (1901–1992), German actress ||
|-id=011
| 1011 Laodamia || 1924 PK || Laodamia, daughter of Bellerophon and Philonoe in Greek mythology, and the mother (by Zeus) of Sarpedon; shot dead by Artemis whilst weaving ||
|-id=012
| 1012 Sarema || 1924 PM || Sarema, a character in a poem by Aleksandr Sergeyevich Pushkin, made into an opera by Alexander von Zemlinsky ||
|-id=013
| 1013 Tombecka || 1924 PQ || Daniel Tombeck, French chemist who in 1910 succeeded Amédée Guillet as secretary of the Faculty of Science of the University of Paris ||
|-id=014
| 1014 Semphyra || 1924 PW || Semphyra, a character in a poem by Aleksandr Sergeyevich Pushkin ||
|-id=015
| 1015 Christa || 1924 QF || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=016
| 1016 Anitra || 1924 QG || Anitra, character in the drama Peer Gynt by Henrik Ibsen (1828–1906) ||
|-id=017
| 1017 Jacqueline || 1924 QL || Jacqueline Zadoc-Kahn, disciple of Russian discoverer Benjamin Jekhowsky ||
|-id=018
| 1018 Arnolda || 1924 QM || Arnold Berliner (1862–1942), German physicist and editor of the journal Naturwissenschaften ||
|-id=019
| 1019 Strackea || 1924 QN || Gustav Stracke (1887–1943), German astronomer (see also and ) ||
|-id=020
| 1020 Arcadia || 1924 QV || Arcadia, mythological Greek place and modern Greek province ||
|-id=021
| 1021 Flammario || 1924 RG || Camille Flammarion (1842–1925), French astronomer ||
|-id=022
| 1022 Olympiada || 1924 RT || The Olympic Games ||
|-id=023
| 1023 Thomana || 1924 RU || Boys' choir of St. Thomas Church, Leipzig, Germany ||
|-id=024
| 1024 Hale || || George Ellery Hale (1868–1938), American solar astronomer ||
|-id=025
| 1025 Riema || 1923 NX || Johannes Riem (1868–1945), German astronomer ||
|-id=026
| 1026 Ingrid || 1923 NY || Ingrid, niece of German astronomer Albrecht Kahrstedt (1897–1971), also see ||
|-id=027
| 1027 Aesculapia || || Asclepius, Greek god; named to redeem Jupiter's promise to Minerva to place Aesculapius among the stars (formerly, Ophiuchus was called Aesculapius) ||
|-id=028
| 1028 Lydina || 1923 PG || Lydia Albitskaya, wife of Russian discoverer Vladimir Albitsky ||
|-id=029
| 1029 La Plata || 1924 RK || La Plata, Argentina ||
|-id=030
| 1030 Vitja || 1924 RQ || Viktor Zaslavsky (1925–1944), nephew of Spiridon Zaslavskij (see ), the brother-in-law of the discoverer Vladimir Albitsky ||
|-id=031
| 1031 Arctica || 1924 RR || The Arctic ||
|-id=032
| 1032 Pafuri || 1924 SA || Pafuri River in northern Transvaal, South Africa ||
|-id=033
| 1033 Simona || 1924 SM || Simone van Biesbroeck, daughter of the discoverer George Van Biesbroeck ||
|-id=034
| 1034 Mozartia || 1924 SS || Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756–1791), Austrian composer ||
|-id=035
| 1035 Amata || 1924 SW || Amata, wife of king Latinus and mother of Lavinia, the wife of Aeneas ||
|-id=036
| 1036 Ganymed || 1924 TD || Ganymede, mythological cupbearer ||
|-id=037
| 1037 Davidweilla || 1924 TF || One of the members of the David-Weill family, member of the Academy of Sciences and benefactor of the Sorbonne ||
|-id=038
| 1038 Tuckia || 1924 TK || Edward Tuck (1842–1938) and his wife; philanthropists. Edward was the son of the founder of the American Republican Party ||
|-id=039
| 1039 Sonneberga || 1924 TL || German town of Sonneberg in Thuringia, where the Sonneberg Observatory is located ||
|-id=040
| 1040 Klumpkea || 1925 BD || Dorothea Klumpke (1861–1942), American amateur astronomer, first woman to receive a Ph.D. in Mathematics from the Sorbonne ||
|-id=041
| 1041 Asta || 1925 FA || Asta Nielsen (1881–1972), Danish actress ||
|-id=042
| 1042 Amazone || 1925 HA || The River Amazon in South America ||
|-id=043
| 1043 Beate || 1925 HB || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=044
| 1044 Teutonia || 1924 RO || The Teutonic peoples ||
|-id=045
| 1045 Michela || 1924 TR || Micheline van Biesbroeck, daughter of discoverer George Van Biesbroeck ||
|-id=046
| 1046 Edwin || 1924 UA || Edwin van Biesbroeck, son of discoverer George Van Biesbroeck ||
|-id=047
| 1047 Geisha || 1924 TE || Musical comedy The Geisha by Sidney Jones ||
|-id=048
| 1048 Feodosia || 1924 TP || Crimean city of Feodosiya (Theodosia), Ukraine ||
|-id=049
| 1049 Gotho || 1925 RB || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=050
| 1050 Meta || 1925 RC || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=051
| 1051 Merope || 1925 SA || Merope, Greek muse and goddess ||
|-id=052
| 1052 Belgica || 1925 VD || Belgium ||
|-id=053
| 1053 Vigdis || 1925 WA || Unknown origin of name (Vigdís is an ancient Nordic feminine surname) ||
|-id=054
| 1054 Forsytia || 1925 WD || The flowering shrub genus Forsythia ||
|-id=055
| 1055 Tynka || 1925 WG || Tynka, mother of Emil Buchar (1901–1979), of the Institute of Astronomy and Geophysics, Czech Technical University in Prague ||
|-id=056
| 1056 Azalea || 1924 QD || The azalea flowering shrubs, then thought a genus of their own, now subgenera of the genus Rhododendron ||
|-id=057
| 1057 Wanda || 1925 QB || Polish feminine name ||
|-id=058
| 1058 Grubba || 1925 MA || Sir Howard Grubb (1844–1931) of Parson and Co., Newcastle upon Tyne, England, maker of the 40-inch reflecting telescope of the Simeis Observatory ||
|-id=059
| 1059 Mussorgskia || 1925 OA || Modest Mussorgsky (1839–1881), Russian composer ||
|-id=060
| 1060 Magnolia || 1925 PA || The flowering tree genus Magnolia ||
|-id=061
| 1061 Paeonia || 1925 TB || The peony flowering plant, genus Paeonia ||
|-id=062
| 1062 Ljuba || 1925 TD || Lyuba Berlin (1915–1936), Soviet parachutist ||
|-id=063
| 1063 Aquilegia || 1925 XA || The columbine flower, genus Aquilegia ||
|-id=064
| 1064 Aethusa || 1926 PA || The fool's parsley herb, genus Aethusa ||
|-id=065
| 1065 Amundsenia || 1926 PD || Roald Amundsen (1872–1928), polar explorer ||
|-id=066
| 1066 Lobelia || 1926 RA || The Indian tobacco flower, genus Lobelia ||
|-id=067
| 1067 Lunaria || 1926 RG || The honesty flowering plant, genus Lunaria ||
|-id=068
| 1068 Nofretete || 1926 RK || Nefertiti (c. 1370 – c. 1330 BC), wife of the Egyptian pharaoh Amenhotep IV ||
|-id=069
| 1069 Planckia || 1927 BC || Max Planck (1858–1947), German physicist and Nobelist, on the occasion of his 80th birthday ||
|-id=070
| 1070 Tunica || 1926 RB || The flowering plant genus Tunica of the pink or carnation family ||
|-id=071
| 1071 Brita || 1924 RE || Great Britain, where the 1-meter telescope for the Simeiz Observatory on Crimea was made ||
|-id=072
| 1072 Malva || 1926 TA || The mallow plant, genus Malva ||
|-id=073
| 1073 Gellivara || 1923 OW || Gällivare, town in Swedish Lapland, where astronomers from several countries observed a total solar eclipse on 29 June 1927 ||
|-id=074
| 1074 Beljawskya || 1925 BE || Sergey Belyavsky (1883–1953), Russian astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=075
| 1075 Helina || 1926 SC || Helij Grigor'evich Neujmin, a son of Russian discoverer Grigory Neujmin ||
|-id=076
| 1076 Viola || 1926 TE || The violets, pansies and violas, genus Viola ||
|-id=077
| 1077 Campanula || 1926 TK || The flowering plant genus Campanula ||
|-id=078
| 1078 Mentha || 1926 XB || The true mints, genus Mentha ||
|-id=079
| 1079 Mimosa || 1927 AD || The herb and shrub genus Mimosa, although the discoverer apparently meant the silk tree (Albizia julibrissin), since he referred to a "flowering tree" ||
|-id=080
| 1080 Orchis || 1927 QB || The orchid flowers, genus Orchis ||
|-id=081
| 1081 Reseda || 1927 QF || The mignonette, genus Reseda ||
|-id=082
| 1082 Pirola || 1927 UC || The wintergreen, genus Pirola ||
|-id=083
| 1083 Salvia || 1928 BC || The sage plant, genus Salvia ||
|-id=084
| 1084 Tamariwa || 1926 CC || Tamara Ivanova (1912–1936), Soviet parachutist ||
|-id=085
| 1085 Amaryllis || 1927 QH || The belladonna lily flower genus, Amaryllis ||
|-id=086
| 1086 Nata || 1927 QL || Nata Babushkina (1915–1936), Soviet female parachutist ||
|-id=087
| 1087 Arabis || 1927 RD || The mustard family herb genus Arabis ||
|-id=088
| 1088 Mitaka || 1927 WA || Mitaka, Tokyo, where the Tokyo Astronomical Observatory is situated ||
|-id=089
| 1089 Tama || 1927 WB || Tama River, Japan, which flows near the Tokyo Astronomical Observatory ||
|-id=090
| 1090 Sumida || 1928 DG || Sumida River (Sumidagawa), Tokyo, Japan ||
|-id=091
| 1091 Spiraea || 1928 DT || The flowering shrub genus Spiraea ||
|-id=092
| 1092 Lilium || 1924 PN || The true lily flower, genus Lilium ||
|-id=093
| 1093 Freda || 1925 LA || Fred Prévost, civil engineer of mines and benefactor of the Faculty of sciences of Bordeaux ||
|-id=094
| 1094 Siberia || 1926 CB || Siberia, region of Russia ||
|-id=095
| 1095 Tulipa || 1926 GS || The tulip flower. genus Tulipa ||
|-id=096
| 1096 Reunerta || 1928 OB || Theodore Reunert, of the South African Association for the Advancement of Science, mining engineer and supporter of the former Union Observatory in South Africa, friend of the discoverer ||
|-id=097
| 1097 Vicia || 1928 PC || The flowering plant genus Vicia ||
|-id=098
| 1098 Hakone || 1928 RJ || Hakone, Japan ||
|-id=099
| 1099 Figneria || 1928 RQ || Vera Figner (1852–1942), Russian revolutionary ||
|-id=100
| 1100 Arnica || 1928 SD || The lamb's skin plants, genus Arnica ||
|}
1101–1200
|-
| 1101 Clematis || 1928 SJ || The clematis flower, genus Clematis ||
|-id=102
| 1102 Pepita || 1928 VA || Pepito, nickname of discoverer Josep Comas i Solà (1868–1937), using a feminine Latin suffix ||
|-id=103
| 1103 Sequoia || 1928 VB || Sequoia National Park ||
|-id=104
| 1104 Syringa || 1928 XA || The lilac, genus Syringa ||
|-id=105
| 1105 Fragaria || 1929 AB || The strawberry, genus Fragaria ||
|-id=106
| 1106 Cydonia || 1929 CW || The quince, genus Cydonia ||
|-id=107
| 1107 Lictoria || 1929 FB || Lictoria, Italy, a new city established on reclaimed land near Rome during the Fascist regime ||
|-id=108
| 1108 Demeter || 1929 KA || Demeter, Greek goddess ||
|-id=109
| 1109 Tata || 1929 CU || The small town of Tata in Hungary ||
|-id=110
| 1110 Jaroslawa || 1928 PD || The town of Jarosław in south-eastern Poland ||
|-id=111
| 1111 Reinmuthia || 1927 CO || Karl Reinmuth (1892–1979), German astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=112
| 1112 Polonia || 1928 PE || Polonia, Latin for Poland ||
|-id=113
| 1113 Katja || 1928 QC || Katja, Russian feminine name ||
|-id=114
| 1114 Lorraine || 1928 WA || Lorraine in northeastern France, former duchy and remnant of the medieval kingdom of Lotharingia ||
|-id=115
| 1115 Sabauda || 1928 XC || Sabauda, Latin name of the House of Savoy ||
|-id=116
| 1116 Catriona || 1929 GD || Catriona, a Scottish feminine name, title of one of Robert Louis Stevenson's novels ||
|-id=117
| 1117 Reginita || 1927 KA || Reginita, niece of Catalan discoverer Josep Comas i Solà ||
|-id=118
| 1118 Hanskya || 1927 QD || Alexis Hansky (1872–1908), Russian astronomer ||
|-id=119
| 1119 Euboea || 1927 UB || Euboea, Greece ||
|-id=120
| 1120 Cannonia || 1928 RV || Annie Jump Cannon (1863–1941), American astronomer ||
|-id=121
| 1121 Natascha || 1928 RZ || Natasha (Natalia) Tichomirova, Russian hydro-geologist and daughter of the Simeis astronomer Grigory Neujmin ||
|-id=122
| 1122 Neith || 1928 SB || Neith, Egyptian goddess ||
|-id=123
| 1123 Shapleya || 1928 ST || Harlow Shapley (1885–1972), American astronomer ||
|-id=124
| 1124 Stroobantia || 1928 TB || Paul Stroobant (1868–1936), Belgian astronomer ||
|-id=125
| 1125 China || || China ||
|-id=126
| 1126 Otero || 1929 AC || Caroline Otéro (1868–1965), known as "La Belle Otero", a Galician-born dancer, actress and courtesan ||
|-id=127
| 1127 Mimi || 1929 AJ || Wife of Eugène Delporte; 1127 Mimi and 1145 Robelmonte had their proposed names swapped by error ||
|-id=128
| 1128 Astrid || 1929 EB || Astrid of Sweden (1905–1935), Queen consort of King Leopold III of Belgium ||
|-id=129
| 1129 Neujmina || 1929 PH || Grigory Neujmin (1885–1946), Russian astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=130
| 1130 Skuld || 1929 RC || Skuld, in Norse mythology, one of the three Norns, the Future ||
|-id=131
| 1131 Porzia || 1929 RO || Character in Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar ||
|-id=132
| 1132 Hollandia || || Latin name for the Netherlands ||
|-id=133
| 1133 Lugduna || || Feminine form of the Latin name of the Dutch city of Leiden, Lugdunum Batavorum ||
|-id=134
| 1134 Kepler || 1929 SA || Johannes Kepler (1571–1630), astronomer ||
|-id=135
| 1135 Colchis || 1929 TA || Colchis, Asia Minor, now Georgia ||
|-id=136
| 1136 Mercedes || 1929 UA || Sister-in-law of Catalan discoverer Josep Comas i Solà ||
|-id=137
| 1137 Raïssa || 1929 WB || Raïssa Izrailevna Maseeva (1900–1930), a former scientific collaborator at the Pulkovo Observatory ||
|-id=138
| 1138 Attica || 1929 WF || Attica, Greece ||
|-id=139
| 1139 Atami || 1929 XE || Atami, Shizuoka, Japan ||
|-id=140
| 1140 Crimea || 1929 YC || Crimea, peninsula in the Black Sea ||
|-id=141
| 1141 Bohmia || 1930 AA || Mrs. Bohm-Walz, who donated the Walz reflector to the Heidelberg Observatory ||
|-id=142
| 1142 Aetolia || 1930 BC || Aetolia, Greece ||
|-id=143
| 1143 Odysseus || 1930 BH || Odysseus, Greek hero ||
|-id=144
| 1144 Oda || 1930 BJ || Female name chosen by discoverer Karl Reinmuth from the calendar ||
|-id=145
| 1145 Robelmonte || 1929 CC || Robelmont, Belgium, birthplace of Sylvain Arend; 1127 Mimi and 1145 Robelmonte had their proposed names swapped by error ||
|-id=146
| 1146 Biarmia || 1929 JF || Bjarmaland, legendary land ||
|-id=147
| 1147 Stavropolis || 1929 LF || Stavropol, the city in Russia ||
|-id=148
| 1148 Rarahu || 1929 NA || Tahitian girl's name, from Pierre Loti's novel Rarahu, later reprinted as Le Mariage de Loti ||
|-id=149
| 1149 Volga || 1929 PF || Volga River, Russia ||
|-id=150
| 1150 Achaia || 1929 RB || Achaea, Homeric name for Greece ||
|-id=151
| 1151 Ithaka || 1929 RK || Ithaca, Greece ||
|-id=152
| 1152 Pawona || 1930 AD || Astronomers Johann Palisa and Max Wolf, for their mutual collaboration ||
|-id=153
| 1153 Wallenbergia || 1924 SL || Georg Wallenberg (1864–1924), German mathematician ||
|-id=154
| 1154 Astronomia || 1927 CB || Astronomy ||
|-id=155
| 1155 Aënna || 1928 BD || The astronomy journal Astronomische Nachrichten. Artificial name containing the German pronounced initials "A" and "N" followed by the feminine ending. ||
|-id=156
| 1156 Kira || 1928 DA || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=157
| 1157 Arabia || 1929 QC || Arabia ||
|-id=158
| 1158 Luda || 1929 QF || Feminine Russian name, diminutive of "Ludmilla" ||
|-id=159
| 1159 Granada || 1929 RD || Granada, Spain ||
|-id=160
| 1160 Illyria || 1929 RL || Illyria, in the Balkans ||
|-id=161
| 1161 Thessalia || 1929 SF || Thessalia, Greece ||
|-id=162
| 1162 Larissa || 1930 AC || Larissa, Greece ||
|-id=163
| 1163 Saga || 1930 BA || The Norse sagas ||
|-id=164
| 1164 Kobolda || 1930 FB || Hermann Kobold (1858–1942), German astronomer, and long-time editor of the Astronomische Nachrichten ||
|-id=165
| 1165 Imprinetta || 1930 HM || Wife of the discoverer, Dutch astronomer Hendrik van Gent ||
|-id=166
| 1166 Sakuntala || 1930 MA || Sakuntala or Shakuntala, a character in an ancient Sanskrit drama ||
|-id=167
| 1167 Dubiago || 1930 PB || Alexander Dubyago (1903–1959), Russian astronomer ||
|-id=168
| 1168 Brandia || 1930 QA || Eugène Brand, Belgian mathematician ||
|-id=169
| 1169 Alwine || 1930 QH || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=170
| 1170 Siva || 1930 SQ || The Hindu god Shiva or Siva, Lord of Knowledge ||
|-id=171
| 1171 Rusthawelia || 1930 TA || Shota Rustaveli (c. 1160–1220), Georgian poet ||
|-id=172
| 1172 Äneas || 1930 UA || Aeneas, Trojan prince ||
|-id=173
| 1173 Anchises || 1930 UB || Anchises, mythological Trojan ||
|-id=174
| 1174 Marmara || 1930 UC || Sea of Marmara ||
|-id=175
| 1175 Margo || 1930 UD || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=176
| 1176 Lucidor || 1930 VE || Lucidor, amateur astronomer and friend of the discoverer Eugène Joseph Delporte ||
|-id=177
| 1177 Gonnessia || 1930 WA || François Gonnessiat (1856–1934), French astronomer and director of the Algiers Observatory at Bouzaréah, Algeria ||
|-id=178
| 1178 Irmela || 1931 EC || Irmela Ruska, wife of Ernst Ruska, German inventor of the electron microscope and Nobelist ||
|-id=179
| 1179 Mally || 1931 FD || Daughter-in-law of discoverer, wife of Franz Wolf (presumably Max Wolf's brother) ||
|-id=180
| 1180 Rita || 1931 GE || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=181
| 1181 Lilith || 1927 CQ || Lili Boulanger (1893–1918), French classical composer ||
|-id=182
| 1182 Ilona || 1927 EA || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=183
| 1183 Jutta || 1930 DC || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=184
| 1184 Gaea || 1926 RE || Gaia, Greek goddess ||
|-id=185
| 1185 Nikko || 1927 WC || Nikkō, Tochigi prefecture, Japan ||
|-id=186
| 1186 Turnera || 1929 PL || Herbert Hall Turner (1861–1930), British astronomer ||
|-id=187
| 1187 Afra || 1929 XC || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=188
| 1188 Gothlandia || 1930 SB || Ancient name of Catalonia ||
|-id=189
| 1189 Terentia || 1930 SG || Lidiya Ivanovna Terenteva (1879–1933), Russian astronomer and orbit computer ||
|-id=190
| 1190 Pelagia || 1930 SL || Pelageya Shajn (1894–1956), Russian astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=191
| 1191 Alfaterna || 1931 CA || Nuceria Alfaterna, ancient city founded by the Oschi, between Pompeii and Salerno, now beneath Nocera Superiore, birthplace of Alfonso Fresa, Italian astronomer, who proposed the name ||
|-id=192
| 1192 Prisma || 1931 FE || The Bergedorfer Spektralkatalog (an astronomical spectral catalogue), as prisms are one method of obtaining spectra ||
|-id=193
| 1193 Africa || 1931 HB || Continent of Africa, in which Johannesburg with its discovering observatory is located ||
|-id=194
| 1194 Aletta || 1931 JG || Wife of discoverer Cyril Jackson ||
|-id=195
| 1195 Orangia || 1931 KD || Orange Province, South Africa, which is now the Free State Province ||
|-id=196
| 1196 Sheba || 1931 KE || Queen of Sheba, Biblical character ||
|-id=197
| 1197 Rhodesia || 1931 LD || Rhodesia, now Zimbabwe ||
|-id=198
| 1198 Atlantis || 1931 RA || Atlantis, mythological land ||
|-id=199
| 1199 Geldonia || 1931 RF || Latin name of Jodoigne, the birthplace of discoverer Eugène Joseph Delporte in Belgium ||
|-id=200
| 1200 Imperatrix || 1931 RH || The Latin word for "Empress" ||
|}
1201–1300
|-
| 1201 Strenua || 1931 RK || Latin Strenuus, "diligent, careful", virtues exemplified by Gustav Stracke, German astronomer and orbit computer, who had asked that no asteroid be named after him (see ) ||
|-id=202
| 1202 Marina || 1931 RL || Marina Davydovna Lavrova-Berg, who worked at Pulkovo Observatory in 1931–1942 ||
|-id=203
| 1203 Nanna || 1931 TA || Name of many paintings by the German painter Anselm Feuerbach, one of which was in the possession of the discoverer's family ||
|-id=204
| 1204 Renzia || 1931 TE || Franz Robert Renz (1860–1942), German-Russian astronomer ||
|-id=205
| 1205 Ebella || || Carl Wilhelm Ludwig Martin Ebell (1871–1944), German astronomer at Kiel Observatory ||
|-id=206
| 1206 Numerowia || 1931 UH || Boris Numerov (1891–1941), Russian astronomer ||
|-id=207
| 1207 Ostenia || 1931 VT || Hans Osten, German amateur astronomer ||
|-id=208
| 1208 Troilus || 1931 YA || Troilus, Trojan prince, killed by Achilles ||
|-id=209
| 1209 Pumma || 1927 HA || Pumma, nickname of a niece of German astronomer Albrecht Kahrstedt (1897–1971), also see ||
|-id=210
| 1210 Morosovia || 1931 LB || Nikolai Alexandrovich Morozov (1854–1946), Russian revolutionary ||
|-id=211
| 1211 Bressole || 1931 XA || Bressole, nephew of discoverer Louis Boyer ||
|-id=212
| 1212 Francette || 1931 XC || Francette, wife of discoverer Louis Boyer ||
|-id=213
| 1213 Algeria || 1931 XD || Algeria ||
|-id=214
| 1214 Richilde || 1932 AA || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=215
| 1215 Boyer || 1932 BA || Louis Boyer (1901–1999), French astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=216
| 1216 Askania || 1932 BL || The "Askania-Werke", German optical and precision instrument makers ||
|-id=217
| 1217 Maximiliana || 1932 EC || Max Wolf (1863–1932), German astronomer ||
|-id=218
| 1218 Aster || 1932 BJ || Aster, a genus of Asteraceae flowering plants ||
|-id=219
| 1219 Britta || 1932 CJ || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=220
| 1220 Crocus || 1932 CU || Crocus, a genus of Iridaceae flowering plants (possibly inspired by the provisional designation letters: Crocus) ||
|-id=221
| 1221 Amor || || Amor, Roman god of love (the minor planet makes close approaches to Earth, like a lover) ||
|-id=222
| 1222 Tina || 1932 LA || Amateur astronomer and friend of the discoverer ||
|-id=223
| 1223 Neckar || 1931 TG || Neckar River, Germany, tributary of the Rhine ||
|-id=224
| 1224 Fantasia || 1927 SD || The Latin word for fantasy ||
|-id=225
| 1225 Ariane || 1930 HK || Ariane Leprieur, leading character of Gabriel Marcel's play Le Chemin de crête ||
|-id=226
| 1226 Golia || 1930 HL || Jacobus Golius (1596–1667), Dutch orientalist who held the chair of Arabic, founder of the Sterrewacht Leiden (Leiden Observatory), who succeeded Willebrord Snell in the chair of Mathematics and Astronomy at the University of Leiden ||
|-id=227
| 1227 Geranium || 1931 TD || Geranium, a genus of Geraniaceae flowering plants. The initials of the minor planets 1227 through 1234, all discovered by K. Reinmuth, spell out "G. Stracke", German astronomer and orbit computer, who had asked that no planet be named after him. ||
|-id=228
| 1228 Scabiosa || 1931 TU || Scabiosa, a genus of Dipsacaceae flowering plants ||
|-id=229
| 1229 Tilia || || Tilia, the linden and lime trees ||
|-id=230
| 1230 Riceia || || Hugh Rice, American amateur astronomer from New York ||
|-id=231
| 1231 Auricula || || Primula auricula, flowering plants ||
|-id=232
| 1232 Cortusa || || Cortusa, a genus of Primulaceae flowering plants ||
|-id=233
| 1233 Kobresia || || Kobresia, a genus of Cyperaceae plants (sedges) ||
|-id=234
| 1234 Elyna || 1931 UF || Elyna, a genus of Cyperaceae plants (sedges) ||
|-id=235
| 1235 Schorria || 1931 UJ || Richard Schorr (1867–1951), German astronomer ||
|-id=236
| 1236 Thaïs || 1931 VX || Thaïs, an ancient Greek hetaera, who accompanied Alexander the Great (356–323 BC) during his campaigns ||
|-id=237
| 1237 Geneviève || 1931 XB || Eldest daughter of discoverer ||
|-id=238
| 1238 Predappia || 1932 CA || Predappio, Italy, birthplace of Benito Mussolini ||
|-id=239
| 1239 Queteleta || 1932 CB || Adolphe Quetelet (1796–1874), Belgian mathematician, statistician, meteorologist, and astronomer, first director of the Royal Observatory of Belgium at Brussels ||
|-id=240
| 1240 Centenaria || 1932 CD || In honour of the 100th anniversary of Hamburg Observatory ||
|-id=241
| 1241 Dysona || || Frank Watson Dyson (1868–1939), British astronomer, director of Greenwich Observatory and president of the IAU 1928–1932 ||
|-id=242
| 1242 Zambesia || 1932 HL || Then-British territories of the Zambezi River Basin, Africa ||
|-id=243
| 1243 Pamela || 1932 JE || Pamela, daughter of astronomer Cyril Jackson who discovered this minor planet ||
|-id=244
| 1244 Deira || 1932 KE || Ancient name of Ossett, Yorkshire, the discoverer's birthplace (An exaggeration; in actuality, the ancient Kingdom of Deira encompassed most of modern Yorkshire) ||
|-id=245
| 1245 Calvinia || 1932 KF || Calvinia, Cape Province, South Africa ||
|-id=246
| 1246 Chaka || 1932 OA || Shaka (c. 1787–1828), king of the Zulus ||
|-id=247
| 1247 Memoria || 1932 QA || Latin for "remembrance"; the discoverer was often reminded of her pleasant relationship while in Uccle in 1932 ||
|-id=248
| 1248 Jugurtha || 1932 RO || Jugurtha (c. 160–104 BC), Numidian king and enemy of Rome ||
|-id=249
| 1249 Rutherfordia || 1932 VB || The city of Rutherford, New Jersey, which is an inner suburb of metropolitan New York City. The naming was proposed by Irving Meyer and endorsed by German astronomer Gustav Stracke who mentioned on a postcard in February 1937, that his American college, Meyer, who himself did not discover any asteroids, requested the naming after the city of Rutherford, where a private observatory was located at the time. The name is often incorrectly attributed to physicist and Nobelist Lord Rutherford ||
|-id=250
| 1250 Galanthus || 1933 BD || Galanthus, the snowdrop ||
|-id=251
| 1251 Hedera || 1933 BE || Hedera, the ivy ||
|-id=252
| 1252 Celestia || 1933 DG || Celestia Whipple, mother of discoverer ||
|-id=253
| 1253 Frisia || || Possibly the Latin name for Friesland and the teutonic tribe that gave its name to the area ||
|-id=254
| 1254 Erfordia || 1932 JA || Erfurt, Germany, birthplace of the discoverer ||
|-id=255
| 1255 Schilowa || 1932 NC || Mariya Vasilyevna Zhilova (1870–1934), also known as M. W. Shilowa, Russian astronomer and orbit computer ||
|-id=256
| 1256 Normannia || 1932 PD || "Possibly named for the inhabitants of Normandy" ||
|-id=257
| 1257 Móra || 1932 PE || Károly Móra (1899–1938, also called Károly Mórawetz), Hungarian astronomer, who succeeded Antal Tass as director of the Konkoly Observatory ||
|-id=258
| 1258 Sicilia || 1932 PG || Sicily, Italy ||
|-id=259
| 1259 Ógyalla || 1933 BT || Ógyalla, in Hungary, site of the Konkoly Observatory, then also called the Ógyalla Observatory ||
|-id=260
| 1260 Walhalla || 1933 BW || Walhalla Memorial Hall, near Regensburg, Germany ||
|-id=261
| 1261 Legia || 1933 FB || Latin for Liège, Belgium ||
|-id=262
| 1262 Sniadeckia || 1933 FE || Jan Śniadecki (1756–1830), Polish scholar, professor of mathematics and astronomy, founder of the Kraków Observatory ||
|-id=263
| 1263 Varsavia || 1933 FF || Latin name of Warsaw, capital of Poland ||
|-id=264
| 1264 Letaba || 1933 HG || Letaba River, Transvaal, South Africa ||
|-id=265
| 1265 Schweikarda || 1911 MV || Maiden name (Schweikard) of discoverer's mother ||
|-id=266
| 1266 Tone || 1927 BD || Tone River, Kantō region, largest river of Japan ||
|-id=267
| 1267 Geertruida || 1930 HD || Geertruida, sister of Dutch astronomer Gerrit Pels at Leiden Observatory, who named this asteroid and computed its orbit ||
|-id=268
| 1268 Libya || 1930 HJ || Libya, country in northern Africa bordering the Mediterranean sea ||
|-id=269
| 1269 Rollandia || 1930 SH || Romain Rolland (1866–1944), French writer ||
|-id=270
| 1270 Datura || 1930 YE || Datura stramonium, the thorn apple ||
|-id=271
| 1271 Isergina || 1931 TN || Pyotr Vasilyevich Isergin, doctor, a friend of the discoverer (who was treated by him) ||
|-id=272
| 1272 Gefion || || Gefjun (Gefion) Fountain, Copenhagen, Denmark ||
|-id=273
| 1273 Helma || 1932 PF || Helma, an acquaintance of German astronomer W. Schaub ||
|-id=274
| 1274 Delportia || 1932 WC || Eugène Delporte (1882–1955), Belgian astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=275
| 1275 Cimbria || 1932 WG || The Cimbrians, encountered by the Romans in Noricum, 2nd century BC ||
|-id=276
| 1276 Ucclia || 1933 BA || Named for the city of Uccle and for the Royal Observatory of Belgium situated there ||
|-id=277
| 1277 Dolores || 1933 HA || Dolores Ibárruri (1895–1989), Spanish political leader ||
|-id=278
| 1278 Kenya || 1933 LA || Kenya, African country ||
|-id=279
| 1279 Uganda || 1933 LB || Uganda, African country ||
|-id=280
| 1280 Baillauda || 1933 QB || Jules Baillaud (1876–1960), French astronomer ||
|-id=281
| 1281 Jeanne || 1933 QJ || Jeanne, daughter of discoverer Sylvain Arend ||
|-id=282
| 1282 Utopia || || Utopia, mythical place ||
|-id=283
| 1283 Komsomolia || 1925 SC || Komsomol, the Soviet youth organization ||
|-id=284
| 1284 Latvia || 1933 OP || Latvia, country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe ||
|-id=285
| 1285 Julietta || 1933 QF || Julietta, mother of discoverer Eugène Joseph Delporte ||
|-id=286
| 1286 Banachiewicza || 1933 QH || Tadeusz Banachiewicz (1882–1954), Polish astronomer, director of the Kraków Observatory ||
|-id=287
| 1287 Lorcia || 1933 QL || Lorcia, wife of Polish astronomer Tadeusz Banachiewicz ||
|-id=288
| 1288 Santa || 1933 QM || Santa, unknown origin of name. The name was given by Italian astronomer E. de Caro, who computed this asteroid's orbit ||
|-id=289
| 1289 Kutaïssi || 1933 QR || Kutaïssi, city in the Republic of Georgia ||
|-id=290
| 1290 Albertine || || Albert I of Belgium (1875–1934), King of Belgium, who died shortly after the asteroid's discovery ||
|-id=291
| 1291 Phryne || 1933 RA || Phryne, a hetaera of the 4th century BC, celebrated for her beauty ||
|-id=292
| 1292 Luce || 1933 SH || Luce, wife of discoverer Fernand Rigaux ||
|-id=293
| 1293 Sonja || 1933 SO || Sonja, unknown origin of name. The name was proposed by ARI and may be inspired by the asteroids provisional designation containing "SO". ||
|-id=294
| 1294 Antwerpia || || Antwerp, Belgium ||
|-id=295
| 1295 Deflotte || 1933 WD || Deflotte, nephew of discoverer Louis Boyer ||
|-id=296
| 1296 Andrée || 1933 WE || Andrée, niece of discoverer Louis Boyer ||
|-id=297
| 1297 Quadea || 1934 AD || Parents-in-law of E. Reinmuth, brother of discoverer Karl Reinmuth ||
|-id=298
| 1298 Nocturna || 1934 AE || "Nocturna" is the feminine adjective of "nocturnus", "nightly" ||
|-id=299
| 1299 Mertona || 1934 BA || Gerald Merton (1893–1983), English astronomer ||
|-id=300
| 1300 Marcelle || 1934 CL || Marcelle, the second daughter of French astronomer Guy Reiss who discovered this minor planet ||
|}
1301–1400
|-
| 1301 Yvonne || 1934 EA || Yvonne Boyer, sister of discoverer Louis Boyer ||
|-id=302
| 1302 Werra || 1924 SV || Werra River, Germany ||
|-id=303
| 1303 Luthera || 1928 FP || Robert Luther (1822–1900), German astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=304
| 1304 Arosa || 1928 KC || Arosa, mountain village and tourist resort in Switzerland ||
|-id=305
| 1305 Pongola || 192148 OC || Pongola River, South Africa ||
|-id=306
| 1306 Scythia || 1930 OB || Scythia, ancient Russian region ||
|-id=307
| 1307 Cimmeria || 1930 UF || Cimmeria, ancient Ukrainian region around Crimea ||
|-id=308
| 1308 Halleria || 1931 EB || Albrecht von Haller (1708–1777), Swiss physician, botanist and poet ||
|-id=309
| 1309 Hyperborea || 1931 TO || Hyperborea, mythical land ||
|-id=310
| 1310 Villigera || 1932 DB || Walter A. Villiger (1872–1938), Swiss astronomer, head of the department of astronomical instruments of Carl Zeiss, Jena ||
|-id=311
| 1311 Knopfia || || Otto Knopf (1856–1945), German astronomer at Jena, Germany ||
|-id=312
| 1312 Vassar || 1933 OT || Vassar College, where the orbit computer (American astronomer Maud Worcester Makemson) taught ||
|-id=313
| 1313 Berna || 1933 QG || Bern, capital of Switzerland, named at the request of Sigmund Mauderli, the orbit's computer ||
|-id=314
| 1314 Paula || 1933 SC || Paula, wife of Belgian astronomer Sylvain Arend who discovered this minor planet ||
|-id=315
| 1315 Bronislawa || || Bronisław Markiewicz (1842–1912) a Polish Roman Catholic priest ||
|-id=316
| 1316 Kasan || 1933 WC || Kazan, Russia, on the Volga ||
|-id=317
| 1317 Silvretta || 1935 RC || Silvretta, a mountain range in the Alps ||
|-id=318
| 1318 Nerina || 1934 FG || Nerine, a genus of Amaryllidaceae flowering plants ||
|-id=319
| 1319 Disa || 1934 FO || The showy, large tropical terrestrial orchid genus Disa ||
|-id=320
| 1320 Impala || 1934 JG || The impala antelope ||
|-id=321
| 1321 Majuba || 1934 JH || Amajuba, a mountain in northern Natal, part of the Drakensberg range, South Africa, site of the Battle of Majuba Hill ||
|-id=322
| 1322 Coppernicus || 1934 LA || Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543), Polish astronomer ||
|-id=323
| 1323 Tugela || 1934 LD || Tugela River, Natal, South Africa ||
|-id=324
| 1324 Knysna || 1934 LL || Knysna, town in the Western Cape Province of South Africa ||
|-id=325
| 1325 Inanda || 1934 NR || Inanda, Zulu village in South Africa ||
|-id=326
| 1326 Losaka || 1934 NS || Lusaka, Zambia (then North Rhodesia) ||
|-id=327
| 1327 Namaqua || 1934 RT || Namaqua, coastal region of South-West Africa ||
|-id=328
| 1328 Devota || 1925 UA || Fortunato Devoto, Argentine astronomer, director of the La Plata Observatory and president of the National Council of Observatories of Argentina. He was a friend of the discoverer Benjamin Jekhowsky ||
|-id=329
| 1329 Eliane || 1933 FL || Éliane, daughter of Paul Bourgeois, Belgian astronomer ||
|-id=330
| 1330 Spiridonia || 1925 DB || Spiridon Zaslavsky (1883–1942), brother-in-law of Russian discoverer Vladimir Albitsky ||
|-id=331
| 1331 Solvejg || 1933 QS || Character in Peer Gynt, drama by Norwegian playwright Henrik Ibsen ||
|-id=332
| 1332 Marconia || 1934 AA || Guglielmo Marconi (1874–1937), Italian radio pioneer, physicist, and Nobel Prize winner ||
|-id=333
| 1333 Cevenola || 1934 DA || The Cévennes, mountainous region of southern France ||
|-id=334
| 1334 Lundmarka || 1934 OB || Knut Lundmark (1889–1958), Swedish astronomer ||
|-id=335
| 1335 Demoulina || 1934 RE || Prof. Demoulin, Belgian astronomer, of the University of Ghent ||
|-id=336
| 1336 Zeelandia || 1934 RW || Latin name for Zeeland, in the Southwest Netherlands ||
|-id=337
| 1337 Gerarda || || Gerarda Pels, wife of Dutch astronomer Gerrit Pels, who was a computational assistant at Leiden Observatory ||
|-id=338
| 1338 Duponta || 1934 XA || Marc Dupont, nephew of the discoverer Louis Boyer ||
|-id=339
| 1339 Désagneauxa || 1934 XB || Brother-in-law of the discoverer Louis Boyer ||
|-id=340
| 1340 Yvette || 1934 YA || Yvette, niece of the discoverer Louis Boyer ||
|-id=341
| 1341 Edmée || 1935 BA || Édmée Chandon (1885–1944), French astronomer ||
|-id=342
| 1342 Brabantia || 1935 CV || Latin name of the province of Brabant, Belgium and The Netherlands, whose capital is Brussels ||
|-id=343
| 1343 Nicole || 1935 FC || Niece of the discoverer ||
|-id=344
| 1344 Caubeta || 1935 GA || Paul Caubet, French astronomer at the Toulouse Observatory ||
|-id=345
| 1345 Potomac || 1908 CG || Potomac River, USA ||
|-id=346
| 1346 Gotha || 1929 CY || Gotha, Thuringia, Germany, location of the old Gotha Observatory (Sternwarte Gotha or Seeberg-Sternwarte) established by Duke Ernst I of Saxe-Coburg and whose first director was Franz Xaver von Zach ||
|-id=347
| 1347 Patria || 1931 VW || Latin for "fatherland" ||
|-id=348
| 1348 Michel || 1933 FD || Michel Arend, older son of the discoverer ||
|-id=349
| 1349 Bechuana || 1934 LJ || Bechuana Province of central South Africa, which became Bechuanaland, then Botswana ||
|-id=350
| 1350 Rosselia || 1934 TA || Marie-Thérèse Rossel (1910–1987), editor of the Belgian newspaper Le Soir (1946+) ||
|-id=351
| 1351 Uzbekistania || 1934 TF || Uzbekistan, then the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic, where the discoverer resided; the name was found posthumously, handwritten in the discoverer's personal copy of Kleine Planeten für 1941 ||
|-id=352
| 1352 Wawel || 1935 CE || Wawel Castle, Kraków, Poland, also seat of the Wawel Cathedral ||
|-id=353
| 1353 Maartje || 1935 CU || Maartje Mekking (1924–2007), daughter of B. G. Mekking (1903–1971), a Dutch computational assistant at Leiden Observatory ||
|-id=354
| 1354 Botha || 1935 GK || Louis Botha (1862–1919), first prime minister of the Union of South Africa ||
|-id=355
| 1355 Magoeba || 1935 HE || Magoeba, native chief of the North Transvaal, South Africa ||
|-id=356
| 1356 Nyanza || 1935 JH || Nyanza Province, Kenya ||
|-id=357
| 1357 Khama || 1935 ND || Khama III (c. 1837–1923), king of the Bechuana in South Africa ||
|-id=358
| 1358 Gaika || 1935 OB || Ngqika (a.k.a. Gaika), Xhosa chief of Transkei, South Africa (then British Kaffraria) ||
|-id=359
| 1359 Prieska || 1935 OC || Prieska village, Cape Province, South Africa ||
|-id=360
| 1360 Tarka || 1935 OD || Tarka, chief of Transkei, South Africa, who also gave his name to the town of Tarkastad ||
|-id=361
| 1361 Leuschneria || 1935 QA || Armin Otto Leuschner (1868–1953), American astronomer, head of the Department of Astronomy of the University of California at Berkeley ||
|-id=362
| 1362 Griqua || || Griqua tribe of Griqualand, South Africa ||
|-id=363
| 1363 Herberta || 1935 RA || Herbert Hoover (1874–1964), American president, earlier president of the Commission for Relief in Belgium (1915–1919); named in his honour after his 1938 visit to Belgium ||
|-id=364
| 1364 Safara || 1935 VB || André Safar of Algiers ||
|-id=365
| 1365 Henyey || 1928 RK || Louis G. Henyey (1910–1970), American astronomer ||
|-id=366
| 1366 Piccolo || 1932 WA || Auguste Cauvin, a.k.a. d'Arsac, editor-in-chief of the Brussels newspaper Le Soir (c. 1898 – 1937). "Piccolo" means "small" in Italian and was his pseudonym. ||
|-id=367
| 1367 Nongoma || 1934 NA || Nongoma, capital city of the KwaZulu homeland, South Africa ||
|-id=368
| 1368 Numidia || 1935 HD || Numidia, ancient North African kingdom and Roman province ||
|-id=369
| 1369 Ostanina || 1935 QB || Ostanin, a small village in located in the Solikamsky District of the Perm Governorate, what is now Russia ||
|-id=370
| 1370 Hella || 1935 QG || Helene Nowacki (1904–1972), a German astronomer at ARI ||
|-id=371
| 1371 Resi || 1935 QJ || Cousin of Mrs. Schaub, acquaintance of the discoverer ||
|-id=372
| 1372 Haremari || 1935 QK || In honour of all the women who worked at the Astronomisches Rechen-Institut: "Harem ARI" ||
|-id=373
| 1373 Cincinnati || 1935 QN || Cincinnati Observatory, whose staff did most of the orbit computations ||
|-id=374
| 1374 Isora || 1935 UA || Female name "Rosi" spelled backwards. The name was chosen by German astronomer Gustav Stracke. ||
|-id=375
| 1375 Alfreda || 1935 UB || Alfreda, a friend of the discoverer Eugène Delporte ||
|-id=376
| 1376 Michelle || 1935 UH || Michelle Boyer, third daughter of the discoverer Louis Boyer ||
|-id=377
| 1377 Roberbauxa || 1936 CD || Robert Baux (1900–1987), French engineer, childhood friend of the discoverer ||
|-id=378
| 1378 Leonce || 1936 DB || Léonce Rigaux, father of the discoverer ||
|-id=379
| 1379 Lomonosowa || 1936 FC || Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765), Russian polymath ||
|-id=380
| 1380 Volodia || 1936 FM || Vladimir Vesselovsky (born 1936), born the night of the asteroid's discovery (Volodya is a diminutive of Vladimir) ||
|-id=381
| 1381 Danubia || 1930 QJ || Danube River ||
|-id=382
| 1382 Gerti || 1925 BB || Gertrud Höhne (or Hoehne), secretary at the Astronomisches Rechen-Institut in Berlin, Germany ||
|-id=383
| 1383 Limburgia || 1934 RV || Latin name for the province of Limburg ||
|-id=384
| 1384 Kniertje || 1934 RX || "Kniertje" is the main character in the drama Op Hoop van Zegen by Dutch journalist and dramatist Herman Heijermans ||
|-id=385
| 1385 Gelria || 1935 MJ || "Gelria", Latin name for the Dutch province of Gelderland ||
|-id=386
| 1386 Storeria || 1935 PA || Norman Wyman Storer, American professor of astronomy at the University of Kansas, teacher to the orbit computer ||
|-id=387
| 1387 Kama || 1935 QD || Kama River, tributary to the Volga, east of Kazan ||
|-id=388
| 1388 Aphrodite || 1935 SS || Aphrodite, Greek goddess ||
|-id=389
| 1389 Onnie || || A. Kruyt, sister-in-law of Dutch astronomer Gerrit Pels, who was a computational assistant at Leiden Observatory ||
|-id=390
| 1390 Abastumani || 1935 TA || Abastumani, city in the Republic of Georgia and location of the Georgian National Astrophysical Observatory (Abastumani Observatory) ||
|-id=391
| 1391 Carelia || 1936 DA || Latin name of Karelia, Finland ||
|-id=392
| 1392 Pierre || 1936 FO || Nephew of discoverer ||
|-id=393
| 1393 Sofala || 1936 KD || Sofala Province, Mozambique ||
|-id=394
| 1394 Algoa || 1936 LK || Algoa Bay, South Africa ||
|-id=395
| 1395 Aribeda || 1936 OB || Abbreviation of Astronomisches Rechen-Institut, Berlin Dahlem ||
|-id=396
| 1396 Outeniqua || 1936 PF || Outeniqua Mountains, in south western Cape Province, South Africa ||
|-id=397
| 1397 Umtata || 1936 PG || Umtata, capital of Transkei, South Africa ||
|-id=398
| 1398 Donnera || 1936 QL || Anders Donner (1854–1938), Finnish astronomer, director of the Helsinki Observatory ||
|-id=399
| 1399 Teneriffa || 1936 QY || Tenerife, Canary Islands ||
|-id=400
| 1400 Tirela || 1936 WA || Charles Tirel, friend of the discoverer Louis Boyer ||
|}
1401–1500
|-
| 1401 Lavonne || 1935 UD || Lavonne, granddaughter of American astronomer Maud Worcester Makemson (1891–1977), who computed the asteroid's orbit ||
|-id=402
| 1402 Eri || 1936 OC || Erika Schattschneider-Kollnig (1913–1978), German astronomer at Heidelberg Observatory ||
|-id=403
| 1403 Idelsonia || 1936 QA || Naum Idelson (1885–1951), Soviet astronomer at the Pulkovo Observatory ||
|-id=404
| 1404 Ajax || 1936 QW || Ajax, mythological Greek warrior ||
|-id=405
| 1405 Sibelius || 1936 RE || Jean Sibelius (1865–1957), Finnish composer and violinist ||
|-id=406
| 1406 Komppa || 1936 RF || Gustaf Komppa (1867–1949), Finnish chemist known for the industrial synthesis of camphor. He was a chancellor of the University of Turku and co-founder of the Turku Observatory ||
|-id=407
| 1407 Lindelöf || 1936 WC || Ernst Leonard Lindelöf (1870–1946), Finnish mathematician ||
|-id=408
| 1408 Trusanda || 1936 WF || Trude Hichgesand, an acquaintance of Heidelberg astronomer Heinrich Vogt see 1439 Vogtia ||
|-id=409
| 1409 Isko || 1937 AK || Ise Koch, wife of German astronomer Fritz Kubach (1912–1945)(de) ||
|-id=410
| 1410 Margret || 1937 AL || Margret Braun (died 1991), wife of Heinrich Vogt, German astronomer ||
|-id=411
| 1411 Brauna || 1937 AM || Margret Braun (died 1991), wife of Heinrich Vogt, German astronomer ||
|-id=412
| 1412 Lagrula || 1937 BA || Joanny-Philippe Lagrula (1870–1941), French astronomer, at one time director of the Algiers Observatory ||
|-id=413
| 1413 Roucarie || 1937 CD || Roucarie Boyer, mother of French discoverer Louis Boyer ||
|-id=414
| 1414 Jérôme || 1937 CE || Jérôme Boyer, father of French discoverer Louis Boyer ||
|-id=415
| 1415 Malautra || 1937 EA || Malautra Boyer, wife of French discoverer Louis Boyer ||
|-id=416
| 1416 Renauxa || 1937 EC || P. Renaux, a French astronomer who worked as an assistant at the Algiers Observatory ||
|-id=417
| 1417 Walinskia || 1937 GH || Walinskia, an acquaintance of an astronomer at ARI, Berlin ||
|-id=418
| 1418 Fayeta || 1903 RG || Gaston-Jules Fayet (1874–1967), French astronomer and director of the Nice Observatory ||
|-id=419
| 1419 Danzig || 1929 RF || The city of Gdańsk (German: Danzig) in Poland ||
|-id=420
| 1420 Radcliffe || 1931 RJ || Radcliffe College in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in honour of the class of 1912 ||
|-id=421
| 1421 Esperanto || 1936 FQ || The Esperanto language ||
|-id=422
| 1422 Strömgrenia || 1936 QF || Elis Strömgren (1870–1947), Swedish-born Danish astronomer, director of the Copenhagen University Observatory and the Bureau central des télégrammes astronomiques (and father of Bengt Georg Daniel Strömgren, Danish astronomer) ||
|-id=423
| 1423 Jose || 1936 QM || Giuseppina Bianchi, deceased young daughter of Italian astronomer Emilio Bianchi ||
|-id=424
| 1424 Sundmania || 1937 AJ || Karl F. Sundman (1873–1949), Finnish mathematician, then director of the Helsingfors Observatory ||
|-id=425
| 1425 Tuorla || 1937 GB || Tuorla Observatory, Finland, then the Research Institute for Astronomy and Optics ||
|-id=426
| 1426 Riviera || 1937 GF || The French Riviera, on the Mediterranean coast of France and the location of the discovering Nice Observatory ||
|-id=427
| 1427 Ruvuma || 1937 KB || Ruvuma River, Tanzania ||
|-id=428
| 1428 Mombasa || 1937 NO || Mombasa, Kenya ||
|-id=429
| 1429 Pemba || 1937 NH || Pemba Island, Tanzania ||
|-id=430
| 1430 Somalia || 1937 NK || Somalia, a country located in the Horn of Africa ||
|-id=431
| 1431 Luanda || 1937 OB || Luanda, Angola ||
|-id=432
| 1432 Ethiopia || 1937 PG || Ethiopia (then called Abyssinia) and country located in the Horn of Africa ||
|-id=433
| 1433 Geramtina || 1937 UC || Miss Asplind, sister of Swedish astronomer Bror Asplind (1890–1954), see ||
|-id=434
| 1434 Margot || || Gertrud Margot Görsdorf (1915–1990), friend of astronomer Wilhelm Gliese ||
|-id=435
| 1435 Garlena || 1936 WE || Acquaintance of Prof. W. Schaub, German orbit computer ||
|-id=436
| 1436 Salonta || 1936 YA || Salonta, town in what is now Romania, and place of birth of the discoverer, the Hungarian astronomer György Kulin (1905–1989) ||
|-id=437
| 1437 Diomedes || 1937 PB || Diomedes, mythological Greek warrior involved in the Trojan War ||
|-id=438
| 1438 Wendeline || 1937 TC || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=439
| 1439 Vogtia || 1937 TE || Heinrich Vogt (1890–1968), German astronomer ||
|-id=440
| 1440 Rostia || 1937 TF || Johann Leonhard Rost (1688–1727), German astronomer and author of the Atlas Portatilis Coelistis ||
|-id=441
| 1441 Bolyai || 1937 WA || János Bolyai (1802–1860), Hungarian mathematician ||
|-id=442
| 1442 Corvina || 1937 YF || Matthias Corvinus (1443–1490), King of Hungary. His library, the Bibliotheca Corviniana was second in size and significance to the Vatican library ||
|-id=443
| 1443 Ruppina || 1937 YG || Ruppin, Germany city and birthplace of astronomer Carl Ebell, see 1205 Ebella ||
|-id=444
| 1444 Pannonia || 1938 AE || Pannonia, the ancient Roman province which is largely co-extensive with the modern Transdanubia region in Hungary ||
|-id=445
| 1445 Konkolya || 1938 AF || Nicolaus von Konkoly Thege (Thege Miklós Konkoly; 1842–1916), Hungarian founder of the Ó-Gyalla Observatory, now known as the Hurbanovo Geomagnetic Observatory, Slovakia ||
|-id=446
| 1446 Sillanpää || 1938 BA || Frans Eemil Sillanpää (1888–1964), Finnish author, winner of the 1939 Nobel Prize for Literature ||
|-id=447
| 1447 Utra || 1938 BB || The northeastern Finnish town of Utra, birthplace of the discoverer Yrjö Väisälä ||
|-id=448
| 1448 Lindbladia || 1938 DF || Bertil Lindblad (1895–1965), Swedish astronomer and former IAU president ||
|-id=449
| 1449 Virtanen || 1938 DO || Artturi Ilmari Virtanen (1895–1973), Finnish biochemist, winner of the 1945 Nobel Prize for Chemistry ||
|-id=450
| 1450 Raimonda || 1938 DP || Jean Jacques Raimond (1903–1961), Dutch astronomer and former president of the Royal Dutch Meteorological and Astronomical Society and director of the Zeiss planetarium in The Hague ||
|-id=451
| 1451 Granö || 1938 DT || Johannes Gabriel Granö (1882–1956), Finnish geographer, explorer, and chancellor of Turku University ||
|-id=452
| 1452 Hunnia || || Literally, land of the Huns (the state founded by Attila the Hun) but used as a stylistic alternative for Hungary or Magyarország, or as a stylistic synonym for the land lying east of the Danube ||
|-id=453
| 1453 Fennia || || Latin name for Finland ||
|-id=454
| 1454 Kalevala || 1936 DO || Kalevala, the Finnish epic poem ||
|-id=455
| 1455 Mitchella || 1937 LF || Maria Mitchell (1818–1889), American astronomer ||
|-id=456
| 1456 Saldanha || 1937 NG || Saldanha harbour, South Africa ||
|-id=457
| 1457 Ankara || 1937 PA || The city of Ankara, capital of Turkey ||
|-id=458
| 1458 Mineura || 1937 RC || Adolphe Mineur, Belgian mathematician and professor at the University of Brussels ||
|-id=459
| 1459 Magnya || 1937 VA || "Magnya", means "clear, bright, wonderful", when translated from Latin to Russian ||
|-id=460
| 1460 Haltia || 1937 WC || Haltitunturi mountain or possibly haltia, Finnish word for elf ||
|-id=461
| 1461 Jean-Jacques || 1937 YL || Jean-Jacques Laugier, son of French discoverer Marguerite Laugier ||
|-id=462
| 1462 Zamenhof || 1938 CA || L. L. Zamenhof (1859–1917), Polish physician and linguist, inventor of Esperanto ||
|-id=463
| 1463 Nordenmarkia || 1938 CB || Nils Viktor Emanuel Nordenmark (1867–1962), Swedish astronomer ||
|-id=464
| 1464 Armisticia || 1939 VO || The Armistice of 11 November 1918 (World War I), on the occasion of its 21st anniversary, in the hope of a continuation of world peace ||
|-id=465
| 1465 Autonoma || 1938 FA || "Autonoma", short for the Universidad Autonoma de El Salvador, in recognition of the hospitality granted to the Hamburg Observatory ||
|-id=466
| 1466 Mündleria || 1938 KA || Max Mündler (1876–1969), German astronomer at Heidelberg Observatory ||
|-id=467
| 1467 Mashona || 1938 OE || Mashona people of Zimbabwe (then Rhodesia) ||
|-id=468
| 1468 Zomba || 1938 PA || The city of Zomba in Malawi (then Nyassaland), Africa ||
|-id=469
| 1469 Linzia || 1938 QD || The city of Linz, Austria ||
|-id=470
| 1470 Carla || 1938 SD || Carla Ziegler, friend of German discoverer Alfred Bohrmann ||
|-id=471
| 1471 Tornio || || The city of Tornio, in Lapland, Finland ||
|-id=472
| 1472 Muonio || 1938 UQ || Muonio, town in northern Finland, above the Arctic Circle ||
|-id=473
| 1473 Ounas || 1938 UT || Ounasjoki River in Finland ||
|-id=474
| 1474 Beira || 1935 QY || The city of Beira, Mozambique, in southeast Africa ||
|-id=475
| 1475 Yalta || 1935 SM || The city of Yalta, on south coast of the Crimean Peninsula ||
|-id=476
| 1476 Cox || 1936 RA || Jacques Cox (1898–1972), Belgian astronomer and professor of astronomy at the University of Brussels ||
|-id=477
| 1477 Bonsdorffia || 1938 CC || Ilmari Bonsdorff (1879–1950), Finnish astronomer and founder of the Finnish Geodetic Institute ||
|-id=478
| 1478 Vihuri || 1938 CF || A. Vihuri, Finnish ship owner and patron of the arts and sciences ||
|-id=479
| 1479 Inkeri || 1938 DE || The region of Ingria, now in Russia. "Inkeri" is also the first name of the granddaughter and niece of Finnish discoverer Yrjö Väisälä ||
|-id=480
| 1480 Aunus || 1938 DK || Russian town of Olonets (Finnish: Aunus) in Karelia. It is also named after the grandson of discoverer Yrjö Väisälä ||
|-id=481
| 1481 Tübingia || 1938 DR || The German city of Tübingen, birthplace of astronomer Johannes Kepler ||
|-id=482
| 1482 Sebastiana || || Sebastian Finsterwalder, German ||
|-id=483
| 1483 Hakoila || || Kosti Johannes Hakoila (1898–), Finnish astronomer and assistant of the discoverer Yrjö Väisälä ||
|-id=484
| 1484 Postrema || 1938 HC || "Postrema" (Latin: "last") for the last discovery made by Grigory Neujmin (this would not remain true) ||
|-id=485
| 1485 Isa || 1938 OB || "Isa", diminutive of the Italian name "Marisa" ||
|-id=486
| 1486 Marilyn || 1938 QA || Marilyn Herget, daughter of Paul Herget, American astronomer ||
|-id=487
| 1487 Boda || 1938 WC || Karl Boda (1889–1942), German astronomer ||
|-id=488
| 1488 Aura || 1938 XE || Aura River, Finland ||
|-id=489
| 1489 Attila || 1939 GC || Attila (c. 406–453), king of the Huns and one of the most feared enemies of the Western and Eastern Roman Empires ||
|-id=490
| 1490 Limpopo || 1936 LB || Limpopo River, Africa ||
|-id=491
| 1491 Balduinus || 1938 EJ || Latin form of the name Baldwin, in this case referring to King Baudouin of Belgium ||
|-id=492
| 1492 Oppolzer || 1938 FL || Theodor von Oppolzer (1841–1886), Austrian astronomer ||
|-id=493
| 1493 Sigrid || 1938 QB || Sigrid Strömgren, wife of Danish-American astronomer Bengt Strömgren ||
|-id=494
| 1494 Savo || 1938 SJ || Savonia, historical province of Finland ||
|-id=495
| 1495 Helsinki || 1938 SW || The city of Helsinki, capital of Finland ||
|-id=496
| 1496 Turku || || The city of Turku, Finland, home to the discoverer Yrjö Väisälä ||
|-id=497
| 1497 Tampere || || The city of Tampere, Finland ||
|-id=498
| 1498 Lahti || || The city of Lahti, Finland ||
|-id=499
| 1499 Pori || 1938 UF || The city of Pori, Finland ||
|-id=500
| 1500 Jyväskylä || 1938 UH || The city of Jyväskylä, Finland ||
|}
1501–1600
|-
| 1501 Baade || 1938 UJ || Walter Baade (1893–1960), German astronomer ||
|-id=502
| 1502 Arenda || 1938 WB || Sylvain Arend (1902–1992), Belgian astronomer ||
|-id=503
| 1503 Kuopio || 1938 XD || Kuopio, Finland ||
|-id=504
| 1504 Lappeenranta || 1939 FM || Lappeenranta, Finland ||
|-id=505
| 1505 Koranna || 1939 HH || The Koranna, a tribe of San people from the Kalahari Desert ||
|-id=506
| 1506 Xosa || 1939 JC || Xhosa people of Africa ||
|-id=507
| 1507 Vaasa || 1939 RD || Vaasa, Finland ||
|-id=508
| 1508 Kemi || 1938 UP || Kemi, Finland ||
|-id=509
| 1509 Esclangona || 1938 YG || Ernest Esclangon (1876–1954), French astronomer ||
|-id=510
| 1510 Charlois || 1939 DC || Auguste Charlois (1864–1910), French astronomer ||
|-id=511
| 1511 Daléra || 1939 FB || Paul Daléra, friend of discoverer ||
|-id=512
| 1512 Oulu || 1939 FE || Oulu, Finland, birthplace of discoverer ||
|-id=513
| 1513 Mátra || 1940 EB || Mátra, a mountain range in Hungary ||
|-id=514
| 1514 Ricouxa || 1906 UR || Unknown origin of name ||
|-id=515
| 1515 Perrotin || 1936 VG || Joseph Athanase Perrotin (1845–1904), French astronomer ||
|-id=516
| 1516 Henry || 1938 BG || Paul Henry and Prosper Henry (1848–1905 and 1849–1903) French astronomers ||
|-id=517
| 1517 Beograd || 1938 FD || Belgrade, Serbia, discoverer's native city ||
|-id=518
| 1518 Rovaniemi || 1938 UA || Rovaniemi, Finland ||
|-id=519
| 1519 Kajaani || 1938 UB || Kajaani, Finland ||
|-id=520
| 1520 Imatra || 1938 UY || Imatra, Finland ||
|-id=521
| 1521 Seinäjoki || || Seinäjoki, Finland ||
|-id=522
| 1522 Kokkola || 1938 WO || Kokkola, Finland ||
|-id=523
| 1523 Pieksämäki || 1939 BC || Pieksämäki, Finland ||
|-id=524
| 1524 Joensuu || 1939 SB || Joensuu, Finland ||
|-id=525
| 1525 Savonlinna || 1939 SC || Savonlinna, Finland ||
|-id=526
| 1526 Mikkeli || 1939 TF || Mikkeli, Finland ||
|-id=527
| 1527 Malmquista || 1939 UG || Gunnar Malmquist (1893–1982), Swedish astronomer ||
|-id=528
| 1528 Conrada || 1940 CA || Fritz Conrad (1883–1944), admiral in the German Navy during World War II ||
|-id=529
| 1529 Oterma || 1938 BC || Liisi Oterma (1915–2001), Finnish astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=530
| 1530 Rantaseppä || 1938 SG || Hilkka Rantaseppä (1925–1975), Finnish astronomer ||
|-id=531
| 1531 Hartmut || 1938 SH || Hartmut Neckel, grandson of discoverer ||
|-id=532
| 1532 Inari || 1938 SM || Lake Inari, Finland ||
|-id=533
| 1533 Saimaa || 1939 BD || Lake Saimaa, Finland ||
|-id=534
| 1534 Näsi || 1939 BK || Lake Näsi, Finland ||
|-id=535
| 1535 Päijänne || 1939 RC || Lake Päijänne, in Päijänne National Park, Finland ||
|-id=536
| 1536 Pielinen || 1939 SE || Lake Pielinen, in Koli National Park, Finland ||
|-id=537
| 1537 Transylvania || 1940 QA || Transylvania, Romania ||
|-id=538
| 1538 Detre || 1940 RF || László Detre (1906–1974), Hungarian astronomer ||
|-id=539
| 1539 Borrelly || 1940 UB || Alphonse Borrelly (1842–1926), French astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=540
| 1540 Kevola || 1938 WK || Kevola, Kevola Observatory in Finland operated by Hilkka Rantaseppä ||
|-id=541
| 1541 Estonia || 1939 CK || Estonia ||
|-id=542
| 1542 Schalén || 1941 QE || Carl Schalén, Swedish astronomer at the Lund Institute of Astronomy ||
|-id=543
| 1543 Bourgeois || 1941 SJ || Paul Bourgeois (1898–1974), Belgian astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=544
| 1544 Vinterhansenia || 1941 UK || Julie Vinter Hansen (1890–1960), Danish astronomer ||
|-id=545
| 1545 Thernöe || 1941 UW || Karl August Thernöe (1911–1987), Danish astronomer at Copenhagen Observatory, popularizer of astronomy, and director of IAU's Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams (Src) ||
|-id=546
| 1546 Izsák || || Imre Izsák (1929–1965), Hungarian astronomer ||
|-id=547
| 1547 Nele || 1929 CZ || Nele, wife of folk-hero Till Eulenspiegel ||
|-id=548
| 1548 Palomaa || 1935 FK || Matti Herman Palomaa (1871–1947), Finnish chemist at the University of Turku ||
|-id=549
| 1549 Mikko || 1937 GA || Mikko Arthur Levander, Finnish pastor, amateur astronomer, and father-in-law of discoverer ||
|-id=550
| 1550 Tito || 1937 WD || Josip Broz Tito (1892–1980), Yugoslav leader ||
|-id=551
| 1551 Argelander || || Friedrich Wilhelm Argelander (1799–1875), German astronomer ||
|-id=552
| 1552 Bessel || || Friedrich Bessel (1784–1846), German astronomer and mathematician ||
|-id=553
| 1553 Bauersfelda || 1940 AD || Walther Bauersfeld (1879–1959), German engineer, designer of the Zeiss planetaria ||
|-id=554
| 1554 Yugoslavia || 1940 RE || Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, discoverer's fatherland ||
|-id=555
| 1555 Dejan || 1941 SA || Dejan Đurković, son of Yugoslav astronomer Petar Đurković (1908–1981) ||
|-id=556
| 1556 Wingolfia || 1942 AA || Wingolf, a fraternity at Heidelberg University ||
|-id=557
| 1557 Roehla || 1942 AD || Lars Ruehl, Swedish-German doctor in Heidelberg, Germany, in gratitude for restoring the discoverer's health ||
|-id=558
| 1558 Järnefelt || 1942 BD || Gustaf J. Järnefelt, Finnish astronomer ||
|-id=559
| 1559 Kustaanheimo || 1942 BF || Paul H. Kustaaheimo, Finnish astronomer at the Helsinki Observatory ||
|-id=560
| 1560 Strattonia || 1942 XB || F. J. M. Stratton (1881–1960), British astronomer ||
|-id=561
| 1561 Fricke || 1941 CG || Walter Fricke, German astronomer and director of ARI in Heidelberg ||
|-id=562
| 1562 Gondolatsch || 1943 EE || Friedrich Gondolatsch, German astronomer at ARI ||
|-id=563
| 1563 Noël || 1943 EG || Emanuel Arend, son of Belgian astronomer Sylvain Arend who discovered this minor planet ||
|-id=564
| 1564 Srbija || 1936 TB || Serbia (first minor planet discovered from Belgrade) ||
|-id=565
| 1565 Lemaître || 1948 WA || Georges Lemaître (1894–1966), Belgian astronomer and Jesuit priest ||
|-id=566
| 1566 Icarus || 1949 MA || Icarus, mythological Greek aeronaut ||
|-id=567
| 1567 Alikoski || 1941 HN || Heikki A. Alikoski (1912–1997), observatory assistant at Turku Observatory in Finland and a discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=568
| 1568 Aisleen || 1946 QB || Wife of discoverer ||
|-id=569
| 1569 Evita || 1948 PA || Eva Perón (1919–1952), First Lady of Argentina ||
|-id=570
| 1570 Brunonia || 1948 TX || Brown University ||
|-id=571
| 1571 Cesco || 1950 FJ || Ronaldo P. Cesco and Carlos Ulrrico Cesco (died 1987), Argentine astronomers, latter a discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=572
| 1572 Posnania || 1949 SC || Poznań, Poland ||
|-id=573
| 1573 Väisälä || 1949 UA || Yrjö Väisälä (1891–1971), Finnish astronomer ||
|-id=574
| 1574 Meyer || 1949 FD || G. Meyer, French astronomer ||
|-id=575
| 1575 Winifred || 1950 HH || Winifred Cameron (1918–2016), American planetary geologist ||
|-id=576
| 1576 Fabiola || 1948 SA || Queen Fabiola of Belgium, former Queen of Belgium ||
|-id=577
| 1577 Reiss || 1949 BA || Guy Reiss (1904–1964), French astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=578
| 1578 Kirkwood || 1951 AT || Daniel Kirkwood (1814–1895), American astronomer ||
|-id=579
| 1579 Herrick || 1948 SB || Samuel Herrick (1911–1974), American astronomer and mathematician ||
|-id=580
| 1580 Betulia || 1950 KA || Betulia Herrick, wife of American astronomer Samuel Herrick ||
|-id=581
| 1581 Abanderada || || "Abanderada", Spanish for leader carrying a banner, in honour of Eva Perón ||
|-id=582
| 1582 Martir || 1950 LY || "Martir", Spanish for martyr, in honour of Eva Perón ||
|-id=583
| 1583 Antilochus || 1950 SA || Antilochus, mythological Greek warrior ||
|-id=584
| 1584 Fuji || 1927 CR || Mount Fuji, Japan ||
|-id=585
| 1585 Union || 1947 RG || Union Observatory in Johannesburg, South Africa ||
|-id=586
| 1586 Thiele || 1939 CJ || Thorvald N. Thiele (1838–1910), Danish astronomer ||
|-id=587
| 1587 Kahrstedt || || Albrecht Kahrstedt (1897–1971), German ARI-astronomer at Heidelberg, computer of minor planet orbits, and later director of the Babelsberg Observatory, Berlin. Several asteroids including , and were named after members of his family. ||
|-id=588
| 1588 Descamisada || 1951 MH || "Descamisada", Spanish for shirtless (worker), in honour of Eva Perón ||
|-id=589
| 1589 Fanatica || 1950 RK || "Fanatica", Spanish for fanatical woman, in honour of Eva Perón ||
|-id=590
| 1590 Tsiolkovskaja || 1933 NA || Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857–1935), Russian rocket scientist ||
|-id=591
| 1591 Baize || 1951 KA || Paul Baize (1901–1995), French physician and amateur astronomer ||
|-id=592
| 1592 Mathieu || 1951 LA || Mathieu, grandchild of Belgian astronomer Sylvain Arend who discovered this minor planet ||
|-id=593
| 1593 Fagnes || 1951 LB || Hautes Fagnes, plateau in Belgium ||
|-id=594
| 1594 Danjon || 1949 WA || André-Louis Danjon (1890–1967), French astronomer ||
|-id=595
| 1595 Tanga || 1930 ME || Tanga, Tanzania ||
|-id=596
| 1596 Itzigsohn || 1951 EV || Miguel Itzigsohn (1908–1978), Argentinian astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=597
| 1597 Laugier || 1949 EB || Marguerite Laugier (1896–1976), French astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=598
| 1598 Paloque || 1950 CA || Émile Paloque, French astronomer and director of the Toulouse Observatory ||
|-id=599
| 1599 Giomus || 1950 WA || Gien-sur-Loire, France ||
|-id=600
| 1600 Vyssotsky || 1947 UC || Emma Vyssotsky (1894–1975), American astronomer ||
|}
1601–1700
|-
| 1601 Patry || 1942 KA || André Patry (1902–1960), French astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=602
| 1602 Indiana || 1950 GF || Indiana and Indiana University ||
|-id=603
| 1603 Neva || 1926 VH || Neva, river running through Saint Petersburg, Russia ||
|-id=604
| 1604 Tombaugh || 1931 FH || Clyde Tombaugh (1906–1997), American astronomer and discoverer of minor planets; this asteroid was amongst the numerous asteroids recorded by Tombaugh during the search for Pluto ||
|-id=605
| 1605 Milankovitch || 1936 GA || Milutin Milanković (1879–1958), Serbian astronomer ||
|-id=606
| 1606 Jekhovsky || 1950 RH || Benjamin Jekhowsky (Jekhovsky; 1881–1975), Russian-born French astronomer ||
|-id=607
| 1607 Mavis || 1950 RA || Mavis Bruwer, wife of South African astronomer Jacobus Albertus Bruwer ||
|-id=608
| 1608 Muñoz || 1951 RZ || F. A. Muñoz, assistant astronomer at the La Plata Observatory in Argentina. He was an observer and orbit computer of minor planets, and was involved in the testing of the 2.15-meter Argentine telescope (Jorge Sahade Telescope). ||
|-id=609
| 1609 Brenda || 1951 NL || Granddaughter of discoverer ||
|-id=610
| 1610 Mirnaya || 1928 RT || Russian for "peaceful". Proposed by the Institute of Theoretical Astronomy in St Petersburg ||
|-id=611
| 1611 Beyer || 1950 DJ || Max Beyer (1894–1982), German astronomer at Bergedorf Observatory ||
|-id=612
| 1612 Hirose || 1950 BJ || Hideo Hirose (広瀬秀雄), Japanese astronomer ||
|-id=613
| 1613 Smiley || 1950 SD || Charles Hugh Smiley (1903–1977), American astronomer ||
|-id=614
| 1614 Goldschmidt || 1952 HA || Hermann Goldschmidt (1802–1866), German-French astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=615
| 1615 Bardwell || 1950 BW || Conrad M. Bardwell (1926–2010), American astronomer and research associate with the Minor Planet Center who has made numerous difficult identifications of objects, and has produced numerous reliable ephemerides. The asteroid's named proposed by F. K. Edmondson and Deloris J. Owings. ||
|-id=616
| 1616 Filipoff || 1950 EA || Lionel Filipoff (1893–1940), French astronomer at Paris and Algiers Observatory ||
|-id=617
| 1617 Alschmitt || 1952 FB || Alfred Schmitt (1907–1973), French astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=618
| 1618 Dawn || 1948 NF || Dawn, granddaughter of South African astronomer Ernest Leonard Johnson who discovered this minor planet ||
|-id=619
| 1619 Ueta || 1953 TA || Jo Ueta (上田穣), Japanese astronomer and director of Kwasan Observatory ||
|-id=620
| 1620 Geographos || 1951 RA || National Geographic Society ||
|-id=621
| 1621 Druzhba || 1926 TM || Russian for friendship ||
|-id=622
| 1622 Chacornac || 1952 EA || Jean Chacornac (1823–1873), French astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=623
| 1623 Vivian || 1948 PL || Vivian Hirst, daughter of South African astronomer William Parkinson Hirst ||
|-id=624
| 1624 Rabe || || Eugene Rabe (1911–1974), German astronomer ||
|-id=625
| 1625 The NORC || 1953 RB || NORC (Naval Ordnance Research Calculator) ||
|-id=626
| 1626 Sadeya || 1927 AA || The "Spanish and American Astronomical Society", acronym: S.A.D.E.Y.A. (Sociedad Astronómica de España y America), of which Josep Comas i Solà was its first president (Src). ||
|-id=627
| 1627 Ivar || 1929 SH || Late brother of discoverer ||
|-id=628
| 1628 Strobel || 1923 OG || Willi Strobel, German ARI-astronomer ||
|-id=629
| 1629 Pecker || 1952 DB || Jean-Claude Pecker (1923–2020), French astronomer ||
|-id=630
| 1630 Milet || 1952 DA || Bernard Milet, French astronomer at Nice Observatory ||
|-id=631
| 1631 Kopff || 1936 UC || August Kopff (1882–1960), German astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=632
| 1632 Sieböhme || 1941 DF || Siegfried Böhme, German ARI-astronomer ||
|-id=633
| 1633 Chimay || 1929 EC || Chimay, Belgium ||
|-id=634
| 1634 Ndola || 1935 QP || Ndola, Zambia ||
|-id=635
| 1635 Bohrmann || 1924 QW || Alfred Bohrmann (1904–2000), German astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=636
| 1636 Porter || 1950 BH || Jermain Gildersleeve Porter (1852–1933), American astronomer and director of the Cincinnati Observatory, as well as for John Guy Porter (1900–1981), British astronomer at HM Nautical Almanac Office and orbit computer with the British Astronomical Association (Src). ||
|-id=637
| 1637 Swings || 1936 QO || Pol Swings (1906–1983), Belgian astronomer ||
|-id=638
| 1638 Ruanda || 1935 JF || Ruanda-Urundi ||
|-id=639
| 1639 Bower || 1951 RB || Ernest Clare Bower, American mathematician and astronomer (Pluto's orbit) ||
|-id=640
| 1640 Nemo || 1951 QA || Captain Nemo, fictional character ||
|-id=641
| 1641 Tana || 1935 OJ || Tana River in Kenya ||
|-id=642
| 1642 Hill || 1951 RU || George William Hill (1838–1914), American mathematician and astronomer ||
|-id=643
| 1643 Brown || 1951 RQ || Ernest William Brown (1866–1938), British astronomer ||
|-id=644
| 1644 Rafita || 1935 YA || Late son of discoverer ||
|-id=645
| 1645 Waterfield || 1933 OJ || Reginald Lawson Waterfield (1900–1986) and William Francis Herschel Waterfield (1886–1933), British astronomers ||
|-id=646
| 1646 Rosseland || 1939 BG || Svein Rosseland (1894–1985), Norwegian astrophysicist ||
|-id=647
| 1647 Menelaus || 1957 MK || Menelaus, mythological Greek king ||
|-id=648
| 1648 Shajna || 1935 RF || Grigory Shajn (1892–1956), Russian astronomer and discoverer of minor planets, husband of the discoverer Pelageya Shajn ||
|-id=649
| 1649 Fabre || 1951 DE || Hervé Fabre, French astronomer at the Nice Observatory ||
|-id=650
| 1650 Heckmann || 1937 TG || Otto Heckmann (1901–1983), German astronomer ||
|-id=651
| 1651 Behrens || 1936 HD || Johann Gerhard Behrens (1889–1978), German astronomer, orbit computer and pastor at Detern in Lower Saxony, Germany ||
|-id=652
| 1652 Hergé || 1953 PA || Hergé (1907–1983), Belgian cartoonist best known for creating The Adventures of Tintin ||
|-id=653
| 1653 Yakhontovia || 1937 RA || N. S. Yakhontova, husband of Nataliya Yakhontova, Russian astronomer and long-time head of the Minor Planet Department of the Institute of Theoretical Astronomy (ITA) in St Petersburg, Russia ||
|-id=654
| 1654 Bojeva || 1931 TL || Nina Fedorovna Bojeva (1890–1956), Russian astronomer ||
|-id=655
| 1655 Comas Solà || 1929 WG || Josep Comas i Solà, Catalan astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=656
| 1656 Suomi || 1942 EC || Native name for the country of Finland ||
|-id=657
| 1657 Roemera || 1961 EA || Elizabeth Roemer (1929–2016), American astronomer ||
|-id=658
| 1658 Innes || 1953 NA || Robert T. A. Innes (1861–1933), Scottish amateur-turned-professional astronomer and first director of the Transvaal (afterwards Union) Observatory ||
|-id=659
| 1659 Punkaharju || 1940 YL || Punkaharju, Finland ||
|-id=660
| 1660 Wood || 1953 GA || Harry Edwin Wood, South African astronomer ||
|-id=661
| 1661 Granule || A916 FA || Edward A. Gall, pathologist known for the lymphocyte feature Gall's granule or "Gall body" ||
|-id=662
| 1662 Hoffmann || A923 RB || Irmtraud Hoffmann, daughter-in-law of discoverer ||
|-id=663
| 1663 van den Bos || 1926 PE || Willem Hendrik van den Bos (1896–1974), Dutch–South African astronomer ||
|-id=664
| 1664 Felix || 1929 CD || Felix Timmermans (1886–1947), Belgian writer ||
|-id=665
| 1665 Gaby || 1930 DQ || Gaby Reinmuth, daughter-in-law of discoverer ||
|-id=666
| 1666 van Gent || 1930 OG || Hendrik van Gent (1899–1947), Dutch astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=667
| 1667 Pels || 1930 SY || G. Pels, computational assistant at Leiden Observatory ||
|-id=668
| 1668 Hanna || 1933 OK || Hanna Reinmuth, daughter-in-law of discoverer ||
|-id=669
| 1669 Dagmar || 1934 RS || Dagmar, female given name ||
|-id=670
| 1670 Minnaert || 1934 RZ || Marcel Minnaert (1893–1970), Belgian-born Dutch astronomer ||
|-id=671
| 1671 Chaika || 1934 TD || Russian for seagull, in honour of Valentina Tereshkova ||
|-id=672
| 1672 Gezelle || 1935 BD || Guido Gezelle (1830–1899), Flemish poet and a Roman Catholic priest ||
|-id=673
| 1673 van Houten || 1937 TH || Cornelis Johannes van Houten (1920–2002), Dutch astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=674
| 1674 Groeneveld || 1938 DS || Ingrid van Houten-Groeneveld (1921–2015), Dutch astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=675
| 1675 Simonida || 1938 FB || A gracious Serbian Queen Simonida from the Middle Ages ||
|-id=676
| 1676 Kariba || 1939 LC || Kariba Lake, Zambia/Zimbabwe ||
|-id=677
| 1677 Tycho Brahe || 1940 RO || Tycho Brahe (1546–1601), Danish astronomer ||
|-id=678
| 1678 Hveen || 1940 YH || Hven (Hveen), island in Øresund with Tycho Brahe's castle Uraniborg and observatory Stjerneborg ||
|-id=679
| 1679 Nevanlinna || 1941 FR || Rolf Nevanlinna (1895–1980), Finnish mathematician ||
|-id=680
| 1680 Per Brahe || 1942 CH || Per Brahe the Younger (1602–1680), governor-general of Finland ||
|-id=681
| 1681 Steinmetz || 1948 WE || Julius Steinmetz (1893–1965), German pastor and orbit computer ||
|-id=682
| 1682 Karel || 1949 PH || Karel, son of Dutch astronomers Ingrid and Cornelis van Houten ||
|-id=683
| 1683 Castafiore || 1950 SL || Bianca Castafiore, cartoon character (Tintin), opera singer ||
|-id=684
| 1684 Iguassú || 1951 QE || Iguazu Falls, on the Iguazu River, Brazil/Argentina ||
|-id=685
| 1685 Toro || 1948 OA || Toro, maiden name of astronomer Samuel Herrick's wife ||
|-id=686
| 1686 De Sitter || || Willem de Sitter (1872–1934), Dutch astronomer ||
|-id=687
| 1687 Glarona || 1965 SC || Canton of Glarus, Switzerland ||
|-id=688
| 1688 Wilkens || || Alexander Wilkens, Argentine astronomer ||
|-id=689
| 1689 Floris-Jan || 1930 SO || Floris-Jan van der Meulen, 5000th visitor to an astronomical exhibition ||
|-id=690
| 1690 Mayrhofer || 1948 VB || Karl Mayrhofer, Austrian mathematician and amateur astronomer ||
|-id=691
| 1691 Oort || 1956 RB || Jan Oort (1900–1992), Dutch astronomer ||
|-id=692
| 1692 Subbotina || 1936 QD || Mikhail Subbotin (1893–1966), Soviet-Russian mathematician and astronomer ||
|-id=693
| 1693 Hertzsprung || 1935 LA || Ejnar Hertzsprung (1873–1967), Danish astronomer ||
|-id=694
| 1694 Kaiser || 1934 SB || Frederik Kaiser (1808–1872), Dutch astronomer ||
|-id=695
| 1695 Walbeck || 1941 UO || Henrik Johan Walbeck (1794–1822), Finnish geodesist ||
|-id=696
| 1696 Nurmela || 1939 FF || (1907–1985), Finnish academic and chancellor of Turku University ||
|-id=697
| 1697 Koskenniemi || 1940 RM || Veikko Antero Koskenniemi (1885–1962), Finnish poet ||
|-id=698
| 1698 Christophe || 1934 CS || Christophe, grand-nephew of French astronomer Georges Roland who co-discovered Comet Arend–Roland ||
|-id=699
| 1699 Honkasalo || 1941 QD || Tauno Bruno Honkasalo (1912–1975), Finnish mathematician ||
|-id=700
| 1700 Zvezdara || 1940 QC || Zvezdara, Belgrade, Serbia and Montenegro ||
|}
1701–1800
|-
| 1701 Okavango || 1953 NJ || Okavango River in southwest Africa ||
|-id=702
| 1702 Kalahari || A924 NC || Kalahari Desert, a large semi-arid sandy savannah in Southern Africa extending 900,000 km2 (350,000 sq mi) ||
|-id=703
| 1703 Barry || 1930 RB || Roger Barry (1752–1813), German astronomer at the Mannheim Observatory, which was a precursor of the Heidelberg Observatory ||
|-id=704
| 1704 Wachmann || A924 EE || Arno Arthur Wachmann (1902–1990), German astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=705
| 1705 Tapio || || Tapio, Finnish mythological figure from the Kalevala ||
|-id=706
| 1706 Dieckvoss || 1931 TS || Wilhelm Dieckvoß (1908–1982, also spelled Dieckvoss), German astronomer and a discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=707
| 1707 Chantal || 1932 RL || Chantal, niece of French astronomer Georges Roland ||
|-id=708
| 1708 Pólit || 1929 XA || Isidre Pòlit (1880–1958), Spanish astronomer of Catalan origin and a discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=709
| 1709 Ukraina || 1925 QA || Country of Ukraine ||
|-id=710
| 1710 Gothard || 1941 UF || Jenõ Gothard (1857–1909), Hungarian amateur astronomer ||
|-id=711
| 1711 Sandrine || 1935 BB || Sandrine, grand-niece of French astronomer Georges Roland ||
|-id=712
| 1712 Angola || 1935 KC || Country of Angola, Africa ||
|-id=713
| 1713 Bancilhon || 1951 SC || Odette Bancilhon (1908–1998), French astronomer, wife of Alfred Schmitt, and a discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=714
| 1714 Sy || 1951 OA || Frédéric Sy, French astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=715
| 1715 Salli || 1938 GK || Salli, wife of Finnish astronomer Heikki A. Alikoski who discovered this minor planet ||
|-id=716
| 1716 Peter || 1934 GF || Peter, grandson of the discoverer Karl Wilhelm Reinmuth ||
|-id=717
| 1717 Arlon || 1954 AC || Arlon, a Walloon town and municipality in Belgium ||
|-id=718
| 1718 Namibia || 1942 RX || The Republic of Namibia in southern Africa, where the discoverer Marja Väisälä worked for many years, teaching the children of Finnish missionaries ||
|-id=719
| 1719 Jens || 1950 DP || Jens, grandson of discoverer Karl Reinmuth ||
|-id=720
| 1720 Niels || 1935 CQ || Niels, grandson of discoverer Karl Reinmuth ||
|-id=721
| 1721 Wells || || Herman B. Wells, an Indiana University administrator ||
|-id=722
| 1722 Goffin || 1938 EG || Edwin Goffin, Belgian astronomer ||
|-id=723
| 1723 Klemola || 1936 FX || Irja Klemola, Finnish amateur astronomer, as well as for Arnold Richard Klemola (1931–2019), American astronomer and a discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=724
| 1724 Vladimir || 1932 DC || Vladimir, grandson of Serbian astronomer Milorad B. Protić who re-discovered this asteroid in 1952 ||
|-id=725
| 1725 CrAO || 1930 SK || Crimean Astrophysical Observatory ||
|-id=726
| 1726 Hoffmeister || 1933 OE || Cuno Hoffmeister (1892–1968), German astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=727
| 1727 Mette || 1965 BA || Mette, wife of British astronomer A. David Andrews who discovered this Mars-crossing asteroid ||
|-id=728
| 1728 Goethe Link || 1964 TO || Goethe Link, American surgeon, amateur astronomer and donor of the Goethe Link Observatory ||
|-id=729
| 1729 Beryl || 1963 SL || Beryl Potter, staff member at Indiana University ||
|-id=730
| 1730 Marceline || 1936 UA || Heroine of L'Immoraliste, novel by André Gide ||
|-id=731
| 1731 Smuts || 1948 PH || Jan Smuts (1870–1950), prime minister of South Africa ||
|-id=732
| 1732 Heike || 1943 EY || Heike Neckel, granddaughter of Alfred Bohrmann, German astronomer ||
|-id=733
| 1733 Silke || || Silke Neckel, discoverer's granddaughter ||
|-id=734
| 1734 Zhongolovich || 1928 TJ || Ivan Danilovich Zhongolovich, Russian astronomer and geodesist ||
|-id=735
| 1735 ITA || || The Institute for Theoretical Astronomy (ITA) in St Petersburg, Russia ||
|-id=736
| 1736 Floirac || 1967 RA || Suburb of Bordeaux, France ||
|-id=737
| 1737 Severny || 1966 TJ || Andrei Borisovich Severnyi, Russian astronomer and director of the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory ||
|-id=738
| 1738 Oosterhoff || 1930 SP || P. Th. Oosterhoff (1904–1978), Dutch astronomer and General Secretary of the IAU in the 1950s ||
|-id=739
| 1739 Meyermann || 1939 PF || Bruno Meyermann (1876–1963), German astronomer ||
|-id=740
| 1740 Paavo Nurmi || 1939 UA || Paavo Nurmi (1897–1973), Finnish runner ||
|-id=741
| 1741 Giclas || 1960 BC || Henry L. Giclas (1910–2007), American astronomer and a discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=742
| 1742 Schaifers || 1934 RO || Karl Schaifers (1921–), German astronomer at Heidelberg Observatory ||
|-id=743
| 1743 Schmidt || 4109 P-L || Bernhard Schmidt (1879–1935), a Baltic German optician who invented the Schmidt camera. ||
|-id=744
| 1744 Harriet || 6557 P-L || Wife of Paul Herget, American astronomer and director of the Cincinnati Observatory ||
|-id=745
| 1745 Ferguson || || James Ferguson, American astronomer and a discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=746
| 1746 Brouwer || 1963 RF || Dirk Brouwer (1902–1966), Dutch-born American astronomer ||
|-id=747
| 1747 Wright || 1947 NH || William Wright (1871–1959), a pioneering astrophysicist at Lick Observatory ||
|-id=748
| 1748 Mauderli || 1966 RA || Sigmund Mauderli (1876–1962), Swiss astronomer and director of the Astronomical Institute of the University of Bern ||
|-id=749
| 1749 Telamon || 1949 SB || Telamon, mythological Greek King, father of Ajax and Teucer ||
|-id=750
| 1750 Eckert || || Wallace John Eckert (1902–1971), American astronomer ||
|-id=751
| 1751 Herget || 1955 OC || Paul Herget (1908–1981), American astronomer and director of the Cincinnati Observatory ||
|-id=752
| 1752 van Herk || 1930 OK || Gijsbert van Herk, Dutch astronomer and astrometrist at Leiden Observatory ||
|-id=753
| 1753 Mieke || 1934 JM || Mieke Oort, wife of Dutch astronomer Jan Oort ||
|-id=754
| 1754 Cunningham || 1935 FE || Leland Cunningham (1904–1989), American astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=755
| 1755 Lorbach || 1936 VD || Anne Lorbach Herget, wife of American astronomer Paul Herget and assistant at the Cincinnati Observatory ||
|-id=756
| 1756 Giacobini || 1937 YA || Michel Giacobini (1873–1938), French astronomer ||
|-id=757
| 1757 Porvoo || 1939 FC || Porvoo, Finland ||
|-id=758
| 1758 Naantali || 1942 DK || Naantali, Finland ||
|-id=759
| 1759 Kienle || 1942 RF || Hans Kienle (1895–1975), a German astrophysicist and director of several German observatories. Known for his work on spectrophotometry, Kienle was also president of IAU Commission 36 during 1955–1958. ||
|-id=760
| 1760 Sandra || 1950 GB || Granddaughter of South-African discoverer Ernest Leonard Johnson ||
|-id=761
| 1761 Edmondson || 1952 FN || Frank K. Edmondson (1912–2008), American astronomer ||
|-id=762
| 1762 Russell || 1953 TZ || Henry Norris Russell (1877–1957), American astronomer ||
|-id=763
| 1763 Williams || || Ken P. Williams, British mathematician and writer ||
|-id=764
| 1764 Cogshall || || Wilbur A. Cogshall, American astronomer, professor of astronomy at Indiana University and director of the Kirkwood Observatory during 1900–1944 ||
|-id=765
| 1765 Wrubel || 1957 XB || Marshal H. Wrubel, American astronomer ||
|-id=766
| 1766 Slipher || 1962 RF || Vesto Slipher (1875–1969) and his brother Earl C. Slipher (1883–1964), American astronomers ||
|-id=767
| 1767 Lampland || 1962 RJ || Carl Otto Lampland (1873–1951), American astronomer and a discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=768
| 1768 Appenzella || 1965 SA || Appenzell, a canton of Switzerland ||
|-id=769
| 1769 Carlostorres || 1966 QP || Carlos Guillermo Torres (1910–1965), Argentine astronomer, and Carlos Torres, Chilean astronomer ||
|-id=770
| 1770 Schlesinger || 1967 JR || Frank Schlesinger (1871–1943), American astronomer ||
|-id=771
| 1771 Makover || 1968 BD || Samuel Gdalevich Makover, Russian astronomer at the Institute for Theoretical Astronomy (ITA) ||
|-id=772
| 1772 Gagarin || 1968 CB || Yuri Gagarin (1934–1968), Russian cosmonaut and the first human to journey into outer space ||
|-id=773
| 1773 Rumpelstilz || 1968 HE || Rumpelstiltskin, folk-tale character ||
|-id=774
| 1774 Kulikov || || Dmitri Kuzmich Kulikov, Russian astronomer at the Institute for Theoretical Astronomy (ITA) ||
|-id=775
| 1775 Zimmerwald || 1969 JA || The village of Zimmerwald in Switzerland ||
|-id=776
| 1776 Kuiper || 2520 P-L || Gerard Kuiper (1905–1973), Dutch-born American astronomer ||
|-id=777
| 1777 Gehrels || 4007 P-L || Tom Gehrels (1925–2011), Dutch-born American astronomer ||
|-id=778
| 1778 Alfvén || 4506 P-L || Hannes Alfvén (1908–1995), Swedish astrophysicist ||
|-id=779
| 1779 Paraná || 1950 LZ || The Paraná River in Argentina ||
|-id=780
| 1780 Kippes || A906 RA || Otto Kippes (1905–1994), German amateur astronomer ||
|-id=781
| 1781 Van Biesbroeck || A906 UB || George Van Biesbroeck (1880–1974), Belgian-born American astronomer ||
|-id=782
| 1782 Schneller || || Heribert Schneller (1901–1967), German astronomer and observer of variable stars, who worked at Babelsberg Observatory in Potsdam, Berlin ||
|-id=783
| 1783 Albitskij || 1935 FJ || Vladimir Albitsky (1891–1952), Russian astronomer and discoverer of minor planets at the Simeiz Observatory ||
|-id=784
| 1784 Benguella || 1935 MG || The city of Benguela in western Angola, Africa ||
|-id=785
| 1785 Wurm || 1941 CD || Karl Wurm (1899–1975), German astrophysicist and planetary scientist. He was president of IAU Commission 15 during 1958–1964. ||
|-id=786
| 1786 Raahe || 1948 TL || Raahe, Finland ||
|-id=787
| 1787 Chiny || 1950 SK || Chiny, a Walloon municipality of Belgium ||
|-id=788
| 1788 Kiess || 1952 OZ || Carl Clarence Kiess (1887–1967), American astronomer ||
|-id=789
| 1789 Dobrovolsky || 1966 QC || Georgy Dobrovolsky (1928–1971), Russian cosmonaut who died during the Soyuz 11 mission ||
|-id=790
| 1790 Volkov || 1967 ER || Vladislav Volkov (1935–1971), Russian cosmonaut who died during the Soyuz 11 mission ||
|-id=791
| 1791 Patsayev || 1967 RE || Viktor Patsayev (1933–1971), Russian cosmonaut who died during the Soyuz 11 mission ||
|-id=792
| 1792 Reni || 1968 BG || The town of Reni in south Ukraine, birthplace of Alexander Deutsch (1900–1986) ||
|-id=793
| 1793 Zoya || 1968 DW || Zoya Kosmodemyanskaya (1923–1941), Russian World War II heroine ||
|-id=794
| 1794 Finsen || 1970 GA || William Stephen Finsen (1905–1979), South African astronomer ||
|-id=795
| 1795 Woltjer || 4010 P-L || Jan Woltjer (1891–1946), Dutch astronomer ||
|-id=796
| 1796 Riga || 1966 KB || Riga, Latvia ||
|-id=797
| 1797 Schaumasse || 1936 VH || Alexandre Schaumasse (1882–1958), French astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=798
| 1798 Watts || 1949 GC || Chester Burleigh Watts (1889–1971), American astronomer ||
|-id=799
| 1799 Koussevitzky || 1950 OE || Serge Koussevitzky (1874–1951), Russian conductor ||
|-id=800
| 1800 Aguilar || 1950 RJ || Félix Aguilar (1884–1943), Argentine engineer, astronomer and director of the La Plata Observatory. The Félix Aguilar Observatory was also named after him. ||
|}
1801–1900
|-
| 1801 Titicaca || || Lake Titicaca, Peru ||
|-id=802
| 1802 Zhang Heng || || Zhang Heng (AD 78–139), Ancient Chinese astronomer, mathematician, inventor, artist and scholar ||
|-id=803
| 1803 Zwicky || 1967 CA || Fritz Zwicky (1898–1974), Swiss astronomer ||
|-id=804
| 1804 Chebotarev || 1967 GG || Gleb Aleksandrovich Chebotarev (1913–1975), Russian astronomer ||
|-id=805
| 1805 Dirikis || 1970 GD || Matiss Dīriķis (1923–1993), Latvian astronomer ||
|-id=806
| 1806 Derice || 1971 LC || Derice Harwood, wife of Dennis N. Harwood, Australian astronomer at Perth Observatory ||
|-id=807
| 1807 Slovakia || 1971 QA || Slovakia, part of the Central European state of Czechoslovakia ||
|-id=808
| 1808 Bellerophon || 2517 P-L || Bellerophon, mythological Greek hero ||
|-id=809
| 1809 Prometheus || 2522 P-L || Prometheus, mythological Greek Titan ||
|-id=810
| 1810 Epimetheus || 4196 P-L || Epimetheus, mythological Greek Titan ||
|-id=811
| 1811 Bruwer || 4576 P-L || Jacobus Albertus Bruwer, South African astronomer ||
|-id=812
| 1812 Gilgamesh || 4645 P-L || Gilgamesh, mythological Sumerian hero ||
|-id=813
| 1813 Imhotep || 7589 P-L || Imhotep, Egyptian architect ||
|-id=814
| 1814 Bach || || Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750), German composer ||
|-id=815
| 1815 Beethoven || || Ludwig van Beethoven (1770–1827), German composer ||
|-id=816
| 1816 Liberia || 1936 BD || Liberia, country on the western coast of Africa ||
|-id=817
| 1817 Katanga || 1939 MB || Province of Katanga in the Democratic Republic of the Congo ||
|-id=818
| 1818 Brahms || 1939 PE || Johannes Brahms (1833–1897), German composer ||
|-id=819
| 1819 Laputa || 1948 PC || Laputa, fictional island in Gulliver's Travels ||
|-id=820
| 1820 Lohmann || 1949 PO || Werner Lohmann (1911–1983), German astronomer at Heidelberg and ARI ||
|-id=821
| 1821 Aconcagua || 1950 MB || Aconcagua, mountain in the Andes ||
|-id=822
| 1822 Waterman || 1950 OO || Alan Tower Waterman (1892–1967), American physicist, first director of the U.S. National Science Foundation ||
|-id=823
| 1823 Gliese || 1951 RD || Wilhelm Gliese (1915–1993), German astronomer ||
|-id=824
| 1824 Haworth || 1952 FM || Leland John Haworth (1904–1979), American particle physicist and NSF administrator ||
|-id=825
| 1825 Klare || 1954 QH || Gerhard Klare (born 1932), German astronomer at Heidelberg Observatory ||
|-id=826
| 1826 Miller || || John Anthony Miller, American astronomer at Indiana University and first director of the Kirkwood Observatory ||
|-id=827
| 1827 Atkinson || 1962 RK || Robert d'Escourt Atkinson (1898–1982), British astronomer ||
|-id=828
| 1828 Kashirina || 1966 PH || Valentin Semenovich Kashirin, Soviet physician from Simferopol, Crimea ||
|-id=829
| 1829 Dawson || 1967 JJ || Bernhard Dawson (1890–1960), Argentinian astronomer ||
|-id=830
| 1830 Pogson || 1968 HA || Norman Robert Pogson (1829–1891), English astronomer ||
|-id=831
| 1831 Nicholson || 1968 HC || Seth Barnes Nicholson (1891–1963), American astronomer ||
|-id=832
| 1832 Mrkos || 1969 PC || Antonín Mrkos (1918–1996), Czech astronomer ||
|-id=833
| 1833 Shmakova || 1969 PN || Marina Valentinovna Shmakova (1910–1971), Soviet astronomer, orbit computer and staff member at ITA ||
|-id=834
| 1834 Palach || 1969 QP || Jan Palach (1948–1969), Czech protester ||
|-id=835
| 1835 Gajdariya || 1970 OE || Arkady Gaidar (1904–1941), Russian writer ||
|-id=836
| 1836 Komarov || 1971 OT || Vladimir Komarov (1927–1967), Russian cosmonaut ||
|-id=837
| 1837 Osita || || Ursula Gibson, wife of American discoverer James B. Gibson ("Osita" is a Spanish translation of Ursula) ||
|-id=838
| 1838 Ursa || 1971 UC || Ursula Wild and Urs Wild, wife and son of Swiss discoverer Paul Wild. It also refers to coat of arms of the city and canton of Bern, Switzerland. ||
|-id=839
| 1839 Ragazza || 1971 UF || Italian for girl, and village of Bad Ragaz, Switzerland ||
|-id=840
| 1840 Hus || 1971 UY || Jan Hus (1369–1415), Bohemian-Czech theologian ||
|-id=841
| 1841 Masaryk || || Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk (1850–1937), Czechoslovak statesman ||
|-id=842
| 1842 Hynek || 1972 AA || Hynek Kohoutek, father of Czech discoverer Luboš Kohoutek ||
|-id=843
| 1843 Jarmila || 1972 AB || Jarmila Kohoutkova, mother of Czech discoverer Luboš Kohoutek ||
|-id=844
| 1844 Susilva || 1972 UB || Susi, schoolmate of Swiss discoverer Paul Wild ||
|-id=845
| 1845 Helewalda || 1972 UC || Helen, schoolmate of Swiss discoverer Paul Wild. from Wald AR, Switzerland ||
|-id=846
| 1846 Bengt || 6553 P-L || Bengt Strömgren (1908–1987), Danish astronomer and astrophysicist ||
|-id=847
| 1847 Stobbe || A916 CA || Joachim Otto Stobbe (1900–1943), German astronomer at Bergedorf Observatory ||
|-id=848
| 1848 Delvaux || 1933 QD || Delvaux, sister-in-law of Belgian astronomer Ginette Roland at Uccle Observatory ||
|-id=849
| 1849 Kresák || 1942 AB || Ľubor Kresák (1927–1994), Czech astronomer ||
|-id=850
| 1850 Kohoutek || 1942 EN || Luboš Kohoutek (born 1935), Czech astronomer ||
|-id=851
| 1851 Lacroute || 1950 VA || Pierre Lacroute, French astronomer and director of the Strasbourg Observatory ||
|-id=852
| 1852 Carpenter || 1955 GA || Edwin Francis Carpenter (1898–1963), American astronomer ||
|-id=853
| 1853 McElroy || 1957 XE || William D. McElroy (1917–1999), American biologist and biochemist ||
|-id=854
| 1854 Skvortsov || || Evgenii Fedorovich Skvortsov (1882–1952), Russian astronomer ||
|-id=855
| 1855 Korolev || || Sergei Korolev (1907–1966), Soviet rocket scientist ||
|-id=856
| 1856 Růžena || || Růžena Petrovičová, staff member, Kleť Observatory ||
|-id=857
| 1857 Parchomenko || || Praskoviya Georgievna Parchomenko (1886–1970), Ukrainian astronomer ||
|-id=858
| 1858 Lobachevskij || 1972 QL || Nikolai Lobachevsky (1792–1856), Russian mathematician ||
|-id=859
| 1859 Kovalevskaya || || Sofia Kovalevskaya (1850–1891), Russian mathematician ||
|-id=860
| 1860 Barbarossa || 1973 SK || Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor (Frederick Barbarossa; 1122–1190). It was also the nickname of Jakob Stauber (1880–1952) from Trogen, Switzerland, who was a teacher of Swiss discoverer Paul Wild ||
|-id=861
| 1861 Komenský || 1970 WB || John Amos Comenius (Komenský; 1592–1670), Czech–Moravian theologian and educator ||
|-id=862
| 1862 Apollo || 1932 HA || Apollo, Greek god ||
|-id=863
| 1863 Antinous || 1948 EA || Antinous, Roman lover ||
|-id=864
| 1864 Daedalus || 1971 FA || Daedalus, mythological Greek inventor ||
|-id=865
| 1865 Cerberus || 1971 UA || Cerberus, Greek monster ||
|-id=866
| 1866 Sisyphus || 1972 XA || Sisyphus, mythological Greek ||
|-id=867
| 1867 Deiphobus || 1971 EA || Deiphobus, mythological Greek ||
|-id=868
| 1868 Thersites || 2008 P-L || Thersites, mythological Greek warrior ||
|-id=869
| 1869 Philoctetes || 4596 P-L || Philoctetes, mythological Greek warrior ||
|-id=870
| 1870 Glaukos || 1971 FE || Glaukos (Glaucus) from Greek mythology. In Homer's Iliad, he was captain in the Lycian army during the Trojan War and was killed by Ajax ||
|-id=871
| 1871 Astyanax || 1971 FF || Astyanax, infant son of Hector ||
|-id=872
| 1872 Helenos || 1971 FG || Helenus, mythological Trojan ||
|-id=873
| 1873 Agenor || 1971 FH || Agenor, mythological Greek king ||
|-id=874
| 1874 Kacivelia || A924 RC || Village of Kaciveli, near Simeiz, Crimea, location of the Black Sea Hydrographical Stations, now the Marine Hydrographical Institute ||
|-id=875
| 1875 Neruda || 1969 QQ || Jan Neruda (1834–1891), Czech writer ||
|-id=876
| 1876 Napolitania || 1970 BA || Naples, Italy ||
|-id=877
| 1877 Marsden || 1971 FC || Brian G. Marsden (1937–2010), astronomer and Director of the MPC ||
|-id=878
| 1878 Hughes || 1933 QC || Son of Mireille Demiddelaer, granddaughter of Belgian discoverer Eugène Joseph Delporte ||
|-id=879
| 1879 Broederstroom || 1935 UN || Broederstroom, South Africa ||
|-id=880
| 1880 McCrosky || 1940 AN || Richard Eugene McCrosky, American astronomer ||
|-id=881
| 1881 Shao || 1940 PC || Cheng-yuan Shao, assistant of Richard Eugene McCrosky, see 1880 McCrosky ||
|-id=882
| 1882 Rauma || 1941 UJ || Rauma, Finland ||
|-id=883
| 1883 Rimito || 1942 XA || Rymattyla, Finland ||
|-id=884
| 1884 Skip || || Gunter "Skip" Schwartz, American astronomer ||
|-id=885
| 1885 Herero || 1948 PJ || Herero, Bantu tribe ||
|-id=886
| 1886 Lowell || 1949 MP || Percival Lowell (1855–1916), American astronomer ||
|-id=887
| 1887 Virton || 1950 TD || Virton, Belgium ||
|-id=888
| 1888 Zu Chong-Zhi || || Zu Chongzhi (AD 429–500), Chinese mathematician and astronomer ||
|-id=889
| 1889 Pakhmutova || 1968 BE || Aleksandra Nikolaevna Pakhmutova, Soviet composer ||
|-id=890
| 1890 Konoshenkova || 1968 CD || Olga Petrovna Konoshenkova (19191–975), schoolmistress at the Crimean Observatory School ||
|-id=891
| 1891 Gondola || 1969 RA || The gondola ||
|-id=892
| 1892 Lucienne || 1971 SD || Lucienne Divan, French astrophysicist ||
|-id=893
| 1893 Jakoba || 1971 UD || Jakob Oberholzer (1862–1939), Swiss geologist and grandfather of discoverer Paul Wild ||
|-id=894
| 1894 Haffner || 1971 UH || Hans Haffner (1912–1977), German astronomer at Bergedorf Observatory ||
|-id=895
| 1895 Larink || 1971 UZ || Johannes Larink (1893–1988), German astronomer at Bergedorf Observatory ||
|-id=896
| 1896 Beer || || Arthur Beer (1900–1980), German astronomer ||
|-id=897
| 1897 Hind || || John Russell Hind (1823–1895), English astronomer ||
|-id=898
| 1898 Cowell || || Philip Herbert Cowell (1870–1949), British astronomer ||
|-id=899
| 1899 Crommelin || || Andrew Claude de la Cherois Crommelin (1865–1939), British astronomer ||
|-id=900
| 1900 Katyusha || 1971 YB || Yekaterina Zelenko (1916–1941), Soviet war pilot ||
|}
1901–2000
|-
| 1901 Moravia || 1972 AD || Moravia, a region in the east of the Czech Republic ||
|-id=902
| 1902 Shaposhnikov || 1972 HU || Vladimir Grigorevich Shaposhnikov (1905–1942), Russian astrometrist at Simeiz Observatory ||
|-id=903
| 1903 Adzhimushkaj || 1972 JL || Adzhimushkaj, battle site in World War II ||
|-id=904
| 1904 Massevitch || 1972 JM || Alla Genrikhovna Massevich, Russian astronomer and astrophysicist ||
|-id=905
| 1905 Ambartsumian || 1972 JZ || Victor Ambartsumian (1908–1996), Armenian-Russian astronomer ||
|-id=906
| 1906 Naef || 1972 RC || Robert A. Naef (1907–1975), Swiss amateur astronomer after whom the Observatory Naef Épendes is also named ||
|-id=907
| 1907 Rudneva || || Yevgeniya Rudneva (1920–1944), Russian World War II heroine ||
|-id=908
| 1908 Pobeda || || Russian for victory ||
|-id=909
| 1909 Alekhin || || Alexander Alekhine (1892–1946), Russian chess player ||
|-id=910
| 1910 Mikhailov || || Aleksandr Aleksandrovich Mikhailov (1888–1983), Russian astronomer ||
|-id=911
| 1911 Schubart || 1973 UD || Joachim Schubart (1928–), German astronomer † ||
|-id=912
| 1912 Anubis || 6534 P-L || Anubis, Ancient Egyptian god ||
|-id=913
| 1913 Sekanina || 1928 SF || Zdenek Sekanina (born 1936), Czech-born American astronomer ||
|-id=914
| 1914 Hartbeespoortdam || || Hartbeespoortdam, lake in South Africa ||
|-id=915
| 1915 Quetzálcoatl || 1953 EA || Quetzalcoatl, Aztec god ||
|-id=916
| 1916 Boreas || 1953 RA || Boreas, Greek god ||
|-id=917
| 1917 Cuyo || 1968 AA || University of Cuyo, Argentina ||
|-id=918
| 1918 Aiguillon || 1968 UA || Aiguillon, France ||
|-id=919
| 1919 Clemence || 1971 SA || Gerald Maurice Clemence (1908–1974), American astronomer ||
|-id=920
| 1920 Sarmiento || 1971 VO || Domingo Sarmiento (1811–1888), president of Argentina between 1868 and 1874, who supported American astronomer Benjamin Apthorp Gould in founding the Argentine National Observatory in Cordoba ||
|-id=921
| 1921 Pala || 1973 SE || Pala, tribe of Native Americans ||
|-id=922
| 1922 Zulu || 1949 HC || The Zulu people of Africa ||
|-id=923
| 1923 Osiris || 4011 P-L || Osiris, Ancient Egyptian god ||
|-id=924
| 1924 Horus || 4023 P-L || Horus, Ancient Egyptian god ||
|-id=925
| 1925 Franklin-Adams || 1934 RY || John Franklin-Adams (1843–1912), British amateur astronomer ||
|-id=926
| 1926 Demiddelaer || 1935 JA || Mireille Demiddelaer, granddaughter of Belgian discoverer Eugène Joseph Delporte ||
|-id=927
| 1927 Suvanto || 1936 FP || Rafael Suvanto, an assistant of Finnish astronomer Yrjö Väisälä at Turku Observatory ||
|-id=928
| 1928 Summa || 1938 SO || Village in Finland where the Battle of Summa took place during the Winter War in 1939/40 ||
|-id=929
| 1929 Kollaa || 1939 BS || Kollaa River in Russia, where the Battle of Kollaa took place during the Winter War in 1939/40 ||
|-id=930
| 1930 Lucifer || 1964 UA || Lucifer, the rebellious archangel, identified with Satan, who was expelled from heaven ||
|-id=931
| 1931 Čapek || 1969 QB || Karel Čapek (1890–1938), Czech playwright ||
|-id=932
| 1932 Jansky || || Karl Guthe Jansky (1905–1950), American astronomer ||
|-id=933
| 1933 Tinchen || 1972 AC || Christine Kohoutek, wife of Czech discoverer Luboš Kohoutek ||
|-id=934
| 1934 Jeffers || 1972 XB || Hamilton Jeffers (1893–1976), American astronomer ||
|-id=935
| 1935 Lucerna || 1973 RB || The city of Lucerne, Switzerland ||
|-id=936
| 1936 Lugano || 1973 WD || The city of Lugano, Switzerland ||
|-id=937
| 1937 Locarno || 1973 YA || The city of Locarno, Switzerland ||
|-id=938
| 1938 Lausanna || 1974 HC || The city of Lausanne, Switzerland ||
|-id=939
| 1939 Loretta || 1974 UC || Loretta Kowal, daughter of American discoverer Charles T. Kowal ||
|-id=940
| 1940 Whipple || 1975 CA || Fred Lawrence Whipple (1906–2004), American astronomer ||
|-id=941
| 1941 Wild || || Paul Wild (1925–2014), Swiss astronomer ||
|-id=942
| 1942 Jablunka || 1972 SA || Jablůnka, a village in Moravia ||
|-id=943
| 1943 Anteros || 1973 EC || Anteros, Greek mythology ||
|-id=944
| 1944 Günter || 1925 RA || Günter Reinmuth, son of German discoverer Karl Reinmuth ||
|-id=945
| 1945 Wesselink || 1930 OL || Adriaan Wesselink (1909–1995), Dutch astronomer ||
|-id=946
| 1946 Walraven || 1931 PH || Theodore Walraven, Dutch astronomer ||
|-id=947
| 1947 Iso-Heikkilä || 1935 EA || Iso-Heikkilä, Finnish observatory ||
|-id=948
| 1948 Kampala || 1935 GL || Kampala, Uganda ||
|-id=949
| 1949 Messina || 1936 NE || Messina, South Africa ||
|-id=950
| 1950 Wempe || 1942 EO || Johann Wempe (1906–1980), German astronomer ||
|-id=951
| 1951 Lick || 1949 OA || James Lick (1796–1876), American patron of science ||
|-id=952
| 1952 Hesburgh || 1951 JC || Theodore Hesburgh (1917–2015), American president of University of Notre Dame ||
|-id=953
| 1953 Rupertwildt || 1951 UK || Rupert Wildt (1905–1976), German-born American astronomer ||
|-id=954
| 1954 Kukarkin || 1952 PH || Boris Vasilyevich Kukarkin (1909–1977), Russian astronomer ||
|-id=955
| 1955 McMath || 1963 SR || Robert Raynolds McMath (1891–1962), American astronomer ||
|-id=956
| 1956 Artek || || International Children's Center "Artek" on the Crimean peninsula ||
|-id=957
| 1957 Angara || 1970 GF || The Angara River in Siberia, Russia ||
|-id=958
| 1958 Chandra || 1970 SB || Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar (1910–1995), Indian astrophysicist ||
|-id=959
| 1959 Karbyshev || 1972 NB || Dmitry Karbyshev (1880–1945), Soviet military leader ||
|-id=960
| 1960 Guisan || 1973 UA || Henri Guisan (1874–1960), Swiss general in World War II ||
|-id=961
| 1961 Dufour || 1973 WA || Henri Dufour (1787–1875), Swiss general ||
|-id=962
| 1962 Dunant || 1973 WE || Henry Dunant (1828–1910), Swiss founder of the Red Cross ||
|-id=963
| 1963 Bezovec || 1975 CB || Bezovec hill near Piešťany in western Slovakia, where numerous meteorites have been found Src ||
|-id=964
| 1964 Luyten || 2007 P-L || Willem Jacob Luyten (1899–1994), Dutch-born American astronomer ||
|-id=965
| 1965 van de Kamp || 2521 P-L || Peter van de Kamp (1901–1995), Dutch-born American astronomer ||
|-id=966
| 1966 Tristan || 2552 P-L || Tristan, Knight of the Round Table ||
|-id=967
| 1967 Menzel || A905 VC || Donald Howard Menzel (1901–1976), American astronomer ||
|-id=968
| 1968 Mehltretter || 1932 BK || Johannes Peter Mehltretter (1934–1982), German astronomer ||
|-id=969
| 1969 Alain || 1935 CG || Alain Vanheste, husband of the granddaughter of the Belgian discoverer Sylvain Arend ||
|-id=970
| 1970 Sumeria || 1954 ER || Sumer, ancient kingdom ||
|-id=971
| 1971 Hagihara || || Yusuke Hagihara (1897–1979), Japanese astronomer ||
|-id=972
| 1972 Yi Xing || || Yi Xing (683–727), Chinese astronomer ||
|-id=973
| 1973 Colocolo || 1968 OA || Colocolo, an Araucanian chief in Chile ||
|-id=974
| 1974 Caupolican || 1968 OE || Caupolican, Araucanian chief ||
|-id=975
| 1975 Pikelner || 1969 PH || Solomon Pikelner (1921–1975), Russian astronomer ||
|-id=976
| 1976 Kaverin || 1970 GC || Aleksej Aleksandrovich Kaverin (1904–1976), an instructor in astronomy at Irkutsk Pedagogical Institute, Russia ||
|-id=977
| 1977 Shura || 1970 QY || Aleksandr Kosmodemyanskii (1925–1945), Soviet war hero ||
|-id=978
| 1978 Patrice || 1971 LD || Patrice Harwood, daughter of Australian astronomer Dennis N. Harwood, see ||
|-id=979
| 1979 Sakharov || 2006 P-L || Andrei Sakharov (1921–1989), Russian physicist ||
|-id=980
| 1980 Tezcatlipoca || 1950 LA || Tezcatlipoca, Aztec god ||
|-id=981
| 1981 Midas || 1973 EA || Midas, mythological Greek king ||
|-id=982
| 1982 Cline || 1975 VA || Edwin Lee Cline, inventor ||
|-id=983
| 1983 Bok || 1975 LB || Bart Jan Bok (1906–1983), Dutch-born American astronomer and his wife Priscilla Fairfield Bok (1896–1975), American astronomer ||
|-id=984
| 1984 Fedynskij || 1926 TN || Vsevolod Vladimirovich Fedynskii (1908–1978), Russian geophysicist ||
|-id=985
| 1985 Hopmann || 1929 AE || Josef Hopmann (1890–1975), German astronomer ||
|-id=986
| 1986 Plaut || || Lukas Plaut (1910–1984), Dutch astronomer ||
|-id=987
| 1987 Kaplan || 1952 RH || Samuil Aronovich Kaplan (1921–1978), Russian astronomer at Lvov Observatory and at the Radiophysical Research Institute in Nizhny Novgorod, Russia ||
|-id=988
| 1988 Delores || 1952 SV || Delores Owings, staff member, Indiana University ||
|-id=989
| 1989 Tatry || 1955 FG || Vysoké Tatry, mountain range in Slovakia ||
|-id=990
| 1990 Pilcher || 1956 EE || Frederick Pilcher (born 1939/40), American astronomer ||
|-id=991
| 1991 Darwin || 1967 JL || Charles Darwin (1809–1882), British naturalist, and Sir George Darwin (1845–1912), British astronomer and mathematician ||
|-id=992
| 1992 Galvarino || 1968 OD || Galvarino, Araucanian chief ||
|-id=993
| 1993 Guacolda || || Guacolda, wife of Araucanian chief Lautaro ||
|-id=994
| 1994 Shane || 1961 TE || C. Donald Shane (1895–1983), American astronomer ||
|-id=995
| 1995 Hajek || || Tadeáš Hájek (1525–1600), Czech astronomer ||
|-id=996
| 1996 Adams || 1961 UA || John Couch Adams (1819–1892), British mathematician and astronomer ||
|-id=997
| 1997 Leverrier || 1963 RC || Urbain Le Verrier (1811–1877), French astronomer ||
|-id=998
| 1998 Titius || || Johann Daniel Titius (1729–1796), German astronomer ||
|-id=999
| 1999 Hirayama || 1973 DR || Kiyotsugu Hirayama (1874–1943), Japanese astronomer ||
|-id=000
| 2000 Herschel || 1960 OA || William Herschel (1738–1822), German-born British astronomer and composer ||
|}
References
001001-002000 |
605287 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OS-tan | OS-tan | OS-tan is an Internet meme consisting of moe anthropomorphs of popular operating systems, originating on the Japanese imageboard Futaba Channel. The designs of OS-tan, which were created by heterogeneous amateur Japanese artists, are typically female; for example, the personifications of Microsoft Windows operating systems are often depicted as sisters of varying ages. The -tan element in the term is a hypocoristic suffix in Japanese.
Though initially appearing only in fan works, the OS-tan proved popular enough that Microsoft branches in Singapore and Taiwan used the OS-tan concept as the basis for ad campaigns for Internet Explorer and Microsoft Silverlight, respectively.
History
The concept of the OS-tan is reported to have begun as a personification of the common perception of Windows Me (Released in 2000 by Microsoft as the 9x counterpart to Windows 2000) as unstable and prone to frequent crashes. Discussions on Futaba Channel likened this to the stereotype of a fickle, troublesome girl and as this personification expanded Me-tan was created and followed by the other characters. One of the early works to predominantly feature the OS-tan was an interactive Flash animation showing a possible intro to an imaginary anime show known as Trouble Windows. A fansub of this was eventually created and is partly responsible for the spread of the OS-tan to English language imageboards.
The OS-tan is not an original concept and was pre-dated by Toy's iMac Girl, who was featured on a series of desktops released between August 1998 and March 1999.
Commercial products
Ohzora Publishing produced one book based on OS-tan characters, titled . It includes illustrations by over 25 contributors. It also includes 95-tan, ME-tan, XP-tan figures, titled OS Girl 95, OS Girl me, OS Girl XP respectively, but include a molded space for 2k-tan (named OS Girl 2K).
ME-tan, 2K-tan, XP-tan were designed by GUHICO of Stranger Workshop, while 95-tan was designed by Fujisaki Shiro from H.B.Company.
Parthenon Production Limited, company had commercialized Pink Company's OS-tan products.
MALINO from Deja Vu ArtWorks produced the Me Document and Shared Folder! trilogy, which were sold in digital format.
Japanese version of Windows 7 Ultimate DSP Edition includes the unofficial Nanami Madobe mascot. This inspired Microsoft Taiwan to launch an official mascot for Microsoft Silverlight, Hikaru. This was followed up by giving Hikaru "sisters", Lei, Aoi, and Yu.
A special package of the Japanese Windows 7 Ultimate DSP Edition, called the Touch Mouse Artist Edition or Touch Mouse Limited Edition Artist Series, came with an animated tutorial Windows theme (with custom sounds and three desktop backgrounds) featuring Madobe Nanami.
In 2009, an Ubuntu-based comic titled Ubunchu! was serialized in Kantan Ubuntu!, a spinoff from Weekly ASCII magazine. It was authored by Hiroshi Seo, with English version translated by Fumihito Yoshida, Hajime Mizuno, Martin Owens, Arturo Silva, and Anton Ekblad.
Tan suffix
The Japanese suffix is a mispronunciation of , an informal, intimate, and diminutive honorific suffix for a person, used for friends, family, and pets. In this case, the mispronunciation is used intentionally to achieve the contrived cute or charming effect that is commonly associated with its use by young children and is also sometimes added to the names of non-mascot characters. The personifications as a whole are commonly simply called mascots or mascot characters, and as such the -tan suffix itself means nothing outside its role as an honorific and its implications of cuteness. Normal suffixes, including -san, -chan, and -kun are also used in the name of some OS-tan, depending on the character and the speaker's preference; or the suffix may be omitted entirely.
New Generation OS-tans
While there are mascots of Windows versions from 7 to 10, currently there is no mascot for Windows 11 as of yet.
Windows 10
The name of the Windows 10 mascot was officially introduced as Tōko (or Touko) Madobe on 31 July 2015. As confirmed on the character's official Facebook page, her name is a homonym for one of the readings for the Japanese word for 'ten': . Her name was chosen by fans through an online poll. According to her fictional profile, her origins are the Madobe family and she is set 100 years in the future. She likes online gaming and supporting others. Her personal traits are being an excellent student, and expanding her knowledge on technology. Her manager often worries since she’s a bit spontaneous. She also enjoys cheering on people who are working hard and doing their best. She has a part-time job at the Akibano Custom Computer Company where she is a rookie. This level of back story is rather unusual for OS-tan.
Windows 8.1
The Japanese Windows 8.1 Pro DSP edition Madobe Family version by Windows Navi+ (Techno-Alliance Corp.) is a limited (1000 units) version of Windows 8.1 Pro 32/64-bit edition with three types of Madobe family picture password wallpapers, Madobe character voices (Nanami, Yū, Ai, Claudia), Madobe family complete edition Windows theme pack, previously unpublished Madobe family designs, Final Pasocom Data Hikkoshi 9+ licence key, Skype three-month free trial, historical Windows logo stickers (XP, Vista, 7, 8). Other editions include a Memorial Pack version without voice, theme pack, stickers (6191 units); a 64-bit Windows Memorial Pack version with a Sculpt Mobile Mouse with Nanami decor (810 units). These editions were available for preorder on 2013-10-04 with release date on 2013-10-18. As part of the market launch, a Facebook draw of 8 followers took place when follower count reaches 80001; and total Twitter follower count for Yū and Ai reach 8001, where winners receive Yū- and Ai-themed prizes.
Additional types of Windows 8.1 Pro DSP edition Madobe family theme packs were also sold by Ark (TowerHill), ZOA Corporation, Tsukumo (Project White), Dospara, Buy More (Unit.com), Big Camera (Sofmap), and PC One. These versions include two types of wallpapers (Christmas, New Year), theme pack with system voices.
Windows 8
The Japanese Windows 8 Pro DSP editions were released in Madobe Yū (or Yuu, ) and Madobe Ai () editions by Windows Navi+ (Techno-Alliance Corp.). Both versions (4,000 units per character, thus 8,000 total) include a Microsoft Wedge touch mouse with the Windows 8 logo, character-specific Windows theme (three theme pack wallpapers, event sounds in the respective character's voice), picture password images. In addition, Limited Akihabara Editions (444 units per character, 888 total), sold in Tokyo's Akihabara shopping district, include Madobe Ai/Yū edition of Microsoft Wedge Touch Mouse, an alternate character-specific event sound samples and theme pack and an alternate wallpaper for its respective character. Nipponbashi versions (500 units per character), sold in Nipponbashi in Osaka, include Microsoft Wedge touch mouse (with Ai and Yū decal), three theme pack wall papers (two common and one character-specific), and Yū or Ai event sounds. The Nipponbashi packages include different art. The 32/64-bit version availability depends on retailer.
Asuka Nishi voices the short-haired Yū, while Nao Tamura voices the long-haired Ai.
The Windows 8 Can Edition from Unitcom (available for the first 2,888 copies) included notepad, T-shirt, two-way mouse pad, pocket media case, smart phone stand cleaning, two-way PC cleaner, Yū and Ai badges, and a freeze blanket.
The extended fictional Madobe family tree detailed that Yū is the older sister, and their parents are Eiichi () from the Netsu (根津) family and Shii () from the Madobe family. Yū and Ai were said to have a birthdate of 18 November 1996 (Windows CE's release date) with age 15, with height of 152 cm. This conflicts with other back-story materials suggesting that Ai is the younger sister.
MasatakaP and Electrocutica produced a Windows 8 music video titled "Through the Window", featuring Madobe characters Nanami, Yū (in silhouette), and Claudia. The video was presented as the opening to Microsoft's keynote on the second day of Windows Developer Days in Japan.
In 2012 and 2013, Windows Navi+ (Techno-Alliance Corp.) also created separate Twitter accounts for Ai and Yū, respectively.
Two theme songs for Yū and Ai – "Mir8cle Days" () and "Donna Mirai Demo" () were unveiled on 15 June 2013, and sold as a CD bundled with Windows 8 Pro DSP Edition, sold at TwinBox Akihabara.
Windows 7
Akiba PC reported that the first 7777 copies of Japanese Windows 7 Ultimate DSP editions include special wallpaper and sound sets for a character called , voiced by Nana Mizuki. The character was designed by Wakaba. The premium set includes a Windows 7 theme featuring 3 Nanami wallpapers, 19 event sound sets, CD with 5 extra Nanami sounds. Regular DSP edition includes a digest Windows 7 theme including a Nanami wallpaper, an event sound set; the preorder users can also download an extra Nanami wallpaper and 6 event sound sets. This makes it the first OS-tan marketed by the company producing the operating system. In addition, the character also got its own Twitter account.
During the initial sales event of the Windows 7 DSP edition, the official profile of the character has also been revealed. It shows Madobe Nanami was born in 1992-04-06 (release date of Windows 3.1) 17 years of age(at the time of release), who lives in Chiyoda, Tokyo. Nanami is among an extended family of 16 members, and she has elder brother named Goichi (吾一), elder sister named Mutsumi (むつみ), mother named Mikaho (美佳穗) from Madobe (窓辺) family, father named Kyuuachi (究八) from Shirato (白戸) family. Nanami and her cousin Claudia Madobe (クロード(蔵人)) later appeared in Microsoft's Cloud Girl comic strip.
Original OS-tans
Windows Vista
Windows Vista's most distinguishing characteristic is usually her horn-shaped pigtails (some variants have up to four pigtails) and heterochromatic eyes. Silver or white hair appears to be the most frequent, although light blue and black are also seen. A common costume design was a white and red sailor fuku and stockings. Since the release of more details about Vista's interface, her look has changed slightly. A black maid's outfit is now emerging in popularity (which matches the new default Vista color scheme), as well as a circular Windows logo hair clip, identical to the new Start Menu button in Vista. There also seems to be a more finalized version who has a hair color similar to that of Vista wallpapers, with a range from light blue, to yellow, to green. She also wears a type of long coat (which only covers her left and right sides) which are transparent to imitate that of the Aero glass effect.
Windows XP
XP-tan is a dark-haired girl with ribbons in her hair and an "XP" hair ornament typically worn on the left side. As Windows XP is criticized for bloating a system and being very pretty without being as useful, XP-tan is commonly depicted wearing tight clothing with big breasts. Additionally, as a reference to the memory usage of Windows XP, she is often seen eating or holding an empty rice bowl labeled "Memory". Some variants include a version for XP Home known as "Homeko" who has green hair which she wears in a short ponytail with two large XP-shaped hairclips that cover her ears, as well as a less common variation representing Windows XP Media Center Edition. The outfits worn by the two main variants are based on the loading lines at the Windows splash screen during startup. And XP tan can handle a max of 4 GB of RAM (3.5 GB she can use).
Windows 2000
Although a few variants exist, the most common operating system represented is Windows 2000 Professional. She is typically drawn as an intelligent, professional, reserved looking woman with short blue hair, glasses, and hair clips that resemble cat ears flanking a small white bonnet or ruffle, similar to a maid's bonnet, that shows the Windows logo. Her outfit resembles a swimsuit suggesting the Windows logo colors worn with long blue coat, alluding to the popular opinion that Windows 2000 is the most stable and dependable of the Windows operating systems. Due to the greater stability of Win2K compared with WinME, which was released near 2000, 2K-tan is often described as the guardian of ME-tan. The particular shade of blue used in most drawings is similar to the default Windows 2000 desktop color.
Windows ME
The design of ME-tan, the personification of Windows Me, is very much in line with the Japanese concept of kawaii or cuteness. Her design has changed little from the artist's original designs and is depicted with green hair in long pigtails wearing a maid outfit with a "!" badge on the front reminiscent of the Windows Me Active Desktop Recovery screen, often shown after rebooting from a system crash in Me. While she is considered to be a hard worker, webcomics often depict her failing at anything she tries to do, often literally crashing and irritating her sisters. When she is not frozen or out of control, she tends to do things showing a lack of common sense or knowledge, such as putting a soda can into a microwave oven or defending herself by swinging a Welsh onion.
Windows 98 and 98SE
While many variations exist the most common depiction of the Windows 98 operating systems is a pair of young girls. The OS-tan representative of the original release of Windows 98 is shown in a white and blue uniform that includes the Windows logo as part of a neck tie, navy blue hair, and a "98" hair clip. The Windows 98 Second Edition OS-tan is similar in appearance, but wears a green sailor school uniform with the letters "SE" on the front. Two early representations that are also seen are a pair of stick-limbed Pocky boxes with a face and version number drawn in crayon. This is a reference to Vulcan 300, a character from the Zatch Bell! anime series. These early representations are still used as a mecha piloted by the girls, dolls carried by the girls, or sometimes even as hiding places for them.
Windows 95
As Windows 95 is considered to be the oldest of the modern 32-bit Windows operating systems, it is usually represented as a traditional lady from the early modern era of Japan. She is typically depicted as a gentle-looking brown haired woman in a kimono, with a hair ribbon showing the four Windows colors. Her outfit is a traditional kimono and a hakama of Japan and she wears thick sandals, or geta, on her feet. These were a woman college student's typical clothes as seen in the earliest period during the course of the modernization in Japan (from the Meiji period to the Taishō period) and is a reference to the modernization of Windows in comparison to the modernization of Japan. Additionally, the pattern of her kimono is based on the file "hana256.bmp", which was used as a desktop wallpaper pattern in the Japanese version of Windows. She is typically depicted as engaged in drinking tea, serving meals or doing other housework. One recurring theme in stories is her unfamiliarity with newer, post Win-95 technologies, such as USB devices (even though the OSR 2.x supported it) and broadband internet connections. She is also occasionally depicted wielding a katana in an aggressive manner, symbolizing that it was with her generation of operating systems that Microsoft finally achieved full dominance of the personal computer market.
Windows 3.1
Windows 3.1 is a short girl with long silver hair, a long light purple dress, and a large purple bow on her head. She is often seen carrying a small, black cat on her head as well. She acts as a servant, or a maid of some sort, who serves and tends to DOS-tan. This is a reference to the fact that Windows 3.1 is not a full operating system, but rather just a GUI for MS-DOS.
Mac OS X
The Mac OS X girl is often portrayed as a catgirl, following with the Apple "wild cat" naming tradition (every Mac OS X release until OS X Mavericks had a codename like Jaguar, Panther, Tiger, Snow Leopard, etc.). Otherwise, she is shown as an older variation of the Mac OS 9 girl, wearing a white coat and wearing an AirPort wireless hub fashioned as a hat. She is occasionally shown holding a publication of some sort, as Macs are often used for desktop publishing.
Linux
Originally seen as a bearded penguin (a reference to Tux, the penguin mascot of the Linux kernel), an image of a girl with a helmet and flippers was chosen as a human alternative. Her helmet (most likely a metaphor for the Linux kernel's oft-claimed excellent security) usually has horns on it, likely a reference to the GNU software which comprises the common system programs present in nearly all Linux distributions. The gear teeth on the helmet are a reference to KDE, a common desktop environment used with Linux. The foot symbol on her shirt is a reference to GNOME, another common desktop environment. She is often seen with a spear that has flags attached representing the GRUB, LILO and GCC tools for Linux.
MSX-DOS
The MSX-DOS girl is often portrayed as a young but grey-haired girl carrying a large cartridge-shaped bag with an MSX-DOS logo on it. There is even a short game featuring this OS-tan as player character. The bag this OS-tan is often shown holding is cartridge-shaped, likely because MSXDOS2 required an cartridge with an extra 64 KB of ROM in order to work.
American -tan
Some Americanized versions of Windows related OS-tan, named XP-USA, Me-USA, and 2K-USA, were published in the Ohzora's FanBook in a comic strip named "Trouble Windows in USA", by Saint Muscle.
Supporting characters
Because of heavy associations between operating systems and their supporting programs, such as anti-virus clients and Web browsers, many supporting characters have been created to personify the idiosyncrasies of these applications. Some examples are:
Amazon Kindle: Kindle-kun
Chromium: Chrome-tan
DOS: DOS-tan
Internet Explorer/Microsoft Edge: Inori Aizawa (IE-tan)
McAfee: Miss McAfee
Mozilla Firefox: Firefox-tan; Foxkeh Norton Utilities: Dr. Norton
Opera: Opera-tan
Silverlight: Hikaru Aizawa
Microsoft Azure: Claudia Madobe
Critical receptionWired News'' rated OS-tan among the "Lamest Technology Mascots Ever", yet "strangely compelling".
See also
CG artwork
Mecha Musume
Moe anthropomorphism
List of computing mascots
References
External links
OS-tan Collections Wiki
Doujinshi
Anime and manga fandom
Moe anthropomorphism
OS-tan and related characters
Internet memes
Operating system advocacy |
49326 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KStars | KStars | KStars is a freely licensed planetarium program using the KDE Platform. It is available for Linux, BSD, macOS, and Microsoft Windows. A light version of KStars is available for Android devices. It provides an accurate graphical representation of the night sky, from any location on Earth, at any date and time. The display includes up to 100 million stars (with additional addons), 13,000 deep sky objects, constellations from different cultures, all 8 planets, the Sun and Moon, and thousands of comets, asteroids, satellites, and supernovae. It has features to appeal to users of all levels, from informative hypertext articles about astronomy, to robust control of telescopes and CCD cameras, and logging of observations of specific objects.
KStars supports adjustable simulation speeds in order to view phenomena that happen over long timescales. For astronomical calculations, Astrocalculator can be used to predict conjunctions, lunar eclipses, and perform many common astronomical calculations. The following tools are included:
Observation planner
Sky calendar tool
Script Builder
Solar System
Jupiter Moons
Flags: Custom flags superimposed on the sky map.
FOV editor to calculate field of view of equipment and display them.
Altitude vs. Time tool to plot altitude vs. time graphs for any object.
Hierarchical Progress Surveys (HiPS) overlay.
High quality print outs for sky charts.
Ekos is an astrophotography suite, a complete astrophotography solution that can control all INDI devices including numerous telescopes, CCDs, DSLRs, focusers, filters, and a lot more. Ekos supports highly accurate tracking using online and offline astrometry solver, auto-focus and auto-guiding capabilities, and capture of single or multiple images using the powerful built in sequence manager.
KStars has been packaged by many Linux/BSD distributions, including Red Hat Linux, OpenSUSE, Arch Linux, and Debian. Some distributions package KStars as a separate application, some just provide a kdeedu package, which includes KStars. KStars is distributed with the KDE Software Compilation as part of the kdeedu "Edutainment" module.
KStars participated in Google Summer of Code in 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011 2012, 2015 and 2016. It has also participated in the first run of ESA's Summer of Code in Space in 2011.
It has been identified as one of the three best "Linux stargazing apps" in a Linux.com review.
See also
Space flight simulation game
List of space flight simulation games
Planetarium software
List of observatory software
References
External links
MPC Elements for Comets and Minor Planets in KStars
Download source code and Windows and Mac versions
Astronomy software
Free and open-source software
Free astronomy software
Free educational software
KDE Education Project
KDE software
Linux software
Planetarium software for Linux
Science education software
Science software
Software that uses Qt |
22015466 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social%20technology | Social technology | Social technology is a way of using human, intellectual and digital resources in order to influence social processes. For example, one might use social technology to ease social procedures via social software and social hardware, which might include the use of computers and information technology for governmental procedures or business practices. It has historically referred to two meanings: as a term related to social engineering, a meaning that began in the 19th century, and as a description of social software, a meaning that began in the early 21st century. Social technology is also split between human-oriented technologies and artifact-oriented technologies.
History
The term "social technology" was first used at the University of Chicago by Albion Woodbury Small and Charles Richmond Henderson around the end of the 19th century. At a seminar in 1898, Small described social technology as the use of knowledge of the facts and laws of social life to bring about rational social aims. In 1895 Henderson coined the term "social art" for the methods by which improvements to society are introduced. According to Henderson, social art gives directions.
In 1901, Henderson published an article titled "The Scope of Social Technology" in which he renamed this social art as 'social technology', and described it as "a system of conscious and purposeful organization of persons in which every actual, natural social organization finds its true place, and all factors in harmony cooperate to realize an increasing aggregate and better proportions of the 'health, wealth, beauty, knowledge, sociability, and rightness' desires." In 1923, the term social technology was given a wider meaning in the works of Ernest Burgess and Thomas D. Eliot, who expanded the definition of social technology to include the application, particularly in social work, of techniques developed by psychology and other social sciences.
In 1928, Luther Lee Bernard defined applied science as the observation and measurement of norms or standards, which control our relationship with the universe. He then separated this definition from that of social technology by explaining that social technology also "includes administration as well as the determination of the norms which are to be applied in the administration". In 1935, he wrote an article called "The Place of Social Sciences in Modern Education," in which he wrote about the nature of an effective education in the social sciences to reach effective education by the willing masses. It would be of three types: Firstly, "a description of present conditions and trends in society". Secondly, "the teaching of desirable social ends and ideals necessary to correct such social maladjustments as we now have". Thirdly, "a system of social technology which, if applied, might be expected to remedy existing maladjustments and realize valid social ends". Bernard explained that the aspects of social technology which lags behind are the technologies involved in the "less material forms of human welfare". These are the applied sciences of "the control of crime, abolition of poverty, the raising of every normal person to economic, political, and personal competency, the art of good government, or city, rural, and national planning". On the other hand, "the best developed social technologies, such as advertising, finance, and 'practical' politics, are used in the main for antisocial rather than for proper humanitarian ends".
After the Second World War, the term 'social technology' continued to be used intermittently, for example by the social psychologist Dorwin Cartwright for techniques developed in the science of group dynamics such as 'buzz groups' and role playing and by Olaf Helmer to refer to the Delphi technique for creating a consensus opinion in a panel of experts. More recent examples are Human rights & social technology by Rainer Knopff and Tom Flanagan which addresses both human rights and government policies that ensure them. Another example is Theodore Caplow's Perverse incentives: the neglect of social technology in the public sector, which discusses a wide range of topics, including use of the death penalty to discourage crime and the welfare system to provide for the needy.
At the current stage of social technology research, two main directions of usage of this term have emerged: (a) human-oriented technologies and (b) artifact-oriented technologies.
According to the goal of social technology adaption, technologies oriented toward humans consist of:
Technologies of power
Fundamental legal regulations
System of signs and symbols
Participation technologies
Group behavior pattern creation
Information transfer mediation
Eugenics
Individual behavior pattern creation
Legal norms
Technologies of the self
Technologies oriented toward artifacts consist of:
Social interaction technologies
Relation creation and sustainment technologies
Co-operation technologies
Knowledge development technologies
Information aggregation technologies
Resource compilation technologies
Expertise location technologies
"Social engineering" and "social software"
Closely related to social technology is the term social engineering. Thorstein Veblen used 'social engineering' in 1891, but suggested that it was used earlier. In the 1930s both 'social engineering and 'social technology' became associated with the large scale socio-economic policies of the Soviet Union. The Soviet economist Yvgeni Preobrazhensky wrote a book in which he defined social technology as "the science of organized production, organized labour, of organized systems of production relations, where the legality of economic existence is expressed in new forms." (p. 55 in the translation of 1963)
Karl Popper discusses social technology and social engineering in his book The Open Society and Its Enemies and in the article "The Poverty of Historicism", in which he criticized the Soviet political system and the marxist theory (Marxism) on which it was based. Eventually he combined "The Poverty of Historicism" series in a book "The Poverty of Historicism" which he wrote "in memory of the countless men and women of all creeds or nations or races who fell victim to the fascist and communist belief in Inexorable Laws of Historical Destiny". In his book "The Open Society and Its Enemies", Popper distinguished two kinds of social engineering, and the corresponding social technology. Utopian engineering strives to reach "an ideal state, using a blueprint of society as a whole, is one which demands a strong centralized rule of a few, and which therefore is likely to lead to a dictatorship" (p. 159). Communism is an example of utopian social Technology. On the other hand, there is the piecemeal engineer with its corresponding social technology, which adopts "the method of searching for, and fighting against, the greatest and most urgent evils of society, rather than searching for, and fighting for, its greatest ultimate good" (p. 158). The use of piecemeal social technology is crucial for democratic social reconstruction.
"Social technology" has also been used as a synonym for "social software", such as in the book Groundswell: Winning in a World Transformed by Social Technologies, by Charlene Li and Josh Bernoff.
Jennifer Aaker teaches a course on The power of social technology at Stanford Graduate School of Business.
Examples
Social networking service
A social networking service is a platform to build social networks or social relations among people who, for example, share interests, activities, backgrounds, or real-life connections.
Enterprise social software
Of particular interest in the realm of social computing is social software for enterprise. Sometimes referred to as "Enterprise 2.0", a term derived from Web 2.0, this generally refers to the use of social computing in corporate intranets and in other medium and large-scale business environments.
"Social technology" is also used to refer to the organization and management of private companies, and is sometimes taught under the auspices of university business schools. One book with this orientation is The social technology of organization development, by Warner and Hornstein.
Social technology changes the way that people communicate; for instance, it enables people across the world to collaborate. This technology shapes society and thus could be considered as a disruptive technology.
Chief Strategy Officer at Jive Software, Christopher Morace, explains that "social technology is changing the way businesses operate and how successful companies are leveraging it to their advantage." Some of the key drivers of a business provided by the use of social technology are collaboration, open communication, and a large network. In addition, business professionals must maintain digital literacy in order to understand the capabilities of social technologies and incorporate them into daily function.
Other Uses
Social technology can provide opportunities for digital activism. It eliminates geographic boundaries, potentially enabling protests and revolutions to spread through social technologies. It can also be argued that digital activism through social technology does not produce concrete results, as people might lose sight of what drives the social movement and ultimately participate in "clicktivism." Due to technological advances, social technology could potentially redefine what it means to be an activist.
Social technology is also a prevalent influence in the realm of e-commerce. "The development and rapid growth of mobile computing and smartphones have also facilitated social commerce." Marketing strategies have evolved over the years to conform and align with social technology.
In 1985, MacKenzie published a book titled The social shaping of technology. It showed that technological change is often seen as something that follows its own logic, and introduced about the relation of technology to society and different types of technology are examined: the technology of production; domestic and reproductive technology; and military technology. It moves on to the technologies of the household and biological reproduction, and it also asks what shapes the most frightening technology of all––the technology of weaponry, especially nuclear weapons.
In 2011, Leibetseder, Bettina. published his article "A Critical Review on the Concept of Social Technology". He pointed that social technology provides social science knowledge for a purpose. Such a notion allows an in depth debate about the meaning of social order in modern societies. Social technology forms the basis of governmental decisions; it allows for a use of social theories and methods for a purpose in politics and introduces a specific conception of power between the individual and public powers.
Concerns
Social technologies, as they are technologies dealing with social behaviors or interactions, have caused concerns among philosophers. As Vladislav A. Lektorsky pointed out in his journal, "The Russian philosopher Viacheslav Stëpin calls modern European civilization "technogenic." Initially, this meant the pursuit of technologies for the control of natural phenomena. Then projects began to be put forward for social technologies for the control of social processes. Based on this concept, impacts that social technology might have for man, like "Forcible Collectivization", or the deportation of ethnic groups are recognized because according to Vladislav, social technology blunts the individual's capacity for critical reflection, though it "presents a different possibility which be used to develop man’s creative capacities, to expand his realm of freedom and his social and interpersonal ties."
Similarly, social technology also poses potential threats to human rights. These concerns are based on the notion that humans are a product of their environment. "Social technology assumes that it is possible to know the societal or 'systematic' determinants of human 'behavior' in a way that permits them to be manipulated and controlled." Technology can also overcome certain social forces.
Social technologies have also caused concern among social scientists. According to a study conducted by the Cambridge University Press, it is possible for social technologies to manipulate social processes, including relationship development and group dynamics. Variables such as gender and social status can influence a person's behavior, and these behavior changes can translate to interactions through technology. Social technologies also relate to the theory of technological determinism, which states that "technology has universal effects on social processes."
As the online internet presence of the general population grows, the popularity of social technology increases, which creates a culture of sharing. Internet users develop more connections online due to the global activity on the internet, and as services make it possible to upload content, they likewise facilitate widespread distribution of information. As opinions circulate online, concerns over new problems arise.
Other similar phrases
In general, social technology covers many other terms in social science, as some authors use "social technique", "social pedagogy", "administrative technique", "technocracy", "socio-technique", "political science engineering", "planned society", "efficiency engineer", "social (economic) planning"
See also
Social
technology
Social engineering (political science)
Social software
Social software (social procedure)
Social procedure
Notes
External links
Information about Jennifer Aaker's course on Social Technology
Social economy
Social engineering (political science)
Technology in society |
48722395 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsung%20Galaxy%20Star%202%20Plus | Samsung Galaxy Star 2 Plus | Samsung Galaxy Star 2 Plus G350E is a smartphone manufactured by Samsung Electronics that runs on the open source Android operating system. Announced by Samsung in early August 2014. It has additional software features, expanded hardware, and a redesigned physique from its predecessor, the Samsung Galaxy Star 2.
Specifications
Connectivity
Galaxy Star does not support 3G connectivity, instead running on EDGE networks alone. It also does not provide a Global Positioning System (GPS). However it provides support for WiFi connectivity and Bluetooth 4.0.
Hardware
The Samsung Galaxy Star 2 Plus uses a refined version of the hardware design, with a rounded, plastic leather and a removable rear cover. It is slightly lighter and narrower than the Samsung Galaxy Star, with a length of 129.7 mm (5.11 in), a width of 69.9 mm (2.59 in), and a thickness of 9.4 mm (0.37 in). At the bottom of the device is a microphone and a microUSB port for data connections and charging. A headphone jack is located at the top. The Star 2 Plus is widely available in black and white color finishes. The Star 2 Plus comes with 4 GB of internal storage, which can be supplemented with up to an additional 32 GB with a microSD card slot. The Star 2 Plus contains an 1800 mAh battery.
Software
The Star 2 Plus is powered by Android, a Linux-based, open source mobile operating system developed by Google and introduced commercially in 2008. Among other features, the software allows users to maintain customized home screens which can contain shortcuts to applications and widgets for displaying information. Three shortcuts to frequently used applications can be stored on a dock at the bottom of the screen; the button in the right of the dock opens the application drawer, which displays a menu containing all of the apps installed on the device. A tray accessed by dragging from the top of the screen allows users to view notifications received from other apps, and contains toggle switches for commonly used functions. Pre-loaded apps also provide access to Google's various services. The Star 2 Plus uses Samsung's proprietary TouchWiz graphical user interface (GUI).
The Galaxy Star 2 Plus ships with Android 4.4.2 "Kit Kat". Unofficially there are two CyanogenMod custom ROMs built by developers called Hicham03 and ahtesham01: CyanogenMod 13 (based on Android 6.0.1 Marshmallow)CyanogenMod 12.1 (based on Android 5.1.1 Lollipop) and CyanogenMod 11 (based on Android 4.4.4 KitKat).
Reception
The Samsung Galaxy Star 2 Plus received mixed to positive reviews from critics, who mostly praised the design, but criticized the non 3G connectivity and individual reviewers in the Internet have criticized the device due to its lack of a GPS.
See also
Samsung Galaxy Core
Samsung Galaxy Star
References
Android (operating system) devices
Samsung mobile phones
Samsung Galaxy
Mobile phones introduced in 2014
Discontinued smartphones |
2156428 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialtext | Socialtext | Socialtext Incorporated is a company based in Palo Alto, California, that produces enterprise social software. Its integrated suite of web-based social software applications includes microblogging, user profile, directories, groups, personal dashboards using OpenSocial widgets, shared spreadsheet, wiki, and weblog collaboration tools, and mobile apps.
Socialtext's technical features include LDAP and Active Directory integration, Single Sign-On, REST API, and connectors to Salesforce.com and SharePoint.
Investors in Socialtext included Omidyar Network, Draper Fisher Jurvetson, and Sapphire Ventures
On May 1, 2012, Socialtext was acquired by Bedford Funding, a $1.4 billion private equity firm that also owns Peoplefluent and the product was integrated in its portfolio.
See also
Social computing
List of collaborative software
Comparison of wiki software
References
External links
Software companies based in California
Private equity portfolio companies
Software companies of the United States
Wiki farms
Knowledge markets
Companies based in Palo Alto, California |
29265162 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft%20Corp.%20v.%20DAK%20Industries%2C%20Inc. | Microsoft Corp. v. DAK Industries, Inc. | Microsoft Corp. v. DAK Indus., Inc. 66 F.3d 1091 (9th Cir 1995) is a court case in which Microsoft contended that in being licensed rights to sell Microsoft Word (Word) software, the then-bankrupt DAK Industries had been granted permission to use this intellectual property, so Microsoft was entitled to receive payments during post-bankruptcy in the form of royalties.
The Ninth Circuit disagreed, believing that the 'economic realities' of the agreement in which payments for a certain number of copies of Word were made in the form of installments meant that the agreement should be considered as a 'lump sum sale of software units' even if the agreement was called a license that required 'royalties' instead of 'payments'. Microsoft was therefore unable to claim special interest over the bankruptcy claim as it was a transfer of goods in the form of a sale, making it an unsecured creditor.
Background
DAK Industries, a supplier of computer hardware, entered into a license agreement with Microsoft, a software distributor, that granted DAK the rights to distribute and license copies of Microsoft Word on the computers it sold during the term of the agreement. Microsoft provided DAK a master disk, which was used to install Microsoft Word onto the computers DAK distributed. Payment for this license agreement was in the form of a 'royalty rate' of $55 for each copy of Word that was distributed. However, DAK had to make a minimum commitment to Microsoft of $2.75 million to be paid in 5 installments over a one-year period, irrespective of the number of copies DAK managed to sell. DAK was therefore entitled to distribute up to 50,000 units, with any additional units then attracting the $55 charge.
DAK delivered the first three installments to Microsoft. However, they filed for bankruptcy before completing the remaining payments. After bankruptcy, DAK continued to sell copies of Word without making the remaining installment payments.
Microsoft alleged that it was entitled to 'administrative expenses' from DAK to compensate it for the continued use of the license agreement that allowed distribution of its software.
District Court and Bankruptcy Court opinion
The bankruptcy court denied Microsoft's claim on the basis that even though Microsoft had labelled the agreement as royalty payments for the continued use of its intellectual property, it was more like installment payments on the sale of goods. This made the debt owed to Microsoft an unsecured claim. On appeal to the district court, the district court affirmed the bankruptcy court's decision, stating that Microsoft was not facing any continued expenses in DAK's distribution of Word. Microsoft then appealed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit.
Opinion of the Ninth Circuit
The Ninth Circuit provided several reasons for its belief that the 'economic realities' of the agreement between Microsoft and DAK was about a 'lump sum sale of software' rather than the permission to use the Word intellectual property:
The pricing structure in which DAK was required to make a minimum commitment was based on the number of units DAK received from Microsoft rather than a duration of time that DAK could use the Microsoft Word software, as would be expected in a rental agreement
The agreement demanded that DAK pay the entire $2.75 million even if it only ever sold one copy, and DAK at the time of the agreement was entitled to sell the entire amount agreed to. The court considered this to be similar to the purchase of goods on unsecured credit where DAK made a down payment, obtained the goods, and would pay the remainder in installments. DAK did not have to pay at the time it actually sold the goods, like one would expect in a rental agreement
The license agreement effectively gave DAK a 'right to sell' rather than 'permission to use' the Word intellectual property: it sold Word directly to customers rather than using it as part of its business
DAK's post-bankruptcy use of Word was at no expense to Microsoft—DAK was already allowed to sell 50,000 copies of Word
The court found that simply naming the agreement as a license and denoting the payments as royalties did not in fact make it a license in terms of intellectual property. Also the court found that DAK's sales indicate it did not sell all of the units it was entitled to under the agreement. Moreover, the court noted that Microsoft did not have a business relationship with DAK after bankruptcy, therefore granting Microsoft's claim would be unjust to other unsecured creditors. Consequently, the court affirmed the decisions of the bankruptcy and district courts and denied Microsoft's claim.
Subsequent developments
Other cases
The idea of courts looking at the 'economic realities' of a deal to decide if a transaction is a sale or a 'license to use' was also adopted in SoftMan Products Co. v. Adobe Systems Inc. When a consumer purchased Adobe software, they received a single copy for which they paid in entirety and the license is valid forever. Adobe argued that consumers were merely given a licence to use the software rather than being sold the software itself. However the court found that, like in DAK, the nature of the transaction indicated the sale of goods and hence the first sale doctrine would apply. In Universal Music Group v. Augusto, the court also looked at the 'economic realities' of the transaction involving UMG distributing promotional music CDs to 'music industry insiders' and found that since UMG provided the CDs with no intention of recovering them, it was a transfer of title, despite of the fact that UMG labeled ('licensed') the CDs with certain constraints on their usage such as limiting resale. Because these constraints are not valid, the defendant was able to sell the promotional CDs under the first sale doctrine.
Criticism
Some have disagreed with the court's founding its opinion on seeing a software license as merely a sale of goods. They argued that DAK was provided with a non-exclusive license to distribute Word—they were only entitled under the license to use the master disk in order to provide additional copies of Word as per a royalty scheme. DAK only created the copies of Word it needed for the duration that it was allowed to use Microsoft's Word master disk. Any payment made by DAK were merely an advancement against potential royalties: a common agreement in book and motion picture licenses. Therefore, contradicting the court's opinion, the way in which DAK was able to sell copies of Word should be seen as a permission to use the intellectual property (use of the master disk) rather than a 'sale of goods' in the way a manufacturer sells a given quantity of goods to a reseller and hence Microsoft should receive royalty payments as per the initial agreement.
See also
Microsoft litigation
Software license
Vernor v. Autodesk, Inc.
References
External links
Carver, Brian W., Why License Agreements Do Not Control Copy Ownership: First Sales and Essential Copies (March 19, 2010). Berkeley Technology Law Journal, SSRN convenience link
United States copyright case law
United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit cases
1995 in United States case law
Software licenses
Microsoft litigation |
8391734 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit4 | Unit4 | Unit4 is a software company that designs and delivers enterprise software and ERP applications and related professional services for people in services organizations, with a special focus on the professional services, education, public services, and nonprofit sectors.
It has subsidiaries and offices in 26 countries across Europe, North America, the Asia-Pacific region and Africa.
The company is best known for its People Experience Suite including Unit4 ERP, Unit4 Financials, Unit4 FP&A, Unit4 Talent Management. In 2015, Unit4 announced a partnership with Microsoft to build self-driving business applications on the Microsoft Azure cloud. Unit4's software is available in either cloud or on-premises setups. In 2020, the company launched a Global Channel Partner Programme to aid partners in implementing Unit4 software.
History
Unit4 was founded in 1980 by Chris Ouwinga and listed on the Amsterdam Stock Exchange in 1998.
In 2000, Unit4 merged with the Norwegian ERP software house Agresso Group ASA and the company name was changed to Unit4Agresso.
In March 2014, Unit4 was acquired by international venture capital firm Advent International.
In 2015, Unit4 rebranded its Coda financial management software package as Unit4 Financials. The Unit4 People Platform was also launched in 2015 as the foundation for Unit4 business applications using Microsoft Azure technology.
In April 2019, Mike Ettling, former president of SAP SuccessFactors and CEO of NGA Human Resources, became Unit4's CEO.
Global growth private equity firm TA Associates announced the strategic growth buy out of Unit4 for more than $2bn in March 2021. Global private markets firm, Partners Group, will invest alongside TA. In April, Unit4 released ERPx, its next-generation intelligent Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) solution built for mid-market, people-centric organizations.
Acquisitions
Acquisitions (1980–now)
Recognition
Unit4 was featured in Gartner's 2019 Market Guide.
In 2020, Unit4 was featured in a Forrester Wave evaluation of cloud-based HCM suite providers as a Strong Performer. That same year, Unit4 placed 3rd as a Gold Medalist in the ERP Data Quadrant Report on MS Dynamics and Oracle ERP Cloud providers.
In 2021, Unit4 was featured as a Notable Vendor in Gartner’s Market Share Analysis: ERP Software, Worldwide, 2020.
References
External links
Accounting software
Business software companies
Software companies established in 1980
Dutch brands
ERP software companies
Financial software companies
Software companies of the Netherlands
Sliedrecht |
1220869 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis%20paralysis | Analysis paralysis | Analysis paralysis (or paralysis by analysis) describes an individual or group process when overanalyzing or overthinking a situation can cause forward motion or decision-making to become "paralyzed", meaning that no solution or course of action is decided upon within a natural time frame. A situation may be deemed too complicated and a decision is never made, or made much too late, due to anxiety that a potentially larger problem may arise. A person may desire a perfect solution, but may fear making a decision that could result in error, while on the way to a better solution. Equally, a person may hold that a superior solution is a short step away, and stall in its endless pursuit, with no concept of diminishing returns. On the opposite end of the time spectrum is the phrase extinct by instinct, which is making a fatal decision based on hasty judgment or a gut reaction.
Analysis paralysis is when the fear of either making an error or forgoing a superior solution outweighs the realistic expectation or potential value of success in a decision made in a timely manner. This imbalance results in suppressed decision-making in an unconscious effort to preserve existing options. An overload of options can overwhelm the situation and cause this "paralysis", rendering one unable to come to a conclusion. It can become a larger problem in critical situations where a decision needs to be reached, but a person is not able to provide a response fast enough, potentially causing a bigger issue than they would have had, had they made a decision.
History
The basic idea has been expressed through narrative a number of times. In one "Aesop's fable" that is recorded even before Aesop's time, The Fox and the Cat, the fox boasts of "hundreds of ways of escaping" while the cat has "only one". When they hear the hounds approaching, the cat scampers up a tree while "the fox in his confusion was caught up by the hounds". The fable ends with the moral, "Better one safe way than a hundred on which you cannot reckon". Related concepts are expressed by the Centipede's dilemma, how unconscious activity is disrupted by conscious thought of it, and by the tale of Buridan's ass, a paradox of rational decision-making with equal options.
In Shakespeare's Hamlet, the main character, Prince Hamlet, is often said to have a mortal flaw of thinking too much, such that his youth and vital energy are "sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought". Neema Parvini explores some of Hamlet's key decisions in the chapter "'And Reason Panders Will': Another Look at Hamlet's Analysis Paralysis".
Voltaire popularized an old Italian proverb in French in the 1770s of which an English variant is "Perfect is the enemy of good". The meaning of "The perfect is the enemy of the good" is that one might never complete a task if one has decided not to stop until it is perfect: completing the project well is made impossible by striving to complete it perfectly.
"Analysis, paralysis" appeared together in an 1803 pronouncing dictionary and later editions stating how those words are pronounced similarly. The usage of rhyming words can make aphorisms sound more truthful and be more memorable by their usage of the rhyme-as-reason effect and ode mnemonics.
In 1928 at the General Convention of the Episcopal Church, Reverend C. Leslie Glenn, National Secretary for College Work, spoke that the religious collegiate world was at risk of "paralysis by analysis" from being too speculative instead of definitive, needing real work instead of investigations.
During World War II, Winston Churchill, after hearing that the landing craft designers were spending the majority of their time arguing over design changes, sent this message: "The maxim 'Nothing avails but perfection' may be spelt shorter: 'Paralysis.'"
In 1956, Charles R. Schwartz wrote the article "The Return-on-Investment Concept as a Tool for Decision Making" in Changing Patterns And Concepts In Management stating, "We will do less guessing; avoid the danger of becoming extinct by instinct; and, by the adoption of one uniform evaluation guide, escape succumbing to paralysis by analysis."
In 1965, H. Igor Ansoff wrote the book Corporate Strategy: An Analytic Approach to Business Policy for Growth and Expansion. He used the phrase "paralysis by analysis" in reference to those who used the approach to excess. Ansoff had referenced Schwartz's paper in couple of his papers.
In a paper published in 1970, based on a speech in 1969 and other works, Silver and Hecker wrote:
The Duke group has used the term "analysis-paralysis" to point out that, if we wait until we have completely answered all the questions and solved all of the problems before training the personnel we need, we will never reach a solution. The insistent demands for further study and extensive evaluation suggested by some may only be a defense by those who do not wish to change or those who fear change.
The Oxford English Dictionary says that the earliest uses of "analysis paralysis" found in The Times were in the 1970s.
Software development
In software development, analysis paralysis typically manifests itself through the waterfall model with exceedingly long phases of project planning, requirements gathering, program design, and data modeling, which can create little or no extra value by those steps and risk many revisions. When extended over too long of a timeframe, such processes tend to emphasize the organizational (i.e., bureaucratic) aspect of the software project, while detracting from its functional (value-creating) portion.
Analysis paralysis can occur when there is a lack of experience on the part of workers such as systems analysts, project managers or software developers, and could be due to a rigid and formal organizational culture. However, according to Ram Charan, indecision in businesses is usually the result of not enough people acting or speaking up about the inefficiencies of the company. Analysis paralysis can also arise from extensive experience or expertise, which serves to increase the number of options and considerations that appear at every decision point.
Analysis paralysis is an example of an anti-pattern. Agile software development methodologies explicitly seek to prevent analysis paralysis, by promoting an iterative work cycle that emphasizes working products over product specifications, but requires buy-in from the full project team. In some instances, Agile software development ends up creating additional confusion in the project in the case where iterative plans are made with no intention on having the team following through.
Sports
Analysis paralysis is a critical problem in athletics. It can be explained in simple terms as "failure to react in response to overthought". A victim of sporting analysis paralysis will frequently think in complicated terms of "what to do next" while contemplating the variety of possibilities, and in doing so exhausts the available time in which to act.
Games
Games provide a microcosm for decision-making where there can be adversaries, hidden or missing information, random events, complex options, and consequences. In this context, analysis paralysis denotes a state where a player is so overwhelmed by the available moves and their implications that the player's turn takes an inordinate amount of time. This can be compounded in a losing position where the player is exhaustively searching for a win or purposely stalling to prevent officially losing the game. The connotation is often pejorative, implying that the slowing of the game diminished the enjoyment by other players. Some games explicitly add time deadlines (e.g. with a chess clock or egg timer). In chess this slowing of play is referred to as Kotov Syndrome and, in timed chess matches, can result in time trouble. Good game design can reduce the likelihood of analysis paralysis in gameplay. Game design itself can also be susceptible to analysis paralysis.
Adages
"Better one safe way than a hundred on which you cannot reckon." — Aesop's The Fox and the Cat
"The perfect is the enemy of the good." — Voltaire
"The best thing is to do the right thing; the next best is to do the wrong thing; the worst thing of all things is to stand perfectly still" — Alfred Henry Lewis (on Theodore Roosevelt and politics)
"The maxim 'Nothing avails but perfection' may be spelt shorter: 'Paralysis.'" — Winston Churchill
"Give them the third best to go on with; the second best comes too late, the best never comes" — Robert Watson-Watt
"Better a good decision quickly than the best decision too late." — Harold Geneen
See also
Bounded rationality
Buyer's remorse
Criticism
Decision fatigue
Decisional balance
Existential crisis
Groupthink
Information overload
Obsessive–compulsive personality disorder
Opportunity cost
Overchoice
The Paradox of Choice: Why More Is Less
Perfect is the enemy of good
Perfectionism
Regret (decision theory)
Search cost
Secretary problem
Thinking, Fast and Slow
Wicked problem
Writer's block
Yips
References
Agile software development
Anti-patterns
Decision analysis |
9203306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test%20fixture | Test fixture | A test fixture is an environment used to consistently test some item, device, or piece of software. Test fixtures can be found when testing electronics, software and physical devices.
Electronics
In testing electronic equipment such as circuit boards, electronic components, and chips, a test fixture is a device or setup designed to hold the device under test in place and allow it to be tested by being subjected to controlled electronic test signals.
Examples are a bed of nails tester or SmartFixture.
Software
A software test fixture sets up a system for the software testing process by initializing it, thereby satisfying any preconditions the system may have. For example, the Ruby on Rails web framework uses YAML to initialize a database with known parameters before running a test. This allows for tests to be repeatable, which is one of the key features of an effective test framework.
Setup
Test fixtures can be set up three different ways: in-line, delegate, and implicit.
In-line setup creates the test fixture in the same method as the rest of the test. While in-line setup is the simplest test fixture to create, it leads to duplication when multiple tests require the same initial data.
Delegate setup places the test fixture in a separate standalone helper method that is accessed by multiple test methods.
Implicit setup places the test fixture in a setup method which is used to set up multiple test methods. This differs from delegate setup in that the overall setup of multiple tests is in a single setup method where the test fixture gets created rather than each test method having its own setup procedures and linking to an external test fixture.
Advantages and disadvantages
The advantage of a test fixture is that it allows for tests to be repeatable since each test is always starting with the same setup. Test fixtures also ease test code design by allowing the developer to separate methods into different functions and reuse each function for other tests. Further, test fixtures preconfigure tests into a known initial state instead of working with whatever was left from a previous test run. A disadvantage is that it could lead to duplication of test fixtures if using in-line setup.
Practices to avoid
It is considered bad practice when implicit test fixtures are too general, or when a test method sets up a test fixture and does not use it during the test. A more subtle issue is if the test methods ignore certain fields within the test fixture. Another bad practice is a test setup that contains more steps than needed for the test; this is a problem seen in in-line setup.
A test case is considered "unsafe" when it modifies its fixture(s). An unsafe test case can render subsequent tests useless by leaving the fixture in an unexpected state. It also causes the order of tests to be important: a modified fixture must be reset if more tests are to be run after an unsafe test.
Examples
Examples of fixtures include loading a database with a specific known set of data, erasing a hard disk and installing a known clean operating system installation, copying a specific known set of files, or the preparation of input data as well as set-up and creation of mock objects.
Software which is used to run reproducible tests systematically on a piece of software under test is known as a test harness; part of its job is to set up suitable test fixtures.
In generic xUnit, a test fixture is all the things that must be in place in order to run a test and expect a particular outcome.
Frequently fixtures are created by handling setUp() and tearDown() events of the unit testing framework. In setUp() one would create the expected state for the test and in tearDown() it would clean up what had been set up.
Four phases of a test:
Set-up
Exercise, interacting with the system under test
Verify, determining whether the expected outcome has been obtained
Tear down, to return to the original state
Physical testing
In physical testing, a fixture is a device or apparatus to hold or support the test specimen during the test. The influence of test fixtures on test results is important and is an ongoing subject of research.
Many test methods detail the requirements of test fixtures in the text of the document.
Some fixtures employ clamps, wedge grips and pincer grips.
Further types of construction include eccentric roller fixtures, thread grips and button head grips and rope grips.
Mechanical holding apparatuses provide the clamping force via arms, wedges or eccentric wheel to the jaws. Additionally there are pneumatic and hydraulic fixtures for tensile testing that allow very fast clamping procedures and very high clamping forces.
See also
Unit testing
References
External links
Unit Testing with JUnit, by Yoonsik Cheon
The Low-Down on fixtures, from A Guide to Testing Rails Applications
Unit testing
Tests |
383705 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D-subminiature | D-subminiature | The D-subminiature or D-sub is a common type of electrical connector. They are named for their characteristic D-shaped metal shield. When they were introduced, D-subs were among the smallest connectors used on computer systems.
Description, nomenclature, and variants
A D-sub contains two or more parallel rows of pins or sockets usually surrounded by a D-shaped metal shield that provides mechanical support, ensures correct orientation, and may screen against electromagnetic interference. D-sub connectors have gender: parts with pin contacts are called male connectors or plugs, while those with socket contacts are called female connectors or sockets. The socket's shield fits tightly inside the plug's shield. Panel mounted connectors usually have 4-40 jackscrews that accept screws on the cable end connector cover that are used for locking the connectors together and offering mechanical strain relief, and can be tightened with a 3/16" (or 5mm) hex socket. Occasionally the nuts may be found on a cable end connector if it is expected to connect to another cable end (see the male DE-9 pictured). When screened cables are used, the shields are connected to the overall screens of the cables. This creates an electrically continuous screen covering the whole cable and connector system.
The D-sub series of connectors was introduced by Cannon in 1952. Cannon's part-numbering system uses D as the prefix for the whole series, followed by one of A, B, C, D, or E denoting the shell size, followed by the number of pins or sockets, followed by either P (plug or pins) or S (socket) denoting the gender of the part. Each shell size usually (see below for exceptions) corresponds to a certain number of pins or sockets: A with 15, B with 25, C with 37, D with 50, and E with 9. For example, DB-25 denotes a D-sub with a 25-position shell size and a 25-position contact configuration. The contacts in each row of these connectors are spaced 326/3000 of an inch apart, or approximately , and the rows are spaced apart; the pins in the two rows are offset by half the distance between adjacent contacts in a row. This spacing is called normal density. The suffixes M and F (for male and female) are sometimes used instead of the original P and S for plug and socket.
Later D-sub connectors added extra pins to the original shell sizes, and their names follow the same pattern. For example, the DE-15, usually found in VGA cables, has 15 pins in three rows, all surrounded by an E size shell. The pins are spaced at horizontally and vertically, in what is called high density. The other connectors with the same pin spacing are the DA-26, DB-44, DC-62, DD-78 and DF-104. They all have three rows of pins, except the DD-78 which has four, and the DF-104 which has five rows in a new, larger shell. The double density series of D-sub connectors features even denser arrangements and consists of the DE-19, DA-31, DB-52, DC-79, and DD-100. These each have three rows of pins, except the DD-100, which has four.
However, this naming pattern is not always followed. Because personal computers first used DB-25 connectors for their serial and parallel ports, when the PC serial port began to use 9-pin connectors, they were often labeled as DB-9 instead of DE-9 connectors, due to an ignorance of the fact that B represented a shell size. It is now common to see DE-9 connectors sold as DB-9 connectors. DB-9 nearly always refers to a 9-pin connector with an E size shell. The non-standard 23-pin D-sub connectors for external floppy drives and video output on most of the Amiga computers are usually labeled DB-23, even though their shell size is two pins smaller than ordinary DB sockets. Several computers also used a non-standard 19-pin D-sub connector, sometimes called DB-19, including Macintosh (external floppy drive), Atari ST (external hard drive), and NeXT (Megapixel Display monitor and laser printer).
Reflecting the same confusion of the letters DB with just D as mentioned above, high density connectors are also often called DB-15HD (or even DB-15 or HD-15), DB-26HD (HD-26), DB-44HD, DB-62HD, and DB-78HD connectors, respectively, where HD stands for high density.
Cannon also produced "combo" D-subs with larger contacts in place of some of the normal contacts, for use for high-current, high-voltage, or co-axial inserts. The DB-13W3 variant was commonly used for high-performance video connections; this variant provided 10 regular (#20) pins plus three coaxial contacts for the red, green, and blue video signals. Combo D-subs are currently manufactured in a broad range of configurations by other companies. Some variants have current ratings up to 40 A; others are waterproof and meet IP67 standards.
A further family of connectors of similar appearance to the D-sub family uses names such as HD-50 and HD-68, and has a D-shaped shell about half the width of a DB25. They are common in SCSI attachments.
The original D-sub connectors are now defined by an international standard, IEC 60807-3 / DIN 41652. The United States military also maintains another specification for D-subminiature connectors, the MIL-DTL-24308 standard.
Micro-D and Nano-D
Smaller connectors have been derived from the D-sub including the microminiature D (micro-D) and nanominiature D (nano-D) which are trademarks of ITT Cannon. Micro-D is about half the length of a D-sub and Nano-D is about half the length of Micro-D. Their primary applications are in military and space-grade technology. The MIL-SPEC for Micro-D is MIL-DTL-83513 and for Nano-D is MIL-DTL-32139.
Typical applications
Communications ports
The widest application of D-subs is for RS-232 serial communications, though the standard did not make this connector mandatory. RS-232 devices originally used the DB25, but for many applications the less common signals were omitted, allowing a DE-9 to be used. The standard specifies a male connector for terminal equipment and a female connector for modems, but many variations exist. IBM PC-compatible computers tend to have male connectors at the device and female connectors at the modems. Early Apple Macintosh models used DE-9 connectors for RS-422 multi-drop serial interfaces (which can operate as RS-232). Later Macintosh models use 8-pin miniature DIN connectors instead.
On PCs, 25-pin and (beginning with the IBM PC/AT) 9-pin plugs were used for the RS-232 serial ports; 25-pin sockets were used for parallel ports (instead of the Centronics port found on the printer itself, which was inconveniently large for direct placement on the expansion cards).
Many uninterruptible power supply units have a DE-9F connector on them in order to signal to the attached computer via an RS-232 interface. Often these do not send data serially to the computer but instead use the handshaking control lines to indicate low battery, power failure, or other conditions. Such usage is not standardized between manufacturers and may require special cables.
Network ports
DE9 connectors were used for some Token Ring networks as well as other computer networks.
The Attachment Unit Interfaces that were used with 10BASE5 "thick net" in the 1980s and 1990s used DA15 connectors for connectivity between the Medium Attachment Units and (Ethernet) network interface cards, albeit with a sliding latch to lock the connectors together instead of the usual hex studs with threaded holes. The sliding latch was intended to be quicker to engage and disengage and to work in places where jackscrews could not be used for reasons of component shape.
DE-9 connectors are commonly used in Controller Area Network (CAN): female connectors are on the bus while male connectors are on devices.
Computer video output
A female 9-pin connector on an IBM compatible personal computer may be a video display output such as MDA, Hercules, CGA, or EGA (rarely VGA or others). Even though these all use the same DE9 connector, the displays cannot all be interchanged and monitors or video interfaces may be damaged if connected to an incompatible device using the same connector.
Later analog video (VGA and later) adapters generally replaced these connectors with DE15 high-density sockets (though some early VGA devices still used DE9 connectors). DE15 connectors are similar to DE9 connectors (see above).
Many Apple Macintosh models, beginning with the Macintosh II, used DA15 sockets for analogue RGB video out. The earlier Apple IIgs used the same connector for the same purpose, but with an incompatible pinout. A digital (and thus also incompatible) RGB adapter for the Apple IIe also used a DA15F. The Apple IIc used a DA15F for an auxiliary video port which was not RGB, but provided the necessary signals to derive RGB.
Game controller ports
Starting in the late 1970s the Atari 2600 game console used modified DE9 connectors (male on the system, female on the cable) for its game controller connectors. The Atari joystick ports had bodies entirely of molded plastic without the metal shield, and they omitted the pair of fastening screws. In the years following, various video game consoles and home computers adopted the same connector for their own game ports, though they were not all interoperable. The most common wiring supported five digital connections (for up, down, left, and right movement, and one fire button), plus one pair of analog 100 kΩ potentiometers or paddles. Some computers supported additional buttons, and on some computers additional devices, such as a computer mouse, a light pen, or a graphics tablet were also supported via the game port. Unlike the basic one-button digital joysticks and the basic paddles, such devices were not typically interchangeable between different systems.
Systems utilizing the DE9 connector for their game port included the Texas Instruments TI-99/4A; Atari 8-bit and ST lines; the Commodore VIC-20, 64, 128, and Amiga; the Amstrad CPC (which employed daisy-chaining when connecting two Amstrad-specific joysticks); the MSX, X68000, and FM Towns, predominantly used in Japan; the ColecoVision; the early Sega platforms (e.g. SG-1000, Master System and Mega Drive/Genesis); and the 3DO Interactive Multiplayer. The ZX Spectrum lacked a built-in joystick connector of any kind but aftermarket interfaces provided the ability to connect DE9 joysticks. NEC's home computers (e.g. PC-88, PC-98) also used DE9 connectors for game controllers, depending on the sound card used.
Many Apple II computers also used DE9 connectors for joysticks, but they had a female port on the computer and a male on the controller, used analog rather than digital sticks, and the pinout was completely unlike that used on the aforementioned systems. DE9 connectors were not used for game ports on the Apple Macintosh, Apple III, IBM PC systems, or most game consoles outside the aforementioned examples. Sega switched to proprietary controller ports for the Saturn and Dreamcast.
DA15S connectors are used for PC joystick connectors, where each DA15 connector supports two joysticks each with two analog axes and two buttons. In other words, one DA15S "game adapter" connector has 4 analog potentiometer inputs and 4 digital switch inputs. This interface is strictly input-only, though it does provide +5 V DC power. Some joysticks with more than two axes or more than two buttons use the signals designated for both joysticks. Conversely, Y-adapter cables are available that allow two separate joysticks to be connected to a single DA15 game adapter port; if a joystick connected to one of these Y-adapters has more than two axes or buttons, only the first two of each will work.
The IBM DA15 PC game connector has been modified to add a (usually MPU-401 compatible) MIDI interface, and this is often implemented in the game connectors on third-party sound cards, for example the Sound Blaster line from Creative Labs. The "standard" straight game adapter connector (introduced by IBM) has three ground pins and four +5 V power pins, and the MIDI adaptation replaces one of the grounds and one of the +5 V pins, both on the bottom row of pins, with MIDI In and MIDI Out signal pins. (There is no MIDI Thru provided.) Creative Labs introduced this adaptation.
The Neo Geo AES game console also used the DA15 connector, however, the pins are wired differently and it is therefore not compatible with the regular DA15 PC game controllers.
The Nintendo Famicom's controllers were hardwired, but also included a DA15 expansion port for additional controllers. Many clones of the hardware used a DA15 which implemented a subset of the Famicom's Expansion Port, and were therefore compatible with some Famicom accessories. Later clones switched to the cheaper DE9 port.
The Atari 5200 also used a DA15 instead of the DE9 of its predecessor to facilitate the matrix for the keypad. The Atari Falcon, Atari STe and Atari Jaguar used a DE15.
Other
25-pin sockets on Macintosh computers are typically single-ended SCSI connectors, combining all signal returns into one contact (again in contrast to the Centronics C50 connector typically found on the peripheral, supplying a separate return contact for each signal), while older Sun hardware uses DD50 connectors for Fast-SCSI equipment. As SCSI variants from Ultra2 onwards used differential signalling, the Macintosh DB25 SCSI interface became obsolete.
The complete range of D-sub connectors also includes DA15s (one row of 7 and one of 8), DC37s (one row of 18 and one of 19), and DD50s (two rows of 17 and one of 16); these are often used in industrial products, the 15-way version being commonly used on rotary and linear encoders.
The early Macintosh and late Apple II computers used an obscure 19-pin D-sub for connecting external floppy disk drives. Atari also used this connector on their 16-bit computer range for attaching hard disk drives and the Atari laser printer, where it was known as both the ACSI (Atari Computer System Interface) port and the DMA bus port. The Commodore Amiga used an equally unusual 23-pin version for both its video output (DB23M) and its port for daisy-chaining up to 3 extra external floppy disk drives (DB23F).
In professional audio, several connections use DB25 connectors:
TASCAM and many others are using a connection over DB25 connectors, which has been standardized into AES59. This connection transports AES3 digital audio or analog audio using the same pinout.
TASCAM initially used their TDIF connection over DB25 connectors for their multi-track recording audio equipment. The transported signals are not AES3 compatible.
Roland used DB25 connectors for their multi-track recording audio equipment (R-BUS). A few patch panels have been made which have the DB25 connectors on the back with phone jacks (or even TRS phone connectors) on the front, however these are normally wired for TASCAM, which is more common outside of broadcasting.
In broadcast and professional video, "parallel digital" is a digital video interface that uses DB25 connectors, per the SMPTE 274M specification adopted in the late 1990s. The more common SMPTE 259M "serial digital interface" (SDI) uses BNC connectors for digital video signal transfer.
D-SUB 37 connectors are commonly used in Hospital facilities as an interface between hospital beds and nurse call systems, allowing for the connection and signaling of Nurse Call, Bed Exit, and Cord out including TV entertainment and lighting controls.
DB-25 connectors are commonly used to carry analog signals for beam displacement and color to laser projectors, as specified in the ISP-DB25 protocol published by the International Laser Display Association.
Wire-contact attachment types
There are at least seven different methods used to attach wires to the contacts in D-sub connectors.
Solder-bucket (or solder-cup) contacts have a cavity into which the stripped wire is inserted and hand-soldered.
Insulation displacement contacts (IDCs) allow a ribbon cable to be forced onto sharp tines on the back of the contacts; this action pierces the insulation of all the wires simultaneously. This is a very quick means of assembly whether done by hand or machine.
Crimp contacts are assembled by inserting a stripped wire end into a cavity in the rear of the contact, then crushing the cavity using a crimp tool, causing the cavity to grip the wire tightly at many points. The crimped contact is then inserted into the connector where it locks into place. Individual crimped pins can be removed later by inserting a special tool into the rear of the connector.
PCB pins are soldered directly to a printed circuit board and not to a wire. Traditionally through hole plated (THP) board style pins were used (print) but increasingly gull-wing surface mount (SMD) connections are used, although the latter frequently exhibit solder pad contact problems when exposed to mechanical stress. These connectors are frequently mounted at a right angle to the PCB, allowing a cable to be plugged into the edge of the PCB assembly. While angled connectors traditionally occupied significant room on the PCB, flat SMD connector variants are produced by various manufacturers. Electrical/mechanical anchor points (often soldered) for the connector shell and locking screws are also provided but significantly differ in their position between US and EU connector variants, so that the correct type must be used unless the PCB was designed to accept them both. The PCB connectors are available in variants with either inch or metric pitch of the soldered contacts. Tolerances are typically large enough to allow the mounting of the smaller connectors regardless of the pitch variant used, but this does not hold true for the larger connectors.
Wire wrap connections are made by wrapping solid wire around a square post with a wire wrap tool. This type of connection is often used in developing prototypes.
The wire wrap and IDC connections styles had to contend with incompatible pin spacing to the ribbon cable or proto board grid, especially for larger pin counts.
See also
Gender of connectors and fasteners
Micro ribbon
MMJ
References
External links
. Comprehensive DB25 wiring diagrams: Tascam, Apple, SCSI, etc.
. A list of common computer connectors, including most D-sub.
. Devices with DE-9 connectors.
.
Electrical connectors
Electrical signal connectors
Audiovisual connectors
Computer connectors |
54977420 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammed-Sani%20Abdulai | Mohammed-Sani Abdulai | Mohammed-Sani Abdulai is a Ghanaian educator and IT professional. He is currently the president of Lakeside University College.
Early life
Abfulai was born on 2 May 1956 in Yendi in the Northern region of Ghana. His father Abdulai Adam was a vulcanizer in Tamale and his mother Martha Sandow a petty trader. He gained admission to the then Government Secondary School, now Tamale Senior High School in 1969 to obtain his SC/GCE Ordinary Level Qualification which he completed in 1974 and majored in the Sciences. He thereafter proceeded to pursue his GCE Advanced Level Programme at Bawku Senior High School where he completed in 1976 and obtained his GCE Advanced Level Certificate in Mathematics, Physics, Economics and General Paper.
Higher education
After completing his High School Education, He gained admission into the University of Cape Coast in 1976 and pursued a Bachelor's degree in Mathematics Major and Physics Minor Degree programme where he graduated with Honors. He also obtained a diploma degree in Mathematics Education from the same institution and completed in 1980. On completion of his studies in 1980, he was retained as a faculty intern at the Computer Center of the University where his interest in Information Technology began. Dr Abdulai is an alumnus of the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) and the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST).
Career
Abdulai served on various ICT related boards and committees in Ghana including National ICT Policy and Planning and the National Communications Authority. As of August 2017, he was the board chairman for National Information Technology Agency, board member at Environmental Protection Agency, board member and ICT consultant designate at the Ghana Interbank Payment and Settlement System, vice-chair of the board of trustees at the Ghana chapter of Internet Society, and chair of the executive management team of Information Technology Association of Ghana.
He took up lecture positions between 1994 and 2007 at the University of Ghana, National College of Banking, GIMPA and Ashesi University.
Abdulai's interests spans advocacy research into technology developmental challenges in Africa. Between 2007 and 2012, he was Director of Research, Innovation and Development at Ghana-India Kofi Annan Centre of Excellence in ICT. He was in charge of Institutional Research, Innovation and Development at two institutions in Ghana; the Madina Institute of Science and Technology and University of Professional Studies. He founded the African Centre For Development Informatics in 2015 as an advisory center that focuses on leveraging informatics for accelerated development of the African continent.
He is professionally affiliated with IEEE Computer Society and Ghana Science Association.
Dr. Abdulai is the head of Information Services and Technology at the Ghana Hajj commission since 2017.
After taking up the role of vice president at Madina Institute of Science and Technology until 2019, he was thereafter appointed as the president of the institution in 2021. He succeeded Abdulai Salifu Asuro.
Personal life
Abdulai is married to Zainab Mohammed-Sani. He has 5 children, including Jemila Abdulai.
References
Living people
Ghanaian computer scientists
Dagomba people
Lakeside University College faculty
University of Ghana faculty
Ashesi University faculty
1956 births |
9865353 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20Baumann%20%28computer%20scientist%29 | Peter Baumann (computer scientist) | Peter Baumann (born 1960 in Rosenheim) is a German computer scientist and professor at Jacobs University, Bremen, Germany, where he is head of the Large-Scale Scientific Information Systems research group in the Department of Computer Science and Electrical Engineering.
Academic positions
Baumann is professor of Computer Science at Jacobs University, Bremen, Germany and founder and CEO of rasdaman GmbH.
He is inventor and Principal Architect of the rasdaman Array DBMS, the historically first complete implementation of what today is called a "Big Data Analytics" server for large, multi-dimensional arrays.
He has authored and co-authored 100+ book chapters and papers on array (aka raster) databases and further fields, and has given tutorials on raster databases worldwide.
Baumann is active in many bodies concerned with scientific data access:
member, Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC); functions:
chair, Coverages Domain Working Group
chair, Web Coverage Service Standards Working Group (WCS.SWG)
chair, Web Coverage Processing Service (WCPS) Working Group (this group has been merged into the WCS.SWG)
editor of the specifications making up the OGC Web Coverage Service (WCS) standards suite
founding member and secretary, CODATA Germany
member, advisory board, GDI-HB (geo data infrastructure for Bremen)
member, Commission for the Management and Application of Geoscience Information, a Commission of the International Union of Geological Sciences
representative of Jacobs University Bremen in Kompetenzzentrum Geoinformatik Niedersachsen
Part time Professor of Databases and Web Services in Jacobs University Bremen
Academic career
Baumann obtained a degree in Computer Science (1987) from Technical University of Munich, a doctorate (1993) in computer Science from the Department of Computer Science of the Technische Universität Darmstadt while working with Fraunhofer Institute for Computer Graphics.
He has pursued post-doctoral activities in both industry and academia,
working for Softlab Group in Munich (now Cirquent)
and as Assistant Head of the Knowledge Bases Research Group of FORWISS (Bavarian Research Center for Knowledge-based Systems) / Technical University of Munich where he was deputy to Prof. Rudolf Bayer, Ph.D.
Among Dr. Peter Baumann's entrepreneurial activities was founding of the spin-off company rasdaman GmbH for commercialization of the world's first multi-dimensional array database system.
In August 2004 he was appointed as Professor of Computer Science at Jacobs University Bremen (formerly: International University Bremen).
Awards and patents
(source: Peter Baumann's homepage)
Copernicus Masters Competition 2014: >Winner, Big Data Challenge
Open Geospatial Consortium Kenneth Gardels Award 2014
Geospatial World Forum Innovation Award 2013
Innovationspreis Mittelstand 2012, category: Best of Open Source
European IT Prize 1998
Jos Schepens Memorial Award 1998
Innovation Prize of the Bavarian State Government 1998
Founders Competition Multimedia 1998, German Association of Engineers / Electrical Engineering - IT
Baumann holds international patents on array databases.
Research interests
Baumann's current research interests include scalable database and Web service support for large, multi-dimensional arrays, including algebraic modeling, query language, query optimization, system architecture, and applications such as earth sciences and life sciences. As part of this research, standardization of geo raster services is being addressed. As such, it is related to dimensional databases, however with a distinct focus on spatio-temporal, multi-dimensional raster graphics data, rather than business data.
Much of his concrete work is implemented and benchmarked in the framework of the rasdaman array DBMS.
Bibliography
See for a complete bibliography
Peter Baumann Web Coverage Processing Service Implementation Specification version 1.0.0, OGC Best Practice Paper, doc no. 07-157.
Peter Baumann Large-Scale Raster Services: A Case for Databases, Invited keynote, 3rd Intl Workshop on Conceptual Modeling for Geographic Information Systems (CoMoGIS), Tucson, USA, 6–9 November 2006. In: John Roddick et al. (eds): Advances in Conceptual Modeling - Theory and Practice, 2006, pp. 75 – 84.
Peter Baumann A Database Array Algebra for Spatio-Temporal Data and Beyond, 4th International Workshop on Next Generation Information Technologies and Systems (NGITS '99), July 5–7, 1999, Zikhron Yaakov, Israel, Lecture Notes on Computer Science 1649, Springer Verlag, pp. 76 – 93.
Peter Baumann On the Management of Multidimensional Discrete Data, VLDB Journal 4(3)1994, Special Issue on Spatial Database Systems, pp. 401–444.
References
External links
Homepage
rasdaman GmbH, the spin-off commercializing the rasdaman array DBMS
Open GeoSpatial Consortium
1960 births
Living people
German computer scientists
Jacobs University Bremen faculty
People from Rosenheim
Technical University of Munich alumni
Technische Universität Darmstadt alumni |
25407293 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic%20Proceedings%20in%20Theoretical%20Computer%20Science | Electronic Proceedings in Theoretical Computer Science | Electronic Proceedings in Theoretical Computer Science is an international, peer-reviewed, open access series published by Open Publishing Association reporting research results in theoretical computer science, especially in the form of proceedings and post-proceedings of conferences and workshops, in the field of theoretical computer science. As of December 2009, the editor-in-chief of the series is Rob van Glabbeek. The series is indexed by the Digital Bibliography & Library Project (DBLP).
References
OA repository for refereed conference proceedings in CS, Open Access News. May 1, 2009.
Information on EPTCS at DBLP
External links
official website
Computer science journals |
21214164 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NXDN | NXDN | NXDN stands for Next Generation Digital Narrowband, and is an open standard for public land mobile radio systems; that is, systems of two-way radios (transceivers) for bidirectional person-to-person voice communication. It was developed jointly by Icom Incorporated and Kenwood Corporation as an advanced digital system using FSK modulation that supports encrypted transmission and data as well as voice transmission. Like other land mobile systems, NXDN systems use the VHF and UHF frequency bands. It is also used as a niche mode in amateur radio.
NXDN is implemented by Icom in their IDAS system and by Kenwood as NEXEDGE; both Kenwood and Icom now offer dual-standard equipment which supports the European dPMR standard.
History
Icom and Kenwood began their collaboration in 2003. The NXDN protocol was announced in 2005, and NXDN-compatible products first appeared in 2006.
The NXDN Common Air Interface (CAI) was accepted at the Study Group 5 (SG5) meeting of the International Telecommunication Union Radiocommunications Sector (ITU-R) held in November 2016 and in report M.2014-3 published in February 2017 as an international digital land mobile system.
Applications
The NXDN protocol and the communications products in which it is used are intended for commercial Private Land Mobile Radio (PLMR) and public safety communications systems. The technology satisfies the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) mandate requiring all communications systems covered by Part 90 regulations to use narrowband technology by January 1, 2013. Part 90 regulations specify a bandwidth of 12.5 kHz, but the FCC “strongly urges licensees to consider migrating directly to 6.25 kHz technology rather than first adopting 12.5 kHz technology and later migrating to 6.25 kHz technology.” The FCC “will expeditiously establish a schedule for transition to 6.25 kHz narrowband technology.”
Technical characteristics
NXDN uses Frequency-Division, Multiple-Access (FDMA) technology in which different communication streams are separated by frequency and run concurrently. Time-Division, Multiple-Access (TDMA) systems combine the communications streams into a single stream in which information from the different streams is transmitted in interleaved time allocations or "slots." Code-Division, Multiple-Access (CDMA) systems allow many users to share a common spectrum allocation by using spread-spectrum techniques.
The basic NXDN channel is digital and can be either 12.5 kHz or 6.25 kHz wide. 6.25 kHz dual-channel systems can be configured to fit within a 12.5 kHz channel. This effectively doubles the spectrum efficiency compared to an analog FM system occupying a 12.5 kHz channel. The architecture of NXDN is such that two NXDN channels, within a 12.5 kHz channel for example, can be allocated as voice/voice, voice/data, or data/data. As of 2012, this capability cannot be implemented in commercially available hardware on simplex or "talkaround" frequencies, but only through repeaters.
Systems that use NXDN also support mixed analog FM and digital NXDN equipment, including direct radio-to-radio communications. This allows system owners to migrate to a narrowband, digital system without replacing the entire system at once. NXDN equipment is currently FCC type-accepted for use on VHF (137-174 MHz) and UHF (406-512 MHz) bands.
Data is transmitted using 4-level frequency-shift keying (FSK) modulation. NXDN uses the AMBE+2 vocoder (codec) for digital audio. This combination provides better weak-signal voice quality than for analog FM. For an equivalent transmitter power, NXDN is represented as having a wider range and slightly better multi-path characteristics than analog FM in typical RF environments, specifically at the 12 dB SINAD threshold. The transmission bit rate is 4,800 bit/s.
The following FCC emission designators apply to NXDN transmissions:
8K30F1E 12.5 kHz single channel digital voice
8K30F1D 12.5 kHz single channel digital data
8K30F1W 12.5 kHz single channel digital voice and data
4K00F1E 6.25 kHz single channel digital voice
4K00F1D 6.25 kHz single channel digital data
4K00F1W 6.25 kHz single channel digital voice and data
4K00F2D 6.25 kHz single channel analog CW ID
Application functions
The NXDN protocol provides support for the following functions. Implementation of the functions and the user-level interfaces by which they are accessed and used may vary by manufacturer.
Encryption:
"Scramble Encryption" - A pseudorandom binary sequence created by combining an exclusive-or bitwise operation on the audio or data stream and a linear-feedback shift register with a feedback polynomial of , which has a 32,767-bit repeat period, yielding 32,767 possible encryption keys except all zero.
DES Encryption - 64-bit block encryption cipher operating in OFB mode using a 56-bit key expressed in 64 bits with parity bits.
AES Encryption - 128-bit block encryption cipher operating in OFB mode using a 256-bit key.
Paging & Status Reporting – Radio-to-Radio and Dispatch-to-Radio
User Aliases – 65,545 different Group IDs and User IDs
Man-down and Emergency call
Remote radio management functions - Stun/Kill/Revive and Monitor
Over the Air Programming
Over the Air Alias
Interface to third party applications for; Paging to radio, GPS Location, Taxi Data Terminals, In Building tracking
Audio quality
In all lossy compression schemes, trade-offs are made in voice reproduction quality in return for minimizing the raw bit rate of the transmission. This leads to artifacts and compromises of frequency response in reproduced speech. Encoders and other compression schemes that are highly optimized for speech are often unsuitable for non-speech audio, such as music or frequency-shift keyed data. Using an inappropriate encoder usually results in the creation of distortion and artifacts in the reproduced audio.
The audio reproduction quality of IDAS and NEXEDGE communications systems is dependent on the performance of the AMBE+2 voice codec used by NXDN. The AMBE family of vocoders has been subjected to comparative testing and found to be adequate for its intended uses, primarily mobile and aeronautical radio. The AMBE+2 vocoder has also been selected for use in the Motorola MOTOTRBO radio family as well as Hytera's DMR systems, and the Project 25 (P25) mobile radio system. The following reports and papers are descriptions of laboratory-environment evaluations of AMBE+2 and other speech vocoders.
Compromises in audio quality are inherent in the use of any codebook-based speech coder, particularly when used in conditions of high background noise. Incremental improvements are being made in the algorithms, which may lead to differences in performance even while the basic method remains unchanged. In the US, the Department of Commerce Public Safety Communications Research laboratory regularly reports on progress in this field. While their work specifically pertains to Project 25 radios, it is directly applicable to any system using similar multi-band excitation coders.
NXDN Forum
The NXDN Forum was formed in order to promote the NXDN protocol in North and South America. The forum's members are:
Aeroflex Wichita, Inc.
Anritsu Corporation
Avtec, Inc.
CML Microcircuits
Daniels Electronics, Ltd.
Icom Incorporated
InterTalk Critical Information Systems
Kenwood Corporation
Ritron, Inc.
Trident Micro Systems which was bought by Motorola Solutions in December 2014.
Hytera Communications
Freedom Communication Technology
Remota Tecnologia em Comunicação
See also
dPMR
DMR
TETRA
References
External links
Comparison of FDMA and TDMA Systems
NDXN Standard
Wireless
Mobile telecommunications standards
Telecommunications-related introductions in 2005 |
373697 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User-mode%20Linux | User-mode Linux | User-mode Linux (UML) enables multiple virtual Linux kernel-based operating systems (known as guests) to run as an application within a normal Linux system (known as the host). As each guest is just a normal application running as a process in user space, this approach provides the user with a way of running multiple virtual Linux machines on a single piece of hardware, offering some isolation, generally without affecting the host environment's configuration or stability.
Applications
Numerous things become possible through the use of UML. One can run network services from a UML environment and remain totally sequestered from the main Linux system in which the UML environment runs. Administrators can use UML to set up honeypots, which allow one to test the security of one's computers or network. UML can serve to test and debug new software without adversely affecting the host system. UML can also be used for teaching and research, providing a realistic Linux networked environment with a high degree of safety.
In UML environments, host and guest kernel versions don't need to match, so it is entirely possible to test a "bleeding edge" version of Linux in User-mode on a system running a much older kernel. UML also allows kernel debugging to be performed on one machine, where other kernel debugging tools (such as kgdb) require two machines connected with a null modem cable.
Some web hosting providers offer UML-powered virtual servers for lower prices than true dedicated servers. Each customer has root access on what appears to be their own system, while in reality one physical computer is shared between many people.
libguestfs has supported a UML backend since version 1.24 as an alternative to using QEMU or KVM.
Integration into the Linux kernel
The UML guest application (a Linux binary ELF) was originally available as a patch for some Kernel versions above 2.2.x, and the host with any kernel version above 2.2.x supported it easily in the thread mode (i.e., non-SKAS3).
As of Linux 2.6.0, it is integrated into the main kernel source tree. A method of running a separate kernel address space (SKAS) that does not require host kernel patching has been implemented. This improves performance and security over the old Traced Thread approach, in which processes running in the UML share the same address space from the host's point of view, which leads the memory inside the UML to not be protected by the memory management unit. Unlike the current UML using SKAS, buggy or malicious software inside a UML running on a non-SKAS host could be able to read the memory space of other UML processes or even the UML kernel memory.
Comparison with other technologies
User-mode Linux is generally considered to have lower performance than some competing technologies, such as Xen and OpenVZ. Future work in adding support for x86 virtualization to UML may reduce this disadvantage.
Often cited as a strength of Xen (a competing technology) is support for thread-local storage (TLS). This is now also supported in the latest UML kernels. Xen concentrates on virtualizing the whole machine, and thus all systems running on a Xen machine are really virtual machines. In UML, the host machine is not virtualized in any way, and only guest systems are true virtual machines. This allows UML guest direct access to host filesystems and hardware, where it is common to map a host directory (e.g., → ).
Supported platforms
UML was originally designed for the x86 instruction set, but has also been ported to others including IA-64 and PowerPC.
See also
L4Linux
CoLinux
MkLinux
References
External links
Official documentation
Ready-made UML kernels
Running Debian inside of Debian with User-Mode Linux
Linuxzoo: Online free access UMLs
Free virtualization software
Linux kernel variant
Virtualization-related software for Linux |
1035597 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testbed | Testbed | A testbed (also spelled test bed) is a platform for conducting rigorous, transparent, and replicable testing of scientific theories, computational tools, and new technologies.
The term is used across many disciplines to describe experimental research and new product development platforms and environments. They may vary from hands-on prototype development in manufacturing industries such as automobiles (known as "mules"), aircraft engines or systems and to intellectual property refinement in such fields as computer software development shielded from the hazards of testing live.
Software development
In software development, testbedding is a method of testing a particular module (function, class, or library) in an isolated fashion. It may be used as a proof of concept or when a new module is tested apart from the program/system it will later be added to. A skeleton framework is implemented around the module so that the module behaves as if already part of the larger program.
A typical testbed could include software, hardware, and networking components. In software development, the specified hardware and software environment can be set up as a testbed for the application under test. In this context, a testbed is also known as the test environment.
Testbeds are also pages on the Internet where the public are given the opportunity to test CSS or HTML they have created and want to preview the results, for example:
The Arena web browser was created by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) and CERN for testing HTML3, Cascading Style Sheets (CSS), Portable Network Graphics (PNG) and the libwww. Arena was replaced by Amaya to test new web standards.
The Line Mode browser got a new function to interact with the libwww library as a sample and test application.
The libwww was also created to test network protocols which are under development or to experiment with new protocols.
Aircraft development
In aircraft development there are also examples of testbed use like in development of new aircraft engines when these are fitted to a testbed aircraft for flight testing.
See also
Iron bird (aviation)
References
External links
PlanetLab Europe, the European portion of the publicly available PlanetLab testbed
CMU's eRulemaking Testbed
US National Science Foundation GENI - Global Environment for Network Innovations Initiative
Helsinki Testbed (meteorology)
Collaborative Adaptive Sensing of the Atmosphere (CASA) IP1 test bed
Hardware testing
Software testing |
8194174 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital%20Postmarks | Digital Postmarks | A Digital Postmark (DPM) is a technology that applies a trusted time stamps issued by a postal operator to an electronic document, validates electronic signatures, and stores and archives all non-repudiation data needed to support a potential court challenge - it guarantees the certainty of date and time of the postmarking. This global standard was renamed the Electronic Postal Certification Mark (EPCM) in 2007 shortly after a new iteration of the technology was developed by Microsoft and Poste Italiane. The key addition to the traditional postmarking technology was integrity of the electronically postmarked item, meaning any kind of falsification and tampering will be easily and definitely detected. Additionally, content confidentiality is guaranteed since document certification is carried out without access or reading by the postal operator. The EPCM will eventually be available through the UPU to all international postal operators in the 191 member countries willing to be compliant with this standard, thus granting interoperability in certified communications between postal operators. In the United States, the US Postal Service operates a non-global standard called the Electronic Postmark, although it is soon expected to provide services utilizing the EPCM.
Providers
In the United States, until the end of 2010, Authentidate was the only authorized USPS EPM provider. However, this contract was allowed to expire.
The process
An electronic document is created
Digital Postmarking client software signs the document locally
The signed document is sent to the Digital Postmarking (DPM) service for postmarking
Upon receipt, the DPM service first validates the authenticity of the signature
If the signature is valid then a timestamp is generated by the DPM service as a counter-signature that includes the date and time
The document, signature, validation results and timestamp are stored in the Digital Postmark non-repudiation database
A Digital Postmark Receipt, including the validation results and the timestamp, is returned to the client software
The client software wraps the original document with the DPM receipt
To verify the signature, local cryptographic verification can do a quick check of integrity or the full receipt or even the original document can be retrieved from the DPM service using the XML Verify request by other parties at a later date and compared with the receipt stored with the document.
Benefits of digital postmarks
The DPM is fundamentally a non-repudiation service supporting designed to protect the sanctity of mail in its digital form:
Digital signature verification
Timestamping of successfully verified signatures
Standalone timestamping
Encryption
Validation of certificate trust chains
Storage and archival of all non-repudiation evidence data required to support subsequent challenges
Legal significance. In addition to federal and state legislative frameworks, the DPM holds legal weight with respect to the following legislation, which have been established to encourage people to form and sign contracts and agreements electronically:
Government Paperwork Elimination Act (GPEA), 1998
Uniform Electronic Transaction Act (UETA), 1999
Electronic Signatures in Global and National Commerce Act (ESIGN), 2000
Working with current infrastructure, it is easy to implement - providing functionality even with no client-side software, and provides automated functionality with client software.
Additional benefits
Proactive differentiation "good" email from spam and phishing.
Improved service quality by applying the same standards that govern physical mail to email.
Stronger authentication than other standards such as (Sender ID and DKIM).
Compliance with all federal laws and regulations.
Postal operator enforcement: Mail fraud is virtually non-existent with physical mail due to the legal framework and the vigorous efforts of the U.S. Postal Inspection Service. Digital Postmarks have the same legal recourse for email fraud as for physical mail fraud.
Significant mailing cost reduction to only a few cents.
Applicable services
The Digital Postmark can be used for a variety of business applications:
signing Web forms and documents
delivery of secure documents
interpersonal messaging
Brief history
Key dates in the development of the digital postmark:
1998–1999
The USPS and Canada Post develop the first digital postmark.
1999
The UPU Standards Board begins the process to develop a global technical standard (S43) for the digital postmark.
2001
A workshop hosted by USPS decides on a consistent visual image for digital postmarks offered by Posts.
2002
USPS launches its digital postmark, the "Electronic Postmark". Development work on the S43 standard is completed. Microsoft agrees to define and produce an interface in W2000/XP and Office 2000 and XP 2003 to support the digital postmark.
2003
The UPU Standards Board formally adopts the S43 standard (See article).
It defined a technical standard – "S43 - Electronic PostMark Interface" – which was approved by the UPU Standards Board in November 2003 as a technical standard for the postal industry.
Portugal’s postal service launches a legally recognized digital postmarks service.
2004
The UPU Congress adopts a proposal to amend the UPU Convention to legally define the digital postmark, formally recognizing it as a new optional postal service.
September: The UPU Legally Defined the EPM as a Postal Service (See article)
This makes the EPM an optional postal service for UPU member countries, placing the EPM in the same category as Express Mail.
The UPU definition provides international technological and enforcement standards.
2005
Adobe agrees to support the inclusion of the digital postmark.
La Poste France develops an S43-based digital postmark server. It is used as early as 2006.
2006
The UPU Standards Board approves version 3 of the standard S43, the first to enable cross-border and global traffic using digital postmarks.
January: The UPU Approved a DPM Regulation (See article). This regulation was passed as an amendment with the letter mail regulation.
Every postal service has a UPU regulation that manages the service and regulates how the posts will cooperate in that service. This makes it easier to assist member countries in developing the market for worldwide digital postmark services.
This DPM Regulation has dramatically increased interest in the EPM worldwide.
Poste Italiane develops a plug-in to enable Microsoft Office users to connect to a backend server, which delivers digital postmarks that comply with the UPU’s S43 technical standard.
2007
April: The UPU Approved the renaming of Digital postmark to Electronic Postal Certification Mark EPCM
Global usage
Recognizing the great potential of the Digital Postmark, numerous postal administrations worldwide have begun deploying DPM-based solutions. Five postal services – Canada, France, Italy, Portugal and the United States – have developed their own digital postmark and use it today. Major software developers are also working to incorporate the global standard into popular applications used by millions of people worldwide.
United States (first launched EPM in 1996; current EPM released March 2003)
France (first launch in 1999)
Canada (launched 1st quarter 2003)
Portugal (launched September 2003)
Italy (launched 2005 by Poste Italiane as Posteitaliane.mail, now Posteitaliane.post)
Egypt (contracted with provider 1st quarter 2005)
Switzerland (contracted with provider July 2005)
Brazil (contracted with provider 2004)
China (preparing to launch)
Netherlands (preparing to launch)
United Kingdom (preparing to launch)
The Universal Postal Union (UPU) has identified trust services as the greatest opportunity for global postal growth. Specifically, they identified the Digital Postmark as the most important trust service; providing an excellent defense against online fraud and abuse.
Electronic postmarks
The United States Postal Service (USPS) Electronic Postmark (EPM©) is a proprietary variation of the Digital Postmark issued by the USPS. It was introduced in 1996 by the U.S. Postal Service as a service offering that provides proof of integrity and authentication for electronic transactions.
Through the USPS EPM web-based service, any third-party can verify the authenticity of electronic content. This electronic proof, postmarked by the Postal Service, provides evidence to support non-repudiation of electronic transactions. The EPM is designed to deter and detect the fraudulent tampering or altering of electronic data.
Key features
The USPS wrote that the key features of their Electronic Postmark are:
Content authentication web-based service (based upon American Bar Association PKI Guidelines) proves document authenticity and timestamp accuracy to detect and prevent fraud.
Integrates easily into existing applications with standard-based interfaces.
Verify options include; local (self contained) & centralized (Internet based).
Verification is free.
128 Bit SSL encryption insuring privacy and security of communications.
Data stays private. Service never has access to your content and requires no modification or transmission of content. (only a hash code of the file is logged as evidence of authenticity.)
US legal environment
The USPS listed laws relevant to EPM as follows:
18 U.S.C. §1343 Wire Fraud
18 U.S.C. §2701 Electronic Communications Privacy Act (ECPA)
18 U.S.C. §2510 regarding electronic communications. Definitions (17)Electronic storage means
(A) any temporary, intermediate storage of a wire or electronic communication incident to the electronic transmission thereof
(B) any storage of such communication by an electronic communication service for purposes of backup protection of such communication.
18 U.S.C. §2710 regarding unlawful access to stored electronic communications
18 U.S.C. §1028, Fraud and related activity in connection with identification documents and information
18 U.S.C. §1029, Fraud and related activity in connection with access devices.
Additional
Other definitions
A Digital Postmark (DPM) is also a network security mechanism, developed by Penn State researchers Ihab Hamadeh and George Kesidis, to identify which region a packet or a set of packets comes from. It was developed as a way to combat spam and denial-of-service (virus) attacks by isolating the source of such attacks, while still allowing "good" messages to pass through.
A digital postmark works when a perimeter router marks up a packet border with its region-identifying data. Also called a "border router packet marking", it uses an obsolete or unused portion of the packet to place the regional mark-up. When room does not exist in any one portion of the packet, the region information can be broken up and hashed in a subsequently retrievable way.
See also
Trusted timestamping
UPU
USPS
References
External links
USPS Electronic Postmark Page
USPS EPM site
French Post Service
Portugal Post Service
Universal Postal Union homepage
Purchase UPU S43-3 Standard
Universal Postal Union - Postal Technology Center
USPS Glossary of Postal Terms (Publication 32)
Worldwide Postal Network in Figures, October 2006
Article: New marking process traces spammers, pirates and hackers
ETSI Specialist Task Force 318: Registered Emails
Postal systems
Postal markings
Computer network security |
38695146 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SmartDO | SmartDO | SmartDO is a multidisciplinary design optimization software, based on the Direct Global Search technology developed and marketed by FEA-Opt Technology. SmartDO specialized in the CAE-Based optimization, such as CAE (computer-aided engineering), FEA (finite element analysis), CAD (computer-aided design), CFD (Computational fluid dynamics) and automatic control, with application on various physics phenomena. It is both GUI and scripting driven, allowed to be integrated with almost any kind of CAD/CAE and in-house codes.
SmartDO focuses on the direct global optimization solver, which does not need much parametric study and tweaking on the solver parameter. Because of this, SmartDO has been frequently customized as the push-button expert system.
History
SmartDO was originated in 1995 by its founder (Dr. Shen-Yeh Chen) during his Ph.D. study in Civil Engineering Department of Arizona State University. During 1998 to 2004, SmartDO was continuously developed and applied on aerospace industry and CAE consulting application as an in-house code. In 2005, Dr. Chen established FEA-Opt Technology as a CAE consulting firm and software vendor. The first commercialized version 1.0 was published in 2006 by FEA-Opt Technology. In 2012, FEA-Opt Technology signed partner agreement with both ANSYS and MSC Software base on SmartDO.
Process integration
SmartDO uses both GUI and scripting-based interface to integrate with the 3rd party software. The GUI includes general operation of SmartDO and package specific linking interface, called the SmartLink. Smartlink can link with 3rd party CAE software, such as ANSYS Workbench. The user can cross-link any parameters in ANSYS Workbench to any design parameters in SmartDO, such as design variables, objective function, and constraints, and SmartDO will usually solve the problem well with the default settings.
The scripting interface in SmartDO is based on Tcl/Tk shell. This makes SmartDO able to link with almost any kind of 3rd party software and in-house code. SmartDO comes with the SmartScripting GUI, for generating Tcl/Tk script automatically. The user can create script by answering questions in the SmartScripting GUI, and SmartScripting will generate Tcl/Tk scripts for the user. The flexible scripting interface allows SmartDO to be customized as a push-button automatic design system.
Design optimization
SmartDO uses the Direct Global Search methodology to achieve global optimization, including both Gradient-Based Nonlinear programming and Genetic Algorithm based stochastic programming. These two approaches can also be combined or mixed to solve specific problems.
For all the solvers in SmartDO, there is no theoretical and/or coding restriction on the number of design variables and/or constraints. SmartDO can start from an infeasible design point, pushing the design into the feasible domain first, and then proceed with optimization.
Gradient-Based Nonlinear Programming
SmartDO uses the Generalized Reduced Gradient Method and the Method of Feasible Directions as its foundation to solve the constrained nonlinear programming problem. To achieve global search capability, SmartDO also uses Tunneling and Hill climbing to escape from the local minimum. This also enables SmartDO to eliminate the numerical noise caused by meshing, discretization, and other phenomena during numerical analysis. Other unique technologies include
Automatic recognition of active constraints.
Smart Dynamic Search to automatically adjust search direction and step size.
Genetic Algorithm
The Genetic Algorithm in SmartDO was part of the founder's Ph.D. dissertation, which is called the Robust Genetic Algorithms. It includes some special approaches to achieve stability and efficiency, for example,
Adaptive Penalty Function.
Automatic Schema Representation.
Automatic Population and Generation Number Calculation.
Adaptive and Automatic Cross-Over Probability Calculation.
Absolute Descent.
Because there are various types of design variables available in the Robust Genetic Algorithms, the users can perform Concurrent Sizing, Shaping and Topology Optimization with SmartDO.
Applications
SmartDO has been widely applied on the industry design and control since 1995. The disciplines and physics phenomena includes
Structure
CFD
Heat Flow
Heat Transfer
Crashworthiness
Structural/Thermal/Electronic Coupled
Automatic Control
And the application includes
Life prolonging of semi-conductor component.
Keratotomy Surgeries.
Civil structure and resident roof optimization (sizing, shaping and topology).
Life prolonging and weight reduction for the components of gas turbine engines.
Enhancement for the performance of the fluid power system.
Weight reduction and strength increase of the nuclear heavy-duty lifting hook.
Performance optimization of the shock absorbing mechanism.
Weight reduction of the air cargo deck.
Performance optimization of the thermoelectric generator.
Weight reduction of the lower A-Arm of the armored tank.
Performance curve optimization for the keyboard rubber dome.
Performance curve optimization for the connectors.
Composite structure optimization.
Strength optimization of the circulation water pump in power plant.
Structural optimization for the wave energy converter.
Performance optimization of the jet nozzle.
Optimization of the O-Ring Sealing for the steel charger.
Performance Enhancement of the Golf Club Head.
Crashworthiness Optimization of The Crash Box.
Ceramic Gas Turbine Engines Rotor Disk Structural Optimization.
References
Notes
C-Y Tsai, 2010, "Improving the O-ring Sealing of 8 gram Charger by Finite Element Analysis and Shape Optimization", M.S. Thesis, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Chiao Tung University, Taiwan.
H-C Tseng, Z-C. Wu, C Hung, M-H. Lee, C-C. Huang, 2009, "Investigation of Optimum Process Parameters on the Sheet Hydroforming of Titanium/Aluminum Clad Metal for Battery Housing", by 4th International Conference on Tube Hydroforming (TUBEHYDRO 2009), September 6–9, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
S-Y. Chen, 2007, Gradient-Based Structural and CFD Global Shape Optimization with SmartDO and the Response Smoothing Technology, Proceedings of the 7th World Congresses of Structural and Multidisciplinary Optimization (WCSMO7), COEX Seoul, 21–25 May 2007, Korea
S-Y. Chen, J. W.C. Liao and V. Tsai, 2007 “Improving the Reliability and Usability of Structural Shaping Optimization –The Contour Natural Shape Function”, Journal of Chinese Institute of Engineers, Vol. 30 (to be published).
S-Y. Chen, Nov 2002, "Integrating ANSYS with Modern Numerical Optimization Techniques - Part I : Conjugate Feasible Direciton Method, 2002 Taiwan Area ANSYS Users Conference.
S-Y. Chen, Nov 2002, "Integrating ANSYS with Modern Numerical Optimization Techniques - Part II : A Reverse Parametric Modeling Approach for Structural Shaping Optimization, 2002 Taiwan Area ANSYS Users Conference.
S-Y. Chen, March 2001, "An Approach for Impact Structure Optimization Using The Robust Genetic Algorithm", Finite Elements in Analysis and Design, Vol 37, No 5, pp431–446.
S-Y. Chen and S. D. Rajan, October 2000, "A Robust Genetic Algorithm for Structural Optimization", Structural Engineering & Mechanics Journal, Vol 10, No 4, pp313–336.
S-Y. Chen, Oct 2000, "Integrating ANSYS with Modern Numerical Optimization Technologies", ANSYS Solutions Magazine, Spring Issue, 2003.
S-Y. Chen and S. D. Rajan, May 1999, " Using Genetic Algorithm as An Automatic Structural Design Tool", Short Paper Proceedings of 3rd World Congress of Structural and Multidisciplinary Optimization, Vol. 1, pp263–265, Buffalo, NY.
B. Mobasher, S-Y.Chen, C. Young and S. D. Rajan, Oct. 1998, "A Cost Based Approach To Design Of Residential Steel Roof Systems", 14th International Specialty Conference, Recent Research and Developments in Cold-Formed Steel Design and Construction, University of Missouri-Rolla, Edited By Wei-Wen Yu and R. LaBoube, pp613–625.
S-Y. Chen and S.D. Rajan, 1998, "Improving the Efficiency of Genetic Algorithms for Frame Designs", Engineering Optimization, Vol. 30, pp281–307.
S-Y. Chen, December 1997, "Using Genetic Algorithms for the Optimal Design of Structural System",Dissertation for Doctor of Philosophy, Department of Civil Engineering, Arizona State University.
External links
FEA-Opt Technology company page.
Dedicated web page for SmartDO
Computer system optimization software
Computer-aided engineering software
Computer-aided design software
Mathematical optimization software
Simulation software |
4971559 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RUNCOM | RUNCOM | RUNCOM is a CTSS macro command processor.
History
Louis Pouzin created RUNCOM for CTSS.
In the context of Unix-like systems, the term rc stands for the phrase "run commands". It is used for any file that contains startup information for a command.
From Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie:
Tom Van Vleck, a Multics engineer, has also reminisced about the extension rc: "The idea of having the command processing shell be an ordinary slave program came from the Multics design, and a predecessor program on CTSS by Louis Pouzin called RUNCOM, the source of the '.rc' suffix on some Unix configuration files."
This is also the origin of the name of the Plan 9 from Bell Labs shell by Tom Duff, the rc shell. It is called "rc" because the main job of a shell is to "run commands".
While not historically precise, rc may also be expanded as "run control", because an rc file controls how a program runs. For instance, the editor Vim looks for and reads the contents of the .vimrc file to determine its initial configuration. In The Art of Unix Programming, Eric S. Raymond consistently refers to rc files as "run-control" files.
See also
Configuration file
References
Unix software |
17956 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LimeWire | LimeWire | LimeWire is a discontinued free software peer-to-peer file sharing (P2P) client for Windows, OS X, Linux and Solaris. LimeWire uses the gnutella network as well as the BitTorrent protocol. A zero-cost version and a purchasable "enhanced" version (called LimeWire Pro) were available; LimeWire Pro could be acquired through the regular LimeWire software without payment, as users distributed it through the software without authorization. BitTorrent support is provided by libtorrent.
On October 26, 2010, U.S. federal court judge Kimba Wood issued an injunction ordering LimeWire to prevent "the searching, downloading, uploading, file trading and/or file distribution functionality, and/or all functionality" of its software in Arista Records LLC v. Lime Group LLC. A trial investigating the damages necessary to compensate the affected record labels was scheduled to begin in January 2011. As a result of the injunction, LimeWire stopped distributing the LimeWire software, and versions 5.5.11 and newer have been disabled using a backdoor installed by the company. However, version 5.5.10 and all prior versions of LimeWire remain fully functional and cannot be disabled unless a user upgrades to one of the newer versions. The program has been "resurrected" by the creators of WireShare (formerly known as LimeWire Pirate Edition).
Features
Written in the Java programming language, LimeWire can run on any computer with a Java Virtual Machine installed. Installers were provided for Apple's Mac OS X, Microsoft's Windows, and Linux. Support for Mac OS 9 and other previous versions was dropped with the release of LimeWire 4.0.10. From version 4.8 onwards, LimeWire works as a UPnP Internet Gateway Device controller in that it can automatically set up packet-forwarding rules with UPnP-capable routers.
LimeWire offers sharing of its library through the Digital Audio Access Protocol (DAAP). As such, when LimeWire is running and configured to allow it, any files shared are detectable and downloaded on the local network by DAAP-enabled devices (e.g., Zune, iTunes). Beginning with LimeWire 4.13.9, connections can be encrypted with Transport Layer Security (TLS). Following LimeWire 4.13.11, TLS became the default connection option.
Version history
Until October 2010, Lime Wire LLC, the New York City based developer of LimeWire, distributed two versions of the program: a basic gratis version, and an enhanced version, LimeWire PRO, which sold for a fee of $21.95 with 6 months of updates, or around $35.00 with 1 year of updates. The company claimed the paid version provides faster downloads and 66% better search results. This is accomplished by facilitating direct connection with up to 10 hosts of an identical searched file at any one time, whereas the gratis version is limited to a maximum of 8 hosts.
Being free software, LimeWire has spawned forks, including LionShare, an experimental software development project at Penn State University, and Acquisition, a Mac OS X-based gnutella client with a proprietary interface. Researchers at Cornell University developed a reputation management add-in called Credence that allows users to distinguish between "genuine" and "suspect" files before downloading them. An October 12, 2005, report states that some of LimeWire's contributors have forked the project and called it FrostWire.
LimeWire was the second file sharing program after Frostwire to support firewall-to-firewall file transfers, a feature introduced in version 4.2, which was released in November 2004. LimeWire also now includes BitTorrent support, but is limited to three torrent uploads and three torrent downloads, which coexist with ordinary downloads. LimeWire 5.0 added an instant messenger that uses the XMPP Protocol, a free software communication protocol. Users can chat and share files with individuals or a group of friends in their buddy list.
From version 5.5.1, LimeWire has added a key activation, which requires the user to enter the unique key before activating the "Pro" version of the software. This has stopped people from using downloaded "Pro" versions without authorisation. However, there are still ways to bypass this security feature, which was done when creating the "Pirate Edition". For example, cracked versions of LimeWire were available on the Internet (including on LimeWire itself), and people could continue using the LimeWire Pro 5.5.1 Beta, which also includes AVG for LimeWire and is the first version to include AVG. The most recent stable version of LimeWire is 5.5.16.
Versions of LimeWire prior to 5.5.10 can still connect to the Gnutella network and users of these versions are still able to download files, even though a message is displayed concerning the injunction during the startup process of the software. LimeWire versions 5.5.11 and newer feature an auto-update feature that allowed Lime Wire LLC to disable newer versions of the LimeWire software. Older versions of LimeWire prior to version 5.5.11, however, do not include the auto-update feature and are still fully functional. As a result, neither the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) nor Lime Wire LLC have the ability to disable older versions of LimeWire, unless the user chooses to upgrade to a newer version of LimeWire.
On November 10, 2010, a secret group of developers called the "Secret Dev Team" sought to keep the application working by releasing the "LimeWire Pirate Edition". The software is based on LimeWire 5.6 Beta, and is aimed to allow Windows versions to still work and remove the threat of spyware or adware. The exclusive features in LimeWire PRO were also unlocked, and all security features installed by Lime Wire LLC were removed.
Forks and alternatives
A number of forks of LimeWire have been released, with the goal of giving users more freedom, or objecting to decisions made by Lime Wire LLC they disagreed with.
FrostWire
FrostWire was started in September 2004 by members of the LimeWire community, after LimeWire's distributor considered adding "blocking" code, in response to RIAA pressure and the threat of legal action, in light of the U.S. Supreme Court's decision in MGM Studios, Inc. v. Grokster, Ltd.. When eventually activated, the code could block its users from sharing licensed files. This code was recently changed when lawsuits had been filed against LimeWire for P2P downloading. It had blocked all their users and redirected them to FrostWire. FrostWire has since completely moved to the BitTorrent protocol from Gnutella (LimeWire's file sharing network).
LimeWire Pirate Edition/WireShare
In November 2010, as a response to the legal challenges regarding LimeWire, an anonymous individual by the handle of Meta Pirate released a modified version of LimeWire Pro, which was entitled LimeWire Pirate Edition. It came without the Ask.com toolbar, advertising, spyware, and backdoors, as well as all dependencies on Lime Wire LLC servers.
In response to allegations that a current or former member of Lime Wire LLC staff wrote and released the software, the company has stated they were "not behind these efforts. LimeWire does not authorize them. LimeWire is complying with the Court's October 26, 2010 injunction."
The LimeWire team, after being accused by the RIAA of being complicit in the development of LimeWire Pirate Edition, swiftly acted to shut down the LimeWire Pirate Edition website. A court order was issued to close down the website, and, to remain anonymous, Meta Pirate, the developer of LimeWire PE, did not contest the order.
Following the shutdown, the original LimeWire project was reforked into WireShare, with the intent to keep the Gnutella network alive and to maintain a good faith continuation of the original project (without adware or spyware); development of the software continues to this day.
MuWire
Around 2020, another free software program resembling LimeWire called MuWire was released; it uses I2P to anonymise connections and transfers.
Criticism
Prior to April 2004, the free version of LimeWire was distributed with a bundled program called LimeShop (a variant of TopMoxie), which was spyware. Among other things, LimeShop monitored online purchases in order to redirect sales commissions to Lime Wire LLC. Uninstallation of LimeWire would not remove LimeShop. With the removal of all bundled software in LimeWire 3.9.4 (released on April 20, 2004), these objections were addressed. LimeWire currently has a facility that allows its server to contact a running LimeWire client and gather various information.
In LimeWire versions before 5.0, users could accidentally configure the software to allow access to any file on their computer, including documents with personal information. Recent versions of LimeWire do not allow unintentional sharing of documents or applications. In 2005, the US Federal Trade Commission issued a warning regarding the dangers of using peer-to-peer file sharing networks, stating that using such networks can lead to identity theft and lawsuits.
An identity theft scheme involving LimeWire was discovered in Denver in 2006. On September 7, 2007, Gregory Thomas Kopiloff of Seattle was arrested in what the U.S. Justice Department described as its first case against someone accused of using file sharing computer programs to commit identity theft. According to federal prosecutors, Kopiloff used LimeWire to search other people's computers for inadvertently shared financial information and then used it to obtain credit cards for an online shopping spree.
One investigation showed that of 123 randomly selected downloaded files, 37 contained malware – about 30%. In mid-2008, a Macintosh trojan exploiting a vulnerability involving Apple Remote Desktop was distributed via LimeWire affecting users of Mac OS X Tiger and Leopard. The ability to distribute such malware and viruses has also been reduced in versions of LimeWire 5.0 and greater, with the program defaulting to not share or search for executable files.
On May 5, 2009, a P2P industry spokesman represented Lime Wire and others at a U.S. House of Representatives legislative hearing on H.R. 1319, "The Informed P2P User Act".
On February 15, 2010, LimeWire reversed its previous anti-bundling stance and announced the inclusion of an Ask.com-powered browser toolbar that users had to explicitly opt-out of to prevent installation. The toolbar sends web and bittorrent searches to Ask.com, and LimeWire searches to an instance of LimeWire on the user's machine.
LimeWire automatically receives a cryptographically signed file, called simpp.xml, containing an IP block list. It was the key technology behind the now defunct cyber security firm Tiversa which is alleged to have used information from the network to pressure prospective clients into engaging the company's services.
Injunction
According to a June 2005 report in The New York Times, Lime Wire LLC was considering ceasing its distribution of LimeWire because the outcome of MGM v. Grokster "handed a tool to judges that they can declare inducement whenever they want to".
On May 12, 2010, Judge Kimba Wood of the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York ruled in Arista Records LLC v. Lime Group LLC that LimeWire and its creator, Mark Gorton, had committed copyright infringement, engaged in unfair competition, and induced others to commit copyright infringement. On October 26, 2010, LimeWire was ordered to disable the "searching, downloading, uploading, file trading and/or file distribution functionality" after losing a court battle with the RIAA over claims of copyright infringement. The RIAA also announced intentions to pursue legal action over the damages caused by the program in January to compensate the affected record labels. In retaliation, the RIAA's website was taken offline on October 29 via denial-of-service attacks executed by members of Operation Payback and Anonymous.
In response to the ruling, a company spokesperson said that the company is not shutting down, but will use its "best efforts" to cease distributing and supporting P2P software.
In early 2011, the RIAA announced their intention to sue LimeWire, pursuing a statutory damages theory that claimed up to $72 trillion in damagesa sum greater than the GDP of the entire global economy at the time. There are currently around 11,000 songs on LimeWire that have been tagged as copyright-infringed, and the RIAA estimates that each one has been downloaded thousands of times, the penalties accruing to the above sum.
A trial to decide on the eventual amount of damages owed by Limewire to thirteen record labels, including Warner Music Group and Sony Music, all of which are represented by the RIAA, started early in May and went on until on May 13, 2011, when Gorton agreed to pay the 13 record companies $105 million in an out-of-court settlement.
Mitch Bainwol, chairman of the RIAA, referred to the "resolution of the case [as] another milestone in the continuing evolution of online music to a legitimate marketplace that appropriately rewards creators."
See also
Comparison of file sharing applications
Open Music Model
Similar court rulings
AllOfMP3
Grooveshark
Kazaa
Mininova
Megaupload
Napster
References
Sources
External links
10 Alternatives to LimeWire (2012), Zeropaid.com
LimeWire Resurrected By Secret Dev Team (2010), TorrentFreak
2000 software
Java platform software
Windows file sharing software
Classic Mac OS software
MacOS file sharing software
File sharing software for Linux
Free file sharing software
Free BitTorrent clients
Free software programmed in Java (programming language)
Cross-platform software
Gnutella clients
Software that bundles malware
Internet services shut down by a legal challenge
BitTorrent clients for Linux |
50580984 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sybrin | Sybrin | Sybrin is a software company headquartered in Johannesburg, South Africa that sells enterprise software and services to the financial services, insurance, and telecommunications industries. Sybrin implemented the first cheque truncation system in Africa, the third in the world, in Malawi.
The company offers a low-code platform along with other prebuilt solutions in their digital banking and payments as well as their intelligent automation product range. These include Payments Hub, KYC and AML, Intelligent Document Processing, Liveness Detection, Digital Onboarding, and more.
Sybrin’s clients include corporates, insurance companies, telecommunication service providers, banking institutions, as well as central banks and national Automated Clearing Houses.
Sybrin has key support offices in Kenya, Mozambique, Tanzania, United Kingdom, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Sybrin’s systems have been implemented in Botswana, Egypt, Eswatini, Ghana, Gibraltar, Isle of Man, Kenya, Kuwait, Lesotho, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Nigeria, Philippines, Rwanda, Seychelles, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, United Kingdom, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.
Sybrin has more than 600 software installations in 21 countries and a staff complement of 200. The company attained the Microsoft Line of Business Award and has been accredited as an Oracle Platinum Partner.
History
Founded in 1991, Sybrin shifted its operational headquarters to Johannesburg, South Africa in 2002.
In 2003, Sybrin obtained the contract for the implementation of the first cheque truncation system in Africa, the third in the world, which was implemented in Malawi.
In 2005, Sybrin opened a support office in Kenya.
In 2012, Sybrin opened support offices in Zambia and Tanzania.
On 13 October 2013, Sybrin was acquired by EOH, a multinational technology company listed on the Johannesburg Stock Exchange with over 11 000 employees.
In 2020, Sybrin partnered with the Mojaloop Foundation to advance financial inclusion in Africa and expanded their markets through strategic partnerships with various other organisations, including: Blisslead, Console, eBizolutions, Insight SCS, Legal Workflow, Nybble, OpenTech Kenya, Quetri, and Software People.
References
Business software companies
Financial software companies
Banking software companies
Software companies of South Africa
Companies based in Johannesburg
Companies established in 1991
Technology companies established in 1991
South African brands |
6325645 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonts%20on%20Macintosh | Fonts on Macintosh | Apple's Macintosh computer supports a wide variety of fonts. This support was one of the features that initially distinguished it from other systems.
Fonts
System fonts
The primary system font in OS X El Capitan and above is San Francisco. OS X Yosemite used Helvetica Neue, and preceding versions largely employed Lucida Grande. For labels and other small text, 10 pt Lucida Grande was typically used. Lucida Grande is almost identical in appearance to the prevalent Windows font Lucida Sans, and contains a larger variety of glyphs.
MacOS ships with multiple typefaces, for multiple scripts, licensed from several sources. MacOS includes Roman, Japanese and Chinese fonts. It also supports sophisticated font techniques, such as ligatures and filtering.
Many of the classic Macintosh typefaces included with previous versions remained available, including the serif typefaces New York, Palatino, and Times, the sans-serif Charcoal and Chicago, Monaco, Geneva and Helvetica. Courier, a monospaced font, also remained.
In the initial publicly released version of Mac OS X (March 2001), font support for scripts was limited to Lucida Grande and a few fonts for the major Japanese scripts. With each major revision of the OS, fonts supporting additional scripts were added.
Zapfino
Zapfino is a calligraphic typeface designed by and named after renowned typeface designer Hermann Zapf for Linotype. Zapfino utilizes advanced typographic features of the Apple Advanced Typography (AAT) "morx" table format and is included in OS X partially as a technology demo. Ligatures and character variations are extensively used. The font is based on a calligraphic example by Zapf in 1944. The version included with macOS is a single weight. Since then, Linotype has introduced “Linotype Zapfino Extra” which includes the additional “Forte” weight with more options and alternates.
Several of the GX fonts that Apple commissioned and originally shipped with System 7.5 were ported to use AAT and shipped with Mac OS X 10.2 and 10.3. Hoefler Text, Apple Chancery and Skia are examples of fonts of this heritage. Other typefaces were licensed from the general offerings of leading font vendors.
LastResort
The LastResort font is invisible to the end user, but is used by the system to display reference glyphs in the event that glyphs needed to display a given character are not found in any other available font. The symbols provided by the LastResort font place glyphs into categories based on their location in the Unicode system and provide a hint to the user about which font or script is required to view unavailable characters. Designed by Apple and extended by Michael Everson of Evertype for Unicode 4.1 coverage, the symbols adhere to a unified design. The glyphs are square with rounded corners with a bold outline. On the left and right sides of the outline, the Unicode range that the character belongs to is given using hexadecimal digits. Top and bottom are used for one or two descriptions of the Unicode block name. A symbol representative of the block is centered inside the square. The typeface used for the text cutouts in the outline is Chicago, otherwise not included with macOS. LastResort has been part of Mac OS since version 8.5, but the limited success of Apple Type Services for Unicode Imaging (ATSUI) on the classic Mac OS means that only users of macOS are regularly exposed to it.
Lucida Grande
Of the fonts that ship with macOS, Lucida Grande has the broadest character repertoire. This font provides a relatively complete set of Arabic, Roman, Cyrillic, Hebrew, Thai and Greek letters and an assortment of common symbols. All in all, it contains a bit more than 2800 glyphs (including ligatures).
In macOS v10.3 ("Panther"), a font called Apple Symbols was introduced. It complements the set of symbols from Lucida Grande, but also contains glyphs only accessible by glyph ID (that is, they have not been assigned Unicode code points). A hidden font called .Keyboard contains 92 visible glyphs, most of which appear on Apple keyboards.
Font management
System 6.0.8 and earlier
Originally, the Macintosh QuickDraw system software supported only bitmapped fonts. The original font set was custom designed for the Macintosh and was intended to provide a screen legibility. These system fonts were named after large cities, e.g. New York, Chicago, and Geneva. (See Fonts of the Original Macintosh.)
Bitmapped fonts were stored as resources within the System file. A utility called Font/DA Mover was used to install fonts into or remove fonts from the System file. Fonts could be embedded into Macintosh applications and other file types, such as a HyperCard stack. Unused fonts were stored in a suitcase file.
The ImageWriter printer supported a higher resolution mode where bitmap fonts with twice the screen resolution were automatically substituted for 'near letter quality' printing. (For example, a 24-point bitmapped font would be used for 12-point printing.) This feature was sometimes called two-times font printing. Some later Apple QuickDraw–based laser printers supported four-times font printing for letter quality output.
With the introduction of the LaserWriter and support for PostScript-compatible printers, the Mac system software initially supported outline fonts for printing only. These outline fonts could be printed in letter quality at any size. PostScript fonts came with two files; a bitmap font was installed into the System file, and an outline font file was stored in the System Folder. Some of the bitmapped “city” fonts were automatically replaced by PostScript fonts by the printer driver. Commercial typefaces such as Times and Helvetica began to be distributed by Apple, Adobe Systems and others.
The Adobe Type Manager (ATM) system extension allowed PostScript outline fonts to be displayed on screen and used with all printers (PostScript or not). This allowed for true WYSIWYG printing in a much broader set of circumstances than the base system software, however with a noticeable speed penalty, especially on Motorola 68000–based machines.
After the release of System 7, Apple added System 6 support for TrueType outline fonts through a freely available system extension, providing functionality similar to ATM. Apple provided TrueType outline files for the bitmapped 'city' system fonts, allowing letter quality WYSIWYG printing.
A reboot was required after installing new fonts unless using a font management utility such as Suitcase, FontJuggler or MasterJuggler.
System 7 – Mac OS 9
A highly touted feature of System 7 was integrated TrueType outline font support, which received industry support from Microsoft. Fonts were still stored in the System file but could be installed using drag-and-drop. To install new fonts, one had to quit all applications.
Despite this, ATM and PostScript Type 1 fonts continued to be widely used, especially for professional desktop publishing. Eventually Adobe released a free version of their utility, called ATM Light.
In System 7.1, a separate Fonts folder appeared in the System Folder. Fonts were automatically installed when dropped on the System Folder, and became available to applications after they were restarted. Font resources were generally grouped in suitcase files. However, rules for storing printer fonts varied greatly between different system, printer and application configurations until the advent of the new Fonts folder. Typically, they had to be stored directly in the System Folder or in the Extensions Folder.
System 7.5 added the QuickDraw GX graphics engine. TrueType GX supported ligatures and other advanced typography features. However little software supported these features and PostScript remained the standard.
Starting with Mac OS 8.5, the operating system supported data fork fonts, including Windows TrueType and OpenType. In addition, Apple created a new format, called data-fork suitcases. At the same time, support was added for TrueType collection files, conventionally with the filename extension .
System versions 7 to 9 supported a maximum of 128 font suitcases, each storing multiple fonts.
Starting with version 7.1, Apple unified the implementation of non-roman script systems in a programming interface called WorldScript. WorldScript I was used for all one-byte character sets and WorldScript II for two-byte sets. Support for new script systems was added by so-called Language Kits. Some kits were provided with the system software, and others were sold by Apple and third parties. Application support for WorldScript was not universal, since support was a significant task. Good international support gave a marketing edge to word-processing programs such as Nisus Writer and programs using the WASTE text engine, since Microsoft Word was not WorldScript aware.
Beginning in 1996, Apple included Microsoft's Core fonts for the Web, which included common Windows fonts as well as new ones, resolving cross-platform font issues. In 8.5, full Unicode support was added to Mac OS through an API called ATSUI. However, WorldScript remained the dominant technology for international text on the classic MacOS, because few applications used ATSUI.
Mac OS X / macOS
OS X / macOS 10.x supports a wide variety of font formats. It supports most of the font formats used on earlier systems, where the fonts were typically stored in the resource fork of the file. In addition to the data-fork version of TrueType and the Adobe/Microsoft OpenType fonts, OS X also supports Apple's own data-fork-based TrueType format, called data-fork suitcases with the filename extension . Data-fork suitcases are old-style Mac TrueType fonts with all the data from the resource fork transferred unchanged to the data fork. The system also supports the instances created using the "multiple master" PostScript variant.
Fonts in the folder and the folder are available to all users. Fonts stored in a user's folder are available to only that user. Previously, up to OS X 10.4, both Mac OS 9 applications running in the legacy Classic Environment and native applications could access fonts stored in the Mac OS 9 system folder
macOS includes a software rasterizer that supports PostScript. Thus eliminating the need for the Adobe Type Manager Light program. The built-in text editing supports advanced typesetting features such as adjustable kerning and baseline, as well as a few OpenType features.
Support for QuickDraw GX fonts was dropped in macOS in favor of TrueType fonts using AAT features. Bitmap fonts are only used on screen if there is a corresponding vector form (which is always used in printing).
Since OS X v10.3 (Panther), a utility called Font Book has been included with the operating system allowing users to easily install fonts and do basic font management.
Third-party font managers
As desktop publishing took off and PostScript and other outline font formats joined the bitmap fonts, the need for unified font management grew. A number of third parties have created tools, such as Suitcase, for managing font sets. For example, they allowed enabling or disabling fonts on-the-fly, and storing fonts outside of their normal locations. Some even allow the use of Windows .ttf font files natively on systems prior to macOS.
Font technology
TrueType and PostScript
TrueType is an outline font standard developed by Apple in the late 1980s, and later licensed to Microsoft, as a competitor to Adobe's Type 1 fonts used in PostScript, which dominated desktop publishing.
The outlines of the characters in TrueType fonts are made of straight line segments and quadratic Bézier curves, rather than the cubic Bézier curves in Type 1 fonts. While the underlying mathematics of TrueType is thus simpler, many type developers prefer to work with cubic curves because they are easier to draw and edit.
While earlier versions of the Mac OS required additional software to work with Type 1 fonts (as well as at least one bitmap copy of each Type 1 font to be used), macOS now includes native support for a variety of font technologies, including both TrueType and PostScript Type 1.
Microsoft, together with Adobe, created an extended TrueType format, called OpenType. Apple, however, continued to develop TrueType. A table, for example, maps composite glyphs to characters and vice versa and adds other features. The table was named after typeface creator Hermann Zapf with permission.
QuickDraw GX
QuickDraw GX was a complete overhaul of the Macintosh graphics system, including the font system, which was rolled out for System 7.5 in 1995. QuickDraw GX fonts could be in either TrueType or PostScript Type 1 formats and included additional information about the glyphs and their purpose. Advanced features, such as ligatures, glyph variations, kerning information and small caps, could be used by any GX enabled application. Previously, they had typically been reserved for advanced typesetting applications.
Microsoft was refused a license to GX technology and chose to develop OpenType instead. GX typography and GX technology as a whole never saw widespread adoption. Support for GX was dropped in later versions.
AAT covers much of the same ground as OpenType. It incorporates concepts from the Multiple Master font format, which allows multiple axes of traits to be defined and an n-dimensional number of glyphs to be accessible within that space. AAT features do not alter the underlying characters, but do affect their representation during glyph conversion.
AAT is supported in IBM’s open source ICU library, which implements support for AAT fonts under Linux and other open source operating systems.
Hinting technology
Hinting is the process by which TrueType fonts are adjusted to the limited resolution of a screen or a relatively low resolution printer. Undesired features in the rendered text, such as lack of symmetry or broken strokes, can be reduced. Hinting is performed by a virtual machine that distorts the control points that define the glyph shapes so that they fit the grid defined by the screen better. Hinting is particularly important when rendering text at low effective resolution: that is, with few pixels per character.
Hinting is part of the TrueType specification, but Apple held three patents in the United States relating to the process:
(filed May 8, 1989)
(filed May 8, 1989)
(filed May 28, 1992)
Until they expired, Apple offered licensing of these patents. Microsoft had access to Apple's TrueType patents through cross-licensing. These patents have proven problematic to developers and vendors of open source software for TrueType rendering, such as FreeType. To avoid infringing on the patents, some software disregarded the hinting information present in fonts, resulting in visual artefacts. FreeType developed an automatic hinting engine, but it is difficult to beat the explicit hinting guidelines provided by the typeface designer. The problem of lacking hinting could also be compensated for by using anti-aliasing, although a combination of the two produces the best result.
Subpixel rendering
OS X/macOS uses subpixel rendering. Version 10.2 introduced subpixel rendering of type and Quartz vector graphics. This feature is enabled using the System Preferences panel "General" (10.2) or "Appearance" (10.3), by setting the font smoothing style to "Medium — best for Flat Panel". OS X 10.4 introduced an "Automatic" setting which transparently chooses either "Medium" or "Standard," depending on the type of main display. The quality of the rendering compared to Microsoft's ClearType and FreeType is contested, and is largely a matter of reader preference. However, Apple's approach differs from that of ClearType and FreeType in that TrueType hinting instructions are discarded for all but the smallest type sizes. This results in more consistency of rendering on Mac OS at the expense of allowing type designers a level of fine tuning through hints.
Fonts of the original Macintosh
Approximately 12 fonts were included with the classic Mac OS (versions 1–9). With the sole exception of Bill Atkinson's Venice typeface, the fonts included with the original Macintosh were designed by Susan Kare, who also designed most of the Macintosh's original icons.
The Macintosh was an early example of a mainstream computer using fonts featuring characters of different widths, often referred to as proportional fonts. Previously, most computer systems were limited to using monospaced fonts, requiring, for example, i and m to be exactly the same width. Vector-based fonts had yet to appear in the personal computer arena, at least for screen use, so all the original Mac's typefaces were bitmaps. Fonts were available in multiple sizes; those sizes installed on a system would be displayed in the font menu in an outline style.
From System 1 through Mac OS 7.6, the default system fonts for Mac OS were Chicago for menus and window titles and Geneva for Finder icons, and they could not be customized. The fonts for Finder icons became customizable starting in System 7. It is accessible in the "Views" control panel. In Mac OS 8 and Mac OS 9, the default system font was changed to Charcoal menus and window titles, but it could be customized in Preferences.
Naming
After designing the first few fonts, the team decided to adopt a naming convention. First, they settled on using the names of stops along the Paoli, Pennsylvania, commuter rail line: Overbrook, Merion, Ardmore, and Rosemont. Steve Jobs had liked the idea of using cities as the names, but they had to be "world class" cities.
Variants
Variants of each font were algorithmically generated on-the-fly from the standard fonts. Bold, italic, outlined, underlined and shadowed variations were the most common, though some applications also included subscript and superscript.
Outline, shadow and underline are not always supported by modern software and fonts.
Apple logo
Apple's fonts and the Mac OS Roman character set include a solid Apple logo. One reason for including a trademark in a font is that the copyright status of fonts and typefaces is a complicated and uncertain matter. Trademark law, on the other hand, is much stronger. Third parties cannot include the Apple logo in fonts without permission from Apple. Apple states in the MacRoman to Unicode mapping file that:
On regular US QWERTY keyboards, the logo character can be typed using the key combination Shift Option K (⇧⌥K). In MacRoman, the Apple logo has a hex value of 0xF0. The Apple logo has not been assigned a dedicated Unicode code point, but Apple uses U+F8FF () in the Private Use Area.
Note that the logo does have a unique PostScript name in the Adobe Glyph List: /apple, mapping to F8FF.
List
Athens (slab serif)
Cairo was a bitmap dingbat font, most famous for the dogcow at the z character position.
Chicago (sans-serif) was the default Macintosh system font in System 1–7.6. Also seen on LCD screens of earlier iPod models.
Geneva (sans-serif) is designed for small point sizes and prevalent in all versions of the Mac user interface. Its name betrays its inspiration by the Swiss typeface Helvetica. Nine point Geneva is built into Old World ROM Macs.
London (blackletter) was an Old English–style font.
Los Angeles (script) was a thin font that emulated handwriting.
Mobile was a bitmap dingbat font. Before System 6, it was known as Taliesin.
Monaco (sans-serif, monospaced) is a fixed-width font well-suited for 9–12 pt use. Ten point Monaco is built into Old World ROM Macs.
New York (serif) was a Times Roman–inspired font. The name alluded to the inspiration, even though the Times for which Times Roman was created was that of London, not New York.
San Francisco was a whimsical font where each character looked as if it was a cutout from a newspaper, creating an intentional ransom note effect.
Toronto (slab serif) was a geometric design. It was removed from System 6 and later.
Venice (script) was a calligraphic font designed by Bill Atkinson.
See also
List of macOS fonts
Typography of Apple Inc.
References
External links
"Urban Renewal", TrueType versions of the original Mac fonts, by Kreative Korp
Articles with unsupported PUA characters
Digital typography
Macintosh operating systems user interface |
39151599 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comodo%20Mobile%20Security | Comodo Mobile Security | Comodo Mobile Security (CMS) is a mobile application provided free by the Comodo Group that protects Android devices against viruses, worms and scripts. It also features SMS and call blocking, a software and process manager, data and apps backup and data traffic monitor. The anti-theft feature allows users to recover lost or stolen devices.
This is the first security app from Comodo, specialists in Internet security, for the Android platform.
Comodo Mobile Security requires Android 2.2 and up.
Major releases
CMS 1.2
CMS 1.2 was released in April 2012.
CMS 2.4
CMS 2.4 was released in January 2014. Major enhancements for CMS 2.4 include:
Cloud antivirus scans. CMS now scans for malware using both local and cloud-based detection engines.
Support for Android KitKat® (4.4).
Added language support for Arabic, Bulgarian, Greek, English, Spanish, Farsi, French, Italian, Polish, Russian, Swedish, Turkish, Ukrainian, and Chinese.
New layout and GUI design offers easier navigation, new icons and new backgrounds.
CMS 2.5
CMS 2.5 was released in June 2014.
New features:
Tablet version: Tablets are more secure with CMS now.
CMS now supports devices with x86 chipsets.
Enhancements
Improved notification behavior, one can select to be notified on every app scan or just on any malware found
Various other bug fixes are performed.
CMS 2.7
CMS 2.7 was released in December 2014.
Changes in COMODO Mobile Security 2.7:
Improved virus detection
Optional password protection for application removal
False positive feedback option
Bug fixes
Independent test labs
On June 17, 2013, AV-TEST Labs released test results of 30 Android mobile security products conducted in May 2013 using Android 4.2.2. Comodo Mobile Security 2.0 scored 5.5 of 6 for Protection and a perfect 6 for Usability in AV-TEST's two testing categories.
In January 2015, AV-TEST Labs released test results of 30 Android Mobile Security products conducted in January 2015 using Android 5.0.1 Comodo Mobile Security 2.7 scored 5.5 of 6 for Protection and a perfect 6 for Usability in AV-TEST's two testing categories.
Reviews
Softonic.com reviewed Comodo Mobile Security 1.1 in January 2012 and gave it 9 of 10 stars, a rating of Excellent.
Rosemary Hattersley of PC Advisor gave Comodo Mobile Security 1.2 3 ½ of 5 stars. She wrote “this smartphone app is a good all-rounder, offering an initial health check, plus ‘anti-theft’ tools in the guise of remote lock, wipe and device location, plus an alert if someone changes the SIM in the phone, all for free."
See also
Comodo Dragon
Comodo IceDragon
Comodo Internet Security
Comodo System Utilities
Comodo SSL
References
External links
Comodo Mobile Antivirus
Comodo Antivirus for Android Source
Antivirus software
Mobile Security |
4010061 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20S.%20Middleton%20High%20School | George S. Middleton High School | Middleton High School is a public high school in Tampa, Florida named in honor of George S. Middleton, an African American businessman and civic leader who moved to Tampa from South Carolina in the late 19th century. Middleton was established for black students in 1934 during the segregation era. The current facility opened in 2002 on North 22nd Street in East Tampa.
Middleton's mascot is the Tiger. Its rival school in Hillsborough County is Howard W. Blake High School. A historical marker recounts the school's history. It was an all-black school for nearly 40 years and remains predominantly black along with its surrounding neighborhood.
It became a junior high school in 1971. Middleton High School reopened in a new location in 2002 with community support. In 2008, a report recounted the school's struggles to improve academic achievement.
History
Middleton High School was the first high school for African Americans in Hillsborough County when it opened in 1934 on 24th and Chelsea Streets in East Tampa. Booker T. Washington School in Tampa had previously accommodated junior and senior high students.
A 1940 fire destroyed the school and it was rebuilt through the Works Progress Administration (WPA). There was a second fire in 1968.
Middleton closed in 1971 as desegregation was being implemented, becoming Middleton Junior High School, and was renamed A.J. Ferrell Middle School of Technology in 2000. After an alumni campaign to reopen the high school, it reopened in 2002 in a new location.
Academic Performance
Graduation rate
In 2012 Middleton's graduation rate was 59% as compared to a statewide rate of 74.5% and a Hillsborough County rate of 72.6%. As of 2017, the school increased its graduation rate to 81% as compared to the state average of 82%.
Florida Department of Education grade
2018 - B
2017 - C
2016 - C
2015 - C
2014 - C
2013 - C
2012 - B
2011 - D
2010 - C
2009 - D
2008 - D
FSA performance
During the 2009 school year, only 25% of students scored "proficient" on the reading section of the Florida Standards Assessment, while 53% passed Mathematics and 90% passed Writing. The average among the Hillsborough County School District (SDHC) is 61% for Reading, 68% for Mathematics, and 96% for Writing.
SAT performance
In 2014 Middleton had an average SAT score of 1245
AP performance
Middleton High school puts a strong emphasis on taking AP level classes, especially for students in the magnet program. In 2016, Middleton had an AP course participation rate of 48%, compared to the state average of 23%, with every student enrolled in any of the magnet programs being required to take at least one AP class every year.
Magnet programs
The magnet school programs at Middleton High School are designed to help students enter career paths in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. The objective is to give students a balanced and rigorous curriculum leading directly to industry, technical school, or university training. Students take science, mathematics, and technical classes leading to college credit through Advanced Placement, dual-enrollment, and/or articulated agreements. Middleton graduates have computer experience and take elective classes in fine art, performing arts, business, and journalism, in addition to participating in clubs and organizations.
Magnet students at Middleton choose one magnet program for their major, but are encouraged to explore classes in other magnet programs that may be of interest to them. Magnet students may complete more than one magnet program, although they are only required to complete their major. Taking online classes with Florida Virtual School is recommended so that students can complete all their required and elective classes by graduation.
The school offers magnet programs in Biomedicine, Computer Systems Technology, Computer Game Design, and Engineering. Both biomedicine and engineering are Project Lead the Way programs.
Engineering
The engineering program is based on the Project Lead the Way (PLTW) model, a nationally recognized high school pre-engineering curriculum.
PLTW courses in this curriculum include:
9th grade level
Introduction to Engineering (Honors)
Drafting 1 (Honors)
10th grade level
Computer Integrated Manufacturing (Honors)
Digital Electronics (Honors)
11th grade level
Principles of Engineering (Honors)
Civil Engineering/Architecture (Honors) or Aerospace Engineering (Honors)
12th grade level
Engineering Design & Development (Senior capstone project; Honors)
Dual enrollment engineering class
After completing Middleton's Engineering Magnet Pathway, students are well-prepared for the rigors of engineering courses at the university level.
Middleton is a certified PLTW high school, which means students can earn college credit for their engineering classes at PLTW engineering universities, such as Purdue and Duke.
Game design
The Academy of Computer Game Design prepares students for video game design and animation. Students practice skills in programming, graphic design, management, and 3D modeling. Creating games includes the building and management of complex databases.
Students receive hands-on experience in planning and building their own original games. Games can be designed to play on multiple platforms such as personal computer, cellphone, Nintendo DS, and Xbox 360.
Students are educated with the foundational knowledge to pursue further training and a career in game design and animation. They may earn industry certifications, such as MOS (Microsoft Office Specialist), Adobe Certified Associate-Photoshop, Adobe Certified Associate-Flash, and Autodesk Certification (3D Studio Max or Maya). They learn complex technology skills that can be transferred to other careers, such as database development and management for business systems.
Curriculum includes:
9th grade level
Game Design Foundations
Computer Fundamentals
10th grade level
Game Design composition
AP Computer Science Principles
11th grade level
Game Design 3D Animation
Game Design Programming (C#)
12th grade level
Game Design Advanced Applications
AP Computer Science A (Java)
Cyber Security System Essentials
The Cisco Networking Academy is a program that teaches students how to design, build, troubleshoot, and secure computers and computer networks for increased access to career and economic opportunities. The Networking Academy provides online courses, interactive tools, and hands-on learning activities to help prepare students for careers in virtually every type of industry.
Students begin the program by studying the hardware and software of personal computers in preparation for the nationally recognized A+ Certification Exam. Hands-on labs and virtual desktop learning tools help students develop critical thinking and complex problem-solving skills. The Cisco CCNA curriculum provides an integrated and comprehensive coverage of networking topics, from fundamentals to advanced applications and services, while also providing opportunities for hands-on practical experience and soft-skills development. Students will be prepared for the CCNA and CCENT exams. Upon completion of the Cisco Academy curriculum, the student moves into the Security+ and Cyber Security class to finish the program.
This program allows students to develop the skills necessary to enter all fields of computer programming and computer engineering at the post-secondary level.
2013/2014 SkillsUSA State champions. 2013/2014 Future Business Leaders of America State and National Champions are presently in this class.
Curriculum includes:
9th grade level
CSIT Essentials (Honors)
CSIT Foundations (Honors)
10th grade level
CSIT Network Systems Configuration (Honors)
Digital Electronics (Honors)(PLTW)
11th grade level
CSIT Network Systems Design & Administration (Honors)
CSIT Cyber Security Essentials (Honors)
12th grade level
CSIT Cyber Security-Physical (Honors)
AP Computer Science A
Biomedical engineering
Biotechnology is a field of applied biology that involves the use of living organisms andbioprocesses in engineering, technology, medicine and other fields requiring bioproducts; work in biotechnology includes genetic engineering as well as cell culture and tissue culture technologies. Students in this magnet program take a total of eight courses, four courses in Biotechnology and four in the Biomedical Sciences PLTW Program. PTLW classes contain some science but the courses also involve marketing. In fact, science is emphasized only in a marketing perspective rather than a medical perspective.
Curriculum includes:
9th grade level
Principles of Biomedical Sciences (Honors)
Computer Fundamentals
10th grade level
Human Body Systems (Honors)
Genetics (Honors)
11th grade level
Medical Interventions (Honors)
Microbiology (Honors)
12th grade level
Biomedical Innovation (Honors)
Internship (Research Facility)
Extracurricular Activities
Mu Alpha Theta
Middleton's Mu Alpha Theta team was one of the highest-ranked in the nation. In 2007, their team placed ninth in the FAMAT state convention, and seventh in the Mu Alpha Theta National Convention.
FLBA (Future Business Leaders of America)
Having won over 400 awards in its 8-year life span, Middleton FBLA has quickly made it to the #1 chapter in all of Florida and one of the top chapters in the nation in regards to national winners. With more than 70 business based competitions, FBLA caters to all. In the 2017–2018 school year, 130 students won at the district level, 50 won at the state level and 15 at the national level.
HOSA (Future Health Professionals)
Middleton HOSA is one of the top chapters in the state and district. Middleton HOSA has over 100 members and has won awards on the state, national, and district level.
Speech and Debate
Middleton has an award winning speech and debate club winning at local and national competitions.National Honor Society
Middleton National Honor Society is the largest honor society on campus.
ACE Mentors (Architecture, Construction, and Engineering)
This club meets once a week to teach students more about architecture and civil engineering. Students are put into groups at the beginning of the school year and given a project that their group will complete step by step throughout the school year. The project changes every year and is always based on a real life construction project. At the end of the year, groups present their projects in front of a panel of real civil engineers and architects and can win prizes including scholarships.
Athletics
In 1957, Middleton won the Florida state championship in basketball in the FIAA, which was the athletic organization for schools with black students. In 1964, they won it again.
Sports available at Middleton include Baseball, Basketball, Cheer leading, Cross Country, Football, Flag Football, Golf, Soccer, Softball, Swimming, Tennis, Track, Volleyball, and Wrestling.
Rivalry
The school's rival high school is Howard W. Blake High School (Middleton and Blake were the two African-American high schools during segregation). The yearly football game, held at Tampa's Raymond James Stadium, is highly anticipated.
Notable alumni
Delores P. Aldridge, sociologist
Jay Bowie, basketball player
Walter Lee Gibbons, baseball player
Josh Johnson (baseball coach), minor league baseball player and manager of the Down East Wood Ducks
Lloyd Mumphord (1965), NFL defensive back and two-time Super Bowl champion with Dolphins
Al Toon, football player
Nick Toon, football player
Ted Washington Sr., football player
Stoney Woodson, football player
Demographic information
96% of students at Middleton are proficient in English.
73% of students come from low income households
56% of the students at Middleton are male, while 44% are female.
References
High schools in Tampa, Florida
Public high schools in Florida
1934 establishments in Florida
Historically segregated African-American schools in Florida |
65905202 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attempts%20to%20overturn%20the%202020%20United%20States%20presidential%20election | Attempts to overturn the 2020 United States presidential election | After Joe Biden won the 2020 United States presidential election, then-incumbent Donald Trump pursued an aggressive and unprecedented effort to overturn the election, with support and assistance from his campaign, his proxies, his political allies, and many of his supporters. These efforts culminated in the 2021 United States Capitol attack, which was widely described as an attempted coup d'état. One week later, Trump was impeached a second time for incitement of insurrection but was acquitted by the Senate. Depending on the findings of the House Select Committee on the January 6 Attack, which is expected to release its report in 2022, the U.S. Department of Justice may decide to investigate whether Trump committed a crime.
Trump and his allies promoted a "big lie" of numerous false claims and conspiracy theories claiming that the election was stolen by means of rigged voting machines, electoral fraud and an international communist conspiracy. These allegations were dismissed as baseless by numerous state and federal judges, election officials, governors, and government agencies. On December 1, 2020, U.S. Attorney General William Barr said U.S. attorneys and FBI agents had investigated complaints and allegations of fraud, but found none of significance. Director of National Intelligence John Ratcliffe said no evidence had been found of foreign interference. Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency Director Chris Krebs called the election "the most secure in American history", leading Trump to fire him and Trump attorney Joseph diGenova to call for his execution.
Hundreds of elected Republicans, including members of Congress and governors, refused to acknowledge Biden's victory. Emily Murphy, the administrator of the General Services Administration, delayed the start of the presidential transition until sixteen days after most media outlets had projected Biden to be the winner. Former Trump National Security Advisor Michael Flynn, who had received a presidential pardon shortly after the election, on December 1 publicly called on the president to suspend the Constitution, silence the press, and hold a new election under military supervision.
A small group of Trump loyalists, including Trump's chief of staff, Mark Meadows and several Republican lawmakers from the House Freedom Caucus, attempted to keep Trump in power. At the state level, their tactics targeted state legislatures and the electoral vote certification at the Capitol. Trump and his allies encouraged state officials to throw out legally cast ballots, challenge vote-certification processes, and overturn certified election results. In an early January 2021 phone call, he pressed the Georgia secretary of state to "find" the 11,780 votes needed to secure his victory in the state. He repeatedly urged Georgia Governor Brian Kemp to convene a special session of the legislature to overturn Biden's certified victory in the state, and he made a similar plea to the Pennsylvania Speaker of the House. On a conference call, he asked 300 Republican state legislators to seek ways to reverse certified election results in their states. Republican officials in seven states, directed by Trump's personal attorney, created fraudulent electoral certificates of ascertainment to falsely assert Trump had been reelected.
Trump pressed Justice Department leaders to challenge the election results and publicly state the election was corrupt. His legal team sought a path to bring a case before the Supreme Court, but none of the 63 lawsuits they filed were successful. They especially pinned their hopes on Texas v. Pennsylvania, but on December 11, 2020, the Supreme Court declined to hear that case.
After the failure of Texas, Trump reportedly considered military intervention, seizing voting machines and another appeal to the Supreme Court, as well as challenging the congressional counting of the electoral votes on January 6, 2021.
By December 30, multiple Republican members of the House and Senate indicated they would try to force both chambers to debate whether to certify the Electoral College results. Mike Pence, who as vice president would preside over the proceedings, signaled his endorsement of the effort, stating on January 4, "I promise you, come this Wednesday, we will have our day in Congress." Additionally, Trump and some supporters promoted a false "Pence card" theory that, even if Congress were to certify the results, the vice president had the authority to reject them.
After the vote certification, some Republicans changed their positions to acknowledge Biden's victory, while others continued to support Trump's claims. , Trump continues to insist that the election was stolen.
Background
Trump's earlier accusations of electoral fraud
Trump has a history of claims of electoral fraud, including for elections in which he did not run. In the aftermath of the 2012 presidential election, in which incumbent president Barack Obama won re-election against Mitt Romney, Trump tweeted that "The electoral college is a disaster for a democracy", that the election was a "total sham", and that the United States was "not a democracy". During the 2016 Republican primaries, after Trump lost to Ted Cruz in the Iowa Republican caucus, Trump claimed that Cruz perpetrated "fraud" and "stole" the Iowa caucuses. Trump called for a repeat of the Iowa caucuses, or for Cruz's win to be declared void.
Uncertainty over Trump accepting an electoral loss in 2016
During his 2016 campaign, Trump repeatedly suggested that the election was "rigged" against him, and in the final debate he cast doubt on whether he would accept the results of the election should he lose, saying, "I'll keep you in suspense". His comment touched off a media and political uproar in which he was accused of "threatening to upend a fundamental pillar of American democracy" and "rais(ing) the prospect that millions of his supporters may not accept the results on November 8 if he loses". Rick Hasen of University of California, Irvine School of Law, an election-law expert, described Trump's comments as "appalling and unprecedented" and feared there could be "violence in the streets from his supporters if Trump loses." The next day Trump said, "Of course, I would accept a clear election result, but I would also reserve my right to contest or file a legal challenge in the case of a questionable result." He also stated that he would "totally" accept the election results "if I win."
Trump eventually won the election but lost the popular vote. He went on to claim, without evidence, that he had won the popular vote "if you deduct the millions of people who voted illegally," asserting after taking office that around four million illegal immigrants had voted for his opponent, Hillary Clinton.
Uncertainty over Trump accepting an electoral loss in 2020
During the campaign, Trump indicated in Twitter posts, interviews and speeches that he might refuse to recognize the outcome of the election if he were defeated; Trump falsely suggested that the election would be rigged against him. In July 2020, Trump declined to state whether he would accept the results, telling Fox News anchor Chris Wallace that "I have to see. No, I'm not going to just say yes. I'm not going to say no."
Trump proposed delaying the Presidential election due to COVID-19, until Americans could vote "properly, securely and safely". (It would require a law passed by Congress to delay the vote and a constitutional amendment to change the term of office.)
Trump repeatedly claimed that "the only way" he could lose would be if the election was "rigged" and repeatedly refused to commit to a peaceful transition of power after the election. Trump also attacked mail-in voting throughout the campaign, falsely claiming that the practice contained high rates of fraud. At one point, Trump said: "We'll see what happens...Get rid of the ballots and you'll have a very peaceful – there won't be a transfer, frankly. There will be a continuation." Trump's statements have been described as a threat "to upend the constitutional order". In September 2020, FBI Director Christopher A. Wray, a Trump appointee, testified under oath that the FBI has "not seen, historically, any kind of coordinated national voter fraud effort in a major election, whether it's by mail or otherwise."
A number of congressional Republicans insisted that they were committed to an orderly and peaceful transition of power, but they declined to criticize Trump for his comments. On September 24, the Senate unanimously passed a resolution affirming the Senate's commitment to a peaceful transfer of power. Trump also stated that he expected the U.S. Supreme Court to decide the election and that he wanted a conservative majority in the event of an election dispute, reiterating his commitment to quickly install a ninth justice following the death of Ruth Bader Ginsburg. But concerns were also raised about Republican acceptance of the election result. For example, on October 8 Republican Senator Mike Lee tweeted "We're not a democracy" and "Democracy isn't the objective; liberty, peace, and prospefity (sic) are. We want the human condition to flourish. Rank democracy can thwart that."
Refusal to accept 2020 electoral loss
After a consensus of major news organizations declared Biden the President-elect on November 7, Trump refused to accept his loss, declaring "this election is far from over" and alleging election fraud without providing evidence. He indicated that he would continue legal challenges in key states, but most of the challenges were dismissed by the courts. His legal team, led by Rudy Giuliani, made numerous false and unsubstantiated assertions revolving around an international communist conspiracy, rigged voting machines and polling place fraud to claim that the election had been stolen from Trump. (For this, a New York court eventually suspended Giuliani's law license.) Trump blocked government officials from cooperating in the presidential transition to Joe Biden. Attorney General William Barr authorized the Justice Department to initiate investigations "if there are clear and apparently-credible allegations of irregularities that, if true, could potentially impact the outcome of a federal election in an individual State."
In the months between the election and Inauguration Day (January 20), Trump engaged in multiple efforts to overturn the results. He filed numerous lawsuits; urged local and state authorities to overturn the results in their jurisdiction; pressed the Justice Department to verify unsupported claims of election fraud; and worked with congressional allies to get the results overturned in Congress on January 6.
Since leaving office, Trump has continued to insist that he really won the 2020 election. He reportedly hates the term "former president", and his official statements refer to him as "the 45th President" or simply as "45" – as in his new website, www.45office.com. During his public speeches he reiterates his claims that he lost only because of massive election fraud, saying "This was the scam of the century and this was the crime of the century" and "We won the election twice [2016 and 2020] and it's possible we'll have to win it a third time [2024]. It's possible."
Stop the Steal
Stop the Steal is a far-right and conservative campaign and protest movement in the United States promoting the conspiracy theory that falsely posits that widespread electoral fraud occurred during the 2020 presidential election to deny incumbent President Donald Trump victory over former vice president Joe Biden. Trump and his supporters have asserted, without evidence, that he is the winner of the election, and that large-scale voter and vote counting fraud took place in several swing states. The Associated Press, ABC News, CBS News, CNN, Decision Desk HQ, NBC News, The New York Times, and Fox News projected Biden as the president-elect, having surpassed the 270 Electoral College votes needed to claim victory. A New York Times survey of state election officials found no evidence of significant voting fraud, nor did the Justice Department, and dozens of lawsuits filed by Trump and his proxies to challenge voting results in several states failed.
"Stop the Steal" was created by Republican political operative Roger Stone in 2016, in anticipation of potential future election losses that could be portrayed as stolen by alleged fraud. A Facebook group with that name was created during the 2020 counting of votes by pro-Trump group "Women for America First" co-founder and Tea Party movement activist Amy Kremer. Facebook removed the group on November 5, describing it as "organized around the delegitimization of the election process". It was reported to have been adding 1,000 new members every 10 seconds with 360,000 followers before Facebook shut it down.
On January 11, 2021, Facebook announced that it would remove content containing the phrase "stop the steal" from Facebook and Instagram. On January 12, Twitter announced that it had suspended 70,000 accounts that it said "share harmful QAnon-associated content at scale". All subsequent "Stop the Steal" groups have since been removed by Facebook moderators over their discussions of extreme violence, incitement to violence and other threats, all of which are violations of Facebook's community standards.
CounterAction, a social media analytics firm, provided ProPublica and the Washington Post an audit of Facebook groups and posts which identified about 655,000 election delegitimization posts.
Several "Stop the Steal" groups were founded by right-wing extremists after Trump published tweets on Twitter encouraging his supporters to "Stop the Count". Many unorganized "Stop the Steal" groups protested in various U.S. cities, including Washington, D.C.; Detroit, Michigan; Lansing, Michigan; Las Vegas, Nevada; Madison, Wisconsin; Atlanta, Georgia; and Columbus, Ohio. Several of these protests included members of extremist groups such as Three Percenters, Proud Boys and Oath Keepers, which CNN reported was an illustration of "the thinning of a line between the mainstream right and far-right extremists."
In Michigan on December 7, 2020, "Stop the Steal" protestors gathered outside the private home of Michigan's Secretary of State Jocelyn Benson to shout obscenities and chant threatening speech into bullhorns. President-elect Joe Biden's Michigan win by 154,000 votes had been officially certified by the Michigan Board of State Canvassers in November.
On December 12, 2020, post-election protests were held in Washington, D.C., in which at least nine people were transported from the protest by DC Fire and emergency medical service workers for hospital treatment. Among the injured were four people who suffered stab wounds and were said to be in critical condition. Two police officers suffered non-life-threatening injuries, and two others suffered minor injuries. An additional 33 people were arrested, including one for assault with a dangerous weapon. Earlier in the day large groups of protesters and counter-protestors assembled outside the Supreme Court and Freedom Plaza. Although small fights broke out periodically, in general the protests were peaceful. Most participants did not wear masks, despite the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.
By March 2021, organizations linked to the Stop the Steal movement, including the Proud Boys and the boogaloo movement, had largely shifted their efforts to spreading misinformation about COVID-19 vaccines as a way of undermining government credibility.
On April 7, 2021, the U.S. District Court of Minnesota charged self-proclaimed Boogaloo Bois member Michael Paul Dahlager, a 27-year old from St. Cloud, Minnesota, with illegal possession of a machine gun. Dahlager had travelled to the Minnesota State Capitol in Saint Paul for a December 12, 2020, "Stop the Steal" rally where he scouted law enforcement positions and numbers. Dahlager had discussed with confidential informants his willingness to kill law enforcement members and incite violent uprisings against the government. Dahlager had allegedly planned to carry out an attack in early 2021 on the state's capitol building, but abandoned it after he believed that informants were among his inner circle. Dahlager pleaded guilty to federal weapons charges in July 2021.
Conspiracy theories
Multiple conspiracy theories were promoted, such as the claim that billionaire liberal donor George Soros "stole the election". Another is Italygate, a QAnon-adjacent theory originating from a fake news website, which claimed that the election was rigged in Biden's favor by the U.S. Embassy in Rome, using satellites and military technology to remotely switch votes from Trump to Biden. There is no evidence to support this. The Italygate allegation was sent to the White House in late December and was proclaimed publicly on January 6, 2021, the day the U.S. Capitol building came under siege from Trump supporters. The New York Times later revealed that, during Trump's last weeks in office, his chief of staff, Mark Meadows, tried to get the Department of Justice to investigate these claims.
These conspiracy theories had multiple origins. They were promoted by Trump and other individuals, and were heavily pushed and expanded on by far-right news organizations such as One America News Network (OANN), Newsmax, and The Gateway Pundit, as well as by Sean Hannity and some other Fox News commentators. Attempts by Facebook and other mainstream social networks to restrict groups that spread false election claims led to a surge in the popularity of Parler, a right-leaning alternative social networking site that has attracted supporters of Stop the Steal. Parler subsequently went offline after Amazon Web Services withdrew support for the app.
As of June 2021, Trump has continued to echo the conspiracy theory that the election was "stolen"; particularly focusing on the efforts of Arizona Senate Republicans to audit the results of the election in Maricopa County and on a lawsuit disputing the results of the election in Georgia. The efforts of Arizona Republicans to audit the results have drawn the attention and support of some Republican politicians, including Marjorie Taylor Greene, Matt Gaetz, and the former president. Trump had reportedly told associates he could be "reinstated" as president by August 2021; however, there is no constitutional mechanism to reinstate a president after the results of an election have been certified by Congress. However, several Trump allies denied reports that Trump would be reinstated as president in August, including Lara Trump, Jenna Ellis, Jason Miller, Corey Lewandowski, and Marjorie Taylor Greene.
The Gateway Pundit published an August 2021 article reporting analysis conducted by Seth Keshel, a former Army intelligence officer, purporting to prove election fraud and that Trump actually won seven states carried by Biden. The analysis was false. Keshel was among a group of military-intelligence veterans including former Trump national security advisor Michael Flynn who played central roles in spreading false information about the election.
November 2020
Alternate electors
On November 4, Chief of Staff Mark Meadows received a text message calling for an "aggressive strategy" to have the Republican-led legislatures of three states which were then uncalled "just send their own electors to vote and have it go to the [Supreme Court]." This was reportedly sent by Trump's secretary of energy, Rick Perry.
On November 18, 2020, James R. Troupis, a lawyer for the Trump campaign in Wisconsin, received a memo from Boston attorney Kenneth Chesebro outlining a plan to create and submit alternate slates of electors in contested states. Another memo three weeks later went to Wisconsin and several other contested states. The memos are evidence that within weeks of the election, the Trump campaign was focusing on January 6, 2021 as the "hard deadline" for determining the outcome of the election.
Post-election firings
After vote counts showed a Biden victory, Trump engaged in what has been called a "post-election purge", firing or forcing out at least a dozen officials and replacing them with loyalists. Secretary of Defense Mark Esper was fired by tweet on November 9. Undersecretary for Defense Joseph D. Kernan and Acting Undersecretary for Policy James H. Anderson resigned in protest or were forced out. The White House sought to learn the names of political appointees who had applauded Anderson upon his departure, so they could be fired. The DOD chief of staff, Jen Stewart, was replaced by a former staffer to Representative Devin Nunes. On November 30, Christopher P. Maier, the head of the Pentagon's Defeat ISIS Task Force, was ousted and the task force was disbanded; a White House official told him that the United States had won the war against the Islamic State, so the task force was no longer needed.
Trump's allegations of election fraud in battleground states were refuted by judges, state election officials, and his own administration's Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA). After CISA director Chris Krebs contradicted Trump's voting-fraud allegations, Trump fired him on November 17. Three other Department of Homeland Security officials – Matthew Travis, CISA's deputy director. Bryan Ware, CISA's assistant director for cybersecurity, and Valerie Boyd, the DHS's assistant secretary of international affairs – were also forced out.
Bonnie Glick, the deputy administrator of the United States Agency for International Development, was abruptly fired on November 6; she had prepared a transition manual for the next administration. She was due to become acting administrator of the department on November 7. Firing her left the position of acting administrator vacant, so that Trump loyalist John Barsa could become acting deputy administrator.
Career climate scientist Michael Kuperberg, who for the past five years has produced the annual National Climate Assessment issued by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), was demoted on November 9 and returned to his previous position at the Department of Energy. Several media outlets reported that David Legates, a deputy assistant secretary at NOAA who claims that global warming is harmless, would be appointed to oversee the congressionally mandated report in place of Kuperberg, based on information obtained from "people close to the Administration", including Myron Ebell, the head of President Trump's Environmental Protection Agency transition team and director of the Center for Energy and Environment at the Competitive Enterprise Institute. As of May 18, 2021, the Biden administration reappointed Kuperberg as executive director of the U.S. Global Change Research Program.
On November 5, Neil Chatterjee was removed from his post as chair of the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission.
On November 11, Lisa Gordon-Hagerty resigned from her posts as Under Secretary of Energy for Nuclear Security and administrator of the quasi-independent National Nuclear Security Administration, reportedly due to longstanding tensions and disagreements with Secretary of Energy Dan Brouillette.
In October 2020, Trump signed an executive order that created a new category of federal employee, Schedule F, which included all career civil servants whose job includes "policymaking". Such employees would no longer be covered by civil service protections against arbitrary dismissal, but would be subject to the same rules as political appointees. The new description could be applied to thousands of nonpartisan experts, such as scientists who give advice to the political appointees who run their departments. Heads of all federal agencies were ordered to report by January 19, 2021, a list of positions that could be reclassified as Schedule F. The Office of Management and Budget submitted a list in November that included 88 percent of the office's workforce. Federal employee organizations and Congressional Democrats sought to overturn the order via lawsuits or bills. House Democrats warned in a letter that "The executive order could precipitate a mass exodus from the federal government at the end of every presidential administration, leaving federal agencies without deep institutional knowledge, expertise, experience, and the ability to develop and implement long-term policy strategies." Observers predicted that Trump could use the new rule to implement a "massive government purge on his way out the door."
Meanwhile, administration officials had ordered the Budget Office to begin work on a 2022 budget proposal that they would submit to Congress in February, ignoring the fact that Biden would have already taken over by that point.
Lawsuits
After the 2020 United States presidential election, the campaign for incumbent president Donald Trump filed a number of lawsuits contesting election processes, vote-counting, and the vote-certification process in multiple states, including Arizona, Georgia, Michigan, Nevada, Pennsylvania, Texas, and Wisconsin. Many such cases were quickly dismissed, and lawyers and other observers noted that the lawsuits were unlikely to have an effect on the outcome of the election. By November 19, more than two dozen of the legal challenges filed since Election Day had failed.
On November 21, U.S. District Court in Pennsylvania Judge Matthew Brann, a Republican, dismissed the case before him with prejudice, ruling:
In this action, the Trump Campaign and the Individual Plaintiffs ... seek to discard millions of votes legally cast by Pennsylvanians from all corners – from Greene County to Pike County, and everywhere in between. In other words, Plaintiffs ask this Court to disenfranchise almost seven million voters. This Court has been unable to find any case in which a plaintiff has sought such a drastic remedy in the contest of an election, in terms of the sheer volume of votes asked to be invalidated. One might expect that when seeking such a startling outcome, a plaintiff would come formidably armed with compelling legal arguments and factual proof of rampant corruption, such that this Court would have no option but to regrettably grant the proposed injunctive relief despite the impact it would have on such a large group of citizens.That has not happened. Instead, this Court has been presented with strained legal arguments without merit and speculative accusations, unpled in the operative complaint and unsupported by evidence. In the United States of America, this cannot justify the disenfranchisement of a single voter, let alone all the voters of its sixth most populated state. Our people, laws, and institutions demand more.
Michigan officials pressured to not certify
Prior to November 17, the four-member board of canvassers of Wayne County, Michigan, was deadlocked on election-result certification along party lines with the two Republican members refusing to certify, but on November 17 the board voted unanimously to certify its results. Trump subsequently called the two Republican members of the board, following which the two Republicans asked to rescind their votes for certification, signing affidavits the following day stating that they had voted for certification only because the two Democratic members had promised a full audit of the county's votes. The two denied Trump's call had influenced their reversal.
Trump issued an invitation to Michigan lawmakers to travel to Washington. Michigan House Speaker Lee Chatfield, State Senate Majority Leader Mike Shirkey and State Representative Jim Lilly were photographed in the lobby of the D.C. Trump Tower, where they were drinking $500-a-bottle champagne and were not wearing masks. After the meeting, Chatfield and Shirkey released a joint statement indicating that they would "follow the law" and would not attempt to have the legislature intervene in selecting electoral votes. Chatfield later floated the possibility of a "constitutional crisis" in Michigan, while Shirkey suggested that certification be delayed; however, neither took any concrete action to invalidate Biden's victory. On November 21, Republican National Committee Chair Ronna McDaniel and Michigan Republican Party Chair Laura Cox publicly called upon the Michigan State Board of Canvassers to not proceed with the planned certification of election results. On November 23, the State Board of Canvassers certified the election.
Attempt to seize voting machines in Michigan
Starting in November, the Trump campaign attempted to get local law enforcement agencies to seize voting machines for the Trump operation to review. In one Michigan county, Trump advisors including Rudy Giuliani phoned the county prosecutor on or about November 20. They asked him to obtain the county's voting machines and turn them over to the Trump team. He refused, but a judge later ordered the machines to be made available to Trump representatives. They later produced a "forensic report" claiming evidence of fraud; election experts have said the conclusion was false and the report "critically flawed".
Georgia Secretary of State pressured to disqualify ballots
The 2020 United States presidential election in Georgia produced an initial count wherein Biden defeated Trump by around 14,000 votes, triggering an automatic recount due to the small margin. On November 13, while the recount was ongoing, Senator Lindsey Graham of South Carolina privately called Georgia Secretary of State Brad Raffensperger to discuss Georgia's vote counting. Raffensperger, a Republican, told The Washington Post that Graham had asked whether Raffensperger could disqualify all mail-in ballots in counties that had more signature errors. Gabriel Sterling, a Republican election official and staffer to Raffensperger, was present for the call, and Sterling confirmed that Graham had asked that question.
Raffensperger viewed Graham's question as a suggestion to throw out legally-cast ballots, although Graham denied suggesting that. Graham acknowledged calling Raffensperger to find out how to "protect the integrity of mail-in voting" and "how does signature verification work?", but declared that if Raffensperger "feels threatened by that conversation, he's got a problem". Graham stated that he was investigating in his own capacity as a senator, although he is the head of the Senate Judiciary Committee. Graham also claimed that he had spoken to the secretaries of state in Arizona and Nevada. The secretaries, however, denied this, and Graham then contradicted himself, stating that he had talked to the Governor of Arizona but no official in Nevada.
Wisconsin recount-obstruction
The Trump campaign requested a recount in Milwaukee and Dane counties, both Democratic strongholds. On November 20, Wisconsin election officials reported that Trump campaign observers were attempting to obstruct the recount. According to officials, observers were "constantly interrupting vote-counters with questions and comments." At one table, a Republican representative was objecting to every ballot that was pulled for recount. At other tables, there were two Republican observers when only one was allowed; it was also reported that some Republicans had been posing as independents. Completed by November 29, the recounts ended up increasing Biden's lead by 87 votes.
Partisan hearings with Republican legislatures
On November 25, one day after Pennsylvania certified its election results, a Republican state senator requested a hearing of the State Senate Majority Policy Committee to discuss election issues. The event, described as an "informational meeting," was held at a hotel in Gettysburg and featured Rudy Giuliani asserting that the election had been subject to massive fraud. Trump also spoke to the group by speakerphone, repeating his false claim that he had actually won in Pennsylvania and other swing states, and saying "We have to turn the election over."
In Arizona, a state won by Biden, Republican members of the Arizona Senate promoted Trump's false claims of election fraud. In mid-December 2020, Eddie Farnsworth, Chairman of the State Senate Judiciary Committee, claimed that "tampering" or "fraud" might have marred the election, despite the testimony given by election officials, attorneys, and the Arizona Attorney General Election Integrity Unit at a six-hour hearing, all of whom testified that there was no evidence for such claims. Hearings held in the Michigan Legislature similarly presented no evidence of any fraud or other wrongdoing.
Conspiracy allegations
Days before the 2020 presidential election, Dennis Montgomery, a software designer with a history of making dubious claims, asserted that a program called Scorecard, running on a government supercomputer called Hammer, would be used to switch votes from Trump to Biden on voting machines. Trump legal team attorney Sidney Powell promoted the conspiracy theory on Lou Dobbs Tonight on November 6, and again two days later on Maria Bartiromo's Fox Business program, claiming to have "evidence that that is exactly what happened." She also asserted that the CIA ignored warnings about the software, and urged Trump to fire director Gina Haspel. Christopher Krebs, director of the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA), characterized the supercomputer claim as "nonsense" and a "hoax". CISA described the 2020 election as "the most secure in American history," with "no evidence that any voting system deleted or lost votes, changed votes or was in any way compromised." A few days later, Trump fired Krebs by tweet, claiming that Krebs' analysis was "highly inaccurate."
During a November 19 press conference, Powell alleged without evidence that an international Communist plot had been engineered by Venezuela, Cuba, China, Hugo Chávez (who died in 2013), George Soros, the Clinton Foundation, and antifa to rig the 2020 elections. She also alleged that Dominion Voting Systems "can set and run an algorithm that probably ran all over the country to take a certain percentage of votes from President Trump and flip them to President Biden." The source for many of these claims appeared to be the far-right news organization One America News Network (OANN). She also repeated a conspiracy theory spread by Texan Congressman Louie Gohmert, OANN and others: that accurate voting results had been transmitted to the German office of the Spanish electronic voting firm Scytl, where they were tabulated to reveal a landslide victory for Trump nationwide (which included implausible Trump victories in Democratic strongholds such as California, Colorado, Maine statewide, Minnesota, and New Mexico), after which a company server was supposedly seized in a raid by the United States Army. The U.S. Army and Scytl refuted those claims: Scytl has not had any offices in Germany since September 2019, and it does not tabulate any U.S. votes. In a March 2021 report, the Justice and Homeland Security Departments flatly rejected accusations of voting fraud conducted by foreign nations.
In a subsequent interview with Newsmax on November 21, Powell accused Georgia's Republican governor, Brian Kemp, of being "in on the Dominion scam" and suggested financial impropriety. Powell additionally alleged that fraud had prevented Doug Collins from winning a top-two position in the November 2020 nonpartisan blanket primary against incumbent Kelly Loeffler in the Senate race in Georgia. She also claimed that the Democratic Party had used rigged Dominion machines to defeat Bernie Sanders in the 2016 primary and that Sanders had learned of this but had "sold out." She stated that she would "blow up" Georgia with a "biblical" court filing. Powell suggested that candidates "paid to have the system rigged to work for them." On the basis of these claims, Powell called for Republican-controlled state legislatures in swing states to disregard the election results and appoint a slate of "loyal" electors who would vote to re-elect Trump, based on authority supposedly resting in Article Two of the Constitution. The Washington Post reported that on December 5 Trump asked Kemp to convene a special session of the Georgia legislature for that purpose, but Kemp declined. Trump also pressured Pennsylvania Speaker of the House Bryan Cutler to overturn the result and use electors loyal to Trump, but Cutler declined, saying that the legislature had no power to overturn the state's chosen slate of electors.
Conservative television outlets amplified baseless allegations of voting machine fraud. Fox News host Lou Dobbs had been outspoken during his program supporting the allegations, but on December 18 his program aired a video segment debunking the allegations, although Dobbs himself did not comment. Fox News hosts Jeanine Pirro and Maria Bartiromo had also been outspoken in supporting the allegations, and both their programs aired the same video segment debunking the allegations over the following two days.
Smartmatic, a company accused of conspiring with Dominion, demanded a retraction from Fox News. Smartmatic wanted corrections to be "published on multiple occasions" during prime time to "match the attention and audience targeted with the original defamatory publications." They also threatened legal action. On February 4, 2021, Smartmatic filed a lawsuit against Dobbs, Bartiromo, Pirro, and Fox News itself, as well as against Rudy Giuliani and Sidney Powell, seeking $2.7 billion in total damages.
In December 2020, Dominion sent a similar letter to Sidney Powell, demanding that she retract her allegations and retain all relevant records; the Trump legal team later instructed dozens of staffers to preserve all documents for any future litigation. The company filed a $1.3 billion defamation suit against Powell in January 2021. While fighting the lawsuit in March 2021, Powell's attorneys claimed that her speech was protected because she was sharing her "opinion" and that, because she was serving as an attorney for the Trump campaign, it was her role to make accusations against Dominion. Dominion had complained that Powell's comments were "wild," "outlandish," and "impossible." Powell's attorneys seemed to concede that Powell had been obviously lying, saying that "reasonable people would not accept such statements as fact" and therefore that she had not defamed Dominion.
Threats of violence by Trump supporters
After Biden won the election, angry Trump supporters threatened election officials, election officials' family members, and elections staff in at least eight states via emails, telephone calls and letters; some of the menacing and vitriolic communications included death threats. Officials terrorized by the threats included officials in the swing states of Wisconsin, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Nevada, and Arizona, as well as a few less competitive states. Some officials had to seek police protection or move from their homes due to the threats. The director of the nonpartisan, nonprofit Center for Election Innovation and Research, described the threats as frightening and said, "These threats often go into areas related to race or sex or anti-Semitism. More than once they specifically refer to gun violence." Prominent Republicans ignored or said little about the threats of violence.
On November 15, the Georgia Secretary of State reported that he and his wife were receiving death threats. On November 30, Trump attorney Joseph diGenova said the recently fired head of the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency, Chris Krebs, should be "taken out and shot" for disputing the president's claims about election fraud. On December 1, Republican Georgia elections official Gabriel Sterling publicly condemned Trump and Georgia Senators Perdue and Loeffler for making unsubstantiated claims and for failing to condemn the threats of violence against election workers, including those made against a young, low-level Dominion employee and his family. After Democratic Georgia State Senator Elena Parent spoke out against the false claims of voter fraud, she was targeted by online vitriol, threatened with death and sexual violence, and had her home address widely circulated online. Parent attributed the onslaught to Trump, saying, "He has created a cult-like following and is exposing people like me across the country to danger because of his unfounded rhetoric on the election."
In early December, an "enemies list" circulated on the web falsely accusing various government officials and voting systems executives of rigging the election, providing their home addresses, and superimposing red targets on their photos.
The Arizona Republican Party twice tweeted that supporters should be willing to "die for something" or "give my life for this fight." Ann Jacobs, chairwoman of the Wisconsin Elections Commission, said she had received constant threats, including a message mentioning her children, and photos of her house had been posted on the web.
On January 1, 2021, Vice President Mike Pence asked a federal judge to dismiss a suit naming him as the defendant; filed by Texas Republican congressman Louis Gohmert and others, the ultimately unsuccessful suit asserted that the Vice President had the sole constitutional authority to conduct the congressional certification of Electoral College results without restriction. Attorney Lin Wood, a conspiracy theorist and QAnon promoter who had worked with Trump attorney Sidney Powell to file baseless lawsuits alleging election fraud, tweeted that day that Pence and other prominent Republican officials should be arrested for treason and that Pence should "face execution by firing squad". Two weeks earlier, Wood had tweeted that people should stock up on survival goods, including "2nd Amendment supplies." Emerald Robinson, a White House correspondent for pro-Trump One America News, tweeted "Folks, when [Lin Wood] tells people to prep, I listen."
After Trump urged his supporters to protest in Washington as Congress convened to certify the election results, some posters in far-right online forums interpreted it as a call to action, with one asserting, "We've got marching orders," while others made references to possible violence and to bringing firearms to the protest. In a discussion of how to evade police blockades and the District of Columbia’s gun laws, one poster remarked, "We The People, Will not tolerate a Steal. No retreat, No Surrender. Restore to my President what you stole or reap the consequences!!!"
December 2020
Trump's attempt to pressure state officials
On December 5, Trump placed a call to Georgia governor Brian Kemp in which he urged the governor to call a special session of the state legislature to override the election results and appoint electors who would support Trump. He also called the Pennsylvania speaker of the house with similar objectives, and had earlier invited Michigan Republican state officials to the White House to discuss election results in that state. The Georgia and Pennsylvania contacts were made after Biden's victories had been certified in those states; Biden's Michigan victory was certified three days after the Trump White House meeting.
After Georgia had twice recounted and twice certified its results, Republican secretary of state Brad Raffensperger received death threats. He was pressured to resign by others in his party, including the state's two senators. On December 23, Trump called the investigations chief in the Georgia Secretary of State's office, who was then investigating allegations of mail ballot fraud, and urged the official to "find the fraud" (a misquote that was amended by The Washington Post in March 2021 to "[you would] find things that are gonna be unbelievable"); the investigation ultimately concluded that the allegations had no merit. Texas attorney general Ken Paxton sued the state and three others, asking the U.S. Supreme Court to invalidate the states' voting results, alleging that they had violated the Constitution, citing a litany of complaints that had already been rejected by other courts. Trump and seventeen Republican state attorneys general filed motions to support the case, the merits of which were sharply criticized by legal experts and politicians. The day the suit was filed, Trump warned Georgia attorney general Chris Carr to not rally other Republican officials in opposition to the suit.
Sixty-four Republican members of the Pennsylvania General Assembly signed a letter urging the state's congressional delegation to reject Biden's electoral votes. Kim Ward, the Republican majority leader of the Pennsylvania senate, said that Trump had called her to say there had been fraud in the election, but she had not seen the letter before it had been released. She stated that Republican leaders were expected to support Trump's claims and if she had announced opposition to the letter, "I'd get my house bombed tonight."
On December 10, 2020, after several lawsuits had been dismissed, Trump tweeted, "This is going to escalate dramatically. This is a very dangerous moment in our history. ... The fact that our country is being stolen. A coup is taking place in front of our eyes, and the public can't take this anymore."
Supreme Court petitions
Before and after the election, Trump said he expected the outcome would be decided by the Supreme Court, where conservative justices held a 6–3 majority, with three of the justices having been appointed by Trump.
On November 21, a group of Republican legislators in Pennsylvania petitioned the U.S. Supreme Court in appeal of a Pennsylvania Supreme Court decision against the legislators, who had asked to nullify mailed ballots after they had been cast, or to direct the legislature to select Pennsylvania's electors. The high court denied the request in a one-sentence, unsigned order on December 8. By the time of the high court's decision, the Pennsylvania election results had been certified in Biden's favor. Lawyers for Pennsylvania argued to the high court that the legislators' request was "an affront to constitutional democracy" and that "Petitioners ask this court to undertake one of the most dramatic, disruptive invocations of judicial power in the history of the Republic; no court has ever issued an order nullifying a governor's certification of presidential election results."
On December 8, 2020, Texas attorney general Ken Paxton sued the states of Georgia, Michigan, Wisconsin and Pennsylvania, where certified results showed Joe Biden had won, alleging a variety of unconstitutional actions in their presidential balloting, arguments that had already been rejected in other courts. Paxton asked the U.S. Supreme Court to invalidate those states' 62 electoral votes, allowing Trump to be declared the winner of a second presidential term. This case, Texas v. Pennsylvania, was hailed by Trump as "the big one". Trump and seventeen Republican state attorneys general filed motions to support the case. and 126 Republican members of the House of Representatives signed onto it. On December 11, the Supreme Court said it would not hear the case. In denying the plaintiff's motion to invalidate those votes, it said that "the state of Texas' motion" had "lack of standing."
In late December attorneys Chesebro and Troupis asked the Supreme Court to review whether competing slates of electors from seven contested states could be considered by Congress on January 6. The Supreme Court declined their request for an opinion.
Electoral College vote and "alternate" electors
On December 14, in accordance with the law, the local electors of the Electoral College met in each state capital and in the District of Columbia and formalized Biden's victory, with 306 electoral votes cast for Biden and 232 electoral votes cast for Trump. On the same day that the true electors voted, at the direction of Trump campaign officials "alternate slates" of Republican electors convened in seven states where Biden had won by a relatively small margin (Arizona, Georgia, Michigan, Nevada, New Mexico, Wisconsin, and Pennsylvania) to sign false certificates of ascertainment. The Arizona Republican Party posted on its Twitter account a video of party members signing the certificates and issued a press release. In another case a group of Republican activists claiming to be electors were filmed demanding entry to the Michigan State Capitol, but were barred entry by building security. In each case the false electors signed a facsimile of an Electoral College certificate of ascertainment, proclaiming Trump and Pence the victors, and sent it to the National Archives and to Congress. The alternate elector certificates for Pennsylvania and New Mexico contained language indicating they would take effect only if the Trump campaign’s challenges to the election results were sustained by the courts; but “alternate” certificates from the other five states contained no indication that they were not genuine. These self-proclaimed electors have no legal standing, and the National Archives did not accept their documents, publishing the official (Biden) results from those states as the result of the election.
The New York Times reported in February 2022 that plans for an "alternate electors" strategy were underway within two weeks after the election. The Times reported that two memos were sent from an attorney named Kenneth Chesebro to attorney James R. Troupis, who represented the Trump campaign in Wisconsin. The first memo, dated November 18, laid out the general approach. The second memo, dated December 9, outlined state-specific instructions on how to legally appoint alternate electors in Wisconsin, and provided the exact format for the false documents they should sign. The memos came to the attention of Giuliani, Eastman and others as a broader strategy unfolded.
(Supporters of the "alternate electors" incorrectly claimed that these actions followed a precedent set during the 1960 United States presidential election in Hawaii, in which two competing electoral certificates were prepared. However, this situation occurred in the context of a statewide recount that could not be resolved prior to the Electoral Count Act's safe harbor deadline, as a result of issues with the vote tabulation acknowledged by both Hawaii's Democratic and Republican parties. Though the initial certified result had shown Republican Richard Nixon winning, Democrat John F. Kennedy was leading in the recount on the day electors met to cast their votes, and would eventually be confirmed as the winner of the state's presidential contest. After the recount, Republican governor William F. Quinn certified the Democratic slate of electors and wrote a letter to Congress requesting that they be the ones counted for Hawaii. In the joint sitting of Congress on January 6, 1961, to tabulate the electoral votes, Nixon and the entire Congress unanimously agreed that the Democratic electors should be the ones counted, while also agreeing that the entire situation be handled "without the intent of establishing a precedent". By contrast, in the case of the 2020 election, the stated need for alternate slates of electors was predicated on persistent false claims of nationwide election fraud.)
In early 2021 the watchdog group American Oversight obtained copies of the false documents from the National Archives via a Freedom of Information request; they published them on their website in March 2021. However, the documents were largely overlooked until the story was reported by Politico reporter Nicholas Wu in January 2022. Michigan attorney general Dana Nessel announced in January 2022 that after a months-long investigation into the Michigan certificate she had asked the U.S. Justice Department to open a criminal investigation.
Deputy attorney general Lisa Monaco days later confirmed the Justice Department was examining the matter.
The "alternate slates" were part of the White House plan for contesting the election. As Trump advisor Stephen Miller described on television on December 14, the alternate electors were intended to replace those electors certified by their respective states based on election results. The strategy was explicitly spelled out in the John Eastman memo: the existence of "competing" slates of electors was intended to provide justification for Congress to disallow the results from the seven states. All of the alternate elector certificates were prepared with similar language, formatting, and fonts, as reported, thus indicating that the state actions were coordinated. The Washington Post and CNN reported in January 2022 that Giuliani led Trump campaign officials in coordinating the plan across the seven states.
In an address to the nation on the evening of December 14, after the Electoral College vote, President-Elect Biden strongly criticized Trump's multiple lawsuits, pressure on election officials, and other attempts to overturn the election result. He added, "In this battle for the soul of America, democracy prevailed ... faith in our institutions held and the integrity of our elections remained intact. And now it’s time to turn the page as we’ve done throughout our history, to unite and to heal."
Consideration of special counsel and martial law
After legal efforts by Trump and his proxies had failed in numerous state and federal courts, including the Supreme Court, some right-wing activists and Trump allies – including Michael Flynn, Sidney Powell, and L. Lin Wood – suggested that Trump could suspend the Constitution, declare martial law and "rerun" the election. Many retired military officers, attorneys, and other commentators expressed horror at such a notion. Trump held an Oval Office meeting on December 18 with Rudy Giuliani, Chief of Staff Mark Meadows, White House Counsel Pat Cipollone, Powell, and Flynn. At the meeting, Trump entertained the idea of naming Powell, who has promoted election conspiracy theories and falsehoods, as special counsel to investigate election matters, though most advisors in attendance strongly opposed the idea. Two executive orders were drafted to appoint a special counsel and confiscate voting machines, which Trump falsely claimed were rigged against him. One order called for the Pentagon to seize machines, while the other tasked the Department of Homeland Security. At Trump's direction, Giuliani called Ken Cuccinelli, the second in command at DHS, on December 17 to ask if the department could seize the machines, but Cuccinelli said it did not have the authority. On Giuliani's advice, Trump had rejected a recommendation from Flynn and Powell to have the Pentagon seize the machines, and Bill Barr flatly rejected the president's suggestion that the Justice Department do it. Flynn reportedly discussed his idea to declare martial law, although others also resisted that idea, and Trump's opinion on the matter was unclear. That same day, Flynn appeared on Newsmax TV to suggest that Trump had the power to deploy the military to "rerun" the election in the swing states that Trump had lost. Trump dismissed reports about a discussion of martial law as "fake news", but it remained unclear whether he had endorsed the notion.
An attempt by Trump to invoke martial law to invalidate the results of the election would be illegal and unconstitutional. In late December 2020, legal scholars Claire O. Finkelstein and Richard Painter wrote that while it was very unlikely that Trump would actually "attempt to spark a military coup," Acting Attorney General Jeffrey A. Rosen should be prepared to direct federal law enforcement "to arrest anyone, including if necessary the president, who ... conspired to carry out this illegal plan." Likening a hypothetical invocation of martial law to overturn the election to the 1861 firing on Fort Sumter, Finkelstein and Painter wrote that any such plan would constitute seditious conspiracy and possibly other crimes, and that any military officers or enlisted personnel ordered to assist in such a plan would be required, under the Uniform Code of Military Justice, to disregard such an illegal order.
On December 18, Army Secretary Ryan McCarthy and General James McConville, the Army chief of staff, issued a joint statement saying, "There is no role for the US military in determining the outcome of an American election." On January 3, all ten living former secretaries of defense – Ashton Carter, Dick Cheney, William Cohen, Mark Esper, Robert Gates, Chuck Hagel, James Mattis, Leon Panetta, William Perry and Donald Rumsfeld – published an op-ed in The Washington Post calling for the orderly and peaceful transfer of power, noting that "efforts to involve the US armed forces in resolving election disputes would take us into dangerous, unlawful and unconstitutional territory", and noting that "civilian and military officials who direct or carry out such measures would be accountable, including potentially facing criminal penalties, for the grave consequences of their actions on our republic." The former defense secretaries wrote that "acting defense secretary Christopher C. Miller and his subordinates – political appointees, officers and civil servants – are each bound by oath, law and precedent to facilitate the entry into office of the incoming administration, and to do so wholeheartedly. They must also refrain from any political actions that undermine the results of the election or hinder the success of the new team."
Elizabeth Neumann, an adviser at Defending Democracy Together and a former assistant secretary of Homeland Security under Trump, stated that "In the conspiratorial conservative base supporting Trump, there are calls for using the Insurrection Act to declare martial law. When they hear that the president is actually considering this, there are violent extremist groups that look at this as a dog whistle, an excuse to go out and create ... violence."
Planning for Congress to overturn the election on January 6
On December 21, Congressman Mo Brooks, who had been the first member of Congress to announce he would object to the January 6, 2021 certification of the Electoral College results, organized three White House meetings between Trump, Republican lawmakers, and others. Attendees included Trump, Vice President Pence, representatives Jody Hice (R-Ga.), Jim Jordan (R-Ohio), and Andy Biggs (R-Ariz.), representative-elect Marjorie Taylor Greene (R-Ga.), and members of the Trump legal team. The purpose of the meetings was to strategize about how Congress could overturn the election results on January 6. Brooks confirmed after one such meeting that it had been "a back-and-forth concerning the planning and strategy for January the 6th."
Pressure on Pence
In the runup toward election certification on January 6, attempts to uncover significant election fraud bore no fruit and related legal challenges were rejected by the courts. Hence, those seeking to overturn the election focused attention increasingly on then-Vice-President Mike Pence. The Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution requires the President of the Senate, which was Pence for the January 6 certification of the Presidential election, to supervise the counting of electoral ballots at a joint session of the Congress. The Trump team developed multiple theories about how the Vice President might act on January 6 to aid the overturning of election results; and encouraged him to act accordingly and repeatedly.
False "Pence Card" theory
Beginning in late December, false legal theories went viral on pro-Trump social media suggesting that Vice President Pence could invoke a "Pence Card", a supposed legal loophole that would enable him, in his capacity as president of the Senate, to reject pro-Biden electoral votes from contested swing states on the grounds that they were fraudulently appointed. These theories originated from Ivan Raiklin, an attorney and former Green Beret who was among a small group of military-intelligence veterans associated with Michael Flynn who were instrumental in spreading false information alleging the 2020 election had been stolen from Trump. The theory stems from a misreading of , which directs the vice president to request electoral vote certificates from any state that has not yet sent these votes to the National Archives by the fourth Wednesday in December. Under the theory, Pence had unilateral authority to declare that state certificates from contested states had not in fact been received, and that new certificates (presumably supporting President Trump) should be issued. Trump retweeted a post of Raiklin's calling for the invocation of the Pence Card on December 23, the day specified in statute, but Pence took no action consistent with the theory. Despite this, Trump believed that Pence continued to have the authority to accept or reject electoral states, and continued to request him to reject electoral votes from states with alleged fraud; however, over lunch on January 5, Pence informed Trump that he did not believe he had any such authority.
Attorney John Eastman incorrectly told Pence in a January 5 Oval Office meeting that Pence had the constitutional authority to block the certification, which Trump reportedly urged Pence to consider. Eastman also sent to Republican senator Mike Lee a six-point plan of action for Pence to set aside electors in seven states, which Lee rejected. By January 5, Trump was continuing to assert that Pence had unilateral power to throw out states' official electoral certificates on grounds of fraud. During the Capitol attack, numerous rioters chanted "Hang Mike Pence", and the phrase trended on Twitter until Twitter banned it. In March, when ABC News' Jonathan Karl asked Trump if he was worried about Pence while the crowd was chanting, Trump defended the crowd, saying they were "very angry" and that it was "common sense" that they would want to stop Congress from certifying the election result. Of Pence, Trump said, "I thought he was well protected and I had heard that he was in good shape." (The audio was released later in 2021.) On September 27, 2021, Laurence Tribe, American legal scholar and University Professor Emeritus of Constitutional Law at Harvard University, and colleagues, fully described the legal background of the attempt to overturn the 2020 election, and, as well, possible ways of averting the use of such a legal strategy and related in the future.
Dozens of lawmakers from five key states wrote Pence on January 5 asking him to delay for ten days the final certification of electors scheduled for the following day, to allow them an opportunity to open special legislative sessions to decertify their electors and submit a new slate of electors. This came three days after Trump, Giuliani and Eastman held a conference call with 300 legislators to present them purported evidence of election fraud.
In January 2022, as Congress began debating whether to amend the 1887 Electoral Count Act to make it clearer that the vice-president has no power to overturn an election, Trump released a statement asserting, falsely, that Pence did have such power: "Unfortunately, he didn’t exercise that power, he could have overturned the Election!" and "they now want to take that right away". Pence responded several days later while addressing the Federalist Society: "President Trump is wrong. ... Under the Constitution, I had no right to change the outcome of our election."
December Timeline
It is possible that pressure on Pence commenced prior to the communications that have been revealed to the public. John Eastman, author of the Eastman memos, began working with the Trump team in November, 2020. Trump adviser Peter Navarro, claimed that the “Green Bay Sweep” plan was developed over weeks prior to January 6, 2021.
On December 13, Trump allies in the House were reported to be developing a “plan to try to use Congress’s tallying of electoral results on Jan. 6 to tip the election to President Trump” through a process requiring action by Pence.
On December 21, Trump’s legal advisors, Pence, and multiple members of Congress at a White House meeting discussed ways to challenge the January 6 certification process and results.
On December 23, Trump re-tweeted the Ivan Raiklin “Operation Pence Card” memo while stating “America @VP @Mike_Pence MUST do this, tomorrow To defend our Constitution from our enemies … Let him know!”
On December 24, a Trump aide contacted John Eastman to request documentation of his legal theories concerning the certification process including the role of the Vice President, resulting in the Eastman memos.
On December 27, a lawsuit seeking to force action by Pence during the January 6 certification, Gohmert v. Pence (see below), was filed in a Texas court.
On December 31, then-White House Chief of Staff Mark Meadows e-mailed a memo prepared by Jenna Ellis, a legal advisor to the Trump campaign, to one of Pence’s top aides. The memo claimed that the Vice President should not open electoral ballots from six states “that have electoral delegates in dispute”, and should defer the eventual count of electoral delegates until January 15.
The pressure continued into early January.
Pressure on Justice Department
On December 14, two weeks after Barr stated there was no evidence of significant election fraud, Trump announced that Barr would be leaving as attorney general by Christmas. Before Trump's announcement, he enlisted Chief of Staff Mark Meadows and other aides to pressure deputy attorney Jeffrey Rosen, who would replace Barr on December 23, and other Justice Department officials to challenge the election results. Meadows and a top Trump aide emailed allegations of voting anomalies in three states to Rosen and other officials. Meadows also sought to have Rosen investigate a conspiracy theory, promoted by a Giuliani ally, that satellites and military technology had been used in Italy to remotely change votes from Trump to Biden. Trump also enlisted a private attorney, Kurt Olsen, to seek a meeting with Rosen to propose a legal challenge he had drafted; it was similar to a challenge initiated by Texas attorney general Ken Paxton and supported by dozens of Republican members of Congress and state attorneys general, that attempted unsuccessfully to have the Supreme Court reject election results in four states. Trump also spoke to Rosen about Olsen's proposal. Rosen and his deputy Richard Donoghue resisted the efforts, exchanging emails mocking them, in one case, as "pure insanity." Rosen later testified to Congress, "During my tenure, no special prosecutors were appointed, whether for election fraud or otherwise; no public statements were made questioning the election; no letters were sent to State officials seeking to overturn the election results; [and] no DOJ court actions or filings were submitted seeking to overturn election results."
In late December, Trump reportedly phoned Rosen "nearly every day" to tell him about claims of voter fraud or improper vote counts. Donoghue took notes of a December 27, 2020, phone call between him, Rosen and Trump in which he characterized the president saying, "Just say that the election was corrupt + leave the rest to me and the R. Congressmen." The next day Jeffrey Clark, acting assistant attorney general for the civil division, approached Rosen and Donoghue with a draft letter and requested them to sign it. The letter was addressed to officials in the state of Georgia, saying that the Justice Department had evidence that raised "significant concerns" about the outcome of the presidential election, contrary to what Barr had publicly announced weeks earlier, and suggesting that the Georgia legislature "call itself into special session for [t]he limited purpose of considering issues pertaining to the appointment of Presidential Electors." Both Rosen and Donoghue refused to sign the letter, and it was never sent.
The Associated Press reported in December that Heidi Stirrup, an ally of Trump advisor Stephen Miller, who months earlier had been quietly installed at the Justice Department as the White House's "eyes and ears," had in recent days been banned from the building after it was learned she pressured officials for sensitive information about potential election fraud and other matters she could relay to the White House. Stirrup had also circumvented Justice Department management to extend job offers to political allies for senior Department positions and interfered with the hiring of career officials.
Pressure on Defense Department
According to ABC News reporter Jonathan Karl, Michael Flynn called senior Trump intelligence official Ezra Cohen and told him to take extreme actions, including seizing ballots, to prevent the election results from favoring the Democrat. Cohen didn't entertain Flynn's orders, responding, "Sir, the election is over. It's time to move on." Flynn replied, "You're a quitter! This is not over! Don't be a quitter!"
Trump attorney Sydney Powell called Cohen shortly thereafter and attempted to enlist his help with a far-fetched claim involving then-CIA Director Gina Haspel. According to Karl's book, Powell told Cohen that "Haspel has been hurt and taken into custody in Germany. You need to launch a special operations mission to get her." The claim, a conspiracy theory, had been circulating among Powell's QAnon following for some time. The conspiracy theory falsely claimed that Haspel had been injured while on a secret CIA operation to seize an election-related computer server that belonged to a company named Scytl. Powell alleged to Cohen that the server contained evidence of "hundreds of thousands, maybe millions, of votes had been switched using rigged voting machines." Powell was under the impression that Haspel had been engaged in this operation with the aim of destroying the nonexistent evidence on that nonexistent server. According to the book, Cohen thought Powell sounded "out of her mind" and he quickly reported the call to the acting defense secretary.
A December 18, 2020 memo proposed that the Trump administration seek evidence that there had been foreign interference in favor of Biden. The memo laid out a plan for Acting Secretary of Defense Christopher Miller to use National Security Agency and Defense Department powers to seize phone and email records. One of Trump's informal advisers, Michael Pillsbury, described this as "amateur hour" perpetrated by people with no existing connection to Trump who were raising topics that the government had already "said there was no evidence for."
Plan to seize voting machines
The then-President’s team also developed plans have federal authorities seize voting machines from states where the election had been closely contested but won by Biden. News reports indicate that, at various points in the planning, the Justice Department, the Department of Defense, Department of Homeland Security, and the National Guard were considered as entities that would conduct the seizures. Several versions of a draft Executive Order that would authorize the seizures were prepared. Then-President Trump was reported to have reviewed the draft Executive Order authorizing seizure by the National Guard but, based on advice by (among others) Patrick Cipollone and Rudy Giuliani, he did not sign and issue it.
Ellis memos
On New Year's Eve, Chief of Staff Mark Meadows sent a memo drafted by Trump attorney Jenna Ellis to a top Pence aide containing a detailed plan to overturn the election results. The plan entailed Pence returning the electoral results to six battleground states on January 6, with a deadline of January 15 for the states to return them. If any state did not return their electoral slate by that date, neither Trump nor Biden would hold a majority, so the election would be thrown to the House for a vote to determine the winner. Per the Constitution, in such a scenario the vote would be conducted on the basis of party control of state legislatures, with Republicans holding 26 of 50, presumably giving Trump the victory.
Ellis drafted a second memo dated January 5 which she shared with Trump personal attorney, Jay Sekulow. The memo argued that certain provisions of the Electoral Count Act that restricted Pence's authority to accept or reject selected electors were unconstitutional. She proposed that when Pence reached Arizona in the alphabetical order during the certification, he could declare the state's results as disputed and send all the electoral slates back to the states for "the final ascertainment of electors to be completed before continuing." Sekulow did not agree that Pence had such authority.
Plan to obtain National Security Agency data
In February 2022, The Washington Post obtained a memo of unknown provenance dated December 18, 2020 that had circulated among Trump allies and was shared with some Republican senators. The memo called for Trump to direct acting defense secretary Christopher Miller to obtain "NSA unprocessed raw signals data" in an effort to prove foreign interference in the election. The proposal called for Miller to direct three men named in the document to acquire the data. At least two Republican senators received the memo after a January 4 meeting at the Trump International Hotel attended by at least three senators and others, which had been arranged by Mike Lindell. The meeting centered around voting machines and alleged interference by China, Venezuela and other countries. The three men involved were not close to Trump and their names had not been previously reported in efforts to subvert the election. Miller said he was not aware of the memo and Trump did not act on it.
January 2021
On New Year's Day, White House director of personnel John McEntee sent a series of bullet points via text message to Pence's chief of staff to incorrectly assert that Thomas Jefferson "Used His Position as VP to Win" the 1801 election, which McEntee claimed "proves that the VP has, at a minimum, a substantial discretion to address issues with the electoral process." Jonathan Karl, the ABC News chief White House correspondent for the duration of the Trump administration, wrote a November 2021 profile of McEntee, characterizing him as particularly powerful because "Trump knew he was the one person willing to do anything Trump wanted."
Trump reportedly reached out to Steve Bannon for advice on his quest to overturn the election results. In early January, Bannon, John Eastman and Rudy Giuliani were operating what they called a "war room" or "command center" at the Willard Hotel near the White House with the goal of overturning the election results. Christina Bobb of the pro-Trump One America News was also a participant. Further related details of the effort to deny and overturn the election were also reported.
Justice Department officials pressured Atlanta's top federal prosecutor, B. J. Pak, to say there had been widespread voter fraud in Georgia, warning him that he would be fired if he did not. The White House forced Pak to resign on January 4, 2021.
On January 6, 2021, a joint session of Congress presided over by Vice President Pence and House Speaker Nancy Pelosi took place to count the electoral votes. Normally a ceremonial formality, the session was interrupted by a mob that attacked the Capitol. As Congress convened to certify the results, Trump held a rally on the Ellipse. He then encouraged his supporters to march to the Capitol building, which they attacked.
Five lawyers who represented Trump resigned in January 2021 after claiming he coerced them to repeat false claims of voter fraud.
Gohmert v. Pence
On December 27, 2020, Republican Representative Louie Gohmert of Texas and the slate of Republican presidential electors for Arizona filed a lawsuit in the US District Court for the Eastern District of Texas against Vice President Mike Pence, seeking to force him to decide the election outcome. Gohmert argued that the Electoral Count Act of 1887 was unconstitutional, that the Constitution gave Vice President Pence the "sole" power to decide the election outcome, and that Pence had the power to "count elector votes certified by a state's executive," select "a competing slate of duly qualified electors," or "ignore all electors from a certain state." Pence, represented by the Justice Department, moved to dismiss the case, since Congress, and not the vice president, was a more suitable defendant. The Justice Department also argued that "the Vice President – the only defendant in this case – is ironically the very person whose power [plaintiffs] seek to promote. A suit to establish that the Vice President has discretion over the count, filed against the Vice President, is a walking legal contradiction." Lawyers for Congress also supported Pence's position.
On January 1, 2021, U.S. District Judge Jeremy Kernodle dismissed the suit saying that due to the plaintiffs' lack of standing, the court lacked subject matter jurisdiction relating to the constitutional status of the Electoral Count Act. On appeal, the next day, the US Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit dismissed Gohmert's appeal in a unanimous decision by a three-judge panel.
Calls with state officials
On January 2, 2021, Trump, Giuliani, Eastman and others held a conference call with 300 legislators of key states to provide them purported evidence of election fraud to justify calling special sessions of their legislatures in an attempt to decertify their electors. Three days later, dozens of lawmakers from five key states wrote Pence to ask he delay the January 6 final certification of electors for ten days to allow legislators the opportunity to reconsider their states' certifications.
That same day, Trump held a one-hour phone call with Georgia Secretary of State Brad Raffensperger. Trump was joined by Chief of Staff Mark Meadows, trade adviser Peter Navarro, Justice Department official John Lott Jr., law professor John Eastman, and attorneys Rudy Giuliani, Cleta Mitchell and Kurt Hilbert. Raffensperger was joined by his general counsel Ryan Germany. Raffensperger recorded the call, reportedly doing so while recalling his November 13 call with Trump ally and South Carolina Senator Lindsey Graham, after which Graham made public statements about the discussion that were at odds with Raffensperger's recollection.
In the call with Raffensperger, Trump repeatedly referred to disproven claims of election fraud and urged Raffensperger to overturn the election, saying "I just want to find 11,780 votes." Raffensperger refused, noting that Georgia had certified its results after counting the votes three times, and said at one point in the conversation, "Well, Mr. President, the challenge you have is the data you have is wrong." Trump issued a vague threat suggesting that Raffensperger and his general counsel Ryan Germany might be subject to criminal liability. After the Georgia call, Trump and his team spoke on Zoom with officials in Arizona, Michigan, Pennsylvania and Wisconsin.
Raffensperger told his advisers that he did not wish a recording or a transcript to be made public unless Trump made false claims about the conversation or attacked Georgia officials. On the morning of January 3, Trump tweeted that Raffensperger "was unwilling, or unable, to answer questions" about various election-related conspiracy theories endorsed by Trump. Raffensperger replied by tweet, "Respectfully, President Trump: What you're saying is not true. The truth will come out." Later that day, The Washington Post reported on the call and published the full audio and transcript. (The Associated Press also obtained the recording.)
Two months later, it was revealed that Trump had also called Raffensperger's chief investigator, Frances Watson, on December 23. He spoke to her for six minutes, during which he told her: "When the right answer comes out, you'll be praised."
Legal experts stated that Trump's attempt to pressure Raffensperger could have violated election law, including federal and state laws against soliciting election fraud or interference in elections. Election-law scholar Edward B. Foley called Trump's conduct "inappropriate and contemptible" while the executive director of Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington called Trump's attempt "to rig a presidential election ... a low point in American history and unquestionably impeachable conduct."
Democrats condemned Trump's conduct. Vice President-elect Harris, as well as Representative Adam Schiff, (the chief prosecutor at Trump's first impeachment trial) said that Trump's attempt to pressure Raffensperger was an abuse of power. Dick Durbin, the second highest-ranking Democrat in the Senate, called for a criminal investigation. On January 4, 2021, Democratic Representatives Ted Lieu and Kathleen Rice sent a letter to FBI Director Christopher Wray asking him to open a criminal investigation of the incident, writing that they believed Trump had solicited, or conspired to commit, "a number of election crimes." More than 90 House Democrats supported a formal censure resolution, introduced by Representative Hank Johnson of Georgia, to "censure and condemn" Trump for having "misused the power of his office by threatening an elected official with vague criminal consequences if he failed to pursue the president's false claims" and for attempting "to willfully deprive the citizens of Georgia of a fair and impartial election process in direct contravention" of state and federal law. Some congressional Democrats called Trump's conduct an impeachable offense. In February 2021, Fulton County District Attorney Fani Willis opened a criminal investigation into the phone call along with the phone call made by Lindsey Graham. In January 2022, a panel of Fulton County judges agreed to Willis's request to impanel a special grand jury to compel testimony from individuals who had refused to cooperate.
Several House and Senate Republicans also condemned Trump's conduct, although no Republican described the conduct as criminal or an impeachable offense. Republican Senator Pat Toomey, who is not seeking reelection in 2022, called it a "new low in this whole futile and sorry episode", and commended "Republican election officials across the country who have discharged their duties with integrity over the past two months while weathering relentless pressure, disinformation, and attacks from the president and his campaign." Other congressional Republicans ignored or sought to defend Trump's Georgia call, including House Minority Leader Kevin McCarthy and Georgia Senator David Perdue, who told Fox News in an interview that he thinks releasing the tape of the call was "disgusting."
Justice Department pressured and efforts made to replace acting attorney general
The day after Attorney General William Barr said he intended to resign, Trump began to pressure his planned replacement, Jeffrey Rosen, to help him fight the election results. In particular, Trump asked Rosen to file legal briefs supporting lawsuits against the election results; to announce Justice Department investigations of alleged serious election fraud; and to appoint special prosecutors to investigate Trump's unfounded allegations of voter fraud and accusations against Dominion Voting Systems. Rosen refused, as did his deputy, Richard Donoghue, as the Justice Department had already determined and announced that there was no evidence of widespread voter fraud. However, Trump continued to pressure them.
Despite these disagreements, Rosen became acting U.S. Attorney General on December 24 as originally planned. Trump continued to pressure Rosen, asking him to go to the Supreme Court directly to invalidate the election results, but Rosen – along with his predecessor Barr and former acting Solicitor General Jeffrey Wall – said such a case would have no basis and refused to file it.
Meanwhile, assistant attorney general Jeffrey Clark, acting head of the Civil Division, proposed himself as Rosen's replacement, suggesting to Trump that he would support the president's efforts to overturn the election results. Clark told Rosen and other top Justice Department officials that the Department should announce it was investigating serious election fraud issues. Clark drafted a letter to Georgia officials claiming the DOJ had "identified significant concerns that may have impacted the outcome of the election in multiple States" and urging the Georgia legislature to convene a special session for the "purpose of considering issues pertaining to the appointment of Presidential Electors." Rosen and his deputy Richard Donoghue rejected the suggestion, as the Department had previously determined and announced that there was no significant fraud. On January 3, Clark revealed to Rosen that Trump intended to appoint him in Rosen's place. Rosen, Donoghue, and head of the Office of Legal Counsel Steven Engel made a pact to resign if Rosen was removed. Confronted with the threat of mass resignations, the president backed away from the plan. In early August 2021, Rosen and Donoghue told the Justice Department inspector general and members of the Senate Judiciary Committee that Clark attempted to help Trump subvert the election. Rosen also told the Committee that Trump opened a January 3 Oval Office meeting with Rosen, Donoghue and Clark by saying, "One thing we know is you, Rosen, aren't going to do anything to overturn the election."
During the closing weeks of the Trump presidency, White House chief of staff Mark Meadows sent multiple emails to Rosen, asking him to investigate conspiracy theories, including that satellites had been used from Italy to remotely switch votes from Trump to Biden. Rosen did not open the investigation.
Preparations by chief of staff
During the days leading up to January 6, Chief of Staff Mark Meadows sent messages in support of preparing alternate Republican electors to replace those in some states in which Biden might win. He also claimed in an email that the National Guard would be ready to "protect pro Trump people".
Additionally, a PowerPoint presentation on how the election could be overturned was sent by email to Meadows on January 5. The presentation, circulated by retired Army Colonel Phil Waldron and apparently inspired by the ideas of Jovan Hutton Pulitzer, alleged foreign interference in the election and recommended that the president declare a national emergency to delay the certification, that Pence provide alternate electors, and that the military count votes. When Meadows was subpoenaed in September 2021 by the United States House Select Committee on the January 6 Attack, he provided the document to the Committee and stated that he had not acted on the plan it described. Of the broader context, U.S. Representative Ro Khanna said on December 15: "There were 20, 30 people who knew about it and were close to going through with it."
More pressure on Pence
In early January 2021, Trump and his supporters continued to pressure Pence to help overturn of election results during the January 6 certification.
On January 1, Trump aide John McEntee sent a memo to Pence's chief of staff, Marc Short, titled "Jefferson used his position as VP to win", suggesting that Pence could emulate Thomas Jefferson by taking the actions encouraged by Trump and his supporters.
On January 2 in an appearance on Fox News, Trump aide Peter Navarro claimed that Pence had authority to delay election certification and to require an audit of the states' election results. Navarro, a promoter of the Green Bay Sweep, was intimately involved with the election-overturn effort. His remarks elicited a public response from the Vice President’s office.
On January 3, Eastman memos author John Eastman briefed Marc Short and vice presidential counsel Greg Jacob on the arguments he had been presenting to Trump about the Vice President’s certification role.
On January 4, Trump tweeted, "the Vice President has the power to reject fraudulently chosen electors.
Later that day, Trump told an audience of thousands at a January 4 rally in Georgia, "I hope Mike Pence comes through for us … Of course, if he doesn't come through, I won't like him quite as much".
On January 4 and 5, Trump met with Pence at the White House several times, attempting to persuade Pence to act as recommended by the Eastman memos; Eastman was present for at least one of the meetings.
Also on January 5—following a January 2 call between Trump, Giuliani, Eastman, and about 300 state legislators—several dozen of those legislators from five key states wrote to Pence and requested a 10-day delay of certification to allow reconsideration of the electoral results previously certified by those state legislatures.
Also on January 5, Eastman communicated with Jacob.
On January 5 or the early morning of January 6, after hearing from Pence and that he did not agree that the Vice President’s power extended to actions that would change election results, Trump issued a statement falsely claiming that Pence was "in total agreement” with his contention that “the Vice President has the power to act".
On January 6 in the morning, Trump called Pence and again attempted to secure his cooperation. Trump reportedly told Pence, “You can either go down in history as a patriot or you can go down in history as a pussy”.
On January 6 at the rally preceding the 2021 United States Capitol attack, Trump said, "If Mike Pence does the right thing, we win the election", "Mike Pence is going to have to come through for us, and if he doesn't, that will be a sad day for our country", and “All Vice-President Pence has to do is send it back to the states to recertify and we become president …”.
Other speakers at the January 6 rally, notably Giuliani and Eastman, also highlighted the actions being requested of Pence. After the rally, during the 2021 United States Capitol attack, rioters chanted “Hang Mike Pence” and displayed a gallows complete with a hanging noose.
During the Capitol attack on January 6, Eastman emailed Jacob, who was with Pence in the Capitol, saying that the siege was occurring “because YOU and your boss did not do what was necessary …".
Also during the January 6 Capitol attack and resulting cessation of the certification process, Trump tweeted, “Mike Pence didn’t have the courage to do what should have been done to protect our Country and our Constitution … ”.
January 6 joint session
Senate efforts
In December 2020, several Republican members of the House, led by Representative Mo Brooks of Alabama, as well as Republican Senator Josh Hawley of Missouri, declared that they would formally object to the counting of the electoral votes of five swing states won by Biden during the January 6, 2021, joint session. The objections would then trigger votes from both houses. At least 140 House Republicans reportedly planned to vote against the counting of electoral votes, despite the lack of any credible allegation of an irregularity that would have impacted the election, and the allegations' rejections by courts, election officials, the Electoral College and others, and despite the fact that almost all of the Republican objectors had "just won elections in the very same balloting they are now claiming was fraudulently administered."
Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell, who on December 15 had acknowledged Biden's victory the day after the Electoral College vote, privately urged his Republican Senate colleagues not to join efforts by some House Republicans to challenge the vote count, but he was unable to persuade Hawley not to lodge an objection. Hawley used his objection stance in fundraising emails. Eleven Republican senators and senators-elect Ted Cruz, Ron Johnson, James Lankford, Steve Daines, John Kennedy, Marsha Blackburn, Mike Braun, Cynthia Lummis, Roger Marshall, Bill Hagerty, and Tommy Tuberville – one-quarter of Senate Republicans – announced that they would join Hawley's challenge. However, many senators acknowledged that it would not succeed. On January 2, 2021, Vice President Pence had expressed support for the attempt to overturn Biden's victory. Neither Pence nor the 11 senators planning to object made any specific allegation of fraud; rather, they vaguely suggested that some wrongdoing might have taken place. Other Senate Republicans were noncommittal or opposed to the attempt by the 11 Republican senators to subvert the election results.
Objections to the electoral votes had virtually no chance of success, as Democrats had a majority in the House of Representatives and, although the Senate had a Republican majority, there was no majority for overturning the election results. Trevor Potter, a Republican former chairman of the Federal Election Commission and the president of the Campaign Legal Center, wrote that the counting joint session "gives Trump's die-hard supporters in Congress an opportunity to again provide more disinformation about the election on national television." After Senator John Thune, the second highest-ranking Senate Republican, said that the challenge to the election results would fail "like a shot dog" in the Senate, Trump attacked him on Twitter.
In early January, Trump began to pressure Pence to take action to overturn the election. As vice president, Pence presides over the Congressional session to count the electoral votes – normally a non-controversial, ceremonial event. For days beforehand, Trump demanded both in public and in private that Pence use that position to overturn the election results in swing states and declare Trump-Pence the winners of the election. Pence demurred that the law does not give him that power, but Trump insisted that "The Vice President and I are in total agreement that the Vice President has the power to act." Pence ultimately released a statement stating: "It is my considered judgment that my oath to support and defend the Constitution constrains me from claiming unilateral authority to determine which electoral votes should be counted and which should not".
An hour before the joint session was set to start, the president's lawyer Rudy Giuliani tried to call freshman Senator Tommy Tuberville but accidentally left a message in the voicemail of another senator, which was subsequently leaked to The Dispatch, stating that "we need you, our Republican friends, to try to just slow it down ... So if you could object to every state and, along with a congressman, get a hearing for every state, I know we would delay you a lot, but it would give us the opportunity to get the legislators who are very, very close to pulling their vote ... they have written letters asking that you guys adjourn and send them back the questionable ones and they'll fix them up".
House votes
At the January 6 session, after Republican senators had raised objections to Biden's electoral victory, the House debated and voted. A majority of Republicans, totaling 139 and including Republican leader Kevin McCarthy and his deputy Steve Scalise, voted to support at least one objection.
Report by Representative Zoe Lofgren
At the end of February 2021, Representative Zoe Lofgren released a nearly 2,000-page report that examined the social media posts of Republican leaders who had voted against certifying the election results. The report focused on their posts before the November election and after the January 6 riot.
Capitol attack
Starting in December, Trump repeatedly encouraged his supporters to protest in Washington, D.C., on January 6 in support of his campaign to overturn the election results, telling his supporters to "Be there, will be wild!" The Washington Post editorial board criticized Trump for urging street protests, referring to previous violence by some Trump supporters at two rallies and his statement during a presidential debate telling the Proud Boys to "stand back and stand by." Multiple groups of die-hard Trump supporters staged rallies in Washington on that day: Women for America First; the Eighty Percent Coalition (also at Freedom Plaza) (the group's name refers to the belief that approximately 80% of Trump voters do not accept the legitimacy of Biden's win); and "The Silent Majority" (a group organized by a South Carolina conservative activist). George Papadopoulos and Roger Stone, ardent allies of Trump, headlined some of the events. In addition to the formally organized events, the Proud Boys, other far-right groups, and white supremacists vowed to descend on Washington on January 6, with some threatening violence and pledging to carry weapons. Proud Boys leader Enrique Tarrio said that his followers would "be incognito" and would "spread across downtown DC in smaller teams." On January 4, Tarrio was arrested by District police on misdemeanor and felony charges.
As the certification process was underway, Trump gave a speech encouraging his supporters to march to the Capitol. Many of them did, whereupon they joined other protesters already gathered in the area and violently breached and stormed the Capitol, eventually entering the Senate chamber as well as numerous offices. The Congressional proceedings were suspended, the legislators were taken to secure locations, and Pence and later Pelosi were evacuated. Protestors penetrated the Senate chamber. One unarmed woman was shot and killed by Capitol Police inside the Capitol building after she attempted to climb through a broken door into the Speaker's Lobby, leading to the House chamber; the officer who shot her was placed on administrative leave pending an investigation, and was ultimately cleared of any wrongdoing. Another rioter died of a drug overdose, and three succumbed to natural causes. A Capitol Police officer died from a stroke the next day.
As the attack progressed, Pence was evacuated from the Senate chamber to a basement room, as Trump tweeted, "Mike Pence didn’t have the courage to do what should have been done to protect our Country and our Constitution." The Secret Service prepared to evacuate Pence to Andrews Air Force Base. Carol Leonnig and Philip Rucker reported in their book I Alone Can Fix It that Pence was brought to his armored limousine but told his security chief Tim Giebels, "I'm not leaving the Capitol...If I get in that vehicle, you guys are taking off. I'm not getting in the car." Pence remained at the Capitol and certified the election results late that night.
On January 3, 2022, Newsweek reported, for the first time, the deployment of undercover commandos at the Capitol on January 6, 2021 to manage the "most extreme possibilities," including an attack on President Donald Trump or Vice President Mike Pence.
According to a January 3, 2022 CNN News report, the United States House Select Committee on the January 6 Attack has learned that Trump did nothing to stop the attack as it was unfolding. Leaders of the committee Bennie Thompson and Liz Cheney have characterized his failure to intervene, despite being asked to do so, as "dereliction of duty".
Lindell memo
On January 15, Trump ally and My Pillow CEO Mike Lindell visited the White House, where he was photographed carrying notes that appeared to suggest an additional attempt to overturn the election. The document bore a heading containing the words "taken immediately to save ... Constitution" and called for 780th Military Intelligence Brigade (Cyber) civilian lawyer "Frank Colon NOW as Acting National Security [illegible]", and mentioned the "Insurrection Act" and "martial law". It further recommended "[m]ov[ing] Kash Patel to CIA Acting" and made reference to Trump loyalist Sidney Powell.
Later developments
Security concerns over March 4, 2021
Starting in late January, QAnon adherents began expressing their beliefs that Trump would be re-inaugurated as the 19th President on March 4, the original date for presidential inaugurations until the passage of the Twentieth Amendment in 1933. This belief was adopted from a false aspect of sovereign citizen ideology that asserts there has not been a "legitimate" U.S. president since Ulysses S. Grant (whose first inauguration occurred on March 4, 1869) due to an 1871 law that supposedly turned the U.S. into a corporation. In February, it was reported that National Guard troops were expected to remain in Washington, D.C., through March 12 due to concerns over possible activity by QAnon adherents on March 4.
On March 2, it was reported that security measures were being added in Washington, D.C., in preparation for possible events on March 4. Despite these reports, the Capitol Police had advised lawmakers earlier that week that there was no indication of any protests or acts of violence in Washington, D.C., being planned. However, based on new intelligence that an identified but undisclosed militia group might attempt an attack on the Capitol building from that date to March 6, the agency issued an updated alert on March 3. House leadership subsequently rescheduled a March 4 vote to the previous night to allow lawmakers to leave town, though it later said the reschedule was not done out of security concerns. Meanwhile, the Senate did not follow suit, and it continued debating on the American Rescue Plan Act of 2021 as planned.
In addition to the Capitol Police advisory, the FBI and Department of Homeland Security issued a joint intelligence bulletin, featuring similar warnings of possible violence on March 4, to state and local law enforcement agencies across the U.S. on the previous day. The Associated Press reported that federal agents were monitoring hotel rooms, flight, and rental car reservation increases, as well as bus charters, for that day. It also reported a decline in online activity on some social media platforms regarding March 4, similar to another decline of online chatter leading up to the events of January 6.
Ultimately, March 4 passed without any serious incidents being reported. Afterwards, it was reported that the QAnon community had recently become skeptical of the March 4 theory. Prominent QAnon influencers did not treat the date with any significance unlike January 6, and some even dissuaded followers from participating in events scheduled on that date and accusing the news coverage about the date of being part of a false flag narrative designed to entrap them. Similar rhetoric had been observed prior to the January 6 riot and Biden's inauguration. According to Newsweek, some QAnon adherents rescheduled the purported date of Trump's re-inauguration to March 20, based on a misinterpretation of a 2019 act that "extends support provided by the General Services Administration to the president- and vice president-elect for up to 60 days after the inauguration"; it was also the 167th anniversary of the founding of the Republican Party.
Election audits
Alleging fraud, during 2021 Republicans initiated or proposed audits in several states. An audit in Maricopa County, Arizona that began in April inspired Republicans in other states to pursue similar efforts, with some calling for audits in all fifty states. More than a year after the election, Trump supporters continued to pressure state election officials to investigate or decertify the outcome, even in states where Trump won by a large margin.
An Associated Press analysis published in December 2021 examined every potential case of voter fraud in the six battleground states that Trump had challenged. The analysis found 473 potential incidents. Even if all the incidents involved votes for Biden, which they did not, and involved ballots that were actually counted, which they did not, the number was far smaller than would have been necessary to change the election outcome. The analysis found no evidence of organized fraud but rather in virtually every case it involved an individual acting alone.
Arizona
On March 31, 2021, the Arizona Senate Republican caucus hired four firms to perform an audit of the presidential ballots in Maricopa County, with a Florida-based company called Cyber Ninjas being the lead firm. There was no stated purpose of overturning the election, and there is no mechanism under the Constitution by which the Congressional certification of the result could be reversed. Arizona Senate President Karen Fann said that the audit was not intended to overturn the state's election results, including at a July 15 hearing. Nevertheless, Trump and some of his supporters expressed the hope that the Arizona result would be changed and that there might be a "domino effect" in which other states changed their results.
The auditors released a report on September 24, 2021, finding no proof of fraud and that their ballot recount increased Biden's margin of victory by 360 votes. Following the audit, Arizona Governor Doug Ducey rejected calls for the state's election to be decertified or overturned.
In January 2022, Maricopa County election officials released a final report finding nearly every claim the auditors made was false or misleading. The next day, Cyber Ninjas announced it was shutting down, as a Maricopa County judge imposed a $50,000 contempt fine on the company for every day it refused to hand over documents as it had been ordered to do months earlier.
Georgia
A group called VoterGA filed a lawsuit requesting to examine by microscope 150,000 Fulton County ballots that it asserted might be counterfeit. The suit arose after four Republican auditors involved with the November 2020 statewide audit and manual recount claimed to see what they asserted were "pristine" absentee ballots which they suspected might have been computer-generated, though an October 2021 investigation by the Georgia secretary of state's office found that there were no counterfeit ballots in the batches named by the complainants. After an initial ruling in favor of the suit by a superior court judge in May 2021, it was ultimately dismissed in October because the plaintiffs "failed to allege a particularized injury." The dismissal of the suit marked the end of the last remaining lawsuit challenging the Georgia election results until another suit making largely the same argument was subsequently filed. In December 2021, that suit was joined by David Perdue, who had announced his candidacy for Georgia governor days earlier. Perdue lost his bid to be reelected as a United States senator in 2020 and asserted that he, like Trump, had been cheated.
Trump had claimed that about 5,000 dead people had voted in Georgia, but an examination by the State Election Board released in December 2021 found that four absentee ballots of dead people had been mailed in by relatives.
Idaho
In September 2021, Bonner County, Idaho announced it would perform a recount of ballots cast in the election, in response to an allegation by election conspiracy theorist Mike Lindell that all 44 Idaho counties had been digitally hacked. Lindell provided a detailed list of IP addresses he asserted had been compromised. County Clerk Mike Rosedale stated that all county voting machines were fully airgapped from the Internet, also noting that seven Idaho counties don't use voting machines. Lindell alleged that a specific formula had been applied by hackers to flip votes from Trump to Biden. Rosedale said Lindell had not contacted his office before presenting his allegations. Trump carried Bonner County with 67.2% of the vote and Idaho with 63.9% in the 2020 election. The Bonner audit, and audits of two other counties that don't use voting machines, affirmed the accuracy of the ballot count. Chief Deputy Secretary of State Chad Houck said Lindell would be sent a bill for the audits.
Pennsylvania
By August 2021, Pennsylvania Republican lawmakers were preparing to hold formal hearings on the election and conduct a "full forensic investigation." Prior to the investigation, Senate President Jake Corman made a statement asserting that the investigation is not meant to overturn the results of Pennsylvania's election and that the legislature does not have the authority to do so. The next month, Republicans approved subpoenas for a wide range of personal information on millions of voters who cast votes in the May primary and November general election. Republicans intended to hire private firms to manage the data. On September 23, 2021, Pennsylvania Attorney General Josh Shapiro filed a lawsuit seeking to block the subpeonas from being issued. On October 7, 2021, Corman said that he accepted the results of the election but also reaffirmed his support for the investigation.
Texas
The Texas attorney general's office, led by ardent Trump ally Ken Paxton, spent more than 22,000 staff hours investigating potential voting fraud in 2020. The investigation identified and prosecuted sixteen cases of false addresses on voter registration forms, among nearly 17 million registered voters in the state. This was half as many cases as two years earlier. A 2021 investigation found only three prosecutable cases among all elections in the state.
In September 2021, hours after Trump wrote to Texas governor Greg Abbott demanding an audit of the state's election results, the Texas secretary of state's office announced that audits had begun in four major counties. County officials and others in the secretary of state's office initially said they were unaware of any audit underway. Trump won Texas with 52.1% of the vote, though Biden and Texan Lyndon Johnson were the only Democrats to win Tarrant County since 1952; Trump won the county by nine points in 2016.
The audits were conducted by secretary of state John Scott, whom Abbott appointed in October 2021. Scott is a former state litigator who briefly joined Trump's legal team in 2020 to challenge the election results. He released preliminary findings of the audits in December 2021 that found few issues, including 17 votes cast by deceased voters and 60 cross-state duplicate votes among 3.9 million ballots cast. The duplicate votes remained under investigation.
Wisconsin
By May 2021, state election officials had identified 27 potential cases of voting fraud among 3.3 million ballots cast. Sixteen of those cases involved people using a UPS Store rather than their residence for their mailing address.
Trump and his allies filed multiple lawsuits challenging Wisconsin election results but lost all of them, including a series of decisions by the state Supreme Court. State Republicans initiated multiple types of investigations beginning in February 2021. That month, the Republican majority legislature voted to direct the nonpartisan Legislative Audit Bureau to conduct an examination of some election procedures.
In May 2021, Robin Vos, the Republican speaker of the Wisconsin state assembly, hired three retired police officers and an attorney to examine reported tips of potential election irregularities.
Janel Brandtjen, who chairs the Assembly elections committee, opened a "forensic audit" modeled after the Maricopa County, Arizona audit. She had traveled to Arizona to review that audit. Brandtjen issued subpoenas to two major counties for ballots and voting machines, but they were rejected because Vos had not signed them, as required by law. Vos indicated he did not intend to sign the subpoenas, which requested information that doesn't exist or doesn't apply to Wisconsin elections. Milwaukee County Clerk George Christenson asserted the subpoena he received was "clearly a cut and paste job" from similar election-related legal moves by Republicans in other states.
In June 2021, Vos selected Republican former Wisconsin Supreme Court justice Michael Gableman to conduct an investigation of the election. Gableman had been considered for a position in the Trump administration in 2017. Soon after the election, Gableman had voiced conspiracy theories about the outcome and had attended an August conference hosted by election conspiracy theorist Mike Lindell. He also consulted Shiva Ayyadurai, a conspiracy theorist whose work on the Arizona audit was discredited. Gableman issued subpoenas, later withdrawn, some of which contained errors and requested information that was already public. He later stated, "Most people, myself included, do not have a comprehensive understanding or even any understanding of how elections work." Gableman sent emails to election officials across the state asking them to retain information, but they came from a Gmail account associated with a different name and in some cases were blocked as a security concern or spam. Gableman compared a newspaper's coverage of his investigation to Nazi propaganda. In October, the office of Democrat Wisconsin attorney general Josh Kaul sent Gableman a nine-page letter characterizing the investigation as unlawful and called for it to be closed.
On October 22, 2021, the nonpartisan Legislative Audit Bureau released their findings of a audit ordered by Republicans in February 2021. The findings reported that there was no evidence of widespread voter fraud, and that State Senator Robert Cowles said that the election was "safe and secure". State Senator Kathy Bernier said that the audit found no evidence of any "attempt at vote fraud".
A ten-month review by the conservative Wisconsin Institute for Law and Liberty found in December 2021 that certain election procedures weren’t adequately followed, but there was "little direct evidence of fraud, and for the most part, an analysis of the results and voting patterns does not give rise to an inference of fraud."
Mike Lindell reinstatement prediction
On March 29, 2021, businessman and Trump supporter Mike Lindell predicted that Trump would "be back in office in August" in a video released by Right Wing Watch. Lindell more specifically predicted that Trump would be reinstated on the morning of August 13, the day after his three-day cyber fraud conference in Sioux Falls, stating "it'll be the talk of the world". When President Joe Biden remained in office, Lindell moved his prediction for Trump's return to September 30, and then to the end of 2021.
Senate Judiciary Committee report
On October 7, 2021, the Senate Committee on the Judiciary published their report on Trump's efforts to pressure the Department of Justice to overturn the results of the 2020 election.
Post-election voter suppression efforts
Impact on secretaries of state
In multiple U.S. states, officials who work for the secretary of state received threats following the election and were still receiving threats as of October 2021. Law enforcement generally was not prepared to provide ongoing security for these officials, as their positions had never before been considered high-risk.
House Select Committee on the January 6 Attack
In July 2021, the House Select Committee on the January 6 Attack was formed, largely along party lines. On December 23, The Washington Post reported that the select committee was considering a recommendation to the Justice Department of opening a possible criminal investigation into Donald Trump for his activities on January 6. That same day, Laurence Tribe, American legal scholar and University Professor Emeritus of Constitutional Law at Harvard University, and colleagues published in The New York Times about Attorney General Merrick Garland: "Only by holding the leaders of the Jan. 6 insurrection — all of them — to account can he secure the future and teach the next generation that no one is above the law. If he has not done so already, we implore the attorney general to step up to that task."
Reactions
At least nine sitting Republican Senators, members of the second Bush administration, and former members of the Trump administration condemned Trump's claims of fraud.
A spokesperson for President-elect Biden called the effort a publicity stunt that would fail, a statement echoed by Senator Amy Klobuchar, the top Democrat of the committee with jurisdiction over federal elections. A bipartisan group of senators condemned the scheme to undo the election for Trump; Joe Manchin (D-WV), Susan Collins (R-ME), Mark Warner (D-VA), Bill Cassidy (R-LA), Jeanne Shaheen (D-NH), Lisa Murkowski (R-AK), Angus King (I-ME), Mitt Romney (R-UT), and Maggie Hassan (D-NH) said, "The 2020 election is over. All challenges through recounts and appeals have been exhausted. At this point, further attempts to cast doubt on the legitimacy of the 2020 Presidential election are contrary to the clearly expressed will of the American people and only serve to undermine Americans' confidence in the already determined election results." In a separate statement, Senator Ben Sasse, Republican of Nebraska, denounced his Republican colleagues who had sought to overturn the election results, terming them "the institutional arsonist members of Congress" and called the submission of objection to counting the electoral votes a "dangerous ploy" by Republican members of Congress who – in seeking "a quick way to tap into the president's populist base" – were pointing "a loaded gun at the heart of legitimate self-government." Other prominent Republicans who spoke out against attempts to subvert the election results included Governor Larry Hogan of Maryland, former House Speaker Paul Ryan, and Representative Liz Cheney of Wyoming, the third-highest-ranking Republican in the House.
Former Republican Governor of California, Arnold Schwarzenegger, wrote in The Economist that "President Donald Trump's actions to destroy faith in our elections and throw centuries of American principles out the window must be met with universal condemnation from all political leaders, regardless of party."
The New York Post, which had promoted Trump's celebrity in New York since the 1980s and had twice endorsed his presidential candidacy, published a front-page editorial in December asking the president to "stop the insanity" and "end this dark charade," asserting that he was "cheering for an undemocratic coup." The editorial continued: "If you insist on spending your final days in office threatening to burn it all down, that will be how you are remembered. Not as a revolutionary, but as the anarchist holding the match." The Post characterized Trump attorney Sidney Powell as a "crazy person" and his former national security advisor Michael Flynn's suggestion to declare martial law as "tantamount to treason." The conservative editorial board of The Wall Street Journal published an editorial on December 20, 2020, titled "Trump's Bad Exit", writing: "As he leaves office he can't seem to help reminding Americans why they denied him a second term" and "his sore loser routine is beginning to grate even on millions who voted for him." After the Wall Street Journal again published another editorial on October 24, 2021, it printed a response from Trump on October 27 in which Trump reiterated conspiracy theories about the election. The newspaper explained the next day that they had considered Trump's response newsworthy given that he is "an ex-President who may run in 2024...even if (or perhaps especially if) his claims are bananas."
In 2011, Fox News created a "Monday Mornings with Trump" segment during which Trump would call in to Fox & Friends to offer his views on current affairs, and the hosts of that program continued to be supportive of Trump during his presidency. On January 4, 2021, host Ainsley Earhardt stated that many conservatives "feel like it was rigged," although host Steve Doocey responded, "That's the case that Donald Trump and his lawyers have put out. They said there is all this evidence. But they haven't really produced the evidence." Host Brian Kilmeade stated that he had another "worry" about "[[2021 United States Capitol attack
the protest the president is calling for]] on Tuesday and Wednesday [as Congress convened to certify the election results]. I mean, this is the type of anarchy that doesn't work for anybody, Republicans or Democrats, in the big picture."
All ten living former secretaries of defense – including Dick Cheney, Donald Rumsfeld and Robert Gates – published an essay on January 3, 2021, stating: "The time for questioning the results has passed; the time for the formal counting of the electoral college votes, as prescribed in the Constitution and statute, has arrived." They also warned of grave consequences of any contemplated military involvement in the situation.
The Chief Executive of the United States Chamber of Commerce commented that "[e]fforts by some members of Congress to disregard certified election results ... undermines our democracy and the rule of law and will only result in further division", while almost 200 business leaders signed a statement from the Partnership for New York City declaring that such a move would "run counter to the essential tenets of our democracy". The National Association of Manufacturers called for Vice President Pence to invoke the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution and remove Trump from office.
A former communications director for Senator Ted Cruz, acknowledging that she once "worked for him and...believed in him," told reporters that "the new Ted Cruz, post-Trump, is one I don't recognize...his actions directly played into the hands of the mob."
During the riot, a Cumulus Media executive told its radio hosts that they must stop spreading the idea of election fraud. The memo said the election was over and that "there are no alternate acceptable 'paths’," and thus the radio hosts must immediately "help induce national calm."
According to a Washington Post assessment, Trump's falsehoods about fraud cost taxpayers more than half a billion dollars in spending to enhance security, resolve legal disputes and repair property, among other things.
Drawing on the false allegations of voting fraud and a stolen election, in early 2021 Republican state legislatures began to implement new laws and rules to restrict voting access in ways that would benefit Republican candidates.
On December 17, 2021, The Washington Post reported the need to be prepared for a possible insurrection in 2024, according to several retired generals.
Description as an attempted coup
Multiple media outlets characterized the efforts as an attempted coup. In addition, cable news political commentators for MSNBC and former Republican congressman Joe Scarborough cited the Wikipedia article "coup d'état" and specified that this would technically be an autocoup. Consistent with the notion of an attempted coup and rejection of the results of the 2020 election, longtime Republican strategist Steve Schmidt stated: "The Republican Party is an organized conspiracy for the purposes of maintaining power for self-interest, and the self-interest of its donor class... It's no longer dedicated to American democracy."
Steven Levitsky, the co-author of How Democracies Die, said that "in technical terms, it's probably not a coup. But it is an illegal and authoritarian attempt to stay in power." Naunihal Singh, the author of Seizing Power: The Strategic Logic of Military Coups, opined that Trump's actions were not a coup without military action. Erica De Bruin, assistant professor of government at Hamilton College, submitted a November 11, 2020, op-ed to The Washington Post, arguing that Trump's actions did "not yet fit" the definition of a coup but more closely matched the description of an autocoup. Scholars Michael Albertus and John Chin also stated that the behavior better fit the political science definition of an autocoup rather than a classical coup, with Chin stating: "[i]f this were a coup, it'd be a very strange one, a slow-motion kind of coup that goes against pretty much what most scholars have observed about coups from time immemorial." Joshua Keating similarly argued in Slate that the autocoup descriptor was most accurate, but that regardless of the technical definition "Republicans are drawing up a playbook that won't soon be forgotten" and pointing out that "[p]olitical scientists have identified a phenomenon known as the 'coup trap', in which countries that have experienced coups in the recent past are more likely to have more of them."
Daniel Drezner wrote a December 2020 op-ed in The Washington Post arguing that while Trump and his confederates were ineptly trying to overturn the election results in a "ham-handed effort to besmirch the election outcome by any easily available means necessary", the attempts were insufficiently violent to meet the criteria for a coup and consequently should not be equated to Turkish military coups d'état. Jonathan Powell described the coup classification as "completely inaccurate", clarifying that "[t]he types of places that have coups are limited to countries that are incredibly poor, that have really stagnant economies, that are economically marginalized, that generally have very serious forms of other types of domestic instability, like civil war", but said that while the attempt "might not be specifically tied to a potential coup right now, it is certainly very alarming for the US's potential to remain a democracy in the future."
On January 6, 2021, a mob of 2,000 to 2,500 supporters of Trump attacked the Capitol Building in Washington, D.C., forcing a recess of a joint session of Congress as they counted electoral votes. Representative Adam Kinzinger (R-IL) described the event as a coup attempt. New York Attorney General Letitia James similarly described the event as a coup attempt. Sen. Mitt Romney (R-UT) described the events as an "insurrection", language also echoed by President-elect Biden.
According to a July 2021 book by Washington Post reporters Philip Rucker and Carol Leonnig, during the weeks following the election, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Mark Milley became concerned that Trump was preparing to stage a coup, and held informal discussions with his deputies about possible ways to thwart it, telling associates, "They may try, but they're not going to fucking succeed. You can't do this without the military. You can't do this without the CIA and the FBI. We're the guys with the guns." The book also quoted Milley saying, "This is a Reichstag moment. The gospel of the Führer." Milley reportedly told police and military officials preparing to secure Joe Biden's presidential inauguration, "Everyone in this room, whether you're a cop, whether you're a soldier, we're going to stop these guys to make sure we have a peaceful transfer of power. We're going to put a ring of steel around this city and the Nazis aren't getting in." The book also stated that a friend told Milley they were concerned that Trump's allies were attempting to "overturn the government".
On September 27, 2021, Laurence Tribe, American legal scholar and University Professor Emeritus of Constitutional Law at Harvard University, and colleagues, fully described the legal background of the attempt to overturn the 2020 election, and, as well, possible ways of averting the use of such a legal strategy and related in the future.
"Trump won"
"Trump won" is a political slogan adopted by Trump supporters who, contrary to the election results, believe that Trump won the 2020 U.S. presidential election. As of May 2021, an Ipsos/Reuters survey reported that 53% of Republican-identifying respondents agreed with the belief that Trump was still the legitimate President of the United States. , some still believe that Trump will be restored to power by some extraordinary process, possibly later in 2021. These beliefs have led to calls for violence on social media, sparking concerns from the Department of Homeland Security about violence by right-wing extremists in mid-2021.
An Economist/YouGov poll conducted on November 15–17, 2020, found nearly all Trump supporters (88%) asserting that Biden's election was illegitimate, that mail-in ballots were manipulated to favor Biden (91%), that votes had been cast by immigrants who were not eligible to vote (89%), and that there was voter fraud more generally (89%). According to a poll by CNBC/Change Research conducted on November 16–19, only 3% of Trump supporters stated that Biden's victory was legitimate. 73% of Trump voters considered Trump the winner of the election, 66% of them stated that Trump should never concede the election, and 31% said Trump should fight the results until the states certified the results.
In Politico/Morning Consult polls conducted in June 2021 with registered Republican voters, 51% expected an election audit in Arizona to reveal significant problems that could imply that Trump had been the true winner, while 29% expected audits like this to restore Trump to the presidency. The Arizona vote audit report drew the opposite conclusion: in September 2021 it showed that Trump had 261 fewer votes than had been counted whilst Biden had 99 more votes.
A CNN/SSRS poll conducted in August–September 2021 found that Republicans' enthusiasm for voting in future elections correlated with believing that "Trump won" and with holding that belief as central to their identity as Republicans.
See also
Blue shift (politics)
Criminal charges brought in the 2021 United States Capitol attack
List of coups and coup attempts by country#United States
List of rebellions in the United States
Pre-election lawsuits related to the 2020 United States presidential election
1824 United States presidential election#Aftermath
2000 United States presidential election#Aftermath
2004 United States presidential election#Election conspiracy theories
Notes
References
External links
PBS Frontline (April 2021): "American Insurrection" (video; 84:13); transcript
A detailed account of the events before, during and after the attack on the Capitol and attempt to overturn the election.
Video (4:48) – John Eastman Defends His Eastman Memorandum In Trying To Overturn 2020 Election (MSNBC; October 27, 2021)
2020 United States presidential election
Articles containing video clips
Controversies of the 2020 United States presidential election
Conspiracy theories promoted by Donald Trump
Disinformation operations
Protests against results of elections |
677955 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troy%20University | Troy University | Troy University is a public university in Troy, Alabama. It was founded in 1887 as Troy State Normal School within the Alabama State University System, and is now the flagship university of the Troy University System. Troy University is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Commission on Colleges (SACS) to award associate, baccalaureate, master's, education specialist, and doctoral degrees.
In August 2005, Troy State University, Montgomery; Troy State University, Phenix City; Troy State University, Dothan; and Troy State University (main campus) all merged under one accreditation to become Troy University. Prior to the merger, each campus was independently accredited. The merger combined staff, faculty, and administrators into a single university.
Today, the university serves the educational needs of students in four Alabama campuses and 60 teaching sites in 17 U.S. states and 11 countries. Troy University has over 100,000 alumni in 50 states of the U.S. and in other countries.
History
Troy University is a public university with its main campus located in Troy, Alabama. It was founded as a normal school in 1887 with a mission to educate and train new teachers. Over time, the school evolved into a four-year college and in 1957 the Alabama Board of Education adopted the name "Troy State College" and granted it the right to issue master's degrees. In the 1960s the College opened satellite sites in Montgomery, Phenix City, and Dothan to serve the military personnel posted at Maxwell AFB, Fort Benning and Fort Rucker. More sites associated with military centers located throughout the United States and abroad followed in the subsequent decades. As a leader in online education, Troy University began offering online courses in the Fall Semester of 1997. Troy University is known for its innovation in offering in-class and online academic programs in servicing traditional, nontraditional, and military students. In spring 2018, Troy University was ranked #19 among the "Most Innovative Schools" in U.S. News & World Report annual peer assessment survey. The main campus enrollment as of the fall of 2016 is 7,911 students. The campus consists of 36 major buildings on plus the adjacent Troy University Arboretum.
At least three prominent political figures have been associated with Troy University. George Wallace Jr., son of the late Governor George C. Wallace, who is a former administrator at the university. Max Rafferty, the California Superintendent of Public Instruction from 1963 to 1971, was dean of the education department from 1971 until his death in 1982. Former Governor John Malcolm Patterson taught U.S. history at the institution during the 1980s.
Name change
On April 16, 2004, the Board of Trustees voted to change the name of the institution from Troy State University to Troy University. The transition to the new name was completed in August 2005 and was the fifth in the school's history. When created by the Alabama Legislature on February 26, 1887, it was officially named the Troy State Normal School. The school was located in downtown Troy until moving to the present location on University Avenue in 1930. In 1929, the name was changed to Troy State Teachers College and it subsequently conferred its first baccalaureate degree in 1931. In 1957, the legislature voted both to change the name to Troy State College and to allow it to begin a master's degree program. The name was changed once again in 1967 to Troy State University.
Troy University System
The Troy University System (formerly known as the Troy State University System) is a public university system in Alabama that coordinates and oversees the three branch universities of Troy University. The system was formed in 1982, as the campuses in Dothan and Montgomery were granted independent accreditation status. In April 2004, "State" was dropped from the university's name to reflect the institution's new, broader focus. In August 2005, all Troy campuses were unified under one accreditation.
Troy University has a total of four campuses located across the state of Alabama:
Troy University (main campus)
Troy University at Montgomery
Troy University at Dothan
Troy University at Phenix City
In addition to the four campuses, there are also 23 additional support sites across the southeastern United States and other countries.
Academics
Structure
Troy University cumulatively offers 46 bachelor's degree programs, 22 master's degree programs, and 3 doctoral programs.
Schools/colleges
The university is composed of five colleges, a graduate school, and a division of general studies:
College of Arts & Sciences
College of Communications & Fine Arts
College of Education
College of Health & Human Services
The Sorrell College of Business
The Graduate School
The Division of General Studies
Confucius Institute
Established in 2007, the Confucius Institute at Troy University is a public institution affiliated with the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, funded and arranged in part by Hanban, which is itself affiliated with the Chinese government, and the stated aim of which is to promote the Chinese language and culture, support local Chinese teaching, and facilitate cultural exchanges. The institute also offers summer camps for high school students, consultation for economic development, and promotion of Chinese outreach programs. Some have expressed concerns related to academic freedom and political influence of the Chinese government specially regarding such things as the comment of a former senior Chinese official, Li Changchun that Confucius Institutes are "an important part of China's overseas propaganda set-up". Troy University was the first college in Alabama to open a Confucius Institute.
Center for International Programs
The university has over 800 international students from 75 countries on the main campus, and offers special programs for students such as the English as Second Language Center (ECL). Troy also has a dormitory named Pace Hall.
Rankings and reputation
In 2018, Troy University's overall acceptance rate was 91%, and the on-time graduation rate was 35%. In 2018, 58% of the freshman class had to take remedial courses in English and mathematics. Troy University considers, but does not require, SAT or ACT scores for admission.
Troy University has acquired different institutional rankings from various sources:
In 2019, Forbes ranked Troy as the 640th-best school in the nation. Forbes overall ranking centers on the value of the degree obtained by a university's students and measures, in part, the marketplace success of a school's graduate.
U.S. News & World Report in several categories for Regional Universities, South Region, for 2020:
Campus
Troy University's main campus is located near downtown Troy. The campus sits along rolling hills with many old oak trees present along the streets and throughout campus. The first two buildings that were built on campus were John Robert Lewis Hall (formerly Bibb Graves Hall) and Shackelford Hall, both of which are still standing on campus today. Bibb Graves, who was Alabama's governor at the time of the building's dedication, is remembered for commissioning the Olmsted Brothers architectural firm of Brookline, Massachusetts, to design the campus landscape plan. The Troy University Board of Trustees voted to rename the hall in John Lewis's honor on August 26, 2020.
Across from the chapel is a very small lake named Lake Lagoona, which is the drainage point of the creek that runs through the Trojan Oaks Golf Course.
The Trojan Oaks Golf Practice Course, which used to be full-service, 9-hole, 3,211-yard golf course, is one of the pristine features of the campus with its rolling hills, oak and pine trees, and a creek running through most of the course. Troy was one of only 87 universities in the United States to have operate a full-service golf course on its own campus before closing the course and revamping it into a golf practice facility, and is still one of the few schools to operate a 9-hole or greater practice course on its campus.
One of the favorite features of the campus is Janice Hawkins Park, which features an amphitheater, walking trails, a lagoon and several prominent art installations. Paved sidewalks curve throughout that park, and a pedestrian bridge straddles the lagoon on one end. Among the art installations are the "Violata Pax Dove", by the artist Fred "Nall" Hollis, and 200 replica terracotta warriors that are spread throughout the park, representing the famous excavations in China.
Student life
Residence halls
Students who live on campus at Troy have a choice of 12 different residential halls to choose from:
Clements Hall (coed by floor)
Gardner Hall (men)
Hamil Hall (women)
Honors Cottage (coed)
Newman Center (coed by floor)
Pace Hall (coed by floor)
Rushing Hall (formerly New Residence) (coed by building)
Shackelford Hall (coed by floor)
Trojan Village (coed by floor)
University Apartments (coed)
Trojan Dining Hall
The Trojan Dining Hall is a large, two-story state-of-the-art dining hall with a restaurant-style collection of venues. Some of the restaurants inside the dining hall include a Boar's Head Deli, Moe's Southwest Grill, The Wild Mushroom, Bella Trattoria, Flying Star Diner, Basic Kneads Artisan Bakery, and Magellan's.
The hall also features an outdoor dining area with a large fountain.
Trojan Center
The Trojan Center is the activity center on campus for students. It features a movie theater, meeting rooms, gathering spaces, large ballrooms, the Barnes & Noble campus bookstore, Starbucks, mail room, student activity offices, and a food court that features restaurants such as Chick-fil-A, Steak 'n Shake, Einstein Bros. Bagels, Mein Bowl, Great American Cookies, and Marble Slab Creamery.
Recreation
Many recreational activities are available on campus. The Trojan Fitness Center offers fitness machines, free weights, and cardiovascular machines. Trojan Games recreation room has two billiard tables, two table tennis tables, and a foosball game. The Natatorium houses an eight-lane Olympic-style pool. The Recreation Center Gym has two basketball courts, a cardio room, a dance room, and a large outside pool. Wright Hall Gym, located adjacent to the Natatorium, offers a basketball court, two volleyball courts, and four badminton courts. The Intramural Fields consist of four flag football fields, two softball fields, and one soccer field.
Trojan Arena, the newest facility on campus, is the home to the basketball, volleyball, and track programs, as well as being used for the university's commencement ceremonies and other special events with seating capacity of 6,000. The new Trojan Arena replaces the university's longtime basketball and events facility, Sartain Hall, which opened in 1962. Trojan Arena is equipped with 5,600 chair-back seats and several VIP suites and boxes. Under the main court is of basketball practice space. Beyond the normal concession area is a food court-style lounge and a simulated court area on the concourse. The arena includes seven upper-level suites and an exclusive Stadium Club area for donors, while also adding floor seating for students. Among the latest technology features of the new arena is a three-tiered rotunda at the main entrance, an interior concourse with concession stands, and a food court-styled dining center with various specialty food items. It features an LED ribbon board that panoramically encircles the entire arena with two video boards that enhances the total sports gaming experience, the only one of its kind in the Sun Belt Conference. The Trojan Arena is also home to the Troy University Sports Hall of Fame, with digital displays of its honored members located adjacent to the rotunda.
The campus also features a natatorium that includes a 9-lane, Olympic-sized swimming pool.
The university is currently in the middle of building an exclusive $25 million recreation center for students. The facility will be located in the area formerly known as the Sartain Hall parking lot, near George Wallace Drive. Once completed, the building will house a multi-activity court, a basketball court, a free-weight training area, a circuit weight training area, special aerobic rooms, an outdoor swimming pool, a multi-level walking track and four offices.
Greek life
Twenty-two traditional Greek organizations are on Troy's campus. In 2019, about 10% of undergraduate men and 13% of undergraduate women were active in Troy's Greek system. Troy's IFC and NPC organizations have traditional Greek housing for members use.
Music organizations
These six music organizations function under the supervision of the John M. Long School of Music:
Phi Mu Alpha
Kappa Kappa Psi
Sigma Alpha Iota
Tau Beta Sigma
Phi Boota Roota
cNAfME, a student affiliate of the National Association for Music Education
Student media
The school newspaper, the Tropolitan (commonly referred to as "The Trop"), is located on the bottom floor of Wallace Hall. It is a weekly publication, written and produced entirely by students. The Palladium is located in adjacent offices in the same building. The Tropolitan has been ranked as one of the best college newspapers in the country, and was ranked as the #6 Best College Newspaper by the Southeast Journalism Conference (SEJC) in 2017.
Also located in Wallace Hall is Troy University Television, also referred to as Troy TrojanVision. Troy University Television broadcasts three live entirely student-produced newscasts twice daily. TrojanVision Global News, TrojanVision Midday & TrojanVision Nightly News. Troy TrojanVision also produces a 30-minute sports show, Trojan Sports Now, every week. TrojanVision streams live online and can be seen at the university's YouTube page. Some of the students that major in broadcasting also help to produce ESPN sporting events for the university, including football, basketball, and baseball games.
in 2017, TrojanVision was ranked as the #1 Best College TV Station by the Southeast Journalism Conference (SEJC).
The "Sound of the South" marching band
The Sound of the South is the official marching band of Troy University. The marching band was established in 1939 and has been referred to by its current name since 1965. The band was named by John M. Long soon after he was hired as band director. The band, now boasting over 300 members on a regular basis, has enjoyed major success in performing at hundreds of marching band competitions, as well as dozens of different college and professional athletic venues. The band usually follows the football team to almost every away game, and has a smaller pep-band that plays at every home basketball game. It was during the thirty-two year tenure of Johnny Long, as he was commonly referred to, that the band program at Troy University established a prominent national reputation through its many featured appearances at music conventions, concert tours and recordings with the symphony band, as well as several nationally televised appearances with the "Sound of the South" Marching Band. The band's "trademark" piece that is played before every performance of the band is called "The Fanfare" and was written by John M. Long in 1965.
Athletics
Troy State Normal School began its sports program in 1909, when it fielded its first football team. Through the early years, Troy's athletics nicknames were not official and varied by the sport and the coach. Eventually, teams all began to use the name "Troy State Teachers", but when the athletic teams moved into NAIA competition, the nickname was then changed to the "Red Wave". In the early 1970s, the student body voted to change the name to Trojans after many felt that Red Wave was too similar to the University of Alabama's nickname, the Crimson Tide. Prior to becoming a member of NCAA Division I athletics in 1993, Troy University was a member of the Gulf South Conference of the NCAA Division II ranks. Troy's primary rivals were Jacksonville State University, Livingston University (now the University of West Alabama), and the University of North Alabama. In 2004, Troy joined the Sun Belt Conference of the Football Bowl Subdivision.
Football
Troy University began playing football in 1909. The program has won three national championships, the NAIA national football championship in 1968, and the NCAA Division II national football championship in 1984 and 1987. Troy transitioned to the NCAA's Division I-A in 2001, became a football only member of the Sun Belt Conference in 2004, and joined the conference for all other sports in 2005. In 2001, Troy defeated Mississippi State at Scott Field in Starkville, Mississippi, by a score of 21–9 which was the Trojans' first victory over a BCS level program. In 2004, the Trojans defeated a ranked BCS program for the first time ever, defeating #17 Missouri 24–14 at home on ESPN2. The Trojan football team made its first bowl game appearance in the Silicon Valley Football Classic on December 30, 2004, but lost to Northern Illinois, 34–21. In 2006, Troy won the Sun Belt Conference for the first time after defeating Middle Tennessee State toward the end of the 2006 season. Troy represented the Sun Belt Conference in the 2006 New Orleans Bowl as the conference champion for the first time where the Trojans defeated the Rice Owls of Conference USA by a score of 41–17. Troy participated in the 2010 New Orleans Bowl where the Trojans routed Ohio by a score of 48–21. Troy has most recently participated in the 2016 Dollar General Bowl in Mobile, Alabama, which the Trojans won over Ohio 28–23.
Former Troy football head coach Larry Blakeney served 25 seasons as head coach between 1990 and the end of the 2014 season. He has led the program to three Southland Football Conference titles and five Sun Belt Conference titles, as well as guided the Trojans to seven FCS playoff appearances and five FBS bowl games. Blakeney boasts an overall record of 178–113–1 as head coach at Troy. Blakeney is the winningest coach in the Troy University history and he is the 4th-winningest collegiate coach all time in the state of Alabama, only behind Paul "Bear" Bryant, Cleve Abbott, and Ralph "Shug" Jordan. Blakeney is one of two coaches in college football history to be the head coach of a football program during its transition from Division II to I-A (the other being UCF's Gene McDowell).
Basketball
The Troy University men's basketball team was under the direction of head coach Don Maestri for 31 years until his retirement in 2013. Coach Maestri is the winningest coach in school history, with exactly 500 career wins, and he has won numerous conference coach-of-the-year awards during his tenure at Troy University. The program has won 11 conference championships in basketball, with six of them coming in the Division I era. On January 12, 1992, Troy defeated DeVry University of Atlanta by the score of 258–141 (or 253–141, according to some journalists). This is the highest-scoring game in NCAA basketball history and Troy State's score of 258 is the highest score in NCAA basketball history. The Trojans competed in the 2003 NCAA Tournament in Nashville against Xavier University after winning the Atlantic Sun Conference title. In 2004, Troy was an NIT participant in a match-up against Niagara University. In 2008, coach Maestri was inducted into the Wiregrass Sports Hall of Fame at a ceremony in Dothan, Alabama. In 2009, the Trojans finished 3rd place in the Sun Belt Conference and competed in the CBI against College of Charleston. After winning the Sun Belt regular-season title in 2010, the Trojans would be invited to play in the NIT once again against Ole Miss. Maestri is a member of the Troy University Sports Hall of Fame.
Maestri was replaced by Phil Cunningham on March 26, 2013.
The Troy University women's basketball team is currently under the direction of head coach Chanda Rigby, a junior college standout and coaching veteran. The previous coach was Craig Kennedy.
Baseball
The Troy University baseball team won two Division II national championships in 1986 and 1987 under the leadership of coach Chase Riddle. One of Troy's biggest victories in baseball came in April 1998 when the Trojans knocked off the #3 nationally ranked University of Alabama Crimson Tide by a score of 8–4 at Riddle-Pace Field on the Troy campus. Under the direction of current head coach Bobby Pierce, the Trojan baseball program has competed in the NCAA Baseball Tournament in 2006 and 2007. Troy also competed in the 1995 and 1997 NCAA Division One tournament under head coach John Mayotte. In 1999, the program tied the NCAA Division I record for most hits in the 6th inning, belting 14 hits (in the 6th) in a 34–4 rout of Stetson.
Rodeo
The program's governing body is the National Intercollegiate Rodeo Association. The rodeo program's home facility is the Pike County Cattlemen's Arena in Troy where it hosts a three-day rodeo each October that features college rodeo programs from throughout the southern region of the United States. Troy University calf roper Ben Mayworth won the 2007 national title in Casper, Wyoming, at the National Finals Collegiate Rodeo.
Women's soccer
The Troy University women's soccer team began in 2003 when the stadium, Jesse H. Colley Track/Soccer Stadium, was first constructed, seating 500. Later, in 2010, the stadium was renovated to include a press box to be used by both the track and soccer team. The field, costing around $1 million to build, measures about 115 yards by 75 yards. The team plays in the Sun Belt Conference, along with: South Alabama, Georgia State, Coastal Carolina, Appalachian State, Georgia Southern, Arkansas State, Louisiana, Texas State, Little Rock, and ULM. Though, they are currently last in the east division with four conference points, compared to the leader's, South Alabama's, twenty-four points. Currently the team is lead by head coach Ged O'Connor, and assistant coaches Nicole Waters and the new addition Kayla Saager. Ged O'Connor, hired in January of 2017, is just the seventh head coach in this program's history. O'Connor had prior experience to coaching from being the head coach of the Saint Leo University women's soccer team for eleven seasons. Furthermore, Nicole Waters will enter her third season with the Troy University women's soccer program come fall of 2021. Before Troy, Waters was a graduate assistant at Mercer University for two seasons. She is a Canada native, but after her collegiate career at Dayton, coach Waters played professionally at FC Slovacko Zeny of the Czech Republican league. The newly hired Kayla Saager joined the Trojans in 2020. Her soccer experience includes playing at three colleges in her career (NC State, West Virginia, and Binghamton). Saager will be held responsible for coaching the Troy University's attacking side, specifically.
Campus academic features
Hall of Fame of Distinguished Band Conductors
The Hall of Fame of Distinguished Band Conductors was established on the campus of what was then known as Troy State University in Troy, Alabama by the National Band Association in 1979. The Hall of Fame contains the picture and biographies of band directors who have distinguished themselves in some way or who have made significant contributions to the field of band directing, conducting, or leadership.
The Manuel H. Johnson Center for Political Economy
Troy University's Manuel H. Johnson Center for Political Economy was formed in September, 2010 as the result of a $3.6 million gift from Troy alumnus Dr. Manuel H. Johnson, BB&T, and the Charles G. Koch Charitable Foundation. The center's mission is the advancement of free market economic ideas and its research and teaching efforts explore the idea that economic freedom improves the quality of life for citizens. The new center is part of the university's Sorrell College of Business and it is housed inside Bibb Graves Hall. Dr. Scott Beaulier served as the center's executive director from 2010 to 2015.
University libraries
The libraries on the Dothan, Montgomery, and Troy campuses house collections of more than 500,000 bound volumes, 40,000 media items, and nearly 1 million items in micro-form. The Troy University Library on the Troy campus is a Federal Depository Library.
Janice Hawkins Cultural Arts Park
The Janice Hawkins Cultural Arts Park is a park on the Troy University campus that features an amphitheater, walking trails, a lagoon and the International Arts Center, which houses two art galleries and an interpretive center known as Warriors Unearthed. In addition, there are 200 replica terracotta warriors designed by the artist Huo Bao Zhu that are displayed throughout the park in exhibits representing the historic excavations in China. It is built in the honor of Mrs. Janice Hawkins.
Center for Materials and Manufacturing Sciences
The university was recently awarded a $3.2 million grant from NIST to establish the Center for Materials and Manufacturing Sciences, a facility for research in recycling of plastic materials. The establishment of the center will facilitate and enhance Troy University's partnership with the local plastic recycling industry in order to increase competitiveness in the marketplace. This will assist in improving and increasing job creation in Pike County. The assistance of Senator Shelby (R-Ala) was instrumental in obtaining the funding for this venture.
Notable alumni
References
External links
Troy University athletics website
Public universities and colleges in Alabama
Buildings and structures in Pike County, Alabama
Educational institutions established in 1887
Education in Houston County, Alabama
Education in Pike County, Alabama
Education in Russell County, Alabama
Universities and colleges accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools
1887 establishments in Alabama |
18230730 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia%20MM | Columbia MM | Columbia MM (Mail Manager) is a computer program for reading email using a command-line interface. It was developed at Columbia University between 1984 and 1990, and is a Unix reimplementation of a 1978 TOPS-20 email program, also known as MM, which in turn was an update of an earlier program by Mike McMahon of SRI International. Columbia MM has also been built on other platforms, including DOS and VMS.
MM was unusual for its time in its support of "message sequences," which allowed the user to select a subset of messages in a mailbox for batch operations. The message sequence feature proved so popular with MM users that TOPS-20 MM author Mark Crispin went on to implement similar filtering capabilities in Pine. Columbia MM also offered context-sensitive help, command completion, and command history, carried over from the TOPS-20 version, before such features were commonplace in Unix software.
After a lull in development in 1990, MM development picked up again in 2002 with an interim release, including changes for Linux portability and POP support.
History
At Columbia University in the late 1970s the DEC-20 based MM was adopted in favor of DEC-20 MAIL and RDMAIL, and was used initially among the programming staff. Its use spread to the students and faculty, to the extent that several courses came to use it heavily. It was likely that, if you did a SYSTAT on any DEC-20 at Columbia between 1978 and 1988, you would see about half the users running EMACS and the other half MM, with only occasional time out for text formatting, program compilation, and file transfer. When Columbia switched to Unix-based platforms during the 1980s the MM program was rewritten for that platform and development continued on the program for the next 20 years.
As of version 0.91 (2003) MM worked on the following platforms: Solaris (2.5.1 and later); SunOS 4.1; Linux (e.g. RH7.1); FreeBSD 4.4; OpenBSD 3.0, NetBSD 1.5.2.
References
Using the MM email client in the Modern World (Feb 2014)
MM History
MM Source Code
Introduction to MM
MM Manual (1996)
See also
Brief Tutorial Showing Basic Commands From 1997
Privnote Notes That Will Self-Destruct After Being Read
Email clients |
51124781 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celeste%20%28video%20game%29 | Celeste (video game) | Celeste is a 2018 platform game designed, directed and written by Maddy Thorson and programmed by Thorson and Noel Berry. It is a fully-fleshed version of the 2016 PICO-8 game of the same name, which was made in four days solely by Thorson and Berry during a game jam. Set on a fictional version of Mount Celeste, it follows a young woman named Madeline who attempts to climb the mountain, and must face her inner demons in her quest to reach the summit.
Celeste was released worldwide independently on January 25, 2018, on Microsoft Windows, Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, Xbox One, macOS, and Linux, followed by a release on Stadia on July 28, 2020. It consists of eight chapters, plus a free downloadable content chapter titled Farewell released on September 9, 2019. Farewell acts as an epilogue to the main story and adds 100 new screens.
Celeste received universal acclaim upon release, and was largely considered one of the best games of 2018. It received high praise for its gameplay, level design, soundtrack, themes, and emotional story, as well as for Madeline's characterization; it was also singled out for being demanding yet enjoyable for both casual players, and those seeking to speedrun it or complete all of its optional achievements. It won many awards, including the Best Independent Game and Games for Impact awards at The Game Awards 2018, where it was also nominated for Game of the Year. Celeste was also a financial success, selling over a million copies by the end of 2019 and largely exceeding its creators' expectations, while also becoming a hit in the speedrunning community.
Gameplay
Celeste is a platform game in which players control a young woman named Madeline as she makes her way up Mount Celeste while avoiding various deadly obstacles. Along with jumping and climbing up walls for a limited amount of time, Madeline has the ability to perform a mid-air dash in eight directions. This move initially can only be performed once and must be replenished by either landing on the ground, hitting certain objects such as floating crystals, or moving to a new screen; later on in the game, the player is granted the ability to do two mid-air dashes. Combining dashes with movement in various ways can be used by the player to gain more speed than usual or access areas before they are supposed to. Some of these advanced movement mechanics are shown to the player as they progress the late stages of the game. Examples include the wavedash, superdash, hyperdash, ultradash and an unintended feature, the demodash. Throughout the game, the player will encounter additional mechanics, such as springs that launch the player or feathers that allow brief flight, and deadly objects such as spikes which kill Madeline (returning her to the start of the screen).
Players can also access an Assist Mode, where they can change some attributes about the game's physics. Some of these include infinite air-dashes, invincibility, or slowing the game's speed. Hidden throughout most "A-Side" chapters of the game are optional strawberries, obtained through challenging platforming or puzzle solving sections, which slightly affect the game's ending depending on how many are collected, as well as a cassette tape that unlocks a "B-Side", a secret level which provides harder platforming puzzles using the mechanics introduced in the A-Side. Optional "crystal hearts" used to access post-game content are also found in each A-side. Beating all the B-Sides then unlocks the "C-Side" versions, which are short, very hard stages which expand further upon the mechanics in the A-Sides and B-Sides. B-Sides, C-Sides, and the Farewell downloadable content chapter all teach the player more complicated movement techniques that are needed to clear otherwise impossible obstacles. Upon clearing all C-Sides, the player can access the Variants menu, which allows players to change the game's physics in a way similar to the game's Assist Mode. Some of these "variants" include speeding the game up to a maximum of 160% normal speed, 360-degree dashing, and low friction. The original Celeste Classic Pico-8 prototype can also be found as a hidden minigame.
Plot
A young woman named Madeline begins climbing Celeste Mountain, ignoring the warnings from an old woman named Granny who lives at its base. Madeline makes her way through a deserted city, where she encounters a fellow traveler named Theo. Madeline camps out for the night and has a dream in which a dark reflection of herself, known as "Part of Me" within the game and Badeline by the fanbase and developers, splits apart from her via a mystical mirror and attempts to stop Madeline's climb. Madeline escapes from Badeline and wakes up from her nightmare.
Continuing the climb, Madeline reaches an old hotel named the Celestial Resort. The hotel's ghostly concierge, Mr. Oshiro, tries to persuade Madeline to stay despite the damaged condition of the hotel. She reluctantly entertains him by cleaning part of the resort, but he is keen on having her stay for a night in the presidential suite. Upon reaching the suite, Badeline unexpectedly reappears in the real world, taunting Mr. Oshiro before creating a hole for Madeline to escape through. Mr. Oshiro, enraged by Badeline's words and assuming Madeline spoke them, chases Madeline out and destroys much of the hotel before she calms him down, and Madeline continues climbing.
At Golden Ridge, Madeline again encounters Granny. Granny tells her that she is surprised she has made it this far and offers to tell her about a shortcut back down if she wants to give up. Madeline refuses, and after powering through the harsh winds of the Ridge, meets up with Theo at a gondola. Partway up the gondola ride, Badeline appears again and stalls the lift, causing Madeline to have a panic attack as the lift shakes wildly. Theo calms her down, and the gondola begins to move again, arriving at an ancient temple. Madeline and Theo are separated and trapped inside mirrors, but Madeline escapes and finds Theo encased inside a magic crystal. Monsters created from Madeline and Theo's insecurities attack them, but Madeline carries Theo out of the temple and frees him from the crystal.
Madeline and Theo set up camp, and she confides in him about her mental health issues and Badeline's interferences before resting. Later that night, she seeks out Badeline and expresses her wish to leave her behind. In a fit of anger, Badeline throws Madeline down to the base of the mountain, where she once again finds Granny. She suggests that Badeline might be scared and says that Madeline should try talking instead of abandoning her. Madeline searches for Badeline again, apologizes for pushing her away, and vows to climb the mountain together. Badeline initially lashes out at Madeline, but relents and forgives her. Madeline and Badeline recombine and work their way back up the mountain before finally reaching Celeste Mountain's summit.
An epilogue shows Madeline celebrating her success with Badeline, Theo, Granny, Mr. Oshiro, and a strawberry pie. The size of the pie and the number of strawberries within it depend on how many collectible strawberries the player acquired throughout the game.
In two post-ending chapters, Madeline explores the core of Celeste Mountain a year after the main story in the chapter Core, and in the final chapter Farewell, Madeline copes with missing Granny's funeral – revealed to be named Celia and a friend of Theo's grandfather.
Development and release
Noel Berry (Skytorn) and Maddy Thorson (TowerFall), who programmed Celeste, created the original Pico-8 Celeste in four days during a game jam. The result was a difficult platformer with 30 levels designed for speedrunning and precision reflexes. Kill Screen noted that the game was a departure from Thorson's TowerFall, and had more in common with the game mechanics of their older games and Super Mario Maker work. Berry and Thorson then developed the game into a standalone release with over 200 rooms spread between eight chapters. The game was developed during a time when Thorson was battling "painful" anxiety and depression. The gameplay thus developed because she realized that when she was younger she would use "challenging SNES platformers" to escape. NES-era platformers, such as Super Mario Bros. 3 also served as inspiration. During the development process Thorson realized she needed to take better care of herself, and thus designed the game to be encouraging to players despite its steep difficulty. As the team did not want to minimalize the effect of mental illnesses some of the dialogue went through multiple iterations to get right.
The game is recognized as having several platform game elements that appear difficult, often involving combinations of multiple jumps, dashes, wall jumps and other abilities, but yet has been considered approachable. Thorson revealed in a series of tweets that in developing the platforming logic, they created wide "windows" for a player to make an action as to give the player a better chance to succeed, such as allowing the player to be able to jump a few moments after moving off a ledge instead of falling immediately. Thorson called all these elements part of the "game-feel" of Celeste and made the game more forgiving to players.
The two livestreamed parts of their development process on Twitch. The game was also demoed at the 2016 PAX West Indie Megabooth. Celeste released on Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, Xbox One, Windows, Linux and macOS on January 25, 2018. The game was later released on Stadia on July 28, 2020, later becoming a Stadia Pro game on October 1. According to the game's credits and Noel Berry, the game was developed with XNA (on Windows), FNA (on Mac OS and Linux), and MonoGame (on Xbox One, Switch, and PS4). The developers also utilized FMOD for sound effects. The original Pico-8 prototype is included in the game as an unlockable minigame. The game received a limited collector's edition on January 1, 2019. On September 9, 2019, the Farewell DLC was released, adding a ninth chapter, 100 new levels and 40 minutes of new music to the game. It was the last addition to the game, and no sequel to the game is planned, as the team members behind it plan to move to different game projects.
On January 25, 2021, the third year anniversary of the release of Celeste, a sequel to Celeste Classic, titled Celeste 2: Lani's Trek, was released for free.
Tools
After the game was published, the developers described the list of tools used during the project's development:
Reception
Critical response
Celeste received "universal acclaim" from critics, according to review aggregator Metacritic, on all versions of the game except for the PC version, which instead received "generally favorable reviews". Video game journalists named Celeste among the year's best games. Polygon named the game among the decade's best. Destructoids Kevin Mersereau called Celeste "An essential gaming experience," saying "For the first time in ages, I have absolutely nothing to complain about." Tom Marks from IGN praised the game's story, and the way it was blended with the gameplay, saying "I cared deeply about Madeline's struggle and empathized with her in a way I wasn't expecting."
The soundtrack of Celeste composed by Lena Raine and released by Materia Collective was highly praised by critics. An official piano sheet music book and accompanying piano album was announced and released on January 25, 2019, and a licensed album of lullaby music based on the soundtrack, Prescription for Sleep: Celeste, was released in November 2018.
Sales
By December 21, 2018, Celeste had sold over 500,000 copies, with Thorson stating "We never expected it to reach so many people." Although sale figures for each platform have not been released, Dual Shock reported that the Switch version was the most successful.
In a September 2019 interview with IGN, Thorson stated that the game was "coming up on a million copies [sold] soon." In March 2020, IGN confirmed that the million copies threshold had been reached before the end of the previous year.
Accolades
Legacy
Celeste, which was designed with speedrunning in mind, became an instant hit in the speedrunning community. USgamer called the game's popularity within the community "a huge part of Celestes success." Celeste sound designer Kevin Regamey stated that the team received a lot of mail from fans claiming that the game led them to try speedrunning for the first time. It also became a staple at Games Done Quick events.
The ending cutscene of the Farewell DLC features various items in Madeline's bedroom, such as pride and transgender flags, that led to speculation from fans and media outlets that Madeline was a trans woman. Thorson confirmed that Madeline was transgender in November 2020, stating that they never formally announced this before as they were figuring out their own gender identity at the time, and because the team did not want to make a spectacle of the reveal. The fact that Madeline is canonically transgender was met positively by the LGBT community, but also received some backlash, with hateful, political or religiously-charged messages aimed at the character and the game's creators.
In other media
Both Madeline and Badeline are playable characters in the Nintendo Switch version of TowerFall, another game by Thorson originally released in 2013; the Switch version was released on September 27, 2018.
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Pico-8 prototype
2018 video games
Game jam video games
Indie video games
Interactive Achievement Award winners
Linux games
MacOS games
Nintendo Switch games
Platform games
PlayStation 4 games
PlayStation Network games
Retro-style video games
Single-player video games
Transgender-related video games
Video games about mental health
Video games developed in Canada
Video games featuring female protagonists
Video games scored by Lena Raine
Video games set in Canada
Windows games
Xbox Cloud Gaming games
Xbox One games
Stadia games |
48311665 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iris%20junonia | Iris junonia | Iris junonia is a plant species in the genus Iris, it is also in the subgenus Iris. It is a rhizomatous perennial, from Cilicia (now part of Turkey), within the Taurus Mountains. It has glaucous short leaves, tall stems with several branches, numerous flowers in various colours from blue-purple, lavender, pale blue, cream, white and yellow, with brown veining and white tipped orange beards. It is cultivated as an ornamental plant in temperate regions. Its status is still unclear, if it is a synonym of Iris germanica or a separate species.
Description
It has short rhizomes and a few long secondary roots.
It has glaucous and sheathing leaves.
The leaves can grow up to between long, and between wide. They are herbaceous, and die in autumn and it remains dormant over winter.
It is a tall growing species, with a stiff stem, or peduncle, that can grow up to between tall.
It has numerous, or 2–3 lateral branches (or pedicels).
The stem has spathes (leaves of the flower bud), which are green, long and scarious above.
The stems (and the many branches) hold up to 7 flowers, between May to June.
The chunky flowers, come in various colours. From blue-purple, lavender, pale blue, white, cream, and yellow, or blended.
The yellow forms are similar to Iris purpureobractea flowers.
Like other irises, it has 2 pairs of petals, 3 large sepals (outer petals), known as the 'falls' and 3 inner, smaller petals (or tepals), known as the 'standards'. The hafts (the section of petal closest to them stem), are white with brown-purple, or brown veins. In the centre of the falls are beards, row of small hairs, white tipped with orange.
After the iris has flowered, it produces seed capsule, (that has not yet been described). Inside the capsule, are seeds (called pollen) that are 121 long x 123 wide (in microns).
Genetics
In 1989, a karyological study was carried out on 4 iris species in Turkey; including Iris junonia Schott et Kotschy ex Schott, Iris purpureobractea B. Matthew et T.Baytop, Iris taochia Woronow ex Grossh., and Iris schachtii. It found the chromosome counts of the iris species and Iris junonia was counted as 2n=4x=48.
In 2013, a study was carried out on the cultural conditions of Iris species in Turkey.
As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.
Iris junonia was found to be tetraploid, based on material from specimens collected, and had a count of 2n=48.
Taxonomy
It is also known as 'Iris junoninana' or 'Iris pallida junonia', mainly in Europe.
The Latin specific epithet junonia refers to the Roman goddess Juno, wife of Jupiter. Although, it is not known for what exact reason the plant was so named, Iris cypriana and Iris trojana (now classed as a synonym of Iris germanica), also collected at the same time, may represent the ancient colonies, that the Greeks set up on Turkish shores.
Specimens were found by Walter Siehe of Mersina, in the Turkish mountains, and he sent them to Haage and Schmidt of Erfurt, in Germany. Siehe caused a lot of problems for botanists, because he also sent other iris plant specimens under the same name.
It was first published and described by Heinrich Wilhelm Schott & Karl Georg Theodor Kotschy in Österreichisches Botanisches Wochenblatt (in Vienna) Vol.4 page 209 in 1854.
It was also published in Van T. 1900; Dammann 1901; Farr 1912; Gardening Illustrated 37: 503. 14 Aug. 1914 illustrated; Bon. 1920; Sheets 1928; Mt. Upton 1939; "Bearded Irises Tried at Wisley"-Journal of The Royal Horticultural Society 128;
Its origins have been much debated and discussed, it could be considered a form of Iris pallida, hence it is sometimes known as Iris pallida junonia. It could also be a small form of Iris mesopotamica.
Of the many species, listed with Iris germanica in Europe, Brian Mathews (in 1981), considers Iris belouinii (now a synonym of Iris germanica), Iris biliottii (now a synonym of Iris germanica), Iris cypriana, Iris junonia, Iris mesopotamica and Iris trojana(now a synonym of Iris germanica) to be all 'doubtfully wild' and probably forms of Iris germanica, which Brian is thought to be a hybrid of Iris pallida and Iris variegata.
Dykes was unsure that if any true plants were now in cultivation.
It is listed by United States Department of Agriculture and the Agricultural Research Service as a synonym of Iris pallida Lam. on 4 April 2003, then updated on 1 December 2004. It is also listed in the Encyclopedia of Life and the Catalogue of Life.
Iris junonia is a tentatively accepted name by the RHS.
Distribution and habitat
It is native to temperate areas of Asia minor.
Range
It was found in the Taurus Mountains in Cilicia, (now the modern region of Çukurova) in Turkey.
Iris taochia, Iris purpuerobractea and Iris schachtii are also endemic to Turkey, with Iris junonia.
it is endemic of Sicilian Taurus (a hill for which the city of Taormina was named)
Habitat
It grows in the dry, meadows, beside roadside and beside paths.
Cultivation
It is not fully hardy in the UK.
It prefers sunny situations in soils containing limestone, and that are dry during the summer.
It can be prone to rhizome rot.
Dykes recommends a planting time of between August and September.
It is found in herbarium collections.
A specimen was collected by E.K. Balls, on 7 June 1934 from Turkey, for the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh.
Propagation
Irises can generally be propagated by division, or by seed growing.
Hybrids and cultivars
Dykes had thought that Iris junonia, Iris trojana, Iris cypriana and Iris mesopotamica (other tall purple flower bearded irises), could be used in breeding programmes, to create plants with tall stems and large flowers.
It can be crossed with other iris species (such as Iris pumila and Regelia section irises), to produce fertile offspring.
Toxicity
Like many other irises, most parts of the plant are poisonous (rhizome and leaves), and if mistakenly ingested can cause stomach pains and vomiting. Also, handling the plant may cause skin irritation or an allergic reaction.
References
Sources
Davis, P. H., ed. 1965–1988. Flora of Turkey and the east Aegean islands. [accepts].
Huxley, A.J. 1992. The new Royal Horticultural Society dictionary of gardening. Vol. 1–4. London p.(2) 674
Mathew, B. 1981. The Iris. 30, 26–27.
External links
has many images of the iris flowers
has a large image of a violet flower
junonia
Plants described in 1854
Garden plants
Flora of Asia
Flora of Turkey |
29424221 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESOFT%20Metro%20Campus | ESOFT Metro Campus | ESOFT Metro Campus (previously known as ESOFT Computer Studies) is a private sector educational institute or college located in Colombo, Sri Lanka. It offers academic and professional qualifications in Computing, Business & Management, Engineering, Hospitality and English. Established in the year 2000, the company today has 40 branches nationwide. It is headed by Dr. Dayan Rajapakse.
Early years
ESOFT was established in the at Kirilapone (which is suburban area of Colombo, Sri Lanka), and initially offered training services for students that were preparing for the BCS (UK) Professional Examinations. They subsequently moved to their present location in Bambalapitiya (Colombo) which is a hub for IT training in Sri Lanka .
Programmes
Programmes taught at ESOFT Metro Campus are organised into five schools or divisions. These are: School of Computing, School of Business, School of Engineering and Technology, School of Hospitality Management and the Language Academy.
School of Computing
Degree programmes available at the ESOFT School of Computing include the Bachelors in Information Technology (BIT) awarded by the University of Colombo School of Computing (UCSC) and the BSc (Hons) in Computing and BEng (Hons) in Software Engineering awarded by the London Metropolitan University.
Students can also opt to follow professional qualifications such as the Certificate, Diploma and Post Graduate Diploma (PGD) awarded by the British Computer Society (BCS - Chartered Institute of IT) and the BTEC Higher National Diploma (HND) in Computing and Systems Development awarded by Edexcel.
In addition, ESOFT also conducts several vendor certification programmes including those for Microsoft, Cisco and Oracle.
School of Business
The ESOFT School of Business conducts classes for both Bachelors and Masters level Business Administration qualifications awarded by the London Metropolitan University.
Students can also opt to follow professional qualifications such as the BTEC Higher National Diploma (HND) in Business Management awarded by Edexcel.
School of Engineering and Technology
The ESOFT School of Engineering and Technology conducts classes for both Bachelors and Masters level qualifications in Mechanical Engineering, Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Civil Engineering and Construction Management. These are awarded by the Kingston University London.
School of Hospitality Management
The ESOFT School of Hospitality Management offers professional qualifications such as the BTEC HNDs in Travel and Tourism Management and Hospitality Management awarded by Edexcel.
Language Academy
The language academy offers Pearson Assured courses in both academic and professional English.
Recognition
Although ESOFT started teaching for the BCS Exams in 2000, ESOFT was designated as an Accredited Course Provider of the BCS in the year 2007, in recognition of the standards that are maintained in the course delivery. ESOFT is the only organisation in the world to be accredited for all three levels of the BCS Higher Education Qualifications (as at November 2010). ESOFT has also produced several prize winners (high achievers) over the past few years for the BCS and BIT programmes
The University of Moratuwa has signed a Memorandum of Understanding with ESOFT appointing it as a Collaborative Partner for offering the Bachelor of Information Technology (BIT) External Degree. Such an appointment is made after an extensive evaluation process and ESOFT is one of only three such partners to be appointed. ESOFT currently conducts the BIT programme in Colombo, Kandy, Kurunegala, and Jaffna. As of 2011, the University of Moratuwa has stopped conducting the programme online and is working purely via the partner mode.
Edexcel (UK) has Accredited ESOFT to conduct the Higher National Diploma (HND) Programmes in Computing since 2009 and Business Management since 2010.
In September 2019, ESOFT Metro Campus Colombo was recognised by the Ministry of Higher Education and the University Grants Commission (UGC) as a Non State Degree Awarding Institution. This means that ESOFT can officially award their own degrees. The first degree to be introduced was the Bachelor of Information Technology Honours degree. The Bachelor of Business Management Honours degree was approved in 2021 with the first intake scheduled for 2022 February.
Partnerships & Affiliations
In 2007, ESOFT was appointed as an Accredited Course Provider of the BCS for the HEQ Professional Examinations (UK). This is especially noteworthy since ESOFT is the only organisation to be accredited for all three levels of the Higher Education Qualifications (HEQ), in the World.
In 2009, ESOFT was appointed as an Approved Centre of Edexcel, for conducting their Level 5 programmes in Sri Lanka.
In 2010, ESOFT entered into an agreement with the University of Moratuwa, to be appointed as a Collaborative Partner of the University for offering the Bachelor of IT External Degree.
In 2012, ESOFT partnered with Kingston University UK to offer undergraduate and postgraduate qualifications in various disciplines of Engineering. Later, this partnership was expanded to cover undergraduate and postgraduate qualifications in IT.
In 2013, ESOFT entered into a strategic and exclusive partnership with London Metropolitan University, UK to offer their undergraduate and postgraduate qualifications in Sri Lanka.
In 2021, ESOFT and Virtusa signed a MoU under their Campus Reach initiative, to provide internship and training opportunities for undergraduate students of ESOFT.
In 2021, ESOFT partnered with TheSmartBridge in Singapore, to offer project-based training for undergraduate students in IT. ‘Smart Internz’ is a global platform of academia and corporate, giving a complete training of transforming the knowledge into work experience via Guided Projects and Externship programmes.
CSR Activities
ESOFT is involved in several Corporate Social Responsibility activities and one of the most recent is their platinum level sponsorship of the Edex 2011 Education and Careers Expo held in January 2011. ESOFT also has a Mobile Unit - a bus fitted with 20 workstations - which is sent to rural areas and to schools to provide positive experiences to students who may not have even seen or used a computer before.
As of 2012, ESOFT has been a co-sponsor of the Royal College Blue & Gold Hockey 7's Tournament which is organised with the participation of school teams from around the nation
In 2015, ESOFT started the E-Thilina project in partnership with Sirasa TV. The aim of the project was to donate complete computing labs to deserving and rural schools so as to provide children with the opportunity to learn IT/ICT at an early age. The project was continued into the year 2016 as well. Each lab consists of a minimum of 8 modern networked PC's along with a Laser Printer. Tables and Chairs and Carpeting are also provided, with the complete cost borne by ESOFT. Sirasa TV provides coverage via their media network. Two of the computer labs were opened by the President of Sri Lanka, Hon mohomed munshid. The E-Thilina project was concluded in 2018 after a successful run of 3 years where 33 computer labs were donated to public schools around the country.
ESOFT has also partnered with the Ranaviru Seva Authority of the State Ministry of Defence and Ministry of Defence to offer scholarships and savings on course fees for members of the Armed Forces and their families. The special loyalty card is known as Virusara Privilege, and was launched by the President Maithripala Sirisena.
In 2021, ESOFT launched an islandwide scholarship programme for IT and English, in partnership with the Ministry of Youth and Sports and the State Ministry of Digital Technology and Enterprise Development. A total of 10,000 full scholarships and 20,000 half scholarships were awarded as part of this programme.
Awards & Recognitions
2012 - Awarded by Pearson (previously Edexcel) as the fastest developing centre in Sri Lanka.
2013 - Awarded as Gold Partner by Pearson, for the remarkable growth in student numbers and revenue.
2014 - Awarded Gold by BCS for being the Best Centre 2013/2014 in the large scale sector, at the BCS Academy Awards.
2014 - National Business Excellence Award in Education Services - Merit Award.
2015 - National Business Excellence Award in Education Services - Runners-up.
2015 - Awarded as Gold Partner by Pearson, for the remarkable growth in student numbers and revenue.
2016 - Awarded Gold by BCS for being the Best Centre 2015/2016 in the large scale sector, at the BCS Academy Awards held on 2016.10.16 at BMICH Colombo
2016 - Awarded as Gold Partner by Pearson, for the remarkable growth in student numbers and revenue.
2017 - Awarded as Platinum Partner by Pearson, for the high growth in student numbers and revenue, and being the market leader. Awarded in 2018, for the year 2017.
2018 - Awarded as Platinum Partner by Pearson for the second year running, for exceptional performance, and being the market leader. Awarded in 2019, for the year 2018.
2019 - Awarded as Platinum Partner by Pearson for the third year running.
2019 - Awarded degree awarding powers and recognition as a Non-State Higher Education Institution by the Ministry of Education of Sri Lanka.
2020 - Awarded as Platinum Partner by Pearson for the fourth consecutive year
2020 - Chairman Dr Dayan Rajapakse received National and Provincial Gold Awards as the Entrepreneur of the Year, organised by the Federation of Chambers of Commerce of Sri Lanka
2021 - Admitted as a member of the Association of Commonwealth Universities (ACU)
2021 - ESOFT wins the ‘Best Education Institute’ award for ESOFT Digital Campus Mobile App at the South Asian Business Excellence Awards 2021
Branching Out
ESOFT started expanding into regional areas in 2005 and then launched the Accelerated Expansion Project (AEP) to increase the total number of branches to 27 by the end of the year 2010, with more branches being opened thereafter
References
Educational institutions established in 2000
Universities and colleges in Colombo
2000 establishments in Sri Lanka |
26938318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Sturt%20University%20Study%20Centres | Charles Sturt University Study Centres | Charles Sturt University (CSU) Study Centres are operated by Charles Sturt University in conjunction with Study Group Australia.
About Charles Sturt University Study Centres
The first Charles Sturt University Study Centre opened in Sydney in 2001, the second in Melbourne in 2007 and the third in Brisbane in 2016. Also known as the "CSU Study Centres", they operated in conjunction with Study Group Australia. (CSU) is a public university and a member of the Association of Commonwealth Universities. The name of the university honours Charles Sturt (1795–1869), the 19th Century public servant and explorer who was among the first Europeans to travel the territory that this multi-campus institution now serves. In addition to the Study Centres in Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane. CSU has a network of campuses in Albury-Wodonga, Bathurst, Dubbo, Orange, Port Macquarie and Wagga Wagga, with specialist campuses in Canberra, Goulburn, Manly and Parramatta.
Charles Sturt University and Study Group signed the agreement to open the Charles Sturt University Study Centres in March 2001 and work together to provide CSU undergraduate and postgraduate degree programs at these Study Centre locations. The establishment of the CSU Study Centres in the three major metropolitan cities in Australia extending the diversity of its student intake to include rural, urban and international students.
CSU Study Centre students access my.csu, a central point of information and official communication with the University, and CSU Interact, CSU's online scholarly environment for additional learning materials. Most CSU library resources, services and databases are available online, expanding access to the CSU resources. CSU Study Centre students also have access to accommodation and student services at each location.
Concerns about academic integrity at the CSU Study Centres operated by Study Group were raised by the national regulator in 2019 and led to an adjustment of the registration period of the whole University from the previous seven year cycle to a four year cycle. The regulator (TEQSA) required clearer supervision from Charles Sturt of the activities of the Study Centres.
In September 2021 it was announced that the centres would be closed at the end of 2022, and that the agreement between the University and Study Group would not be extended.
Campus locations
CSU Study Centres are located in Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane and Wangaratta.
Courses
The following undergraduate and postgraduate courses are offered at CSU Study Centres in Sydney and Melbourne:
Undergraduate courses
Bachelor of Business – Accounting
Bachelor of Business – Management
Bachelor of Business – Marketing
Bachelor of Business Studies
Bachelor of Information Technology
Associate Degree in Business Studies
Diploma of Business
Graduate Diploma courses
Graduate Diploma of Professional Accounting
Graduate Diploma of Business
Graduate Diploma of Information Technology
Postgraduate Master's degree courses
Master of Professional Accounting
Master of Business Administration (MBA with specialisations)
Master of Business Administration (MBA extended version)
Master of Business (with specialisations)
Master of Business (double specialisations)
Master of Information Technology
External links
Charles Sturt University official website
CSU Study Centres official website
References
Charles Sturt University |
28254121 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PT%20Fonts | PT Fonts | The Public Type or PT Fonts are a family of free/libre fonts released from 2009 onwards, comprising PT Sans, PT Serif and PT Mono. They were commissioned from the design agency ParaType by Rospechat, a department of the Russian Ministry of Communications, to celebrate the 300th anniversary of Peter the Great's orthography reform and to create a font family that supported all the different variations of Cyrillic script used by the minority languages of Russia, as well as the Latin alphabet.
Primarily designed by Alexandra Korolkova, the family includes sans-serif and serif designs, both with caption styles for small-print text, and a monospaced font for use in programming. They are available under the English-language SIL Open Font License; the original font, PT Sans, was also released under ParaType's own Free Font License, and regular and bold with italics is free in Google. Additional styles, such as extended, condensed and extra-bold, are sold from ParaType as PT Sans Pro and PT Serif Pro.
Features
The fonts include Latin and Cyrillic characters and covers almost all minority languages of the Russian Federation. The slashed-Р ruble symbol (before it became official in December 2013) is included at the U+20B9…U+20CF code points.
In the most common open-source release, PT Sans and PT Serif feature regular, italic, bold and bold italic designs. They also include a caption style: this is a wider version of the typeface with a greater x-height (taller lower-case letters), designed for legibility at small font sizes and on outdoor signs. PT Sans also includes a condensed version in regular and bold without italics. In caption styles, PT Serif has a caption italic style while PT Sans has a bold version. PT Mono includes regular and bold styles.
Commercial releases include for PT Sans additional light, demi-bold, extra bold and black weights, in regular, narrow, condensed and extra-condensed styles. PT Serif gains an additional 32 styles, with narrow and extended widths, black, extra-bold and demi-bold weights. The professional releases also add text figures and small caps.
Operating system support
PT Sans is included in the Fedora Linux package repository since February 2010, in the Gentoo Linux repository since January 2011, and in macOS since OS X Lion.
PT Astra fonts
In 2016, PT Astra Sans and PT Astra Serif fonts were developed for distribution with the Russian Astra Linux operating system. Both fonts are metrically compatible with Times New Roman. In 2021, PT Astra Fact font was developed for distribution with the Astra Linux operating system. It is metrically compatible with Verdana.
Gallery
References
External links
The font's homepage in English and Russian
The post in the official ParaType blog announcing PT Sans and telling the story of the project (in Russian)
Alexandra Korolkova interview
Unified serif and sans-serif typeface families
Typefaces with optical sizes
Open-source typefaces
Typefaces and fonts introduced in 2009
Humanist sans-serif typefaces
Transitional serif typefaces
Monospaced typefaces
Latin-script typefaces
Cyrillic typefaces |
11254442 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20women%20in%20mathematics | List of women in mathematics | This is a list of women who have made noteworthy contributions to or achievements in mathematics. These include mathematical research, mathematics education, the history and philosophy of mathematics, public outreach, and mathematics contests.
A
Karen Aardal (born 1961), Norwegian and Dutch applied mathematician, theoretical computer scientist, and operations researcher
Hanan Mohamed Abdelrahman, Egyptian and Norwegian mathematics educator
Izabela Abramowicz (1889–1973), Polish mathematician and mathematics educator
Louise Doris Adams (1889–1965), British mathematics reformer, president of the Mathematical Association
Rachel Blodgett Adams (1894–1982), American mathematician, one of the earliest mathematics doctorates from Radcliffe College
Tatyana Afanasyeva (1876–1964), Russian-Dutch researcher in statistical mechanics, randomness, and geometry education
Amandine Aftalion (born 1973), French applied mathematician, studies superfluids and the mathematics of footracing
Maria Gaetana Agnesi (1718–1799), Italian mathematician and philosopher, possibly the first female mathematics professor
Ilka Agricola (born 1973), German expert on differential geometry and its applications in mathematical physics
Nkechi Agwu (born 1962), African American ethnomathematician
Dorit Aharonov (born 1970), Israeli specialist in quantum computing
Beatrice Aitchison (1908–1997), American topologist who became a transportation economist in the US civil service
Noreen Sher Akbar, Pakistani fluid dynamicist
Asuman Aksoy, Turkish-American functional analyst
Meike Akveld, Swiss knot theorist and mathematics educator
Mara Alagic, Serbian mathematics educator, editor-in-chief of Journal of Mathematics and the Arts
Lara Alcock, British mathematics educator and author
Helen Popova Alderson (1924–1972), Russian and British mathematician and translator, wrote on quasigroups and reciprocity laws
Grace Alele-Williams (born 1932), first woman to lead a Nigerian university
Aldona Aleškevičienė-Statulevičienė (1936–2017), Lithuanian probability theorist
Stephanie B. Alexander, American differential geometer
Florence Eliza Allen (1876–1960), second female and fourth overall mathematics PhD from the University of Wisconsin
Linda J. S. Allen, American mathematician and mathematical biologist
Elizabeth S. Allman (born 1965), American mathematical biologist
Ann S. Almgren, American applied mathematician who works on computational simulations of supernovae and white dwarfs
Melania Alvarez, Mexican-Canadian mathematics educator, organizer of summer mathematics camps for indigenous students
Yvette Amice (1936–1993), French expert on p-adic analysis who became president of the French mathematical society
Divsha Amirà (1899–1966), Israeli geometer and mathematics educator
T. A. Sarasvati Amma (1918–2000), Historian of ancient Indian mathematics
Astrid an Huef, New Zealand expert on functional analysis, president of New Zealand Mathematical Society
Nalini Anantharaman (born 1976), French mathematical physicist, winner of the Henri Poincaré Prize
Beverly Anderson (born 1943), American mathematician, director of minority programs for Mathematical Sciences Education Board
Kirsti Andersen (born 1941), Danish historian of mathematics
Cabiria Andreian Cazacu (1928–2018), Romanian complex analyst
Hajnal Andréka (born 1947), Hungarian researcher in algebraic logic
Annie Dale Biddle Andrews (1885–1940), algebraic geometer, first female PhD from the University of California, Berkeley
Grace Andrews (mathematician) (1869–1951), one of only two women listed in the first edition of American Men of Science
Guacolda Antoine Lazzerini (1908–2015), Chilean mathematician and mathematics educator
Kathleen Antonelli (1921–2006), Irish-American programmer of ENIAC, the first general-purpose electronic digital computer
Noriko H. Arai (born 1962), Japanese mathematical logician and artificial intelligence researcher
Crista Arangala, American numerical analyst, textbook author, and international educator
Carolina Araujo, Brazilian algebraic geometer
Maria Angela Ardinghelli (1730–1825), Italian translator of Stephen Hales, mathematician, physicist and noble
Esther Arkin, Israeli-American researcher in operations research and computational geometry
Sandra Arlinghaus, founder of the Institute of Mathematical Geography
Marie-Claude Arnaud, French expert in dynamical systems
Elayne Arrington, American aerospace engineer, expert on Soviet aircraft
Michèle Artigue (born 1946), French expert in mathematics education
Natascha Artin Brunswick (1909–2003), German-American mathematician, photographer, and journal editor
Shiri Artstein (born 1978), Israeli mathematician specializing in convex geometry and asymptotic geometric analysis
Marcia Ascher (1935–2013), American ethnomathematician
Winifred Asprey (1917–2007), helped establish the first computer science lab at Vassar
Michèle Audin (born 1954), French researcher in symplectic geometry
Bonnie Averbach (born 1933), American mathematics and actuarial educator and author
Tamara Awerbuch-Friedlander, American biomathematician and public health scientist
Hertha Ayrton (1854–1923), English engineer, mathematician, physicist, and inventor, winner of the Hughes Medal
B
Ellen Baake (born 1961), German mathematical biologist
Wealthy Babcock (1895–1990), American mathematician, namesake of Kansas University mathematics library
Christine Bachoc (born 1964), French expert on coding theory and kissing numbers
Clara Latimer Bacon (1866–1948), first woman to earn a Ph.D. in mathematics from Johns Hopkins University
Jenny Baglivo (born 1948), American mathematician, statistician, and book author
Hajer Bahouri (born 1958), Franco-Tunisian mathematician interested in partial differential equations
Ann E. Bailie (born 1935), American mathematician and space scientist, discovered that the earth is pear-shaped
Frances Ellen Baker (1902–1995), American mathematician and number theorist
Kitty Baker (1912–2014), American mathematics educator, artist and weaver, and author
Rose Baker, British physicist, mathematician, and statistician
Ruth Baker, British mathematical biologist interested in pattern formation and morphogenesis
Viviane Baladi (born 1963), Swiss-French expert on dynamical systems
Jennifer Balakrishnan, American number theorist who solved the "cursed curve"
Deborah Loewenberg Ball, American mathematics education researcher
Catherine Bandle (born 1943), Swiss expert on differential equations and isoperimetric inequalities
Selenne Bañuelos (born 1985), Mexican-American mathematician and mathematical biologist
Hélène Barcelo (born 1954), mathematician from Québec, editor-in-chief of Journal of Combinatorial Theory, Series A
Grace Marie Bareis (1875–1962), American group theorist, first mathematics Ph.D. at Ohio State, and founding member of the MAA
Nina Bari (1901–1961), Soviet mathematician known for her work on trigonometric series
Ruth Aaronson Bari (1917–2005), American mathematician known for her work in graph theory and homomorphisms
Mildred Barnard (1908–2000), Australian biometrician, mathematician and statistician
Janet Barnett, American mathematician known for integrating the history of mathematics into her teaching
Ida Barney (1886–1982), American mathematics professor and astronomer
Charlotte Barnum (1860–1934), mathematician and social activist, first female mathematics PhD from Yale
Margaret Baron (1915–1996), British mathematics educator and historian of mathematics
Lida Barrett (1927–2021), second female president of the MAA
June Barrow-Green (born 1953), British historian of mathematics
Jean Bartik (1924–2011), one of the original programmers for the ENIAC computer
Estelle Basor (born 1947), American mathematician interested in operator theory and the theory of random matrices
Marjorie Batchelor, American mathematician known for Batchelor's theorem on supermanifolds
Grace Bates (1914–1996), one of few women in the United States to be granted a PhD in mathematics in the 1940s
Lynn Batten (born 1948), Canadian immigrant to Australia, researcher in finite geometries and cryptography
Helga Baum (born 1954), German differential geometer
Patricia E. Bauman, studies the mathematics of liquid crystals and superconductors
Karin Baur, Swiss combinatorial representation theorist
Agnes Sime Baxter (1870–1917), second Canadian and fourth North American woman to earn a mathematics PhD
Margaret Bayer, American mathematician working in polyhedral combinatorics
Pilar Bayer (born 1946), Spanish number theorist
Eva Bayer-Fluckiger (born 1951), Hungarian-Swiss mathematician, proved Serre's conjecture on Galois cohomology of classical groups
Jillian Beardwood (1934–2019), British mathematician, contributed to the traveling salesperson problem
Karine Beauchard (born 1978), French control theorist
Miriam Becker (1909–2000), American mathematician whose career became a test case for unionization and academic tenure
Astrid Beckmann (born 1957), German mathematician, mathematics educator, physicist, and academic administrator
May Beenken (1901–1988), American mathematician
Janet Beery, American mathematician and historian of mathematics
Mary Beisiegel, American mathematics educator
Marion Beiter (1907–1982), American mathematician, expert on cyclotomic polynomials
Hélène Bellosta (1946–2011), French historian of mathematics in medieval Islam
Alexandra Bellow (born 1935), Romanian researcher in ergodic theory, probability and analysis
Margherita Piazzola Beloch (1879–1976), Italian researcher in algebraic geometry, algebraic topology and photogrammetry
Suzan Rose Benedict (1873–1942), first woman to earn a PhD from the University of Michigan
Georgia Benkart (born 1949), American expert on Lie algebras
Alona Ben-Tal, Israeli and New Zealand applied mathematician, models human and bird breathing
Deborah J. Bennett (born 1950), American mathematics educator and popular mathematics book author
Sylvie Benzoni (born 1967), French expert in fluid dynamics and partial differential equations, director of the Institut Henri Poincaré
Bonnie Berger, American mathematician and computer scientist, researcher in computational molecular biology
Marsha Berger (born 1953), American researcher in numerical analysis, computational fluid dynamics, and parallel computing
Tanja Bergkvist (born 1974), Swedish mathematician and anti-feminist activist
Julie Bergner, American expert on algebraic topology, homotopy theory, and higher category theory
Nicole Berline (born 1944), French researcher on index theory of elliptic differential operators
Natalia Berloff, professor of applied mathematics at the University of Cambridge
Leah Berman (born 1976), American discrete geometer
Christine Bernardi (1955–2018), French expert on numerical analysis of partial differential equations
Dorothy Lewis Bernstein (1914–1988), applied mathematician, first female president of the MAA
Inga Berre (born 1978), Norwegian applied mathematician, models porous media and geothermal systems
Valérie Berthé (born 1968), French researcher in symbolic dynamics, combinatorics on words, and discrete geometry
Andrea Bertozzi (born 1965), American researcher in partial differential equations, studies mathematics of urban crime
Nadine Bezuk, American mathematics educator, president and executive director of Association of Mathematics Teacher Educators
Vasanti N. Bhat-Nayak (1938–2009), professor of combinatorics and head of mathematics at the University of Mumbai
Ushadevi Bhosle (born 1949), Indian expert on vector bundles
Francesca Biagini (born 1973), Italian-German probability theorist and financial mathematician
Ginestra Bianconi, Italian network scientist
Lydia Bieri (born 1972), Swiss-American expert on general relativity, gravity waves, and the history of cosmology
Anna Maria Bigatti, Italian algebraist, developer of CoCoA
Miggy Biller, British mathematician and mathematics educator
Sara Billey (born 1968), American algebraic combinatorialist
Katalin Bimbó (born 1963), Canadian mathematical logician and proof theorist
Christina Birkenhake (born 1961), German algebraic geometer
Joan Birman (born 1927), American braid and knot theorist
Laure Blanc-Féraud (born 1963), French applied mathematician and image processing researcher
Gertrude Blanch (1897–1996), American numerical analyst
Roswitha Blind, German convex geometer and politician
Karen M. Bliss, American applied mathematician specializing in biomedical applications and materials science
Lenore Blum (born 1942), distinguished professor of computer science at Carnegie Mellon University
Jo Boaler (born 1964), British-American promoter of mathematics education reform and equitable mathematics classrooms
Mary L. Boas (1917–2010), author of Mathematical Methods in the Physical Sciences
Christine Böckmann (born 1955), German numerical analyst, expert in atmospheric lidar
Graciela Boente, Argentine mathematical statistician known for her research in robust statistics
Neda Bokan (born 1947), Serbian differential geometer
Natashia Boland (born 1967), Australian mathematician and operations researcher
Sylvie Boldo, French expert in formal verification of numerical computation
Aline Bonami, French mathematical analyst, president of the Société mathématique de France
Petra Bonfert-Taylor, German-American complex analyst and engineering educator
Alicia Boole Stott (1860–1940), Irish-English four-dimensional geometer
Mary Everest Boole (1832–1916), self-taught author of didactic works on mathematics
Kathleen Booth (born 1922), English mathematician and pioneer of assembly language computer programming
Liliana Borcea, Romanian-American applied mathematician, expert on wave propagation
Valentina Borok (1931–2004), Soviet Ukrainian mathematician who studied partial differential equations
Celia Grillo Borromeo (1684–1777), Genovese mathematician and scientist, discovered Clélie curve
Fernanda Botelho (born 1957), Portuguese-American functional analyst
Mary Michel Boulus (1926–2012), American Catholic nun, mathematics teacher, and college president
Anne Bourlioux, Canadian expert in turbulent combustion and world record holder in indoor rowing
Élisabeth Bouscaren (born 1956), French mathematician who studies the connections between algebraic geometry and model theory
Mireille Bousquet-Mélou (born 1967), French combinatorialist
Anne Boutet de Monvel (born 1948), French applied mathematician and mathematical physicist
Sylvia Bozeman (born 1947), African-American mathematician and academic administrator
Lis Brack-Bernsen (born 1946), Danish and Swiss mathematician, historian of science, and historian of mathematics
Mary Bradburn (1923–2000), British mathematics educator, president of the Mathematical Association
Elizabeth Bradley (born 1961), American expert in nonlinear dynamical systems, competed in 1988 Olympics
Lillian K. Bradley (born 1921), first African-American woman to earn a doctorate in any subject at the University of Texas
Dorothy Brady (1903–1977), American mathematician and economist
Priscilla Braislin (1838–1888), first professor of mathematics at Vassar College
Leila Bram (1927–1979), head of mathematics for Office of Naval Research
Bodil Branner (born 1943), founder of European Women in Mathematics, chair of the Danish Mathematical Society
Hel Braun (1914–1986), German number theorist
Elena Braverman, Russian, Israeli, and Canadian researcher in delay differential equations and difference equations
Loretta Braxton (1934–2019), American mathematician
Marilyn Breen (born 1944), American geometer
Tara E. Brendle, American low-dimensional topologist and combinatorial group theorist
Susanne Brenner, expert in the numerical solution of differential equations
Sonja Brentjes (born 1951), German historian of Islamic mathematics and cartography
Diane Briars (born 1951), American mathematics educator, advocate for education reform, president of National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Kathrin Bringmann (born 1977), German number theorist, expert on mock theta functions, winner of SASTRA Ramanujan Prize
Ruth Britto, American mathematical physicist
Jill Britton (1944–2016), Canadian mathematics educator, author of educational books on mathematics
Bárbara M. Brizuela, American researcher on mathematics education in early childhood and elementary school
Anne Broadbent, Canadian researcher on quantum computing, quantum cryptography, and quantum information
Tamara Broderick, American mathematician and computer scientist who works in machine learning and Bayesian inference
Lia Bronsard (born 1963), Canadian expert on interface dynamics, president of Canadian Mathematical Society
Margaret Brown, British mathematics educator
Susan Brown (1937–2017), English fluid mechanics researcher, possibly second female mathematics professor in UK
Marjorie Lee Browne (1914–1979), one of the first African-American women to receive a doctorate in mathematics
Laurence Broze (born 1960), Belgian applied mathematician, statistician, and economist, president of l'association femmes et mathématiques
Karen Brucks (1957–2017), American mathematician, expert on one-dimensional dynamical systems
Maria Bruna (born 1984), Spanish applied mathematician known for stochastic modelling of multiscale phenomena
Sophie Bryant (1850–1922), Anglo-Irish mathematician, educator, feminist and activist
Ranee Brylinski (born 1957), American mathematician known for her research in representation theory and quantum logic gates
Evelyn Buckwar, German-Austrian expert on stochastic differential equations
Alina Bucur, American analytic number theorist and arithmetic statistician
Lilya Budaghyan, Armenian-Norwegian cryptographer
Annalisa Buffa (born 1973), Italian specialist in numerical analysis for partial differential equations
Marta Bunge, Argentine-Canadian category theorist
Angelika Bunse-Gerstner (born 1951), German expert on numerical linear algebra
Regina S. Burachik, Argentine-Australian researcher in convex analysis, functional analysis and non-smooth analysis
Marilyn Burns (born 1941), American mathematics educator and author of children's books on mathematics
Ellen Burrell (1850–1938), American mathematician
Gail F. Burrill, American mathematics educator, president of National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Leone Burton (1936–2007), British researcher in ethnomathematics, founded book series on women in mathematics
Edith Bush (1882–1977), American mathematician, first female engineering professor at Tufts University
Ida Busbridge (1908–1988), studied integral equations and radiative transfer, first female mathematics fellow at Oxford
Marjorie V. Butcher (1925–2016), American actuarial mathematician, first woman mathematics instructor at Michigan, first woman professor at Trinity College Connecticut
Lynne Butler (born 1955), American combinatorialist and mathematical statistician
Margaret K. Butler (1924–2013), computer programmer, director of the National Energy Software Center at Argonne
Helen Byrne, British applied mathematician and mathematical biologist
C
Angelina Cabras (1898–1993), Italian mathematician, physicist, and theoretical mechanics professor
Fioralba Cakoni, Albanian expert on inverse scattering theory
Maria-Carme Calderer, Spanish-American researcher in applied mathematics
Nora Calderwood (1896–1985), Scottish mathematician, namesake of Birmingham University's Calderwood Prize
Daniela Calvetti, Italian-American mathematician whose work connects Bayesian statistics with numerical analysis
Erika Tatiana Camacho (born 1974), Mexican-American mathematical biologist
Lucy Campbell, geophysical fluid dynamics researcher from Barbados, Jamaica, Ghana, and Canada
Jessie Forbes Cameron (1883–1968), British mathematician, first woman to complete her PhD in mathematics at the University of Marburg
Naiomi Cameron, American combinatorist, vice president of National Association of Mathematicians
Patricia Campbell, American mathematics educator
María Antònia Canals (born 1930), Spanish mathematics educator and recreational mathematician
Sunčica Čanić, Croatian-American expert in modeling the cardiovascular system and devices for treating it
Ana Cannas da Silva (born 1968), Portuguese mathematician specializing in symplectic geometry and geometric topology
Barbara Canright (1920–1997), American human computer at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Yaiza Canzani, Spanish and Uruguayan mathematical analysis, known for work in spectral geometry and microlocal analysis
Mireille Capitaine, French researcher on random matrices and free probability theory
Lucia Caporaso, Italian algebraic geometer
Marian Palmer Capps (1901–2001), American mathematician and leader of prominent African-American women's societies
Ana Caraiani, Romanian-American IMO medalist, Putnam fellow, expert in algebraic number theory and the Langlands program
Olivia Caramello (born 1984), Italian topos theorist
Alessandra Carbone, Italian mathematician and computer scientist, studies protein interactions in muscular dystrophy
Sally Elizabeth Carlson (1896–2000), first woman to obtain a doctorate in mathematics at the University of Minnesota
Anna Cartan (1878–1923), French mathematician, teacher and textbook author, student of Marie Curie
Coralia Cartis, Romanian expert on compressed sensing, numerical analysis, and regularization methods in optimization
Mary Cartwright (1900–1998), British mathematician, one of the first to analyze a dynamical system with chaos
María Andrea Casamayor (1700–1780), only 18th-century Spanish scientist whose work is still extant
Bettye Anne Case, American mathematician and historian of mathematics
Emma Castelnuovo (1913–2014), Italian mathematics educator and textbook author
Catherine Cavagnaro (born 1965), American low-dimensional topologist and aerobatic aviator
Beatrice Mabel Cave-Browne-Cave (1874–1947), English pioneer in the mathematics of aeronautics
Frances Cave-Browne-Cave (1876–1965), English mathematician and computer, taught at Girton College, Cambridge
Anny Cazenave (born 1944), French space geodesist, pioneer in satellite altimetry
Zoia Ceaușescu (1949–2006), Romanian functional analyst, daughter of Communist leader
Elena Celledoni (born 1967), Italian-Norwegian expert on numerical analysis, Lie groups, and structure-preserving algorithms
Sue Chandler, author of English secondary-school mathematics textbooks
Melody Chan, American expert in combinatorial commutative algebra, graph theory, and tropical geometry
Sun-Yung Alice Chang (born 1948), Chinese-American mathematical analyst, member of National Academy of Sciences
Josephine Chanler (1906–1992), American mathematician
Mei-Chu Chang, Taiwanese-American expert in algebraic geometry and combinatorial number theory
Vyjayanthi Chari (born 1958), Indian-American expert in quantum algebra
Ruth Charney (born 1950), American expert on geometric group theory and Artin groups, president of the Association for Women in Mathematics (AWM)
Marie Charpentier (1903–1994), first woman to earn a doctorate in pure mathematics in France and second to obtain a faculty position there
Émilie du Châtelet (1706–1749), French translator and commentator of Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica
Zoé Chatzidakis, French researcher in model theory and differential algebra
Jennifer Tour Chayes (born 1956), expert on phase transitions in networks, founder of the theory group at Microsoft Research
Karine Chemla (born 1958), French historian of Chinese mathematics
Jacqueline Chen, American applied mathematician and mechanical engineer, applies massively parallel computing to simulate combustion
Xiaojun Chen, Chinese applied mathematician, expert on nonconvex optimization
Margaret Cheney (born 1955), American expert on inverse problems
Leslie Cheng, American harmonic analyst
Maggie Cheng, Chinese-American applied mathematician, computer scientist, and network scientist
Miranda Cheng (born 1979), Taiwanese-Dutch mathematician and theoretical physicist, formulated umbral moonshine
Eugenia Cheng, English category theorist and pianist, uses analogies with food and baking to teach mathematics to non-mathematicians
Amanda Chetwynd, British combinatorist and spatial statistician
Elaine Chew, Singaporean-American expert in the mathematics and visualization of concepts in music theory
Tanya Christiansen, American expert on scattering theory and partial differential equations
Graciela Chichilnisky (born 1944), Argentine-American mathematical economist and authority on climate change
Phyllis Chinn (born 1941), American graph theorist and historian of mathematics
Grace Chisholm Young (1868–1944), English mathematician, first woman to receive a German doctorate
YoungJu Choie (born 1959), Korean number theorist
Yvonne Choquet-Bruhat (born 1923), French mathematician and physicist, first woman elected to the French Academy
Maria Chudnovsky (born 1977), Israeli-American graph theorist, MacArthur Fellow
Fan Chung (born 1949), Taiwanese-American researcher in random graphs
Julia Chuzhoy, Israeli expert in approximation algorithms and graph minor theory
Monique Chyba, applied control theory to autonomous underwater vehicles
Agata Ciabattoni, Italian non-classical mathematical logician
Maria Cibrario (1905–1992), Italian specialist in partial differential equations
Marta Civil, American mathematics educator
Mónica Clapp, Mexican researcher in nonlinear partial differential equations and algebraic topology
Joan Clarke (1917–1996), English code-breaker at Bletchley Park, numismatist
Jeanne N. Clelland (born 1970), American expert on differential geometry and its applications to differential equations
Mary Clem (1905–1979), American mathematician and human computer, invented zero check error detection
Harriet Redfield Cobb (1866–1958), American mathematician
Anne Cobbe (1920–1971), British algebraist
Sally Cockburn (born 1960), Canadian-American mathematician
Judita Cofman (1936–2001), Yugoslav-German finite geometer and mathematics educator, first mathematics doctorate from Novi Sad
Doris Cohen, American mathematician, first female author in the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
Elaine Cohen, American pioneer in the use of splines for geometric modeling
Marion Cohen (born 1943), American poet and mathematician, teaches the relationship between art and mathematics
Miriam Cohen (born 1941), Israeli researcher in Hopf algebras, quantum groups and non-commutative rings
Amy Cohen-Corwin, American expert in the Korteweg–de Vries equation and cubic Schrödinger equation
Alina Carmen Cojocaru, Romanian number theorist
Nancy Cole (1902–1991), American mathematician, made pioneering contributions to Morse theory
Caroline Colijn, Canadian mathematical epidemiologist
Susan Jane Colley (born 1959), first female editor-in-chief of the American Mathematical Monthly
Agnes Bell Collier (1860–1930), British mathematician
Karen L. Collins, American graph theorist and combinatorist
Coralie Colmez, French writer on legal mathematics
Maria Colombo (born 1989), Italian mathematical analyst
Caterina Consani (born 1963), Italian mathematician specializing in arithmetic geometry
Pamela Cook, American expert in fluid dynamics, president of SIAM
Frances Cope (1902–1983), American researcher on differential equations, namesake of the Thorndike nomogram
Minerva Cordero, Puerto Rican expert on finite geometry
Lesley Cormack (born 1957), Canadian historian of mathematics and historian of geography
Sylvie Corteel, French combinatorialist, editor-in-chief of Journal of Combinatorial Theory, Series A
Véronique Cortier, French mathematician and computer scientist, uses mathematical logic to verify cryptographic protocols
Carla Cotwright-Williams (born 1973), African-American data scientist for the US government
Collette Coullard, American matroid theorist and operations researcher
Judith Covington, American mathematics educator
Lenore Cowen, American discrete mathematician, computer scientist, and computational biologist
Elizabeth Buchanan Cowley (1874–1945), American mathematician, advocated high school teaching of solid geometry
Annalisa Crannell, American expert on water waves and geometric perspective
Alissa Crans, American mathematician specializing in higher-dimensional algebra
Marie Crous, 17th-century mathematician who introduced the decimal system to France
Ana Bela Cruzeiro (born 1957), Portuguese and Swiss stochastic analyst
Marianna Csörnyei (born 1975), Hungarian researcher in real analysis, geometric measure theory, and functional analysis
Helen F. Cullen (1919–2007), American topologist
Jane Cullum (born 1938), American applied mathematician known for her work in numerical algorithms and control theory
Louise Duffield Cummings (1870–1947), Canadian-American expert on Steiner triple systems
Susan Jane Cunningham (1842–1921), founded the mathematics and astronomy departments at Swarthmore College
Serafina Cuomo (born 1966), Italian historian of ancient mathematics
Antonella Cupillari (born 1955), Italian-American mathematics educator, historian of mathematics, and biographer of Agnesi
Ruth F. Curtain (born 1941), Australian-Dutch expert in infinite-dimensional linear systems
Carina Curto (born 1978), American mathematical neuroscientist
Eleanor P. Cushing (1856–1925), American mathematician
Elizabeth Cuthill (1923–2011), American applied mathematician and Navy researcher known for sparse matrix ordering
Annie Cuyt (born 1956), Belgian expert on approximation
D
Sophie Dabo-Niang, Senegalese-French mathematician and statistician
Amy Dahan, French mathematician, historian of mathematics, and historian of the politics of climate change
Karma Dajani, Lebanese-Dutch mathematician, applies ergodic theory to number theory
Anne-Laure Dalibard, French mathematician, expert on fluid dynamics in oceanography
Ewa Damek (born 1958), Polish mathematical analyst, namesake of Damek–Ricci spaces
Pallavi Dani, Indian-American geometric group theorist
Donatella Danielli (born 1966), Italian-American specialist in partial differential equations
Sofia Danova (1879–1946), Bulgarian teacher and philanthropist, first Bulgarian woman to graduate in mathematics
Christine Darden (born 1942), American aeronautical engineer who researches sonic booms
Geraldine Claudette Darden (born 1936), one of the first African-American women to earn a PhD in mathematics
Panagiota Daskalopoulos, Greek-American differential geometer
Ingrid Daubechies (born 1954), Belgian physicist and mathematician, known for wavelets
Chantal David (born 1964), Canadian analytic number theorist and arithmetic statistician
Giuliana Davidoff, American number theorist and expert on expander graphs
Penny J. Davies, Scottish expert on wave scattering, president of Edinburgh Mathematical Society
Nicole De Grande-De Kimpe (1936–2008), Belgian pioneer in -adic functional analysis
Christine De Mol (born 1954), Belgian applied mathematician and mathematical physicist
Ineke De Moortel, Belgian mathematician who studies the sun's corona; president of Edinburgh Mathematical Society
Valeria de Paiva, Brazilian researcher in categorical logic
Lisette de Pillis, American researcher on the mathematics of cancer growth
Kaye A. de Ruiz, American mathematics educator
Daniela De Silva, Italian mathematician known for her expertise in partial differential equations
Gerda de Vries, Canadian mathematician who studies dynamical systems and mathematical physiology
Winifred Margaret Deans (1901–1990), British translator of German mathematics and physics texts into English
Mary Deconge (born 1933), one of the first African-American women to earn a PhD in mathematics
Maria Deijfen (born 1975), Swedish graph theorist and probability theorist
Huguette Delavault (1924–2003), French mathematical physicist, activist for women in mathematics
Ermelinda DeLaViña, Hispanic American graph theorist
Laura DeMarco, American researcher in dynamical systems and complex analysis
Beryl May Dent (1900–1977), British mathematical physicist, researcher in molecular forces and computer-aided design
Darinka Dentcheva, Bulgarian-American convex analyst
Marjorie Devaney (1931–2007), mathematician, electrical engineer, and pioneering computer programmer
Shakuntala Devi (1939–2013), Indian child prodigy, writer, and mental calculator
Cécile DeWitt-Morette (1922–2017), French founder of l'École de physique des Houches
Elena Deza (born 1961), French-Russian mathematician, author of books on figurate numbers and metric spaces
Mariangiola Dezani-Ciancaglini (born 1946), Italian expert on type theory, lambda calculus, and programming language semantics
Eleonora Di Nezza, Italian Kahler geometer
Giulia Di Nunno (born 1973), Italian expert in stochastic analysis and financial mathematics, promoter of mathematics in Africa
Sandra Di Rocco (born 1967), Italian-Swedish algebraic geometer
Carrie Diaz Eaton, American mathematical biologist
Auguste Dick (1910–1993), Austrian historian of mathematics and biographer of Emmy Noether
Alicia Dickenstein (born 1955), Argentine algebraic geometer, vice-president of the International Mathematical Union
Caren Diefenderfer (1952–2017), American mathematician, president of National Numeracy Network
Susanne Dierolf (1942–2009), German expert on topological vector spaces
Ada Dietz (1882–1950), American weaver who used algebraic expressions to design textiles
Ulla Dinger (born 1955), Swedish mathematical analyst, first female doctorate in mathematics at University of Gothenburg
Irit Dinur, Israeli researcher in probabilistically checkable proofs and hardness of approximation
Serena Dipierro, Italian expert on partial differential equations
Susanne Ditlevsen, Danish mathematical biologist and biostatistician
Mary P. Dolciani (1923–1985), developed modern method for teaching high school algebra in the United States
Yvonne Dold-Samplonius (1937–2014), Dutch historian of Islamic mathematics
Suzanne Dorée, American group theorist and mathematics educator
Itala D'Ottaviano (born 1944), Brazilian logician
Yael Dowker (1919–2016), Israeli researcher in measure theory and ergodic theory
Agnes Meyer Driscoll (1889–1971), American cryptanalyst during both World War I and World War II
Cornelia Druțu Romanian mathematician, won Whitehead Prize for research in geometric group theory
Malgorzata Dubiel, Polish and Canadian mathematics educator
Marie-Louise Dubreil-Jacotin (1905–1972), first woman full professor of mathematics in France, expert in fluid mechanics and abstract algebra
Moon Duchin, American expert in geometric topology, geometric group theory, and Teichmüller theory
Marie Duflo (1940–2019), French probability theorist, activist for foreigners in France
Vida Dujmović (born 1972), Yugoslav-Canadian graph theorist
Ioana Dumitriu (born 1976), Romanian-American numerical analyst
Julena Steinheider Duncombe (1911–2003), American mathematics teacher and astronomer
Elizabeth B. Dussan V. (born 1946), American expert on the behavior of fluids
Nira Dyn, Israeli expert on subdivision surfaces
E
Annie Easley (1933–2011), African-American computer scientist, mathematician, and rocket scientist
Sheila May Edmonds (1916–2002), British mathematician, Vice-Principal of Newnham College, Cambridge
Josephine D. Edwards (1942–1985), Australian mathematician, founded Australian Mathematics Competition
Mary Edwards (c. 1750–1815), human computer for the British Nautical Almanac
Constance van Eeden (born 1927), Dutch nonparameteric statistician who contributed to the development of statistics in Canada
Hettie Belle Ege (1861–1942), American mathematician, acting president of Mills College
Tatyana Pavlovna Ehrenfest (1905–1984), Dutch researcher in combinatorics and graph theory
Andrée Ehresmann (born 1935), French category theorist
Gertrude Ehrlich (born 1923), Austrian-American algebraist and number theorist
Thyra Eibe (1866–1955), first woman to earn a mathematics degree from the University of Copenhagen, translator of Euclid
Carolyn Eisele (1902–2000), American mathematician, historian of mathematics, expert on Charles Sanders Peirce
Nathalie Eisenbaum, French probability theorist
Kirsten Eisenträger, German-American researcher in computational number theory
Tanja Eisner (born 1980), Ukrainian-German expert on operator theory
Nicole El Karoui (born 1944), Tunisian-French pioneer in mathematical finance
Amèle El Mahdi (born 1956), Algerian mathematics professor and writer
Nerida Ellerton (born 1942), Australian mathematics educator and historian of mathematics education
Joanne Elliott (born 1925), American mathematician specializing in potential theory
Jo Ellis-Monaghan, American mathematician interested in graph polynomials and topological graph theory
Maria Emelianenko, Russian-American expert on centroidal Voronoi tessellation
Gisela Engeln-Müllges (born 1940), escapee from East Germany, expert in numerical algorithms, and abstract artist
Susanna S. Epp (born 1943), American researcher in discrete mathematics and mathematical logic
Karin Erdmann (born 1948), German researcher in modular representation theory and homological algebra
Viveka Erlandsson, Swedish low-dimensional topologist and geometer
Anna Erschler (born 1977), Russian-French expert on random walks on groups
Hélène Esnault (born 1953), French algebraic geometer, winner of the Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize
Maria J. Esteban (born 1956), Basque-French applied mathematician, president of International Council for Industrial and Applied Mathematics
Alison Etheridge FRS (born 1964), English researcher in theoretical population genetics and mathematical ecology
Christina Eubanks-Turner, American mathematics educator, graph theorist, and commutative algebraist
F
Vera Faddeeva (1906–1983), Russian expert on numerical linear algebra
Fariba Fahroo, Persian-American expert in pseudospectral optimal control, winner of AIAA Mechanics and Control of Flight Award
Barbara Trader Faires (born 1943), American mathematician and textbook author, secretary of MAA
Etta Zuber Falconer (1933–2002), one of the first African-American women to receive a PhD in mathematics
Ruma Falk (1932–2020), Israeli psychologist and philosopher of mathematics specializing in human understanding of probability
María Falk de Losada, American-born Colombian mathematician, co-founded Colombian Mathematical Olympiad, rector of Antonio Nariño University
Mary Fama (1938–2021), New Zealand applied mathematician, expert on rock deformation in mining
Martha Isabel Fandiño Pinilla (born 1956), Colombian and Italian mathematics educator
Barbara Fantechi (born 1966), Italian algebraic geometer
Marie Farge (born 1953), French mathematician and physicist known for her research on wavelets and turbulence in fluid mechanics
Mary Celine Fasenmyer (1906–1996), Catholic nun whose research on hypergeometric functions prefigured WZ theory
Heike Fassbender, German expert in numerical linear algebra, first woman to lead a German mathematical society
Lisa Fauci (born 1960), American applied mathematician who applies computational fluid dynamics to biological processes
Patricia Fauring, Argentine mathematician, coach of the Argentine mathematical olympiad team
Odile Favaron (born 1938), French graph theorist
Philippa Fawcett (1868–1948), English educationalist, first woman to obtain the top score in the Cambridge Mathematical Tripos
Anita Burdman Feferman (1927–2015), American historian of mathematics and mathematical biographer
Nina Fefferman, American mathematical biologist
Joan Feigenbaum (born 1958), theoretical computer scientist, co-inventor of trust management
Genevieve Grotjan Feinstein (1912–2006), helped decipher Japanese Purple cryptography, worked on Venona counter-intelligence
Käte Fenchel (1905–1983), Jewish German researcher on non-abelian groups
Zhilan Feng (born 1959), Chinese-American applied mathematician, mathematical biologist, and epidemiologist
Elizabeth Fennema (born 1928), researched attitudes of young women towards mathematics and their classroom interactions
Anuška Ferligoj (born 1947), Slovenian mathematical sociologist and researcher in network analysis
Elena Fernández (born 1956), Spanish operations researcher, president of Association of European Operational Research Societies
Marisa Fernández, Spanish differential geometer
Jacqueline Ferrand (1918–2014), French researcher on conformal representation theory, potential theory, and Riemannian manifolds
Antonia Ferrín Moreiras (1914–2009), Spanish mathematician and first Galician woman astronomer
Joan Ferrini-Mundy (born 1954), American researcher in mathematics education
Judith V. Field (born 1943), British historian of mathematics and art
Anna Fino, Italian differential geometer
Farideh Firoozbakht (1962–2019), Iranian number theorist
Ilse Fischer (born 1975), Austrian combinatorialist
Irene Fischer (1907–2009), Austrian-American geodesist for Mercury and Apollo spaceflights, member of National Academy of Engineering
Vera Fischer, Austrian set theorist and mathematical logician
Naomi Fisher, American mathematics educator, worked to bring together research mathematicians and educators
Mary Flahive (born 1948), American mathematician, author of books on difference equations and diophantine approximation
Sarah Flannery (born 1982), winner of the EU Young Scientist of the Year Award for her teenage research on cryptography
Erica Flapan (born 1956), American researcher in low-dimensional topology and knot theory
Jennifer Flegg, Australian applied mathematician
Irmgard Flügge-Lotz (1903–1974), German aerodynamics researcher, first female engineering professor at Stanford
Natasha Flyer (born 1969), American earth scientist and applied mathematician, expert on radial basis functions
Anne Bosworth Focke (1868–1907), first mathematics professor at what is now University of Rhode Island; student of David Hilbert
Amanda Folsom (born 1979), American number theorist
Irene Fonseca (born 1956), Portuguese-American director of the Center for Nonlinear Analysis at Carnegie Mellon University
Phyllis Fox (born 1923), American mathematician and computer scientist, collaborator on the first LISP interpreter
Marguerite Frank (born 1927), French-American pioneer in convex optimization theory and mathematical programming
Hélène Frankowska, Polish-French control theorist and set-valued analyst
Ailana Fraser, Canadian researcher on geometric analysis and the theory of minimal surfaces
Elena Freda (1890–1978), Italian mathematician, applied mathematical analysis to electromagnetics and biology
Haya Freedman (1923–2005), Israeli-British mathematician who studied the Tamari lattice and ring theory
Herta Freitag (1908–2000), Austrian-American expert on Fibonacci numbers
Susan Friedlander (born 1946), English-American researcher in fluid dynamics, first female editor-in-chief of the Bulletin of the AMS
Joyce Friedman (1928–2018), American mathematician, operations researcher, computer scientist, and computational linguist
Aline Huke Frink (1904–2000), American mathematician and professor
Charlotte Froese Fischer (born 1929), Canadian-American expert on atomic-structure calculations who predicted negative calcium ions
Hannah Fry (born 1984), English complex systems theorist and public speaker
Shirley M. Frye, American mathematics educator, president of National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Elza Furtado Gomide (1925–2013), Brazilian mathematician, first female doctorate in mathematics at University of São Paulo
Fumiko Futamura, Japanese-American mathematician, expert on graphical perspective
G
Lisl Gaal (born 1924), Austrian-born American set theorist and Galois theorist
Isabelle Gallagher (born 1973), French researcher in partial differential equations
Eva Gallardo (born 1971), president of Spanish Mathematical Society
Irene M. Gamba (born 1957), Argentine-American applied mathematician
Svetlana Gannushkina (born 1942), Russian mathematician and human rights activist
Nina Gantert, Swiss and German probability theorist
Kseniya Garaschuk (born 1982), Soviet-born Canadian mathematics educator, editor of Crux Mathematicorum
Pascale Garaud, French-American applied mathematician interested in fluid dynamics, magnetohydrodynamics, and their applications to astrophysics
Annie Marie Watkins Garraway (born 1940), American mathematician who worked in telecommunications and electronic data transmission
Mary Cleophas Garvin (1899–1990), American mathematician
Geneviève Gauthier (born 1967), Canadian financial mathematician, statistician, and decision scientist
Véronique Gayrard, French probability theorist
Mai Gehrke (born 1964), Danish lattice theorist and mathematical logician
Hilda Geiringer (1893–1973), Austrian researcher on Fourier series, statistics, probability, and plasticity, refugee from Nazi Germany
Anne Gelb, American mathematician interested in numerical analysis, partial differential equations, and Fourier analysis of images
Sue Geller, American mathematician with interdisciplinary interests in algebraic K-theory, bioinformatics, and biostatistics
Hélyette Geman, French researcher in mathematical finance
Ruth Gentry (1862–1917), American geometer
Sommer Gentry, American mathematician, applies dance notation to haptic interaction and operations research to organ transplants
Maria-Pia Geppert (1907–1997), German mathematician and biostatistician who founded the Biometrical Journal
Sophie Germain (1776–1831), French number theorist, physicist, and philosopher, correspondent of Gauss
Marie Gernet (1865–1924), first German woman to earn a doctorate in mathematics
Nadeschda Gernet (1877–1943), Russian mathematician, student of David Hilbert, worked in the calculus of variations
Judith Gersting (born 1940), American mathematician, computer scientist, and textbook author
Ellen Gethner, American graph theorist
Danuta Gierulanka (1909–1995), Polish mathematics educator and philosopher of mathematics
Irène Gijbels, Belgian mathematical statistician and expert in nonparametric statistics
Olga Gil Medrano (born 1956), Spanish geometric analyst, first female president of the Royal Spanish Mathematical Society
Anna C. Gilbert (born 1972), American expert in streaming algorithms and matching pursuit
Jane Piore Gilman (born 1945), topologist and group theorist, distinguished professor of mathematics at Rutgers University
Gloria Ford Gilmer, American ethnomathematician
Joella Gipson (1929–2012), American music educator and mathematics educator, first African-American student at Mt. St. Mary's College
Vivette Girault (born 1943), French expert on numerical analysis, finite element methods, and computational fluid dynamics
E. G. Glagoleva (1926–2015), Soviet and Russian mathematician, mathematics educator, and textbook author
Josephine Burns Glasgow (1887–1969), American group theorist, active in American Association of University Women
Muriel Glauert (1892–1949), British mathematician and aerodynamicist
Sarah Glaz (born 1947), Romanian-Israeli-American commutative algebraist and mathematical poet
Heide Gluesing-Luerssen (born 1961), German mathematician specializing in algebraic coding theory
Julia Gog, English mathematical biologist, uses mathematics to study the spread of infectious diseases
Linda Gojak, American mathematics educator, president of National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Nüzhet Gökdoğan (1910–2003), Turkish astronomer and mathematician, founder of Turkish Mathematical Society
Bonnie Gold (born 1948), American mathematician, mathematical logician, philosopher of mathematics, and mathematics educator
Lisa Goldberg, American mathematical finance scholar and statistician
Rebecca Goldin, American expert in symplectic geometry
Christina Goldschmidt, British probability theorist
Catherine Goldstein (born 1958), French number theorist and historian of mathematics
Gisèle Ruiz Goldstein (born 1958), American expert in partial differential equations, operator theory, and mathematical finance
Susan Goldstine, American mathematician active in mathematics and fiber arts
Shafi Goldwasser (born 1958), American-born Israeli theoretical cryptographer
Concha Gómez, Italian and Cuban-American mathematician and advocate for diversity in STEM
Sherry Gong, second American gold medal winner at International Mathematical Olympiad
Enriqueta González Baz (1915–2002), first woman to earn a mathematics degree in Mexico, founder of the Mexican Mathematical Society
Maria Gordina (born 1968), Russian-American mathematical analyst
Carolyn S. Gordon (born 1950), isospectral geometer who proved that you can't hear the shape of a drum
Julia Gordon, Canadian representation theorist, winner of Michler and Krieger–Nelson prizes
Pamela Gorkin, American complex analyst and textbook author
Sigal Gottlieb, American expert in numerical simulation of the partial differential equations used in aerodynamics
Aline Gouget (born 1977), French cryptographer
Mary de Lellis Gough (1892–1983), American mathematician
Alice Bache Gould (1858–1953), American mathematician and historian
Gene Grabeel (1920–2015), American mathematician and cryptanalyst who founded the Venona project
Judith Grabiner (born 1938), American historian of 18th- and 19th-century mathematics
Eva-Maria Graefe, German-English mathematical physicist, expert in ultracold atoms and Non-Hermitian quantum mechanics
Christine Graffigne (born 1959), French expert on Markov random fields for image analysis
Evelyn Boyd Granville (born 1924), one of the first African-American women to receive a PhD in mathematics
Antonella Grassi, mathematician specializing in algebraic geometry and string theory
Mary Graustein (1884–1972), American mathematician, first mathematical doctorate from Radcliffe College
Marion Cameron Gray (1902–1979), Scottish telephone engineer, discoverer of the Gray graph
Mary W. Gray (born 1939), author on mathematics, mathematics education, economic equity, discrimination law, and academic freedom
Judy Green (born 1943), logician and historian of women in mathematics
Anne Greenbaum (born 1951), American expert in theoretical and numerical linear algebra
Catherine Greenhill, Australian graph theorist
Sarah J. Greenwald, American mathematician, studies connections between mathematics and society
Cindy Greenwood (born 1937), Canadian statistician, winner of Krieger-Nelson Prize
Ruth Gregory, British mathematical physicist specializing in general relativity and cosmology
Margaret Greig (1922–1999), English applied mathematician, developed theory for worsted spinning
Harriet Griffin (1903–1991), American mathematician, author of a textbook on number theory
Lois Wilfred Griffiths (1899–1981), American expert on polygonal numbers
Laura Grigori, French applied mathematician, known for communication-avoiding algorithms for numerical linear algebra
Ellina Grigorieva, Russian expert on mathematical problem solving
Elisenda Grigsby, American low-dimensional topologist
Clara Grima (born 1971), Spanish computational geometer, co-discoverer of scutoids, mathematics popularizer
Margaret Grimshaw (1905–1990), English mathematician at Cambridge and author on Hilbert spaces
Birgit Grodal (1943–2004), Danish mathematical economist, studied atomless economies
Ione Grogan (1891–1961), American schoolteacher, mathematics professor, and literary club leader
Edna Grossman, German-born American designer of the Data Encryption Standard and of the slide attack in cryptography
Marcia Groszek, American mathematician whose research concerns mathematical logic, set theory, forcing, and recursion theory
Gerd Grubb (born 1939), Danish expert on pseudodifferential operators
Helen G. Grundman, American number theorist
Weiqing Gu, Chinese-American researcher on differential geometry and the mathematics of cancer growth
Rebeca Guber (born 1926), Argentine mathematician, founder of Argentine Calculation Society
Christine Guenther, American expert on the Ricci flow
Laura Guggenbühl (1901–1985), American mathematician known for her work in triangle geometry and the history of mathematics
Colette Guillopé, French researcher in partial differential equations and fluid dynamics, former president of femmes et mathématiques
Joséphine Guidy Wandja (born 1945), Ivorian mathematician
Alice Guionnet (born 1969), French probability theorist
Geneviève Guitel (1895–1982), French mathematician who studied natural-language numbering systems
Kanta Gupta (1938–2016), Indian-Canadian researcher on abstract algebra and group theory
Neena Gupta, Indian mathematician who solved the Zariski cancellation problem
Rona Gurkewitz, American mathematician and computer scientist known for her work on modular origami
Margaret Gurney (1908–2002), American mathematician, survey statistician, and pioneering computer programmer
Rochelle Gutierrez, American education theorist who studies the impacts of race, class and language on mathematics education
Simone Gutt (born 1956), Belgian differential geometer
H
Ruth Haas, American mathematician known for mentorship of other women mathematicians
Olga Hadžić (1946–1995), Serbian expert on fixed-point theorems
Dörte Haftendorn (born 1948), German mathematician, mathematics educator, and textbook author
Kari Hag (born 1941), Norwegian expert on quasiconformal mappings
Marjorie Hahn (born 1948), American probability theorist and tennis player
Deborah Tepper Haimo (1921–2007), Ukrainian-Palestinian-American classical analyst, third female president of the Mathematical Association of America
Susie W. Håkansson (born 1940), mathematics educator, director of the California Mathematics Project
Ursula Hamenstädt (born 1961), German differential geometry
Christine Hamill (1923–1956), English mathematician specializing in group theory and finite geometry
Mary-Elizabeth Hamstrom (1927–2009), American topologist
Xiaoying Han, Chinese mathematician who studies random dynamical systems and stochastic differential equations
Gila Hanna (born 1934), Canadian mathematics educator and philosopher of mathematics
Anita Hansbo (born 1960), Swedish mathematician, rector of Jönköping University
Megumi Harada, Canadian expert on equivariant symplectic and algebraic geometry
Alison Harcourt (born 1929), Australian mathematician and statistician known for branch and bound algorithms and quantification of poverty in Australia
Frances Hardcastle (1866–1941), group theorist, one of the founders of the American Mathematical Society
Kathryn E. Hare (born 1959), Canadian expert in harmonic analysis
Valentina Harizanov, Serbian-American researcher in computability and model theory
Dorothee Haroske (born 1968), German expert on function spaces
Heather Harrington (born 1984), applied mathematician and algebraic systems biologist
Pamela E. Harris, Mexican combinatorist and mathematics blogger
Jenny Harrison, American expert on generalized functions and minimal surfaces
Frances Harshbarger (1902–1987), one of the first female American mathematicians to receive a doctorate
Sarah B. Hart, British group theorist
Shelly Harvey, American researcher in knot theory, low-dimensional topology, and group theory
Maria Hasse (1921–2014), German graph theorist, set theorist, and category theorist, first female professor in science at TU Dresden
Rhonda Hatcher, American number theorist, winner of Haimo teaching award
Deanna Haunsperger, American mathematician, former president of the Mathematical Association of America
Jane M. Hawkins, American researcher in dynamic systems, complex dynamics, cellular automata, and Julia sets
Louise Hay (1935–1989), founding member of the Association for Women in Mathematics
Linda B. Hayden (born 1949), African-American mathematics educator and mathematical geoscientist known for mentorship of women and minorities
Ellen Hayes (1851–1930), American mathematician, astronomer, and political radical
Margaret Hayman (1923–1994), British mathematics educator, co-founder of British Mathematical Olympiad
Euphemia Lofton Haynes (1890–1980), first African-American woman to earn a PhD in mathematics
Sarah D. Allen Oren Haynes (1836–1907), first female state librarian of Indiana and first female faculty member at Purdue University
Teresa W. Haynes (born 1953), American expert on domination in graphs
Emilie Virginia Haynsworth (1916–1985), American linear algebraist known for Schur complements and Haynsworth inertia additivity formula
Olive Hazlett (1890–1974), American algebraist at the University of Illinois
Sandra Mitchell Hedetniemi (born 1949), American researcher in graph theory and graph algorithms
Maria Heep-Altiner (born 1959), German mathematician and actuary
Jane Heffernan, Canadian mathematician who studies mathematical models for the spread of infectious disease
Katherine Heinrich (born 1954), Canadian combinatorialist, first female president of Canadian Mathematical Society
Christine Heitsch, American expert on the mathematics of RNA structure
Diane Henderson, American applied mathematician and experimental fluid dynamics researcher
Nadia Heninger (born 1982), American cryptographer, computer security expert, and computational number theorist
Cora Barbara Hennel (1888–1947), American mathematician, first woman to earn a doctorate in mathematics at the Indiana University
Dagmar R. Henney (born 1931), German-American expert on additive set-values and Banach spaces
Inge Henningsen (born 1941), statistician, writer and feminist
Allison Henrich (born 1980), American knot theorist
Shandelle Henson (born 1964), American mathematician and mathematical biologist, expert on population dynamics
Rebecca A. Herb (born 1948), American researcher in abstract algebra and Lie groups
Raphaèle Herbin, French expert on the finite volume method
Grete Hermann (1901–1984), German mathematician and philosopher also noted for her work in physics and education
Susan Hermiller, American group theorist
Norma Hernández (born 1934), American mathematics educator, studied factors affecting Mexican-American mathematics students
Constance Anne Herschel (1855–1939), British lecturer in natural sciences and mathematics
Patricia Hersh (born 1973), American expert on algebraic and topological combinatorics
Bobby Hersom (born 1929), British mathematician and computer scientist
Kathryn Hess (born 1967), American mathematician who uses algebraic topology to understand structures in neurology and materials science
Silvia Heubach, German-American mathematician specializing in enumerative combinatorics, combinatorial game theory, and bioinformatics
Gloria Conyers Hewitt (born 1935), early African-American female mathematics PhD, MAA governor
Laurie Heyer, American mathematician specializing in genomics and bioinformatics
Patricia Hiddleston (1933–2017), Scottish and Rhodesian mathematician
Aparna Higgins, Indian-American graph theorist known for encouraging undergraduate research
Raegan Higgins, American mathematician, co-director of the EDGE program for Women
Nancy Hingston, American differential geometer
Wei Ho, American arithmetic geometer
Hoàng Xuân Sính (born 1933), first female Vietnamese mathematician, student of Grothendieck, founder of Thang Long University
Catherine Hobbs (born 1968), British singularity theorist, applies geometry to robotics
Dorit S. Hochbaum (born 1949), American expert on approximation algorithms for facility location, covering and packing, and scheduling
Marlis Hochbruck (born 1964), German expert on matrix exponentials and their applications to differential equations
Maria Hoffmann-Ostenhof (born 1947), Austrian expert on the Schrödinger equation
Leslie Hogben, American mathematician specializing in graph theory and linear algebra, known for graduate mentorship
Nina Holden, Norwegian probability theorist
Judy A. Holdener (born 1965), American number theorist who simplified the proof of Touchard's theorem on perfect numbers
Barbara R. Holland (born 1976), New Zealand born Australian phylogeneticist
Lotte Hollands (born 1981), Dutch mathematical physicist
Tara S. Holm, American algebraic geometer and symplectic geometer
Olga Holtz (born 1973), Russian numerical analyst, winner of the European Mathematical Society Prize
Betty W. Holz (1919–2005), American mathematician and defense analyst
Dorothy McFadden Hoover (1918–2000), American human computer involved in the design of swept-wing aircraft
Grace Hopper (1906–1992), American computer scientist and United States Navy rear admiral
Eleanor Mollie Horadam (1921–2002), English-Australian mathematician, studied generalized integers, mother of Kathy
Kathy Horadam (born 1951), Australian mathematician, studies Hadamard matrices, daughter of Eleanor Mollie
Annick Horiuchi, French historian of Japanese mathematics
Anette Hosoi, American mechanical engineer, biophysicist, and mathematician, studies fluid dynamics, robotics, and bio-inspired design
Victoria Howle, American expert in numerical linear algebra, founded AWM essay contest
Susan Howson (born 1973), British mathematician known for work on algebraic number theory and arithmetic geometry
Rebecca Hoyle, British applied mathematician, expert on pattern formation
Celia Hoyles (born 1946), British mathematician, president of the Institute of Mathematics and its Applications
Christine Hrenya, American computational fluid dynamicist, expert in fluidization and multiphase flow
Pao-sheng Hsu, Mathematics educator, founder of AWM Teacher Partnership Program
Hu Hesheng (born 1928), differential geometer, president of Shanghai Mathematical Society, member of Chinese Academy of Science
Verena Huber-Dyson (1923–2016), Swiss-American group theorist and logician, expert on undecidability in group theory
Annette Huber-Klawitter (born 1967), German algebraic geometer, expert in the Bloch–Kato conjectures
Vera Huckel, American human computer at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
Anne Lester Hudson, American expert in topological semigroups, mathematics educator, and mathematics competition coach
Hilda Phoebe Hudson (1881–1965), English researcher on Cremona transformations in algebraic geometry
Sabine Van Huffel (born 1958), Belgian applied mathematician, expert on total least squares and applications to medical diagnostics
Rhonda Hughes (born 1947), American wavelet researcher, president of the Association for Women in Mathematics
Deborah Hughes Hallett, mathematics education reformer
Birge Huisgen-Zimmermann (born 1946), German-American representation theorist and ring theorist
Mabel Gweneth Humphreys (1911–2006), Canadian-American number theorist and namesake of the M. Gweneth Humphreys Award
Eugénie Hunsicker, American mathematician who works at the intersection of analysis, geometry and topology
Fern Hunt (born 1948), American mathematician known for her work in applied mathematics and mathematical biology
Bobbie Hunter, New Zealand educational theorist and mathematics educator
Louise Stokes Hunter (died 1988), American mathematics educator, first African-American woman with a degree from the University of Virginia
Joan Hutchinson (born 1945), American graph theorist who extended the planar separator theorem to graphs of higher genus
Marie Hušková (born 1942), Czech mathematician who worked in theoretical statistics and change-point problems
Hypatia (died 415), head of the Neoplatonic school at Alexandria, murdered by a Christian mob
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Milagros D. Ibe (born 1931), Filipino mathematics educator, vice chancellor of the University of the Philippines Diliman
Mihaela Ignatova, Bulgarian mathematical analyst
Annette Imhausen (born 1970), German historian of ancient Egyptian mathematics
Tasha Inniss, first African-American woman to earn a Ph.D. from the University of Maryland, director of education for INFORMS
Eleny Ionel, Romanian-American symplectic geometer
Alessandra Iozzi (born 1959), Italian-American-Swiss geometric group theorist
Ilse Ipsen, German-American expert in numerical linear algebra
Valerie Isham (born 1947), British applied probabilist, president of Royal Statistical Society
Shihoko Ishii (born 1950), Japanese mathematician specializing in algebraic geometry
Vanaja Iyengar ( –2001), founding vice chancellor of Sri Padmavati Mahila Visvavidyalayam, a women's university in Andhra Pradesh, India
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Trachette Jackson (born 1972), researcher in mathematical oncology, second African-American woman to become a Sloan Fellow in mathematics
Jessie Marie Jacobs (1890–1954), fired from mathematics instructorship for having a child, aided husband Hermann Muller's Nobel-winning genetic research
Alex James, British and New Zealand applied mathematician, mathematical biologist, and epidemiologist
Cathérine Jami (born 1961), French historian of Chinese mathematics
Jeannette Janssen, Dutch and Canadian graph theorist
Monique Jeanblanc (born 1947), French financial mathematician
Lisa Jeffrey FRSC, Canadian expert in symplectic geometry and quantum field theory
Erica Jen, American applied mathematician, studies mathematical analysis of chaotic and complex behavior
Carrie Ichikawa Jenkins, Canadian philosopher of mathematics
Jacqueline Jensen-Vallin, American low-dimensional topologist, editor of MAA FOCUS
Svetlana Jitomirskaya (born 1966), Ukrainian mathematician working on dynamical systems and mathematical physics
Naomi Jochnowitz, American algebraic number theorist known for her mentorship of women in mathematics
Aimee Johnson, American expert on dynamical systems
Katherine Johnson (1918–2020), calculated the trajectory for Project Mercury and the 1969 Apollo 11 flight to the Moon
Marion Lee Johnson, African-American mathematician, helped calculate trajectories for the Apollo 11 moon landing
Antonia J. Jones (1943–2010), British mathematician and computer scientist
Eleanor Jones (born 1929), one of the first African American women to receive a PhD in mathematics
Shelly M. Jones, American mathematics educator
Nataša Jonoska (born 1961), Macedonian-American expert in DNA computing
Artishia Wilkerson Jordan (1901–1974), African-American mathematics educator and clubwoman
Nalini Joshi, researcher in differential equations, Australian Laureate Fellow, Hardy Lecturer, president of Australian Mathematical Society
Josephine Jue, Chinese-American mathematician, compiler, and programmer, first Asian-American woman at NASA
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Margarethe Kahn (1880–c. 1942), one of the first female German doctorates, contributed to Hilbert's sixteenth problem
Suzan Kahramaner (1913–2006), one of the first female mathematicians in Turkish academia
Gabriele Kaiser, German mathematics educator
Efstratia Kalfagianni, Greek knot theorist
Eva Kallin, American researcher in geometric axiom systems, functional algebra, and polynomial convexity
Gudrun Kalmbach (born 1937), German quantum logician
Barbara Kaltenbacher, Austrian applied analyst, president of Austrian Mathematical Society
Hermine Agavni Kalustyan (1914–1989), Armenian-Turkish mathematician and politician
Constance Kamii, Swiss-Japanese-American mathematics education scholar and psychologist
Shoshana Kamin (born 1930), Soviet-Israeli mathematical physicist, wrote about parabolic partial differential equations
Chiu-Yen Kao (born 1974), Taiwanese-American expert in image processing and mathematical biology
Gizem Karaali, Turkish representation theorist, founding editor of Journal of Humanistic Mathematics
Mary Cordia Karl (1893–1984), American geometer
Carol Karp (1926–1972), American researcher on infinitary logic, viola player
Yael Karshon (born 1964), Israeli-Canadian expert on symplectic geometry
Elaine Kasimatis, American discrete geometer and mathematics educator
Haya Kaspi (born 1948), Israeli probability theorist
Fanny Kassel (born 1984), French expert on Lie groups
Svetlana Katok (born 1947), Russian-American founder of Electronic Research Announcements of the AMS
Yoshie Katsurada (1911–1980), Japanese differential geometer, first Japanese woman with a doctorate or professorship in mathematics
Bruria Kaufman (1918–2010), Israeli theoretical physicist who collaborated with Einstein on general relativity
Kathleen Kavanagh, American mathematician, applies simulation-based engineering to water quality and sustainability
Elham Kazemi (born 1970), Iranian-American mathematics educator
Ailsa Keating, French-British symplectic geometer
Rinat Kedem (born 1965), American mathematician and mathematical physicist
Linda Keen (born 1940), American mathematician and computer scientist, president of AWM
Lyudmila Keldysh (1904–1976), Russian set theorist and geometric topologist
Ruth Kellerhals (born 1957), Swiss expert on hyperbolic geometry, geometric group theory and polylogarithm identities
Julia Kempe, French, German, and Israeli researcher in quantum computing
Claribel Kendall (1889–1965), one of the founders of the Rocky Mountain Section of the MAA
Juliette Kennedy, mathematical logician in Finland
Patricia Clark Kenschaft (born 1940), American mathematician, prolific book author, and activist for equity and diversity
Autumn Kent, American mathematician specializing in topology and geometry, promoter of transgender rights
Leah Keshet, Israeli-Canadian mathematical biologist, first female president of the Society for Mathematical Biology
Radha Kessar, Indian mathematician known for her research in the representation theory of finite groups
Barbara Keyfitz (born 1944), Canadian-American researcher on nonlinear partial differential equations, president of AWM and ICIAM
'Mamphono Khaketla (born 1960), Lesotho mathematician, senator, and finance minister
Olga Kharlampovich (born 1958), Russian-Canadian group theorist who solved the Tarski conjecture on first-order theories of free groups
Carolyn Kieran, Canadian mathematics educator
Anna Kiesenhofer (born 1991), Austrian cyclist and mathematical physicist
Misha Kilmer, American applied mathematician known for research in numerical linear algebra and scientific computing
Ju-Lee Kim (born 1969), Korean-American expert on the representation theory of p-adic groups
Chawne Kimber (born 1971), African-American mathematician and quilter, incorporates social justice into mathematics teaching
Amy C. King (1928–2014), American mathematics educator
Angie Turner King (1905–2004), American mathematics and chemistry educator
Karen D. King (1971–2019), African-American mathematics educator and Falconer Lecturer
L. Christine Kinsey, American topologist and textbook author
Faina Mihajlovna Kirillova (born 1931), Belarusian optimal control theorist
Vivien Kirk, New Zealand dynamical systems theorist, president of New Zealand Mathematical Society
Ellen Kirkman, American algebraist
Denise Kirschner, American mathematical biologist and immunologist
Frances Kirwan (born 1959), British specialist in algebraic and symplectic geometry
Virginia Kiryakova, Bulgarian mathematician, expert on fractional calculus and special functions
Jane Kister, British-American mathematical logician, editor of Mathematical Reviews
Tinne Hoff Kjeldsen, Danish researcher in mathematics education and the philosophy and history of mathematics
Kathrin Klamroth (born 1968), German expert on combinatorial optimization and facility location
Erica Klarreich (born 1972), American geometer and writer
Maria Klawe (born 1951), Canadian-American theoretical computer scientist, president of Harvey Mudd College
Caroline Klivans, American algebraic combinatorist, expert on chip-firing games
Małgorzata Klimek (born 1957), Polish mathematician, expert on fractional calculus
Genevieve M. Knight (born 1939), African-American mathematics educator
Julia F. Knight, American specialist in model theory and computability theory
Eleanor Krawitz Kolchin (1927–2019), American mathematician, programmer, and astronomer, calculated orbits for the Apollo program
Tamara G. Kolda, American applied mathematician at Sandia National Laboratories
Natalia Komarova, Russian-American mathematician, studies cancer, language, gun control, pop music, and other complex systems
Nancy Kopell (born 1942), American researcher in the dynamics of the nervous system
Elaine Koppelman (1937–2019), American mathematician
Maria Korovina (born 1962), Russian research on functional spaces and differential equations
Yvette Kosmann-Schwarzbach (born 1941), French differential geometer, namesake of the Kosmann lift
Ekaterina Kostina, Belarusian-German expert on nonlinear optimization
Sofya Kovalevskaya (1850–1891), first major Russian female mathematician, worked in analysis, differential equations and mechanics
Bryna Kra (born 1966), American mathematician who applies dynamical systems in number theory and combinatorics
Edna Kramer (1902–1984), American mathematician and author of mathematics books
Gunilla Kreiss (born 1958), Swedish numerical analyst
Cecilia Krieger (1894–1974), third person and first woman to earn a Canadian mathematics PhD, translator of Sierpiński
Holly Krieger, American dynamical systems theorist
Anna Zofia Krygowska (1904–1988), Polish mathematician known for her work in mathematics education
Ewa Kubicka, Polish-American graph theorist and actuarial scientist
Vera Kublanovskaya (1920–2012), Russian inventor of the QR algorithm for computing eigenvalues and eigenvectors
Daniela Kühn (born 1973), German-English combinatorialist, expert on infinite graphs, winner of the Whitehead Prize
Angela Kunoth (born 1963), German numerical analyst
Frances Kuo, Taiwanese-Australian applied mathematician, expert on quasi-Monte Carlo methods
Krystyna Kuperberg (born 1944), Polish-American topologist who found a smooth counterexample to the Seifert conjecture
Věra Kůrková (born 1948), Czech expert in neural networks and approximation theory
Rachel Kuske (born 1965), American-Canadian expert on stochastic and nonlinear dynamics, asymptotic methods, and industrial mathematics
Klavdija Kutnar (born 1980), Slovenian algebraic graph theorist and academic administrator
Gitta Kutyniok (born 1972), German researcher in harmonic analysis, compressed sensing, and image processing
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Izabella Łaba (born 1966), Polish-Canadian specialist in harmonic analysis, geometric measure theory, and additive combinatorics
Carole Lacampagne, American mathematician known for her work in mathematics education and gender equality
Christine Ladd-Franklin (1847–1930), American psychologist, logician, and mathematician
Jeanne LaDuke (born 1938), American child actress, mathematical analyst, and historian of mathematics
Olga Ladyzhenskaya (1922–2004), Soviet mathematician, proved convergence of a finite difference method for Navier–Stokes
V. Lakshmibai, Indian-American expert on flag varieties and Schubert varieties
Matilde Lalín, Argentine-Canadian number theorist, expert on L-functions and Mahler measure
Ailsa Land, British operations researcher known for developing branch and bound algorithms
Susan Landau (born 1954), American mathematician and computer scientist, known for internet security and denesting radicals
Mary Landers (1905–1991), American mathematician, activist for academic collective bargaining
Kerry Landman, Australian applied mathematician
Alicia Prieto Langarica, American applied mathematician
Tanja Lange, German number theorist and cryptographer
Amy Langville (born 1975), American college basketball star and expert on ranking systems
Loredana Lanzani (born 1965), Italian-American harmonic analyst
Glenda Lappan (born 1939), developed Connected Mathematics curriculum, led National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Gillie Larew (1882–1977), American mathematician, first alumna of Randolph–Macon Woman's College to become full professor there
Jean Ann Larson, American set theorist and historian of mathematical logic
Elisabeth Larsson (born 1971), Swedish researcher in scientific computing
Irena Lasiecka (born 1948), Polish-American expert in control theory of partial differential equations
Renu C. Laskar (born 1932), Indian-American graph theorist, specialist in domination numbers and circular arc graphs
Klavdiya Latysheva (1897–1956), Soviet mathematician, contributed to differential equations, electrodynamics and probability
Monique Laurent (born 1960), French-Dutch expert in mathematical optimization
Kristin Lauter (born 1969), American researcher in elliptic curve cryptography, president of AWM
Emille D. Lawrence, American topological graph theorist
Ruth Lawrence (born 1971), child prodigy, British-Israeli researcher in knot theory and algebraic topology
Snezana Lawrence, Yugoslav and British historian of mathematics
Anneli Cahn Lax (1922–1999), American mathematician, winner of the George Pólya Award
Anita Layton, Hong Kong-American applied mathematician who studies mathematical models of kidney function
Katherine Puckett Layton, American mathematics educator and textbook author
Lê Thị Thanh Nhàn (born 1970), Vietnamese mathematician, vice rector for Science at Thái Nguyên University, won Kovalevskaya Prize
Alice Lee (1858–1939), helped discredit craniology
Hollylynne Lee, American mathematics and statistics educator
Joceline Lega, French applied mathematician interested in nonlinear dynamics
Anne M. Leggett, American mathematical logician, editor of AWM Newsletter
Emma Lehmer (1906–2007), Russian-American mathematician known for work on reciprocity laws in algebraic number theory
Marguerite Lehr (1898–1987), pioneer in the use of television to teach mathematics
Tanya Leise, American biomathematician, expert in circadian rhythms
Joan Leitzel (born 1936), American mathematics educator and university administrator
Miriam Leiva, Cuban-American mathematics educator
Mary Leng, British philosopher of mathematics
Frédérique Lenger (1921–2005), Belgian mathematics educator and leader of the New Math movement
Suzanne Lenhart (born 1954), American researcher in partial differential equations, president of AWM
Ulrike Leopold-Wildburger (born 1949), Austrian mathematical economist, applied mathematician, and operations researcher
Katrin Leschke (born 1968), German differential geometer, quaternionic analyst, and minimal surface theorist
Gail Letzter (born 1960), American quantum group representation theorist and intelligence agency executive
Annie Leuch-Reineck (1880–1978), Swiss mathematician and women's rights activist
Debbie Leung, Canadian expert in quantum communications
Rachel Levy (born 1968), American applied mathematician, mathematics educator, and blogger
Sophia Levy (1888–1963), American astronomer, numerical analyst, and mathematics educator
Marta Lewicka (born 1972), Polish expert in nonlinear elasticity
Florence Lewis (1877–1964), American mathematician and astronomer
Jing-Rebecca Li, applied mathematician in France, studies magnetic resonance imaging and Lyapunov equations
Sherry Li, Chinese-American developer of sparse parallel solvers for systems of linear equations
Winnie Li (born 1948), Chinese-American researcher in number theory, coding theory, automorphic forms, and spectral graph theory
Paulette Libermann (1919–2007), French specialist in differential geometry
Pamela Liebeck (1930–2012), British mathematician and mathematics educator
Lillian Rosanoff Lieber (1886–1986), American mathematics professor and author of popular books on science and mathematics
Magnhild Lien, Norwegian mathematician specializing in knot theory
Elizaveta Litvinova (1845–c. 1919), Russian mathematician and biographer, defied czar's order forbidding women to study abroad
Bonnie Litwiller (1937–2012), American mathematics educator and textbook author
Marie Litzinger (1899–1952), American number theorist
Chiu-Chu Melissa Liu (born 1974), Taiwanese-American researcher in algebraic geometry and symplectic geometry
Klara Löbenstein (1883–1968), German researcher in algebraic geometry
Patti Frazer Lock (born 1953), American mathematics and statistics educator and textbook author
Deborah Frank Lockhart, administrator at the National Science Foundation
Susan Loepp (born 1967), American algebraist and cryptographer
Marina Logares (born 1976), Spanish geometer and LGBT+ activist
Mayme Logsdon (1881–1967), American algebraic geometer and mathematics educator
Louise Zung-nyi Loh (1900–1981), Chinese mathematician, physicist, and educator
Sara Lombardo, Italian mathematician, expert on rogue waves and integrable systems
Ling Long (mathematician), Chinese-American expert on modular forms, elliptic surfaces, and dessins d'enfants
Lynette Long, American psychologist, mathematics educator, and textbook author
Carlotta Longo (born 1895), Italian mathematical physicist and high school teacher
Judith Q. Longyear (1938–1995), American researcher in graph theory and combinatorics
Paola Loreti, Italian researcher in Fourier analysis, control theory, and non-integer bases
Lisa Lorentzen, Norwegian mathematician and author, specializing in continued fractions
Dawn Lott, African-American expert on numerical partial differential equations
Ada Lovelace (1815–1852), wrote the first computer program as part of her work on Babbage's Analytical Engine
María Teresa Lozano Imízcoz (born 1946), Spanish low-dimensional topologist
Sylvia Chin-Pi Lu (1928–2014), Chinese-American commutative algebraist
Katarzyna Lubnauer (born 1969), Polish probability theorist and politician
Edith Hirsch Luchins (1921–2002), Polish-American mathematician, experimented on psychology of mathematical problem solving
Maria Silvia Lucido (1963–2008), Italian mathematician, expert on the prime graphs of finite groups
Malwina Łuczak, Polish-Australian probability theorist
Monika Ludwig (born 1966), Austrian researcher in convex geometry, member of Austrian Academy of Sciences
Alessandra Lunardi (born 1958), Italian mathematical analyst
Xiaoyu Luo, Chinese and British applied mathematician, applies fluid dynamics and biomechanics to soft tissues
Élisabeth Lutz (1914–2008), French student of Weil, showed how to compute torsion subgroups of elliptic curves
Julie Lutz (born 1944), American astronomer and mathematician who studies planetary nebulae and symbiotic binary stars
Sonja Lyttkens (1919–2014), Swedish mathematician, first Swedish woman to obtain a permanent academic position in mathematics
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Odile Macchi (born 1943), French mathematician and physicist
Marta Macho Stadler (born 1962), Basque expert on foliations and mathematical blogger
Barbara MacCluer, American expert on operator theory and author on functional analysis
Brenda MacGibbon, Canadian mathematician, statistician, and decision scientist
Sheila Scott Macintyre (1910–1960), Scottish researcher on the Whittaker constant, co-author of German–English mathematics dictionary
Annie MacKinnon (1868–1940), Canadian-born American mathematician, third woman to earn a mathematics doctorate at an American university
Diane Maclagan (born 1974), expert on toric varieties, Hilbert schemes, and tropical geometry
Chrystal Macmillan (1872–1937), Scottish Liberal politician, barrister, feminist and pacifist, first female honours graduate in mathematics from University of Edinburgh
Jessie MacWilliams (1917–1990), English researcher on error-correcting codes
Kathleen Madden, American expert on dynamical systems
Isabel Maddison (1869–1950), British mathematician known for her work on differential equations
Penelope Maddy (born 1950), American philosopher of mathematics
Urmila Mahadev, American quantum computing researcher
Dorothy Maharam (1917–2014), American mathematician who made important contributions to measure theory
Carolyn A. Maher, American expert in mathematics education
Carolyn Mahoney (born 1946), African-American combinatorialist, president of Lincoln University of Missouri
Apala Majumdar, British expert on liquid crystals
Larisa Maksimova (born 1943), Russian mathematical logician
Agnieszka Malinowska, Polish expert on fractional calculus and the calculus of variations
Maryanthe Malliaris, American mathematician specializing in model theory
Vivienne Malone-Mayes (1932–1995), fifth African-American woman to earn a PhD in mathematics, researcher in functional analysis
Eugenia Malinnikova (born 1974), Russian-Norwegian expert in functional analysis and partial differential equations
Claudia Malvenuto (born 1965), Italian mathematician known for her work on the Hopf algebra of permutations
Cristina Manolache, British algebraic geometer
Michelle Manes, American mathematician interested in number theory, algebraic geometry, and dynamical systems
Kathryn Mann, geometric topologist and geometric group theorist
Renata Mansini (born 1968), Italian applied mathematician, uses mathematical optimization for portfolio balancing
Elizabeth Mansfield, Australian expert on moving frames and conservation laws
María Manzano (born 1950), Spanish mathematical logician
Elena Marchisotto (born 1945), American mathematician, mathematics educator, and historian of mathematics
Anna Marciniak-Czochra (born 1974), Polish applied mathematician and mathematical biologist
Matilde Marcolli (born 1969), Italian mathematical physicist
Fotini Markopoulou-Kalamara (born 1971), Greek theoretical physicist interested in foundational mathematics and quantum mechanics
Hannah Markwig (born 1980), German researcher in tropical geometry
Alison Marr (born 1980), American graph theorist and advocate of inquiry-based learning
Karen Marrongelle, American mathematics educator and academic administrator
Bethany Rose Marsh, British expert in cluster algebras and tilting theory
Susan H. Marshall, American number theorist
Maia Martcheva, Bulgarian-American mathematical biologist
Laura Martignon (born 1952), Colombian-Italian researcher in neuroscience and decision-making
Emilie Martin (1869–1936), American group theorist
Mireille Martin-Deschamps, French algebraic geometer, president of Société mathématique de France
Consuelo Martínez (born 1955), Spanish algebraist
María del Carmen Martínez Sancho (1901–1995), first woman in Spain to gain a PhD in Mathematics
Katalin Marton (1941–2019), Hungarian information and probability theorist
Susan Martonosi, American mathematician, applies operations research to counter-terrorism, epidemiology, and sports analytics
Roswitha März (born 1940), German expert on differential-algebraic equations
Verdiana Masanja (born 1954), first Tanzanian woman to earn a doctorate in mathematics
Joanna Masingila (born 1960), American mathematics educator
Vera Nikolaevna Maslennikova (1926–2000), Russian researcher on partial differential equations, hydrodynamics of rotating fluids, and function spaces
Maura Mast, Irish-American differential geometer, mathematics educator, textbook author, and academic administrator
Claire Mathieu (born 1965), French algorithms researcher
Gordana Matic, Croatian-American low-dimensional topologist, expert on contact topology
Kaisa Matomäki (born 1985), Finnish number theorist known for her work on multiplicative functions over short intervals
Gretchen Matthews (born 1973), American algebraic coding theorist
Galina Matvievskaya (born 1930), Soviet-Russian historian of mathematics
Margaret Maxfield (1926–2016), American mathematician and mathematics book author
Lola J. May (1923–2007), American mathematics educator and early proponent of new math
Svitlana Mayboroda (born 1981), Ukrainian-American expert on boundary value problems for elliptic partial differential equations
Ellen Maycock (born 1950), American functional analyst and mathematics educator
Anna Mazzucato, American expert on fluid dynamics
Shirley McBay (born 1935), first African-American doctorate at the University of Georgia
Mary McCammon ( – 2008), first woman to complete a doctoral degree in mathematics at Imperial College London
Maeve McCarthy, Irish mathematician interested in inverse problems and biological modeling
Lynne McClure, British mathematics educator
Dorothy McCoy (1903–2001), American mathematician, first female doctorate in mathematics at University of Iowa
Janet McDonald (1905–2006), American geometer
Dusa McDuff FRS (born 1945), English researcher on symplectic geometry, winner of Satter Prize, first female Hardy Lecturer
Elizabeth McHarg (1923–1999), Scottish mathematician and translator, first female president of Edinburgh Mathematical Society
Lois Curfman McInnes, American researcher on numerical solution of nonlinear partial differential equations for scientific applications
Camille McKayle (born 1964), Afro-Jamaican-American mathematician and academic administrator
Danica McKellar (born 1975), American actor, author, mathematician, and education advocate
Joyce McLaughlin (1939–2017), American researcher in inverse problems
Jeanette McLeod, New Zealand combinatorialist, popularizes mathematics through crochet and origami
Jennifer McLoud-Mann, Cherokee mathematician who discovered the 15th and last class of convex pentagons that tile the plane
Jenny McNulty, American matroid theorist and academic administrator
Florence Marie Mears (1896–1995), American specialist in summation methods
Catherine Meadows, American cryptographer who formally verifies cryptographic protocols
Elizabeth Meckes (born 1980), American probability theorist
Nicole Megow, German discrete mathematician and theoretical computer scientist, researcher in scheduling algorithms
Sylvie Méléard, French probability theorist
Pauline Mellon, Irish functional analyst, president of Irish Mathematical Society
Karin Melnick, American differential geometer
Teresa Melo (born 1966), Portuguese mathematician and operations researcher
Florence Merlevède, French probability theorist
Helen Abbot Merrill (1864–1949), American mathematician, educator and textbook author
Winifred Edgerton Merrill (1862–1951), first woman with a degree from Columbia University and first American female doctorate in mathematics
Uta Merzbach (1933–2017), German-American historian of mathematics, first Smithsonian curator of mathematical instruments
Vilma Mesa, Colombian-American mathematics educator
Chikako Mese, American differential geometer
Jill P. Mesirov, American mathematician, computer scientist, and computational biologist, president of AWM
Ida Martha Metcalf (1857–1952), second American female doctorate in mathematics
Catherine Meusburger (born 1978), German mathematical physicist interested in string theory
Ariane Mézard, French arithmetic geometer
Marie-Louise Michelsohn (born 1941), American researcher on complex geometry, spin manifolds, the Dirac operator, and algebraic cycles
Ruth I. Michler (1967–2000), American commutative algebraist and algebraic geometer
Kaisa Miettinen (born 1965), Finnish industrial optimization researcher and academic administrator
Alison Miller, first American female gold medalist in the International Mathematical Olympiad, three-time Elizabeth Lowell Putnam award winner
Laura Miller, American mathematician, applies fluid dynamics to insect flight and jellyfish propulsion
Mirka Miller (1949–2016), Czech-Australian graph theorist, data security expert
Margaret Millington (1944–1973), English expert on modular forms
Eva Miranda, Spanish expert on symplectic dynamics
Rosa M. Miró-Roig (born 1960), Spanish algebraic geometer and commutative algebraist
Maryam Mirzakhani (1977–2017), first female Fields medalist; researcher on the symmetry of curved surfaces
Yuliya Mishura, Ukrainian probability theorist and mathematical finance expert
Josephine M. Mitchell (1912–2000), Canadian-American mathematical analyst, victim of discriminative application of anti-nepotism rules
Dorina Mitrea (born 1965), Romanian-American functional analyst and mathematics educator
Irina Mitrea, Romanian-American researcher in partial differential equations known for outreach to women and minorities
Atsuko Miyaji (born 1965), Japanese cryptographer and number theorist
Reiko Miyaoka (born 1951), Japanese geometer known for her research on hypersurfaces
Fatma Moalla (born 1939), first Tunisian woman to earn a French doctorate in mathematics
Colette Moeglin (born 1953), French expert on automorphic forms
Joanne Moldenhauer (1928–2016), American high school mathematics teacher
Clemency Montelle (born 1977), New Zealand historian of Indian mathematics and astronomy
Susan Montgomery (born 1943), American researcher in noncommutative algebra
Helen Moore, American mathematician who applies control theory to combination therapy in the health industry
Cathleen Synge Morawetz (1923–2017), Canadian-American researcher on the partial differential equations governing fluid flow
Anne C. Morel, American logician, order theorist, and algebraist, first female full professor of mathematics at the University of Washington
Sophie Morel (born 1979), French number theorist and contributor to the Langlands program, first female tenured mathematics professor at Harvard
Eugenie Maria Morenus (1881–1966), American mathematician and professor
Susan Morey, American mathematician specializing in commutative algebra
Irene Moroz, British applied mathematician
Joy Morris (born 1970), Canadian researcher on groups and graphs
Kirsten Morris (born 1960), Canadian control theorist
Rosa M. Morris (1914–2011), Welsh applied mathematician and aerodynamicist
Jennifer Morse, American algebraic combinatorialist
Rose Morton (1925–1999), American expert in the mathematical modeling of bubbles
Joan Moschovakis, American intuitionistic logician
Ruth Moufang (1905–1977), German researcher on non-associative algebraic structures, namesake of Moufang loops
Magdalena Mouján (1926–2005), Argentine mathematician of Basque descent, operations researcher, computing pioneer, and science fiction author
Nežka Mramor–Kosta, Slovenian mathematician
Jennifer Mueller, American applied mathematician, expert in inverse problems and electrical impedance tomography
Edith Alice Müller (1918–1995), Swiss mathematician and astronomer, studied the group theory of Moorish tile designs
Anna Mullikin (1893–1975), American mathematician, early investigator of point set theory
Irene Mulvey, American mathematician, president of American Association of University Professors
Anca Muscholl (born 1967), Romanian-German mathematical logician and theoretical computer scientist
Kieka Mynhardt (born 1953), South African and Canadian expert on dominating sets in graph theory
Emmy Murphy, American symplectic geometer
Cecilia Wangechi Mwathi (1963–2011), Kenyan mathematician and union activist, first woman in Kenya to become a mathematics professor
Valerie Myerscough (1942–1980), British mathematician and astrophysicist
Vera Myller (1880–1970), Russian mathematician and student of David Hilbert, first female professor in Romania
Wendy Myrvold, Canadian graph theorist, combinatorist, and algorithms researcher
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Anna Nagurney, Ukrainian-American mathematician, economist, educator and author in operations management
Hasibun Naher, Pakistani applied mathematician who studies tsunamis
Andrea R. Nahmod (born 1964), American expert in nonlinear Fourier analysis, harmonic analysis, and partial differential equations
Pia Nalli (1884–1964), Italian researcher in functional analysis and tensor calculus
Seema Nanda, Indian researcher in applications of mathematics to biology, engineering and finance
Mangala Narlikar, Indian number theorist, author of Marathi-language mathematics books for schoolchildren
Sonia Natale (born 1972), Argentine expert in abstract algebra
Caryn Navy (born 1953), blind American researcher in set-theoretic topology and Braille technology
Vicky Neale, British number theorist and mathematics popularizer
Gabriele Nebe (born 1967), German researcher on sphere packings, lattices, and codes
Deanna Needell, American applied mathematician, won 2016 IMA Prize in Mathematics and Applications
Sara Negri (born 1967), Italian-Finnish proof theorist
Evelyn Nelson (1943–1987), Canadian researcher in universal algebra with applications to theoretical computer science
Gail S. Nelson (born 1959), American mathematician, textbook author, and editor-in-chief of the MAA "Problem Books"
Nancy Neudauer, American matroid theorist known for her work in mathematical outreach in Africa and South America
Claudia Neuhauser (born 1962), German-American mathematical biologist whose research concerns spatial ecology
Hanna Neumann (1914–1971), German-born mathematician who worked on group theory
Adriana Neumann de Oliveira, Brazilian expert in interacting particle systems
Mara Neusel (1964–2014), German-American invariant theorist and advocate for women in mathematics
Monica Nevins (born 1973), Canadian algebraist
Virginia Newell (born 1917), American mathematics educator, author, politician, and centenarian
Mary Frances Winston Newson (1869–1959), first female American to receive a PhD in mathematics from a European university
Sylvia de Neymet (1939–2013), First mexican woman to earn a doctorate in mathematics in Mexico
Purity Ngina, Kenyan biomathematician
Giang Nguyen (born 1985), Vietnamese-Australian applied mathematician and chess master
Aoibhinn Ní Shúilleabháin (born 1983), Irish celebrity and mathematics lecturer
Nancy K. Nichols, British applied mathematician and numerical analyst
Olympia Nicodemi, American mathematician and mathematics educator interested in wavelets and the history of mathematics
Phyllis Nicolson (1917–1968), British developer of the Crank–Nicolson method for solving partial differential equations
Barbara Niethammer (born 1963), German expert on the growth of particles in liquids
Stanisława Nikodym (1897–1988), first Polish woman to earn PhD in mathematics, known for research in continuum theory
Mila Nikolova (1962–2018), Bulgarian researcher in image processing, inverse problems, and compressed sensing
Kumiko Nishioka (born 1954), Japanese specialist on transcendental numbers and Mahler functions
Wiesława Nizioł, Polish researcher in arithmetic algebraic geometry
Emmy Noether (1882–1935), German researcher in abstract algebra and theoretical physics, named "the greatest woman mathematician of all time"
Margarita Nolasco Santiago, Mathematics textbook author, member of Puerto Rico Senate
Khalida Inayat Noor, Pakistani mathematical analyst
Dorothée Normand-Cyrot, French control theorist
Isabella Novik (born 1971), Israeli-American expert on algebraic and geometric combinatorics
Frieda Nugel (1884–1966), one of the first German women to obtain a doctorate in mathematics
Helena J. Nussenzveig Lopes, Brazilian mathematician known for her research on incompressible Euler equations
Kaisa Nyberg (born 1948), Finnish cryptographer
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Katharine Elizabeth O'Brien (1901–1986), American mathematician, musician and poet
Vivian O'Brien (1924–2010), American applied mathematician and physicist, expert in fluid dynamics and visual perception
Hilary Ockendon, British applied mathematician, expert in fluid dynamics
Ortrud Oellermann, South African and Canadian graph theorist
Frédérique Oggier, Swiss and Singaporean coding theorist
Hee Oh (born 1969), Korean-American dynamical systems theorist, expert on equidistribution in fractal structures
Eve Oja (1948–2019), Estonian functional analyst
Christine O'Keefe, Australian researcher in finite geometry and information security
Kathleen Adebola Okikiolu (born 1965), British-American researcher on differential operators, developed curricula for inner-city children
Dianne P. O'Leary (born 1951), American expert on scientific computing, computational linear algebra, and the history of scientific computing
Olga Oleinik (1925–2001), Soviet researcher on partial differential equations, elastic media, and boundary layers
Dorte Olesen (born 1948), first Danish mathematician to be appointed full professor
Gloria Olive (1923–2006), American-born New Zealand mathematician
Kathleen Ollerenshaw (1912–2014), British mathematician and politician, mayor of Manchester, educational advisor to Margaret Thatcher
Yewande Olubummo (born 1960), Nigerian-American functional analyst
Rebecca Walo Omana (born 1951), first female mathematics professor in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Cathy O'Neil, American arithmetic algebraic geometer and author on the social hazards of machine learning
Rosa Orellana, American mathematician specializing in algebraic combinatorics and representation theory
Ewa Orłowska (born 1935), Polish logician
Omayra Ortega, American mathematical epidemiologist
Hinke Osinga (born 1969), Dutch expert in dynamical systems, crocheted the Lorenz manifold
Barbara L. Osofsky (born 1937), American algebraist, first woman in 50 years to address a national AMS meeting, first female AMS journal editor
Mina Ossiander, American probability theorist
Marie Françoise Ouedraogo (born 1967), Burkinabé expert on pseudodifferential operators and superalgebras, president of African Women in Mathematics Association
Helen Brewster Owens (1881–1968), American suffragette, associate editor of the American Mathematical Monthly
Robyn Owens, Australian applied mathematician, studies computer vision including face recognition and the imaging of lactation
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Ietje Paalman-de Miranda (1936–2020), Surinamese–Dutch mathematician, first female mathematics professor at University of Amsterdam
Harriet Padberg (1922–2014), mathematician, music therapist, and pioneer of algorithmic music composition
Mariolina Padula (died 2012), Italian expert on fluid dynamics
Christina Pagel, British German operations researcher, applies data analysis and mathematical modelling to health care
Eleanor Pairman (1896–1973), Scottish mathematician, developed methods to teach mathematics to blind students
Ilona Palásti (1924–1991), Hungarian researcher in discrete geometry, geometric probability, and random graphs
Pandrosion (4th century AD), ancient Greek mathematician predating Hypatia, developed an approximation for cube roots
Erika Pannwitz (1904–1975), German geometric topologist who proved that every knot has a quadrisecant
Anna Panorska, Polish-American expert on extreme events in stochastic processes and on the effect of weather on baseball
Greta Panova (born 1983), Bulgarian-American algebraic combinatorist
Theoni Pappas (born 1944), American mathematics teacher and author of books on popular mathematics
Raman Parimala (born 1948), Indian mathematician known for her contributions to algebra
Clare Parnell (born 1970), British astrophysicist and applied mathematician, studies the mathematics of the sun and of magnetic fields
Haesun Park, Korean-American researcher in numerical analysis and the data sciences
Karen Parshall (born 1955), American historian of mathematics
Bozenna Pasik-Duncan, Polish-American control theorist and mathematics educator
Maria Pastori (1895–1975), Italian mathematician, specialist in rational mechanics
Christine Paulin-Mohring (born 1962), French mathematical logician and computer scientist, developer of Coq theorem prover
Barbara Paulson (born 1928), American human computer at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Nataša Pavlović, Serbian–American expert in fluid dynamics and nonlinear dispersive equations
Sylvie Paycha (born 1960), French mathematician working in operator theory
Sandrine Péché (born 1977), French expert on random matrices
Jean Pedersen (1934–2016), American mathematician and author, expert on mathematical paper folding
Irena Peeva, American researcher in commutative algebra and its applications
Jeanne Peiffer (born 1948), Luxembourgian historian of mathematics
Magda Peligrad, Romanian probability theorist known for her work on stochastic processes
Beatrice Pelloni (born 1962), Italian expert on partial differential equations
Rose Peltesohn (1913–1998), German-Israeli researcher in additive combinatorics
Kirsi Peltonen, Finnish mathematician whose interests include differential geometry and the connections between mathematics and art
Charlotte Elvira Pengra (1875–1916), Sixth American woman to receive a doctorate in mathematics
Cristina Pereyra (born 1964), Venezuelan mathematician, author of several books on wavelets and harmonic analysis
Teri Perl (born 1926), American mathematics educator, educational software designer, and author
Bernadette Perrin-Riou (born 1955), French number theorist, winner of the Ruth Lyttle Satter Prize
Mary Perry Smith (1926–2015), American mathematics educator, founder of MESA program for under-privileged students
Hazel Perfect (died 2015), British combinatorialist, author, and translator, inventor of gammoids
Laura Person, American low-dimensional topologist
Małgorzata Peszyńska (born 1962), Polish-American applied mathematician, models geological flow in porous media
Rózsa Péter (1905–1977), recursion theorist, first woman elected to the Hungarian Academy of Sciences
Stefanie Petermichl (born 1971), German-French mathematical analyst, first female winner of the Salem Prize
Louise Petrén-Overton (1880–1977), first Swedish woman with a doctorate in mathematics
Guergana Petrova, Bulgarian applied mathematician, uses numerical methods to solve differential equations
Sonja Petrović, American mathematical statistician
Linda Petzold (born 1954), researcher in differential algebraic equations and simulation, member of National Academy of Engineering
Julia Pevtsova, Russian-American representation theorist
Mamokgethi Phakeng (born 1966), first black female South African to earn a PhD in mathematics education
Flora Philip (1865–1943), first female member of the Edinburgh Mathematical Society
Cynthia A. Phillips, American expert on combinatorial optimization
Dominique Picard (born 1953), French expert on the statistical applications of wavelets
Sophie Piccard (1904–1990), Russian-Swiss mathematician, first female full professor in Switzerland
Lisa Piccirillo, American low-dimensional topologist
Ragni Piene (born 1947), Norwegian algebraic geometer, member of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters
Lillian Pierce, American mathematician whose research connects number theory with harmonic analysis
Johanna Piesch (1898–1992), Austrian pioneer in switching algebra
Marie Anne Victoire Pigeon (1724–1767), French mathematician, writer, and teacher
Faustina Pignatelli (d. 1785), princess of Colubrano, second woman elected to the Academy of Sciences of Bologna
Gabriella Pinzari, Italian expert on the -body problem
Jill Pipher (born 1955), researcher in harmonic analysis, Fourier analysis, differential equations, and cryptography, president of AWM
Laura Pisati (died 1908), Italian mathematician, first woman invited to speak at International Congress of Mathematicians
Elena Cornaro Piscopia (1646–1684), Italian philosopher, musician, and mathematics lecturer, first woman to earn a doctorate
Toniann Pitassi, American-Canadian computational complexity theorist, expert on proof complexity
Shirley Pledger, New Zealand mathematician and statistician known for her work on mark and recapture methods
Vera Pless (born 1931), American mathematician specializing in combinatorics and coding theory
Kim Plofker (born 1964), American historian of Indian mathematics, winner of the Brouwer Medal
Gerlind Plonka, German mathematician known for her work on refinable functions and curvelets
Eileen Poiani, American mathematician, first woman to teach mathematics at Saint Peter's University, first female president of Pi Mu Epsilon
Claudia Polini, Italian expert on commutative algebra
Harriet Pollatsek (born 1942), Lie theorist who has applied difference sets to error correcting codes and coding theory
Pelageya Polubarinova-Kochina (1899–1999), Soviet researcher in fluid mechanics, hydrodynamics, and history of mathematics
Elena Moldovan Popoviciu (1924–2009), Romanian functional analyst
Freda Porter (born 1957), American applied mathematician, groundwater consultant, and Native American leader
Yvonne Pothier (born 1937), Canadian mathematics educator, Catholic nun, and activist for refugees
Marian Pour-El (1928–2009), American mathematical logician and computable analyst
Victoria Powers, American real algebraic geometer and social choice theorist
Maria Assunta Pozio (died 2018), Italian expert on partial differential equations
Cheryl Praeger (born 1948), Australian researcher in group theory, algebraic graph theory and combinatorial designs
Malabika Pramanik, Indian-Canadian harmonic analyst
Eleanor C. Pressly (1918–2003), American mathematician and sounding rocket engineer
Emma Previato (born 1952), researcher in algebraic geometry and partial differential equations
Candice Renee Price, American mathematician, advocate for greater representation of women and people of color in STEM
Rachel Justine Pries, American arithmetic geometer and Galois theorist
Hilary Priestley, British mathematician who used topological methods to study distributive lattices
Christine Proust (born 1953), French expert on Babylonian mathematics
Mileva Prvanović (1929–2016), Serbian differential geometer, first to earn a doctorate in geometry in Serbia
Mary Pugh, American-Canadian expert on thin films
Jessica Purcell, American and Australian low-dimensional topologist
Ulla Pursiheimo (born 1944), Finnish control theorist who became the first female mathematics professor in Finland
Helena Pycior (born 1947), American historian of mathematics and expert on Marie Curie and human-animal relations
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Martine Queffélec (born 1949), French expert in substitution dynamical systems and Diophantine approximation
Jennifer Quinn, American combinatorialist
Peregrina Quintela Estévez (born 1960), Spanish applied mathematician
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Ami Radunskaya, American mathematician, specializes in dynamical systems and applications to medical problems, president of AWM
Virginia Ragsdale (1870–1945), American specialist in algebraic curves, formulated the Ragsdale conjecture
Kavita Ramanan, Indian-American probability theorist
Mythily Ramaswamy (born 1954), Indian functional analyst and control theorist
Susan Miller Rambo (1883–1977), second woman awarded a PhD from the University of Michigan, delegate to 1928 ICM
Sujatha Ramdorai (born 1962), Indian-Canadian algebraic number theorist, expert on Iwasawa theory
Saly Ruth Ramler (1894–1993), first woman to earn a mathematics doctorate from Charles University
Jacqui Ramagge, Australian mathematician and academic administrator, president of Australian Mathematical Society
Annie Raoult (born 1951), French applied mathematician, models cell membranes and other thin nanostructures
Helena Rasiowa (1917–1994), Polish researcher in the foundations of mathematics and algebraic logic
Marina Ratner (1938–2017), Russian-American ergodic theorist, member of National Academy of Sciences
Cora Ratto de Sadosky (1912–1981), Argentine mathematician and human rights activist
Geneviève Raugel (1951–2019), French numerical analyst and dynamical systems theorist
Ethel Raybould (1899–1987), Australian mathematician and mathematics benefactor
Michèle Raynaud (born 1938), French algebraic geometer
Margaret Rayner (1929–2019), British expert on isoperimetric inequalities, president of Mathematical Association
Michela Redivo-Zaglia, Italian numerical analyst
Mary Lynn Reed (born 1967), American mathematician, intelligence researcher, and short fiction writer
Mary Rees (born 1953), British specialist in complex dynamical systems
Mina Rees (1902–1997), first female President of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
Sarah Rees (born 1957), British group theorist
Karin Reich (born 1941), German historian of mathematics and biographer of mathematicians
Anna Barbara Reinhart (1730–1796), Swiss mathematician, wrote commentary on Newton's Principia
Kristina Reiss (born 1952), German mathematics educator
Idun Reiten (born 1942), Norwegian representation theorist, member of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters
Yuriko Renardy, Australian-American expert in fluid dynamics
Barbara Reys (born 1953), American mathematics educator known for her research in number sense and mental calculation
Karen Rhea, American calculus educator and proponent of flipped classrooms
Ida Rhodes (1900–1986), American pioneer in computer programming, designed the first computer used for Social Security
Pilar Ribeiro (1911–2011), Portuguese mathematician, founded Portuguese Mathematical Society and Gazeta de Matemática
Marjorie Rice (1923–2017), American amateur mathematician who discovered new pentagon tilings
Joan L. Richards (born 1948), American historian of mathematics
Mary Rickett (1861–1925), British mathematician and educator
Cicely Ridley (1927–2008), British-American applied mathematician, developed codes for quantum chemistry and climate models
Christine Riedtmann (born 1952), Swiss algebraist, president of Swiss Mathematical Society
Eleanor Rieffel (born 1965), American applied mathematician interested in quantum computing, computer vision, and cryptography
Carol Jane Anger Rieke (1908–1999), American astronomer and mathematics educator
Beatrice Rivière (born 1974), French expert on numerical simulation of fluid flow through porous media
Catherine A. Roberts (born 1965), American applied mathematician and executive director of the American Mathematical Society
Rachel Roberts, American low-dimensional topologist
Siobhan Roberts, Canadian mathematical biographer
Vanessa Robins, Australian computational topologist
Julia Robinson (1919–1985), American researcher on diophantine equations, contributed to solution of Hilbert's Tenth Problem
Margaret M. Robinson, American number theorist and expert on zeta functions
Alvany Rocha, American specialist in Lie groups, computed characters of the Virasoro algebra
Jana Rodriguez Hertz (born 1970), Argentine and Uruguayan mathematician
Rosana Rodríguez-López, Spanish expert on the application of fixed-point theorems to differential equations
Rubí Rodríguez, Chilean complex geometer, president of Chilean Mathematical Society
Sylvie Roelly (born 1960), French probability theorist
Alice Rogers, English expert on supermanifolds
Marie Rognes (born 1982), Norwegian researcher in scientific computing and numerical methods
Judith Roitman (born 1945), American specialist in set theory, topology, Boolean algebra, and mathematics education
Anna Romanowska, Polish abstract algebraist, first convenor of European Women in Mathematics
Dolores Romero Morales (born 1971), Spanish operations researcher
Colva Roney-Dougal, British computational group theorist
Anna Rönström (1847–1920), Swedish educator, school founder, and mathematician
Marian P. Roque, Filipina expert on partial differential equations, president of the Mathematical Society of the Philippines
Frances A. Rosamond (born 1943), Australian researcher in parameterized complexity, advocate for women in computer science and mathematics
Margit Rösler, German expert on harmonic analysis, special functions, and Dunkl operators
Mary G. Ross (1908–2008), first Native American female engineer, studied mathematics for aeronautics and celestial mechanics
Alida Rossander (1843–1909) and Jenny Rossander (1837–1887), Swedish mathematics teachers and women's rights activists
Corinna Rossi (born 1968), Italian Egyptologist and historian of Egyptian mathematics and architecture
Alice Roth (1905–1977), Swiss mathematician known for her invention of Swiss cheese spaces
Linda Preiss Rothschild (born 1945), president of AWM, vice-president of AMS, co-editor-in-chief of Mathematical Research Letters
Christel Rotthaus, German-American researcher in commutative algebra
Svetlana Roudenko, Russian-American functional analyst
Christiane Rousseau (born 1954), French-Canadian mathematician, president of the Canadian Mathematical Society
Marie-Françoise Roy (born 1950), French expert in real algebraic geometry, co-founder of two organizations for women in mathematics
Julia Rozanska, Soviet topologist
Jean E. Rubin (1926–2002), American expert on the axiom of choice
Mary Ellen Rudin (1924–2013), constructed many counterexamples in topology
Adela Ruiz de Royo (1943–2019), first lady of Panama
Mari-Jo P. Ruiz, Filipina graph theorist and operations researcher
Iris Runge (1888–1966), German applied mathematician, translator and biographer
Mary Beth Ruskai (born 1944), proved subadditivity of quantum entropy, bounded the electrons in an atom, advocate for women in mathematics
Barbara Falkenbach Ryan, American mathematician, computer scientist, statistician and business executive
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Irene Sabadini, Italian hypercomplex analyst
Flora Sadler (1912–2000), Scottish mathematician and astronomer
Cora Sadosky (1940–2010), Argentine-American analyst, president of the Association for Women in Mathematics
Claudia Sagastizábal, Argentine-Brazilian researcher in convex optimization and energy management
Ayşe Şahin, Turkish-American expert on dynamical systems
Laure Saint-Raymond (born 1975), French specialist in partial differential equations, member of the French Academy of Sciences
Reiko Sakamoto (born 1939), Japanese expert in hyperbolic boundary value problems
Graciela Salicrup (1935–1982), Mexican pioneer in categorical topology
Judith D. Sally (born 1937), American researcher in commutative algebra, Noether lecturer
Sema Salur, Turkish-American differential geometer
Jean E. Sammet (1928–2017), supervised the first scientific programming group, helped develop COBOL
Mildred Sanderson (1889–1914), American mathematician, established a correspondence between modular and formal invariants
Marta Sanz-Solé (born 1952), Catalan researcher on stochastic processes, president of the European Mathematical Society
Winifred Sargent (1905–1979), English researcher on integration theory and BK-spaces
Ruth Lyttle Satter (1923–1989), American researcher on circadian rhythms, namesake of Ruth Lyttle Satter Prize in Mathematics
Linda Gilbert Saucier (born 1948), American mathematician, prolific textbook author
Lisa Sauermann (born 1992), German mathematician ranked third in the International Mathematical Olympiad Hall of Fame
Bonita V. Saunders, American expert on mathematical visualization
Carla Savage, American researcher on parallel algorithms and combinatorial generation, secretary of AMS
Karen Saxe, American expert on functional analysis and social choice theory
Jacquelien Scherpen, Dutch nonlinear control theorist
Carol Schumacher (born 1960), Bolivian-born American mathematician, author of inquiry-based learning textbooks
Jane Cronin Scanlon (1922–2018), American researcher in partial differential equations and mathematical biology
Alice T. Schafer (1915–2009), American differential geometer, founding member of the Association for Women in Mathematics
Sakura Schafer-Nameki, German mathematical physicist
Mary Schaps (born 1948), Israeli mathematician and academic administrator, researcher in deformation theory, group theory, and representation theory
Doris Schattschneider (born 1939), American mathematician known for writing about tessellations and the art of M. C. Escher
Michelle Schatzman (1949–2010), French numerical analyst
Katya Scheinberg, Russian-American expert on derivative-free continuous optimization
Anne Schilling, American algebraic combinatorialist, representation theorist, and mathematical physicist
Tamar Schlick, American applied mathematician who develops and applies tools for biomolecule modeling and simulation
Karin Schnass (born 1980), Austrian expert on sparse dictionary learning
Leila Schneps (born 1961), American-French analytic number theorist and arithmetic geometer, archivist of Grothendieck's works
Anita Schöbel (born 1969), German operations researcher, expert on optimization for public transportation
Maria E. Schonbek (born 1979), Argentine-American researcher in fluid dynamics and associated partial differential equations
Carola-Bibiane Schönlieb (born 1979), Austrian mathematician known for her research in image analysis
Lynn Schreyer, American applied mathematician, models porous media
Mary Leontius Schulte (1901–2000), American nun, mathematics educator, and historian of mathematics
Jennifer Schultens (born 1965), American low-dimensional topologist and knot theorist
Marie-Hélène Schwartz (1913–2013), French mathematician known for her work on characteristic numbers of spaces with singularities
Irene Sciriha, Maltese graph theorist
Jeanette Scissum, American mathematician known for her work on sunspot prediction
Charlotte Scott (1858–1931), British mathematician who promoted mathematical education of American women
Jennifer Scott (born 1960), British numerical analyst
Ruthmae Sears, Bahamian-American mathematics educator
Jennifer Seberry (born 1944), Australian cryptographer, mathematician, and computer scientist, one of the founders of Asiacrypt
Rose Whelan Sedgewick (c. 1904–2000), first person to earn a PhD in mathematics from Brown University
Esther Seiden (1908–2014), Polish-Israeli-American mathematical statistician known for her research on design of experiments and combinatorial design
Annie Selden, American mathematics educator, one of the founders of the Association for Women in Mathematics
Svetlana Selezneva (born 1963), Russian expert on discrete functions
Helaine Selin (born 1946), American librarian, historian of science, and ethnomathematician
Muriel Seltman (1927–2019), British left-wing activist, mathematics educator, historian of mathematics, and author
Marjorie Senechal (born 1939), American expert on quasicrystals, author on history of science, editor-in-chief of The Mathematical Intelligencer
Adélia Sequeira, Portuguese applied mathematician specializing in modeling blood flow
Sylvia Serfaty (born 1975), French expert on superconductivity, winner of the European Mathematical Society Prize
Vera Serganova, Russian-American researcher on superalgebras and their representations
Caroline Series (born 1951), English specialist in hyperbolic geometry, Kleinian groups and dynamical systems
Lily Serna (born 1986), Israeli-Australian arithmetical guru of the SBS game show Letters and Numbers
Cristina Sernadas (born 1951), Portuguese mathematical logician
Brigitte Servatius (born 1954), Austrian-American expert on matroids and structural rigidity
Nataša Šešum, expert in geometric flows
Jeanette Shakalli (born 1985), promoter of mathematics in Panama
Betty Shannon (1922–2017), mathematician and human computer, collaborator with husband Claude Shannon
Zorya Shapiro (1914–2013), Soviet mathematician, educator and translator
Tatyana Shaposhnikova (born 1946), Russian-Swedish researcher on multipliers in function spaces, partial differential operators, and history of mathematics
Mei-Chi Shaw (born 1955), Taiwanese-American researcher on partial differential equations
Mariya Shcherbina (born 1958), Ukrainian expert on random matrices
Amy Shell-Gellasch, American historian of mathematics and book author
Diana Shelstad (born 1947), Australian-American mathematician, formulated the fundamental lemma of the Langlands Program
Wenxian Shen, Chinese-American dynamical systems theorist
Irina Shevtsova (born 1983), Russian probability theorist
Brooke Shipley, American expert in homotopy theory and homological algebra
Rebecca Shipley, British applied mathematician and healthcare engineer
Tatiana Shubin, Soviet-American mathematician, founder of several mathematics circles
Patricia D. Shure, American mathematics educator and calculus reformer
Lesley Sibner (1934–2013), American differential geometer and Hodge theorist, produced a constructive proof of the Riemann–Roch theorem
Martha Siegel, American probability theorist and mathematics educator
Mary Silber, American expert in bifurcation theory and pattern formation
Alice Silverberg (born 1958), American number theorist and cryptographer
Ruth Silverman (c. 1936–2011), American computational geometer, founder of Association for Women in Mathematics
Evelyn Silvia (1948–2006), American functional analyst and mathematics educator
Rodica Simion (1955–2000), Romanian-American pioneer in the study of permutation patterns
Valeria Simoncini (born 1966), Italian numerical analyst
Lao Genevra Simons (1870–1949), American mathematician and historian of mathematics
Hourya Benis Sinaceur (born 1940), Moroccan expert in the theory and history of mathematics
Mary Emily Sinclair (1878–1955), American mathematician, first woman to earn a doctorate in mathematics at the University of Chicago
Nathalie Sinclair (born 1970), Canadian researcher in mathematics education
Stephanie Singer, American mathematician and politician, author of books on symmetry
Sue Singer, British mathematics educator, president of Girls' Schools Association and Mathematical Association
Ajit Iqbal Singh (born 1943), Indian researcher in functional analysis and harmonic analysis
Sylvia Skan (1897–1972), British applied mathematician known for the Falkner–Skan boundary layer in fluid mechanics
Jessica Sklar (born 1973), American mathematician interested in abstract algebra, recreational mathematics, and the popularization of mathematics
Lucy Joan Slater (1922–2008), British expert on hypergeometric functions and the Rogers–Ramanujan identities
Angela Slavova, Bulgarian expert on waves and cellular neural networks, chair of SIAM
Alice Slotsky, American historian of mathematics and Assyriologist
Marian Small (born 1948), Canadian proponent of constructivist mathematical instruction
Ionica Smeets (born 1979), Dutch number theorist and science communicator
Sonja Smets, Belgian and Dutch mathematical logician, works on quantum logic and belief revision
Adelaide Smith (born 1870), American mathematician, studied and taught internationally
Clara Eliza Smith (1865–1943), American mathematician specializing in complex analysis
Daphne L. Smith, first African-American woman to earn a Ph.D. in mathematics at the Massachusetts Institute for Technology
Karen E. Smith (born 1965), American specialist in commutative algebra and algebraic geometry, MAA Hedrick Lecturer, AWM-AMS Noether Lecturer
Kate Smith-Miles, Australian applied mathematician, president of Australian Mathematical Society
Leslie M. Smith (born 1961), American applied mathematician and engineering physicist working in turbulence
Martha K. Smith, American mathematics educator and non-commutative algebraist
Agata Smoktunowicz (born 1973), Polish-Scottish researcher in abstract algebra, constructed noncommutative nil rings
Nina Snaith (born 1974), British researcher in random matrix theory, quantum chaos, and zeta functions
Vera Šnajder (1904–1976), Bosnian mathematician, first Bosnian to publish in mathematics, first female dean in Yugoslavia
Priyanshi Somani (born 1998), Indian mental calculator
Mary Somerville (1780–1872), Scottish science writer and polymath, one of two first female members of the Royal Astronomical Society
Christina Sormani, American researcher on Riemannian geometry, metric geometry, and Ricci curvature
Vera T. Sós (born 1930), Hungarian number theorist and combinatorialist
Chris Soteros, Canadian applied mathematician, studies biomolecules and the knot theory of random space curves
Marilda Sotomayor (born 1944), Brazilian mathematician, economist, and game theorist
Laila Soueif (born 1956), Egyptian mathematics professor and women's rights activist
Diane Souvaine (born 1954), American computational geometer, advocate for women and minorities in mathematics and gender neutrality in teaching
Hortensia Soto, Mexican-American mathematics educator
Ayşe Soysal (born 1948), Turkish mathematician, president of Boğaziçi University
Angela Spalsbury (born 1967), American functional analyst and academic administrator
Birgit Speh (born 1949), American expert in Lie groups, namesake of Speh representations
Domina Eberle Spencer (born 1920), researcher on electrodynamics and field theory, founded fringe science organization Natural Philosophy Alliance
M. Grazia Speranza, Italian operations researcher, president of EURO and IFORS
Pauline Sperry (1885–1967), mathematician, musician, and astronomer, unconstitutionally fired from UC Berkeley for refusing to sign a loyalty oath
Dolores Richard Spikes (1936–2015), African-American mathematician, first female university chancellor and first female president of a university system in the US
Nicole Spillane (born 1988), French and Irish applied mathematician
Vera W. de Spinadel (1929–2017), Argentine-Austrian researcher on metallic means
Jean Springer (1939–2007), Jamaican-Canadian specialist in abstract algebra and academic administrator
Jane Squire (bap. 1686 – 1743), English mathematician studied solutions to finding longitude at sea
Bhama Srinivasan (born 1935), representation theorist, president of the Association for Women in Mathematics
Hema Srinivasan (born 1959), Indian-American mathematician specializing in abstract algebra and algebraic geometry
Kaye Stacey (born 1948), Australian mathematics educator
Tanja Stadler (born 1981), German mathematician, expert in phylogenetics
Gigliola Staffilani (born 1966), Italian-American researcher on harmonic analysis and partial differential equations
Anna Stafford (1905–2004), one of the first postdoctoral researchers at the Institute for Advanced Study
Helene Stähelin (1891–1970), Swiss mathematician, editor of Bernoulli family letters, and pacifist
Gwyneth Stallard, British expert on complex dynamics and the iteration of meromorphic functions
Katherine E. Stange, Canadian-American number theorist
Zvezdelina Stankova (born 1969), Bulgarian-American expert on permutation patterns, founder of the Berkeley Math Circle
Nancy K. Stanton, American researcher on complex analysis, partial differential equations, and differential geometry
Marion Elizabeth Stark (1894—1982), one of the first female American mathematicians to receive a doctorate
Anastasia Stavrova, Russian expert in algebraic groups, non-associative algebra, and algebraic K-theory
Jackie Stedall (1950–2014), British historian of mathematics
Angelika Steger (born 1962), German-Swiss expert on graph theory, randomized algorithms, and approximation algorithms
Irene Stegun (1919–2008), American mathematician who edited a classic book of mathematical tables
Gabriele Steidl (born 1963), German researcher in computational harmonic analysis, convex optimization, and image processing
Mary Kay Stein, American mathematics educator
Berit Stensønes (born 1956), Norwegian mathematician specializing in complex analysis and complex dynamics
Elizabeth Stephansen (1872–1961), first Norwegian woman to receive a mathematics doctorate
Edith Stern (born 1952), child prodigy in mathematics and IBM engineer
Chris Stevens, American researcher on topological groups, history of mathematics, and mathematics education, associate executive director of AMS
Alice Christine Stickland (1906–1987), British applied mathematician, expert on radio propagation
Angeline Stickney (1830–1892), American suffragist, abolitionist, and mathematician, namesake of the largest crater on Phobos
Doris Stockton (1924–2018), American mathematician and textbook author
Ruth Stokes (1890–1968), American mathematician, astronomer, and cryptologer, pioneer of linear programming, and founder of Pi Mu Epsilon journal
Yvonne Stokes, Australian expert on fluid mechanics, mathematical biology, and industrial applications of mathematics
Emily Stone, American mathematician, works in fluid mechanics and dynamical systems
Betsy Stovall, American harmonic analyst
Anita Straker, British mathematics educator, president of the Mathematical Association
Dona Strauss (born 1934), British mathematician, founder of pointless topology and European Women in Mathematics
Anne Penfold Street (1932–2016), Australian combinatorialist, third woman mathematics professor in Australia
Ileana Streinu, Romanian-American computational geometer, expert on kinematics and structural rigidity
Catharina Stroppel (born 1971), German researcher on representation theory, low-dimensional topology, and category theory
Marilyn Strutchens (born 1962), African-American mathematics educator
Tatjana Stykel, Russian-German expert on numerical linear algebra, control theory, and differential-algebraic equations
Dorothy Geneva Styles (1922–1984), American organist, choir director, composer, poet, and mathematician
Bella Subbotovskaya (1938–1982), Soviet founder of the Jewish People's University
Indulata Sukla (born 1944), Indian researcher on Fourier series, author of textbook on number theory and cryptography
Agnès Sulem (born 1959), French applied mathematician, control theorist, and mathematical finance expert
Catherine Sulem (born 1957), Algerian-born Canadian mathematician and violinist, expert on singularities in wave propagation
Nike Sun, American probability theorist studying phase transitions and counting complexity
Rosamund Sutherland (1947–2019), British mathematics educator
Louise Nixon Sutton (1925–2006), first African-American woman to earn a mathematics PhD at New York University
Thyrsa Frazier Svager (1930–1999), African-American mathematician, donated entire salary to support African-American women in mathematics
Márta Svéd (–2005), Hungarian-Australian mathematician, wrote about non-Euclidean geometry
Marcia P. Sward (1939–2008), executive director of the Mathematical Association of America
Lorna Swain (1891–1936), British fluid dynamics researcher, early female lecturer at Cambridge
Irena Swanson, Yugoslav-born American commutative algebraist and mathematical quilter
Henda Swart (1939–2016), South African geometer and graph theorist, editor-in-chief of Utilitas Mathematica
Jennifer Switkes, American mathematics educator and volunteer prison mathematics instructor
Polly Sy, Filipino functional analyst
Ágnes Szendrei, Hungarian-American expert on universal algebra
Esther Szekeres (1910–2005), Hungarian-Australian mathematician posed the happy ending problem in discrete geometry
Wanda Szmielew (1918–1976), Polish logician who proved the decidability of the first-order theory of abelian groups
Zofia Szmydt (1923–2010), Polish researcher on differential equations, potential theory and distributions
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Laura Taalman, American mathematician known for work on the mathematics of Sudoku and mathematical 3D printing
Daina Taimiņa (born 1954), Latvian-American mathematician, crochets objects to illustrate hyperbolic space
Christiane Tammer, German expert in set-valued optimization
Tan Lei (1963–2016), Chinese-French specialist in complex dynamics and functions of complex numbers
Betül Tanbay (born 1960), first female president of the Turkish Mathematical Society
Rosalind Tanner (1900–1992), English mathematician and a historian of mathematics
Anne Taormina, Belgian mathematical physicist interested in string theory, moonshine, and the symmetry of virus capsids
Gabriella Tarantello (born 1958), Italian mathematician specializing in partial differential equations, differential geometry, and gauge theory
Éva Tardos (born 1957), Hungarian-American researcher in combinatorial optimization algorithms
Olga Taussky-Todd (1906–1995), Austrian and later Czech-American advocate of matrix theory
Jean Taylor (born 1944), American mathematician known for her work on soap bubbles and crystals
Aretha Teckentrup, British mathematician, data scientist, and numerical analyst
Mina Teicher, Israeli algebraic geometer
Monique Teillaud, French computational geometer
Montserrat Teixidor i Bigas, Spanish-American expert on moduli of vector bundles on curves
Keti Tenenblat (born 1944), Turkish-Brazilian differential geometer
Katrin Tent (born 1963), German mathematician, expert in group theory, the symmetries of groups, algebraic model theory, and finite geometry
M. B. W. Tent, American mathematics educator, mathematical biographer
Chuu-Lian Terng (born 1949), Taiwanese-American differential geometer
Susanna Terracini (born 1963), Italian mathematician known for her research on chaos in Hamiltonian dynamical systems
Audrey Terras (born 1942), American number theorist specializing in quantum chaos and zeta functions
Susanne Teschl (born 1971), Austrian expert on mathematical modeling of breath analysis
Donna Testerman (born 1960), expert in the representation theory of algebraic groups
Ngamta Thamwattana, Thai-Australian expert in granular materials and nanotechnology
Theano (6th century BC), one or possibly two different Pythagorean philosophers
Diana Thomas, American mathematician who studies nutrition and body weight
Doreen Thomas, South African and Australian mathematician and engineer
Janet Thomas, founder of the Australian Mathematical Sciences Institute
Rekha R. Thomas, American mathematician and operations researcher
Abigail Thompson (born 1958), American low-dimensional topologist, educational reformer
Frances McBroom Thompson (1942–2014), American mathematics educator and textbook author
Gillian Thornley (born 1940), New Zealand differential geometer, first woman president of the New Zealand Mathematical Society
Heidi Thornquist, American applied mathematician, expert on numerical linear algebra and circuit simulation
Mary Domitilla Thuener (1880–1977), American mathematician, founder of Thomas More College, Kentucky
Ene-Margit Tiit (born 1934), Estonian mathematician and statistician, founding president of Estonian Statistical Society
Mary Tiles (born 1946), writer on the philosophy and history of set theory
Ulrike Tillmann FRS (born 1962), German-English algebraic topologist
Sheila Tinney (1918–2010), Irish mathematical physicist, first Irishwoman with a mathematical doctorate
Maryanne Tipler, New Zealand mathematics textbook author
Françoise Tisseur, French-English numerical analyst
Jacqueline Naze Tjøtta (1935–2017), French-Norwegian researcher in kinetics, magnetohydrodynamics and theoretical acoustics
Renate Tobies (born 1947), German historian of mathematics
Gordana Todorov (born 1949), American representation theorist and noncommutative algebraist
Susan Tolman, American symplectic geometer
Nicole Tomczak-Jaegermann FRSC, Polish-Canadian geometric functional analyst
Virginia Torczon, American applied mathematician, computer scientist, and expert in nonlinear optimization
Antoinette Tordesillas, Australian applied mathematician
Anna-Karin Tornberg, Swedish computational mathematician
Eve Torrence (born 1963), American mathematician, president of Pi Mu Epsilon
Laura Toti Rigatelli (born 1941), Italian historian of mathematics and biographer of Galois
Paula Tretkoff, Australian-American researcher in number theory, noncommutative geometry, and hypergeometric functions
Christiane Tretter (born 1964), German expert in spectral theory and differential operators
Věra Trnková (1934–2018) Czech category theorist
Mary Esther Trueblood (1872–1939), American mathematician, studied with Felix Klein
Olga Tsuberbiller (1885–1975), Russian analytical geometer and textbook author
Virginia Tucker (1909–1985), American human computer at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
Laurette Tuckerman (born 1956), American and French researcher in computational fluid dynamics
Annita Tuller (1910–1994), American geometer and textbook author
Reidun Twarock, German-born mathematical biologist
Julianna Tymoczko (born 1975), American algebraic geometer and algebraic combinatorist
Regina Tyshkevich (1929–2019), Belarussian graph theorist, co-invented split graphs
Galina Tyurina (1938–1970), Soviet algebraic geometer
U
Olabisi Ugbebor (born 1951), first female mathematics professor in Nigeria
Karen Uhlenbeck (born 1942), American mathematician, MacArthur Fellow, National Medal of Science, Leroy P. Steele Prize, Abel Prize
Corinna Ulcigrai (born 1980), Italian researcher on dynamical systems, won European Mathematical Society Prize and Whitehead Prize
Kristin Umland, American mathematics educator
Nina Uraltseva (born 1935), Russian mathematical physicist, specialist in nonlinear partial differential equations
Arantza Urkaregi (born 1954), Spanish mathematician and Basque separatist and feminist politician
V
Brigitte Vallée (born 1950), French mathematician and computer scientist, expert in lattice basis reduction algorithms
Clàudia Valls, Spanish and Portuguese mathematician specializing in dynamical systems
Pauline van den Driessche (born 1941), British-Canadian pioneer in combinatorial matrix theory and mathematical biology
Monica VanDieren, American model theorist and academic administrator
Michela Varagnolo, Italian-French representation theorist
Maria Eulália Vares, Brazilian expert in stochastic processes
Dorothy Vaughan (1910–2008), African-American mathematician at NASA
Elena Vázquez Cendón, Spanish expert in modeling waves and shallow water, and numerical solution of hyperbolic problems
Mariel Vázquez, Mexican mathematical biologist specializing in DNA topology
Eva Vedel Jensen (born 1951), Danish spatial statistician, stereologist, and stochastic geometer
Argelia Velez-Rodriguez (born 1936), Black Cuban-American differential geometer
Tatyana Velikanova (1932–2002), Soviet mathematician, computer programmer, dissident, and political prisoner
Luitgard Veraart, German financial mathematician
Michèle Vergne (born 1943), French specialist in analysis and representation theory, member of French Academy of Sciences
Siobhán Vernon (1932–2002), first Irish-born woman to get a PhD in pure mathematics in Ireland
Luminița Vese, Romanian specialist in image processing
Katalin Vesztergombi (born 1948), Hungarian graph theorist and discrete geometer
Maryna Viazovska (born 1984), Ukrainian mathematician, solved the sphere packing problems in dimensions 8 and 24
Eva Viehmann (born 1980), German arithmetic geometer
Marie-France Vignéras (born 1946), French mathematician who proved that one cannot hear the shape of a hyperbolic drum
Maria Cristina Villalobos, American applied mathematician recognized for her mentorship
Bianca Viray, American arithmetic geometer
Monica Vișan (born 1979), Romanian expert on the nonlinear Schrödinger equation
Marie A. Vitulli, American algebraic geometer, union organizer, and proponent for women in mathematics on Wikipedia
Roxana Vivian (1871–1961), first female mathematics doctorate from the University of Pennsylvania
Karen Vogtmann (born 1949), American geometric group theorist, namesake of Culler–Vogtmann outer space
Margit Voigt, German expert on graph coloring
Claire Voisin (born 1962), French expert on Hodge structures and mirror symmetry, member of French Academy of Sciences
Elisabeth Vreede (1879–1943), Dutch mathematician, astronomer and Anthroposophist
Kristina Vušković (born 1967), Serbian graph theorist
W
Michelle L. Wachs, American specialist in algebraic combinatorics
Aissa Wade (born 1967), Senegalese symplectic geometer, president of African Institute for Mathematical Sciences
Grace Wahba (born 1934), American pioneer in methods for smoothing noisy data, member of National Academy of Sciences
Nathalie Wahl (born 1976), Belgian topologist
Rebecca Waldecker (born 1979), German group theorist
Irène Waldspurger, French mathematician, expert on phase retrieval
Erica N. Walker, American mathematician, studies racial and gender equity in mathematics education
Muriel Kennett Wales (1913–2009), Irish-Canadian mathematician
Judy L. Walker, American algebraic coding theorist
Mary Shore Walker (1882–1952), American mathematician, first woman faculty member at the University of Missouri
Dorothy Wallace, American number theorist, mathematical biologist, and mathematics educator
Lynne H. Walling, British number theorist
Joan E. Walsh (1932–2017), British numerical analyst, founder of the Numerical Algorithms Group, possibly first female mathematics professor in UK
Marion Walter (1928–2021), German-born mathematician who wrote about using mirrors to explore symmetry
Andrea Walther (born 1970), German expert in automatic differentiation
Chelsea Walton (born 1983), African-American researcher in noncommutative algebra
Yusu Wang, Chinese computational geometer and computational topologist
Wang Zhenyi (1768–1797), Qing dynasty mathematician and astronomer
Lesley Ward, Australian harmonic and complex analyst
Rachel Ward, American applied mathematician who researches machine learning and signal processing
Virginia Warfield, American mathematics educator
Mary Wynne Warner (1932–1998), British pioneer in fuzzy topology
Simone Warzel (born 1973), German mathematical physicist, expert on the many-body problem
Talitha Washington (born 1974), American applied mathematician and mathematics educator
Sarah L. Waters, British expert in fluid mechanics and tissue engineering
Ann E. Watkins, American statistics educator, president of the Mathematical Association of America
Anne Watson, British mathematics educator
Charlotte Watts (born 1962), British mathematical epidemiologist
Johanna Weber (1910–2014), German-British mathematician and aerodynamicist, contributed to supersonic aircraft design
Charlotte Wedell (1862–1953), one of four women at the first International Congress of Mathematicians
Suzanne Weekes, American mathematician, cofounder of the Mathematical Sciences Research Institute Undergraduate Program
Katrin Wehrheim (born 1974), American symplectic topologist and gauge theorist
Guofang Wei (born 1965), Chinese-American differential geometer, found new positively-curved manifolds
Tilla Weinstein (1934–2002), American differential geometer
Marie Johanna Weiss (1903–1952), American mathematics researcher and textbook author
Katrin Wendland (born 1970), German mathematical physicist, expert on singularities in quantum field theories
Annette Werner (born 1966), German expert on diophantine geometry and non-Archimedean algebraic geometry
Elisabeth M. Werner, researcher on convex geometry, functional analysis, and probability theory
Eléna Wexler-Kreindler (1931–2002), Romanian-French algebraist
Anna Johnson Pell Wheeler (1883–1966), American researcher on infinite-dimensional linear algebra
Mary Wheeler (born 1931), American expert on domain decomposition methods for partial differential equations
Sue Whitesides, Canadian mathematician and computer scientist, expert in computational geometry and graph drawing
Alice S. Whittemore, American group theorist, biostatistician, and epidemiologist who studies the effects of genetics and lifestyle on cancer
Margaret Wiecek, Polish-American operations researcher, expert on multi-objective optimization
Sylvia Wiegand (born 1945), American algebraist, president of the Association for Women in Mathematics
Anna Wienhard (born 1977), German differential geometer
Lynda Wiest, American mathematics education researcher
Marie S. Wilcox (died 1995), American high school mathematics teacher, textbook author, and president of National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Trena Wilkerson, American mathematics educator, president of National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Amie Wilkinson (born 1968), American researcher in ergodic theory and smooth dynamical systems
Emily Willbanks (1930–2007), American mathematician who contributed to defense weapons applications and high performance storage
Karen Willcox, New Zealand applied mathematician, expert on reduced-order modeling and multi-fidelity methods
Elizabeth Williams (1895–1986), British mathematician and educationist
Emily Coddington Williams (1873–1952), American historian of mathematics, translator, novelist, playwright, and biographer
Kim Williams, scholar of connections between mathematics and architecture
Lauren Williams, American expert on cluster algebras and tropical geometry
Roselyn E. Williams, American mathematician, founder of National Math Alliance
Ruth J. Williams, American probability theorist, president of Institute of Mathematical Statistics, member of National Academy of Sciences
Ruth Margaret Williams (born 1945), British mathematical physicist, researches discrete gravity
Sheila Oates Williams (born 1939), British and Australian abstract algebraist
Talithia Williams, American statistician and mathematician who researches the spatiotemporal structure of data
Virginia Vassilevska Williams, Bulgarian-American researcher on graph algorithms and fast matrix multiplication
Stephanie van Willigenburg, Canadian researcher in algebraic combinatorics and quasisymmetric functions
Elizabeth Wilmer, American expert on Markov chain mixing times
Helen Wilson (mathematician) (born 1973), British expert on non-Newtonian fluids, president of British Society of Rheology
Ulrica Wilson, African-American mathematician specializing in noncommutative rings and the combinatorics of matrices
Helen Wily (1921–2009), New Zealand mathematician and statistician
Sarah Witherspoon, American mathematician interested in abstract algebra
Barbara Wohlmuth, German expert on the numerical solution of partial differential equations
Julia Wolf, British mathematician specialising in arithmetic combinatorics
Gail Wolkowicz, Canadian mathematical biologist known for her work on the competitive exclusion principle
Maria Wonenburger (1927–2014), Galician-American group theorist, first Spanish Fulbright scholar in mathematics
Carol Wood (born 1945), American expert in model-theoretic algebra, president of AWM
Melanie Wood (born 1981), first female American to compete in the International Mathematical Olympiad
Ruth Goulding Wood (1875–1935), American non-Euclidean geometer
Sarah Woodhead (1851–1912), first woman to pass the Cambridge University mathematical Tripos examination
Mary Lee Woods (1924–2017), British mathematician and computer programmer
Carol S. Woodward, American expert in numerical algorithms and software
Margaret H. Wright (born 1944), American researcher in optimization, linear algebra, and scientific computing
Dorothy Maud Wrinch (1894–1976), Argentine-English mathematician and biochemical theorist, expert in protein structure
Jang-Mei Wu, Taiwanese-American complex analyst
Sijue Wu (born 1964), Chinese-American expert in the mathematics of water waves
Emily Kathryn Wyant (1897–1942), American mathematician, founder of honor society Kappa Mu Epsilon
Lucy R. Wyatt, British mathematician and oceanographer, studies high frequency radar oceanography and ocean surface waves
Urszula Wybraniec-Skardowska (born 1940), Polish logician
Cynthia Wyels, American mathematician known for her mentorship of Latino students
X
Dianna Xu, American mathematician and computer scientist who studies computational problems on curves and surfaces
Y
Carolyn Yackel, American commutative algebraist and mathematical fiber artist
Catherine Yan, Chinese-American mathematician interested in algebraic combinatorics
Grace Yang, Chinese-American expert on stochastic processes in the physical sciences, asymptotic theory, and survival analysis
Elena Yanovskaya (born 1938), Soviet and Russian game theorist
Sofya Yanovskaya (1896–1966), restored mathematical logic research in Soviet Union, edited mathematical works of Karl Marx
Jane Ye, Chinese-Canadian researcher in variational analysis
Karen Yeats (born 1980), Canadian mathematician whose research connects combinatorics to quantum field theory
Florence Yeldham (1877–1945), British school teacher and historian of arithmetic
Yiqun Lisa Yin, Chinese-American cryptographer, broke the SHA-1 hash scheme and helped develop the RC6 block cipher
Ruriko Yoshida, Japanese-American combinatorist, statistician, phylogeneticist, and operations researcher
Anna Irwin Young (1873–1920), charter member of the Mathematical Association of America
Lai-Sang Young (born 1952), Hong Kong born dynamical systems theorist
Mabel Minerva Young (1872–1963), American geometer
Virginia R. Young, American expert on the mathematics of insurance
Noriko Yui, Japanese-Canadian researcher on arithmetic geometry, mathematical physics, and mirror symmetry
Mariette Yvinec, French computational geometer
Z
Sara Zahedi (born 1981), Iranian-Swedish researcher in computational fluid dynamics, former child refugee, and winner of EMS Prize
Martina Zähle (born 1950), German stochastic geometer and geometric measure theorist
Frieda Zames (1932–2005), American mathematician and disability rights activist
Antonella Zanna, Italian-Norwegian numerical analyst
Thaleia Zariphopoulou (born 1962), Greek-American expert in mathematical finance
Claudia Zaslavsky (1917–2006), American mathematics educator and ethnomathematician
Mary Lou Zeeman, British expert on dynamical systems and their application to mathematical biology
Sarah Zerbes (born 1978), German and British algebraic number theorist
Ping Zhang, graph theorist and textbook author
Rozetta Zhilina (1933–2003), Soviet expert in computational problems for nuclear weapons
Tamar Ziegler (born 1971), Israeli researcher in ergodic theory and arithmetic combinatorics, won Erdős Prize
Magdolna Zimányi (1934–2016), pioneer of Hungarian computing
See also
Association for Women in Mathematics
European Women in Mathematics
List of female scientists
List of women in statistics
Noether Lecturer
Timeline of women in mathematics in the United States
Timeline of women in mathematics worldwide
Women in computing
Women in science
References
External links
Chronological Index of Women Mathematicians
Alphabetical Index of Women Mathematicians
List of Noether Lecturers
Famous Female Mathematicians
MacTutor index of female mathematicians
Mathematical Women in the British Isles, 1878-1940 (Davis Archive)
Biographies of Women Mathematicians on the Women in Math Project
Biographies available in the Supplementary Material at AMS
Women
M
Mathematicians
M |
26174389 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft%20text-to-speech%20voices | Microsoft text-to-speech voices | The Microsoft text-to-speech voices are speech synthesizers provided for use with applications that use the Microsoft Speech API (SAPI) or the Microsoft Speech Server Platform. There are client, server, and mobile versions of Microsoft text-to-speech voices. Client voices are shipped with Windows operating systems; server voices are available for download for use with server applications such as Speech Server, Lync etc. for both Windows client and server platforms, and mobile voices are often shipped with more recent versions.
Voices
Windows 2000 and Windows XP
Microsoft Sam is the default text-to-speech male voice in Microsoft Windows 2000 and Windows XP. It is used by Narrator, the screen reader program built into the operating system.
Microsoft Mike and Microsoft Mary are optional male and female voices respectively, available for download from the Microsoft website. Michael and Michelle are also optional male and female voices licensed by Microsoft from Lernout & Hauspie, and available through Microsoft Office XP and Microsoft Office 2003 or Microsoft Reader.
There are both SAPI 4 and SAPI 5 versions of these text-to-speech voices. SAPI 4 voices are only available on Windows 2000 and later Windows NT-based operating systems. While SAPI 5 versions of Microsoft Mike and Microsoft Mary are downloadable only as a Merge Module, the installable versions may be installed on end users' systems by speech applications such as Microsoft Reader. SAPI 4 redistributable versions are downloadable for Windows 9x, although no longer from the Microsoft website.
Microsoft Sam, Microsoft Mike and Microsoft Mary can be used on Windows Vista and later with a third-party program (like Speakonia and TTSReader) installed on the machine that supports these operating systems; however, the speech patterns differ from the Windows XP versions of these voices. In addition, LH Michael and LH Michelle can work on Windows 7 and later if Speakonia and the SAPI 4 version of the voices in British English is downloaded.
Windows Vista and Windows 7
Beginning with Windows Vista and Windows 7, Microsoft Anna is the default English voice. It is a SAPI5-only female voice and is designed to sound more natural than Microsoft Sam. Microsoft Streets & Trips 2006 and later install the Microsoft Anna voice on Windows XP systems for the voice-prompt direction feature. There is no male voice shipping with Windows Vista and Windows 7, and neither Microsoft Mike or Mary will work on Windows 7.
A female voice called Microsoft Lili that replaces the earlier male SAPI5 voice "Microsoft Simplified Chinese" is available in Chinese versions of Windows Vista and Windows 7. It can also be obtained in non-Chinese versions of Windows 7 or Vista by installing the Chinese language pack.
In 2010, Microsoft released the newer Speech Platform compatible voices for Speech Recognition and Text-to-Speech for use with client and server applications. These voices are available in 26 languages and can be installed on Windows client and server operating systems. Speech Platform voices, unlike SAPI 5 voices, are female-only; no male voices are released publicly yet.
Windows 8 and Windows 8.1
In Windows 8, there are three new client (desktop) voices - Microsoft David (US male), Hazel (UK female) and Zira (US female) which sound more natural than the now-eliminated Microsoft Anna. The server versions of these voices are available via above mentioned Speech Platform for operating systems earlier than Windows 8. Unlike Windows 7 or Vista, one cannot use any third-party program for Microsoft Anna because there is no Anna Voice API for download. Other voices are available for specific language versions of either Windows 8 or Windows 8.1.
Windows 10 and later
In Windows 10, Microsoft Hazel was removed from the US English Language Pack and the Microsoft voices for Mobile (Phone/tablet) are available (Microsoft Mark and Microsoft Zira). These are the same voices found on Windows Phone 8, Windows Phone 8.1 and Windows 10 Mobile.
Also with these voices language packs are also available for a variety of voices similar to that of Windows 8 and 8.1. None of these voices match the Cortana text-to-speech voice which can be found on Windows Phone 8.1, Windows 10, and Windows 10 Mobile.
In an attempt to unify its software with Windows 10, all of Microsoft's current platforms use the same text-to-speech voices except for Microsoft David and a few others.
Mobile
Every mobile voice package has the combination of male/female, while most of the desktop voice packages have only female voices. All mobile voices have been made universal and any user who downloads the language pack of that choice will have one extra male and female voice per that package.
A hidden text-to-speech voice in Windows 10 called Microsoft Eva Mobile is present within the system. Users can download a pre-packaged registry file from the windowsreport.com website. Microsoft Eva is believed to be the early voice for Cortana until Microsoft replaced her with the voice of Jen Taylor in most areas.
These voices are updated with Windows to sound more natural than in the original version as seen in updated retail builds of Windows 10.
See also
Speech synthesis
Comparison of speech synthesizers
References
External links
Vista Watch: New Chinese features in Windows Vista
Speech synthesis software
Microsoft software |
28968720 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red%20Cross%20parcel | Red Cross parcel | Red Cross parcel refers to packages containing mostly food, tobacco and personal hygiene items sent by the International Association of the Red Cross to prisoners of war during the First and Second World Wars, as well as at other times. It can also refer to medical parcels and so-called "release parcels" provided during World War II. The Red Cross arranged them in accordance with the provisions of the Geneva Convention of 1929. During World War II these packages augmented the often-meager and deficient diets in the POW camps, contributing greatly to prisoner survival and an increase in morale. Modern Red Cross food parcels provide basic food and sanitary needs for persons affected by natural disasters, wars, political upheavals or similar events.
More recent catastrophes involving delivery of Red Cross parcels include events in Georgia, Thailand and Great Britain.
World War I
The Australian Red Cross reported dispatching a total of 395,695 food parcels and 36,339 clothing parcels to Allied POWs in Germany and Turkey during the course of World War I. Food parcels were also sent to needy civilians in Belgium and France.
British PoWs during World War I were supplied with food parcels by the British Central Prisoners of War Committee of the Joint War Organisation, the combined Red Cross and Order of St John. When the Central Powers refused to allow food to be sent to prisoners of war by the British government, the British Red Cross had stepped forward. Packages containing food and conveniences were sent fortnightly to POWs. Donations collected from the public for these parcels reached £674,908 19s 1d. A total of £5,145,458 16s 9d was spent. By the end of the war, some 9,000,000 food parcels and 800,000 clothing parcels had been despatched by various organisations to British prisoners abroad.
French POWs were required to pay for parcels sent to them through a French commission; these packages included potted chicken, various pâtés, and even bottled wine. Indigent French POWs could receive parcels with lower-quality food for free, from the "Vetement du Prisonnier" which liaised actively with the Croix-Rouge française.
New Zealand
New Zealand relatives had to buy parcels and were given a choice:
A - 4 shillings
1 Alp milk chocolate
1 condensed milk
1 cheese
1 block chocolate
2 packets tobacco
2 packets citrol
1 tin Liebig
Handkerchiefs or towel or sewing kit
B - 4 shillings
tea
1 condensed milk
sugar
1 jam
biscuits
1 block chocolate
6 Maggi soups
1 packet tobacco
1 pack cigarettes
C - 6 shillings
1 day shirt
1 vest
1 under drawers
1 pair socks
1 towel
2 handkerchiefs
1 toothbrush
1 toothpowder
1 washrag
1 soap
D - For invalids - 6 shillings
1 pound (450 g) condensed milk
1 pound (450 g) cocoa
1/2 pound (225 g) sugar
1 pound (450 g) Quaker Oats
1 pound (450 g) cod liver capsules
1 box extract of malt, Ovomaltine or "Mellins Food"
Relatives could send a specific parcel or a package made up of A & C or B & C
American
The American Red Cross commenced delivery of food parcels to American PoWs in German camps in November 1917. The first parcel received by a POW included the following items:
One pound (450 g) tin of corned beef
One pound (450 g) tin of roast beef
One pound (450 g) tin of salmon
Two pounds (900 g) of hash
One pound (450 g) of jam
One bar of soap
Four packages of tobacco
One overshirt
One undershirt
Two cans of pork and beans
One can each of tomatoes, corn and peas
One pair of drawers
Two pairs of socks
Three handkerchiefs
Two towels
One tube of toothpaste
Two pounds (900 g) of hard bread
of evaporated milk
One pound (450 g) of sugar
One-half (225 g) pound of coffee
One toothbrush, comb, shaving brush and "housewife" kit (sewing kit), plus shaving soap.
Thereafter, further parcels were sent once per week. These were rotated on a four-week schedule between packages labeled "A", "B", "C" and "D". Each parcel contained meat, fish, vegetable, bread and fruit items, together with eighty cigarettes or other tobacco products. Items of clothing were also provided for American POWs through the American Red Cross. Toward the end of the war, German camp guards and other personnel would sometimes steal the contents of these packages, often leaving only bread for the helpless prisoner. In such events, American camp representatives attempted to make up the loss through stores kept for this purpose in the POW camps.
A special agreement between the YMCA and the American Red Cross resulted in the YMCA providing athletic equipment, books and games for American prisoners in German POW camps.
World War II
Red Cross food parcels during World War II were mostly provided from the United Kingdom, Canada and America (after 1941). An Allied POW might receive any of these packages at any one given time, regardless of his or her own nationality. This was because all such packages were sent from their country of origin to central collection points, where they were subsequently distributed to Axis POW camps by the International Committee of the Red Cross.
For POWs held by Axis forces in Europe the parcel route through Lisbon required escorted ships to bring the crates of parcels, or for British, mail bags full of parcels, to Lisbon, there being no safe conduct agreement. In Portugal, parcels would be loaded onto Red Cross marked ships with many taken through the port of Marseilles, for onward freighting by rail to Geneva, from where they would be sent to various camps by the International Committee of the Red Cross. Barcelona was also used as an Iberian transit port, with Toulon as an alternative French port. The returning ships sometimes carried allied civilians and wounded being repatriated.
The route from Iberia to the South of France was not safe. The Red Cross ship SS Padua was damaged by British bombing in Genoa in 1942 and then sunk by a mine outside Marseilles in October 1943. The SS Embla was bombed by British aircraft on 6 April 1944 causing a fire, and the same ship was attacked again on 20 April 1944, by American B-26 bombers, who this time sank the ship and killed the ICRC agent. On 6 May the "Christina" was attacked while at anchor in Sete. This latest act resulted in the ICRC suspending the route. The Operation Dragoon invasion of Southern France, preliminary bombing in July and the actual invasion in August 1944 put a stop to rail transport and then Marseilles being used by the Red Cross. The SS Vega sailed to the alternative port of Toulon with parcels in November 1944.
On 8 May 1945, it was reported that 7,000,000 parcels, weighing were at sea or in warehouses in Britain, Lisbon, Barcelona, Marseilles, Toulon, Geneva and Gothenburg. A Red Cross representative said that they were not perishable and could be used for distressed civilians and as a flexible reserve.
British food parcels
During World War II, The British Joint War Organisation sent standard food parcels, invalid food parcels, medical supplies, educational books and recreational materials to prisoners of war worldwide. During the conflict, over 20 million standard food parcels were sent. Typical contents of such a parcel included:
packet of tea
Tin of cocoa powder
Bar of milk or plain chocolate (often Cadbury Dairy Milk Fruit & Nut chocolate, or a similar product)
Tinned pudding
Tin of meat roll
Tin of processed cheese
Tin of condensed milk (Klim—a Canadian instant milk beverage—or else Carnation or Nestle brand)
Tin of dried eggs
Tin of sardines or herrings
Tin of preserve
Tin of margarine
Tin of sugar
Tin of vegetables
Tin of biscuits
Bar of soap
Tin of 50 cigarettes or tobacco (sent separately—usually Player's brand cigarettes, or Digger flake pipe tobacco).
The Scottish Red Cross parcels were the only ones to contain rolled oats. Approximately 163,000 parcels were made up each week during World War II.
Sometimes, due to the shortage of parcels, two or even four prisoners would be compelled to share the contents of one Red Cross parcel.
American food parcels
The American Red Cross produced 27,000,000 parcels. Even before America entered the war in late 1941, they were supplying, through Geneva, parcels to British, Belgian, French, Polish, Yugoslav, Dutch, Greek, Norwegian, and Soviet prisoners of war. The Philadelphia centre alone was producing 100,000 parcels a month in 1942. A list of the contents of a typical Red Cross parcel received by an American airman held prisoner in Stalag Luft I near Barth, Germany on the Baltic Sea:
can of powdered milk
One package ten assorted cookies
can of oleo margarine
package of cube sugar
package of Kraft cheese
package of K-ration biscuits
can of coffee
Two D-ration chocolate bars
can of jam or peanut butter
can of salmon or tuna
can of Spam or corned beef
can of Liver paté
package of raisins or prunes
Five packages of cigarettes
Seven Vitamin-C tablets
Two bars of soap
of C-ration vegetable soup concentrate.
According to this airman, recipients of these parcels were permitted to keep only the cigarettes and chocolate bars; the remainder of the parcel was turned over to the camp cook, who combined them with the contents of other parcels and German POW rations (usually bread, barley, potatoes, cabbage and horse meat) to create daily meals for the prisoners.
Cigarettes in the parcels became the preferred medium of exchange within the camp, with each individual cigarette valued at 27 cents within Stalag Luft I. Similar practices were followed in other POW camps, as well. Cigarettes were also used to bribe German guards to provide the prisoners with outside items that would otherwise have been unavailable to them. Tins of coffee, which were hard to come by in Germany late in the war, served this same purpose in many camps. Contents of these packages were sometimes pilfered by German guards or other camp personnel, especially toward the end of the war.
Canadian food parcels
The Canadian Red Cross reported assembling and shipping nearly 16,500,000 food parcels during the Second World War, at a cost of $47,529,000. The Canadian Red Cross Prisoners of War Parcels Committee was led by Chairman Harold H. Leather, M.B.E., of Hamilton, Ontario and Vice Chairman John Draper Perrin of Winnipeg, Manitoba. Contents of the Canadian parcel included:
of milk powder
of butter
of cheese
of corned beef
of pork luncheon meat
of salmon
of sardines or kippers
of dried apples
of dried prunes or raisins
of sugar
of jam or honey
of pilot biscuits
of chocolate
of salt and pepper (mustard, onion powder and other condiments were also sometimes enclosed)
of tea or coffee
of soap.
Parcels did vary; those delivered to the Channel Islands by the SS Vega in 1945 contained slightly different quantities, both raisins and prunes, and marmalade instead of jam.
New Zealand food parcels
The New Zealand Red Cross Society provided 1,139,624 parcels during the war period, packed by 1,500 volunteers. Prisoners parcels included:
of tea
can of corned mutton
can of lamb and green peas
of chocolate
of butter
of coffee and milk
of sugar
of peas
of jam
of condensed milk
of cheese
of raisins.
Unlike the American and British parcels, Canadian and New Zealand Red Cross parcels did not include cigarettes or tobacco.
Indian food parcels
Indian parcels, supplied by the Indian Red Cross Society contained:
fruit in syrup
lentils
toilet soap
flour
8 biscuits
margarine
Nestle's Milk
rice
pilchard
curry powder
sugar
dried eggs
tea
salt
chocolate
Indian parcels did not contain meat or tobacco products.
Argentinian bulk parcel
The Argentinian Red Cross provided parcels containing:
bully beef
meat and veg
ragout
corned mutton
pork and beans
butter
lard
honey
jam
milk jam
condensed milk
sugar
cheese
biscuits
pea and lentil flour
chocolate
cocoa
tea
1 soap
dried fruit
South African parcels
From the British South African Red Cross.
Invalid Food Parcels
Invalid parcels were specifically designed for invalids, i.e. disabled or ill prisoners. The contents varied, but what appears to be a British one contained:
2 tins Yeatex
3 tins concentrated soup powder
1 tin gooseberries
1 tin Horlicks
1 tin Ovaltine
1 tin milk powder
2 tins dried eggs
1 block of chocolate
1 tin cheese
1 tin condensed milk
2 tins compressed oats
tea
1 tin creamed rice
1 tin Rowntree's cocoa
1 tin lemon curd
Food parcels in the Pacific theater
In 1942, permission was granted by Japan for a diplomatically neutral ship, after Japan refused to permit a Red Cross ship to be deployed, to be dispatched to distribute the parcels. A Swedish vessel, the MS Gripsholm delivered 20,000 Red Cross parcels from Canada, America and South Africa and in addition a consignment of 1,000,000 cigarettes. A second voyage was refused.
The Japanese government in August 1942 announced that no neutral ship, even a Red Cross ship, would be allowed to enter Japanese waters. Red Cross parcels intended for Allied POWs in Japan were accordingly stockpiled in Vladivostok, Soviet Union, and a single ship was ultimately permitted to transport some of these to Japan in November 1944, which, in turn were carried by the Japanese vessel Awa Maru, carrying Red Cross markings, in March, 1945, to Singapore. How many of these actually reached the POWs is not known, and the sinking of the Awa Maru on the return trip by a US submarine prevented any future shipments from being made.
At the Changi prison camp run by the Japanese in Singapore, an average POW received a fraction of one food parcel in the three-and-a half years that the camp was open.
Food parcels in the German Concentration Camps
In November 1943, the Red Cross received permission from Nazi German authorities to send Red Cross parcels to inmates of concentration camps, but only to those whose names and specific locations were known. By May 1945, 105,000 specific individuals had been identified. About 1,112,000 parcels containing 4,500 tons of food were ultimately sent to the camps, including those at Dachau, Buchenwald, Ravensbrück, Sachsenhausen, Theresienstadt and Auschwitz. In addition to food, these parcels also contained clothing and pharmaceutical items.
German POWs after World War II
Three months after the German surrender in May 1945, General Dwight Eisenhower issued an order classifying all surrendered soldiers within the American Zone of Occupation as Disarmed Enemy Forces, rather than Prisoners of War. Accordingly, the Red Cross was denied the right to visit German POWs in American prison camps, and delivery of Red Cross parcels to them was forbidden. In the spring of 1946, the International Red Cross was finally allowed to provide limited amounts of food aid to prisoners of war in the U.S. occupation zone.
Postwar study on Red Cross parcels and Canadian POWs
The Canadian government conducted a detailed study of the effect of the Red Cross parcels on the health and morale of Canadian POWs shortly after the end of World War II. Over 5,000 former POWs were interviewed, and Canadian authorities determined that a significant number of soldiers did not get the intended one parcel per man per week; most had to make do with one-half of a parcel per week, or even less on some occasions. Soldiers were asked to state their preferences with regard to specific contents of the parcels: the most popular item turned out to be the biscuits, with butter a close second, followed (in order) by meat, milk (powdered and other), chocolate, cigarettes, tea, jam, cereals, cheese and coffee. The Canadian parcel was preferred to British, American or New Zealand-issued parcels, claiming that the Canadian parcels had "greater bulk", "lasted longer", and/or had "more food".
With regard to especially disliked foods, the Canadian respondents (over 4,200 of the interviewed POWs) expressed the greatest distaste for the vegetables and fish enclosed in the food parcels (about fifteen percent of the total number of respondents), followed (in order) by condiments, egg powder, cereals, fat, cheese, desserts, sweets, beverages, jams, biscuits and milk. However, except for the first two items on that list, all of these were named by only a minuscule percentage of the total number of respondents.
Parcels from Red Cross organisations in occupied countries
Belgium sent parcels to their POWs and in addition, family members could send parcels.
Denmark sent parcels to Danish citizens incarcerated in Nazi concentration camps.
France sent parcels to their POWs and in addition, family members could send parcels.
Red Cross medical kits
American
A second type of parcel delivered through the Red Cross during World War II was the Red Cross Prisoner of War First Aid Safety Kit, which was supplied by the American Red Cross for distribution through the International Committee. Such parcels generally held the following items:
A twelve-page booklet with instructions on the use of the enclosed medical supplies, printed in English, French, German, Polish and Serbo-Croatian
Ten packages of sterilised gauze, in two different sizes
One package containing 500 laxative pills
Two packages containing 500 aspirin tablets each
Twelve gauze bandages
Two cans of insecticide powder
Four tubes of boric acid antiseptic ointment
Two packages containing 500 sodium bicarbonate tablets each
Two tubes of Salicylic ointment (for treatment of athlete's foot and similar fungal diseases)
Two tubes of Mercuric antiseptic ointment
Four tubes of sulphur ointment (for treatment of skin diseases)
One box containing 100 Band-Aids
Two rolls of adhesive tape
Two packages of absorbent cotton
Safety pins, forceps, soap, disinfectants and scissors.
Other kits issued to some POWs through the American Red Cross contained a few differences in contents, but were generally similar to the above.
British
The British Red Cross also supplied Medical Parcels to Allied PoWs during the war. Prior to 15 June 1942, these kits generally consisted of:
A general parcel containing cotton wool, safety pins, soap, aspirin tablets and ointment
A disinfectant parcel
Special parcels containing thermometers and dressing scissors.
After 15 June 1942, the British kits' contents changed. The new kits contained:
An invalid food unit consisting of two parcels – milk and food
A medical stores unit consisting of four parcels:
"Medical 1" contained soap and disinfectant
"Medical 2" contained sodium bicarbonate, Dover's powder, lung balsam, ferric subsulfate solution, zinc ointment, cascara, zinc oxide powder, formalin throat tablets, ammoniated mercury ointment, flexoplast, lint, cotton wool, gauze, Vitamin-C tablets, pile ointment, sulphapyridine tablets, magnesium trisilicate, and oxide plaster
"Medical 3 and 4" contained additional quantities of the supplies found in "Medical 2", adding to them kaoline poultice, Vitamin A and Vitamin D tablets, TCP (antiseptic), aspirin, Bemax, sulphanilamide and toilet paper.
In addition, German and Italian authorities sometimes permitted British prisoner hospitals to procure equipment from England via the Red Cross, including microscopes, sterilisers, material for manufacturing artificial limbs, medical instruments, vaccines, drugs and even games and other recreational materials.
Release parcels
The American Red Cross provided a special "release parcel" to some Allied POWs upon their initial release from enemy captivity. These parcels included:
Razor
Razor blades
Shaving cream
Toothbrush
Toothpaste
Pencil
Comb
Socks
Cigarettes
Handkerchiefs
Playing cards
Stationery
Book
Hard candy
Chewing gum
Face cloth
Cigarette case with the American Red Cross emblem imprinted on it.
These kits were distributed as follows: 71,400 to France; 10,000 to the Soviet Union; 9,500 to Italy; 5,000 to Egypt; and 4,000 to the Philippines.
Modern Red Cross parcels
Following the collapse of the former Soviet Union in 1991, many pensioners in the newly independent nation of Georgia were left destitute by the resulting collapse of the Georgian economy and the inability of their meager pensions to keep up with inflation. The Red Cross, with the financial support of the German government, assisted approximately 500,000 of these mostly elderly people with food parcels over a seven-year period during the 1990s. As of 2001, more than 12,000 were still dependent upon Red Cross food assistance.
Food parcels were also distributed by the Red Cross of Thailand during Red Shirt Movement disturbances in 2006 in Bangkok, and to British victims of flooding in Gloucestershire in 2007. The British package contained:
Five tins of canned fruit
One loaf of longlife bread
Two packets of rye crackers
Three cartons of long-life milk
One jar of savoury spread
Three packets of plain biscuits
Three tins of fish
Three tins of meat
Five tins of potatoes
Two jars of sandwich spread
Two packs of cereal bars
One flashlight, batteries, toilet paper, and one tube of sanitiser hand gel.
See also
A. Y. G. Campbell, contributed to the creation of Red Cross Food Parcels
Disaster relief
References
books
External links
Final Report on the Canadian Red Cross Food Parcels for Prisoners of War Contains detailed information on particular "likes" and "dislikes" expressed by a group of Canadian World War II ex-PoWs with regard to the contents of Red Cross parcels.
Supplementary Rations for Prisoners of War Contains detailed description of contents of various American Red Cross parcels sent to the European and Asian theater during World War II.
International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement
Economic aid during World War II
World War I
Humanitarian aid
Prisons
Emergency management
Humanitarian military operations |
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