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1491198 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Session%20border%20controller | Session border controller | A session border controller (SBC) is a network element deployed to protect SIP based voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) networks.
Early deployments of SBCs were focused on the borders between two service provider networks in a peering environment. This role has now expanded to include significant deployments between a service provider's access network and a backbone network to provide service to residential and/or enterprise customers.
The term "session" refers to a communication between two or more parties – in the context of telephony, this would be a call. Each call consists of one or more call signaling message exchanges that control the call, and one or more call media streams which carry the call's audio, video, or other data along with information of call statistics and quality. Together, these streams make up a session. It is the job of a session border controller to exert influence over the data flows of sessions.
The term "border" refers to a point of demarcation between one part of a network and another. As a simple example, at the edge of a corporate network, a firewall demarcates the local network (inside the corporation) from the rest of the Internet (outside the corporation). A more complex example is that of a large corporation where different departments have security needs for each location and perhaps for each kind of data. In this case, filtering routers or other network elements are used to control the flow of data streams. It is the job of a session border controller to assist policy administrators in managing the flow of session data across these borders.
The term "controller" refers to the influence that session border controllers have on the data streams that comprise sessions, as they traverse borders between one part of a network and another. Additionally, session border controllers often provide measurement, access control, and data conversion facilities for the calls they control.
Functions
SBCs commonly maintain full session state and offer the following functions:
Security – protect the network and other devices from:
Malicious attacks such as a denial-of-service attack (DoS) or distributed DoS
Toll fraud via rogue media streams
Malformed packet protection
Encryption of signaling (via TLS and IPSec) and media (SRTP)
Connectivity – allow different parts of the network to communicate through the use of a variety of techniques such as:
NAT traversal
SIP normalization via SIP message and header manipulation
IPv4 to IPv6 interworking
VPN connectivity
Protocol translations between SIP, SIP-I, H.323
Quality of service – the QoS policy of a network and prioritization of flows is usually implemented by the SBC. It can include such functions as:
Traffic policing
Resource allocation
Rate limiting
Call admission control
ToS/DSCP bit setting
Regulatory – many times the SBC is expected to provide support for regulatory requirements such as:
emergency calls prioritization and
lawful interception
Media services – many of the new generation of SBCs also provide built-in digital signal processors (DSPs) to enable them to offer border-based media control and services such as:
DTMF relay and interworking
Media transcoding
Tones and announcements
Data and fax interworking
Support for voice and video calls
Statistics and billing information – since all sessions that pass through the edge of the network pass through the SBC, it is a natural point to gather statistics and usage-based information on these sessions.
With the advent of WebRTC some SBCs have also assumed the role of SIP to WebRTC Gateway and translate SIP. While no one signalling protocol is mandated by the WebRTC specifications, SIP over WebSockets (RFC 7118) is often used partially due to the applicability of SIP to most of the envisaged communication scenarios as well as the availability of open source software such as JsSIP. In such a case the SBC acts as a gateway between the WebRTC applications and SIP end points.
Applications
SBCs are inserted into the signaling and/or media paths between calling and called parties in a VoIP call, predominantly those using the Session Initiation Protocol (SIP), H.323, and MGCP call-signaling protocols.
In many cases the SBC hides the network topology and protects the service provider or enterprise packet networks. The SBC terminates an inbound call and initiates the second call leg to the destination party. In technical terms, when used with the SIP protocol, this defines a back-to-back user agent (B2BUA). The effect of this behavior is that not only the signaling traffic, but also the media traffic (voice, video) is controlled by the SBC. In cases where the SBC does not have the capability to provide media services, SBCs are also able to redirect media traffic to a different element elsewhere in the network, for recording, generation of music-on-hold, or other media-related purposes. Conversely, without an SBC, the media traffic travels directly between the endpoints, without the in-network call signaling elements having control over their path.
In other cases, the SBC simply modifies the stream of call control (signaling) data involved in each call, perhaps limiting the kinds of calls that can be conducted, changing the codec choices, and so on. Ultimately, SBCs allow the network operators to manage the calls that are made on their networks, fix or change protocols and protocol syntax to achieve interoperability, and also overcome some of the problems that firewalls and network address translators (NATs) present for VoIP calls.
To show the operation of an SBC, one can compare a simple call establishment sequence with a call establishment sequence with an SBC. In the simplest session establishment sequence with only one proxy between the user agents the proxy’s task is to identify the callee’s location and forward the request to it. The proxy also adds a Via header with its own address to indicate the path that the response should traverse. The proxy does not change any dialog identification information present in the message such as the tag in the From header, the Call-Id or the Cseq. Proxies also do not alter any information in the SIP message bodies. Note that during the session initiation phase the user agents exchange SIP messages with the SDP bodies that include addresses at which the agents expect the media traffic. After successfully finishing the session initiation phase the user agents can exchange the media traffic directly between each other without the involvement of the proxy.
SBCs are designed for many applications and are used by operators and enterprises to achieve a variety of goals. Even the same SBC implementation might act differently depending on its configuration and the use case. Hence, it is not easily possible to describe an exact SBC behavior that would apply to all SBC implementations. In general it is possible to identify certain features that are common to SBCs. For example, most SBCs are implemented as back-to-back user agent.
A B2BUA is a proxy-like server that splits a SIP transaction in two call legs: on the side facing the user agent client (UAC), it acts as server, on the side facing user agent server (UAS) it acts as a client. While a proxy usually keeps only state information related to active transactions, B2BUAs keep state information about active dialogs, e.g., calls. That is, once a proxy receives a SIP request it will save some state information. Once the transaction is over, e.g., after receiving a response, the state information will soon after be deleted. A B2BUA will maintain state information for active calls and only delete this information once the call is terminated.
When an SBC is included in the call path, the SBC acts as a B2BUA that behaves as a user agent server towards the caller and as user agent client towards the callee. In this sense, the SBC actually terminates that call that was generated by the caller and starts a new call towards the callee. The INVITE message sent by the SBC contains no longer a clear reference to the caller. The INVITE sent by the SBC to the proxy includes Via and Contact headers that point to the SBC itself and not the caller. SBCs often also manipulate the dialog identification information listed in the Call-Id and From tag. Further, in case the SBC is configured to also control the media traffic then the SBC also changes the media addressing information included in the c and m lines of the SDP body. Thereby, not only will all SIP messages traverse the SBC but also all audio and video packets. As the INVITE sent by the SBC establishes a new dialog, the SBC also manipulates the message sequence number (CSeq) as well the Max-Forwards value.
Note that the list of header manipulations listed here is only a subset of the possible changes that an SBC might introduce to a SIP message. Furthermore, some SBCs might not do all of the listed manipulations. If the SBC is not expected to control the media traffic then there might be no need to change anything in the SDP body. Some SBCs do not change the dialog identification information and others might even not change the addressing information.
SBCs are often used by corporations along with firewalls and intrusion prevention systems (IPS) to enable VoIP calls to and from a protected enterprise network. VoIP service providers use SBCs to allow the use of VoIP protocols from private networks with Internet connections using NAT, and also to implement strong security measures that are necessary to maintain a high quality of service. SBCs also replace the function of application-level gateways. In larger enterprises, SBCs can also be used in conjunction with SIP trunks to provide call control and make routing/policy decisions on how calls are routed through the LAN/WAN. There are often tremendous cost savings associated with routing traffic through the internal IP networks of an enterprise, rather than routing calls through a traditional circuit-switched phone network.
Additionally, some SBCs can allow VoIP calls to be set up between two phones using different VoIP signaling protocols (e.g., SIP, H.323, Megaco/MGCP) as well as performing transcoding of the media stream when different codecs are in use. Most SBCs also provide firewall features for VoIP traffic (denial of service protection, call filtering, bandwidth management). Protocol normalization and header manipulation is also commonly provided by SBCs, enabling communication between different vendors and networks.
From an IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) or 3GPP (3rd Generation Partnership Project) architecture perspective, the SBC is the integration of the P-CSCF and IMS-ALG at the signaling plane and the IMS Access Gateway at the media plane on the access side. On the interconnect side, the SBC maps to the IBCF, IWF at the signaling plane and TrGW (Transition Gateway) at the media plane.
From an IMS/TISPAN architecture perspective, the SBC is the integration of the P-CSCF and C-BGF functions on the access side, and the IBCF, IWF, THIG, and I-BGF functions on the peering side. Some SBCs can be "decomposed", meaning the signaling functions can be located on a separate hardware platform than the media relay functions – in other words the P-CSCF can be separated from the C-BGF, or the IBCF/IWF can be separated from the I-BGF functions physically. Standards-based protocol, such as the H.248 Ia profile, can be used by the signaling platform to control the media one while a few SBCs use proprietary protocols.
Controversy
During its infancy, the concept of SBC was controversial to proponents of end-to-end systems and peer-to-peer networking because:
SBCs can extend the length of the media path (the way of media packets through the network) significantly. A long media path is undesirable, as it increases the delay of voice packets and the probability of packet loss. Both effects deteriorate the voice/video quality. However, many times there are obstacles to communication such as firewalls between the call parties, and in these cases SBCs offer an efficient method to guide media streams towards an acceptable path between caller and callee; without the SBC the call media would be blocked. Some SBCs can detect if the ends of the call are in the same subnetwork and release control of the media enabling it to flow directly between the clients, this is anti-tromboning or media release. Also, some SBCs can create a media path where none would otherwise be allowed to exist (by virtue of various firewalls and other security apparatus between the two endpoints). Lastly, for specific VoIP network models where the service provider owns the network, SBCs can actually decrease the media path by shortcut routing approaches. For example, a service provider that provides trunking services to several enterprises would usually allocate each enterprise a VPN. It is often desirable to have the option to interconnect the VPN through SBCs. A VPN-aware SBC may perform this function at the edge of the VPN network, rather than sending all the traffic to the core.
SBCs has the potential to restrict the flow of information between call endpoints, restricting end-to-end transparency. VoIP phones may not be able to use new protocol features unless they are understood by the SBC. However, the SBCs are usually able to cope with the majority of new, and unanticipated protocol features.
Sometimes end-to-end encryption can't be used if the SBC does not have the key, although some portions of the information stream in an encrypted call are not encrypted, and those portions can be used and influenced by the SBC. However, the new generations of SBCs, armed with sufficient computing capacity, are able to offload this encryption function from other elements in the network by terminating SIP-TLS, IPsec, and/or SRTP. Furthermore, SBCs can actually make calls and other SIP scenarios work when they couldn't have before, by performing specific protocol "normalization" or "fix-up".
In most cases, far-end or hosted NAT traversal can be done without SBCs if the VoIP phones support protocols like STUN, TURN, ICE, or Universal Plug and Play (UPnP).
Most of the controversy surrounding SBCs pertains to whether call control should remain solely with the two endpoints in a call (in service to their owners), or should rather be shared with other network elements owned by the organizations managing various networks involved in connecting the two call endpoints. For example, should call control remain with Alice and Bob (two callers), or should call control be shared with the operators of all the IP networks involved in connecting Alice and Bob's VoIP phones together. The debate of this point was vigorous, almost religious, in nature. Those who wanted unfettered control in the endpoints only, were also greatly frustrated by the various realities of modern networks, such as firewalls and filtering/throttling. On the other side, network operators are typically concerned about overall network performance, interoperability and quality, and want to ensure it is secure.
Lawful intercept and CALEA
An SBC may provide session media (usually RTP) and signaling (often SIP) wiretap services, which can be used by providers to enforce requests for the lawful interception of network sessions. Standards for the interception of such services are provided by ATIS, TIA, CableLabs and ETSI, among others.
History and market
According to Jonathan Rosenberg, the author of RFC 3261 (SIP) and numerous other related RFCs, Dynamicsoft developed the first working SBC in conjunction with Aravox, but the product never truly gained marketshare. .
Newport Networks was the first to have an IPO on the London Stock Exchange's AIM in May 2004 (NNG), while Cisco has been publicly traded since 1990. Acme Packet followed in October 2006 by floating on the NASDAQ. With the field narrowed by acquisition, NexTone merged with Reefpoint becoming Nextpoint, which was subsequently acquired in 2008 by Genband. At this same time, there emerged the “integrated” SBC where the border control function was integrated into another edge device. In 2009, Ingate Systems’ Firewall became the first SBC to earn certification from ICSA Labs, a milestone in certifying the VoIP security capabilities of an SBC.
The continuing growth of VoIP networks pushes SBCs further to the edge, mandating adaptation in capacity and complexity. As the VoIP network grows and traffic volume increases, more and more sessions are passing through SBC. Vendors are addressing these new scale requirements in a variety of ways. Some have developed separate, load balancing systems to sit in front of SBC clusters. Others, have developed new architectures using the latest generation chipsets offering higher performance SBCs and scalability using service cards.
See also
Firewall (computing)
IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS)
3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE)
Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)
Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS)
SIP Trunking
References
Voice over IP
Computer network security |
323538 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POS | POS | POS, Pos or PoS may refer to:
Linguistics
Part of speech, the role that a word or phrase plays in a sentence
Poverty of the stimulus, a linguistic term used in language acquisition and development
Sayula Popoluca (ISO 639-3), an indigenous language spoken in Veracruz, Mexico
Music
P.O.S (rapper) (born 1981), or Stefon Alexander, American hip hop artist
Pain of Salvation, Swedish progressive metal band
Posdnuos (born 1969), or Kelvin Mercer, New York hip-hop artist
Places
Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago
Piarco International Airport (IATA code), Piarco, Trinidad and Tobago
Pomona (Amtrak station) (Amtrak station code), California, US
Science and technology
Political opportunity structure, an approach to explain social movements
Polycystic ovary syndrome, a disease of the ovaries
Probability of success, in statistics
Product of sums, a canonical form in Boolean algebra
Computing
P/OS, operating system of DEC Professional PCs from Digital Equipment Corporation
Packet over SONET/SDH, a communications protocol for transferring packets over fiber networks
PERQ Operating System, operating system for PERQ workstations
Proof-of-stake, a cryptocurrency blockchain distributed consensus method
Transportation
Post Office Sorting Van, a type of rail vehicle used in a Travelling Post Office train
SNCF TGV POS, a French high-speed train
Other uses
Phi Omega Sigma (disambiguation), a Greek name for any of five different student organizations
Piece of shit, a phrase considered vulgar and profane in Modern English
Point of sale, location where payment is accepted
Point of service plan, a type of managed care health insurance plan in the US
Polytechnic Secondary School (Polytechnische Oberschule), the 10-year general educational system in East Germany
Priory of Sion, a fictitious secret society
Public open space, a planning term for an outdoor public forum
See also
Post Office Square (disambiguation) |
11875 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU | GNU | GNU () is an extensive collection of free software (383 packages as of January 2022), which can be used as an operating system or can be used in parts with other operating systems. The use of the completed GNU tools led to the family of operating systems popularly known as Linux. Most of GNU is licensed under the GNU Project's own General Public License (GPL).
GNU is also the project within which the free software concept originated. Richard Stallman, the founder of the project, views GNU as a "technical means to a social end". Relatedly, Lawrence Lessig states in his introduction to the second edition of Stallman's book Free Software, Free Society that in it Stallman has written about "the social aspects of software and how Free Software can create community and social justice".
Name
GNU is a recursive acronym for "GNU's Not Unix!", chosen because GNU's design is Unix-like, but differs from Unix by being free software and containing no Unix code. Stallman chose the name by using various plays on words, including the song The Gnu.
History
Development of the GNU operating system was initiated by Richard Stallman while he worked at MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory. It was called the GNU Project, and was publicly announced on September 27, 1983, on the net.unix-wizards and net.usoft newsgroups by Stallman. Software development began on January 5, 1984, when Stallman quit his job at the Lab so that they could not claim ownership or interfere with distributing GNU components as free software.
The goal was to bring a completely free software operating system into existence. Stallman wanted computer users to be free to study the source code of the software they use, share software with other people, modify the behavior of software, and publish their modified versions of the software. This philosophy was published as the GNU Manifesto in March 1985.
Richard Stallman's experience with the Incompatible Timesharing System (ITS), an early operating system written in assembly language that became obsolete due to discontinuation of PDP-10, the computer architecture for which ITS was written, led to a decision that a portable system was necessary. It was thus decided that the development would be started using C and Lisp as system programming languages, and that GNU would be compatible with Unix. At the time, Unix was already a popular proprietary operating system. The design of Unix was modular, so it could be reimplemented piece by piece.
Much of the needed software had to be written from scratch, but existing compatible third-party free software components were also used such as the TeX typesetting system, the X Window System, and the Mach microkernel that forms the basis of the GNU Mach core of GNU Hurd (the official kernel of GNU). With the exception of the aforementioned third-party components, most of GNU has been written by volunteers; some in their spare time, some paid by companies, educational institutions, and other non-profit organizations. In October 1985, Stallman set up the Free Software Foundation (FSF). In the late 1980s and 1990s, the FSF hired software developers to write the software needed for GNU.
As GNU gained prominence, interested businesses began contributing to development or selling GNU software and technical support. The most prominent and successful of these was Cygnus Solutions, now part of Red Hat.
Components
The system's basic components include the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC), the GNU C library (glibc), and GNU Core Utilities (coreutils), but also the GNU Debugger (GDB), GNU Binary Utilities (binutils), the GNU Bash shell. GNU developers have contributed to Linux ports of GNU applications and utilities, which are now also widely used on other operating systems such as BSD variants, Solaris and macOS.
Many GNU programs have been ported to other operating systems, including proprietary platforms such as Microsoft Windows and macOS. GNU programs have been shown to be more reliable than their proprietary Unix counterparts.
As of January 2022, there are a total of 459 GNU packages (including decommissioned, 383 excluding) hosted on the official GNU development site.
GNU as an operating system
In its original meaning, and one still common in hardware engineering, the operating system is a basic set of functions to control the hardware and manage things like task scheduling and system calls. In modern terminology used by software developers, the collection of these functions is usually referred to as a kernel, while an 'operating system' is expected to have a more extensive set of programmes. The GNU project maintains two kernels itself, allowing the creation of pure GNU operating systems, but the GNU toolchain is also used with non-GNU kernels. Due to the two different definitions of the term 'operating system', there is an ongoing debate concerning the naming of distributions of GNU packages with a non-GNU kernel. (See below.)
With kernels maintained by GNU and FSF
GNU Hurd
The original kernel of GNU Project is the GNU Hurd microkernel, which was the original focus of the Free Software Foundation (FSF).
With the April 30, 2015 release of the Debian GNU/Hurd 2015 distro, GNU now provides all required components to assemble an operating system that users can install and use on a computer.
However, the Hurd kernel is not yet considered production-ready but rather a base for further development and non-critical application usage.
Linux-libre
As of 2012, a fork of the Linux kernel became officially part of the GNU Project in the form of Linux-libre, a variant of Linux with all proprietary components removed.
The GNU Project has endorsed Linux-libre distributions, such as gNewSense, Trisquel and Parabola GNU/Linux-libre.
With non-GNU kernels
Because of the development status of Hurd, GNU is usually paired with other kernels such as Linux or FreeBSD. Whether the combination of GNU libraries with external kernels is a GNU operating system with a kernel (e.g. GNU with Linux), because the GNU collection renders the kernel into a usable operating system as understood in modern software development, or whether the kernel is an operating system unto itself with a GNU layer on top (i.e. Linux with GNU), because the kernel can operate a machine without GNU, is a matter of ongoing debate. The FSF maintains that an operating system built using the Linux kernel and GNU tools and utilities should be considered a variant of GNU, and promotes the term GNU/Linux for such systems (leading to the GNU/Linux naming controversy). This view is not exclusive to the FSF. Notably, Debian, one of the biggest and oldest Linux distributions, refers to itself as Debian GNU/Linux.
Copyright, GNU licenses, and stewardship
The GNU Project recommends that contributors assign the copyright for GNU packages to the Free Software Foundation, though the Free Software Foundation considers it acceptable to release small changes to an existing project to the public domain. However, this is not required; package maintainers may retain copyright to the GNU packages they maintain, though since only the copyright holder may enforce the license used (such as the GNU GPL), the copyright holder in this case enforces it rather than the Free Software Foundation.
For the development of needed software, Stallman wrote a license called the GNU General Public License (first called Emacs General Public License), with the goal to guarantee users freedom to share and change free software. Stallman wrote this license after his experience with James Gosling and a program called UniPress, over a controversy around software code use in the GNU Emacs program. For most of the 80s, each GNU package had its own license: the Emacs General Public License, the GCC General Public License, etc. In 1989, FSF published a single license they could use for all their software, and which could be used by non-GNU projects: the GNU General Public License (GPL).
This license is now used by most of GNU software, as well as a large number of free software programs that are not part of the GNU Project; it also historically has been the most commonly used free software license (though recently challenged by the MIT license). It gives all recipients of a program the right to run, copy, modify and distribute it, while forbidding them from imposing further restrictions on any copies they distribute. This idea is often referred to as copyleft.
In 1991, the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL), then known as the Library General Public License, was written for the GNU C Library to allow it to be linked with proprietary software. 1991 also saw the release of version 2 of the GNU GPL. The GNU Free Documentation License (FDL), for documentation, followed in 2000. The GPL and LGPL were revised to version 3 in 2007, adding clauses to protect users against hardware restrictions that prevent users from running modified software on their own devices.
Besides GNU's packages, the GNU Project's licenses are used by many unrelated projects, such as the Linux kernel, often used with GNU software. A minority of the software used by most of Linux distributions, such as the X Window System, is licensed under permissive free software licenses.
Logo
The logo for GNU is a gnu head. Originally drawn by Etienne Suvasa, a bolder and simpler version designed by Aurelio Heckert is now preferred. It appears in GNU software and in printed and electronic documentation for the GNU Project, and is also used in Free Software Foundation materials.
There was also a modified version of the official logo. It was created by the Free Software Foundation in September 2013 in order to commemorate the 30th anniversary of the GNU Project.
See also
Free software movement
History of free and open-source software
List of computing mascots
:Category:Computing mascots
References
External links
Ports of GNU utilities for Microsoft Windows
The daemon, the GNU and the penguin
Free software operating systems
GNU Project
GNU Project software
Mach (kernel)
Microkernel-based operating systems
Unix variants
Acronyms |
18375403 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1988%20Notre%20Dame%20Fighting%20Irish%20football%20team | 1988 Notre Dame Fighting Irish football team | The 1988 Notre Dame Fighting Irish football team represented the University of Notre Dame during the 1988 NCAA Division I-A football season. The Irish, coached by Lou Holtz, ended the season with 12 wins and no losses, winning the national championship. The Fighting Irish won the title by defeating the previously unbeaten and No. 3 ranked West Virginia Mountaineers in the Sunkist Fiesta Bowl in Tempe, Arizona, by a score of a 34–21. The 1988 squad, one of 11 national title squads for the Irish, is considered to be one of the best undefeated teams in the history of college football. The Irish beat the teams which finished the season ranked #2, #4, #5, and #7 in the AP Poll. They also won 10 of 12 games by double digits. The 1988 squad is best remembered for its 31-30 upset of No. 1 ranked Miami, ending their 36-game regular season winning streak. The game is remembered to this day as one of the most memorable games in all of college football.
Schedule
Personnel
Rankings
Game summaries
Michigan
13th ranked Notre Dame debuted its season against No. 9 Michigan in Notre Dame Stadium. In a 19-17 thriller, walk-on kicker Reggie Ho kicked a 26-yard field goal winner with 1:13 remaining. Lou Holtz's concerns about his youthful offense and green receivers were realized as the Irish offense did not score a single offensive touchdown. In addition to Reggie Ho's game winner, the Irish kicker scored 3 other field goals. The lone touchdown from Notre Dame came from a Ricky Watters punt return, an 81-yard runback. Michigan's Mike Gillette, who had given the Wolverines the lead with 5:34 left by kicking a 49-yard field goal, had one final chance to give Michigan the win, narrowly missing from 48 yards as the final gun sounded.
at Michigan State
MSU threatened Notre Dame early with a 1st-quarter field goal, but that would be the only points of the day the Notre Dame defense would allow as the Irish downed MSU 20-3. Notre Dame struggled early in the contest, accumulating only 50 yards running on 21 carries. Reggie Ho tied the game with 31-yarder in the second quarter and put the Irish ahead 6-3 at the half with a 22-yard field goal. The second half was a different story for the Irish offense, as quarterback Tony Rice and company amassed 195 yards on 33 carries in the second half. 156 yards came on 19 carries in the third quarter alone. Tony Rice ran for an 8-yard touchdown and Michael Stonebreaker added a 39-yard interception return for a touchdown in the final quarter to end any hopes of a Spartan upset. The star of the game was Notre Dame's defense, which held the Spartans to 89 yards rushing for the game. Running back Mark Green led the Irish rushing attack with 125 yards on the ground.
Purdue
Source:
Tony Rice passed for two touchdowns and ran for another as Notre Dame shredded Purdue 52-7. It was one of the worst losses by Purdue in the history of the series, and its worst loss since a 48-0 drubbing in 1970. Notre Dame scored early and often, starting with a 38-yard Rice option run for a touchdown. Tony Rice's first passing touchdown on the year was an 8-yarder to freshman tight end Derek Brown. The Irish exploded for 28 points in the second quarter, highlighted by a 54-yard Rice touchdown pass to Rocket Ismail. Tailback Mark Green added a 7-yard touchdown run and Ricky Watters returned a punt 66 yards for a score. Coach Lou Holtz used three separate quarterbacks in the second quarter and four total in the game. 3rd-string quarterback Steve Belles hit running back Tony Brooks for a 34-yard score to put the Irish up 42-0 at half-time. The second half saw the Irish score ten points with back-ups, a 44-yard field goal by Billy Hackett and a 36-yard run from freshman fullback Rodney Culver. Purdue's lone touchdown was a fourth quarter 7-yard pass from Brian Fox to Calvin Williams. The Irish improved to 3-0 while the Boilermakers dropped to 1-2 on the year.
Stanford
Tony Rice rushed for two touchdowns and passed for a third to lead the Fighting Irish to a 42-14 blowout of Stanford. Rice completed 11 of 14 passes for 129 yards and rushed for 107 yards. Rice scored runs of 30 yards and 6 yards while the Irish tailbacks added 3 other scores with touchdowns from Mark Green, Tony Brooks, and Anthony Johnson. Despite the lopsided score, Stanford did mount two of the longest scoring drives against the Irish to date, with a 68-yard drive by quarterback Brian Johnson and a 73-yard drive by back-up quarterback Jason Palumbis. Freshman standout tight end Derek Brown added the Irish's sole passing touchdown in the 3rd quarter. The Irish defense stymied the Cardinal, holding them to just 111 yards in the first half.
at Pittsburgh
Notre Dame, a loser to Pittsburgh three years in a row, narrowly avoided another such upset as the Irish improved to 5-0 on the season. The 30-20 victory in the rain did little to inspire confidence that Notre Dame could beat No. 1 Miami the following week. The Panthers made a number of critical mistakes that led the Panthers to believe they did more to lose the game more than Notre Dame did to win it.
"We could have won the game," said Panther coach Mike Gottfried, "but we made just enough mistakes to lose it."
Notre Dame struggled to contain Panther quarterback Darnell Dickerson, who at times had 10 seconds or more per play. The Panthers came out strong early, starting the game with an impressive drive, but before the Panthers could score, Irish cornerback Todd Lyght forced a fumble, which Chris Zorich recovered. After a stalled Irish drive, the Panthers got the ball back and took a 7-0 lead on a Dickerson touchdown. Notre Dame answered back with a 52-yard Tony Brooks run to the 2-yard line. The large run was the result of a failed Panther blitz attempt. Tony Rice scored on a 2-yard keeper to tie the game 7-7. After an Anthony Johnson touchdown gave the Irish a 14-7 lead, Dickerson scored his second touchdown to tie the game again at 14-14. Reggie Ho scored a 37-yard field goal to give the Irish a 17-14 half time lead.
The critical moment of the game came in the second half, when late into the fourth quarter the Irish were clinging to a 23-20 lead when the Panthers forced the Irish into a 4th and long from their own 23-yard line. But a late 12 men on the field penalty against the Panthers gave the Irish new life. The 15-yard penalty gave Notre Dame the ball on its 48-yard line, and 11 plays later Mark Green ran for an 8-yard touchdown with 4:30 left in the game to put victory out of reach for the Panthers. Tony Rice went 8-14 passing for the game and a third quarter Braxston Banks touchdown gave the Irish the lead for good.
Miami
Source:
The October 15, 1988, game between Notre Dame and the University of Miami Hurricanes is colloquially referred to as the Catholics vs. Convicts game. The University of Notre Dame was dubbed the "Catholics" and the University of Miami was dubbed as "the Convicts".
Air Force
A potential letdown after defeating No. 1 Miami the previous week never materialized for the now 2nd ranked Irish, who used a second half onslaught of power running to down the Falcons 41-13. Coach Holtz admitted he was scared all week of a potential upset of his young Notre Dame squad. Of main concern was Air Force's wishbone ground attack, which came into Notre Dame Stadium averaging 46 points and 432 rushing yards a game. Falcons coach Fisher DeBerry's squad had the best ground gaining offense in the nation. Holtz's fears seemed to be valid during the rain in the first half as Notre Dame only held a 7-point lead at the half.
Air Force opened the game with an impressive ground attack. Air Force quarterback Dee Dowis took his team inside the Irish 20 on the game's first offensive drive. But Pat Terrell, the defensive hero of last week's victory over Miami, stepped into the spotlight again, this time with Stan Smagala. Albert Booker, an Air Force halfback, was carrying the ball on second down when Smagala hit him hard. The ball popped free and Terrell recovered the fumble at the Notre Dame 16. After the turnover, Air Force answered with its first field goal by Steve Yarborough from 22 yards out. But Notre Dame matched that by going 71 yards to score on Mark Green's 7-yard touchdown run. In the second quarter, The Irish continued to run the ball, with quarterback Tony Rice and running back Anthony Johnson both running for touchdowns. Air Force answered before the end of the half with a touchdown to cut Notre Dame's lead to just seven points.
The third quarter was all Irish, as five Irish running backs combined for 283 yards, all running for 23 yards or more. One of the highlights was a 50-yard halfback pass late in the third quarter thrown by 3rd-string quarterback Steve Belles. In at running back, Belles took a pitch from Tony Rice, stepped back to his right and threw to a wide open Ricky Watters. The flanker took the ball inside the Air Force 10 and battled his way just over the goal line late in the third quarter. Other scores included a Tony Brooks 42-yard touchdown in the third quarter and another Ricky Watters touchdown catch; this time a 28-yarder from Rice. In the end, the Irish defense held the explosive Falcons to 54 yards rushing in the second half and 195 for the game, 237 yards below its season average.
at Navy
Although unbeaten and No. 2 Notre Dame posted its 25th consecutive victory of the Naval Academy, coach Lou Holtz was not happy. "We couldn't control the line of scrimmage," Holtz said after the victory. "We couldn't throw consistently, we weren't mentally alert and that's my fault. Our offensive line got beat up, we couldn't run inside. We weren't good enough to beat them inside. We're not a very good team right now. We feel fortunate to win." Favored to beat Navy by five touchdowns, the Irish dropped five passes, lost two fumbles, shanked a punt for a mere 10 yds., and got whistled for having twelve men on the field - all before winning the game 22-7. The Midshipmen fumbled on their second play from scrimmage and six plays later Notre Dame led 7-0 on a 10-yard touchdown pass from Rice to Derek Brown, before a crowd of 54,926 at Memorial Stadium. Rodney Culver and Ryan Mihalko ran for touchdowns as Notre Dame opened up a 22-0 lead early in the third quarter en route to reaching an 8-0 record for the first time since 1973. One positive Lou Holtz saw was the play of the defense. "Our defense played really well, but was on the field too long." Notre Dame amassed 396 total yards and held Navy to 192 yards, the lowest for an Irish opponent this year.
Rice
The Irish scored early and often as Notre Dame dazzled their home crowd of 59,075 with a 54-11 victory. After Rice scored an early field goal in the first quarter, Rocket Ismail returned his first of two kickoffs, a 78-yard return for a score. The Irish offense quickly followed with three touchdowns on their first three offensive possessions. Junior fullback Anthony Johnson rushed for two of Notre Dame's seven TDs, while Tony Brooks and Rodney Culver also added touchdowns. Late in the game, after Rice's third field goal made the score 38-9, Rocket Ismail returned the ensuing kickoff 83 yards for another touchdown. Ismail became the first Notre Dame player to return two kick-offs for touchdowns in a game since Paul Castner in 1922 against Kalamazoo. After Notre Dame's final touchdown, Rice LB Billy Stone returned the blocked extra-point all the way for two points to account for the final score of 54-11. This was the first time a team scored by returning a failed conversion in NCAA Div I history (the rule allowing for the defense to score this way instituted at the start of the 1988-89 season).
Penn State
The Irish came into the game at 9-0 while Penn State was 5-5, on the verge of their first losing season in 50 years. Notre Dame got started early, scoring on their first possession, an 87-yard on 12 play drive. On second-and-5 from Penn State's 48-yard line, Tony Rice threw a 17-yard pass to Ricky Watters, who was wide open 15 yards downfield. Five plays later, Notre Dame scored from Penn State's two. Rice optioned left, froze the Penn State linebacker Eddie Johnson with a pump-fake, then ran into the end zone. Reggie Ho's extra point made it 7-0. In the second quarter, Notre Dame drove 60 yards in five plays to go ahead, 14-0. Rice set up the score with another pass to Watters - a 27-yard play that moved the ball to Penn State's 33-yard line. Two plays later, running back Mark Green took a handoff up the middle, then found daylight to his right and ran 22 yards for a touchdown. Penn State's only score came on the last play of the first half, when Eric Etze kicked a 52-yard field goal.
After leading by 14-3 at halftime, Notre Dame struck quickly for its final score in the third quarter. On first down after a Penn State punt, Tony Rice threw a 67-yard touchdown pass to Raghib Ismail. It was the first time the Fighting Irish had thrown deep all game, and the long pass caught Penn State defensive backs off guard. Ismail was so wide open, he scored even though he had to wait for Rice's underthrown pass. After making the catch at Penn State's 20-yard line, Ismail broke Eddie Johnson's attempted tackle and jogged into the end zone. The win set the stage for the next week's showdown vs. USC, the final hurdle to the national championship game.
at USC
Source:
Notre Dame and USC entered the game undefeated and ranked number one and two respectively for the first time ever in their storied series. It was also the 24th time No. 1 faced No. 2 in college football history. In a controversial move, coach Lou Holtz took his 10-0 Irish squad to L.A. without stars Ricky Watters and Tony Brooks, whom he suspended for disciplinary reasons. The USC Trojans were having a great season under head coach Larry Smith and standout quarterback Rodney Peete. The Irish came into the game as underdogs, but spectacular play of defensive end Frank Stams and cornerback Stan Smagala aided the Irish offense, led by Tony Rice, to an Irish victory. Notre Dame started out fast with Tony Rice surprising the crowd by throwing deep to Raghib Ismail on the first play of scrimmage. On the very next play, Tony Rice optioned left for a 65-yard touchdown play. The Trojans were listless, committing four turnovers, including a back-breaking Rodney Peete interception to Stan Smagala for another Notre Dame touchdown. In the second half, running back Mark Green added the final touchdown of the day(aided by a key 22-yard gain on a 3rd down screen play by Anthony Johnson) to help defeat the Trojans. The sellout crowd of 93,829 was the largest in this rivalry since 1955.
Fiesta Bowl
Aftermath
The 1988 Irish squad won their 11th consensus national title in Lou Holtz's third year as an Irish head coach, equaling the trend of Irish coaches winning the title in their third year. Irish head coaches Frank Leahy, Ara Parseghian and Dan Devine also won titles in their third years as head coach. Holtz was named national coach of the year for taking the Irish squad from an 8-4 record the previous year to national title winners the following year. His 1989 and 1993 squads narrowly missed repeating the feat.
As of 2020, the 1988 Irish squad is also the most recent to win the national title.
Awards and honors
All-Americans
Paul "Bear" Bryant Award Coach of the Year
Lou Holtz
Eddie Robinson Coach of the Year Award
Lou Holtz
College Football Hall of Fame inductees
Notre Dame leads all universities in players inducted.
Future NFL Players
The following is a list of Notre Dame players that would go on to play or be drafted to play in the National Football League over the next four years. All players listed played for the 1988 team.
Source:
References
Notre Dame
Notre Dame Fighting Irish football seasons
College football national champions
Fiesta Bowl champion seasons
College football undefeated seasons
Notre Dame Fighting Irish football |
68677875 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meges%20%28mythology%29 | Meges (mythology) | In Greek mythology, Mégês (Ancient Greek: Μέγης) may refer to the following figures:
Meges, defender of Thebes against the Seven Against Thebes.
Meges, son of Phyleus and one of the Achaean Leaders.
Meges, father of Polymnius, a Trojan warrior.
Meges, a wealthy Trojan and son of Dymas. He married Periboea who bore him sons: Celtus and Eubius, both participated in the Trojan War.
Notes
References
Apollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. ISBN 0-674-99135-4. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website.
Publius Papinius Statius, The Thebaid translated by John Henry Mozley. Loeb Classical Library Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1928. Online version at the Topos Text Project.
Publius Papinius Statius, The Thebaid. Vol I-II. John Henry Mozley. London: William Heinemann; New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. 1928. Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Trojans
Theban characters in Greek mythology
Characters in Seven against Thebes
Characters in Greek mythology |
6888292 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data%20consistency | Data consistency | Data consistency refers to whether the same data kept at different places do or do not match.
Point-in-time consistency
Point-in-time consistency is an important property of backup files and a critical objective of software that creates backups. It is also relevant to the design of disk memory systems, specifically relating to what happens when they are unexpectedly shut down.
As a relevant backup example, consider a website with a database such as the online encyclopedia Wikipedia, which needs to be operational around the clock, but also must be backed up with regularity to protect against disaster. Portions of Wikipedia are constantly being updated every minute of every day, meanwhile, Wikipedia's database is stored on servers in the form of one or several very large files which require minutes or hours to back up.
These large files—as with any database—contain numerous data structures which reference each other by location. For example, some structures are indexes which permit the database subsystem to quickly find search results. If the data structures cease to reference each other properly, then the database can be said to be corrupted.
Counter example
The importance of point-in-time consistency can be illustrated with what would happen if a backup were made without it.
Assume Wikipedia's database is a huge file, which has an important index located 20% of the way through, and saves article data at the 75% mark. Consider a scenario where an editor comes and creates a new article at the same time a backup is being performed, which is being made as a simple "file copy" which copies from the beginning to the end of the large file(s) and doesn't consider data consistency - and at the time of the article edit, it is 50% complete. The new article is added to the article space (at the 75% mark) and a corresponding index entry is added (at the 20% mark).
Because the backup is already halfway done and the index already copied, the backup will be written with the article data present, but with the index reference missing. As a result of the inconsistency, this file is considered corrupted.
In real life, a real database such as Wikipedia's may be edited thousands of times per hour, and references are virtually always spread throughout the file and can number into the millions, billions, or more. A sequential "copy" backup would literally contain so many small corruptions that the backup would be completely unusable without a lengthy repair process which could provide no guarantee as to the completeness of what has been recovered.
A backup process which properly accounts for data consistency ensures that the backup is a snapshot of how the entire database looked at a single moment. In the given Wikipedia example, it would ensure that the backup was written without the added article at the 75% mark, so that the article data would be consistent with the index data previously written.
Disk caching systems
Point-in-time consistency is also relevant to computer disk subsystems.
Specifically, operating systems and file systems are designed with the expectation that the computer system they are running on could lose power, crash, fail, or otherwise cease operating at any time. When properly designed, they ensure that data will not be unrecoverably corrupted if the power is lost. Operating systems and file systems do this by ensuring that data is written to a hard disk in a certain order, and rely on that in order to detect and recover from unexpected shutdowns.
On the other hand, rigorously writing data to disk in the order that maximizes data integrity also impacts performance. A process of write caching is used to consolidate and re-sequence write operations such that they can be done faster by minimizing the time spent moving disk heads.
Data consistency concerns arise when write caching changes the sequence in which writes are carried out, because it there exists the possibility of an unexpected shutdown that violates the operating system's expectation that all writes will be committed sequentially.
For example, in order to save a typical document or picture file, an operating system might write the following records to a disk in the following order:
Journal entry saying file XYZ is about to be saved into sector 123.
The actual contents of the file XYZ are written into sector 123.
Sector 123 is now flagged as occupied in the record of free/used space.
Journal entry noting the file completely saved, and its name is XYZ and is located in sector 123.
The operating system relies on the assumption that if it sees item #1 is present (saying the file is about to be saved), but that item #4 is missing (confirming success), that the save operation was unsuccessful and so it should undo any incomplete steps already taken to save it (e.g. marking sector 123 free since it never was properly filled, and removing any record of XYZ from the file directory). It relies on these items being committed to disk in sequential order.
Suppose a caching algorithm determines it would be fastest to write these items to disk in the order 4-3-1-2, and starts doing so, but the power gets shut down after 4 get written, before 3, 1 and 2, and so those writes never occur. When the computer is turned back on, the file system would then show it contains a file named XYZ which is located in sector 123, but this sector really does not contain the file. (Instead, the sector will contain garbage, or zeroes, or a random portion of some old file - and that is what will show if the file is opened).
Further, the file system's free space map will not contain any entry showing that sector 123 is occupied, so later, it will likely assign that sector to the next file to be saved, believing it is available. The file system will then have two files both unexpectedly claiming the same sector (known as a cross-linked file). As a result, a write to one of the files will overwrite part of the other file, invisibly damaging it.
A disk caching subsystem that ensures point-in-time consistency guarantees that in the event of an unexpected shutdown, the four elements would be written one of only five possible ways: completely (1-2-3-4), partially (1, 1-2, 1-2-3), or not at all.
High-end hardware disk controllers of the type found in servers include a small battery back-up unit on their cache memory so that they may offer the performance gains of write caching while mitigating the risk of unintended shutdowns. The battery back-up unit keeps the memory powered even during a shutdown so that when the computer is powered back up, it can quickly complete any writes it has previously committed. With such a controller, the operating system may request four writes (1-2-3-4) in that order, but the controller may decide the quickest way to write them is 4-3-1-2. The controller essentially lies to the operating system and reports that the writes have been completed in order (a lie that improves performance at the expense of data corruption if power is lost), and the battery backup hedges against the risk of data corruption by giving the controller a way to silently fix any and all damage that could occur as a result.
If the power gets shut off after element 4 has been written, the battery backed memory contains the record of commitment for the other three items and ensures that they are written ("flushed") to the disk at the next available opportunity.
Transaction consistency
Consistency (database systems) in the realm of Distributed database systems refers to the property of many ACID databases to ensure that the results of a Database transaction are visible to all nodes simultaneously. That is, once the transaction has been committed all parties attempting to access the database can see the results of that transaction simultaneously.
A good example of the importance of transaction consistency is a database that handles the transfer of money. Suppose a money transfer requires two operations: writing a debit in one place, and a credit in another. If the system crashes or shuts down when one operation has completed but the other has not, and there is nothing in place to correct this, the system can be said to lack transaction consistency. With a money transfer, it is desirable that either the entire transaction completes, or none of it completes. Both of these scenarios keep the balance in check.
Transaction consistency ensures just that - that a system is programmed to be able to detect incomplete transactions when powered on, and undo (or "roll back") the portion of any incomplete transactions that are found.
Application consistency
Application consistency, similar to transaction consistency, is applied on a grander scale. Instead of having the scope of a single transaction, data must be consistent within the confines of many different transaction streams from one or more applications.
An application may be made up of many different types of data, various types of files and data feeds from other applications. Application consistency is the state in which all related files and databases are synchronized representing the true status of the application.
External links
Data Consistency Explained, by Recovery Specialties
Computer data |
19357536 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet%20in%20Kazakhstan | Internet in Kazakhstan | The Internet in Kazakhstan (ccTLD: .kz) is growing rapidly. Between 2001 and 2005, the number of Internet users increased from 200,000 to 1 million. By 2007, Kazakhstan reported Internet penetration levels of 8.5 percent, rising to 12.4 percent in 2008 and 34.3% in 2010. By 2013, Kazakhstani officials reported Internet penetration levels of 62.2 percent, with about 10 million users. There are five first-tier ISPs with international Internet connections and approximately 100 second-tier ISPs that are purchasing Internet traffic from the first-tier ISPs. As of 2019, more than 75% of Kazakhstan's population have access to the internet, a figure well ahead of any other country in Central Asia.
As of 2021 Kazakhstan is currently rated "not free" by Freedom House's Freedom on the Net report.
Penetration and ISPs
The National Statistical Agency reports that 73 percent of Kazakh users access the Internet by dial-up, 15 percent by means of ADSL, and 6 percent by satellite access. Over 50 percent of users accessed the Internet from home in 2008. Forty-two percent of families living in towns with populations of at least 70,000 people had a personal computer. KazakhTelekom (KT) reported an increase in its broadband subscriber base from 270,000 to 456,000 in 2008. Despite these increases, Internet usage is concentrated in urban centers, while outside those centers access remains beyond the reach of most Kazakhs.
The official language in Kazakhstan is Kazakh, spoken by 64 percent of the population. Russian, spoken by 85 percent, is recognized as the official language of international communication. Russian is the most popular language used on the Internet (94.1 percent), followed by Kazakh (4.5 percent), and English (1.4 percent), a figure which may account for the high percentage of Kazakh websites hosted in Russia (including those with the country-code domain name “.kz”). Six percent of “.kz” domain websites are hosted in Kazakhstan, with the remainder hosted in Russia and elsewhere.
The cost of Internet access remains high relative to the national average salary (54,500 tenge in 2008, or US$363). KazakhTelecom's fee for unlimited ADSL access with capacity of 128 kbit/s were US$30. However, as a result of the ongoing liberalization in the telecommunications sector in 2007, operators’ fees fell considerably. Since 2007, schools in Kazakhstan are provided with free dial-up access, which is being expanded to include broadband connections (although access is restricted to Web sites and other Internet resources within the “.kz” domain).
Internet service providers
KazakhTelecom is the operator of the national data transfer network, which connects the major cities of Kazakhstan. It features a total bandwidth of 957 Mbit/s and a carrying capacity in separate local segments of up to 10 Gbit/s. KazakhTelecom had about 2.5 million fixed line subscribers in 2005 and accounted for approximately 90 percent of the country's fixed line market. It currently controls 49 percent of the country's leading mobile operator, GSM Kazakhstan, and 50 percent of another cellular operator, Altel. In 2015, broadband internet speed in Kazakhstan was estimated at 18.41 Mbit/s on average.
Liberalization of the telecommunications market in 2004 increased competition among the five licensed operators: KazakhTelecom (the former state monopoly, now with 51 percent state participation), Transtelekom, Kaztranscom, Arna (DUCAT), and Astel. First-tier ISPs with international Internet connections and their own infrastructure are KazakhTelecom, Nursat, Transtelecom, Kaztranscom, Arna, Astel, and TNS Plus.
There are approximately 100 second-tier ISPs that purchase Internet traffic from first-tier ISPs. They include:
Kcell (3G)
INTELSOFT (cable)
AlmaTV (cable access)
Beeline (3G, cable)
DigitalTV (WiMax)
Nursat
Sekatel
SputTV (satellite access)
2Day Telecom (dial-up)
Market liberalization has not been completely carried out, as there are restrictions on foreign ownership for fixed-line operators providing long-distance and international services. In addition, KazakhTelecom retains dominance over the telecommunications market, making it difficult for other operators to compete.
KazakhTelecom also launched an interactive IP TV service on 11 March 2009 as it worked to maintain its dominance in the fixed-line market. Other leading first-tier ISPs, Nursat and Astel, operate terrestrial and satellite-based infrastructure. There are five mobile operators in the country. Three operators are offering GSM services and two CDMA. The government estimates that 60 percent of the population uses mobile services.
One of the largest ISPs, Arna (DUCAT), accused KazakhTelecom of breaking a law regarding the promotion of competition and the limiting of monopolistic activities. Arna claimed that KazakhTelecom used uncertified systems that monitored and interfered with the telecommunications of customers who are using services offered by competing companies. An investigation of the Kazakh government revealed that such systems indeed existed and were used by KazakhTelecom, but no evidence was found to prove KazakhTelecom was intentionally interfering with competitor activities.
Legal and regulatory frameworks
The Kazakh government has exhibited an ambiguous and at times contradictory approach to the Internet. The long-term development strategy of Kazakhstan for 2030 demonstrates the government's strong commitment to create a modern national information infrastructure. The government had announced plans to develop e-government as a part of a 2005–2007 program. Since 2008, government officials have been encouraged to create their own personal blogs. At the same time, the government follows a multilevel information security policy, which maintains surveillance of telecommunications and Internet traffic in the country.
The Ministry of Transport and Communications (MTC) is the main policymaker and regulator in the telecommunications market. The Agency for Informatization and Communication (AIC), a central executive body in the IT field, is authorized to implement state policy in telecommunications and information technology development industries, exercise control in these sectors, and issue licenses to every type of telecommunications service. The Security Council (SC), a body chaired by the president, is responsible for drafting decisions and providing assistance to the head of state on issues of defense and national security. The SC also prepares a list of Web sites every six months that should be blocked or forbidden from distribution. A 2005 SC decision made it illegal for key national security bodies to connect to the Internet (namely, the Ministries of Emergency Situations, Internal Affairs, and Defense, and the National Security Committee). However, despite this prohibition, ONI field researchers found evidence that state officials access forbidden Web sites using dial-up accounts and anonymizer applications.
The security system in Kazakhstan is complex and multi-layered. The Inter-Departmental Commission is charged with coordinating and developing national information infrastructure. The National Security Committee (NSC) monitors presidential, government, and military communications. The Office of the Prime Minister is an authorized state body responsible for the protection of state secrets and maintenance of information security. Broadly defined, a 'state secret' encompasses various government policies as well as information about the president's private life, health, and financial affairs. The NSC has issued a general license to the private Agency on Information Security to establish and organize facilities for cryptographic protection of information, as well as to formulate proposals on information security to state organizations, corporate clients, banks, and other large commercial companies. The Kazakh Ministry of Internal Affairs operates Department ‘‘K’’, which bears the functions of its counterpart in the Russian Federation. This department is tasked with investigating and prosecuting cybercrime and cyberattacks. At present, ISPs are required to prohibit their customers from disseminating pornographic, extremist, or terrorist materials or any other information that is not in accordance with the country’s laws. Kazakh officials are also considering additional laws to further regulate the Kazakh Internet. One draft law presently under consideration would attach liability to owners of Web sites hosting weblogs and forums, as well as users of chat rooms. The draft law equates Internet sites to media outlets and applies similar regulations with respect to content. The authors of the law justified tighter oversight by the need to fight cybercrime and provide greater accountability for Internet users.
The Kazakhstan Association of IT Companies is the officially recognized administrator of the ‘‘.kz’’ domain. It is registered as an NGO, but is 80% government-owned. The rules of registration and management of the ‘‘.kz’’ domain were issued by the State Agency on Informatization and Communication of the Republic of Kazakhstan in 2005. In recent years, the cost for registering and maintaining a domain name have significantly decreased, thereby boosting the development of the Kazakh portion of the Internet. Registrations are subject to strict regulation. Applications may be denied if the server on which they are located resides outside Kazakhstan. Even though the primary legislation guarantees freedom of speech and prohibits censorship, the government often resorts to various legal mechanisms to suppress ‘‘inappropriate’’ information or to ensure that domain names used by opposition groups are frozen or withdrawn. As a result, very few political parties in Kazakhstan use the Internet, and few opposition or illegal parties have an online presence (at least within the ‘‘.kz’’ domain).
Some 300 legislative acts expressly or implicitly control the ICT environment. All telecommunications operators are legally obliged, as part of their licensing requirements, to connect their channels to a public network controlled by KazakhTelecom. The Billing Center of Telecommunication Traffic, established by the government in 1999, helps monitor the activity of private companies and strengthens the monopolist position of KazakhTelecom in the IT sphere. In the past, some telecommunications operators circumvented such regulations by using VoIP for their interregional and international traffic, but the imposition of VoIP telephony tariffs eliminated this option.
Internet shutdowns
Internet shutdowns have occurred periodically, according to cybersecurity analysts, during periods of political unrest. In 2018 when events held by the political opposition were live streamed on social media, the Kazakh government throttled needed bandwidth for such uses; and in 2019 it repeated its efforts to restrict social media when opposition leaders protested the government's plans for victory celebrations of the end of the Second World War. In February 2021, in the wake of a European Parliament resolution on human rights in the country and domestic protests over the release of political prisoners, several sources reported "internet shutdown . . . in . . . Almaty and Nur-Sultan," two of the largest cities in the country.
Western media reported on partial and total shutdowns of the internet and telephone system in Almaty, the country's largest city, during country-wide political unrest during January 2022. Further reports indicated the "internet was shut down across the country." One source reported partial shutdowns of phone and internet on 4 January with a "country-wide blackout . . . affecting all connectivity in the country" on 5 January. On 6 January it was reported that "WhatsApp, Signal, and Telegram messaging services [were] offline" while local internet operators including Kaz Telecom, Beeline, and Kcell had "shut down their services." Also on 6 January, the UK government issued a statement specifically calling for "resumption of internet services and for the Kazakh authorities to respect their commitments to freedom of speech and expression." The Economist magazine describes such shutdowns as a government strategy "to quell protests and disrupt elections" while critics argue it "violates human rights."
Data from internet analyst Cloudflare detailed the abrupt shutdown of the country's internet shortly after 10:30 UTC on 5 January, subsequently reporting on 7 January "The nationwide Internet shutdown in Kazakhstan is now in its third day." Internet services were briefly activated during public speeches by Kazakh President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev, including his appeal to Russia to send in Russian troops to "protect the state." A partial internet restoration on 7 January "started at around 02:50 UTC (08:50 local time) and it ended three hours later (05:50 UTC)." On 10 January Reuters reported "state-imposed internet shutdown in Kazakhstan entered a sixth day."
One consequence of the January 2022 Kazakh internet shutdown was a measurable blow to the cryptocurrency world. Kazakhstan emerged as the world's second largest miner of Bitcoin (after the United States) following China's total crackdown on cryptocurrencies in May—September 2021. So-called cryptominers moved from China to Kazakhstan, drawn by the country's ample coal-fired electric power. Consequently, Kazakhstan doubled its national share of global cryptocurrency mining muscle, known as the "hash rate", from roughly 9 percent to 18 percent. Western media reported that global "hash rate" shrank significantly when the Kazakh government shut off the country's internet in early January 2022. "Within the hours of the outage, bitcoin’s computational power sank," wrote The Guardian. "A few hours into the outage . . . a full 12% of Bitcoin's worldwide computational power had vanished [owing to] sharp declines for a number of producers with operations in Kazakhstan. The hash rates for AntPool, Poolin and Binance Pool all fell between 12% and 16%," observed Forbes.
Provisions for propagation of false information and spreading rumors
The new Criminal Code of Kazakhstan, which took effect on January 1, 2015, prohibits the “deliberate propagation of false information,” sometimes labeled as “spreading rumors.” According to the Jamestown Foundation, "the dissemination of such unsubstantiated information in the media and on social networks may be subject to fines as high as $54,000 or, as an alternative, community work or a jail sentence up to five years." This measure was adopted in the wake of a run on two banks in February 2014, which was fueled by text messages on mobile phones. These communications resulted in the bailout of Kaspi Bank by the National Bank of Kazakhstan. However, it was also invoked in the case of a young man who spread false information about the death of Prime Minister Serik Akhmetov in January 2015.
Surveillance and filtering
The government has established systems to monitor and filter Internet traffic. Since the traffic of all first-tier ISPs goes through KazakhTelecom's channels, surveillance and filtering is centralized. The ONI suspects that state officials informally ask KazakhTelecom to filter certain content. KazakhTelecom, along with some Russian companies, has openly signed an agreement to provide filtering, censorship, and surveillance on the basis of Security Council resolutions. There are several recorded cases of journalists and Web site owners that have been prosecuted under broad media and criminal provisions. Twenty-one opposition and independent media sites have been permanently suspended, allegedly for providing links to publications concerning corruption among senior state officers and the president.
In 2004, the chairs of the National Security Committee and the Agency for Informatization and Communications approved rules providing for mechanisms for monitoring telecommunications operators and networks. These rules prescribe full collaboration and information sharing between the government agencies. This system is similar to that of the Russian SORM, introduced to monitor activities of users and any related information. The rules oblige ISPs to register and maintain electronic records of customer Internet activity. Providers are required to install special software and hardware equipment in order to create and store records for a specified amount of time, including log-in times, connection types, transmitted and received traffic between parties of the connection, identification numbers of sessions, duration of time spent online, IP address of the user, and speed of data receipt and transmission.
The OpenNet Initiative conducted testing on two main ISPs: KazakhTelecom and Nursat. KazakhTelecom blocks opposition groups’ Web sites, regional media sites that carry political content, and selected social networking sites. A number of proxy sites providing anonymous access to the Internet have also been blocked. The ONI suspects that filtering practices in Kazakhstan are evolving and are performed at the network backbone by KazakhTelecom, which filters traffic it provides to downstream operators. Consequently, Kazakh ISPs may unknowingly receive pre-filtered content. At the same time, not all incoming and outgoing traffic passes through KazakhTelecom’s centralized network, resulting in inconsistent patterns of blocking. The majority of Internet users are on ‘‘edge’’ networks, such as Internet cafés and corporate networks. Kazakhstan companies apply filtering mechanisms at the user level to prevent employees from accessing pornography, music, film, and dating Web sites. However, ONI testing found that Kazakhstan does not block any pornographic content or sites related to drug and alcohol use. Since 2016, the Kazakh government has blocked the social media website Tumblr because of religious extremism and pornography.
Root certificate man-in-the middle attack
In 2015, the government of Kazakhstan created a "national security certificate" which would have allowed a man-in-the-middle attack on HTTPS traffic from Internet users in Kazakhstan. Such an attack would involve requiring all Internet users to install a root certificate controlled by the Kazakh government into all their devices, allowing it to intercept, decrypt, and re-encrypt any traffic passing through systems it controlled. However, ISPs and banks opposed the change and the certificate was not deployed at the time.
In July 2019, the Kazakh government moved forward with their original plans and required ISPs to force their users to install a root certificate issued by the government.
Terminology
People in Kazakhstan use the term "Kaznet" to refer to Internet space originating from and related to Kazakhstan. Similarly, they use the terms "Uznet", "Kirnet"/"Kegnet", and "Runet" are used to refer to Uzbek, Kyrgyz, and Russian internet spaces, respectively.
Milestones
On 19 September 1994, .kz was officially registered as a top-level domain
In 1997, Kazakhstan's site received its first international award at the international «Business Website of 1997» competition.
On 24 December 1996, E. Alexander Lyakhov, the unofficial "father of the Kazakhstan Internet", founded the informational-educational portal "Lyakhov.kz – Large Encyclopedia of Kaznet"
In 1997, Lyahovy launched a project directory rubricator of Kazakh web resources, "The whole WWW Kazakhstan"
In 1998, the Kazakh part of the Internet appeared in the first online store and catalog goods site, Guide Park
In June 1998, the first site in the Kazakh language appeared: Physico-Technical Institute MN-AN RK
Since September 1998, Kazakhstan has offered continuous broadcasting over the Internet via broadcast transmissions from an Almaty broadcasting hub via STC Almatytelekom using RealAudio.
In October 1998, the electronic catalogue KazGU, listing educational resources, is launched.
In 1999, the IANA created the Kazakh Network Information Center as an administrator of country code top-level domain .kz
On April 6, 2004, the Kazakhstan Association of IT Companies (KAITK) was created.
2004 - the domain .kz was transferred to the control of the Agency of Kazakhstan for Informatization and Communication.
On October 1, 2005, the management and regulation of the domain .kz was assumed by two organizations: the Kazakh Network Information Centre (KazNIC) in a de facto capacity, and the Kazakhstan Association of IT-companies de jure, which runs the development of the national domain.
On March 12, 2010, as a result of reorganization of the Agency of Kazakhstan for Informatization and Communication and the Ministry of Culture and Information, the Ministry of Communications and Information was established and granted the power of regulating the Internet.
In May 2011, Google, which operates google.kz, was notified by the Ministry of Communications and Information in Kazakhstan that all .kz domain names had to operate on servers physically located within Kazakh borders. In response to the requirement, Google decided to redirect google.kz visitors to google.com; this change meant search results were no longer customized for Kazakhstan.
In June 2011, Google relaunched google.kz. The Kazakh authorities issued new guidance stating that the order that all .kz domains must operate on servers physically located within Kazakh borders no longer applied to previously registered domains.
See also
Communications in Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan man-in-the-middle attack
References |
39705516 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military%20Technical%20Institute%20Belgrade | Military Technical Institute Belgrade | Military Technical Institute Belgrade (; abbr. ) is a major Serbian aircraft and weapons designer, headquartered in Belgrade, Serbia and governed by the Serbian Ministry of Defence. VTI is a top-level military scientific research institution in Serbia, dealing with research and development (R&D) of new weaponry and military equipment as well as with upgrade of the inventory for all three services of the Army: Land Forces, Air Force and River flotilla.
Institute history
After the World War II, Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia had a need to independently develop military technology and reduce dependence from foreign supply with given political situation of that time and future political course. By a decision of the Secretary of Defense and a proclamation by the President of FPRY Josip Broz Tito, VTI was founded in 1948 as the Military Technical Institute of the Land Forces (; abbr. ) in Belgrade.
In 1973, the VTI was integrated with several smaller military research and development institutes.
In 1992 it assimilated the dissolved Aeronautical Technical Institute in Žarkovo, and minor parts (located in Serbia) of the Nautical Institute () from Zagreb, supposedly as an effort to reduce developing cost and maintenance. Since 1992 the Institute has changed name several times, reflecting the political changes in the country, starting with Technical institute of the Military of Yugoslavia.
Currently used name is Military technical institute Belgrade. Neither the translation of the name to other languages nor the corresponding acronym have ever been unambiguously defined; both VTI and MTI have been used in English-language documents, against the widely accepted practice not to translate such acronymes.
Today
The institute has 22 laboratories, and it is situated on 212 acres (86 hectares), with 177.000 square meters laboratories and office space, mostly in Bele Vode (sub-neighborhood of Žarkovo), on the premises of the former Aeronautical Technical Institute. The Institute obtained the certificates of compliance to the SRPS ISO 9001 and SRPS ISO/IEC 17025 standards.
Projects
The institute cooperates with Serbian Army, Technical Testing Center and Yugoimport SDPR in designing and testing new weapons systems.
VTI (with assimilated predecessor institutes) developed more than 1300 military systems and weapons. However, not all of them entered use in the Yugoslav (later Serbian) Army.
The list includes weapons and systems of other companies in which VTI was partly involved in some stage of developing and those systems are given with references. Institute was in charge for domestically produced weapons systems under licence and modification and modernization of such weapons with introducing new technologies and making new materials and tools for production. There are several new weapons developed from licences products that surpass originals in performance. Examples of licences used for domestic new weapons is a licence for tank T-72.
Aircraft
Ikarus S-49
Soko J-20 Kraguj
Soko G-2 Galeb
Soko J-21 Jastreb
Soko J-22 Orao
Soko G-4 Super Galeb
Galeb G-4MD upgrade
UTVA 75, (all developed by the Aeronautical Technical Institute)
Kobac
Lasta 95
HN-45M Gama
HN-45M Gama 2
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
Vrabac Mini UAV
Pegaz 011
IBL-2000
Unmanned Ground Vehicles
Unmanned ground vehicle Miloš
Armoured Vehicles
Tanks
M-84 Main Battle Tank (MBT) and A/AB/ABN/ABK/AS variants (1985 to present)
M-84A – An upgraded version similar to the Soviet T-72M1 but with a significantly more powerful engine and additional armour plating
M-84AB – Kuwaiti version of the M-84A
M-84AB – The M-84AB fitted with land navigation equipment
M-84ABK Command Tank – M-84AB version fitted with extensive communication equipment, land navigation equipment, and a generator for the command role
M-84AI armored recovery vehicle (Yugoslavia and Poland) – During the mid-1990s Kuwait requested an armored recovery vehicle variant of the M-84A tank as part of the deal to buy a large batch of M-84A tanks.
M-84AS – Upgrade package of the M-84A in service with the Serbian Army
M-84AS1 – Adds additional armor, including explosive reactive armor, integrated day-night sighting system with thermal imager, command information system, a soft-kill active protection system, new radio system, remote-controlled weapons station with 12.7mm machine gun, and CBRN protection equipment
Infantry Fighting Vehicles
BVP M-80 Infantry Fighting Vehicle (IFV) (1979 to present)
M-80A – Improved version with 320 hp engine, full production
M-80A1 or SPAT 30/2 – Improved version with a dual 30mm gun system called "Foka". Prototype only.
M-80A/98 – Further improvements of M-80A1 with new "Vidra" turret
M-80A KC – Company commander's vehicle
M-80A KB – Battalion commander's vehicle
M-80A VK - Turretless commander's vehicle
M-80A Sn – Medical, no turret. Single oblong hatch in the roof and single rear door. Carries 4 stretcher patients or 8 seated patients.
M-80A LT – Tank hunter with six AT-3 launchers
Sava M-90 – SA-13 SAM version, designated Strela-10MJ, prototype
MOS – Self-propelled mine layer
M-80AK/M-98A – New gun turret with 30 mm M86 cannon or 30 mm dual feed M89 cannon
M-80AB1 – Advanced armour, turret gun control equipment, optronics package, smoke grenade launchers and the ability to mount and launch the most recent 9M14 Malyutka missile variants
Armoured Personnel Carriers
OT M60 Armoured Personnel Carrier (1962 to 1979)
BOV 4 x 4 (1980's to present)
BOV VP
BOV M11
BOV M15
BOV APC
Reconnaissance Vehicles
BOV M11
Kurjak
Air Defence Vehicles
BOV 3
BOV 30
BOV AX Hybrid
Engineering Vehicles
VIU-55 Munja (T-55 Conversion)
M-84AI
Artillery
Field artillery
Gun-howitzer M84 NORA
M-56 Howitzer
Self-propelled artillery
Nora B-52
Sora 122mm
Multiple rocket launcher
LRSVM Morava,
M-87 Orkan
M-96 Orkan 2
M-77 Oganj
M-63 Plamen
Nimr 107mm MLRS
Mortars
Mortar 60mm M57
Mortar 60mm M70
Mortar 60mm M95 Long Range
Mortar 60 mm M06C (Commando)
Mortar 82mm M69A
Universal Mortar UB M52
Light mortar 120mm M74
Light mortar 120mm M75
Mortar 120mm M95 Long Range
Anti-tank Weapons
Bumbar
M79 Osa
Zolja
M-80A LT
POLO M-83
Malyutka-2T
M90 Stršljen
Anti-Aircraft Weapons
Sava M-90
SPAT 30/2
BOV-3
BOV-30
Strela 2M2J
Sava
Strela-10M
Mines and Mine layers
Self-Propelled Minelayer MOS
TMA – 4
TMRP – 6
Military trucks
FAP 1118
FAP 2026
FAP 2228
FAP 3232
FAP 3240
Zastava NTV
Turrets, cupolas and RCWS
M91
M86
M86/06
M10 RCWS
12,7mm RCWS
M20 RCWS
Missiles
Unguided missiles
M-77
Plamen A
Plamen D
Air-to-surface missile
Grom A
Grom B
LVBF-250
Surface to surface missiles
Košava 1
Projectiles and large calibers ammunition
105mm HE ER-BB M02
105 mm HE ER
125mm APFSDS–T M88
155mm HEERFB–BB M03
Rifles,guns,sub-machine guns and snipers
Zastava M21
M97
M97K
Zastava M70
Radars
Radar PR15
Zirafa Radar M-85, L and S radars over 300 km range
Electronics, optoelectronic stations, fuzes, homing heads, sensors, etc
MIP 11, TV Homing Heads for Guided missiles, Laser Homing Heads for Guided missiles, System for acoustic source localization - HEMERA, inertial guidance systems for missiles, Explosive reactive armour M99, Battery command and control system for Nora B-52, M07G Mortar ballistic computer, Tank engine protection from wrong start-up, system for automatic control and jamming of mobile telephony, Radio jammers against remotely controlled improvised explosive devices, Software packages for command and control of air defense assets from the command and control centers, MOMS surveillance-sighting system
Upgrades modernization and modifications
Neva-M1T, SA-341, Upgraded Howitzer 105 mm M56/33, Upgraded Howitzer 105mm M101/33, Programs for modernization of the T-55 family of tanks, including their Chinese derivatives, as well as of the T-72 family of tanks, Upgraded BTR-50
Specialized laboratories
Aerodynamics
Spatial Forms and Lengths Measuring
Experimental Modal Analysis, Vibration and Balancing Analysis
Experimental Strength
Experimental Ballistics
Testing of Solid Propellant Rocket Motors
Power-Generating Materials
Servo-Systems
Hardware in the Loop (HIL) Simulation and Telemetry
Electro-Inertial Sensors
NBC Protection
Electromagnetic Compatibility
Radio-Relay Systems and Multiplex Equipment
Micrography
Optoelectronics
Guidance and Control
Electric Power Devices
Fairs and scientific-technical gatherings
Institute exhibited in Partner Serbia armaments fairs, participated in IDEX UAE fair under SDPR and organized OTEX scientific-technical gathering.
Subdivisions
Overhaul direction
Technical overhaul institute Čačak (; abbr. ) http://www.trzcacak.rs/en/index.html
Technical overhaul institute Kragujevac (; abbr. ) http://www.trzk.co.rs/English/first.htm
Aeronautical Plant "Moma Stanojlović" Batajnica (; abbr. )
Documentary and publishing activity
Making of technical documentation, films and books represents an important part of VTI as publisher, it represents institute output and quantifier of more than sixty years involvement in R&D missions. The Institute possesses technical documentation for over 1300 items of weaponry and defense equipment developed through institute history that are introduced in service in the armed forces. This documentation being intellectual property of MoD, it has an outstanding value and use for future projects.
Media
Robot Milos in action - story about development and use, presented by official Serbia RTS state defense TV channel "Dozvolite" - Little Milos - robot
See also
Defense industry of Serbia
References
Aerospace companies of Serbia
Manufacturing companies established in 1948
Companies based in Belgrade
Ministry of Defence (Serbia)
Research institutes established in 1948
1948 establishments in Serbia
Defense industry of Serbia
Čukarica |
1490972 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Link%2016 | Link 16 | Link 16 is a military tactical data link network used by NATO and nations allowed by the MIDS International Program Office (IPO). Its specification is part of the family of Tactical Data Links.
With Link 16, military aircraft as well as ships and ground forces may exchange their tactical picture in near-real time. Link 16 also supports the exchange of text messages, imagery data and provides two channels of digital voice (2.4 kbit/s or 16 kbit/s in any combination). Link 16 is defined as one of the digital services of the JTIDS / MIDS in NATO's Standardization Agreement STANAG 5516. MIL-STD-6016 is the related United States Department of Defense Link 16 MIL-STD.
Technical characteristics
Link 16 is a TDMA-based secure, jam-resistant, high-speed digital data link which operates in the radio frequency band 960–1,215 MHz, allocated in line with the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) Radio regulations to the aeronautical radionavigation service and to the radionavigation satellite service. This frequency range limits the exchange of information to users within line-of-sight of one another, although with satellite capabilities and adhoc protocols, it is nowadays possible to pass Link 16 data over long-haul protocols such as TCP/IP using MIL-STD 3011 (JREAP) or STANAG 5602 (SIMPLE). It uses the transmission characteristics and protocols, conventions, and fixed-length or variable length message formats defined by MIL-STD 6016 and STANAG 5516 (formerly the JTIDS technical interface design plan). Information is typically passed at one of three data rates: 31.6, 57.6, or 115.2 kilobits per second (kbits/s), although the radios and waveform Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) itself can support throughput values well over 1 Mbit/s.
Link 16 information is primarily coded in J.-series messages which are binary data words with well-defined meanings. These data words are grouped in functional areas, and allocated to network participation groups (NPG) (virtual networks), most importantly:
PPLI, or Precise Participant Location and Identification (network participation groups 5 and 6),
Surveillance (network participation group 7),
Command (Mission Management/Weapons Coordination) (network participation group 8),
(Aircraft) Control (network participation group 9),
Electronic Warfare & Coordination (network participation group 10).
Platforms
Some examples of platforms currently using the Link 16 capability are:
Aircraft
AH-64E Apache
P-3C Orion
P-8A Poseidon
B-1B Lancer
B-2 Spirit
Australia C-130J
Australia E-7A Wedgetail
KC30A-MRTT
F-15 Eagle
F-16 Fighting Falcon
F/A-18 Hornet
F/A-18 Super Hornet
F-35 Lightning II
Eurofighter Typhoon
Dassault Rafale
Dassault Mirage 2000D
Dassault Mirage 2000
Saab JAS 39 Gripen
Panavia Tornado
E-2C Hawkeye
E-3 Sentry
MH-60S/R Seahawk family helicopters
E-8 Joint STARS
EA-6B Prowler
EA-18G Growler
EP-3E
Boeing RC-135 Rivet Joint
Saab 340 AEW&C
ATR 72MP
Greek Embraer R-99, Airborne Early Warning & Control aircraft
Sea King Mk 7 ASaC
JAPAN ASDF E-767
Ships
U.S. carrier battle groups
French aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle (R91)
Italian aircraft carrier Cavour (550) and Giuseppe Garibaldi (551)
Royal Navy Ships, Canadian, Australian, French, Italian, Spanish, Danish, Norwegian, Netherlands, New Zealand and German frigates
Swedish Visby-class corvette
Finnish Hämeenmaa-class minelayer
Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force Akizuki-class
Republic of Korea Navy Sejong the Great-class
Japan MSDF Kongou-class
MILGEM project class
Ground vehicles
VESTA (Verifiëren, Evalueren, Simuleren, Trainen en Analyseren); a minivan with radiotower used for training purposes,
Missile defense systems
Arrow
SAMP/T
Patriot ICC and Battery Command Post (BCP)
THAAD
JTAGS
NASAMS
Joint Land Attack/Cruise Missile Defense Elevated Netted Sensors (JLENS)
Networked Weapons
SDB II
JSOW-C1
Command and Control
Joint Data Network
The U.S. Army is integrating Link 16 into select command and control elements of its UH-60 Black Hawk fleet, and intends to pursue fielding to AH-64 Apache and other aviation assets.
The USAF will add Link 16 to its Rockwell B-1 Lancer and Boeing B-52 Stratofortress bombers with the Common Link Integration Processing system. A key exception is the Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor which can only receive but not transmit Link 16 data. According to the Air Force, transmitting data would reveal its location.
Development
Link 16 is intended to advance Tactical Data Links (TDLs) as the NATO standard for data link information exchange. Link 16 equipment is located in ground, airborne, and sea-based air defense platforms and selected fighter aircraft. The U.S. industry is now developing a new Link 16 SCA compliant radio MIDS-JTRS which currently is projected to implement nine various tactical waveforms, including Link 16.
The MIDS program, which manage the development of the communication component for Link 16, is managed by the International Program Office located in San Diego, California. In the United States, the lead Air Force command for the MIL-STD-6016 standard, plans, and requirements is the Air Force Global Cyberspace Integration Center at Langley AFB, with JTIDS program execution managed by the 653d Electronic Systems Wing at Hanscom Air Force Base near Boston, Massachusetts. The MIL-STD-6016 Standard configuration management custodian is the Defense Information Systems Agency.
See also
Tactical Data Link The family of tactical data links
Network simulator for simulation of military radios and tactical data links
Air Force Command and Control Integration Center lead Air Force command for MIL-STD-6016 standard and plans/programs
653d Electronic Systems Wing JTIDS program execution
JREAP Joint Range Extension Applications Protocol
STANAG 5602 The Standard Interface for Military Platform Link Evaluation (SIMPLE)
References
Notes
General references
TADIL J guide
USAF GCIC Homepage
653rd Electronic Systems Wing Homepage
Military radio systems |
561233 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jono%20Bacon | Jono Bacon | Jonathan Edward James Bacon is a writer and software engineer, originally from the United Kingdom, but now based in California. He works as a consultant on community strategy.
History
Bacon started his work with the Linux community when he created the Linux UK website. When he left this project he moved on to join the KDE team, where he created the KDE::Enterprise website and KDE Usability Study.
Bacon started his career as a Linux journalist before moving on, in 2006, to work for OpenAdvantage, to help move organizations to Open Source solutions. From 4 September 2006 until 28 May 2014, he worked for Canonical Ltd. as the Ubuntu Community Manager. From 29 May 2014 until 30 October 2015 he worked at XPrize as the Senior Director of Community. From 14 November 2015 to May 2016, Bacon worked as Director of Community for GitHub. He currently works as a consultant on community strategy.
Journalism
Bacon has written for a variety of publications, including Linux User and Developer, Linux Format, Linux Magazine, MacTech, MacFormat and PC Plus. In addition to these magazines, he has also written a number of books, including "The Art of Community", "Linux Desktop Hacks", "PHP and MySQL Web Applications: Building Eight Dynamic Web Sites" and he also co-wrote "The Official Ubuntu Book" () with Benjamin Mako Hill, Corey Burger, and Jonathan Jesse.
Bacon was the co-founder of the LugRadio and Bad Voltage podcasts, and was a co-host on FLOSS Weekly.
Music
Bacon played in several metal bands, as singer and guitarist. From 2008 to 2012, he and Defiance guitarist Jim Adams ran the metal band Severed Fifth, which released three albums, and distributed its music freely under a Creative Commons license.
References
External links
Jono Bacon's website and blog
1979 births
Free software programmers
Living people
Musicians from the West Midlands (county)
Ubuntu (operating system) people |
24713650 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InfoPark%20Thrissur | InfoPark Thrissur | InfoPark Thrissur is an information technology park situated in Koratty near Chalakudy of Thrissur District in Kerala. This is the first information technology park in the state that has become operational under the 'Hub and Spoke Model', where InfoPark, Kochi acts as the hub and InfoPark Koratty as the spoke. The park is located 45 km from Kochi, 35 km from Thrissur, 5 km from Chalakudy and around 14 km from the Cochin International Airport at Nedumbassery. It is fully owned by the Government of Kerala. The InfoPark is associated with Kerala State IT Mission and Kerala State Information Technology Infrastructure Ltd.
Infrastructure
The Government of Kerala has allotted 42 acres (170,000 m2) of land for the InfoPark. Currently, InfoPark possesses 30 acres (120,000 m2) of land for the development. The plot that was given to set up the InfoPark earlier housed the Madura Coats factory. InfoPark has planned three phases of development. The Phase I of InfoPark was launched by Kerala Chief Minister, V. S. Achuthanandan on 10 October 2009 with 12 medium-sized companies and an office space of . The Phase II of InfoPark was inaugurated on 8 January 2010, were another was added. The construction of new multistory building has been inaugurated by Chief Minister of Kerala, Ommen Chandy on 8 September 2012.
Infopark Thrissur was also granted the Special Economic Zone (SEZ) Status by the Ministry of Commerce, Government of India in 2014 for 18 acres of land wherein the new Multi-storied IT Block ‘INDEEVARAM’ is located. In the Phase III and final phase, Government is planning to develop the 25 acres of InfoPark as a Special Economic Zone (SEZ) were 2-lakh-sqft building will be constructed. The new upcoming campus consisting of a multistory building, with more than two lakh square feet built up area got Special economic zone (SEZ) status from government of Indiain July 2014. The nearest major city next to Koratty Infopark is Chalakudy.
Employment & Companies
29 companies are working in Infopark Thrissur campus in its First phase as on 17 March 2016.and around 700 people are employed. The Initial phase of the campus opened up opportunities for Start-ups and Small Medium Businesses. SMB companies like ValueMentor Nuvento, QBurst, Feathersoft Info Pvt Ltd, Glitz IT Solutions, EXAR Software Research, Wazeefa1 Technologies Private Limited, GALTech Technologies Pvt Ltd. and startups like IGOOZ, Abbys, SandsLab, Storybox, GreenEd Multimedia, Sahrdaya Infoteck, SandsLab, Squad Technologies, Braddock Infotech, Strands Energy, FineLab Web Services a Division of WBpro LLC, Cent Technologies, Infoprism Solutions, Bharthi Yashloyd, Exacore IT Solutions,Pepperpot Systems & Solutions Pvt Ltd etc., are the present companies functioning at InfoPark.
Indeevaram
The First Multi-storeyed IT building of the campus is named as ‘INDEEVARAM’, means Blue Lotus. The Building is located in 6 acres of lush greenery at the Special Economic Zone area of the campus. Total Built-up area is 3.3 lakhs sq.ft with floors from Basement to 6th apart from the terrace floor reserved for Food Courts and other amenities. The Building was inaugurated by the Hon’ble Chief Minister of Kerala, Shri. Oommen Chandy on 21 January 2016.
References
Economy of Thrissur
2009 establishments in Kerala
Software technology parks in Kerala |
55795756 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Graduate%20Center%2C%20CUNY%20faculty | List of Graduate Center, CUNY faculty | This a partial list of notable faculty (either past, present, or visiting) at the Graduate Center, CUNY.
Awards and prizes
Among the Graduate Center's faculty are recipients of the Pulitzer Prize, the Nobel Prize, the Lakatos Award, the National Medals of Humanities and Science, the Bancroft Prize, Grammy Award, Guggenheim Fellowship, the George Jean Nathan Award for Dramatic Criticism, New York City Mayor's Award for Excellence in Science and Technology, the Lakatos Award, and the Presidential Early Career Award for Scientists and Engineers, as well as memberships in the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the National Academy of Sciences.
Nobel Laureates
In 1997, Queens College recruited future Nobel laureate and co-discoverer of the human immunodeficiency virus Luc Montagnier, appointing him to an endowed professorship. Montagnier was subsequently added to the faculty of the Graduate Center in the department of biology.
In 2015, the Graduate Center recruited Nobel laureate Paul Krugman to the faculty. Krugman joined the faculty on a dual appointment, both to the university's Ph.D. program in economics and as a distinguished scholar at the Graduate Center's Stone Center on Socio-Economic Inequality. At the Stone Center, Krugman's colleagues include political scientist and sociologist Janet Gornick as well as economist Branko Milanovic.
American Academy of the Arts and Sciences
National Academy of Sciences
Guggenheim Fellows
MacArthur Fellows
Pulitzer Prize
National Medal of Arts
National Medal of Science
Rolf Schock Prize
Alan T. Waterman Award
Presidential Early Career Award for Scientists and Engineers
Grammy Award
Bancroft Prize
Notable faculty by department
The Graduate Center's employment of faculty operates according to a unique consortium model, which both hosts 140 faculty with sole appointments exclusively at the Graduate Center, often senior scholars in their respective disciplines, and provides joint appointments to 1,800 faculty from the thirteen senior colleges and seven community colleges in the CUNY system to teach classes and advise graduate students.
Anthropology
Talal Asad, Distinguished Professor of Anthropology
Vincent Crapanzano, Distinguished Professor of Anthropology and Comparative Literature
David Harvey, Distinguished Professor of Anthropology
Eleanor Leacock, Former Professor of Anthropology at the Graduate Center and the City College of New York
Setha Low, Professor of Anthropology
Leith Mullings, Distinguished Professor of Anthropology
Sydel Silverman, Former Distinguished Professor of Anthropology at the Graduate Center and Queens College
Katherine Verdery, Distinguished Professor of Anthropology
Bianca Williams, Associate Professor of Anthropology
Eric Wolf, Former Distinguished Professor of Anthropology
Art History
Claire Bishop, Professor of Art History
Rosemarie Haag Bletter, Professor Emeritus of 19th and 20th Century European and American Architecture and Theory
Anna C. Chave, Professor Emeritus of Contemporary Art and Theory, 20th-Century European and American Art
William H. Gerdts, Professor Emeritus of 18th and 19th Century American Painting and Sculpture
David Joselit, Distinguished Professor of Art History
Rosalind E. Krauss, Former Distinguished Professor at the Graduate Center and Hunter College
Gail Levin, Distinguished Professor of 20th Century and Contemporary Art
Patricia Mainardi, Professor Emeritus of 18th and 19th Century European Art at the Graduate Center and Brooklyn College
Eloise Quiñones Keber, Professor Emeritus of Pre-Columbian Art and Colonial Art of the Americas at the Graduate Center and Baruch College
Classics
Sarah B. Pomeroy, Professor Emeritus
Joy Connolly, Distinguished Professor and Interim President
Computer Science
Sergei N. Artemov, Distinguished Professor of Computer Science
Melvin Fitting, Professor Emeritus of Computer Science at the Graduate Center and the City College of New York
Robert Haralick, Distinguished Professor of Computer Science
Gabor Herman, Distinguished Professor of Computer Science
Saul Kripke, Distinguished Professor of Computer Science and Philosophy
Lev Manovich, Professor of Computer Science
Victor Pan, Distinguished Professor of Computer Science
Rohit Jivanlal Parikh, Distinguished Professor of Computer Science and Philosophy at the Graduate Center and Brooklyn College
Theodore Raphan, Distinguished Professor of Computer Science
Stathis Zachos, Professor Emeritus of Computer Science at the Graduate Center and Brooklyn College
Earth and Environmental Sciences
Ruth Wilson Gilmore, Professor of Geography
Neil Smith, Former Distinguished Professor of Geography
Economics
Robert D. Cherry, Professor of Economics at the Graduate Center and Brooklyn College
Randall K. Filer, Professor of Economics at the Graduate Center and Hunter College
Michael Grossman, Distinguished Professor Emeritus of Economics
David A. Jaeger, Professor of Economics
Paul Krugman, Distinguished Professor of Economics
Ted Joyce, Professor of Economics at the Graduate Center and Baruch College
Salih Neftçi, Former Professor of Economics
English
Ammiel Alcalay, Professor of English at the Graduate Center and Queens College
Meena Alexander, Former Distinguished Professor of English at the Graduate Center and Hunter College
John Brenkman, Distinguished Professor of English at the Graduate Center and Baruch College
Mary Ann Caws, Distinguished Professor of English
Cathy Davidson, Distinguished Professor of English
Ashley Dawson, Professor of English at the Graduate Center and the College of Staten Island
Morris Dickstein, Distinguished Professor Emeritus, Senior Fellow at the Center for the Humanities
David Greetham, Distinguished Professor Emeritus at the Graduate Center and Bronx Community College
N. John Hall, Distinguished Professor Emeritus
bell hooks, Former Distinguished Professor of English at the Graduate Center and the City College of New York
Irving Howe, Former Distinguished Professor of English at the Graduate Center and Hunter College
Fred Kaplan, Distinguished Professor Emeritus at the Graduate Center and Queens College
Alfred Kazin, Former Distinguished Professor Emeritus of English at Hunter College and the Graduate Center
Wayne Koestenbaum, Distinguished Professor of English
Eric Lott, Professor of English
Louis Menand, Former Distinguished Professor of English
Nancy K. Miller, Distinguished Professor of English
Feisal G. Mohamed, Professor of English
Robert Reid-Pharr, Professor of English
David S. Reynolds, Distinguished Professor
David Savran, Distinguished Professor of English, Vera Mowry Roberts Chair in American Theatre
Eve Sedgwick, Former Distinguished Professor of English
Ira Shor, Professor of English at the Graduate Center and the College of Staten Island
Michele Wallace, Professor of English at the Graduate Center and the City College of New York
French
John Kneller, Former Professor Emeritus of French at the Graduate Center and Brooklyn College
History
Paul Avrich, Former Distinguished Professor of History at the Graduate Center and Queens College
Laird Bergad, Distinguished Professor of History at the Graduate Center and Lehman College
Randolph L. Braham, Former Distinguished Professor Emeritus of History at Hunter College and the City College of New York
Joshua Brown, Adjunct Professor and Executive Director of the American Social History Project and the Center for Media and Learning
Blanche Wiesen Cook, Distinguished Professor of History at the Graduate Center and John Jay College of Criminal Justice
Eric Foner, Former Professor of History at the Graduate Center and the City College of New York
Joshua Freeman, Distinguished Professor of History at the Graduate Center and Queens College
Herbert Gutman, Former Distinguished Professor of History
Dagmar Herzog, Distinguished Professor
KC Johnson, Professor of History at the Graduate Center and Brooklyn College
James Oakes, Distinguished Professor
Joan Wallach Scott, Adjunct Professor
Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., Former Albert Schweitzer Professor of Humanities
Judith Stein, Former Distinguished Professor of History at the Graduate Center and the City College of New York
Clarence Taylor, Professor Emeritus of History at the Graduate Center and Baruch College
Mike Wallace, Distinguished Professor of History at the Graduate Center and John Jay College of Criminal Justice
Eric D. Weitz, Distinguished Professor of History at the Graduate Center and the City College of New York
Linguistics
Juliette Blevins, Professor of Linguistics
Janet Dean Fodor, Distinguished Professor of Linguistics
Loraine Obler, Distinguished Professor of Linguistics
Virginia Valian, Distinguished Professor of Linguistics the Graduate Center and Hunter College
Douglas Whalen, Distinguished Professor of Linguistics
Mathematics
Sergei N. Artemov, Distinguished Professor of Mathematics
Jason Behrstock, Professor of Mathematics
Melvin Fitting, Professor Emeritus of Mathematics
Alexander Gamburd, Presidential Professor of Mathematics
Michael Handel, Professor of Mathematics
Linda Keen, Professor Emerita of Mathematics
Olga Kharlampovich, Mary P. Dolciani Professor of Mathematics
Victor Kolyvagin, Mina Rees Chair in Mathematics
Ádám Korányi, Distinguished Professor Emeritus of Mathematics
Ravi S. Kulkarni, Distinguished Professor Emeritus of Mathematics
Melvyn B. Nathanson, Professor of Mathematics
Rohit Parikh, Distinguished Professor of Mathematics
Enrique Pujals, Professor of Mathematics
Michael Shub, Martin and Michele Cohen Professor of Mathematics
Christina Sormani, Professor of Mathematics
Dennis Sullivan, Albert Einstein Chair in Science (Mathematics)
Lucien Szpiro, Distinguished Professor of Mathematics
Philosophy
Linda Martín Alcoff, Professor of Philosophy
Noël Carroll, Distinguished Professor of Philosophy
Michael Devitt, Distinguished Professor of Philosophy
Melvin Fitting, Professor Emeritus of Philosophy at the Graduate Center and Lehman College
Miranda Fricker, Presidential Professor of Philosophy
Peter Godfrey-Smith, Adjunct and Former Distinguished Professor of Philosophy
Carol C. Gould, Distinguished Professor of Philosophy and Political Science, Director of the Center for Global Ethics and Politics at the Ralph Bunche Institute for International Studies
Joel David Hamkins, Professor of Philosophy
Virginia Held, Distinguished Professor Emeritus at the Graduate Center and Hunter College
Serene Khader, Professor of Philosophy at the Graduate Center and Jay Newman Chair in Philosophy of Culture at Brooklyn College
Saul Kripke, Distinguished Professor of Philosophy and Computer Science
Douglas P. Lackey, Professor of Philosophy at the Graduate Center and Baruch College
Michael Levin, Professor Emeritus of Philosophy at the Graduate Center and the City College of New York
Charles W. Mills, Distinguished Professor of Philosophy
Stephen Neale, Distinguished Professor of Philosophy and Linguistics and Kornblith Chair in the Philosophy of Science and Value
David Papineau, Visiting Presidential Professor of Philosophy
Massimo Pigliucci, Professor of Philosophy at the Graduate Center and the City College of New York
Graham Priest, Distinguished Professor of Philosophy
Jesse Prinz, Distinguished Professor of Philosophy
David M. Rosenthal, Distinguished Professor of Philosophy
Nathan Salmon, Visiting Professor of Philosophy
Galen Strawson, Former Distinguished Professor of Philosophy at the Graduate Center
Marx Wartofsky, Former Distinguished Professor of Philosophy at the Graduate Center and Baruch College
Physics
Robert Alfano, Distinguished Professor of Science and Engineering at the City College of New York and Graduate Center
Andrea Alù, Einstein Professor of Physics and Director of the Photonics Initiative at the Advanced Science Research Center
William Bialek, Visiting Presidential Professor of Physics
Xi-Cheng Zhang, Assistant Professor of Physics
Eugene Chudnovsky, Distinguished Professor of Physics at Lehman College and the Graduate Center
Dmitry Garanin, Professor of Physics at Lehman College and the Graduate Center
Swapan K. Gayen, Distinguished Professor of Physics at the City College of New York and Graduate Center
Daniel Greenberger, Distinguished Professor of Physics at the City College of New York and Graduate Center
Godfrey Gumbs, Distinguished Professor of Physics at Hunter College and Graduate Center
Michio Kaku, Henry Semat Professor of Physics the City College of New York and Graduate Center
V. Parmeswaran Nair, Distinguished Professor of Physics at the City College of New York and Graduate Center
Matthew O'Dowd J., Professor of Physics at Lehman College and the Graduate Center
Political science
Randolph L. Braham, Distinguished Professor Emeritus of Political Science at the Graduate Center and City College of New York
Susan Buck-Morss, Distinguished Professor of Political Science
Mitchell Cohen, Professor of Political Science at the Graduate Center and Baruch College
Paisley Currah, Professor of Political Science at the Graduate Center and Brooklyn College
Robert Engler, Professor Emeritus of Political Science at the Graduate Center and New York City College of Technology
Joseph S. Murphy (1933-1998), President of Queens College, President of Bennington College, and Chancellor of the City University of New York
Francis Fox Piven, Distinguished Professor Emeritus of Political Science
Andrew Hacker, Professor Emeritus of Political Science at the Graduate Center and Queens College
Michael Harrington, Former Distinguished Professor of Political Science at the Graduate Center and Queens College
Uday Singh Mehta, Distinguished Professor of Political Science
Ralph Miliband, Former Visiting Professor of Political Science
John Mollenkopf, Distinguished Professor of Political Science and Sociology
Stanley Renshon, Professor of Political Science and Lehman College
Corey Robin, Professor of Political Science at the Graduate Center and Brooklyn College
Dankwart Rustow, Former Distinguished Professor of Political Science and Sociology
Thomas G. Weiss, Distinguished Professor of Political Science
Susan L. Woodward, Professor of Political Science
Donald S. Zagoria, Professor Emeritus of Political Science at the Graduate Center and Hunter College
Psychology
Roger Hart, Professor of Environmental Psychology and Earth and Environmental Sciences
Cindi Katz, Professor of Environmental Psychology and Earth and Environmental Sciences
Stanley Milgram, Former Distinguished Professor of Psychology
David Rindskopf, Distinguished Professor of Psychology
Susan Saegert, Professor of Environmental Psychology
Anna Stetsenko, Professor of Human Development and Urban Education
Sociology
Richard Alba, Distinguished Professor of Sociology
Stanley Aronowitz, Distinguished Professor Emeritus of Sociology and Urban Education
Juan Battle, Professor of Sociology, Public Health, and Urban Education
Frank Bonilla, Former Thomas Hunter Professor of Sociology at the Graduate Center and Hunter College
Bogdan Denitch, Former Professor Emeritus of Sociology
Mitchell Duneier, Former Distinguished Professor of Sociology
Cynthia Fuchs Epstein, Distinguished Professor Emeritus of Sociology
Stuart Ewen, Distinguished Professor of Sociology at the Graduate Center and Hunter College
Samuel Farber, Professor Emeritus of Sociology
Nancy Foner, Distinguished Professor of Sociology
Gerald S. Handel, Professor Emeritus of Sociology at the Graduate Center and the City College of New York
Michael P. Jacobson, Director of CUNY Institute for State and Local Governance
James M. Jasper, Professor of Sociology
Philip Kasinitz, Presidential Professor of Sociology at the Graduate Center and Hunter College
Judith Lorber, Professor Emeritus of Sociology and Women's Studies at the Graduate Center and Brooklyn College
Setsuko Matsunaga Nishi, Former Professor Emeritus of Sociology at the Graduate Center and Brooklyn College
Ruth Milkman, Distinguished Professor of Sociology, Associate Director of the Joseph S. Murphy Institute
Pyong Gap Min, Professor of Sociology at the Graduate Center and Queens College, Director of the Research Center for Korean Community
Peter Moskos, Professor of Sociology at the Graduate Center and the John Jay College of Criminal Justice
Victoria Pitts-Taylor, Former Professor of Sociology at the Graduate Center and Queens College
Barbara Katz Rothman, Professor of Sociology, Public Health, Disability Studies and Women's Studies at the Graduate Center and Baruch College
Carroll Seron, Former Professor of Sociology at the Graduate Center and Baruch College
Iván Szelényi, Former Distinguished Professor of Sociology
John Torpey, Professor of Sociology and History, Director of Ralph Bunche Institute for International Studies
Bryan Turner, Presidential Professor of Sociology
Jock Young, Distinguished Professor of Criminal Justice and Sociology
Sharon Zukin, Professor of Sociology at the Graduate Center and Brooklyn College
References
Lists of people by university or college in New York City |
30491391 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948%20USC%20Trojans%20football%20team | 1948 USC Trojans football team | The 1948 USC Trojans football team represented the University of Southern California (USC) in the 1948 college football season. In their seventh year under head coach Jeff Cravath, the Trojans compiled a 6–3–1 record (4–2 against conference opponents), finished in third place in the Pacific Coast Conference, and outscored their opponents by a combined total of 142 to 87.
Schedule
Coaching staff
Head coach: Jeff Cravath
Assistant coaches: Bob Winslow, Sam Barry, Bob Snyder, Norm Verry, Roy Engle, Roy "Bullet" Baker, Raymond George
References
USC
USC Trojans football seasons
USC Trojans football |
49459089 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperledger | Hyperledger | Hyperledger (or the Hyperledger project) is an umbrella project of open source blockchains and related tools, started in December 2015 by the Linux Foundation, and has received contributions from IBM, Intel and SAP Ariba, to support the collaborative development of blockchain-based distributed ledgers. It was renamed Hyperledger Foundation in October 2021.
History and aims
In December 2015, the Linux Foundation announced the creation of the Hyperledger Project. The founding members of the project were announced in February 2016 and ten further members and the makeup of the governing board were announced March 29. On May 19, Brian Behlendorf was appointed executive director of the project.
The objective of the project is to advance cross-industry collaboration by developing blockchains and distributed ledgers, with a particular focus on improving the performance and reliability of these systems (as compared to comparable cryptocurrency designs) so that they are capable of supporting global business transactions by major technological, financial and supply chain companies. The project will integrate independent open protocols and standards by means of a framework for use-specific modules, including blockchains with their own consensus and storage routines, as well as services for identity, access control and smart contracts. Early on there was some confusion that Hyperledger would develop its own bitcoin-type cryptocurrency, but Behlendorf has unreservedly stated that the Hyperledger Project itself will never build its own cryptocurrency.
In early 2016, the project began accepting proposals for incubation of codebases and other technologies as core elements. One of the first proposals was for a codebase combining previous work by Digital Asset, Blockstream's libconsensus and IBM's OpenBlockchain. This was later named Fabric. In May, Intel's distributed ledger, named Sawtooth, was incubated.
In January 2018, Hyperledger released the production-ready Sawtooth 1.0. In January of 2019, the first long-term-support version of Hyperledger Fabric (v1.4) was announced.
Members and governance
Early members of the initiative included blockchain ISVs, (Blockchain, ConsenSys, Digital Asset, R3, Onchain), well-known technology platform companies (Cisco, Fujitsu, Hitachi, IBM, Intel, NEC, NTT DATA, Red Hat, VMware), financial services firms (ABN AMRO, ANZ Bank, BNY Mellon, CLS Group, CME Group, the Depository Trust & Clearing Corporation (DTCC), Deutsche Börse Group, J.P. Morgan, State Street, SWIFT, Wells Fargo, Sberbank), business software companies like SAP, academic institutions (Cambridge Centre for Alternative Finance, Blockchain at Columbia, UCLA Blockchain Lab), systems integrators and others (Accenture, Calastone, Wipro, Credits, Guardtime, IntellectEU, Nxt Foundation, Symbiont, Smart Block Laboratory).
The governing board of the Hyperledger Project consists of twenty members chaired by Robert Palatnick, (managing director and chief technology architect for DTCC), and a twelve-member Technical Steering Committee chaired by Dan Middleton, Principal Engineer at Intel.
Notable frameworks
Hyperledger Besu
Besu is an enterprise-grade Ethereum codebase.
Hyperledger Fabric
Hyperledger Fabric is a permissioned blockchain infrastructure, originally contributed by IBM and Digital Asset, providing a modular architecture with a delineation of roles between the nodes in the infrastructure, execution of Smart Contracts (called "chaincode" in Fabric) and configurable consensus and membership services. A Fabric Network comprises (1) "Peer nodes", which execute chaincode, access ledger data, endorse transactions and interface with applications; (2) "Orderer nodes" which ensure the consistency of the blockchain and deliver the endorsed transactions to the peers of the network; and (3) Membership Service Providers (MSPs), each generally implemented as a Certificate Authority, managing X.509 certificates which are used to authenticate member identity and roles. Hyperledger Fabric allows for use of different consensus algorithms, but the consensus algorithm that is most commonly used with the platform is Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance (PBFT).
Fabric is primarily aimed at integration projects, in which a Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT) is required, offering no user facing services other than an SDK for Node.js, Java and Go.
Fabric supports chaincode in Go and JavaScript (via Hyperledger Composer, or natively since v1.1) out-of-the-box, and other languages such as Java by installing appropriate modules. It is therefore potentially more flexible than competitors that only support a closed Smart Contract language.
Hyperledger Sawtooth
Originally contributed by Intel, Sawtooth includes a dynamic consensus feature enabling hot swapping consensus algorithms in a running network. Among the consensus options is a novel consensus protocol known as "Proof of Elapsed Time," a lottery-design consensus protocol that optionally builds on trusted execution environments provided by Intel's Software Guard Extensions (SGX). Sawtooth supports Ethereum smart contracts via "seth" (a Sawtooth transaction processor integrating the Hyperledger Burrow EVM). In addition to Solidity support, Sawtooth includes SDKs for Python, Go, Javascript, Rust, Java, and C++.
Tools
Hyperledger Caliper
Hyperledger Caliper is a blockchain benchmark tool and one of the Hyperledger projects hosted by The Linux Foundation. Hyperledger Caliper allows users to measure the performance of a specific blockchain implementation with a set of predefined use cases. Hyperledger Caliper will produce reports containing a number of performance indicators, such as TPS (Transactions Per Second), transaction latency, resource utilisation etc. The intent is for Caliper results to be used by other Hyperledger projects as they build out their frameworks, and as a reference in supporting the choice of a blockchain implementation suitable for a user's specific needs. Hyperledger Caliper was initially contributed by developers from Huawei, Hyperchain, Oracle, Bitwise, Soramitsu, IBM and the Budapest University of Technology and Economics.
Hyperledger Cello
Hyperledger Cello is a blockchain module toolkit and one of the Hyperledger projects hosted by The Linux Foundation. Hyperledger Cello aims to bring the on-demand "as-a-service" deployment model to the blockchain ecosystem to reduce the effort required for creating, managing and terminating blockchains. It provides a multi-tenant chain service efficiently and automatically on top of various infrastructures, e.g., baremetal, virtual machine, and more container platforms. Hyperledger Cello was initially contributed by IBM, with sponsors from Soramitsu, Huawei and Intel.
Baohua Yang and Haitao Yue from IBM Research are committed part-time to developing and maintaining the project.
Hyperledger Composer
Hyperledger Composer was a set of collaboration tools for building blockchain business networks that make it simple and fast for business owners and developers to create smart contracts and blockchain applications to solve business problems. Built with JavaScript, leveraging modern tools including node.js, npm, CLI and popular editors, Composer offered business-centric abstractions as well as sample apps with easy to test DevOps processes to create robust blockchain solutions that drive alignment across business requirements with technical development.
Blockchain package management tooling contributed by IBM. Composer was a user-facing rapid prototyping tooling, running on top of Hyperledger Fabric, which allows the easy management of Assets (data stored on the blockchain), Participants (identity management, or member services) and Transactions (Chaincode, a.k.a. Smart Contracts, which operate on Assets on the behalf of a Participant). The resulting application can be exported as a package (a BNA file) which may be executed on a Hyperledger Fabric instance, with the support of a Node.js application (based on the Loopback application framework) and provide a REST interface to external applications.
Composer provided a GUI user interface "Playground" for the creation of applications, and therefore represents an excellent starting point for Proof of Concept work.
On the 27th of April, 2020 the Hyperledger Technical Steering Committee moved Hyperledger Composer to the "End of Life" lifecycle stage, ending new development.
Hyperledger Explorer
Hyperledger Explorer is a blockchain module and one of the Hyperledger projects hosted by The Linux Foundation. Designed to create a user-friendly Web application, Hyperledger Explorer can view, invoke, deploy or query blocks, transactions and associated data, network information (name, status, list of nodes), chain codes and transaction families, as well as any other relevant information stored in the ledger. Hyperledger Explorer was initially contributed by IBM, Intel and DTCC.
Hyperledger Quilt
Hyperledger Quilt is a business blockchain tool and one of the Hyperledger projects hosted by The Linux Foundation. Hyperledger Quilt offers interoperability between ledger systems by implementing the Interledger protocol (also known as ILP), which is primarily a payments protocol and is designed to transfer value across distributed ledgers and non-distributed ledgers. The Interledger protocol provides atomic swaps between ledgers (even non-blockchain or distributed ledgers) and a single account namespace for accounts within each ledger. With the addition of Quilt to Hyperledger, The Linux Foundation now hosts both the Java (Quilt) and JavaScript (Interledger.js) Interledger implementations. Hyperledger Quilt was initially contributed by NTT Data and Ripple.
See also
Confidential Consortium Framework
References
External links
Blockchain entities
Linux Foundation projects |
229168 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew%20University%20of%20Jerusalem | Hebrew University of Jerusalem | The Hebrew University of Jerusalem (HUJI; ) is a public research university based in Jerusalem, Israel. Established in July 1918 and officially opened in April 1925, it is the second-oldest Israeli university, having been founded 30 years before the formal establishment of the State of Israel. The HUJI has three campuses in Jerusalem and one in Rehovot. The world's largest library for Jewish studies—the National Library of Israel—is located on its Edmond J. Safra campus in the Givat Ram neighbourhood of Jerusalem.
The university has five affiliated teaching hospitals (including the Hadassah Medical Center), seven faculties, more than 100 research centers, and 315 academic departments. , one-third of all the doctoral candidates in Israel were studying at the HUJI.
Among its first few board of governors were Albert Einstein, Sigmund Freud, Martin Buber, and Chaim Weizmann. Four of Israel's prime ministers, including the incumbent Naftali Bennett, are alumni of the university. , 15 Nobel Prize winners, two Fields Medalists, and three Turing Award winners have been affiliated with the HUJI.
History
One of the visions of the Zionist movement was the establishment of a Jewish university in the Land of Israel. Founding a university was proposed as far back as 1884 in the Kattowitz (Katowice) conference of the Hovevei Zion society, and by Hermann Schapira at the First Zionist Congress of 1897.
The cornerstone for the university was laid on July 24, 1918. Seven years later, on April 1, 1925, the Hebrew University campus on Mount Scopus was opened at a gala ceremony attended by the leaders of the Jewish world, distinguished scholars and public figures, and British dignitaries, including the Earl of Balfour, Viscount Allenby, and Sir Herbert Samuel. The university's first chancellor was Judah Magnes, who led the school as chancellor from 1924 to 1935. In 1935 to 1948 he led the school as president.
One of the most controversial issues during the conceptualization of the university regarded its future official language. Whereas one side, the so-called “Germanists”, proposed a combination of German and Arabic for all non-Jewish subjects, the other side opted for the general use of Hebrew. The former party was afraid the very recent Modern Hebrew might not yet allow high-level academic discussions since it still suffered from a lack of specific technical terms in non-religious contexts. Although this concern can not simply be dismissed as unreasonable, the representatives of this position underestimated the symbolic significance of Hebrew for many Jews, not least of all for those outside the academia. Therefore, they were not able to prevail in the discussion and had to give in to the decision that the new university would be an explicitly Hebrew one. The question, what would define the specific Hebrew character of the university did not only regard the choice of an official language but also organizational aspects, as for example the establishment of departments and the definition of their respective research areas, and the outline of its overall academic profile. Therefore, in 1919, Shmaryahu Levin inquired a number of prominent Jewish European scholars about their opinions on the subject. One of the respondents was Ignaz Goldziher whose proposals were at least partly implemented: oriental languages, Jewish literature, and archaeology were among the first subjects studied at the university.
By 1947, the university had become a large research and teaching institution. Sir Leon Simon was Acting President from 1948 to 1949, and he was succeeded as president by Professor Selig Brodetsky, who served from 1949 to 1952. Plans for a medical school were approved in May 1949, and in November 1949, a faculty of law was inaugurated. In 1952, it was announced that the agricultural institute founded by the university in 1940 would become a full-fledged faculty.
During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, attacks were carried out against convoys moving between the Israeli-controlled section of Jerusalem and the university. The leader of the Arab forces in Jerusalem, Abdul Kader Husseini, threatened military action against the university Hadassah Hospital "if the Jews continued to use them as bases for attacks." After the April 1948 Hadassah medical convoy massacre, in which 79 Jews, including doctors and nurses, were killed, the Mount Scopus campus was cut off from Jerusalem. British soldier Jack Churchill coordinated the evacuation of 700 Jewish doctors, students and patients from the hospital.
When the Jordanian government denied Israeli access to Mount Scopus, a new campus was built at Givat Ram in western Jerusalem and completed in 1958. In the interim, classes were held in 40 different buildings around the city. Benjamin Mazar was President of the university from 1953 to 1961, Giulio Racah was Acting President from 1961 to 1962, and Eliahu Eilat was president from 1962 to 1968.
The Terra Santa building in Rehavia, rented from the Franciscan Custodians of the Latin Holy Places, was also used for this purpose. A few years later, together with the Hadassah Medical Organization, a medical science campus was built in the south-west Jerusalem neighborhood of Ein Kerem.
By the beginning of 1967, the students numbered 12,500, spread among the two campuses in Jerusalem and the agricultural faculty in Rehovot. After the unification of Jerusalem, following the Six-Day War of June 1967, the university was able to return to Mount Scopus, which was rebuilt. According to ARIJ, Israel confiscated 568 Dunams of land from the Palestinian village of Isawiya for the Hebrew University in 1968. In 1981 the construction work was completed, and Mount Scopus again became the main campus of the university. Avraham Harman was President of the university from 1968 to 1983, Don Patinkin from 1983 to 1986, Amnon Pazy from 1986 to 1990, Yoram Ben-Porat from 1990 to 1992, Hanoch Gutfreund from 1992 to 1997, and Menachem Magidor from 1997 to 2009.
On July 31, 2002, a member of a terrorist cell detonated a bomb during lunch hour at the university's "Frank Sinatra" cafeteria when it was crowded with staff and students. Nine people—five Israelis, three Americans, and one dual French-American citizen—were murdered and more than 70 wounded. World leaders, including Kofi Annan, President George W. Bush, and the President of the European Union issued statements of condemnation.
Menachem Ben-Sasson was President of the university from 2009 to 2017, succeeded by Asher Cohen in 2017.
In 2017 the Hebrew University of Jerusalem launched a marijuana research center, intended to "conduct and coordinate research on cannabis and its biological effects with an eye toward commercial applications."
Campuses
Mount Scopus
Mount Scopus (Hebrew: Har HaTzofim הר הצופים), in the north-eastern part of Jerusalem, is home to the main campus, which contains the Faculties of Humanities, Social Sciences, Law, Jerusalem School of Business Administration, Baerwald School of Social Work, Harry S. Truman Research Institute for the Advancement of Peace, Rothberg International School, and the Mandel Institute of Jewish Studies.
The Rothberg International School features secular studies and Jewish/Israeli studies. Included for foreign students is also a mandatory Ulpan program for Hebrew language study which includes a mandatory course in Israeli culture and customs. All Rothberg Ulpan classes are taught by Israeli natives. However, many other classes at the Rothberg School are taught by Jewish immigrants to Israel.
The land on Mt. Scopus was purchased before World War I from Sir John Gray-Hill, along with the Gray-Hill mansion. The master plan for the university was designed by Patrick Geddes and his son-in-law, Frank Mears in December 1919. Only two buildings of this original scheme were built: the David Wolffsohn University and National Library, and the Mathematics Institute, with the Physics Institute probably being built to the designs of their Jerusalem-based partner, Benjamin Chaikin.
Housing for students at Hebrew University who live on Mount Scopus is located at the three dormitories located near the university. These are the Maiersdorf (מאירסדורף) dormitories, the Bronfman (ברונפמן) dormitories, and the Kfar HaStudentim (כפר הסטודנטים, Student Village).
Nearby is the Nicanor Cave, an ancient cave that was planned to be a national pantheon.
Edmond J. Safra, Givat Ram
The Givat Ram campus (recently renamed after Edmond Safra) is the home of the Faculty of Science including the Einstein Institute of Mathematics; the Israel Institute for Advanced Studies, the Center for the Study of Rationality, as well as the National Library of Israel, (JNUL).
Ein Kerem
The Faculties of Medicine and Dental Medicine and the Institute For Medical Research, Israel-Canada (IMRIC) are located at the south-western Jerusalem Ein Kerem campus alongside the Hadassah-University Medical Center.
Rehovot
The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and the Environment and the Koret School of Veterinary Medicine are located in the city of Rehovot in the coastal plain. The Faculty was established in 1942 and the School of Veterinary Medicine opened in 1985. These are the only institutions of higher learning in Israel that offer both teaching and research programs in their respective fields. The Faculty is a member of the Euroleague for Life Sciences.
Libraries
The Hebrew University libraries and their web catalogs can be accessed through the HUJI Library Authority portal.
Jewish National and University Library
The Jewish National and University Library is the central and largest library of the Hebrew University and one of the most impressive book and manuscript collections in the world. It is also the oldest section of the university. Founded in 1892 as a world center for the preservation of books relating to Jewish thought and culture, it assumed the additional functions of a general university library in 1920. Its collections of Hebraica and Judaica are the largest in the world. It houses all materials published in Israel, and attempts to acquire all materials published in the world related to the country. It possesses over five million books and thousands of items in special sections, many of which are unique. Among these are the Albert Einstein Archives, Hebrew manuscripts department, Eran Laor map collection, Edelstein science collection, Gershom Scholem collection, and a collection of Maimonides' manuscripts and early writings.
In his will, Albert Einstein left the Hebrew University his personal papers and the copyright to them. The Albert Einstein Archives contain some 55,000 items. In March, 2012 the university announced that it had digitized the entire archive, and was planning to make it more accessible online. Included in the collection are his personal notes, love letters to various women, including the woman who would become his second wife, Elsa.
Subject-based libraries
In addition to the National Library, the Hebrew University operates subject-based libraries on its campuses, among them the Avraham Harman Science Library, Safra, Givat Ram; Mathematics and Computer Science Library, Safra, Givat Ram; Earth Sciences Library, Safra, Givat Ram; Muriel and Philip I. Berman National Medical Library, Ein Kerem; Central Library of Agricultural Science, Rehovot; Bloomfield Library for the Humanities and Social Sciences, Mt. Scopus; Bernard G. Segal Law Library Center, Mt. Scopus; Emery and Claire Yass Library of the Institute of Archaeology, Mt. Scopus; Moses Leavitt Library of Social Work, Mt. Scopus; Zalman Aranne Central Education Library, Mt. Scopus; Library of the Rothberg School for International Students, Mt. Scopus; Roberta and Stanley Bogen Library of the Harry S. Truman Research Institute for the Advancement of Peace, Mt. Scopus; and the Steven Spielberg Jewish Film Archive.
Rankings
According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, the Hebrew University is the top university in Israel, overall between 101st and 150th best university in the world, between 301st and 400th in physics, between 201st and 300th in computer science, and between 51st and 75th in business/economics. In 2021, the Center for World University Rankings ranked the Hebrew University 64th in the world and 1st in Israel in its World University Rankings.
The Hebrew University consistently ranks as Israel's best university in mathematics, and among the best worldwide. It was ranked as the 11th best institution in mathematics worldwide in 2017, 19th best in 2018, 21st best in 2019, and 25th best in 2020.
Friends of the University
The university has an international Society of Friends organizations covering more than 25 countries. Canadian Friends of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem (CFHU), founded in 1944 by Canadian philanthropist Allan Bronfman, promotes awareness, leadership and financial support for The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. CFHU facilitates academic and research partnerships between Canada and Israel as well as establishing scholarships, supporting research, cultivating student and faculty exchanges and recruiting Canadian students to attend the Rothberg International School. CFHU has chapters in Montreal, Ottawa, Toronto, Winnipeg, Edmonton, Calgary and Vancouver.
The American Friends of the Hebrew University (AFHU) is a not-for-profit 501(c)3 organization that provides programs, events and fundraising activities in support of the university. It was founded by the American philanthropist, Felix M. Warburg in 1925. Supported by its founder, Stephen Floersheimer, and headed by Eran Razin, Floersheimer Studies is a singular program, publishing studies in the field of society, governance and space in Israel. It was established in 2007 replacing the Floersheimer Institute for Policy Studies of 1991.
Faculty
Dorit Aharonov, computer science
Lydia Aran, scholar of Buddhism
Robert Aumann, 2005 Nobel Prize laureate for Economics
Shlomo Avineri, Political Science
Yishai Bar, law
Yehoshua Bar-Hillel, linguistics
Yaacov Bar-Siman-Tov, international relations
Aharon Barak, former President of the Israeli Supreme Court
Yehuda Bauer, Holocaust history
Jacob Bekenstein, physics
Norman Bentwich, international relations
Ernst David Bergmann, chairman of Israeli Atomic Energy Commission
Martin Buber, religion & Jewish philosophy
Howard Cedar, chairperson, Developmental Biology & Cancer Research, IMRIC
Ilan Chet, agricultural biotechnology
Richard I. Cohen, history
Avishai Dekel Andre Aisenstadt Chair of Theoretical Physics
Shmuel Eisenstadt, sociology
Menachem Elon, former deputy president of the Israeli Supreme Court
Adolf Abraham Halevi Fraenkel, mathematics
Hillel Furstenberg, mathematics, Israel Prize winner
Leah Goldberg (1911–1970), poet
Eliezer E. Goldschmidt, agriculture
Asher Dan Grunis, Supreme Court Justice
Louis Guttman, social sciences and statistics
Ephraim Halevy, Mossad chief
Lumír Ondřej Hanuš, analytic chemist
Yuval Noah Harari, history
Gabriel Herman, Historian
Gabriel Horenczyk, psychologist, faculty member of the Melton Centre for Jewish Education and the School of Education.
Daniel Kahneman, 2002 Nobel Prize laureate for Economics
Ruth Kark, geography of (Eretz) Israel
Elihu Katz, communication
Aharon Katzir, chemistry
David Kazhdan, mathematics
Baruch Kimmerling, sociology
Roger D. Kornberg, visiting professor, 2006 Nobel Prize laureate for chemistry
David Kretzmer, law
Ruth Lapidoth, law
Ruth Lawrence, mathematics
Yeshayahu Leibowitz, biochemistry and Jewish philosophy
Raphael D. Levine, chemist
Avigdor Levontin, law
Nehemia Levtzion (1935—2003), scholar of African history, Near East, Islamic, and African studies, President of the Open University of Israel, and executive director of the Van Leer Jerusalem Institute
Amia Lieblich, psychology
Elon Lindenstrauss, mathematics, laureate of the 2010 Fields Medal
Joram Lindenstrauss, mathematics, Israel Prize winner
Avishai Margalit, philosophy Israel Prize winner
Amihai Mazar, archaeology, Israel Prize winner
Benjamin Mazar. archaeologist, Israel Prize winner, former university president and rector
Jacob (Kobi) Metzer, economic historian, professor, and the eighth president of the Open University of Israel
Eugen Mittwoch, semitic languages, guest professor in 1924 (famous as head of German Nachrichtenstelle in World War I)
George Mosse, history
Bezalel Narkiss, art history
Amnon Netzer, Jewish studies and history
Ehud Netzer (1934–2010), archaeology
Yaakov Nahmias, bioengineering
Anat Ninio, psychology
Mordechai Nisan, education
Dan Pagis, literature
Nurit Peled-Elhanan, education
Tsvi Piran, astrophysics
Joshua Prawer, history
Michael O. Rabin, computer science and mathematics, Israel Prize winner and recipient of the Turing Award.
Giulio Racah, physics
Frances Raday, law
Aharon Razin, Researcher, IMRIC
Eliyahu Rips, mathematics
Mordechai Rotenberg, social work
Gershom Scholem, Jewish mysticism
Eliezer Schweid, Jewish philosophy
Ehud de Shalit, number theorist
Zlil Sela, mathematics
Nir Shaviv, astrophysics
Saharon Shelah, mathematics
Avigdor Shinan, Hebrew literature
Avraham Steinberg, medical ethics
Zeev Sternhell, political science
Hayim Tadmor, Assyriology
Jacob Talmon, history
Gadi Taub, social sciences
Amos Tversky, psychology
Claude Vigée, French literature
Avi Wigderson, computer science and mathematics
Hanna Yablonka, Holocaust history
Joseph Yahalom, Hebrew poetry
S. Yizhar, writer
Publications
Institute of Archaeology, Mt. Scopus
Qedem: Monographs of the Institute of Archaeology
Qedem Reports
Notable alumni
Major award laureates
Fields Medal laureate: Jean Bourgain (1994), Elon Lindenstrauss (2010)
Nobel Prize laureates: Daniel Kahneman (economics 2002), David Gross (physics 2004), Avram Hershko (chemistry 2004), Aaron Ciechanover (chemistry 2004), Robert Aumann (economics 2005), Roger D. Kornberg (chemistry 2006), and Ada Yonath (chemistry 2009)
Turing Award laureates: Michael O. Rabin (1976), Richard E. Stearns (1993), Shafi Goldwasser (2012)
Political leaders
Ambassador Yael Rubinstein
Members of the Knesset: Colette Avital, Yael Dayan, Taleb el-Sana, Dalia Itzik, Roman Bronfman, David Rotem, Ahmed Tibi, Avigdor Lieberman, Dov Khenin, Danny Danon, Shulamit Aloni, Rachel Adato, Ze'ev Elkin, Roni Bar-On, Ze'ev Bielski, Yohanan Plesner, David Rotem, Yuval Steinitz, Dan Meridor, Yisrael Katz, Jamal Zahalka, Shai Hermesh, Zvulun Orlev, Menachem Ben-Sasson, Ya'akov Ne'eman, Geulah Cohen, Bechor-Shalom Sheetrit, Orit Farkash-Hacohen
Jerusalem city council members: Ofer Berkovitch
Presidents of Israel: Ephraim Katzir, Yitzhak Navon, Moshe Katsav, Reuven Rivlin
Prime Ministers of Israel: Ehud Barak, Ariel Sharon, Ehud Olmert, Naftali Bennett
Supreme Court Justices: Aharon Barak, Dorit Beinisch, Menachem Elon, Elyakim Rubinstein, Meir Shamgar, Jacob Turkel, Yitzhak Zamir, Salim Joubran, Uri Shoham
By profession
Academics: Emanuel Adler, Michael Albeck, Yoram Ben-Porat, Ahron Bregman, Richard I. Cohen, Uri Davis, Amitai Etzioni, Esther Farbstein, Gerson Goldhaber, Daphna Hacker, Haim Harari, Jose Itzigsohn, Joshua Jortner, Efraim Karsh, Asa Kasher, Walter Laqueur, Alexander Levitzki, Saul Lieberman, Avishai Margalit, Jacob (Kobi) Metzer, Dana Olmert, Neri Oxman, Dana Pe'er, Uriel Reichman, Joshua Ronen, Miri Rubin, Ariel Rubinstein, Eli Salzberger, Amit Schejter, Michael Sela, Igal Talmi, Benjamin Elazari Volcani, Menahem Yaari, Ada Yonath
Activists: Dorit Reiss, Elie Yossef
Anthropologist: Eliane Karp
Archaeologists: Ruth Amiran, Trude Dothan, Aren Maeir, Amihai Mazar, Benjamin Mazar, Eilat Mazar, Yigael Yadin
Astronomers: David H. Levy
Biology and biochemistry: Sarah Spiegel (1974)
Botanists: Daniel Chamovitz, Alexander Eig
Business: Kobi Alexander (former CEO and founder of Comverse Technology), Léo Apotheker (former CEO of Hewlett-Packard and SAP), Dina Dublon (board member of Microsoft, Accenture and PepsiCo), Maxine Fassberg (former CEO of Intel Israel), Orit Gadiesh (Chairman of Bain & Company), Eli Hurvitz (CEO 1976–2002 Teva Pharmaceuticals), Gil Shwed (CEO and chairman Check Point Software Technologies)
Chemists: Yitzhak Apeloig, Adam Heller, Dan Meyerstein, Renata Reisfeld
Climatologists: Amaelle Landais-Israël
Educators: Brother Rafael S. Donato FSC, Ed.D., was a Filipino De La Salle Brother and was the past President of De La Salle University Manila, University of St. La Salle, De La Salle Lipa, La Salle Green Hills and De La Salle Araneta University.
Film, theatre, show business: Joseph Cedar, Natalie Portman, Uri Zohar
Foreign service: Naomi Ben-Ami, Gabriela Shalev, Rafael Harpaz
Journalists: Khaled Abu Toameh, Ron Ben-Yishai, Nahum Barnea, Boaz Evron, Amos Kenan, Sayed Kashua, Amira Hass, Akiva Eldar, Yossi Melman, Meron Benvenisti, Tom Segev, Haviv Rettig, Dan Margalit, Ya'akov Ahimeir, Michael Bar-Zohar, David Witzthum, Haim Gouri, Ehud Yaari, Zvi Yehezkeli
Historians: Esther Farbstein, Yuval Noah Harari, Itamar Rabinovich, Ron Robin
Law
Judges: Elisheva Barak-Ussoskin
Lawyers: Yoram Dinstein, Meir Shmuel Gabay, Elias Khoury, Menachem Mazuz, Ya'akov Ne'eman, Itzhak Nener, Malcolm Shaw
Law professor: Dorit Reiss
Mathematicians: Rami Grossberg (1986), Joram Lindenstrauss (1962), Moshe Machover (1962), Menachem Magidor, Amnon Pazy, Oded Schramm (1987), Saharon Shelah (1969)
Physicists: Amikam Aharoni, David Gross, Haim Harari, Max Jammer, Igal Talmi, Micha Tomkiewicz
Psychologists: Shlomo Breznitz, Asher Cohen
Religion
Clergy: Malcolm Ranjith, Archbishop of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Colombo, 2nd Sri Lankan to be made a cardinal, Patriarch Theophilos III of Jerusalem
Theologians: Fr Malachi Martin, Yigal Arnon
Soldiers: Yishai Beer, Uzi Dayan, Yuval Neria, Yonatan "Yoni" Netanyahu
Sports: Itzik Kornfein, Shaul Ladany, Adin Talbar, Yochanan Vollach
Writers: Yehuda Amichai, Galila Ron-Feder Amit, Aharon Appelfeld, Netiva Ben-Yehuda, Elias Chacour, Yael Dayan, Yuval Elizur, Helen Epstein, Jonah Frankel, David Grossman, Dmitry Glukhovsky, Batya Gur, Shifra Horn, Amos Oz, A. B. Yehoshua, Amnon Jackont, Amalia Kahana-Carmon, Yehoshua Kenaz, Miriam Roth, Amir Segal, Anton Shammas, Gideon Telpaz, Natan Yonatan
Yissum Research Development Company
Yissum Research Development Company is the university's technology transfer company, founded in 1964. Yissum owns all the intellectual property of the researchers and employees of the Hebrew University. Since its formation Yissum has founded more than 80 spin-off companies such as: Mobileye, BriefCam, HumanEyes, OrCam, ExLibris, BioCancell and many more. Yissum is led by Yaacov Michlin and other leaders in the business industry such as: Tamir Huberman, Dov Reichman, Shoshi Keinan, Ariela Markel and Michal Levy. Yissum is also a member of ITTN (Israel Technology Transfer Organization).
See also
Einstein Papers Project
Yehezkel Kaufman
List of Israeli universities and colleges
References
External links
Official website
Friends of The Hebrew University
American Friends of the Hebrew University
British Friends of The Hebrew University (BFHU)
Canadian Friends of The Hebrew University (CFHU)
Alumni
The European Alumni of The Hebrew University
Law schools in Israel
Research institutes in Israel
Universities in Israel
Universities and colleges in Jerusalem
Mount Scopus
1925 establishments in Mandatory Palestine
Erich Mendelsohn buildings
Buildings and structures in Rehovot |
375271 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialer | Dialer | A dialer (American English) or dialler (British English) is an electronic device that is connected to a telephone line to monitor the dialed numbers and alter them to seamlessly provide services that otherwise require lengthy National or International access codes to be dialed. A dialer automatically inserts and modifies the numbers depending on the time of day, country or area code dialed, allowing the user to subscribe to the service providers who offer the best rates. For example, a dialer could be programmed to use one service provider for international calls and another for cellular calls. This process is known as prefix insertion or least cost routing. A line powered dialer does not need any external power but instead takes the power it needs from the telephone line.
Another type of dialer is a computer program which creates a connection to the Internet or another computer network over the analog telephone or Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN). Many operating systems already contain such a program for connections through the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP), such as WvDial.
Many internet service providers offer installation CDs to simplify the process of setting up a proper Internet connection. They either create an entry in the OS's dialer or install a separate dialer (as the AOL software does).
In recent years, the term "dialer" often refers specifically to dialers that connect without the user's full knowledge as to cost, with the creator of the dialer intending to commit fraud.
Dialing modes
In Call Centers there are several dialling modes depending on how the call is placed. 'Manual Dialing' refers to calls that are placed manually by an agent.
There are 4 different dialing modes depending on how software dialers selects the contacts that are going to be called and starts making the calls. Automated dialers such as those sold by Noble Systems, Avaya, and Convoso (formerly SafeSoft Solutions) can place calls using *preview*, *power*, auto dialing, or predictive dialing. The dialing modes are defined according to the campaign and type of business.
Preview
Preview dialing enables agents to first view the available information about the customer and decide when to place the call. In addition to the information about the customer, agents may also view all the history of the customer with the contact center. After viewing the information about the customer, the agent requests the system to make the call.
For example, preview dialing is useful in debt collection campaigns to allow agents to view information about the customer and define a strategy before starting to talk to the customer.
The system delivers preview calls to agents automatically, taking into account the priority of the call and the skills of the agent to handle the call. Preview dialing keeps agents from dialing calls manually.
Predictive
Predictive dialing is a state-of-the-art pacing mode used to call a large number of customers within a short period of time. Predictive dialing optimizes the time of agents by reducing the idle times between connected calls and freeing agents from dialing calls. Predictive dialing gathers statistics concerning the duration of calls, how long it takes for calls to be answered, and how often are calls answered. When an agent is about to become idle, the system places several calls.
Predictive dialing campaigns can achieve agent productivity of 50 minutes per hour and nuisance ratios of 3% or less. The system is continually updating predictive dialing probabilities and monitoring nuisance ratios for performance and compliance with legislation.
For example, predictive dialing is useful in sales campaigns to call a large number of contacts and maximizing the working time of agents.
The performance of predictive dialing takes into consideration the accuracy of the contact lists and the policies on nuisance calls. If the contact list is poor, the performance of the predictive dialing campaign is at risk as agents are not connected to live contacts and are not able to do business.
Power IVR
Power IVR is used to deliver a pre-recorded message to a large call list. When a call is answered, Power IVR will play the audio file, and then collect touch tone key responses or speech command at the end of the message, and then transfer the call to an agent or remove the caller from the call list. In other words, IVR is a technology that allows a computer to interact with humans through the use of voice and DTMF tones input via keypad.
Voice Drop
Voice drop is same as Power IVR, except it will not wait for the touch tone key responses or speech command at the end of the message, after playing the message, call is dropped, mostly this is used for payment reminders and similar.
Fraudulent dialer
Dialers are necessary to connect to the internet (at least for non-broadband connections), but some dialers are designed to connect to premium-rate numbers. The providers of such dialers often search for security holes in the operating system installed on the user's computer and use them to set the computer up to dial up through their number, so as to make money from the calls. Alternatively, some dialers inform the user what it is that they are doing, with the promise of special content, accessible only via the special number. Examples of this content include software for download, (usually illegal) trojans posing as MP3s, trojans posing as pornography, or 'underground' programs such as cracks and keygens.
The cost of setting up such a service is relatively low, amounting to a few thousand dollars for telecommunications equipment, whereupon the unscrupulous operator will typically take 90% of the cost of a premium rate call, with very few overheads of their own.
Users with DSLs (or similar broadband connections) are usually not affected. A dialer can be downloaded and installed, but dialing in is not possible as there are no regular phone numbers in the DSL network and users will not typically have their dial-up modem, if any, connected to a phone line. However, if an ISDN adapter or additional analog modem is installed, the dialer might still be able to get a connection.
Malicious dialers can be identified by the following characteristics:
A download popup opens when opening a website.
On the website there is only a small hint, if any, about the price.
The download starts even if the cancel button has been clicked.
The dialer installs as default connection without any notice.
The dialer creates unwanted connections by itself and without user interaction.
The dialer does not show any notice about the price (only few do) before dialing in.
The high price of the connection is not being shown while connected
The dialer cannot be uninstalled, or only with serious effort.
Installation routes
Computers running Microsoft Windows without anti-virus software or proper updates could be vulnerable to Visual Basic-scripts which install a trojan horse which changes values in the Windows Registry and sets Internet Explorer security settings in a way that ActiveX controls can be downloaded from the Internet without warning. After this change is made, when a user accesses a malicious page or email message, it can start installing the dialer. The script also disables the modem speaker and messages that normally come up while dialing into a network. Users of Microsoft Office Outlook, Outlook Express and Internet Explorer are especially affected if running ActiveX controls and JavaScript is allowed and the latest security patches from Microsoft have not been installed.
In March 2004, there were malicious dialers that could be installed through fake anti-virus software. E-mail spam from a so-called "AntiVirus Team" for example, contained download links to programs named "downloadtool.exe" or "antivirus.exe", which are malicious dialers. Other ways of transmission include electronic greeting cards that link to pages that tricks the user to install ActiveX controls, which in turn install dialers in the background.
Therefore, links in spam emails should never be opened, automatically started downloads should be canceled as soon as discovered, and one should check on each dial-up to the Internet to see whether the displayed phone number is unchanged. Another way to protect oneself is to disable premium numbers through one's phone services, but of course this disables all such services.
One should never run foreign code in a privileged environment unless the source is trustworthy. It is also advisable to protect oneself with anti-malware programs.
German regulatory law
On 15 August 2003, a new law came into effect in Germany called "Gesetz zur Bekämpfung des Missbrauchs von (0)190er/(0)900er Mehrwertdiensterufnummern" ("Law for the combat of misuse of (0)190/(0)900 value added service numbers").
The law contains the following regulations:
Forced price notices for service providers.
Maximum price limits, legitimacy checks and automatic disconnects.
Registration of dialers.
Blocking of dialers.
Right of information for consumers from the RegTP.
On 4 March 2004 the German Federal Supreme Court in Karlsruhe decided that fees for the usage of dialers do not have to be paid if it was used without the user's knowledge.
United Kingdom regulatory law
In December 2016, Ofcom (The Office of Communications) announced changes to their call centre regulations. These focused on the persistent use of dialers to make call to residential telephone numbers. They also added extra clarity to how call centres should approach the issue of silent and abandoned calls.
Ofcom, now also regulate how abandoned call messages should work. A message should now state the company name, reason for calling but importantly not be used as an opportunity to market the business.
See also
Predictive dialer System for dialing many numbers, typically used by call centers
War dialing Automatically scanning a list of telephone numbers to detect computers, usually for nefarious purposes
Dialer management platform
XXXDial — historical example of dialer/spyware
References
Telephony
Types of malware |
1505340 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ShaBLAMM%21%20NiTro-VLB | ShaBLAMM! NiTro-VLB | The ShaBLAMM! NiTro-VLB was a computer system that used a QED R4600 microprocessor implemented on a VESA Local Bus peripheral card and designed to function when connected to a host computer system using an Intel i486. The NiTro-VLB conformed to the ARC standard, and was produced and marketed by ShaBLAMM! Computer as an "upgrade" card for accelerating Windows NT.
Characteristics
The NiTro-VLB is notable for various unique characteristics among personal computer accessories. For example, although the system was marketed as an "upgrade" for computers already using a 486 processor, the NiTro-VLB was in fact of an entirely different architecture (specifically, the MIPS architecture) from the IA32-based 486. Further, as a "parasitic" or "symbiotic" coprocessor, the NiTro-VLB was designed to co-opt the host 486 processor from running, and used four megabytes of the host 486 motherboard's system memory as a DMA buffer (although the NiTro-VLB required its own separate DRAM main memory, in addition to any memory installed on the host 486 motherboard).
This is a type of "parasite"/"host" upgrade card configuration, in which an entire motherboard and processor are implemented on an expansion card designed to connect to a host motherboard's expansion slot. Such configurations are rare among computer systems designed to run Microsoft Windows.
Specifications and benchmarks
The NiTro-VLB's QED R4600 processor, running at 100 MHz, was rated at 73.8 SPECint92 and 63 SPECfp92 (which are similar figures to the first-generation Pentium running at 66 MHz). Faster and costlier versions were designed to run at 133 MHz or 150 MHz.
Sales
Initially, the NiTro-VLB system was priced at $1,095 for a 100 MHz card with no main memory, $1,995 for a 100 MHz card with 16 MB of main memory and a copy of Windows NT, and $2,595 for a 150 MHz card.
See also
Jazz (computer)
MIPS Magnum
DeskStation Tyne
External links
A BYTE magazine article detailing the ShaBlamm! Nitro-VLB
Computer workstations
Advanced RISC Computing |
6333264 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobby%20Grayson | Bobby Grayson | Bobby Grayson (December 8, 1914 – September 22, 1981) was an American football player. He was a two-time consensus All-American player who led the Stanford University football team to three consecutive Rose Bowl Games from 1933 to 1935.
At Stanford, Grayson played for the varsity football team in the 1933, 1934 and 1935 seasons. He was recruited to Stanford by Coach Glenn "Pop" Warner and helped lead Stanford to a Pacific Coast Conference title in 1934 and co-championships in 1933 and 1935. He was a consensus All-American in both 1934 and 1935.
Early life
Born in Portland, Oregon, Grayson was a football, track and baseball star at Jefferson High School. He was state 100-yard dash champion in 1931 at 10.1 seconds, and again in 1932 in 9.9 seconds with a career best of 9.8 seconds. Grayson also won the 220-yard low hurdles state championship twice, in 1931 he won in 26.6 seconds, and again in 1931 in 25.5 seconds. In football, he was a four year letterman playing fullback and defense while leading Jefferson to the 1931 City title and allowed no scores by opponents. In 1932, he was recruited to play football at Stanford by their legendary coach Pop Warner.
College career
Grayson's 1932 freshman team also included Bob Reynolds, Monk Moscrip and Bones Hamilton, and came to be known as the "Vow Boys". The 1932 Stanford varsity team was soundly defeated by the USC Trojans (USC). After watching the defeat, the freshmen players got together and vowed that they would never lose to the Trojans. In November 1933, Stanford defeated USC, and Grayson scored the Indians only touchdown. Time magazine reported that "Stanford's speedy Fullback Bobby Grayson slashed and passed through the Trojan line, punched over a touchdown", resulting in a "resounding crash" for "the fattest Humpty Dumpty of 1933 football." The Stanford team proceeded to beat USC three straight years from 1933 to 1935 – making good on the vow. Stanford was the dominant team on the Pacific Coast, appearing in the New Year's Day Rose Bowl game in each of those three years. In three seasons, Grayson was part of a Stanford team that compiled a 25–4–2 record and became the first team to play in three consecutive Rose Bowls.
In the 1934 Rose Bowl, Grayson rushed for 152 yards, a Rose Bowl record. Ernie Nevers said Grayson was "the best back I've ever seen." Grayson set numerous Stanford records. He set the record for most interceptions in a single game with four (two of which he returned for touchdowns) in a 1934 game against the University of Washington. His career total of 1,547 rushing yards in 405 carries established a Stanford record that stood for 20 years. A historical account of Grayson's accomplishments published by the LA84 Foundation notes:
Bobby Grayson had the looks of a matinee idol; and he remains as one of the most publicized players in Pacific Coast football history. A member of the legendary 'Vow Boys' of Stanford, Grayson starred from 1933–1935 in an era that is regarded as the greatest in the school's gridiron history. A workhorse ball carrier from the fullback spot, Grayson combined speed and power in piling up the school's career reusing record that stood for nearly two decades. Grayson used sprinter-class speed in sweeping the ends, and his swivel-hipped moves eluded tacklers in the open field.; while he was as adept at battering up the middle and punishing opposing defensive lines.
Sportswriter Grantland Rice wrote of Grayson:
Here is a big, fast back who can run an end, hit a line, kick, pass, block and handle any assignment given him.
Grayson was the 21st player drafted in the 1936 NFL Draft — the inaugural NFL draft. He was drafted by the Pittsburgh Pirates but did not play professional football.
Military service
Grayson served as commanding officer of the minesweeper USS Loyalty (AMc-88) in the Pacific during World War II.
Legacy
Grayson died of a heart ailment in 1981 at age 66 in Bellevue, Washington. He was survived by his wife, Sue Grayson, and a son, Dan Grayson.
In 2003, the Oakland Tribune ranked Grayson as one of Stanford's top ten players of all time, ranking him at number five behind Ernie Nevers, Jim Plunkett, Frankie Albert, and John Elway.
References
External links
1914 births
1981 deaths
All-American college football players
Stanford Cardinal football players
College Football Hall of Fame inductees
Players of American football from Portland, Oregon
Saint Mary's Pre-Flight Air Devils football players
Jefferson High School (Portland, Oregon) alumni |
4428406 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DADVSI | DADVSI | DADVSI (generally pronounced as dadsi) is the abbreviation of the French Loi sur le Droit d'Auteur et les Droits Voisins dans la Société de l'Information (in English: "law on authors' rights and related rights in the information society"). It is a bill reforming French copyright law, mostly in order to implement the 2001 Information Society Directive, which in turn implements a 1996 WIPO treaty.
The law, despite being initially dismissed as highly technical and of no concern to the average person, generated considerable controversy when it was examined by the French Parliament between December 2005 and June 30, 2006, when it was finally voted through by both houses.
Most of the bill focussed on the exchange of copyrighted works over peer-to-peer networks and the criminalizing of the circumvention of digital rights management (DRM) protection measures. Other sections dealt with other matters related to copyright, including rights on resale of works of art, copyright for works produced by government employees and exceptions to copyright for education and the handicapped, among other issues.
The law was controversial within France because of fears that it could significantly hamper free software and might also significantly restrict the right to make copies of copyrighted works for private use.
Some amendments to the bill, not present in the original version, would potentially require manufacturers to share their proprietary digital music formats with other software developers (by way of the need to provide the documentation necessary for interoperability). Because of this, a controversy arose with Apple Computer and associated US industry groups, who loudly protested in the US press; therefore, the DADVSI bill was sometimes referred to as the iTunes law or iPod law in the English-language press (see Interoperability and Apple controversy), although the law is not referred to in this way in France.
Legal background
The title of the DADVSI law refers to droit d'auteur et droits voisins (authors' rights and related rights). Authors' rights, in French law, have two components:
economic rights (droits patrimoniaux): the exclusive right of the author of a work of the mind to reveal this work according to his or her conditions (that is, for instance, by ceding this right to a publisher);
moral rights (droits moraux), such as: the right for the author to obtain redress against others claiming to be the author of the work; these rights cannot be ceded.
This concept is reflected in the Berne Convention on Copyright.
Copyright is a related concept, but pertains to Anglo-American common law; one notable difference is that copyright does not generally involve moral rights.
The legal clauses governing authors' rights and related rights form the first book of the French Code of Intellectual Property (CPI). This article will thus refer to articles from this code as CPI Lnnn.
The notion of 'author' extends to that of composer (of music), playwright, painter, photographer, etc., though the law makes it a requirement that the work should be original (or show some supplemental originality, in the case of a derived work) in order to be protected. In practice authors often cede their rights to publishers, who then enforce the "exclusive right" and some are members of societies that enforce their rights on their behalf. The latter is de facto nearly compulsory in case of songwriters and composers, almost all of whom are members of Sacem.
Performers and publishers of audio recordings enjoy "related rights". These follow different rules and have a shorter duration than the rights of authors. In practice performers often cede their rights to publishers, or have them enforced by societies.
The exclusive right of the author is not absolute. According to WIPO treaties, local legislation may make exceptions to exclusive copyrights only if these exceptions fulfill a "three-step test": limitations and exceptions
should only concern special cases;
should not conflict with a normal exploitation of the work;
should not unreasonably prejudice the legitimate interests of the right holder.
This is how the US doctrine of fair use is justified with respect to copyright treaties for instance. The 2001 European Directive on Copyright proposes a list of 10 exceptions to copyright that member states can choose to implement or not, in addition to one whose implementation is compulsory (this makes an exception for temporary technical copies, meant to address Web caches and similar systems).
Exceptions to copyright in French law are defined in CPI L122-5. Among them is the notable exception for private copies: French residents may freely make copies of works (except software) for their private use, and freely display those works within their family circle (which is interpreted to include friends), without the agreement of the copyright holder. However, French law includes a "tax on private copies" meant to address the losses incurred by copyright holders; this tax is levied on blank media (audio and video cassettes, CD's, DVD's, as well as memory and hard drives in portable media players). Normally taxation is reserved for legislation, a prerogative of the French Parliament, but a statute endowed an ad hoc commission to set the rates and conditions for this tax.
European directives are generally not directly enforceable in EU member states. They first have to be transposed into local law, generally by an act of the legislature of the member state. While they give a general framework and impose some options they may leave significant leeway: in the case of EUCD, for instance, the directive gives a list of optional copyright exceptions, and mandates appropriate legal protection for DRMs, without defining what constitutes an appropriate protection. Member states have to transpose directives within reasonable delays, or they face action by the European Commission. There may be subsequent litigation before the European Court of Justice if subsequent the implementation is deemed to be inadequate.
In March 2006, the Cour de cassation, France's highest court in civil and criminal matters, ruled in a decision nicknamed Mulholland Drive (from the name of a DVD involved). It quashed a decision by the appeals court of Versailles that ruled that Digital rights management techniques that contradicted the "right to private copy" were illegal. Legal scholars noted the following:
the manner in which the decision was presented indicated that it was a decision meant to establish doctrine (following the civil law tradition, French courts are theoretically prohibited from judging in the general case so as to establish case law, but in practice the Cour de cassation does so in certain decisions).
the decision cited the "test in three steps" and the yet untransposed European directive on copyright as source of doctrine, whereas, some legal scholars argue, it is up to the legislature to decide how to apply such principles when making law, not to the courts.
In response an amendment was added to the DADVSI law by the National Assembly, which established a "right to the exception for private copy." However, the scope of this right is unclear, since it was to be decided by a "college of mediators", but it was suppressed from the final text of the law.
The crux of the discussion on private copy is the nature of this so-called "right". One can interpret it weakly, as an exception to the general possibility for copyright holders to prevent any unauthorized distribution of their work, or strongly, as a prohibition for copyright holders to use technical means to prevent private legal copies.
The "three-step test" was also copied into article "1 bis" of the draft law, which updates CPI L122-5. See Copyright exceptions.
Politics
The DADVSI law unexpectedly rose as a somewhat well-publicized topic in national French politics in December 2005 with the vote of the so-called "global license". Two major presidential candidates personally intervened in the controversy while others made declarations.
Legislative process
The initial draft of the law was proposed in 2003 by then Minister of Culture Jean-Jacques Aillagon (Union for a Popular Movement, UMP). Because of various circumstances, including the replacement of Aillagon by Renaud Donnedieu de Vabres (UMP), the bill was presented very late to the French Parliament and was initially to be examined in the National Assembly on December 20, 21 and 22, 2005 just before the Christmas holidays. The government (the cabinet of ministers, as represented by the Minister of Culture) had declared the law to be urgent, which means, under the Constitution of France, that the law would be examined only once by each house of Parliament; the reason given by the minister was that France was threatened by the European Commission with sanctions if it failed to implement the directive.
Despite being initially presented as a technical text the law became hotly controversial. It became perceived as criminalising Internet users for sending files of copyrighted works to each other, as well as being a threat to free software. It was also feared that it would mean, in practice, the end to the right of creating a "private copy": for instance, making a copy of a record onto digital magnetic tape for the private use of the owner of the record, which is currently authorized by CPI L122-5.
.
The examination of the draft law by the National Assembly, initially seen as a quick matter preceding the Christmas break, was marred by several incidents, the best known being the vote on the first amendment of the "global license" (see below). Supplemental sittings of the Assembly had to be allotted in March in order for the law to be fully examined. An important factor was that the schedule of full sittings of the Assembly or the Senate is almost entirely decided by the executive.
Prior to the examination of the law by the assembly in session, the draft bill had been sent to the Commission of Law, without any review by the Commission of Cultural Affairs, as would have been expected of a text presented by the Minister of Culture pertaining to artistic works; this procedure was deplored by some deputies. Deputy Christian Vanneste was commissioned to report on the law.
Deputies from the opposition (French Socialist Party, PS, French Communist Party, PCF, Greens) as well as the junior majority coalition partner Union for French Democracy (UDF) expressed their opposition to such a highly complex law being rushed through Parliament. On December 21 they supported a motion sending the draft law back for examination in parliamentary commission. However, the Minister of Culture opposed the move stating that he hoped that the "solid parliamentarians from UMP" would not vote for the motion
— a move interpreted as a quasi-order to the deputies from his party not to vote for the motion.
An amended draft law was approved by the National Assembly on March 21, 2006, by 296 votes for, 193 against. The UMP (right-wing), which has the absolute majority at the National Assembly, voted in favour, while the left voted against it. MPs of the center-right UDF voted either against the text or abstained.
The Senate sent the bill before the Commission of Cultural Affairs who commissioned Senator Michel Thollière to report on it. The Commission heard Minister de Vabres on April 4 and recommended a number of amendments. The Senate then examined the law in session on May 4, 9 and 10, 2006, and adopted a number of amendments.
There was still considerable uncertainty on the future of the bill. Prime Minister Dominique de Villepin had the choice between letting the text go back before the National Assembly, then before the Senate for another round of examination or maintaining that the text was urgent and sending it before a mixed commission from both houses of the French Parliament to draft a compromise version to be sent to both houses to be voted upon, with the Assembly being able to have a final say. Minister of Culture Donnedieu de Vabres had promised that he would have the law sent for another reading by both houses if the differences between the texts adopted by the Assembly and the Senate were too great. He contended that those differences between the texts were small enough that the text could be sent before a mixed commission; however, some members of Parliament disagreed. The bill was rumored to be scheduled to be examined by the mixed commission on May 30, but in the end it was not.
On June 15, 2006, despite the request by 20 UMP deputies that the text should be sent to the National Assembly again, the government announced that it would send the bill before the mixed commission on June 22.
The text will then be sent before both houses for final approval.
On June 22, in the morning, the mixed commission met. However, the Socialist members soon quit, claiming that the commission was a parody of democracy after discovering during the meeting 55 amendments hardening the Senate text.
Both houses of Parliament finally approved the bill on June 30, the last day of the Parliamentary session. UMP voted in favour, the Communists and Socialists against, and UDF split over it between those voting against and those abstaining from voting. Socialist deputy Patrick Bloche defended a motion of inadmissibility, claiming that the law was unconstitutional and thus that the Assembly had to refuse it; Communist deputies and president of the UDF François Bayrou announced that they supported the motion. The motion was voted down, predictably, because the UMP ruling party had an absolute majority in the Assembly.
On July 7, 2006, the Socialist deputies, 3 Green deputies, 4 Communist deputies, 2 UDF deputies (François Bayrou, president of UDF, and Hervé Morin, head of the UDF group in the Assembly) filed a recourse before the Constitutional Council. This recourse blocked the signing of the law: the council has one month to decide on the constitutionality of the law except if the Government claims urgency, in which case it has eight days. The recourse included the following claims of lack of constitutionality, based on the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen:
the clarity and sincerity of the legislative process were jeopardized by
the government withdrawing article 1 after amendments that it disapproved were voted down;
the mixed parliamentary commission significantly introducing amendments that were neither in the Assembly nor in the Senate text;
a number of clauses of the law that infringed on the rights of citizens:
the definition of some crimes being unclear, whereas citizens should be able to understand what is a crime and what is not:
exceptions to copyright were restricted by the Berne three-step test in a vague manner. These were now part of French law but ordinary citizens could only guess how to interpret this test, though copyright infringement was a crime;
computer programs "manifestly designed for spreading copyrighted works" were criminalized, but no definition was given as to what this means, and the exceptions to this prohibition were also vaguely defined, thus citizens could not know whether such and such program was illegal or not;
the voted text of the law admits "interoperability" as a valid goal for exemption from the prohibition of circumvention of DRM protection measures, but, unlike earlier drafts, did not define the word;
no guarantee was given as to the modes of proof and investigation of the crimes defined in the law.
After the decision of the Constitutional Council the law was submitted to President Jacques Chirac for signature on August 1, 2006.
Political importance
At first sight, the DADVSI law was not meant to be a disputed legal text: it dealt with fairly technical legal points. It was, however, turned into a political hot topic featured in major newspapers and on national television.
The first draft of the DADVSI law criminalized peer-to-peer exchanges of copyrighted works (or, more precisely, copyrighted works whose licenses did not allow such exchanges). The case was made in Parliament that millions of French Internet users, especially among the young, currently traded files on computer networks and that it was thus unrealistic to turn them into felons. Since subsequent reading coincided with the examination of a controversial youth workforce clause known as the CPE, the opposition argued that the government was at war with the youth.
The DADVSI law was used as a platform for various groups or parties for demonstrating opposition to the government policies:
Deputies for the opposition French Socialist Party supported an alternative scheme known as the "global license", despite the party's divisions on the issue. They denounced the government as repressive, especially against the younger population.
François Bayrou, president of the center-right party Union for French Democracy (UDF), formerly inside the ruling coalition, used the opportunity to distance itself from the policies of the Union for a Popular Movement (UMP) ruling party. He denounced the parliamentary process that produced the law, which, he claimed, was forced through Parliament under the influence of the executive and lobbies.
Nicolas Dupont-Aignan, a eurosceptic member of the UMP majority party, distanced himself from the policies of the government and opposed an "unenforceable law".
Christine Boutin, a member of the UMP majority party and former presidential candidate (2002 French presidential election), with a political platform oriented towards "family values", claimed that it was absurd to turn millions of young people (and possibly, 'some parliamentarians') into criminals.
Lobbying
Some members of the French parliament, as well as other observers, publicly decried the intense lobbying by various groups and industries. Bernard Carayon, UMP deputy for the Tarn département, denounced lobbying, pressures and even blackmail on the part of certain groups on national TV. A number of parliamentarians said they had never seen such intense lobbying from all sides, including a grassroot effort from Internet users and free software advocates which inundated them with letters and emails. At one point, Senator Michel Charasse demanded that parliamentary staff clean out corridors of loitering lobbyists.
Alain Suguenot, a supporter of the global license, UMP deputy for the Côte-d'Or département, hinted that some groups or societies supporting events had threatened to withdraw their support for events in the constituencies of deputies voting in favour of the global license. Suguenot, who is also mayor of the town of Beaune, indicated that his town would no longer support a cinema festival and would replace it by something related to computing and Internet technologies.
Minister of Culture Renaud Donnedieu de Vabres was criticized for being too close to some industry groups.
At the beginning of the DADVSI discussion in December, Donnedieu de Vabres organised a demonstration of commercial music download platforms inside a room of the National Assembly, where deputies were given a free account with a €10 credit. Opposition deputy Christian Paul denounced this action and the demonstration was shut by president of the Assembly Jean-Louis Debré, who indicated that though he had authorized the demonstration he had not authorized it to go in this manner.
According to the Odebi league, a pressure group defending French Internet users, some aides of Donnedieu de Vabres had strong links to industry groups. In response, some, such as Pascal Rogard from SACD, denounced the League as a specialist in ad hominem attacks.
Some amendments to the law (150/151, 267) were labeled by some parliamentarians and others as the "Vivendi Universal amendments", because they were allegedly inspired by the entertainment giant. The free software advocate group EUCD.info denounced the fact that the lobbyist for an industry group was allowed into the "four column hall", a room in the Assembly building whose access is normally restricted to deputies and journalists.
Confusion
Minister Donnedieu de Vabres was criticized by parliamentarians for lack of preparation. For instance, François Bayrou, head of the center-right UDF party, criticised how the minister submitted a last minute pair of amendments of seven pages completely changing the criminal penalty system applicable to illegal copies of copyrighted material, and for creating a de facto "police of the Internet". He pointed out that modifications of such an importance should be examined in commission.
On January 3, 2006, in his yearly speech of wishes addressed to the President of the Republic, president of the National Assembly Jean-Louis Debré (UMP) denounced the usage by the government of the procedure of urgency, which he claimed was used excessively often. He also denounced how the government frequently sent hastily redacted draft laws to Parliament then had to send amendments in order to correct its own texts. Specifically mentioning DADVSI he deplored how the government had sent two four-page amendments in the middle of the examination of the text, alluding to the same amendments that Bayrou had denounced.
In its March 15, 2006, edition, the Canard Enchaîné investigative weekly reported that Debré had complained that Donnedieu de Vabres was "a zero, who put us in the shit and, from the start, dragged us into an adventure".
Protests and Internet actions
The EUCD.info group ran an Internet petition, which, by June 2006, garnered more than 170,000 signatures.
Groups opposed to clauses in the law organised a variety of protests. The StopDRM group organised flash mobs. Various groups organized a march against new French copyright law on May 7, 2006, as the bill was at the Senate; the March ended with flowers being laid in memory of authors' rights.
On June 9, 2006, a delegation including Richard M. Stallman, president of the Free Software Foundation, went to the Hotel Matignon to meet prime minister Dominique de Villepin, however, the prime minister and his advisors refused to meet them. The delegation protested the fact that they were turned away while business leaders such as Bill Gates from Microsoft got official reception. They laid down the list of 165,000 signatories of the EUCD.info petition in the gutter, as a sign of what they saw as contempt for the concerns of ordinary citizens.
On June 26, Stallman spoke against DADVSI at a free software business meeting organized by the City of Paris (Paris, capitale du Libre); on June 28, he met presidential candidate Ségolène Royal.
The Odebi league campaigned against politicians who they claim supported the positions of the "major" record corporations. A campaign of Google bombing was made against Minister Donnedieu de Vabres: searching Google for ministre (minister) or blanchisseur (launderer) resulted in a news article about the conviction of Donnedieu de Vabres for money laundering.
Repression of Internet copying of copyrighted works
The DADVSI law contains a number of articles meant to suppress the copying of copyrighted music or videos through peer-to-peer networks over the Internet.
The initial version of the bill punished most acts related to illegal copying of copyrighted material, including working around anti-copy systems, as a felony counterfeiting, with a maximum sentence of 3 years in prison and/or a €300,000 fine. However, a number of parliamentarians contended that this was equivalent to criminalizing millions of Internet users, especially the young, and Minister Donnedieu de Vabres immediately introduced amendments known as "escalation": peer-to-peer users who copy files illegally would first be warned, then fined, with stronger penalties for repeat offenders.
Finally, the choice was made to criminalize authors and publishers of software capable of unlocking copy protection system or copying copyrighted works over the Internet, while users would receive much softer penalties.
Sharing of copyrighted works over peer-to-peer networks
In the current state of the law, CPI L335-2 and L335-5 punish as counterfeiting the act of publishing copyrighted works without the authorization of the rights holders, with a maximum sentence of 3 years in prison and/or a €300,000 fine.
Whether or not sharing files over a peer-to-peer network falls within the scope of this prohibition has been controversial. Some groups, such as the Audionautes, have contended that the act of receiving copyrighted works from Internet sites or peer-to-peer networks is an act of private copying, which is a valid exemption from copyright rules, following from CPI L122-5. Courts have ruled in both directions, some convicting peer-to-peer users, others acquitting them.
Article 14 bis of the DADVSI law explicitly exempts from this regime the act of downloading a copyrighted work on a peer-to-peer network. This exemption is further extended to the act of making some copyrighted work available to the public without any commercial purpose, when this is an automatic result of the use of a peer-to-peer network for obtaining it; this clause was added because many peer-to-peer networks automatically make downloaded content available to other users, thus merely exempting downloads from the counterfeiting felony would not have been sufficient.
These acts, exempted from the counterfeiting felony charge, would still fall under a lesser charge, with a fine to be defined by a decree (executive decision). Minister Donnedieu de Vabres has announced a €38 fine for downloading acts, but it is yet unknown whether this would apply to any single file (thus a person with 1000 songs downloaded illegally could in theory owe a fine of €38,000) or whether several downloads could be punished with a single fine.
Supporters of the global licence such as Patrick Bloche have pointed out that fines would go into the state budget and would thus not benefit artists financially.
The "global license"
In 2005, an alternative proposal to the original draft law was proposed. Instead of criminalising peer-to-peer file sharing, the proposal would have made peer-to-peer exchanges legal, in exchange for a fee on broadband Internet subscriptions. The fee would go have gone to fund the artists and authors. This is known as the "global license" or "legal license".
The "legal license" was promoted by the alliance public-artistes ("public / artists alliance"), composed of:
consumers' associations (UFC Que Choisir and others)
Internet users associations (Association des audionautes...)
family associations
musical performer rights societies (ADAMI, SPEDIDAM)
musical performer associations
other artists' associations.
It was backed by a number of politicians, both on the left (members of the French Socialist Party such as Patrick Bloche and Christian Paul) and on the right (members of the UMP such as Christine Boutin and Alain Suguenot), who defended it in the National Assembly. It was defended in the National Assembly, but not the Senate, by parliamentarians from the French Socialist Party, the Greens, and the French Communist Party.
No specific amount of fee was discussed in the law, but it was meant to be approximately €7 per month for a broadband connection. French broadband connections typically cost €30 a month for rates up to 16 megabits per second, digital TV and unlimited VoIP phone calls.
Proponents of the law contended that:
The global license is a realistic measure in the long run. Internet users will use peer-to-peer networks anyway and there are already millions of peer-to-peer users so it's unreasonable to claim that they will be prosecuted. Instead of trying to revert this trend it would be better to tax it.
The alternative to this is heavy-handed enforcement and intrusive Digital rights management (DRMs).
The global license would provide a steady stream of revenue to authors and artists.
Opponents contended that:
The global license is a communist measure, while DRMs allow fine-grained, individual, remuneration of artists.
There is no reliable method for apportioning the money raised through this method to artists. If polling methods are used, they may miss smaller artists.
The global license is contrary to the "test in three steps" that must be verified by every exception to copyright.
The global license would fail to provide enough revenue to authors and artists.
In the evening sitting of the Assembly on December 21, the first of the series of amendments establishing the global license (identical amendments 153 as proposed by UMP deputy Alain Suguenot and 154 as proposed by deputies from the French Socialist Party) was voted by a 30-to-28 margin, much to the dismay of Culture Minister Donnedieu de Vabres. This was the first time that a legislature anywhere had supported an alternative compensation system to broadly legalize P2P file sharing.
The global license proved difficult to handle for the government. It was initially thought that the minister would request another examination of the controversial amendment by the Assembly; however, the head of the UMP group in the assembly, Bernard Accoyer, stated that the French Parliament had demonstrated that it was not a chambre d'enregistrement (a chamber for registering the wishes of the executive) and pointed out that the text was only at the beginning of its examination by Parliament, which has two houses, which seemed to suggest that he expected the amendment to be struck down in the Senate.
The examination of the text by the National Assembly resumed in March. The Minister of Culture announced that the government would use its prerogative to withdrawn its own draft law in order to withdraw article 1 of the law, which was the article to which amendments 153/154 applied, and propose in its stead a "1 bis" article. This move was supported by President of the National Assembly Jean-Louis Debré, who exceptionally presided the sitting; Debré cited precedent for such actions to deputies questioning the constitutionality of the action. However, the next day, the government announced that it would not withdraw the article, following from a communication by president of the Constitutional Council Pierre Mazeaud that the move's constitutionality was unclear. The Assembly then proceeded with the remaining amendments to article 1, then, expectedly, voted down article 1, then examined article "1 bis". The "global license" was thus removed from the text, and did not make it into the final version of the law that was put into place.
However, an Internet access provider named 9 Telecom did implement a similar idea, by providing unlimited downloadable music, protected by DRM, from the Universal catalog to its subscribers; without legal problems as 9 Telecom belongs to Universal.
Criminalisation of DRM circumvention
Articles 13 and 14 of the law introduced a variety of criminal penalties for those working around DRM technical measures:
A fine up to €3,750 is applicable for those who knowingly work around a DRM technical measure for reasons other than research, if this is not done using means procured from others.
Prison sentences up to 6 months and/or fines up to €30,000 are applicable for those who supply others with means to work around technical measures, or who knowingly propose such means.
Lesser fines will be subsequently introduced by an executive decree.
However, none of these penalties apply when the purpose of circumvention was computer security or research. This last clause, exempting circumvention from penalties when it is done for certain purposes, was kept by a narrow 11-10 margin in the Senate.
Interoperability and Apple controversy
The DADVSI law grants legal protection to digital rights management "technical protection methods" (defined in article 7); that is, it contains clauses criminalizing circumvention of DRMs (articles 13 and 14).
The initial draft law was heavily criticized for the vagueness and wide scope of the anti-circumvention clauses. It was feared that:
These clauses could potentially outlaw any free software capable of reading DRM-using formats (music, video, or even text content); the fear was that free software implementing DRM would be construed as facilitating circumvention. Designers of software knowingly facilitating circumvention would, with the initial draft, face felony charges of counterfeiting with a maximum penalty of a €300,000 fine and/or three years in prison. Free software advocates thus concluded that the law would have a chilling effect on the development of free software in France, since any modern desktop system is supposed to be able to read music and video content, and their designers could not be sure whether they would face felony charges.
These clauses would allow designers of DRM systems to have competitors prosecuted by claiming that these competitors' systems facilitated circumvention of DRMs. This would, in effect, create a new kind of intellectual property in addition to copyright and patents. However the purpose of the law was to protect the copyright of composers, artists, film-makers etc. and not grant new legal protections to DRM companies.
These clauses would tie people to the provider of the music, since the DRM system of a music provider would only work with the players from this provider. This would in turn be an annoyance to customers, since content from one device would not be playable on another.
The clauses would prevent investigation of possible security lapses in DRM systems, such as when Sony's Extended Copy Protection system was found to create computer security problems.
Since the personal computing software industry in France is heavily dominated by a few companies (such as Microsoft and Apple Computer), which also provide DRM systems, it was feared that the law would reinforce these dominant positions and prevent competition from free software. Politicians across all French political parties have declared free software to be important for France, since it provides competition in a field dominated by extra-European corporations. It is officially considered instrumental in controlling the IT expenses of public administrations.
Accordingly, a number of free software organizations (Free Software Foundation France, EUCD.info, Framasoft, APRIL, AFUL...) lobbied that the DADVSI law should not act as a de facto prohibition on making free software capable of reading formats protected by DRMs, including video and music, and thus making free operating systems unsuitable for personal use. They also noted that copyrighted works also include text, that formats such as PDF also have DRMs, and thus that the law could well exclude free software from desktop processing, since it could perhaps not read the same file formats as the main desktop suites.
Those associations argued that criminal law should not reinforce network effects and the practice of tying sales (vente liée), that is, making it compulsory to buy one good or service to be able to buy another good of service, without a legitimate motive, which is prohibited by French law (Consumption code, L122-1). They argued that music and electronic equipment capable of playing it are separate products and that the sale of one should not be tied to that of the other.
Politicians from several parties (among whom Alain Carayon and Richard Cazenave from the ruling right-wing UMP, François Bayrou, president of the center-right UDF) pushed amendments aimed at ensuring interoperability of DRM systems. These amendments were adopted by the Assembly at the very end of its reading of the law, on the night of March 16 to March 17.
These amendments stated that:
Providers of DRM systems should provide the necessary technical documentation to any party needing it to ensure that interoperability. In practice, this would mean that makers of software or hardware players could request information from providers of DRM-protected music or video in order for that music or video to be playable on their systems.
The publication of the source code or technical documentation of systems implementing DRMs is not prohibited by the protection granted to DRMs.
It is unclear, though, whether these clauses would apply to DRM providers who not choose to avail themselves of the specific legal protection that the law grants to DRMs. That is, it is unknown at this point whether a licence agreement clause claiming that no part of a system, format or protocol is deemed to implement a DRM could exempt DRM providers from having to provide interoperability information.
These clauses proved controversial, mostly in the US press, where analyses provided by various interest groups claimed that they were directed at Apple's iTunes platform and their iPod players; some news sources even went as far as to nickname the DADVSI law the "French iTunes law". Some analysts claimed that they could force Apple to shut down iTunes for French customers, because Apple's business model ties iTunes content to the iPod player using the DRM system and the French market comprises a relatively small portion of Apple's overall sales. Apple claimed that the French copyright law amounted to "state-sponsored piracy". According to Apple, the proposed legislation would increase copyright piracy by making it easier for copyright pirates to download songs from iTunes in a generic format and then endlessly copy them for other users (the iTunes format, being proprietary, is more difficult to transfer to other media).
This declaration supported the claims by free-software advocates and politicians who said that the protection of DRM initially envisioned would benefit makers of DRM systems by enabling them to prosecute competitors as facilitating piracy. Finally, US Secretary of Commerce Carlos Gutierrez declared that it would look at the law closely and support intellectual property rights, a comment widely interpreted to be supportive of Apple.
The reaction from Apple and the US government was highly controversial in France. The Odebi league, a citizen's action group defending the rights of Internet users, told Apple to "mind its business and not meddle into the French legislative process" and pointed out that "if Apple wishes to do business in France, it has to respect the rights that the French enjoy"; the league also issued a communiqué titled Guterriez go home.
Deputy Christian Paul published a communiqué meant to explain the intents of French lawmakers to Americans, without the media filtering. Christian Paul criticized the French government for making so much effort to please Apple:
When Apple coughs, we now know that Paris sneezes [...] Apple has assured itself control over channels of distribution and sales by imposing a proprietary format.
Representatives from Apple were heard by the Senate Commission for Cultural affairs. The Commission subsequently recommended that the interoperability provisions should be substantially reworked, and proposed amendments, most of which were adopted by the Senate. A notable exception is that the Senate rejected (by 11 votes against 10) an amendment from the Commission which suppressed the right to work around DRMs for reasons of interoperability. The text from the Senate introduces an administrative authority capable of adjudicating the possibility of reading DRM contents in order to achieve interoperability.
Article 7 bis A introduced a loophole for designers of technical measures of protection who do not desire to share them for interoperability. It states that the mission of this administrative authority is to prevent lack of interoperability and other limitations when these are not desired by the copyright holder. It thus seems possible that designers of technical measures can work around the interoperability requirement by showing that lack of interoperability was desired by the copyright holders.
The "Vivendi Universal" amendments
Some amendments, adopted by both houses of Parliament, introduce civil and criminal responsibility for authors of software used for illicit copying of protected works. These amendments are widely known as the "Vivendi Universal" or "VU" amendments; that terminology was used by some members of Parliament, the reason for it being that, allegedly, these amendments were strongly pushed by Vivendi Universal, a major entertainment corporation. According to the Odebi League and EUCD.info, these amendments were unofficially supported by president of the ruling UMP party and presidential candidate Nicolas Sarkozy. They ended up making up articles 12 bis and 14 quarter of the text adopted by the Senate.
Article 12 bis introduced criminal penalties (up to 3 years in prison and/or a fine of up to €300,000) for people who knowingly make available software "manifestly" meant to transmit copyrighted works illegally, or who knowingly incite to the use of such software. A number of commentators doubt the constitutionality of this article, because of the uncertainty introduced by the word "manifestly" for defining an incrimination; they also contend that this article amounts to making authors of software criminally responsible for the actions of others (users) that they do not control.
Article 14 quarter made it possible for right holders to obtain court injunctions ordering makers of software mainly used for illegal transmissions of copyrighted works to implement whatever technical measures that can prevent this usage, as long as they do not change the nature of the software. A register of copyrighted works is made available in order to help in the effective implementation of those measures. This article could make it mandatory to implement technologies such as SNOCAP into peer-to-peer transmission programs, as proposed by Sylvie Forbin from Vivendi Universal.
A related amendment, making up article 14 ter A, mandated that Internet users should "secure" their Internet connection so that it is not used for transmitting copyrighted works illegally; Internet service providers are supposed to provide users with the suitable technology. This measure may be targeted at peer-to-peer users claiming that their WiFi connection was hijacked, but it may also result in forcing all users to install anti-virus and filtering software on their machines.
Copyright exceptions
Droit d'auteur (the Author's rights) is an exclusive right of the author. However, there exist in French law a number of legal exceptions to this exclusive right, somewhat similar to the US notion of fair use. These are listed in CPI L122-5, and article 1/1 bis of the DADVSI law alters these exceptions.
The law first expands the exceptions:
It introduces an exception for education, starting from January 1, 2009: it allows the representation or the reproduction of short works or extracts of works not meant for commercial use if the following conditions are meant:
these are used solely for purposes of illustration of analysis within education and research, excluding all recreational activity
the public is strictly restricted to a majority of pupils, students, teaching and research staff directly concerned
no commercial use is made
a negotiated remuneration compensates these uses for copyright holders.
It explicitly allows for transitory and technical reproductions, e.g. web caches.
It allows specialized facilities for the handicapped to freely reproduce and represent works, e.g. by making audio recordings, Braille versions. The electronic files used for such works may be deposited at an administration for safekeeping.
It allows public libraries, museums and archives to freely reproduce works for purposes of conservation or preservation of onsite consultation.
It allows the information press to freely show a reproduction of a work of art (sculpture, painting, architecture...)
for purposes of immediate information,
if the work of art is directly in relation with the information
provided that the author is clearly identified
excluding works that themselves aim at reporting information (so a newspaper cannot claim to be able to copy freely press photographs)
within reasonable bounds (number of illustration, format).
However, article 1/1 bis also introduces the Berne three-step test directly into French law:
The exceptions enumerated within this article cannot hamper the normal exploitation of the work, neither can they cause an undue loss to the legitimate interests of the author.
This clause is highly controversial. Members of the opposition such as Patrick Bloche have argued that the Berne three-step test may be imposed onto states, so that their legislation conforms to the test, but not onto individual citizens. They argue that the vagueness of this test makes it impossible for citizens to know what is allowed and what is disallowed, whereas counterfeiting of copyright works may be a felony offense, and thus that the law is unconstitutional because it is unintelligible. (In December 2005, the Constitutional Council of France declared clauses in a tax bill to be unconstitutional because they were unintelligible. )
A notable exception has been raised by the General Prosecutor of Paris, who allowed bank FINAMA (part of the French insurer GROUPAMA) to scupper a $200 million software piracy trial for the sake of bank secrecy.
In France, the Cour de Cassation and an Appeal Court have dismissed an EUR 520 million software piracy case, ruling that U.S. Copyright certificates were not providing any protection and that software sold by its author during a decade in more than 140 countries does not deserve the "originality" criteria because it was "banal", prior art in the market segment being already available
.
In the light of this judicial decision, the jurisprudence is unclear as there is little software able to claim being the first of its kind.
Other contents of the law
The main focus of the law is DRMs and repression of peer-to-peer usage, but some other issues related to copyright were also included:
Title II of the law clarifies the copyright regime over works of employees of the State or local governments;
Title III toughens regulations over societies collecting money on behalf of copyright holders, and creates some tax credit for record companies;
Title IV changes procedures for the "legal deposit" of works;
Title V changes certain rules pertaining to the resale of works of art and remuneration of the artist, known as droit de suite.
Notable individuals and groups
Notable characters in the political debate included:
Minister of culture Renaud Donnedieu de Vabres. He presented the initial draft of the text, as well as numerous amendments, on behalf of the gouvernement. Donnedieu de Vabres' personal character became an issue with some critics of the law, who underlined the incongruity of having a politician convicted of money laundering give lessons of morality and enact criminal penalties against Internet users.
Deputies (members of the French National Assembly):
UMP (centre-right; absolute majority - voted for the text on March 21, 2006 and on June 30, 2006)
Christian Vanneste. He was, on behalf of the Commission of Laws, responsible for drafting the report on the proposed law. He represented the Commission in the debates.
Christine Boutin. She opposed several clauses of the text, including the criminalisation of Internet users and measures perceived to be harmful to free software, and supported the "global license".
Bernard Carayon. He famously remarked on TV that legislators were put under tremendous strain by powerful lobbies, up to the point of outright blackmail such as threatening to withdraw support for art in the deputy's constituency.
Alain Suguenot
Richard Cazenave
UDF (centrist - opposed or abstained on June 30, 2006)
François Bayrou. President of the UDF party, he famously stood against the creation of a "police of the Internet", against measures decried as harmful to free software, and in favour of the right to make private copies. The press commented that this was a way for Bayrou and the UDF to distance itself from the ruling UMP party, despite not formally being in the opposition.
Jean Dionis du Séjour and Christophe Baguet were the reporters for the UDF party on the proposed law; they had a somewhat different perspective than Bayrou's.
PS (centre-left / left - opposed on the March 21, 2006 and June 30, 2006 votes)
Christian Paul
Patrick Bloche
Didier Mathus
Greens (left - opposed on the March 21, 2006 and June 30, 2006 votes)
Martine Billard
PCF (left - opposed on the March 21, 2006 and June 30, 2006 votes)
Frédéric Dutoit
Other personalities
Prime Minister Dominique de Villepin (UMP): declared the law to be urgent, convene the mixed commission, and proposed the bill for a final vote.
President of the UMP party Nicolas Sarkozy — following from the disagreements inside his own party, organized a "round table" so as to decide on a common position for his party. Some groups, including EUCD.info and the Odebi League, contend that he has effectively pushed in favour of the law and the so-called "Vivendi Universal" amendments.
Pressure groups:
Software:
Free software
EUCD.info
Free Software Foundation France
AFUL and APRIL
Proprietary software and DRMs
BSA
Authors' and artists' societies
Opposed to the "global license" and supporting DRMs.
Sacem
SACD
In favour of the "global license".
ADAMI
SPEDIDAM
Consumers and Internet users
Audionautes
UFC Que Choisir
Ligue Odebi
Entertainment industry
Vivendi Universal
Lobbyist Sylvie Forbin (received the National Order of Merit on June 20, 2006 )
Timeline
November 12, 2003: draft bill proposed by then minister of culture Jean-Jacques Aillagon to the National Assembly
May 31, 2005: examination of the bill by the Commission of Laws of the Assembly
December 20–22, 2005: examination in session by the National Assembly, minister of culture Renaud Donnedieu de Vabres defending the bill; the "global license" is voted
March 7–9, 14 - 16, 2006: examination in session by the National Assembly (continued); the "global license" is repealed
March 16, 2006: the interoperability / "free software" amendments are voted by the National Assembly
March 21, 2006: the National Assembly votes the full law
May 4, May 9–10, 2006: examination in session by the Senate; "interoperability" clauses largely reworded
June 22, 2006 : mixed Assembly/Senate commission; mostly keeps the Senate version of interoperability
June 30, 2006 : final votes by the Assembly and the Senate
August 4, 2006 : law took effect
See also
Copyright
HADOPI law
Ley Sinde
Notes
References
Final text of the act, after the remarks from the Constitutional council, as signed into law by president Chirac and published in the Journal Officiel
Final text of the act as voted by Parliament on June 30, 2006
Recourse before the Constitutional Council, July 7, 2006
Official site of the law project on the French National Assembly's web site, containing:
Original text of the projected law, as proposed by the government
Proposed amendments
Text approved by the National Assembly
Announcement of the convocation of the mixed commission
Transcripts of the debates: analytical (summarized) and full
Official site of the law project on the French Senate's web site
Text sent to the Senate
Works of the Commission of Cultural Affairs
Report in the name of the Commission of Cultural Affairs by Senator Michel Thiollière
Proposed amendments
Announcement of the convocation of the mixed commission
2005 Report on Internet "piracy" and filtering solutions by A. Brugidou and Gilles Kahn
SACD's Web Site (Société des Auteurs et Compositeurs Dramatiques)
Analyses
EUCD.info's analyses
Wikinews, French Parliament adopts controversial copyright bill
Apple Gets French Support in Music Compatibility Case, Thomas Crampton, The New York Times, July 29, 2006
La France v. Apple: who’s the dadvsi in DRMs?, Nicolas Jondet (University of Edinburgh), SCRIPT-ed, December 2006
French Visual Studies, or the Authorized Scholarship, January 12, 2008. On the consequences of DADVSI for French research (specifically visual history)
French copyright law
Copyright legislation
Computing legislation
Copyright law of the European Union
2006 in law
2006 in France
ITunes
IPod |
19579137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incognito%20%28operating%20system%29 | Incognito (operating system) | Incognito was a Linux distribution based on Gentoo Linux. Its main feature was the inclusion of anonymity and security tools such as Tor by default and being able to be used as a Live CD or Live USB.
Incognito's developer has stated on the project's homepage that Incognito has been discontinued and recommends Tails as an alternative.
Release history
Anonymity and security tools
Tor for anonymous internet browsing.
TrueCrypt, a file/partition encryption utility.
Enigmail, a security extension for Thunderbird.
Torbutton, a Firefox plugin to improve Tor's anonymity in Firefox.
FireGPG, Firefox plugin for using GnuPG for Webmail.
GnuPG, OpenPGP implementation for encryption.
KeePassX, a password manager.
Besides these tools, the RAM was overwritten during system shutdown to ensure no possibility of data recovery later.
License
The Tor project listed Incognito as a licensee of the Tor brand name. In accordance to this license agreement, Incognito had the right to use the Tor name and logo.
References
External links
Official Website
Incognito at Softpedia
Tails, the successor of Incognito
Gentoo Linux derivatives
Linux distributions |
8978142 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/595th%20Command%20and%20Control%20Group | 595th Command and Control Group | The 595th Command and Control Group is an active unit of the United States Air Force. It is organized under Air Force Global Strike Command (AFGSC), and its operations are centered at Offutt Air Force Base, Nebraska. It was activated in a ceremony held on 6 October 2016.
Mission
The mission of the 595th Command and Control Group is to consolidate the Air Force's portion of the nuclear triad, including Air Force nuclear command and control communications, under the auspices of Global Strike Command. Previously, portions of the Air Force's command and control of nuclear operations had been divided among AFGSC, Air Combat Command, and the Twentieth Air Force.
Units
The 595th Command and Control Group is composed of four squadrons:
1st Airborne Command and Control Squadron, which operates the Boeing E-4 National Airborne Command Post mission.
595th Strategic Communications Squadron
595th Aircraft Maintenance Squadron
625th Strategic Operations Squadron
History
The unit was first organized by Air Force Systems Command in May 1970 as the 6595 Missile Test Group. In early 1970s, the group conducted ground and flight tests of the Minuteman weapon system. It also launched and tested missile, space and aeronautical systems in support of Department of Defense programs.
After the loss of the Space Shuttle Challenger in January 1986, the space program was grounded for 34 months until the launch of Space Transportation System-26 in September 1988. After 11 Sep 2001, the group examined vulnerabilities of US space facilities at home and abroad. The Air Force's Tactical Exploitation of National Capabilities Program transferred national capabilities to operational commands. The group's Air Force Space Battlelab developed and field tested capabilities to increase productivity of operational commands. Its Aerospace Fusion Center supported space missile launches.
The group supported Operation Iraqi Freedom through the application of space applications programs during 2003 and 2004.
The Group now has a shared commander with the National Airborne Operations Center.
Lineage
Designated as the 6595th Missile Test Group and activated on 1 May 1970
Redesignated 6595th Test and Evaluation Group on 1 January 1988
Inactivated on 14 September 1993
Redesignated 595th Test and Evaluation Group on 1 April 2000
Activated on 7 April 2000
Redesignated 595th Space Group on 1 August 2002
Inactivated on 1 April 2013
Redesignated 595th Command and Control Group on 26 August 2016
Activated c. 6 October 2016
Assignments
6595 Aerospace Test Wing, 1 May 1970
Western Space and Missile Center, 1 October 1979
Ballistic Missile Organization, 1 October 1990
Space and Missile Systems Center, 2 – 14 Sep 1993
Space Warfare Center, 7 April 2000 – 1 April 2013
Air Force Global Strike Command, c. 6 October 2016 – present
Operational Components
1st Airborne Command and Control Squadron: c. 6 October 2016 – present
17th Test Squadron: 7 April 2000 – 1 April 2013
25th Space Control Tactics Squadron: 1 July 2004 – 1 April 2013
527th Space Aggressor Squadron: 23 October 2002 – 1 April 2013
576th Flight Test Squadron: 7 Apr 2000 – 1 April 2013
Stations
Vandenberg Air Force Base, California, 1 May 1970 – 14 September 1993
Schriever Air Force Base, Colorado, 7 April 2000 – 1 April 2013
Offutt Air Force Base, Nebraska, 6 October 2016 – present
Aircraft & Missiles
LGM-30 Minuteman (1970–1993, 2000)
LGM-118 Peacekeeper (1983–1989)
SM-65 Atlas (1970–1990)
SM-68 Titan (1970–1993)
Airborne Launch Control System (2016–present)
Boeing E-4B (2016–present)
Awards
List of commanders
Col Paul J. Burnett, 8 June 2000
Col Michael J. Carey, 20 June 2002
Col John E. Hyten, 1 July 2004
Col John S. Riordan, 6 July 2005
Col Stephen Latchford, 16 April 2007
Col Shawn J. Barnes, May 2009
Col Kevin M. Rhoades, 30 June 2011
Unknown, 14 June 2012–1 April 2013
Col Robert L. Billings, 1 October 2016
References
Bibliography
https://www.offutt.af.mil/News/Article/1587519/595th-command-and-control-group-naoc-change-commands/
External links
595th Command and Control Group Fact Sheet
Command and control units of the United States Air Force |
1313747 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingram%20Micro | Ingram Micro | Ingram Micro is an American distributor of information technology products and services. The company is based in Irvine, California, U.S. and has operations around the world.
History
Ingram Micro's origins trace back to the founding of distributor Micro D, Inc. in July 1979 by husband and wife team, Geza Czige and Lorraine Mecca, who were both teachers. The company started in Southern California and in its first year of business achieved approximately $3.5 million in sales. It rapidly expanded nationwide and held its public offering in 1983. Ingram Industries became a majority stockholder of Micro D in February 1986 when it acquired all of the common stock held by the company's founders, followed by the purchase of the remaining Micro D shares in March 1989.
Meanwhile in 1982, just three years after the founding of Micro D, entrepreneurs Ronald Schreiber, Irwin Schreiber, Gerald Lippes and Paul Willax founded Software Distribution Services in Buffalo, N.Y. Ingram Distribution Group, a unit of the privately held Ingram Industries, acquired Software Distribution Services in the spring of 1985 and renamed it Ingram Software. Ingram Software expanded in December 1985 with the purchase of Softeam, a Compton, Calif.-based distributor. The operation was renamed Ingram Computer in February 1988.
After acquiring the remaining publicly traded shares of Micro D in 1989, Ingram Industries merged these two former competitors to create the microcomputer industry's first $1 billion computer products wholesale distribution company, renaming it Ingram Micro D. The new company established headquarters in Santa Ana, Calif., and retained an East Coast operations center for sales, credit, technical support and customer service in Buffalo, N.Y. The “D” was dropped from the company's name in January 1991, creating Ingram Micro.
In 1996, 17 years after the founding of Micro D, Ingram Micro once again became a public company, listing its shares on the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE). That year, the company’s revenues totaled more than $12 billion. In 1989 Ingram Micro, then called "Ingram Micro-D", was a subsidiary of the privately owned Ingram Industries group, took over the Belgian Softinvest and its three Softeurop subsidiaries active on the Belgian, the French and the Dutch markets from Brussels, Lille and Utrecht. This was Ingram's first foray outside the United States other than a few Ingram Industries subsidiaries. The company embarked on an active merge, acquisitions and foundation strategy in the European market.
In August 1993, Ingram Micro Belgium acquired Zaventem Electronic Dealer Distribution (Zedd) and much of its assets, including the right to distribute Hewlett Packard products.
In July 2005 Ingram Micro purchased AVAD, LLC, a wholesale distributor for home automation and A/V gear. It sold this subsidiary in July 2016.
The Shared Services Center in Manila, Philippines, began operations in May 2009.
Ingram Micro built a presence in areas adjacent to its traditional distribution business, including enterprise computing, automatic identification and data capture (AIDC); point-of-sale (POS); managed, professional and warranty maintenance services; mobility; physical security; and consumer electronics.
Other ventures in 2014 included entry into cloud computing, or software-, platform- and infrastructure-as-a-service.
In June 2014, Ingram Micro changed their logo and introduced a new tagline: "Ingram Micro helps businesses realize the promise of technology".
In December 2015, Ingram Micro acquired Odin Service Automation platform from Parallels for $163.9 million.
In February 2016, Ingram Micro announced its agreement to be acquired by the Chinese company Tianjin Tianhai Investment, an associate company of mega-conglomerate HNA Group, for $6 billion; upon completion, Ingram Micro would become part of Tianjin Tianhai Investment and therefore a subsidiary of HNA Group. It was reported at the time that Alain Monié, Ingram's chief executive, would remain in place. HNA Group director Tan Xiangdong was elected onto the 7-man board of directors of Ingram Micro. The transaction reportedly made Ingram the biggest revenue generator for HNA Group. The strategic reason for the transaction was to better reach "business opportunities in emerging markets, which have higher growth rates and better profitability." HNA Group's logistics and its presence in China was intended to help Ingram's growth. The acquisition was completed in December 2016.
In October 2017, Ingram Micro partnered with DocuSign. In December 2017, Ingram Micro acquired Cloud Harmonics, expanding its cyber security capabilities. In May 2018, Ingram Micro formed CloudBlue.
In December 2020, Platinum Equity announced its intent to acquire Ingram Micro from HNA Technology Co. in an all-cash transaction with an equity value of approximately US$7.2 billion. The transaction completed in July 2021.
In December 2021, CEVA Logistics, a subsidiary of CMA CGM, announced plans to buy Ingram Micro CLS; Ingram's Third Party Logistics arm.
Notable employees
Former U.S. Congressman Chris Lee once worked at Ingram Micro.
Bülent Ural, who currently works as a sales consultant for Ingram Micro's German branch, was a member of the German-Turkish musical group Sürpriz, which represented Germany in the Eurovision Song Contest in 1999.
References
See Also
Competitor Tech Data
American companies established in 1979
Software companies established in 1979
Computer companies of the United States
Electronics companies of the United States
Manufacturing companies based in California
Software companies based in California
Technology companies based in Greater Los Angeles
Companies based in Santa Ana, California
Computer companies established in 1979
Electronics companies established in 1979
1979 establishments in California
Ingram family
2016 mergers and acquisitions
2021 mergers and acquisitions
Companies formerly listed on the New York Stock Exchange
HNA Group
1996 initial public offerings
Software companies of the United States
Private equity portfolio companies |
50138520 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Page%20Two%20%28EP%29 | Page Two (EP) | Page Two (stylized as PAGE TWO) is the second extended play (EP) by South Korean girl group Twice. The album was released digitally and physically on April 25, 2016 by JYP Entertainment and distributed by KT Music. It is supported by the lead single, "Cheer Up" which was produced by South Korean producing duo Black Eyed Pilseung.
Consisting of seven tracks in total which incorporates various genres including dance-pop and hip hop, the EP became a commercial success for the group, reaching over 150,000 copies sold by September 2016. It set a record for having the highest first-week sales out of all Korean girl group album releases in 2016, until it was surpassed by Twice's succeeding EP Twicecoaster: Lane 1 which was released six months later.
Background and release
On April 5, 2016, Twice released a group teaser image depicting the members wearing cheerleading outfits in an empty stadium on their official SNS accounts, revealing that their comeback was slated for April 25 with the word "#CheerUp" included in the image. JYP Entertainment announced that the group's comeback will "show an even more lively side of Twice" and further added that they will begin promotional activities for the upcoming album in the following week.
On April 12, the group confirmed that their next release will be an EP titled Page Two, and released an image of the album's track list, revealing seven songs in total with the lead single "Cheer Up". The seventh track "I'm Gonna Be a Star", which served as the theme song for Sixteen, was announced to be included only in the physical copy of the album. Contents of the physical album (which comes in two versions: pink and mint) was also revealed, and it was announced that 30,000 limited edition copies featuring a special sleeve designed by member Chaeyoung was available.
On April 18, the group released their first music video teaser for "Cheer Up", which ranked first in real-time Korean search engines. They also uploaded a group teaser image on the same day. On April 19, a second music video teaser clip which featured Nayeon, Momo, and Dahyun was uploaded. Two sets of individual teaser photos featuring the three members were also released later that day. On April 20, a third music video teaser clip featuring Jeongyeon, Jihyo, and Mina was released, alongside the two batches of their individual teaser photos. The fourth music video teaser clip which featured Sana, Chaeyoung, and Tzuyu was uploaded on April 21, along with the two batches of their individual teaser photos. On April 22, the group released a music video teaser clip featuring all the members, revealing a snippet of the title track's audio. The following day, they released another music video teaser which revealed a part of the choreography for "Cheer Up". An additional group teaser image was also released. On April 24, Twice released an album highlight medley featuring audio snippets for all tracks from the EP. They also released the online cover image for the album on the same day.
Page Two and its title track "Cheer Up" was officially released on April 25 on various Korean music portals.
Composition
The extended play's lead single, "Cheer Up", has lyrics written by Sam Lewis and music by Black Eyed Pilseung, the same team who wrote Twice's hit single "Like Ooh-Ahh" from their debut mini-album. "Cheer Up" is a dance-pop song that incorporates multiple genres, including hip hop, tropical house, and drum and bass; this blend was described as "color pop". The second track on the album is a remake of Park Ji-yoon's 1998 single, "Precious Love", written by Park Jin-young (J. Y. Park). The song was re-arranged in a house dance style with electronic instrumentation and hip hop rhythms, and features a new rap written by Chaeyoung.
"Touchdown" was described as a "powerful dance number with dynamic rhythms, melodies, and powerful sound effects". "Tuk Tok" is a dance-pop song with elements of soul and trap, inspired by the teaser video for Sixteen. "Woohoo" was described as a hip hop song with "groovy beats", and "My Headphones On" is a pop ballad about a girl's breakup. A seventh track, "I'm Gonna Be a Star" (the theme song from Sixteen) is only available on the CD version of the album.
Promotion
On April 25, 2016, Twice held a media showcase at Yes 24 Live Hall in Gwangjin-gu, Seoul. They performed "Woohoo", "Touchdown", "Precious Love" and "Cheer Up" for the first time at the showcase, which was broadcast live via Naver's V app. The group then promoted the album with a series of televised live performances on various music shows. Their first music show appearance was on M! Countdown on April 28, where they performed "Cheer Up" and "Touchdown". The choreography for "Cheer Up" was slightly changed after Sana's "shy shy shy" line (pronounced "sha sha sha") became a viral meme. Twice won their first music show award on M! Countdown the following week on May 5, and also won on Music Bank and Inkigayo that same week. They concluded promotion for the album on May 29 with a performance on Inkigayo, winning a total of eleven music show awards. The trophy on the May 27 edition of Music Bank was initially awarded to AOA before the show's producers admitted they had miscalculated the album points.
Critical reception
Kim Hyang-min of Korea JoongAng Daily gave the album a mixed review, describing the songs as "high-spirited and cheerful" and "generally refreshing and witty" but regretting the album's lack of genre diversity. Kim noted that the tension in the title track's lyrics was "well-expressed" through its hip-hop and electronic sounds, though the song was too repetitive, and praised "Touchdown" for its "powerful sound" and energetic feeling.
Commercial performance
Page Two recorded the highest first-week sales volume for a Korean girl group in 2016 after reaching over 41,800 copies sold, which would soon be surpassed by Twice's own succeeding release Twicecoaster: Lane 1 released in October. The EP debuted at number two on the Gaon Album Chart and number six on the Billboard World Albums chart, with 80,686 units sold during the month of April. According to JYPE representatives, the pre-order of 30,000 limited edition albums was sold out before its official release. By September, the album had sold over 150,000 units.
The songs from the album also performed well digitally. "Cheer Up" charted at number one on the Gaon Digital Chart and number three on the Billboard World Digital Song Sales chart. "Precious Love" and "Touchdown" also charted on the Gaon Digital Chart, at numbers 73 and 86 respectively.
Track listing
Credits adapted from Naver
Content production
Credits adapted from album liner notes.
Locations
Recorded, engineered and mixed at JYP Entertainment Studios, Seoul, South Korea
Mastered at Suono Mastering, Seoul, South Korea
Personnel
J. Y. Park – producer, all instruments (on "I'm Gonna Be a Star")
Black Eyed Pilseung – co-producer
Lee Ji-young – direction and coordination (A&R)
Jang Ha-na – music (A&R)
Kim Yeo-ju (Jane Kim) – music (A&R)
Kim Ji-hyeong – production (A&R)
Kim Hyeon-jun – production (A&R)
Kim Bo-hyeon – design (A&R)
Kim Yong-woon "goodyear" – recording and mixing engineer
Choi Hye-jin – recording engineer, assistant mixing engineer
Jang Hong-seok – assistant recording engineer
Lee Tae-seop – mixing engineer
Choi Hong-young – mastering engineer
Go Ji-seon – assistant mastering engineer
Park Nam-yong – choreographer
Yoon Hee-so – choreographer
Jang Deok-hee – photographer
Kang Hye-in – album design
Kim Jae-yoon – album design
Park Ju-hee – album design
Kim Young-jo – music video director
Yoo Seung-woo – music video director
Choi Hee-seon – style director
Im Ji-yeon – style director
Park Nae-ju – hair director
Won Jeong-yo – make-up director
Rado – all instruments and computer programming (on "Cheer Up")
Jihyo – background vocals (on "Cheer Up", "Tuk Tok", "My Headphones On")
Hong Ji-sang – all instruments and computer programming (on "Precious Love")
The Karlsson's – all instruments and computer programming (on "Touchdown")
EJ Show – all instruments and computer programming (on "Touchdown")
Twice – background vocals (on "Touchdown")
Choi Jin-seok – all instruments and computer programming (on "Tuk Tok")
Daniel Kim – vocal director (on "Tuk Tok"), vocal producer (on "My Headphones On")
Gong Hyeon-sik – all instruments, computer programming and background vocals (on "Woohoo")
Jang Jun-ho – all instruments and computer programming (on "Woohoo")
Jinri – background vocals (on "Precious Love", "Woohoo")
Niclas Kings – all instruments and computer programming (on "My Headphones On")
Frants – all instruments and computer programming (on "I'm Gonna Be a Star")
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Accolades
Release history
Notes
References
2016 EPs
JYP Entertainment EPs
Genie Music EPs
Korean-language EPs
Dance-pop EPs
Twice (group) EPs
Republic Records EPs |
20501240 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense%20industry%20of%20Turkey | Defense industry of Turkey | The defense industry of Turkey has a long history, dated from the Ottoman Empire and changed several times.
Historical development
General
The first initiative in establishing a defense industry in Turkey goes back to the period of the Ottoman Empire. Defense industry which had a strong position up until the 17th century, stayed outside the technological developments in Europe since the 18th century and has totally lost its impact starting from World War I.
Thus, no significant defense industry infrastructure was present during the first years of the Republic and activities in this domain were limited to the establishment of new facilities near Ankara during the Turkish War of Independence. Having the view that defence industry is a part of the overall industrialization and development, the Republican Administration supported the State's guidance in industrialization and therefore the defense industry during the first planning period. Despite such activities as the in-country aircraft production, a strong –infrastructure could not be established due to internal and external conditions.
In the post World War II Period, activities in defense industry initiated during the first years of the Republic were not sufficient due to lack of State support, which came to a halt as a result of the foreign military aid received upon promotion of bilateral relations with the United States and Turkey's membership of NATO.
However, regional problems Turkey faced in the 1960s, Cyprus crises in 1963 and 1967, Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974 and the arms embargo following the invasion necessitated the development of a defence industry based on national resources. After 1974, Turkish Armed Forces Foundation were established with this understanding and some investments, though limited were initiated.
Besides the administrative and financial difficulties in maintaining and improving the national capabilities, limited national resources as well as the procurement policies proved insufficient to fill the increasing gap in Turkish Armed Forces defence equipment.
1923-1950
Machinery, craftsmen and workmen transferred discreetly from Istanbul and its surroundings at the end of the First World War played a crucial role in winning the War of Independence. Small scale and simple workshops in Ankara, Konya, Eskişehir, Keskin and Erzurum not only provided light weapons and ammunition but also lay the foundation for a sound local defence industry infrastructure.
General Directorate of Military Facilities was set up in 1921. Establishing and industry of weapons and ammunition was discussed for the first time during the İzmir Congress of Economics. In 1924 a facility for repair of light weapons and artillery and another facility for ammunition and carpenter work in Ankara; in 1924 a new ammunition facility in Ankara; in 1930 a capsule facility in Kayaş; in 1931 a power plant and steel facility in Kırıkkale ; in 1936 a facility for gunpowder, rifle and artillery; in 1943 a facility for gas masks in Mamak were established. In addition, Nuri KILLIGİL facility set up near Haliç region, İstanbul; in 1930 was then one of two private firms producing weapons. Producing pistols, 81 mm mortar and its ammunition, explosives and pyrotechnics, this facility provided support to the Turkish Armed Forces during World War II.
In 1924, Gölcük Shipyard was set up for the maintenance of Yavuz battle cruiser. In 1941, Taşkızak Shipyard was reactivated.
Turkish aviation industry was initiated through the establishment of Tayyare ve Motor Türk AŞ (TamTAŞ) in 1926. The facilities of TamTAŞ established in Kayseri, started production in 1928; until 1939, a total of 112 aircraft –15 German Junkers A-20s, 15 US Hawk fighters, 10 US Fledgling trainers, 15 German Gotha liaison aircraft –were produced. After completion of the maintenance of the aircraft in the inventory of the Turkish Air Force Command, TamTAŞ suspended aircraft production in 1939.
24 Nu. 37 aircraft and many gliders were produced in the aircraft facility founded by Nuri DEMİRDAĞ in Istanbul in 1936. but this private firm was out of operation in 1943.
The first major initiative in the aviation industry was the formation of an aircraft facility by Turkish Aviation Association in Ankara, 1941. Starting production in 1944, this facility produced 80 Miles Magister trainer aircraft, two –engine ambulance aircraft THK-10 light transport aircraft, 60 Ugur two-seater trainer aircraft and various types of gliders. The first aircraft engine facility was set up in Ankara, in 1945 and started production in 1948. various facilities were established in Malatya between 1942–43 in order to repair and maintain the aircraft procured from the United Kingdom during the IInd World War.
Foreign military aid that started upon Turkey's membership in NATO and increased within a short period stalled the development of local defence industry which was at its preliminary stage of formation.
1950-1960
Instead of improving the local defence industry, foreign aid and foreign procurement were practiced during this period. Because of the Cold War and military and political polarization after the 2nd World War, Turkey met its defence requirements through and in the framework of the NATO.
Within the impact of the increasing foreign aid in the post-IInd World War period, efforts for the development of local defence industry slowed down; orders of the Turkish Armed Forces from the local suppliers decreased, thus military facilities became a part of the Machinery and Chemical Industry Corporation (MKEK) which was formed as a State Economic Enterprise on 15 March 1950.
Development of, weaponry and equipment in the inventory of the Turkish Armed Forces was kept on the agenda by the Research and Development Department formed in 1954 under the Ministry of Defence in 1970, development studies of defence industry were reactivated.
1960-1970
It was a period regional conflicts and the Cyprus issue. Cyprus crises in 1963 and 1967 and the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974, the arms embargo imposed on Turkey as a result of this invasion proved the need for a national defence industry. During the crises, Turkey was face with the difficulty of dependence on foreign supply. The deadlock experienced in this period caused to seek ways to reactivate national defence industry. During this period in which investments based on import substitution were common, production of G-3 and MG-3 rifles by the MKEK under German licenses were concrete examples of this policy put into practice.
1970–1980
1970s have been the period in which solid initiatives were put into force so as to establish a national defence industry. As a result of the national reaction to the arms embargo against Turkey, Armed Forces Foundation were established. Although these Foundations formed enterprises such as Aselsan, Havelsan, Aspilsan thanks to the donations, it was soon realized that the actual need for a defence industry as required by the contemporary age could not be met through the Foundations.
1980-1985
In the 1980s, state initiative was undertaken to realize the modernization of the Turkish Armed Forces and the establishment of a national defence industry based on contemporary technology was set as the primary goal.
The first step in this direction was taken by the establishment of defence equipment Directorate as a state enterprise. However, the shortcomings stemming from its state-bound status prevented the success and all the properties of that enterprise were transferred to the Undersecretariat for Defense Industries (SSM) which was established in 1985 under the Law No: 3238
Today's Turkish defense industry
One of the main tasks of the Defense Industries is to re-organize and integrate the existing national industry so as to satisfy defence industry requirements, encourage new enterprises and channel them according to the integration and requirements, seek possibilities for foreign capital and technology contribution, guide enterprises and make plans for state participation in this respect.
The Turkish defense industry is able to manufacture national and local products, and has a wide-ranging research and development program among which the main supporting organization is TÜBİTAK.
Investment in sub-system producers increased, forming tech centers such as Teknokent, with small and medium-sized enterprises, research institutions and universities. This was further boosted by its growing exports of weaponry.
UN figures published in 2014 show Turkey, China and the Czech Republic joining the list of the world's top exporters of small arms, which is led by the United States.
The United States imposed sanctions on Turkey and targeted its Defence Industries Directorate in December 2020 over its purchase of Russian S-400 air-defence system.
Companies
Air platforms
ALP
Baykar
GLOBAL
KALE AERO
Turkish Aerospace Industries (TAI)
Turkish Technic
TUSAS Engine Industries Inc. (TEI)
VESTEL SAVUNMA
Battery and power systems
ASPILSAN
GENPOWER
Electronic and software
ASELSAN
AYESAŞ
Altay Yazilim Savunma Endüstriyel Ticaret A.Ş.
EHSİM
ESDAŞ
GATE
HTR
MİKES
NETAŞ
SAVRONİK
SDT Space & Defence Technologies
SELEX
Transvaro
TUALCOM
TUBITAK-UEKAE
Vestel
YALTES
YÜKSEK TEKNOLOJİ
YÜKSEL SAVUNMA
VENDEKA SAVUNMA
Information technology
C TECH
HAVELSAN
KOÇ SİSTEM
KALETRON
Meteksan Savunma
MİLSOFT
ONUR MUHENDISLIK
STM
Land platforms
ASMAŞ
BMC
FNSS Defence Systems
HEMA
Katmerciler
Moğol Makina
KOLUMAN
MTU
Nurol Holding
Otokar
Naval platforms
ADIK
Ares Shipyard
DEARSAN
Gölcük Naval Shipyard
ISTANBUL SHIPYARD
MILSYS SAVUNMA TEKNOLOJİLERİ
Pendik Naval Shipyard
RMK
SEDEF
YONCA-ONUK
YILDIZ
Rocket-missile ammunition
BARIŞ
GİRSAN
MKEK
ROKETSAN
SARSILMAZ
TAPASAN
TİSAŞ
Products
Land platforms and modernizations
Wheeled armoured vehicles
Cobra
Cobra amphibious Version
Cobra with 12.7 mm Cupola/Turret
Otokar Yavuz
Otokar Kaya
APC cupola (with Cupola/Turret) (4x4)
AKREP with Single 7.62 mm GPMG Ows
AKREP Mobile Ground Surveillance System
ILGAZ II 4X4
RN-94
FNSS Pars
Nurol Ejder
Otokar Akrep ZPT
SYHK Amphibious armoured vehicle-launched bridge.
BMC Kirpi
BMC Vuran
Armoured tracked vehicles
ACV 300 IFV 12.7
ACV 300 IFV 40
ACV AAPC
ACV AAV TOW- Anti Armor Vehicle
ACV AFOV - Artillery Forward Observation Vehicle
ACV CP - Command Post Vehicle
ACV ENG RECCE - Armored Engineering Recce Vehicle
ACV IFV 25
ACV MES-V - Modular Electronic System Vehicle
ACV MEV- Medical Evacuation Vehicle
ACV RV- Armored Recovery Vehicle
ACV SIGNALS - Armored Signals Vehicle
ACV SPM 81 - Self Propelled Mortar Vehicle with 81mm Mortar
ACV SPM RUAG 120 - Self Propelled Mortar, 120mm RUAG Mortar
ACV SPM TDA 120 - Self Propelled Mortar, 120mm TDA 2R2M Mortar
ACV-S AESV
Stretched ACV-S IFV 25 One-Man 25mm Sharpshooter Turret-S
ACV-S IFV 30 Two-Man 30mm Bradley Turret-S
ACV-S IFV 40 40mm AGL and 7.62mm Turret-S
ACV-S SPM 120 Self Propelled Mortar Vehicle with 120mm Mortar
ACV-S SW BMP-3 Turret
ACV-S TLC Tracked Logistics Carrier
M113 (A2T2)
AZMİM Amphibious combat engineering armoured bulldozer.
Tulpar
Tank modernizations
M60T SABRA Mk3
Leopard 1T
Leopard 2NG
Tanks
MİTÜP Altay
Light Tanks
Kaplan MT (Joint production with Indonesia)
Tulpar LT
Other vehicles
BMC (215-09 2.5 Ton Wheeled Tactical Vehicle (4x4))
BMC (235-16 5 Ton Wheeled Tactical Vehicle (4x4))
BMC (380-26 10 Ton Wheeled Tactical Vehicle (6x6))
Vehicle equipment
Automatic Fire/Explosion Sensing and Suppression Systems
Bilge Pump (M113)
Bilge Pump (M48)
Commander's Cupola
Driver Periscope (AN/VVS-2A)
Full Transmission
Glass Periscope (M17)
Illuminating Instruments
Kupola for Armoured Personnel carriers
Main Gun Smoke Extraction Fan
Night Vision System (DNTSS- ACV)
Periscope (M36E1/M32E1)
Personnel Heaters
Sharpshooter Turret - 25 mm One-Man Sharpshooter Turret
T-840 and T-44 Turret
Tank Engine Heater
Tank Thermal Sight System (TTS)
Tank Transmissions
Thermal Fire Control System (Eagle Eye)
Transmissions
Naval platforms
Naval combatants
Barbaros class frigate (licensed)
Yavuz class frigate (licensed)
Coast Guard Search and Rescue Ship
Type 209 submarine (licensed)
Kılıç class fast attack craft Type FPB
Milgem Patrol and Anti-Submarine Warfare Ship
Mine Detection Ship
New Type Patrol Boat
Patrol and amphibious ships
Cabin RIB Boat (JF 830 / JF 833)
Coast Guard Boats (SAR35, SGB37)
KAAN 15 Class ONUK MRTP-15
KAAN 20 Class ONUK MRTP-20
KAAN 29 Class ONUK MRTP-29
KAAN 33 Class ONUK MRTP-33
KAAN 16" CLASS ONUK MRTP-16
KAAN 16" CLASS ONUK MRTP-16U
Landing Crafts, Tank (LCT Class)
Landing Crafts, LCVP Type Landing Crafts (LCT Type)
Police Boats
Turkish Type 80 Class Coast Guard Boat
Unmanned Naval Vehicle
Unmanned Marine Vehicle
Water Jet RHIB (JP 24 Jet)
Support ships
Akar class supertanker Type Support Ship
Fortification Boat 450
anding and Mine Laying Ships (LST Type)
MSH Boat
Tug Boats / Torpedo Tender
TCG. YB. Kudret Güngör Ship
Underwater Vehicle (AUV)
Naval construction materials, sub systems and support systems
AIS Automatic Identification System Electronic Chart System (ECS) Software
A-595 Surface Supply and Combat Support Ship
Diesel Marin Engines
Diver Detection Sonar
Docking Up to 4500 Tons and Pier Facilities
Dry Dock Measurement System
Echo Sounder
Electro catalytic Chlorination Unit
Floating Pool and Dry Pool
Frigate Power Transmission and Distribution Switchboard Panels
Hull Scanner
National Sonar Wet End Prototype
Hydrophones
Marine Genset (3,5KW - 80KW)
Message Terminal Unit (TB-2000)
Military Type Rugged Consoles
Naval Platform Radar Electronic Support System (ARES-2N)
Ocean Bottom Seismometer
Operator Console (OPCON)
Passive Harbour Protection System
Remote Operated Vehicle (ROV)
Seafloor Sediment Sampler
Side-Scan Sonar System
Sonar (Multi-beam)
Shipboard Integrated Battle Command System
Stabilized Machine Gun Platform (STAMP)
Sub System Adaptation Unit (SAU)
Submarine Battery Production
Submarine Power Transmission and Distribution Switchboard Panels
Submarine and Auxiliary Ships Programs Support and Consultancy Services
Tank Level Measurement System
Underwater Acoustic Modeling
Underwater Cables and Connectors
UW-Monitor
Various Parts for Ships
Vessel Communication Switching System
Video Recording Unit (VRU)
Air platforms
Licensed and main products
F-16 Fighting Falcon (Licensed)
F-35 Lightning II (Joint Production)
Boeing 737 AEW&C (Joint Production)
Airbus A400M (Joint Production)
CASA CN-235 (Licensed)
TAI/AgustaWestland T129 ATAK (Patent bought, local production)
Eurocopter AS 532 (Licensed)
Turkish Primary and Basic Training Aircraft (HÜRKUŞ) (Local)
Modernizations
C-130E/B Avionics Modernization (ERCIYES) Program
F-16 CCIP Modernization
Meltem II (Modification of CN235)
Open Skies Aircraft (ASA) (Modification of CN-235)
Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs)
Target Drone (TAI Turna/G)
Tracking Target Drone (TAI Keklik)
MALE Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (TAI Anka)
Mini Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (Bayraktar Mini UAV)
Mini Unmanned Helicopter (TAI Malazgirt Mini VTOL)
Aircraft and helicopter engines and equipment
3D CAD Design and analysis capabilities for aerospace industry. (Parts and Assembly design)
Accessories for aeroplanes
Aerostructures Manufacturing
Airbus Aktuator Valves
Aircraft and Helicopter Engine Assembly and Overhaul
Aircraft and Helicopter Engine Part Manufacturing
Auto pilot modules
ATR PC Chassis
Flight Management System (CDU-900)
GPS Sistemi (LN-100G INS/GPS)
Have Quick I-II / SATURN (optional) Frequency Hopping VHF/UHF Air Platform Radios
Helicopter Chaff/Flare Dispenser Integration Analyses Work Package
Helicopter Flight Control and Aircraft Engine Parts
Helicopter Tactical Data Link System (HELIS)
Lighting Control Panel (MELTEM II Project)
Missile Remote Interface Unit
Multifunction Display (MFD-268 E)
Production of Plane Heater and Helicopter Heater
Avionic Central Control Computer (SOFTWARE)
Composite Part / Component Design, Analysis and Production
Avionic Central Control Computer (SOFTWARE)
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Internal Combustion Engines
Turbojet AT225
Turboprop AT225
Training equipment and simulators
3D Modelling
Air Defence Systems Effectiveness Simulation Programs, Guided Missile Simulation Programs, Weapon Simulations for Classroom Training
Air Traffic Control Simulations
Analysis and Simulation Systems (DUMAN)
Armoured Vehicle and Tank Simulators
Artillery Forward Observer and Fire Management Center Simulator
Avionics Video Symbols Generation Software (ALQ-178 AVSG)
Digital Environment Simulatorr (DES)
Digital Feature Analysis Data (DFAD) Level – 1 for Aircraft Simulations
Digital Feature Analysis Data (DFAD) Level – 2 for Aircraft Simulations
Digital Terrain Elevation Data (DTED) Level - 1 for Aircraft Simulations
Digital Terrain Elevation Data (DTED) Level - 2 for Aircraft Simulations
Electronic Warfare Operator Training Simulator (EHOPES)
Interactive Shooting Simulator (AES-800 / TANUS 2004)
Joint Electronic Warfare Training Simulators (JETS)
Joint Task Force Tactical and Operational Simulation System (MGKMOS)
Laser Based Combat Training System
Laser Marksmanship Training Simulators
LINK-1 Simulator
Marksman Training Simulators
Military / Educational Console Set
Modelling and Simulator
Mortar Simulator
Sea Surveillance Radar Simulator (APS143)
Ship Simulator (SHIPSIM)
Shooting Training Remote Controller - Standalone (AKS 1919 RC)
Shooting Training Systems (AES 2023)
Simulation Recording (DUMAN)
Simulation Systems and NASCAP Remote Networked NBC Detection and Management System (NBC)
Small Caliber Arms Interactive Shooting Training System (EE/RangeMaster2005 GS)
Small Scaled Tactical and Operational Simulation System (BASKIN / SAVMOS)
Software Development for Weapon Systems, Development of Simulation Software
Sonar Operator Training Simulator
Training Simulations-MAS
Training Simulations-SONOPES
Wireless Controlled Target System
Full Flight Simulator (CN 235 100 M)
Full Flight Simulator (CN 235 100 TK01)
Electronic Warfare Test and Training Range (EWTTR)
Helicopter Simulation Center Link-11 Simulator (HEL11SIM S70-B)
Helicopter Simulators (HELSİM)
Mission Support System (MSS)
Weapon Systems and Flight Training Simulators (F-4E 2020)
Artillery - rockets - missiles
Surface-to-surface missiles
Atmaca anti-ship missile
Bora/Khan Tactical ballistic missile
Artillery rockets
Artillery Rocket (107 mm)
Artillery Rocket (122 mm)
Artillery Rocket System-Toros 230 Medium Range Artillery Rocket
Artillery Rocket System-Toros 260 Long Range Artillery Rocket
MK 40 MOD 3 and MK4 10 Rockets (2,75")
Multiple Launch Rocket System (107 mm)
Multi Barrel Rocket Launcher System (2,75")
Multi Barrel Rocket Launcher System and R-302T Rocket 302 mm (TRG-300 Tiger)
Multi Barrel Rocket Launcher System and TR-107 Ammunition Family (T-107 107 mm)
Multi Barrel Rocket Launcher System and TR-122 Ammunition Family (T-122 122 mm)
Yildirim SRBM
Howitzers
T-155 155mm L52 Fırtına Self Propelled Howitzer
Towed Howitzer T-155 L52 (PANTER)
M114A2 155mm L39
M44T 155mm L39 SPH
M52T 155mm L39 SPH
-Note: The M44T and M52T is a Turkish modernization, license built Rheinmetall 155mm howitser with Turkish Fire Control Systems.
Mortars
Commando Mortar 60 mm
Fog Mortar
Mortar 120 mm (HY1-12)
Mortar 81 mm (NT-1)
Mortar 81 mm (UT-1)
Air defence systems
Automatic Cannon 25 mm
Hisar (missile family)
Pedestal Mounted Stinger System (ATILGAN)
Pedestal Mounted Stinger System (BORA)
Pedestal Mounted Stinger System (ZIPKIN)
Twin Barrel Anti Aircraft and Infantry Support Gun 20 mm
KORKUT Twin Barrel Anti Aircraft Gun 35 mm
Remote controlled weapon stations
Aselsan SMASH 30mm RCWS
Aselsan STAMP multi caliber RCWS
Aselsan STAMP-2 multi caliber RCWS
Aselsan STAMP-G multi caliber RCWS
Aselsan STOP 25 mm RCWS
Small arms
Pistols
AKDAL F 06
AKDAL F 92
AKDAL GHOST
AKDAL MINI 03
AKDAL MINI 06
FATIH 13 - 7.65 mm
FATIH 13 - 7.65 mm
FATIH 13 - 7.65 mm
FATIH 13 380 ACP - 9.00 mm
KANUNI 16 – 9 mm
KANUNI S - 9 mm
KIRIKKALE 9 mm
KIRIKKALE 9 mm
Sarsilmaz Kilinc 2000
Sarsilmaz K2-45
Sarsilmaz CM9
Sarsilmaz ST10
YAVUZ 16 - 9 mm
YAVUZ 16 COMPACT MC Standard - 9 mm
YAVUZ 16 REGARD MC Standard - 9 mm
YAVUZ 16 TUĞRA Standard - 9 mm
YAVUZ 16 ZİRVE Standard - 9 mm
ZIGANA C45 - .45ACP Caliber
ZIGANA F - 9 mm
ZIGANA K - 9 mm
ZIGANA M16 - 9 mm
ZIGANA Sport - 9 mm
ZIGANA T - 9 mm
BERNARDELLI 13+1
BERNARDELLI 15+1
Hançer
K2 - 9 mm
Kama Long - 9 mm
Kama Sport - 9 mm
Kılınç 2000 – 9 mm
PROFESSIONAL - 9 mm
VATOZ - 9 mm
Submachine gun
MP5 A2 - 9 mm
MP5 A3 - 9 mm
MP5 A4 - 9 mm
MP5 K - 9 mm
MP5 KA4 - 9 mm
MTS2 - 9 mm
MTS3 - 9 mm
Assault rifle
G3A3 - 7.62 mm
G3A4 - 7.62 mm
HK 33 E A2 - 5.56 mm
HK 33 E A3 - 5.56 mm
T-50 - 5.56 mm
Machine gun
MG3 - 7.62 mmm
Shotgun
Churchill - 12 Gauge
Strong - 12 Gauge (pump action)
Karatay - 12 Gauge (pump action)
M12 - 12 Gauge (pump action)
M6 - 12 Gauge (pump action)
M8 - 12 Gauge (pump action)
Cobra - 12 Gauge (pump action)
Altay - 12 Gauge (semi-automatic shotgun)
Akdal MKA 1911 - 12 Gauge
Rifle
Semi Automatic Sporting Rifle T-94
Sporting Hunting Rifle T-41
Sniper rifle
Accuracy International AW - .338 Lapua
Barrett M82 - .50 BMG
TUFAN T-12
TUFAN MKE-8O - 7.62 mm
Grenade launchers
40 mm multi-barrel launcher
T-40 HK 33 E (underslung)
T-40
Rocket launchers
RPG 7 - 40 mm
Ammunition, explosives and detectors
Ammunition
Aircraft bomb (MK82 MOD1 500 lb)
Aircraft bomb 2000 lb Mk84
Aircraft practice bomb 2000 lb Mk84
Aircraft practice bomb 25 lb BDU – 33D / B
Aircraft practice bomb 25 lb Mk 76 Mod 2
Aircraft practice bomb 4,5 lb MK106 MOD1
Aircraft practice bomb 500 lb
Aircraft Rocket Warhead 2,75" M151
Ammunition 105/35 mm MKE Mod 270
Ammunition 155 mm M396 ERDP
Ammunition 175 mm MKE Mod111
Ammunition 25 mm M791 APDS-T
Ammunition 25 mm M793 TP-T
Ammunition 40 mm MKE MOD63 GE MKE MOD 63 GE Tear Gas
Ammunition 60 mm M49A2 HE
Ammunition ICM155 mm M483 A1
Ammunition 25 mm M792 HEI-T
Anti Aircraft Ammunition 35 mm MSD 020
Anti Aircraft Ammunition 35 mm ULD 034
Artillery Ammunition 155 mm M101
Ball Cartridges 5,56 mm x 45 (SS109/M855)
Ball Cartridges 9,65 mm (.38 cal)
Ball Pistol Cartridges 7,65 mm x 17
Cartridges 7,62 mm x 51 (4 M61 +1 M62)
Cartridges 12,7 mm X 99 (.50 Cal) (4m33 + 1m17)
Cartridges 12,7 mm X 99 (.50 Cal) (M17)
Cartridges 12,7 mm X 99 (.50 Cal) (M33)
Cartridges 12,7 mm X 99 (.50 Cal) (4m8 + 1m17)
Cartridges 20 mm X 102 M56 A3 HEI (with War Head)
Cartridges 20 mm X 102 M56 A3 HEI-T (with War Head and Tracer)
Cartridges 20 mm X 110 HEI (MKE Mod 1102) (with War Head)
Cartridges 5,56 mm x 45 (4 Ball + 1 Tracer)
Cartridges 7,62 mm
Cartridges 7,62 mm x 51 (4 Ball + 1 Tracer)
Cartridges 7,62 mm x 51 (4 Ball + 1 Tracer)
Cartridges 7,62 mm x 51 Ball (M80)
Cartridges 9,65 mm (Special) (.38 cal) (FMJ)
Cartridges Products (AVF1 MOD1 YÜK ATMA, AVF2 MOD1)
Cartridges, 9 mm x 17 Short
Cartridges, Tracer 20 mm X 110 HEI-T (MKE Mod 1109) (with War Head and Tracer)
Cartridges 7,62 mm x 51 Armour Piercing (M61)
Colored Smoke Can
Fog Ammunition 120 mm MKE Mod226
Fragmented Aircraft bomb 500 LB PRE
Grenade Launcher Ammunition (MKE MOD60 HE) 40 mm
Gun Ammunition 105 mm HE MKE Mod233
Howitzer Ammunition 105 mm HE M1
Howitzer Ammunition 155 mm M107 HE
Howitzer Ammunition 8" HE M106
Illuminating Ammunition (120 mm MKE Mod 236)
lluminating Ammunition (EFAR)
Illuminating Mortar Ammunition (81 mm M301 A2)
Illuminating Rocket, Flare Surface Trip
Illuminating, Smoke Cartridge (MKE MOD3 Smoke Cartridge)
Mortar Ammunition Prefragmented 81 mm BHM
Mortar Ammunition 120 mm Cs MKE Mod 251
Mortar Ammunition 120 mm Hc MKE Mod 250
Mortar Ammunition 120 mm He MKE Mod 209
Mortar Ammunition 81 mm HE M43 A1 B1
Mortar Ammunition 81 mm HE MKE MOD 214
Mortar Ammunition 81 mm HE FRAG MKE MOD262
Mortar Ammunition Cargo 120 mm MKE Mod 258
Parabellum Pistol Cartridges 9 mm x 19
Pistol Cartridges, 9 mm x 20 Long
Practice - Target practice Mortar Ammunition 81 mm MKE MOD 238
Practice Ammunition 105 mm TpFSDS-T
Practice Ammunition 105 mm TpFSDS-T
Practice Mortar Ammunition 120 mm MKE Mod 228
Practice Mortar Ammunition 60 mm MKE MOD257
Sevrotin Hunting Cartridges, 12/70 Temporary Effective
Signal Cartridges (1", 1,5", 7/8")
Special Ball Cartridges 9,65 mm (.38 cal)
Submarine Signal with Parachute (PDK - PIK)
Tracer Cartridges 5,56 mm x 45 (L 110/M856)
Tracer Cartridges 7,62 mm x 51 (M62)
Tracer Cartridges 20 mm X 102 M55 A2 TP-T
Training Ammunition 105 mm TP MKE Mod 234
Training Ammunition 120 mm MKE Mod227
Training Ammunition 35 mm MAD356
Training Ammunition 81 mm MKE MOD216
Training Ammunition 81 mm MKE MOD239
Training Ammunition 81 mm MKE MOD273
Training Cartridges 20 mm X 102 M55 A2 TP
Training Cartridges 20 mm X 110 TP (MKE Mod 1101)
Training Cartridges 20 mm X 110 TP-T (MKE Mod 1107)
Training Grenade Launcher Cartridges, Tracer 40 mm x 46 TP-T
Training Mortar Ammunition 60 mm MKE MOD 256 HE
Waterjet disrupter Cartridges 12,7, Electrical Cartridges 12,7
Explosives
Demolition block ( ½ lb)
Demolition block (1 lb)
Demolition block (M5a1 2.5 lb)
Dynamite Nitrocellulose
Ether
Explosive Nitrocellulose
Hunting Capsule
Lacquers Nitrocellulose
Long and Medium Range Antitank Ammunition
Propellant 20 mm And 12,7 mm
Propellant 5,56 mm and 7,62 mm
Propellant For Pistol (Ball 9 mm)
Propellant For Rifles 12,7 mm
Propellant for Rifles 20 mm
Propellant For Rifles 7,62 mm
Propellants for Artillery Ammunition 105 mm M1
Propellants for Artillery Ammunition 105 mm M1
Propellants for Artillery Ammunition 105 mm M30
Propellants for Artillery Ammunition 106 mm M26
Propellants for Artillery Ammunition 155 mm M1
Propellants For Artillery Ammunition 155 mm M6
Propellants For Artillery Ammunition 35 MM
Propellants for Artillery Ammunition 5/38 "LİK M6
Propellants for Artillery Ammunition 8" M1
Propellants for Artillery Ammunition175 mm M6
Propellants For Mortars And Priming (M9)
Propellants For Mortars And Priming 4,2" (M9)
Rocket Nitrocellulose
The Propellants for Hunting And Sports Ammunition
Training Capsules, 2.Sound K Training Capsule
Detectors - demilitarization systems
Bomb Demolition and Transfer Trailer
Bomb Determination and Demolition Equipments
Bomb Determination and Demolition Vehicle
Bomb Disposal System
Cobra Eod-Bratt Vehicle
Dirty bomb Disposal System
Demilitarization (Ammunition)
Metal Detector - Hand-held (HANDY)
Mine Detector (TV/PSS-12)
Mine Detectors
Mine Lying Device
Mine Propellant System
Mined Field Clearing System For Vehicles (TAMKAR)
Mined Fields Clearing System For Troops
Suspicious Package Inspection System
Ammunition components, detonators
30 Ms Delay Copper, 30 Ms Delay Aluminum, 500 Ms Delay Aluminum
Airplane Drop bomb Composite Body (DOGAN 500 lbs.)
Aluminium And Copper Electrical Detonator
Ammunition Demilitarization Facility
Ammunition Plugs and Plug Parts
Ammunition Serving Equipment
Ammunition Rocket Igniter
Blasting Detonators
Bullet Cartridge
Bullet Casing
Electronic Time Fuse, Inductive Setter for Fuses
Hardwire Explosive Demolition Device
Multi-Purpose Combat Robot
Remote Controlled Detonation System
Time Delay Fuze Programmer
Various Ammunition Parts
Hand grenade
Defence Hand Grenade (MKE MOD 44 (MK2))
Defence Hand Grenade (MK2)
Hand Grenade (MKE MOD 56 Riot Control)
Sound Capsules (Anti Riot Grenade, Soundk. 1.Sound)
Training Hand Grenadee - Defence (MKE MOD 46)
Arms, rocket and missile components
Automatic Howitzer Loading Magazine Drive Unit
Barrel Insert System (35 mm)
Composite Electrical Launching Tube Assembly (ERYX)
Composite Gas Discharge Unit
Composite Launch Tube (122 mm)
Composite Launch Tube (TOROS)
Composite Launch Tube 122 mm
Composite Pre-Firing Structure and Left Hand Handle (ERYX)
Composite War Head Body (122 mm)
Composite War Head Body (TOROS)
Composite War Head Body 122 mm
Composite Barrel Heat Jacket
Chemical Warfare Agent Detection System
Foldable Rifle Butt
G3 Rifle Improved Gun Sling
Law Launcher Pipe, Body And Fuse Box 66 mm (M72)
Missile - Ramp Plates (TÜBİTAK - SAGE TOROS)
Missiles Components
Missile Parts and Guidance System Parts Production
Night Weapon Sight (M-993 - Small Arms)
Night Weapon Sight (M-995 - Havy Guns)
Night Weapon Sight (AN/PVS-4 Small Arms)
Night Weapon Sight (AN/TVS-5 Heavy Guns)
Pistol Body And Various Parts
Plastic Parts For Rocket and Missile Systems
Rapier - MBDA Components
Rocket Pipe (2.75")
Sniper Rifle Components
STINGER Composite Coolant Reservoir Assembly
STINGER Composite Launch Tube
STINGER Gyro Activator
Stinger Motor Case
TANK GUN Components 105 mm (M68 T1)
Telescope Mount
Thermal Weapon Sight
Electronic warfare
Airborne systems
Counter Measures Dispensing System (SPREAD)
Electronic Warfare Self Protection System (ASES-235M)
Electronic Warfare System Self-Protection (AN/ALQ178)
Helicopter Electronic Warfare Self Protection Suit (HEWS)
Radar Warning Receiver - Integrated Defensive Aid System (MİDAS RWR)
Remote Controlled Fixed V/Uhf Direction Finding (DF) System (DFINT-3S2)
Ground-based systems
Detector – Jammer (GK-2 GSM)
Detector (GD-2 GSM)
Electronical Intelligence and Anti-Intelligence Products
Ground Based ELINT System (DFINT-2S)
Jammer - Detector (GK-2 GSM)
Jammer (GK-1 GSM)
Jammer (RF)
Jammer (PMJ03)
Labris Antivirus / Antispam Gateway Software and Hardware
Labris Firewall, VPN, Bandwidth Management and High Availability Management Software and Hardware
Labris Intrusion Detection and Prevention Software and Hardware
Labris Server Load Balancing Software and Hardware
Labris L1-L8 Network Security Appliances
Labris URL/Content filter Software and Hardware
Land Based Electronic Support (ES) / Electronic Attack (EA) System
Mobile Direction Finding (DF) And Intelligence System (DFINT-4A)
Mobile HF Tactical Communications Jammer System (JAMINT-4)
Tactical Communications Jammer System (JAMINT 3A V/UHF)
Shipborne systems
Naval Platform Radar Electronic Support System (ARES-2N)
Electronic warfare support systems
Armoured Tactical Directing Finding System
Custom Console Keyboards, Joystick, Trackbal solutions
Digital Media Modernization (SAMED - RACAL)
Electronic Warfare and Programming Simulation Systems (LR-100 EWPSS)
Electronic Warfare Operator Training Simulator (EHOPES)
Electronic Warfare Training Simulator (JETS Joint)
Infrared Signature Measurement System
Laser Target Pointer (ATOK)
Labris Antivirus / Antispam Gateway Software and Hardware
Labris Firewall, VPN, Bandwidth Management and High Availability Management Software and Hardware
Labris Intrusion Detection and Prevention Software and Hardware
Labris Server Load Balancing Software and Hardware
Labris L1-L8 Network Security Appliances
Labris URL/Content filter Software and Hardware
Monitoring and Interception Systems (DUMAN)
Radar signature prediction and analysis software (RIKA)
Realistic Microwave and Profile Radar Simulator Based on Scientific Modeling (SOFTWARE)
C4ISR
Command, control systems
Acoustic Mission planning system (AMPS)
Air Defense Early Warning and C4I System (SKYWATCHER)
Air Defense Early Warning and C4I System Base and Harbour Defense Version (SKYWATCHER)
Arahap
Armeryol
Atimevse
Command and Control System (on Armoured Vehicle)
Maritime Patrol Aircraft Command Control Systems (MELTEM)
Labris Antivirus / Antispam Gateway Software and Hardware
Labris Firewall, VPN, Bandwidth Management and High Availability Management Software and Hardware
Labris Intrusion Detection and Prevention Software and Hardware
Labris Server Load Balancing Software and Hardware
Labris L1-L8 Network Security Appliances
Labris URL/Content filter Software and Hardware
Mini Combat System (AMICOS)
Naval Combat Systems Integration
Reconnaissance / Surveillance System on Vehicle(MARS-V)
Reconnaissance Surveillance System on Vehicle (SAHARA)
Ship Command Control System (GEMKOMSIS)
Ship Integrated Combat Management System (GENESIS)
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
Tactical Command Control System (TACCS)
Turkish Air Force Integrated Command and Control System (TICCS)
C4ISR Modeling and Simulation System
Air Traffic Control Station Recording Systems (DUMAN)
Command Control Computer (CCC)
Console Parts
Decoder and Tracking system (MITIS IFF)
Digital Media Modernization (SAMED - RACAL)
Decoder and Tracking system (MITIS IFF)
Genesis Integrated Link System (GELIS)
Genesis Tactical Data Link System – Modernization Program (GVLS-MP)
Interface Unit (BTS)
Labris Antivirus / Antispam Gateway Software and Hardware
Labris Firewall, VPN, Bandwidth Management and High Availability Management Software and Hardware
Labris Intrusion Detection and Prevention Software and Hardware
Labris Server Load Balancing Software and Hardware
Labris L1-L8 Network Security Appliances
Labris URL/Content filter Software and Hardware
Mission Computer (Aselsan)
Military Hand-Held Computer (HT-7243/A-PM)
Military Lap-top Computer (LT-7241/A)
Mobile Command Control Center
Multifunction Operator Console (MOC)
Operator Console (OPCON)
Sub System Adaptation Unit (SAU)
Survey Information Center System (YOHMS)
Tactical Information Display System (METEOR BS)
Communication systems
Automatic Signal Information System (AQUILA HF, VHF, UHF)
Communication Planning Tool
Compas View Test Tool Kit
Field Telephone
Frequency Hopping Radio Link (GRC-5218 Band III+ 8 Mbit/s)
Genesis Tactical Data Link System – Modernization Program (GVLS-MP)
Helicopter Tactical Data Link System (HELIS)
IFF Mode-C
IFF Mode-T
IFF Systems
Integrated Communication Systems (Mobile)
Labris Antivirus / Antispam Gateway Software and Hardware
Labris Firewall, VPN, Bandwidth Management and High Availability Management Software and Hardware
Labris Intrusion Detection and Prevention Software and Hardware
Labris Server Load Balancing Software and Hardware
Labris L1-L8 Network Security Appliances
Link 11-16 Software
Message Handling System (MHS)
Multi Media Transmission Communication System (FORESC-3)
Network Security Device (AGC-100T)
Satellite Communication System (X-BAND)
Secure Voice and Data Communication Device (ÖZDEM II)
Tactical Area Communication Systems (TACOMS)
Tactical Secure Wireless Local Area Network (TS-WLAN)
Turkish Armed Forces Integrated Communication System (TAFICS)
Radios
Airborne Transceiver - HF (SRT 170, 270, 470/L)
Digital Receiver - HF/SSB (SP-2295R)
Digital Tank/Vehicular Communication System
Frequency Hopping VHF/UHF Ground Radios (Have Quick I-II)
Ground-Air Radios (GCA 1000 Series)
Hand Radio
Multiband Multimode Handheld Radio (PRC-9651)
Multiband Multimode Manpack/Vehicular Radio (PRC/VRC-9661)
Radio (CNR 2000)
Radio (H4855 PRR)
Radio Listening and Recording Unit (APCO 25)
Radios (4700 Analog / Digital / Trunk)
Search and Rescue Hand-Held Transceiver (PRC-434A-SMT)
Transceiver - HF (SRT-2007)
Transceiver - HF (SRT-602)
Transceiver - HF/SSB (SP-2296)
Transceiver - V/UHF AM/FM (SRT 619/NV)
Transmitter HF/SSB (ST-5000 - ST-10000)
Crypto equipment
Bulk Crypto Equipment (MİLON-6 34Mbit/s)
Bulk Crypto Equipment (MİLON-7 155 Mbit/s)
Bulk Encryption Equipment (MİLON-5 2 Mbit/s)
Crypto Key Loading Device (KAYC-10B)
Crypto Key Reading Device (KAOC-8)
Crypto Unit Design (DEMET)
Data Encryption Equipment
Data Encryption Equipment (MİLON-4A)
Electronic Crypto Key Transfer and Fill Equipment (EKATAC)
Electronic Crypto Key Transfer and Fill Equipment (EKAYUC)
Encryption Equipment (2041)
Link Encryption Equipment (EKAHAK)
Synchronous Data Encryption Equipment (SVKC)
TSK-1 ISDN BRI Crypto Equipment
TSK-2 ISDN PRI Crypto Equipment
Voice Encryption Equipment
Other subsystems
Airborne Data Link Processor (ADLP) Software Development (ADLP-100)
AC Power Line filter (TGH-16 TEMPEST)
Business Communications Manager (BCM)
Business Secure Router (BSR 222)
Communication Systems, Power Supplies, Transmission Systems, Infrastructure Design and Manufacturing
Communications Portfolio (Meridian)
Digital Radiolink Equipment (SRC8000)
Digital Radiolink Equipment (SRC8000)
Digital Radiolink Equipment (SRL5800)
DC Power Line filter (TDC-5 TEMPEST)
Digital Terminal (ISDN)
Data Transfer Systems (Wide Band Link)
Fax Analog Digital Converter (FASD-1)
Fax Security Equipment (FGC-2)
Gateway Device Over HF-VHF-UHF/IP * FORMUS: Multi-Transmission Media Communication System (FORGEC FORMUS)
GSM Monitoring and Interception Systems (DUMAN)
Integrated Message Handling System
Multiple Optical Line Terminating Unit (MOLTU)
Message Terminal Unit (TB-2000)
Multiplexer (TN-1XE SD)
National Fillgun Equipment (MİLAY-1)
Signal Line filter (SM-10 TEMPES)
Signal Line filter (SM-5 TEMPES)
Signal Line filter Panel (SP-100 TEMPEST)
Secure Terminal Equipment (SecVoice-2)
Tactical Data/ Internet Communication Unit
Tactical Area Communications System, ISDN and ATM Terminals and ISDN Terminals (TACOMS)
Wireless and Wireline Local Area Network Switch
Fire control systems
Automatic Fire Control and Barrel Aiming Systems for 81–120 mm Mortars
Artillery Fire Support System (TADES)
Computerized Gun Laying System
Computerized wireless Scoring Target System
Fire Control System (ATMACA)
Field Artillery Battery Fire Direction System (BAIKS-2000)
Fire Control System (for Leopard 1 Tanks - VOLKAN)
Fire Support Team Headquarter / Forward Observer's Vehicle (ADESTIM)
Fire Support Automation System (AFSAS) (ADOP-2000)
Fire Support Command Control Communication System (TAIKS)
Firing Control System (T-122 Sakarya) (BORA-2100)
Mortar Fire Direction System (HAIKS)
Naval Gun Fire Control System (76 mm FCS)
Self Propelled FIRTINA (TUSpH STORM) Howitzer Fire Control System (T-155)
Termal Fire Control System (Eeagleeye)
Thermal Sighting System With Laser Range Finder (DNTSS-LRF)
Collimator Instrument
Goniometer (Digital, ASELGON)
Muzzle Velocity Radar (7941)
Intervalometer (SEI2000-1/2)
Intervalometer (SUU-25 Flare Dispenser)
Intervalometer (Flare Dispenser) (SUU-25)
Intervalometer (Firing Control Unit) (Z02 M)
Position Periscope
Target Pointer (AIM/1D)
Target Pointer (ATOK)
Target Pointers (IRAD 2500)
Target Pointers (IRAD 600)
Target Pointers (M-9395/M-9396)
Target Pointer (M-9886)
Target Pointer (REM007/TEM007)
Sensors
Main/subsystems
Air Defense Radar (ADR)
Field Artillery Meteorology System (AFAM)
Fixed Underwater Surveillance System (FUS)
Identification and Communication Devices (FIREFLY IR)
Labris Antivirus / Antispam Gateway Software and Hardware
Labris Firewall, VPN, Bandwidth Management and High Availability Management Software and Hardware
Labris Intrusion Detection and Prevention Software and Hardware
Labris Server Load Balancing Software and Hardware
Labris L1-L8 Network Security Appliances
Labris URL/Content filter Software and Hardware
Laser Range Finder and Target Location and Identification Systems
Mobile Underwater Surveillance System (MUS)
Milimetric Wave Radar Technics (MMWT)
Production and Depot Level Maintenance of Radar Systems
Radar Command and Control Integration System (RC2IS)
Signal and Data Processing Units
Tactical Sensor Network for Border and Regional Security (TADAS)
Wireless Sensor Network for Wire Fence Monitoring (TEDAS)
İKONOS Satellite Imagery (İNTA)
Spot 5 Satellite Imagery (İNTA)
Imagery Intelligence (İNTA)
Thermal cameras
Airborne Thermal Imaging and Targeting System (ASELFLIR-300T)
Airborne Thermal Imaging System (ASELFLIR-200)
Electro-Optical Sensor System (FALCONEYE)
Night Observation Camera System (KESKİN GÖZ)
Night Vision Binocular (High Performance 3X)
Night Vision Weapon Sight (High Performance 4X)
Night Vision Weapon Sight (High Performance 6X)
Surveillance and Fire Adjustment Radar (ARS 2000)
Thermal Camera (KAŞİF)
Thermal Camera Modification (BAYKUŞ)
Thermal Camera Systems (BAYKUŞ)
Thermal Sight - T Series (ATS-T)
Thermal Weapon Sight (Boa)
Thermal Weapon Sight (Engerek 2)
Thermal Weapon Sight (Engerek 3+)
Thermal Weapon Sight (Piton)
Binoculars
Binocular T 10 A1
Binocular T 10 A1r
Night Observation Device (UGG-2)
Night Vision Binocular (M1505)
Night Vision Binocular (M-978)
Night Vision Driver's Periscope (TV/VVS-2)
Night Vision Weapon Sight (HWS-6)
Observation Telescope T20A1
Position Periscope
Vision System (AN/TAS-4A)
Vision System (AN/TAS-4C)
Vision System (AN/TVS-4)
Goggles
Monocular Night Vision Goggle (M-983)
Night Vision Goggle (AN/PVS-5A)
Night Vision Goggle (AN/PVS-7B)
Night Vision Goggle (M- 972/M-973)
Night Vision Monocular Goggle
Pilot Night Vision Goggle (M-929/M-930)
Vision System Monocular (TV/MON1)
Software
AIS Automatic Identification System Electronic Chart System (ECS) Software
Command Control Early Warning Software (Peace Eagle)
Interoperability and Interoperability Framework Projects
Avionics Video Symbols Generation Software (ALQ-178 AVSG)
Agent-Based Modelling and Simulation System (ETSIS)
Open Source Operating System (PARDUS)
Photogrammetric Map
Satellite imagery process and digital interpretation for the Air Force
Maintenance Data Computer
DDS Middleware
Orthophoto Map
Graphic Interface Unit (Senmot)
Tactical Military Planning Application (SimBox)
Simulation Systems Operation (SimLink)
Synthetic Tactical Simulation Software
Tactical Games
Software Development for Air Traffic Control/Management (ATC/ATM) Systems
Automatic Detection and Tracking Software
Performance of Engineering Calculations, Design of Modernization
High Resolution Satellite Image Analysis (DUPT)
Military Health Automation System (TAF)
Mission Computer Software Development
Embedded Software
Vehicle Tracking Software System
ETSIS: Agent-Based Modelling and Simulation System
Performance Prediction Modeling
Digital Elevation Model Software (DEM)
Building Heights and Density Analysis (İNTA)
Change Detection Analysis (İNTA)
Tracking Systems (İNTA)
Labris Antivirus / Antispam Gateway Software and Hardware
Labris Firewall, VPN, Bandwidth Management and High Availability Management Software and Hardware
Labris Intrusion Detection and Prevention Software and Hardware
Labris URL/Content filter Software and Hardware
Vehicle Tracking and Licence Plate Recognition Systems
Production of Visual Database Systems and 3D Models for Simulation Projects (İNTA)
Logistics
Logistic support vehicles
Aircraft Refueller (18.000 L - 45.000 L)
Armoured Ambulance
Armoured Ambulance Vehicle (M113 A2T2)
Battle Tank Transporters
BMC 215-09 (4x4) EOD vehicle
BMC 235-16 (4x4) 5 tonnes Mobile Repair Workshop
BMC 235-16 (4x4) Shelter Carrier Vehicle
BMC PRO 624 (6x2) 15.000 LT Aircraft Refueler
BMC PRO 624 (6x2) 15.000 LT Fuel Tanker
BMC PRO 624 (6x2) 15.000 LT Water Tanker
BMC PRO 624 (6x2) 5 tonnes Recovery Vehicle
BMC PRO 827 (6x4) 20.000 LT Aircraft Refueler (1000 lpm)
BMC PRO 827 (6x4) 20.000 LT Aircraft Refueler (2271 lpm)
BMC PRO 832 (6x4) 5.000 USG Aircraft Refueler
Container Carrier with Portable Platform
Fishbone Type Container Trailer
Helicopter Refueller 10.000Lt
Hydraulic Refuse Truck
Incident Place Investigation Vehicle
Land Rover 110/130 Field Ambulance
Land Rover 130 Ammunition Vehicle
Land Rover 130 Maintenance Vehicle (Single / Crew Cab)
Land Rover 130 Rapier Battery Vehicle
Land Rover 130 Rescue Vehicle
Land Rover 130 Stinger Manpads Vehicle
Skip Loaders
Truck Platform Production, Front Crane, Shelter and Alternator Assemblies
Water Tank Truck 15 Ton
Water Tank Truck 5 Ton
Airport and ground support equipment
Aircraft Arresting Net Barrier Systems
Aircraft Warning Light System GUIS-01a
Aircraft Warning Light System GUIS-01a
Aircraft Warning Light System GUIS-02
Aircraft Warning Light System GUIS-03
Airfield Lighting Equipments
Airfield Lighting System
Constant Current Regulator
Ground Power Unit
High Pressure Compressor
Isolating Transformers
Mobile Air Traffic Control Tower (MATCT - 5001)
Mobile Flood lighting Tower
Nitrogen servicing unit
Pallet Dolly (PD 7000)
Portable Airfield Lighting System
Tow Bar
Material handling equipment, workshop machinery
Cold Storage Cabinet Trailer
Containers
ÇNRA (MLRS) Ammunition Trailer
Command Control Shelter Projects
Mobile Carrier Band
Mobile Field Both Trailer
NATO-I ACE-II Shelters
Oxygen, Argon, Nitrogen Tank, Trailers
Shelter
Shelterization, Mobilization and Ruggedization
SS-W-Platform Wagon for Tanks
Pallets For Carrying The Mobile Radars
Trailers
Water Trailer 1,5 tonnes
CNC, Universal and Heavy Industrial Machine Tools
Deep Drilling Machinery
Sheet Metal Working Machinery
Field accommodation and catering equipment
Accommodation Containers
Adjustable Shelf Unit
Cold Climate Tent
Command Tent
Container
Containers - Office, Kitchen-Dining, Dormitory, Sanitary, etc.
Corridor of Hygiene
Desert WC
Emergency and Disaster Field Deployed WC System
Emergency Accommodation Buildings
Field Telephone
Field Type Tent Heater
General Purpose Tent
GSM Shelters
Headquarters' Tent
Mobile Bathroom Unit
Mobile Field Cooking Trailer
Mobile Kitchen, Mobile Field Hospitals, Caravans, Mobilevans, Trailer Mounted Water Purification Unit
Mobile Laundry Unit
Mobile Oven Unit
Power Box Containers - 150-450 kWh Generator Enclosures
Ration Packs, MRE's With 2 Years Shelf Life
Refrigeration Chamber on Trailer
Shelter
Single Room Country WC
Storage Containers - Small Material Storage Containers
Storage Tent
Tents
Watching Tent
Water Balloon (Vehicle Top)
Water Purification Equipment
Water Tank 5000 - 7000 lt
Fire fighting and alarm equipment
BGS-700 Unit Security System
Modern Fire Extinguishing System
Test equipment
Ampermeters
Auto Point II
Automatic Test Equipment (ATE)
Automatic test equipment (ATE) and Test program sets (TPS)
Automatic Test Program Generator
Automatic Test System (Robotics)
Calibration and repair
Calibration Services
Cosqmeter
Customer Oriented Special Test Equipment
Environmental Conditions Test
Environmental Tests, Arena Tests of warheads, Firing Tests, Design, production and testing of Flight termination systems
Establishment, System Integration and Engineering Services of EU Standard EMC (Electro Magnetic Compatibility) Laboratories.
Field Test System
Frequency Meter
Flight Test Instrumentation (FTI)
Gatelab 9000
Grenade Launcher Tester
Universal Relay Test Set (GTS-2300)
Inter V3
Internal Design of Military/Civil Shelters (Shelterization), Military Vehicles, Observation and Simulation Laboratories.
ITS-107 Electronic Intervalometer Test Set
Kalibrasyon (Electronic / Mechanical)
Pin Point II
Quality Control and Calibration Activities
Test Program Sets
Test Program Sets (TPS)
Test Programs and Interface Test Adaptors
Test Systems and Test Program Sets (TPS)
Test Equipment and Prototype Product
Varmeters
Voltmeters
Wattmeter
Uniforms, protective clothing and equipment
3 XDRY Soldier Underwear Fabric
Air Forces Ceremony Sword
Backpack
Band Ceremony Garment (grand)
Band Ceremony Garment (summer)
Band Ceremony Garment (winter)
Boots for Firefighters
Boots for Motorcyclists
Boots for Summer
Boots for Winter
Camouflaged Parka
cargo Parachute
Coat Officer, NCO
Cold Weather Boots, Breathable
Cold Weather Gloves, Leather Gloves
Combat Backpack Fabric
Combat Camouflage Fabric (Cotton)
Combat Camouflage Fabric (Polyester)
Combat Camouflage Fabric (Cotton, Nylon)
Combat Camouflage Fabric 3 XDRY
Commando Camouflaged Dress (summer / winter)
Desert Boots
Desert Camouflage Fabric
Embroidery Materials
F.R. Police Dress
Gendarme Ceremony Sword
Hat, Mess Dress, Officer
Hat, Mess Dress, Officer, Lady
Hedik
Holsters, Police Belt, Rubber Goggles for Sun and Snow, Campbed
Inner Garment's Cap, Officer, NCO (summer / winter)
Laminated Polar Camouflage Fabric
Land Forces Ceremony Sword
Mess Dress, Officer
Multi Spectral Camouflage Net
Naval Forces Ceremony Sword
Naval Forces Student Rapier
NBC Fabric
Office Shoes for Winter and Summer
Officer Shirt Fabric
One Man Tent Fabric
Outer Garment (Officer, Co-Summer, Winter)
Outer Garment's Hat, Officer, NCO (summer / winter)
Overcoat Officer, NCO
Parachutes
Personnel Parachute
Pilot Suit Fabric (kermel)
Pilot Suit Fabric (cotton)
Polar Combat Suit Fabric
Polar Combat Tent And Windcheater Fabric
Safety Shoes
Sleeping Bag
Sport Shoes
Sword Belt Metal Part
Technical Textile Products for Military Usage
Tex-Therm
Training Camouflaged Dress (summer)
Training Camouflaged Dress (winter)
Ammunition Vest
Anti-Ballistic Plates, Waistcoat, Helmet, Vehicle Protection
Anti-Riot Baton
Anti-Riot Body Protector
Anti-Riot Helmet
Anti-Riot Shield
Armoured Cabin
Ballistic Glass
Ballistic Helmet
Ballistic Run Flat Tires
Ballistic Vest
Ballistics Protective Vest
Ballistic Helmet
West
Shield and Panels
Bomb Basket
Bomb Blanket
Bomb Blanket
Bomb Protecting Material
Bomb Shield
Bullet Proof Vest
Bulletproof Briefcase
Bulletproof Collapsible Shield Bag
Bulletproof Drapes
Bulletproof Executive Vest
Bulletproof Leather Coat
Bulletproof Means Material and Equipment
Bulletproof Protecting Clothes
Bulletproof Underwear Vest
Composite Helmet
Composite Helmet
Composite Vest
G Gas Mask SR 10 ST (With Water Equipment, Grey)
Gas Mask
Gas Mask SR 10
Gas Mask SR 10 G (Grey Gas Mask)
Gas Mask SR 10 ST (With Water Equipment)
Helmet
Industrial Type filters
Life Jacket
Life Vest
Mine Dress
NBC Air Filtration System
NBC filters - D12, D13
NBC Gas Mask and NBC filter Canisters
NBC Protective Clothing and Accessories
NBC Shelters and Fixed and Mobile Air Filtration and Pressurizing Systems
NBC Systems
Panoramic Gas Mask
Personal Protection Armor System
Physical Security System
Protective Pilot Helmet
Ballistic Protective Helmet (Aramid)
Armouring and armouring materials
Armoured Glasses
Armoured Guard Houses And Checkpoints.
Armoured Vehicle Production
Ceramic Armor Systems (B4C, SIC, AL203, TIB2)
Ceramic- Composite Armor System (B4C-Aramid)
Ceramic Plate
Explosion-Proof Wall Coatings
Helicopter Armouring
Light Armored Vehicles -VIP Vehicles and Tanks
Vehicle Armoring
Parts and components manufacturing
Mechanical manufacturing
Adjuster, Seat for Tanks and Armoured Vehicles
Air Handling Units
Aircraft and Helicopter Parts
Aircraft Body Stretching Die
Aircraft Engine Parts
Aircraft Hydraulic System Parts
Aircraft/Helicopter Structural and Landing Gear parts
Aluminum Alloy Products
Aluminum Brazing Condenser for Tanks and Armoured Vehicles
Aluminum Brazing Heater for Tanks and Armoured Vehicles
Aluminum Brazing Intercooler for Tanks and Armoured Vehicles
Aluminum Brazing Oil/Fuel Cooler for Tanks and Armoured Vehicles
Aluminum Brazing Radiator for Tanks and Armoured Vehicles
Aluminum Heat Shields Production
Aluminum Hydraulic Tank
Aluminum Mechanical Heater for Tanks and Armoured Vehicles
Aluminum Mechanical Radiator for Tanks and Armoured Vehicles
Ammunition And Weapon Parts
Angle
Armoured Plates (AL 7075)
Assembled Part Production
Auxiliary Power Unit
Blowers
Bolt - ASME 18.2.1
Bolt - ASME 18.2.2
Bolt - DIN 439-2 - ISO 4035 - DIN 936 - ISO 8675
Bolt - DIN 6921 - EN 1665 - ISO 4162 - EN 1662
Bolt - DIN 6923
Bolt - DIN 7984
Bolt - DIN 7991 - ISO 10642
Bolt - DIN 912 - ISO 4762
Bolt - DIN 928
Bolt - DIN 929
Bolt - DIN 931 - DIN 960 - ISO 4014 - ISO 8765
Bolt - DIN 933 - DIN 961 - ISO 4017 - ISO 867
Bolt - DIN 934 - ISO 4032 - DIN 8673
Bolt - DIN 980/v
Bolt - DIN 985 - DIN 982
Bolt - ISO 7380
Bomb Cartridge 40 mm
Bottom and Upper Rollers, Idlers, Sprockets and Sprocket Segments
Bracket Assembly, Bump Stop for Tanks and Armoured Vehicles
Bracket, Engine Mount for Tanks and Armoured Vehicles
Brake Valves
Brush Set
Campane
Cap Recuperator, Lever Antibacklash, Housingcam, Operating Breech
Case&Relay
Chip removing, Castings, Heat-Treatment Sheet Welding Works, Industrial Parts for Defence and Automative Industry
Clip
Coating of Engine Bearings
Cold Formed Stamping Part Production
Colored Smoke Can (2 kg Smoke, H/B Type Colored, Colored)
Component
Compressor
Cooling Module for Tanks and Armoured Vehicles
Copper Alloys Products
Copper Heater for Tanks and Armoured Vehicles
Copper Radiator for Tanks and Armoured Vehicles
Cover, Access for Tanks and Armoured Vehicles
Crankcase-Tractor Parts
Crankshafts
Cylinder blocks
Cylinder Heads
Design, Manufacturing and Assembly of Rubber, Rubber to Metal Parts
Design, Manufacturing, Assembly and Repair of Tools and Dies
Design, Manufacturing, Assembly and Repair of Welding Machines and Presses
Design, Manufacturing, Assembly of Structural and Dynamic Parts for Land, Naval and Air Platforms
Design, Modeling, Moulding And Production of Composite Parts (CAD/CAM) for Defense Industry
Differential and Steering Boxes
Disc, Clutch for Tanks and Armoured Vehicles
Door, Hatch, Vehicle for Tanks and Armoured Vehicles
Dredging Buckets
Electro-Optics Coolers
Engine balancers systems
Engine Cylinder Liners
Engine Parts
Entry Door Panel
Exhaust Manifold
Exhaust Valve
Fan Motor Shroud Assembly for Tanks and Armoured Vehicles
Fence Wire
Filler, Neck, Flanged
Final Drive Housing and Cover
Fire Periscope
Firing Lever, Security Pin, Firing Pin, Plunger
Gasket Manufacturing
Gear Box Rings and Hubs for Multiple Vehicles
Geared Group
General Casting and Lathe Works
Heat Exchangers
Heat Recovery Units
Heater and HVAC System for Tanks and Armoured Vehicles
Heavy Duty Brake Systems
High Precision Machined Components
Hinge
Holder Assembly Electrical Contact
Hose Assemblies
Hot Forgings and Various Mechanical Parts
Housing Cam Cover, Retractor, Conductor, Plunger Firing
Housing Mechanical for Tanks and Armoured Vehicles
Housing, Bearing
Housing, Steering Column for Tanks and Armoured Vehicles
Hub And Drum Assembly for Tanks and Armoured Vehicles
Ignition Unit, Manifold
Impact And Casting Parts For 155 mm Anti-Tank Cargo Ammunition
Kinetic Energy Transporter
Lagerbock
Lifting Eye, Vehicle for Tanks and Armoured Vehicles
M52 Modernization - KomBitriger
M52 Tk/M Howitzer And Tank Parts
Machining
Machining
Manifold, Discharge for Tanks and Armoured Vehicles
Manufacturing of Various Machinery Parts
Manufacturing Services
Mechanic Parts for Electronic, Electromechanic, Optics, Optomechanics and Avionic Equipment
Mechanical Components For AB-139 Agusta Helicopter
Mechanical Components For AN/AVS 6 Aviator's Goggle
Mechanical Components For ASELFLIR 200 Airborne Thermal Imaging System
Mechanical Components For ASIR Thermal Imaging System
Mechanical Components For EAGLEEYE - Fire Control Sighting System
Mechanical Components For FALCONEYE Electro - Optical Sensor System
Mechanical Components For Multi Pulse Laser Range Finder
Mechanical Components For Peace Eagle
Mechanical Components For PRC-9651 Multiband Multimode Hand-Held Radio
Mechanical Components For Target Acquisition System
Mechanical Components For Thermal Weapon Sight
Mechanical Part Production For Defence Industry
Mechanical Manufacturing
Mechanism Rifle Building
Metal Tooling and Fixtures
Metallic And Composite Component Production and Assembly
Mortar Body and Barrel 40 mm
Mount, Machine Gun for Tanks and Armoured Vehicles
Mölds and Spare Parts of Moulds
Multiple Rocket Launcher Systems Front, Intermediate and Carrier Frame
Chemical warfare agent detection system
Oil Coolers
Oil Pumps for Engines
Parts For Armoured Combat Vehicles
Pedal, Brake for Tanks and Armoured Vehicles
Pedestal, Seat for Tanks and Armoured Vehicles
Pipe Post
Pipe Prop
Pitman Arms
Planet Gear
Plastic Injection Parts For Defence Industry
Power Steering Systems
Pre-Heaters
Precision Machined Structural parts
Precision Machining for Defence, Aerospace and Electronics Industries,
Preset, Shot Peening and Fatigue Test Machines
Production of Cutting Tools
Production of Various Parts for Armored Combat Vehicles and Electronic Equipment
Production Services
Pulley Frame
Pulley Groove
Quality Steel Castings and Various Mechanical Parts
Relay
Roadwheel Leopard MBT
Screw, C-Bar
Separator, Air, Cooling, System for Tanks and Armoured Vehicles
Solenoid
Special fasteners Bolts and Nuts in Inch and Metric (AN, NAS, MS, DIN / EN)
Speed Reducer Case
Spindle, Dual Support Roller for Tanks and Armoured Vehicles
Stabilizator Bar
Storm Fırtına Roadwheel (T 155 K/M TUSpH)
Supply and Return Fans
Support Part
Tandem Axle
Tank Crankshaft (M48 A5 T2)
Tanks and Armoured vehicles components
Thermostat Brace
Track (T417A)
Track (T517A)
Tube Assemblies
Turbo Charge Air Coolers
Turret Traverse And Elevation Mechanisms
Vane Pumps
Various Bronze Products
Welded Part Production
Welding
Window parts for Aeroplanes
Workpiece carrier and Pallets
Workpiece Product
Electrical and electronic manufacturing
AC voltage transducer (ggt - 01)
Active power tranducer (gwt-01)
Air ionizers - dr. bio-tron
Ammeter (analogue)
Ammeter (digital)
Ampermeter (digital)
Automatic re-closing relay
Auxiliary relay with horn contact
Balun
Bare short circuit and earthing equipment
Battery box
Born connectors and buksel sockets
Brushless alternator (n1301)
Cabinet and roof cooler fan
Cable
Cable and harness
Cable harness
Cable harness
Cable harnesses
Cable harnesses
Cable launcher projector
Cable wiring
Capacitor
Cast resin type (dry-type) transformers
Circuit simulator (digital - analog)
Communication cable harnesses
Compensation systems
Connector
Connector
Control ignition, heater
Cooler fan
Copper data
Copper telecom cables
Cosifimeter (digital)
Cos-phi meter / frequency meter (digital)
Current and voltage transducers
Current monitoring relays
Current relay (2 phase 1 ground over), current relay (3 phase 1 ground over)
Current transducer (gat-01)
Current transformer
DC leakage relay
Deployable fiber optic cable reel
Diesel fuel pump driven by permanent magnet dc motor
Differential relay
Digital and analog voice logging cards
Disco sound limiter and monitor/db-meter (analog)
Disco sound limiter and monitor/db-meter (digital)
Distribution box
Dynamic type frequency converter
Electric fan motor
Electric panel
Electrical and telephone distribution boxes
Electrical components
Electro-mechanical components
Electronic box assembly
Electronic card assembly
Electronic component
Electronic modules
Electronically card services
Electronics cards
Energymeter (digital)
ESD (electrostatic) materials
Ethernet routing switch 5000 series
Ethernet switch 325
Ethernet switch 425
F/O data
Fiber optic cables
Fiber optic distribution box
Fixed switching and call management systems
Frekansmeter (analogue)
Frekansmeter (digital)
Frequency meter with vibrating-reed
Ground relay
Harmonic analyser
Harness
Harness
Harness
Heat control instruments
Heater cable harnesses (ABB)
High voltage devices
High voltage substation systems
Igniter spark fuel
Industrial robots servo motor cooler fan
In-line centrifugal duct fan
Insulated pliers
LED displays
Line short circuit and earthing equipment with optical head
Liquid level controller
Low voltage cubicles
Low voltage current transformers
Lux adjustable photocell relay
Medium voltage switchgear
Motor current
Motor protection relay
Multimeter (digital)
Network analyser
Optic reviewer cable harnesses
Optical voltage detector
Over and low voltage relay
Overcurrent protection relays
Phase ac current transducer (GAT 03 3)
Phase failure relays
Phase sequence / frequency / thermistor relays
Photocell switch
Power factor controller
Power line filter (PCF-3 equipment tempest)
Power quality products and software
Power transmission and distribution cable harnesses
Powermeter (digital)
Printed circuit board (PCB)
Protection relays
Reactive power transducer (gqt-01)
Regulator voltage
Ruggedized lcd display 12"
Ruggedized lcd display 18"
Scavenge blower
Screen
Sensenode
Space and metal detector (avci xm-1)
Sunt
Switch
Switch pressure
Switch sensitive
Switchboard
Tandem type differential pressure fan
Tank protection relay
Telescopic optic voltage detector
Tent stove 45,000 BTU
Thruscan s3, Thruscan S9, Thruscan Sx, Thruscan Sx-I, Thruscan SX-WP
Thruscan, Thruscan DX-X, Thruscan DX
Time relay
Time relay (digital)
Toggle switch
Top of data station
Top panel
TRB, TRK inflaming cable harnesses
Vacuum circuit braker or contactor
Varmeter (analogue)
Ventilator motor
Video and data recorder (digital)
Vme work stations
Voltage monitoring relays
Voltage regulator
Voltmeter (analogue)
Voltmeter (digital)
Voltmeter (digital)
Wattmeter (analogue)
Wattmeter (digital)
Wide band antenna (100/400 w)
Wire - cable assembly
Wire/cable assembly
Paints, chemicals and composite material
Composite Materials
Carbon cleaner
Composite Ballistic Equipment
Composite Parts For High Temperature Applications
Composite/Hybrid Add-On Armor Plates
Camouflage Paint (IR)
Degreaser 10 K
Disinfectant cleaner aero
Electrowide
Electron
Form EX 4500 PU
Gear and Slideway Oils
Gear Oils
Hydraulic Oils
Marine Engine Oils
Metal clean
Monograde Motor Oils
Multigrade Motor Oils
Leak proof
Rust Preventives
Paint stripper gel
Penetrating Plus
Piece clean sol
Pro clean
PROCON
Safe sweeper
SLS Plus
Tetrasonic 119 CL
Special Industrial Oils
Semi finished Plastics Products
Transmission Oils
WRP 10 WT
Composite Part / Component Design, Analysis and Production
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Internal Combustion Engines
Power supplies, engines and batteries
Aircraft battery 20HP25H1CR
Aircraft battery (F19/40H1C)
Aircraft battery (F20/12H1CT)
Aircraft battery (F20/15H1C)
Aircraft battery (F20/15H1C-2)
Aircraft battery (F20/15H1CT-2)
Aircraft battery (F20/17H1C)
Aircraft battery (F20/17H1C-2)
Aircraft battery (F20/17H1CT)
Aircraft battery (F20/17H1CT-2)
Aircraft battery (F20/22H1C-1)
Aircraft battery (F20/22H1C-2)
Aircraft battery (F20/25H1CTF)
Aircraft battery (F20/27H1CM)
Aircraft battery (F20/27H1CM1)
Aircraft battery (F20/27H1Cm2)
Aircraft battery (F20/27H1CM3)
Aircraft battery (F20/40H1C)
Aircraft battery (F20/40H1CE1WT(H))
Aircraft battery (F20/40H1CTF)
Aircraft battery (F20/7H1CT4)
Aircraft battery Cell (FP12H1C)
Aircraft battery Cell (FP15H1C)
Aircraft battery Cell (FP17H1C)
Aircraft battery Cell (FP17H1C)
Aircraft battery Cell (FP22H1C)
Aircraft battery Cell (FP25H1C)
Aircraft battery Cell (FP27H1C)
Aircraft battery Cell (FP40H1C)
Aircraft battery Cell (FP7H1C)
Alternator
Alternator
Alternator (Generator)
Auxiliary Power Unit (APU)
Battery block - 4211
Battery block - 7221
Battery block - 7231
Battery block (GP-300, HT800, P-110, SABER II)
Battery block 1000 mAh - 4811/4815
Battery block 1200 mAh - 4011/4015
Battery block 1700 mAh - 4011/4015
Battery block 600 mAh - 4811/4815
Battery block Li-ion - (7,5 V 1900 mAh)
Battery block NI-MH 7,5 V 1900 mAh)
Battery charger (GAR-110)
Battery charger (GRR-1110d 110 V DC 10-25A MONOPHASE)
Battery charger And Maintenance Free Battery Unit (GAR-24)
Battery charger GRR 1000 Series Monophase
Battery charger GRR-3000 Series Threephase
Canopy and Deep Isolation Genset
Combined chargers
Diesel Electrogen Sets
Diesel Engine
Diesel generators
Diesel Genset
Diesel Motorpomps
En power 33 Diamond 10-300 kVA-
Enpower 11 5-15 kVA-
Enpower 31 5-15 kVA/10-40 kVA-
Frequency generator
Gasoline (Portable) Genset
Generating Set
Generator
Generator Gas Powered
Generators
Generators-Cogeneration
Generators-Diesel
Generators-LPG&NG
Generators-Mobil Dual generator sets (Military)
Generators-Portable (Gasoline)
Ground Power Unit (GPU)
Laser Range Finder Battery block
Lighting Tower
Marconi Hf Ssb Battery block
Military Type Dual Electrogen Sets
Mobile Floodlight Tower
Mobile Genset
Power Distribution and Control Units
Private Genset
Racal Battery block
Shelter Power Supply
Standard Genset
Starter
Starter
Switched Mode DSP Controlled Power Supplies
Switched Mode Power Supplies
Synchronous Diesel Electrogen Sets
Water Cooled Diesel Engines
Welder generator
Other manufacturing
2 Section Accordion Barrier System
9 Section Accordion Barrier System
Bellows
Cabinet 19"
Cabinet Accessories 19"
Cabinets 19"
Cable Protection HDPE Double-Walled (STB Ø110)
Cathode
Composite Antenna Mast
Disc Wheel for Leopard Tank
Disc Wheel for M48-M60 Tank
Electrolytic Copper Flat Wire
Ex-Proof Fans For Explosion Areas
Flexible Air Duct
Foam Metal
Gasket
Gasket
GENESIS; SHM Maket Çalışması
Investment Casting
Incident Place Investigation Equipment
Lens
Lighting Tower
Main Tyre for Military Aircraft
Nose Tyre - Military Aircraft
Optical fine film Coating
Oxygen and Nitrogen Gases Production
Prisms
Rack Mountable Pc Chassis
Racks and Its Appliances
Roundwire
Rugged Cabinets - Military Type
Sand - Resin Mixture
Seats - Driver/Operator
Security System For Garrison And Headquarters For Military
shock mounts
Single Piece Tractor and Agricultural Wheels
Special rubber components with high chemical resistance
Special rubber components with high electrical conductivity or isolation capability
Standard and nonstandard additives and special slicat components with high thermal resistance
Switch Box - Field Type
T-155 mm K/M Fırtına Disc Cap
T-155 mm K/M Fırtına Disc Wheel
Tin Coated Wire
Tubes
Tyre (DT-2)
Tyre (HL10)
Tyre (PA-40)
Tyre (PN-30)
Tyre Multiple Purpose (FLT-2)
Various sealing elements: o-rings, nutrings, bellows, grommets, gaskets
Vehicle Wheels
Wheels for Specially Designed Military Jeeps
See also
Modern equipment and uniform of the Turkish Army
Turkish Armed Forces
Turkish Army
Turkish Navy
Turkish Air Force
Turkish Gendarmerie
Defense industry
References
Sources
https://web.archive.org/web/20081221175824/http://www2.ssm.gov.tr/katalog2007/eng/urunler.html
http://www.ssm.gov.tr/EN/savunmasanayiimiz/Pages/BugunkuDurum.aspx
http://www.ssm.gov.tr/EN/savunmasanayiimiz/Pages/Tarihce.aspx
http://www.ssm.gov.tr/EN/savunmasanayiimiz/Pages/Tarihce.aspx
Turkish military-related lists
Turkey |
53845282 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Ni%C5%A1%20Faculty%20of%20Science%20and%20Mathematics | University of Niš Faculty of Science and Mathematics | The University of Niš Faculty of Science and Mathematics (), also known as the Niš Faculty of Science and Mathematics, is one of the educational institutions of the University of Niš, Serbia.
History
Today's Faculty of Sciences and Mathematics, as an institution of the University of Niš, began its life within the Faculty of Philosophy in Niš. Established in 1971, the Faculty of Philosophy initially comprised several departments, three of which were Department of Mathematics, Department of Physics, and Department of Chemistry. It is these three departments that constituted the core which would later expand into Niš University's Faculty of Sciences and Mathematics. The Faculty was officially founded by Decision of the Government of the Republic of Serbia on 20 September 1999. By the same Decision it was determined that the Faculty would have five departments: Department of Mathematics, Department of Physics, Department of Chemistry, Department of Geography, and Department of Biology with Ecology.
At present, the Faculty of Sciences and Mathematics is one of the leading educational and research institutions that employs over 200 teaching and research staff. Since its establishment, more than 4,000 students have earned a bachelor's degree, and over 150 students have acquired a doctoral degree in the field of natural sciences and mathematics.
Mission and vision
The mission of the Faculty of Sciences and Mathematics is to deliver top-notch education in the areas of natural and mathematical sciences, thereby providing primary and secondary schools, institutes, companies, and industry with qualified teachers, researchers, and engineers who will be able to respond to the ever-growing scientific, technological, and research challenges.
The vision of the Faculty of Sciences and Mathematics is to reach the level of a developed institution of higher learning in its own fields of study so that the achieved quality would guarantee the Faculty the status of a developed European institution and open the possibility of it becoming the leading scientific center in the region.
Organizational structure
All educational and research activities at the Faculty are realized through its departments and laboratories, Center for Advanced Study in Natural and Mathematical Sciences, and IT Center. At present, the Faculty consists of six departments: Department of Mathematics, Department of Computer Science, Department of Physics, Department of Chemistry, Department of Biology and Ecology, and Department of Geography.
Research activities are realized in the laboratories, computer classrooms, and Center for Advanced Study in Natural and Mathematical Sciences. The Center itself comprises eight divisions: Division of Mathematics, Division of Computer Science, Division of Theoretical Physics, Division of Experimental and Applied Physics, Division of Chemistry, Division of Biology and Ecology, Division of Geography, and Division of Environmental Protection. The Office of the SEENET-MTP Network and the Botanical Garden are also part of the Centre.
Educational activity
The Faculty educates future teachers of mathematics, computer science, physics, chemistry, biology, and geography for work in primary and secondary schools; research scientists for work at universities, research institutes and other scientific institutions; professionals for work in the government institutions, public sector enterprises, insurance agencies, banks and other financial organizations, ICT companies, travel agencies, tourism organizations, etc.
The Faculty of Sciences and Mathematics offers 20 accredited academic programs at all levels of university education.
The first level academic studies (undergraduate studies of three years in duration) are organized through the study programs in mathematics, computer science, physics, chemistry, biology, and geography.
The second level academic studies (master studies of two years in duration) are organized through the following academic programs:
Mathematics (modules: General Mathematics, Mathematical Models in Physics, Probability, Statistics, and Financial Mathematics),
Computer Science (modules: Software Development, Information Management),
Physics (modules: General Physics, Applied Physics, Physics and Informatics),
Chemistry (modules: Research and Development, Teacher of Chemistry),
Applied Chemistry (modules: Applied Chemistry, Environmental Chemistry),
Biology,
Ecology and Nature Conservation,
Geography, and
Tourism
At the third level academic studies, the Faculty offers five academic programs which lead to the following academic titles:
PhD in Mathematical Sciences,
PhD in Computer Science,
PhD in Physical Sciences,
PhD in Chemical Sciences, and
PhD in Biological Sciences,
PhD School of Mathematics
Scientific research
Improvement and continuous modernization of the existing study programs are governed by the scientific development and new demands placed before the job profiles that students are trained for at the Faculty. The academic staff pursues research, is engaged in various projects, and cooperates with the industry; they organize seminars and workshops for the academic staff with acclaimed experts from abroad or from industry as lecturers. The Faculty of Sciences and Mathematics makes it possible for research methods and research findings to be integrated into the academic programs of doctoral studies.
The Faculty is currently involved in a total of 46 national and international projects that span across fundamental research, technological development, integrated study, and interdisciplinary research. Over 80% academic staff participate in the realization of the national research projects.
The Faculty is also involved in a number of TEMPUS and FP projects.
The academic stuff at the Faculty takes part in scientific conferences and professional symposia in the country and abroad. The Faculty itself has organized a number of significant scientific meetings.
International cooperation
The Faculty is active in cooperation with universities, institutes and other faculties in the country and abroad. The following are some of the international partners that the Faculty has established cooperation with in several areas:
International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP) Trieste, Italy,
Institutes MAX PLANCK Munich, UNESCO Paris and UNESCO-BRESCE Venice as partners in Southeastern European Network in Mathematical and Theoretical Physics (SEENET-MTP),
Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, St. Cyril and Methodius University, Skopje, Macedonia,
Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria,
Centro de edafologia y biologia aplicada del segura (CEBAS-CSIC), Campus Universitario de Espinardo, Murcia, Spain,
National Institute for Agricultural Research (INRA-SPO), Montpellier, France,
School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Trinity College Dublin, College Green, Dublin, Ireland,
Department of Chemistry, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway,
Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Tokushima, Japan,
University "Marie et Pierre Curie", Paris, France, and
School of Science, University of Greenwich.
Publishing activity
To a considerable extent, the publishing activity at the Faculty goes hand in hand with the scientific research conducted by the academic staff. The Faculty publishes the academic journal Filomat (IF 0.753) which features articles in the fields of mathematics and computer science. In the same area, two more journals are published, Functional Analysis, Approximation and Computation (FAAC) and Matematika i informatika, whereas the journal Biologica Nyssana is devoted to research in biology. The academic staff at the Faculty also takes part in the publishing of the two series of the journal Facta Universitatis – Physics, Chemistry and Technology and Mathematics and Informatics.
For the purpose of fostering the educational process, 146 textbooks, workbooks, and monographs authored by the Faculty's academic staff have been published.
The Faculty Library is a significant source of the scientific and educational activities. It contains large collections of textbooks, professional and scientific literature and reference books that are used for all study programs at the Faculty. The Library owns 36,043 bibliographic units primarily in the area of natural and mathematical sciences, all of which serve towards providing and further improving the educational process.
References
External links
1999 establishments in Serbia
University of Niš |
1765207 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elvis%20%28text%20editor%29 | Elvis (text editor) | Elvis is an enhanced clone of the vi text editor, first released in January 1990. It introduced several new features, including syntax highlighting and built-in support for viewing nroff and HTML documents. Elvis is written by Steve Kirkendall and is distributed under the Clarified Artistic License (ClArtistic) which is used by Perl and is a GPL-compatible free software license.
Elvis is the version of vi that comes with Slackware, Frugalware, and KateOS.
Comments
Elvis was the pioneering vi clone, widely admired in the 1990s for its conciseness, and many features. It influenced the development of Vim until about 1997.
It was the first to provide color syntax highlighting
(and to generalize syntax highlighting to multiple file types),
first to provide highlighted selections via keyboard.
Elvis's built-in nroff (early) and (later) HTML displays gave it unusual WYSIWYG features.
Elvis recognizes binary files, as well and provides a split screen for editing them.
jelvis, a Japanese variant, is available, based on work by Jun-ichiro itojun Hagino up until 1998.
His more recent work in this area has been distributed as patches against nvi. A Korean variant helvis is also available, originally by Park Chong-Dae.
These variants were modifications of elvis 1.8 (July 10, 1994).
The nvi editor is based on an older version of elvis 1.5 (April 2, 1992).
History
Elvis is an enhanced clone of vi. To understand the full context in which Elvis was created, readers should consider the history of vi. In this section we examine the version history of Elvis almost exclusively.
Steve Kirkendall posted the first version of Elvis to the Usenet newsgroup comp.os.minix in early January, 1990, intending it to be a more complete and faithful clone of Vi than Tim Thompson's Stevie (ST editor for VI enthusiasts), released three years previously.
Kirkendall outlined several ways in which Elvis was different from Stevie, namely:
The text is stored in a temporary file, just like the real vi, and unlike stevie. Because of this, you can edit files that are larger than a single process' data space. Also, you can recover your file after a crash or power failure.
Arrow keys work in input mode. In fact, if you invoke the editor via the name "input", then it will start editing in input mode. You can make your changes, and then exit by hitting Control-Z twice, and NEVER go into visual command mode. In other words, elvis can act pretty much like a normal editor -- something that the real vi certainly can't do.
Long lines are displayed differently. Where vi and stevie wrap the line onto several rows of the screen, elvis displays it on one row and allows you to scroll sideways.
In addition, in Elvis almost all ex/vi commands worked (except :@, :abbr, and :preserve in ex mode and @ in visual mode and appending to named buffers).
It quickly attracted considerable interest in a number of enthusiast communities.
Andrew Tanenbaum quickly asked the community to decide one of these two editors to be the vi clone in Minix; Elvis was chosen, and remains the vi clone for Minix today.
In 1989, Lynne Jolitz and William Jolitz began porting BSD Unix to run on 386 class processors, but to create a free distribution they needed to avoid any AT&T-contaminated code, including Joy's vi. To fill the void left by removing vi, their 1992 386BSD distribution adopted Elvis as its vi replacement. But at UC Berkeley, Keith Bostic wanted a “bug for bug compatible” replacement for Joy's vi for BSD 4.4 Lite. Using Kirkendall's Elvis (version 1.8) as a starting point, Bostic created nvi, releasing it in Spring of 1994.
In August 1994, Kirkendall announced that he was working on a major rewrite of Elvis, and in October 1996, it was ready for release. The new version had a number of new features, including
Multiple edit buffers, so you can edit several files at the same time.
Multiple windows, so those edit buffers can share screen space.
Multiple display modes, including...
"normal" which looks like the traditional vi screen
"hex" which is good for viewing binary files
"syntax" which supports syntax coloring (configurable)
"man" which formats Unix man-pages like nroff
"html" which formats Web pages
Online hypertextual help
A variety of user interfaces, including...
"termcap" which uses text screens like the traditional vi
"x11" which provides a GUI interface for Unix/X Window users
Compiling: elvis can parse error messages, and move to source of error
WYSIWYG printing, with drivers for most printer types
Built-in calculator with a C-like syntax
Extreme customizability
"Open" mode, for one-line-at-a-time editing even on very dumb terminals
In December 1998, Kirkendall released Elvis 2.1, with added features, including name completion, via the <Tab> key, network protocols (allowing can reading/writing via Web URLs), and a "tex" display mode.
Kirkendall maintained the 2.1 release with bugfixes and minor enhancements as 2.1_1, 2.1_2, 2.1_3, and culminating in 2.1_4, released in October 1999.
In October 2003, four years after the previous release, Kirkendall released Elvis 2.2, which added a number of new features, including a built-in context-sensitive spell checker, text folding, region highlighting, and user-definable URL protocols. In addition, it adopted a number of ideas from Vim.
As of May 2020, there has been no official new release of Elvis since 2.2.
Notes
References
External links
Elvis' homepage
Elvis said to run on MINIX
Free text editors
MINIX
Software using the Artistic license
Termcap
Unix text editors
Vi
Windows text editors |
13588444 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network%20virtualization | Network virtualization | In computing, network virtualization is the process of combining hardware and software network resources and network functionality into a single, software-based administrative entity, a virtual network. Network virtualization involves platform virtualization, often combined with resource virtualization.
Network virtualization is categorized as either external virtualization, combining many networks or parts of networks into a virtual unit, or internal virtualization, providing network-like functionality to software containers on a single network server.
In software testing, software developers use network virtualization to test software which are under development in a simulation of the network environments in which the software is intended to operate. As a component of application performance engineering, network virtualization enables developers to emulate connections between applications, services, dependencies, and end users in a test environment without having to physically test the software on all possible hardware or system software. The validity of the test depends on the accuracy of the network virtualization in emulating real hardware and operating systems.
Components
Various equipment and software vendors offer network virtualization by combining any of the following:
Network hardware, such as switches and network adapters, also known as network interface cards (NICs)
Network elements, such as firewalls and load balancers
Networks, such as virtual LANs (VLANs) and containers such as virtual machines (VMs)
Network storage devices
Network machine-to-machine elements, such as telecommunications devices
Network mobile elements, such as laptop computers, tablet computers, and smartphones
Network media, such as Ethernet and Fibre Channel
External virtualization
External network virtualization combines or subdivides one or more local area networks (LANs) into virtual networks to improve a large network's or data center's efficiency. A virtual local area network (VLAN) and network switch comprise the key components. Using this technology, a system administrator can configure systems physically attached to the same local network into separate virtual networks. Conversely, an administrator can combine systems on separate local area networks (LANs) into a single VLAN spanning segments of a large network.
Internal virtualization
Internal network virtualization configures a single system with software containers, such as Xen hypervisor control programs, or pseudo-interfaces, such as a VNIC, to emulate a physical network with software. This can improve a single system's efficiency by isolating applications to separate containers or pseudo-interfaces.
Examples
Citrix and Vyatta have built a virtual network protocol stack combining Vyatta's routing, firewall, and VPN functions with Citrix's Netscaler load balancer, branch repeater wide area network (WAN) optimization, and secure sockets layer VPN.
OpenSolaris network virtualization provides a so-called "network in a box" (see OpenSolaris Network Virtualization and Resource Control).
Microsoft Virtual Server uses virtual machines to make a "network in a box" for x86 systems. These containers can run different operating systems, such as Microsoft Windows or Linux, either associated with or independent of a specific network interface controller (NIC).
Use in testing
Network virtualization may be used in application development and testing to mimic real-world hardware and system software.
In application performance engineering, network virtualization enables emulation of connections between applications, services, dependencies, and end users for software testing.
Wireless network virtualization
Wireless network virtualization can have a very broad scope ranging from spectrum sharing, infrastructure virtualization, to air interface virtualization. Similar to wired network virtualization, in which physical infrastructure owned by one or more providers can be shared among multiple service providers, wireless network virtualization needs the physical wireless infrastructure and radio resources to be abstracted and isolated to a number of virtual resources, which then can be offered to different service providers. In other words, virtualization, regardless of wired or wireless networks, can be considered as a process splitting the entire network system. However, the distinctive properties of the wireless environment, in terms of time-various channels, attenuation, mobility, broadcast, etc., make the problem more complicated. Furthermore, wireless network virtualization depends on specific access technologies, and wireless network contains much more access technologies compared to wired network virtualization and each access technology has its particular characteristics, which makes convergence, sharing and abstraction difficult to achieve. Therefore, it may be inaccurate to consider wireless network virtualization as a subset of network virtualization.
Performance
Until 1 Gbit/s networks, Network virtualization was not suffering from the overhead of the software layers or hypervisor layers providing the interconnects. With the rise of high bandwidth, 10 Gbit/s and beyond, the rates of packets exceed the capabilities of processing of the networking stacks. In order to keep offering high throughput processing, some combinations of software and hardware helpers are deployed in the so-called "network in a box" associated with either a hardware-dependent network interface controller (NIC) using SRIOV extensions of the hypervisor or either using a fast path technology between the NIC and the payloads (virtual machines or containers).
For example, in case of Openstack, network is provided by Neutron which leverages many features from the Linux kernel for networking: iptables, iproute2, L2 bridge, L3 routing or OVS. Since the Linux kernel cannot sustain the 10G packet rate, then some bypass technologies for a fast path are used. The main bypass technologies are either based on a limited set of features such as Open vSwitch (OVS) with its DPDK user space implementation or based on a full feature and offload of Linux processing such as 6WIND Virtual Accelerator.
See also
Application performance engineering
Hardware virtualization
I/O virtualization
Network function virtualization
Network Virtualization using Generic Routing Encapsulation
Overlay network
OVN
Virtual circuit
Virtual Extensible LAN
Virtual firewall
Virtual private network
References
Further reading
External links
NetworkVirtualization.com | News retrieved 3 June 2008
RAD VPLS Tutorial
Types of VPNs
VMware Virtual Networking Concepts retrieved 26 October 2008
Network functions Virtualization(NFV) Benefits
Virtualization software
Internet Protocol based network software |
491851 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio%20receiver | Radio receiver | In radio communications, a radio receiver, also known as a receiver, a wireless, or simply a radio, is an electronic device that receives radio waves and converts the information carried by them to a usable form. It is used with an antenna. The antenna intercepts radio waves (electromagnetic waves) and converts them to tiny alternating currents which are applied to the receiver, and the receiver extracts the desired information. The receiver uses electronic filters to separate the desired radio frequency signal from all the other signals picked up by the antenna, an electronic amplifier to increase the power of the signal for further processing, and finally recovers the desired information through demodulation.
Radio receivers are essential components of all systems that use radio. The information produced by the receiver may be in the form of sound, moving images (television), or digital data. A radio receiver may be a separate piece of electronic equipment, or an electronic circuit within another device. The most familiar type of radio receiver for most people is a broadcast radio receiver, which reproduces sound transmitted by radio broadcasting stations, historically the first mass-market radio application. A broadcast receiver is commonly called a "radio". However radio receivers are very widely used in other areas of modern technology, in televisions, cell phones, wireless modems and other components of communications, remote control, and wireless networking systems.
Broadcast radio receivers
The most familiar form of radio receiver is a broadcast receiver, often just called a radio, which receives audio programs intended for public reception transmitted by local radio stations. The sound is reproduced either by a loudspeaker in the radio or an earphone which plugs into a jack on the radio. The radio requires electric power, provided either by batteries inside the radio or a power cord which plugs into an electric outlet. All radios have a volume control to adjust the loudness of the audio, and some type of "tuning" control to select the radio station to be received.
Modulation types
Modulation is the process of adding information to a radio carrier wave.
AM and FM
Two types of modulation are used in analog radio broadcasting systems; AM and FM.
In amplitude modulation (AM) the strength of the radio signal is varied by the audio signal. AM broadcasting is allowed in the AM broadcast bands which are between 148 and 283 kHz in the longwave range, and between 526 and 1706 kHz in the medium frequency (MF) range of the radio spectrum. AM broadcasting is also permitted in shortwave bands, between about 2.3 and 26 MHz, which are used for long distance international broadcasting.
In frequency modulation (FM) the frequency of the radio signal is varied slightly by the audio signal. FM broadcasting is permitted in the FM broadcast bands between about 65 and 108 MHz in the very high frequency (VHF) range. The exact frequency ranges vary somewhat in different countries.
FM stereo radio stations broadcast in stereophonic sound (stereo), transmitting two sound channels representing left and right microphones. A stereo receiver contains the additional circuits and parallel signal paths to reproduce the two separate channels. A monaural receiver, in contrast, only receives a single audio channel that is a combination (sum) of the left and right channels. While AM stereo transmitters and receivers exist, they have not achieved the popularity of FM stereo.
Most modern radios are able to receive both AM and FM radio stations, and have a switch to select which band to receive; these are called AM/FM radios.
Digital audio broadcasting (DAB)
Digital audio broadcasting (DAB) is an advanced radio technology which debuted in some countries in 1998 that transmits audio from terrestrial radio stations as a digital signal rather than an analog signal as AM and FM do. Its advantages are that DAB has the potential to provide higher quality sound than FM (although many stations do not choose to transmit at such high quality), has greater immunity to radio noise and interference, makes better use of scarce radio spectrum bandwidth, and provides advanced user features such as electronic program guide, sports commentaries, and image slideshows. Its disadvantage is that it is incompatible with previous radios so that a new DAB receiver must be purchased. As of 2017, 38 countries offer DAB, with 2,100 stations serving listening areas containing 420 million people. The United States and Canada have chosen not to implement DAB.
DAB radio stations work differently from AM or FM stations: a single DAB station transmits a wide 1,500 kHz bandwidth signal that carries from 9 to 12 channels from which the listener can choose. Broadcasters can transmit a channel at a range of different bit rates, so different channels can have different audio quality. In different countries DAB stations broadcast in either Band III (174–240 MHz) or L band (1.452–1.492 GHz).
Reception
The signal strength of radio waves decreases the farther they travel from the transmitter, so a radio station can only be received within a limited range of its transmitter. The range depends on the power of the transmitter, the sensitivity of the receiver, atmospheric and internal noise, as well as any geographical obstructions such as hills between transmitter and receiver. AM broadcast band radio waves travel as ground waves which follow the contour of the Earth, so AM radio stations can be reliably received at hundreds of miles distance. Due to their higher frequency, FM band radio signals cannot travel far beyond the visual horizon; limiting reception distance to about 40 miles (64 km), and can be blocked by hills between the transmitter and receiver. However FM radio is less susceptible to interference from radio noise (RFI, sferics, static) and has higher fidelity; better frequency response and less audio distortion, than AM. So in many countries serious music is only broadcast by FM stations, and AM stations specialize in radio news, talk radio, and sports. Like FM, DAB signals travel by line of sight so reception distances are limited by the visual horizon to about 30–40 miles (48–64 km).
Types of broadcast receiver
Radios are made in a range of styles and functions:
Table radio - A self-contained radio with speaker designed to sit on a table.
Clock radio - A bedside table radio that also includes an alarm clock. The alarm clock can be set to turn on the radio in the morning instead of an alarm, to wake the owner.
Tuner - A high fidelity AM/FM radio receiver in a component home audio system. It has no speakers but outputs an audio signal which is fed into the system and played through the system's speakers.
Portable radio - a radio powered by batteries that can be carried with a person. Radios are now often integrated with other audio sources in CD players and portable media players.
Boom box - a portable battery-powered high fidelity stereo sound system in the form of a box with a handle, which became popular during the mid 1970s.
Transistor radio - an older term for a portable pocket-sized broadcast radio receiver. Made possible by the invention of the transistor and developed in the 1950s, transistor radios were hugely popular during the 1960s and early 1970s, and changed the public's listening habits.
Car radio - An AM/FM radio integrated into the dashboard of a vehicle, used for entertainment while driving. Virtually all modern cars and trucks are equipped with radios, which usually also includes a CD player.
Satellite radio receiver - subscription radio receiver that receives audio programming from a direct broadcast satellite. The subscriber must pay a monthly fee. They are mostly designed as car radios.
Shortwave receiver - This is a broadcast radio that also receives the shortwave bands. It is used for shortwave listening.
AV receivers are a common component in a high-fidelity or home-theatre system; in addition to receiving radio programming, the receiver will also contain switching and amplifying functions to interconnect and control the other components of the system.
Other applications
Radio receivers are essential components of all systems that use radio. Besides the broadcast receivers described above, radio receivers are used in a huge variety of electronic systems in modern technology. They can be a separate piece of equipment (a radio), or a subsystem incorporated into other electronic devices. A transceiver is a transmitter and receiver combined in one unit. Below is a list of a few of the most common types, organized by function.
Broadcast television reception - Televisions receive a video signal representing a moving image, composed of a sequence of still images, and a synchronized audio signal representing the associated sound. The television channel received by a TV occupies a wider bandwidth than an audio signal, from 600 kHz to 6 MHz.
Terrestrial television receiver, broadcast television or just television (TV) - Televisions contains an integral receiver (TV tuner) which receives free broadcast television from local television stations on TV channels in the VHF and UHF bands.
Satellite TV receiver - a set-top box which receives subscription direct-broadcast satellite television, and displays it on an ordinary television. A rooftop satellite dish receives many channels all modulated on a Ku band microwave downlink signal from a geostationary direct broadcast satellite above the Earth, and the signal is converted to a lower intermediate frequency and transported to the box through a coaxial cable. The subscriber pays a monthly fee.
Two-way voice communications - A two-way radio is an audio transceiver, a receiver and transmitter in the same device, used for bidirectional person-to-person voice communication. The radio link may be half-duplex, using a single radio channel in which only one radio can transmit at a time. so different users take turns talking, pressing a push to talk button on their radio which switches on the transmitter. Or the radio link may be full duplex, a bidirectional link using two radio channels so both people can talk at the same time, as in a cell phone.
Cellphone - a portable telephone that is connected to the telephone network by radio signals exchanged with a local antenna called a cell tower. Cellphones have highly automated digital receivers working in the UHF and microwave band that receive the incoming side of the duplex voice channel, as well as a control channel that handles dialing calls and switching the phone between cell towers. They usually also have several other receivers that connect them with other networks: a WiFi modem, a bluetooth modem, and a GPS receiver. The cell tower has sophisticated multichannel receivers that receive the signals from many cell phones simultaneously.
Cordless phone - a landline telephone in which the handset is portable and communicates with the rest of the phone by a short range duplex radio link, instead of being attached by a cord. Both the handset and the base station have radio receivers operating in the UHF band that receive the short range bidirectional duplex radio link.
Citizens band radio - a two-way half-duplex radio operating in the 27 MHz band that can be used without a license. They are often installed in vehicles and used by truckers and delivery services.
Walkie-talkie - a handheld short range half-duplex two-way radio.
Scanner - a receiver that continuously monitors multiple frequencies or radio channels by stepping through the channels repeatedly, listening briefly to each channel for a transmission. When a transmitter is found the receiver stops at that channel. Scanners are used to monitor emergency police, fire, and ambulance frequencies, as well as other two way radio frequencies such as citizens band. Scanning capabilities have also become a standard feature in communications receivers, walkie-talkies, and other two-way radios.
Communications receiver or shortwave receiver - a general purpose audio receiver covering the LF, MF, shortwave (HF), and VHF bands. Used mostly with a separate shortwave transmitter for two-way voice communication in communication stations, amateur radio stations, and for shortwave listening.
One-way (simplex) voice communications
Wireless microphone receiver - these receive the short range signal from wireless microphones used onstage by musical artists, public speakers, and television personalities.
Baby monitor - this is a cribside appliance for parents of infants that transmits the baby's sounds to a receiver carried by the parents, so they can monitor the baby while they are in other parts of the house. Many baby monitors now have video cameras to show a picture of the baby.
Data communications
Wireless (WiFi) modem - an automated short range digital data transmitter and receiver on a portable wireless device that communicates by microwaves with a nearby access point, a router or gateway, connecting the portable device with a local computer network (WLAN) to exchange data with other devices.
Bluetooth modem - a very short range (up to 10 m) 2.4-2.83 GHz data transceiver on a portable wireless device used as a substitute for a wire or cable connection, mainly to exchange files between portable devices and connect cellphones and music players with wireless earphones.
Microwave relay - a long-distance high bandwidth point-to-point data transmission link consisting of a dish antenna and transmitter that transmits a beam of microwaves to another dish antenna and receiver. Since the antennas must be in line-of-sight, distances are limited by the visual horizon to 30–40 miles. Microwave links are used for private business data, wide area computer networks (WANs), and by telephone companies to transmit distance phone calls and television signals between cities.
Satellite communications - Communication satellites are used for data transmission between widely separated points on Earth. Other satellites are used for search and rescue, remote sensing, weather reporting and scientific research. Radio communication with satellites and spacecraft can involve very long path lengths, from 35,786 km (22,236 mi) for geosynchronous satellites to billions of kilometers for interplanetary spacecraft. This and the limited power available to a spacecraft transmitter mean very sensitive receivers must be used.
Satellite transponder - A receiver and transmitter in a communications satellite that receives multiple data channels carrying long-distance telephone calls, television signals. or internet traffic on a microwave uplink signal from a satellite ground station and retransmits the data to another ground station on a different downlink frequency. In a direct broadcast satellite the transponder broadcasts a stronger signal directly to satellite radio or satellite television receivers in consumer's homes.
Satellite ground station receiver - communication satellite ground stations receive data from communications satellites orbiting the Earth. Deep space ground stations such as those of the NASA Deep Space Network receive the weak signals from distant scientific spacecraft on interplanetary exploration missions. These have large dish antennas around 85 ft (25 m) in diameter, and extremely sensitive radio receivers similar to radio telescopes. The RF front end of the receiver is often cryogenically cooled to −195.79 °C (−320 °F) by liquid nitrogen to reduce radio noise in the circuit.
Remote control - Remote control receivers receive digital commands that control a device, which may be as complex as a space vehicle or unmanned aerial vehicle, or as simple as a garage door opener. Remote control systems often also incorporate a telemetry channel to transmit data on the state of the controlled device back to the controller. Radio controlled model and other models include multichannel receivers in model cars, boats, airplanes, and helicopters. A short-range radio system is used in keyless entry systems.
Radiolocation - This is the use of radio waves to determine the location or direction of an object.
Radar - a device that transmits a narrow beam of microwaves which reflect from a target back to a receiver, used to locate objects such as aircraft, spacecraft, missiles, ships or land vehicles. The reflected waves from the target are received by a receiver usually connected to the same antenna, indicating the direction to the target. Widely used in aviation, shipping, navigation, weather forecasting, space flight, vehicle collision avoidance systems, and the military.
Global navigation satellite system (GNSS) receiver, such as a GPS receiver used with the US Global Positioning System - the most widely used electronic navigation device. An automated digital receiver that receives simultaneous data signals from several satellites in low Earth orbit. Using extremely precise time signals it calculates the distance to the satellites, and from this the receiver's location on Earth. GNSS receivers are sold as portable devices, and are also incorporated in cell phones, vehicles and weapons, even artillery shells.
VOR receiver - navigational instrument on an aircraft that uses the VHF signal from VOR navigational beacons between 108 and 117.95 MHz to determine the direction to the beacon very accurately, for air navigation.
Wild animal tracking receiver - a receiver with a directional antenna used to track wild animals which have been tagged with a small VHF transmitter, for wildlife management purposes.
Other
Telemetry receiver - this receives data signals to monitor conditions of a process. Telemetry is used to monitor missile and spacecraft in flight, well logging during oil and gas drilling, and unmanned scientific instruments in remote locations.
Measuring receiver - a calibrated, laboratory grade radio receiver used to measure the characteristics of radio signals. Often incorporates a spectrum analyzer.
Radio telescope - specialized antenna and radio receiver used as a scientific instrument to study weak radio waves from astronomical radio sources in space like stars, nebulas and galaxies in radio astronomy. They are the most sensitive radio receivers that exist, having large parabolic (dish) antennas up to 500 meters in diameter, and extremely sensitive radio circuits. The RF front end of the receiver is often cryogenically cooled by liquid nitrogen to reduce radio noise.
How receivers work
A radio receiver is connected to an antenna which converts some of the energy from the incoming radio wave into a tiny radio frequency AC voltage which is applied to the receiver's input. An antenna typically consists of an arrangement of metal conductors. The oscillating electric and magnetic fields of the radio wave push the electrons in the antenna back and forth, creating an oscillating voltage.
The antenna may be enclosed inside the receiver's case, as with the ferrite loop antennas of AM radios and the flat inverted F antenna of cell phones; attached to the outside of the receiver, as with whip antennas used on FM radios, or mounted separately and connected to the receiver by a cable, as with rooftop television antennas and satellite dishes.
Main functions of a receiver
Practical radio receivers perform three basic functions on the signal from the antenna: filtering, amplification, and demodulation:
Bandpass filtering
Radio waves from many transmitters pass through the air simultaneously without interfering with each other and are received by the antenna. These can be separated in the receiver because they have different frequencies; that is, the radio wave from each transmitter oscillates at a different rate. To separate out the desired radio signal, the bandpass filter allows the frequency of the desired radio transmission to pass through, and blocks signals at all other frequencies.
The bandpass filter consists of one or more resonant circuits (tuned circuits). The resonant circuit is connected between the antenna input and ground. When the incoming radio signal is at the resonant frequency, the resonant circuit has high impedance and the radio signal from the desired station is passed on to the following stages of the receiver. At all other frequencies the resonant circuit has low impedance, so signals at these frequencies are conducted to ground.
Bandwidth and selectivity: See graphs. The information (modulation) in a radio transmission is contained in two narrow bands of frequencies called sidebands (SB) on either side of the carrier frequency (C), so the filter has to pass a band of frequencies, not just a single frequency. The band of frequencies received by the receiver is called its passband (PB), and the width of the passband in kilohertz is called the bandwidth (BW). The bandwidth of the filter must be wide enough to allow the sidebands through without distortion, but narrow enough to block any interfering transmissions on adjacent frequencies (such as S2 in the diagram). The ability of the receiver to reject unwanted radio stations near in frequency to the desired station is an important parameter called selectivity determined by the filter. In modern receivers quartz crystal, ceramic resonator, or surface acoustic wave (SAW) filters are often used which have sharper selectivity compared to networks of capacitor-inductor tuned circuits.
Tuning: To select a particular station the radio is "tuned" to the frequency of the desired transmitter. The radio has a dial or digital display showing the frequency it is tuned to. Tuning is adjusting the frequency of the receiver's passband to the frequency of the desired radio transmitter. Turning the tuning knob changes the resonant frequency of the tuned circuit. When the resonant frequency is equal to the radio transmitter's frequency the tuned circuit oscillates in sympathy, passing the signal on to the rest of the receiver.
Amplification
The power of the radio waves picked up by a receiving antenna decreases with the square of its distance from the transmitting antenna. Even with the powerful transmitters used in radio broadcasting stations, if the receiver is more than a few miles from the transmitter the power intercepted by the receiver's antenna is very small, perhaps as low as picowatts or femtowatts. To increase the power of the recovered signal, an amplifier circuit uses electric power from batteries or the wall plug to increase the amplitude (voltage or current) of the signal. In most modern receivers, the electronic components which do the actual amplifying are transistors.
Receivers usually have several stages of amplification: the radio signal from the bandpass filter is amplified to make it powerful enough to drive the demodulator, then the audio signal from the demodulator is amplified to make it powerful enough to operate the speaker. The degree of amplification of a radio receiver is measured by a parameter called its sensitivity, which is the minimum signal strength of a station at the antenna, measured in microvolts, necessary to receive the signal clearly, with a certain signal-to-noise ratio. Since it is easy to amplify a signal to any desired degree, the limit to the sensitivity of many modern receivers is not the degree of amplification but random electronic noise present in the circuit, which can drown out a weak radio signal.
Demodulation
After the radio signal is filtered and amplified, the receiver must extract the information-bearing modulation signal from the modulated radio frequency carrier wave. This is done by a circuit called a demodulator (detector). Each type of modulation requires a different type of demodulator
an AM receiver that receives an (amplitude modulated) radio signal uses an AM demodulator
an FM receiver that receives a frequency modulated signal uses an FM demodulator
an FSK receiver which receives frequency-shift keying (used to transmit digital data in wireless devices) uses an FSK demodulator
Many other types of modulation are also used for specialized purposes.
The modulation signal output by the demodulator is usually amplified to increase its strength, then the information is converted back to a human-usable form by some type of transducer. An audio signal, representing sound, as in a broadcast radio, is converted to sound waves by an earphone or loudspeaker. A video signal, representing moving images, as in a television receiver, is converted to light by a display. Digital data, as in a wireless modem, is applied as input to a computer or microprocessor, which interacts with human users.
AM demodulation
The easiest type of demodulation to understand is AM demodulation, used in AM radios to recover the audio modulation signal, which represents sound and is converted to sound waves by the radio's speaker. It is accomplished by a circuit called an envelope detector (see circuit), consisting of a diode (D) with a bypass capacitor (C) across its output.
See graphs. The amplitude modulated radio signal from the tuned circuit is shown at (A). The rapid oscillations are the radio frequency carrier wave. The audio signal (the sound) is contained in the slow variations (modulation) of the amplitude (size) of the waves. If it was applied directly to the speaker, this signal cannot be converted to sound, because the audio excursions are the same on both sides of the axis, averaging out to zero, which would result in no net motion of the speaker's diaphragm. (B) When this signal is applied as input VI to the detector, the diode (D) conducts current in one direction but not in the opposite direction, thus allowing through pulses of current on only one side of the signal. In other words, it rectifies the AC current to a pulsing DC current. The resulting voltage VO applied to the load RL no longer averages zero; its peak value is proportional to the audio signal. (C) The bypass capacitor (C) is charged up by the current pulses from the diode, and its voltage follows the peaks of the pulses, the envelope of the audio wave. It performs a smoothing (low pass filtering) function, removing the radio frequency carrier pulses, leaving the low frequency audio signal to pass through the load RL. The audio signal is amplified and applied to earphones or a speaker.
Tuned radio frequency (TRF) receiver
In the simplest type of radio receiver, called a tuned radio frequency (TRF) receiver, the three functions above are performed consecutively: (1) the mix of radio signals from the antenna is filtered to extract the signal of the desired transmitter; (2) this oscillating voltage is sent through a radio frequency (RF) amplifier to increase its strength to a level sufficient to drive the demodulator; (3) the demodulator recovers the modulation signal (which in broadcast receivers is an audio signal, a voltage oscillating at an audio frequency rate representing the sound waves) from the modulated radio carrier wave; (4) the modulation signal is amplified further in an audio amplifier, then is applied to a loudspeaker or earphone to convert it to sound waves.
Although the TRF receiver is used in a few applications, it has practical disadvantages which make it inferior to the superheterodyne receiver below, which is used in most applications. The drawbacks stem from the fact that in the TRF the filtering, amplification, and demodulation are done at the high frequency of the incoming radio signal. The bandwidth of a filter increases with its center frequency, so as the TRF receiver is tuned to different frequencies its bandwidth varies. Most important, the increasing congestion of the radio spectrum requires that radio channels be spaced very close together in frequency. It is extremely difficult to build filters operating at radio frequencies that have a narrow enough bandwidth to separate closely spaced radio stations. TRF receivers typically must have many cascaded tuning stages to achieve adequate selectivity. The Advantages section below describes how the superheterodyne receiver overcomes these problems.
The superheterodyne design
The superheterodyne receiver, invented in 1918 by Edwin Armstrong is the design used in almost all modern receivers except a few specialized applications.
In the superheterodyne, the radio frequency signal from the antenna is shifted down to a lower "intermediate frequency" (IF), before it is processed. The incoming radio frequency signal from the antenna is mixed with an unmodulated signal generated by a local oscillator (LO) in the receiver. The mixing is done in a nonlinear circuit called the "mixer". The result at the output of the mixer is a heterodyne or beat frequency at the difference between these two frequencies. The process is similar to the way two musical notes at different frequencies played together produce a beat note. This lower frequency is called the intermediate frequency (IF). The IF signal also has the modulation sidebands that carry the information that was present in the original RF signal. The IF signal passes through filter and amplifier stages, then is demodulated in a detector, recovering the original modulation.
The receiver is easy to tune; to receive a different frequency it is only necessary to change the local oscillator frequency. The stages of the receiver after the mixer operates at the fixed intermediate frequency (IF) so the IF bandpass filter does not have to be adjusted to different frequencies. The fixed frequency allows modern receivers to use sophisticated quartz crystal, ceramic resonator, or surface acoustic wave (SAW) IF filters that have very high Q factors, to improve selectivity.
The RF filter on the front end of the receiver is needed to prevent interference from any radio signals at the image frequency. Without an input filter the receiver can receive incoming RF signals at two different frequencies,. The receiver can be designed to receive on either of these two frequencies; if the receiver is designed to receive on one, any other radio station or radio noise on the other frequency may pass through and interfere with the desired signal. A single tunable RF filter stage rejects the image frequency; since these are relatively far from the desired frequency, a simple filter provides adequate rejection. Rejection of interfering signals much closer in frequency to the desired signal is handled by the multiple sharply-tuned stages of the intermediate frequency amplifiers, which do not need to change their tuning. This filter does not need great selectivity, but as the receiver is tuned to different frequencies it must "track" in tandem with the local oscillator. The RF filter also serves to limit the bandwidth applied to the RF amplifier, preventing it from being overloaded by strong out-of-band signals.
To achieve both good image rejection and selectivity, many modern superhet receivers use two intermediate frequencies; this is called a dual-conversion or double-conversion superheterodyne. The incoming RF signal is first mixed with one local oscillator signal in the first mixer to convert it to a high IF frequency, to allow efficient filtering out of the image frequency, then this first IF is mixed with a second local oscillator signal in a second mixer to convert it to a low IF frequency for good bandpass filtering. Some receivers even use triple-conversion.
At the cost of the extra stages, the superheterodyne receiver provides the advantage of greater selectivity than can be achieved with a TRF design. Where very high frequencies are in use, only the initial stage of the receiver needs to operate at the highest frequencies; the remaining stages can provide much of the receiver gain at lower frequencies which may be easier to manage. Tuning is simplified compared to a multi-stage TRF design, and only two stages need to track over the tuning range. The total amplification of the receiver is divided between three amplifiers at different frequencies; the RF, IF, and audio amplifier. This reduces problems with feedback and parasitic oscillations that are encountered in receivers where most of the amplifier stages operate at the same frequency, as in the TRF receiver.
The most important advantage is that better selectivity can be achieved by doing the filtering at the lower intermediate frequency. One of the most important parameters of a receiver is its bandwidth, the band of frequencies it accepts. In order to reject nearby interfering stations or noise, a narrow bandwidth is required. In all known filtering techniques, the bandwidth of the filter increases in proportion with the frequency, so by performing the filtering at the lower , rather than the frequency of the original radio signal , a narrower bandwidth can be achieved. Modern FM and television broadcasting, cellphones and other communications services, with their narrow channel widths, would be impossible without the superheterodyne.
Automatic gain control (AGC)
The signal strength (amplitude) of the radio signal from a receiver's antenna varies drastically, by orders of magnitude, depending on how far away the radio transmitter is, how powerful it is, and propagation conditions along the path of the radio waves. The strength of the signal received from a given transmitter varies with time due to changing propagation conditions of the path through which the radio wave passes, such as multipath interference; this is called fading. In an AM receiver, the amplitude of the audio signal from the detector, and the sound volume, is proportional to the amplitude of the radio signal, so fading causes variations in the volume. In addition as the receiver is tuned between strong and weak stations, the volume of the sound from the speaker would vary drastically. Without an automatic system to handle it, in an AM receiver, constant adjustment of the volume control would be required.
With other types of modulation like FM or FSK the amplitude of the modulation does not vary with the radio signal strength, but in all types the demodulator requires a certain range of signal amplitude to operate properly. Insufficient signal amplitude will cause an increase of noise in the demodulator, while excessive signal amplitude will cause amplifier stages to overload (saturate), causing distortion (clipping) of the signal.
Therefore, almost all modern receivers include a feedback control system which monitors the average level of the radio signal at the detector, and adjusts the gain of the amplifiers to give the optimum signal level for demodulation. This is called automatic gain control (AGC). AGC can be compared to the dark adaptation mechanism in the human eye; on entering a dark room the gain of the eye is increased by the iris opening. In its simplest form, an AGC system consists of a rectifier which converts the RF signal to a varying DC level, a lowpass filter to smooth the variations and produce an average level. This is applied as a control signal to an earlier amplifier stage, to control its gain. In a superheterodyne receiver, AGC is usually applied to the IF amplifier, and there may be a second AGC loop to control the gain of the RF amplifier to prevent it from overloading, too.
In certain receiver designs such as modern digital receivers, a related problem is DC offset of the signal. This is corrected by a similar feedback system.
History
Radio waves were first identified in German physicist Heinrich Hertz's 1887 series of experiments to prove James Clerk Maxwell's electromagnetic theory. Hertz used spark-excited dipole antennas to generate the waves and micrometer spark gaps attached to dipole and loop antennas to detect them. These primitive devices are more accurately described as radio wave sensors, not "receivers", as they could only detect radio waves within about 100 feet of the transmitter, and were not used for communication but instead as laboratory instruments in scientific experiments.
Spark era
The first radio transmitters, used during the initial three decades of radio from 1887 to 1917, a period called the spark era, were spark gap transmitters which generated radio waves by discharging a capacitance through an electric spark. Each spark produced a transient pulse of radio waves which decreased rapidly to zero. These damped waves could not be modulated to carry sound, as in modern AM and FM transmission. So spark transmitters could not transmit sound, and instead transmitted information by radiotelegraphy. The transmitter was switched on and off rapidly by the operator using a telegraph key, creating different length pulses of damped radio waves ("dots" and "dashes") to spell out text messages in Morse code.
Therefore, the first radio receivers did not have to extract an audio signal from the radio wave like modern receivers, but just detected the presence of the radio signal, and produced a sound during the "dots" and "dashes". The device which did this was called a "detector". Since there were no amplifying devices at this time, the sensitivity of the receiver mostly depended on the detector. Many different detector devices were tried. Radio receivers during the spark era consisted of these parts:
An antenna, to intercept the radio waves and convert them to tiny radio frequency electric currents.
A tuned circuit, consisting of a capacitor connected to a coil of wire, which acted as a bandpass filter to select the desired signal out of all the signals picked up by the antenna. Either the capacitor or coil was adjustable to tune the receiver to the frequency of different transmitters. The earliest receivers, before 1897, did not have tuned circuits, they responded to all radio signals picked up by their antennas, so they had little frequency-discriminating ability and received any transmitter in their vicinity. Most receivers used a pair of tuned circuits with their coils magnetically coupled, called a resonant transformer (oscillation transformer) or "loose coupler".
A detector, which produced a pulse of DC current for each damped wave received.
An indicating device such as an earphone, which converted the pulses of current into sound waves. The first receivers used an electric bell instead. Later receivers in commercial wireless systems used a Morse siphon recorder, which consisted of an ink pen mounted on a needle swung by an electromagnet (a galvanometer) which drew a line on a moving paper tape. Each string of damped waves constituting a Morse "dot" or "dash" caused the needle to swing over, creating a displacement of the line, which could be read off the tape. With such an automated receiver a radio operator didn't have to continuously monitor the receiver.
The signal from the spark gap transmitter consisted of damped waves repeated at an audio frequency rate, from 120 to perhaps 4000 per second, so in the earphone the signal sounded like a musical tone or buzz, and the Morse code "dots" and "dashes" sounded like beeps.
The first person to use radio waves for communication was Guglielmo Marconi. Marconi invented little himself, but he was first to believe that radio could be a practical communication medium, and singlehandedly developed the first wireless telegraphy systems, transmitters and receivers, beginning in 1894–5, mainly by improving technology invented by others.
Oliver Lodge and Alexander Popov were also experimenting with similar radio wave receiving apparatus at the same time in 1894–5, but they are not known to have transmitted Morse code during this period, just strings of random pulses. Therefore, Marconi is usually given credit for building the first radio receivers.
Coherer receiver
The first radio receivers invented by Marconi, Oliver Lodge and Alexander Popov in 1894-5 used a primitive radio wave detector called a coherer, invented in 1890 by Edouard Branly and improved by Lodge and Marconi. The coherer was a glass tube with metal electrodes at each end, with loose metal powder between the electrodes. It initially had a high resistance. When a radio frequency voltage was applied to the electrodes, its resistance dropped and it conducted electricity. In the receiver the coherer was connected directly between the antenna and ground. In addition to the antenna, the coherer was connected in a DC circuit with a battery and relay. When the incoming radio wave reduced the resistance of the coherer, the current from the battery flowed through it, turning on the relay to ring a bell or make a mark on a paper tape in a siphon recorder. In order to restore the coherer to its previous nonconducting state to receive the next pulse of radio waves, it had to be tapped mechanically to disturb the metal particles. This was done by a "decoherer", a clapper which struck the tube, operated by an electromagnet powered by the relay.
The coherer is an obscure antique device, and even today there is some uncertainty about the exact physical mechanism by which the various types worked. However it can be seen that it was essentially a bistable device, a radio-wave-operated switch, and so it did not have the ability to rectify the radio wave to demodulate the later amplitude modulated (AM) radio transmissions that carried sound.
In a long series of experiments Marconi found that by using an elevated wire monopole antenna instead of Hertz's dipole antennas he could transmit longer distances, beyond the curve of the Earth, demonstrating that radio was not just a laboratory curiosity but a commercially viable communication method. This culminated in his historic transatlantic wireless transmission on December 12, 1901 from Poldhu, Cornwall to St. John's, Newfoundland, a distance of 3500 km (2200 miles), which was received by a coherer. However the usual range of coherer receivers even with the powerful transmitters of this era was limited to a few hundred miles.
The coherer remained the dominant detector used in early radio receivers for about 10 years, until replaced by the crystal detector and electrolytic detector around 1907. In spite of much development work, it was a very crude unsatisfactory device. It was not very sensitive, and also responded to impulsive radio noise (RFI), such as nearby lights being switched on or off, as well as to the intended signal. Due to the cumbersome mechanical "tapping back" mechanism it was limited to a data rate of about 12-15 words per minute of Morse code, while a spark-gap transmitter could transmit Morse at up to 100 WPM with a paper tape machine.
Other early detectors
The coherer's poor performance motivated a great deal of research to find better radio wave detectors, and many were invented. Some strange devices were tried; researchers experimented with using frog legs and even a human brain from a cadaver as detectors.
By the first years of the 20th century, experiments in using amplitude modulation (AM) to transmit sound by radio (radiotelephony) were being made. So a second goal of detector research was to find detectors that could demodulate an AM signal, extracting the audio (sound) signal from the radio carrier wave. It was found by trial and error that this could be done by a detector that exhibited "asymmetrical conduction"; a device that conducted current in one direction but not in the other. This rectified the alternating current radio signal, removing one side of the carrier cycles, leaving a pulsing DC current whose amplitude varied with the audio modulation signal. When applied to an earphone this would reproduce the transmitted sound.
Below are the detectors that saw wide use before vacuum tubes took over around 1920. All except the magnetic detector could rectify and therefore receive AM signals:
Magnetic detector - Developed by Guglielmo Marconi in 1902 from a method invented by Ernest Rutherford and used by the Marconi Co. until it adopted the Audion vacuum tube around 1912, this was a mechanical device consisting of an endless band of iron wires which passed between two pulleys turned by a windup mechanism. The iron wires passed through a coil of fine wire attached to the antenna, in a magnetic field created by two magnets. The hysteresis of the iron induced a pulse of current in a sensor coil each time a radio signal passed through the exciting coil. The magnetic detector was used on shipboard receivers due to its insensitivity to vibration. One was part of the wireless station of the RMS Titanic which was used to summon help during its famous 15 April 1912 sinking.
Electrolytic detector ("liquid barretter") - Invented in 1903 by Reginald Fessenden, this consisted of a thin silver-plated platinum wire enclosed in a glass rod, with the tip making contact with the surface of a cup of nitric acid. The electrolytic action caused current to be conducted in only one direction. The detector was used until about 1910. Electrolytic detectors that Fessenden had installed on US Navy ships received the first AM radio broadcast on Christmas Eve, 1906, an evening of Christmas music transmitted by Fessenden using his new alternator transmitter.
Thermionic diode (Fleming valve) - The first vacuum tube, invented in 1904 by John Ambrose Fleming, consisted of an evacuated glass bulb containing two electrodes: a cathode consisting of a hot wire filament similar to that in an incandescent light bulb, and a metal plate anode. Fleming, a consultant to Marconi, invented the valve as a more sensitive detector for transatlantic wireless reception. The filament was heated by a separate current through it and emitted electrons into the tube by thermionic emission, an effect which had been discovered by Thomas Edison. The radio signal was applied between the cathode and anode. When the anode was positive, a current of electrons flowed from the cathode to the anode, but when the anode was negative the electrons were repelled and no current flowed. The Fleming valve was used to a limited extent but was not popular because it was expensive, had limited filament life, and was not as sensitive as electrolytic or crystal detectors.
Crystal detector (cat's whisker detector) - invented around 1904-1906 by Henry H. C. Dunwoody and Greenleaf Whittier Pickard, based on Karl Ferdinand Braun's 1874 discovery of "asymmetrical conduction" in crystals, these were the most successful and widely used detectors before the vacuum tube era and gave their name to the crystal radio receiver (below). One of the first semiconductor electronic devices, a crystal detector consisted of a pea-sized pebble of a crystalline semiconductor mineral such as galena (lead sulfide) whose surface was touched by a fine springy metal wire mounted on an adjustable arm. This functioned as a primitive diode which conducted electric current in only one direction. In addition to their use in crystal radios, carborundum crystal detectors were also used in some early vacuum tube radios because they were more sensitive than the vacuum tube grid-leak detector.
During the vacuum tube era, the term "detector" changed from meaning a radio wave detector to mean a demodulator, a device that could extract the audio modulation signal from a radio signal. That is its meaning today.
Tuning
"Tuning" means adjusting the frequency of the receiver to the frequency of the desired radio transmission. The first receivers had no tuned circuit, the detector was connected directly between the antenna and ground. Due to the lack of any frequency selective components besides the antenna, the bandwidth of the receiver was equal to the broad bandwidth of the antenna. This was acceptable and even necessary because the first Hertzian spark transmitters also lacked a tuned circuit. Due to the impulsive nature of the spark, the energy of the radio waves was spread over a very wide band of frequencies. To receive enough energy from this wideband signal the receiver had to have a wide bandwidth also.
When more than one spark transmitter was radiating in a given area, their frequencies overlapped, so their signals interfered with each other, resulting in garbled reception. Some method was needed to allow the receiver to select which transmitter's signal to receive.<ref name="Aitken4">[https://books.google.com/books?id=Mez_AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA31&dq=tesla Aitken, Hugh 2014 Syntony and Spark: The origins of radio, p. 31-48]</ref> Multiple wavelengths produced by a poorly tuned transmitter caused the signal to "dampen", or die down, greatly reducing the power and range of transmission. In 1892, William Crookes gave a lecture on radio in which he suggested using resonance to reduce the bandwidth of transmitters and receivers. Different transmitters could then be "tuned" to transmit on different frequencies so they didn't interfere.Aitken, Hugh 2014 Syntony and Spark: The origins of radio, p. 70-73]</ref> The receiver would also have a resonant circuit (tuned circuit), and could receive a particular transmission by "tuning" its resonant circuit to the same frequency as the transmitter, analogously to tuning a musical instrument to resonance with another. This is the system used in all modern radio.
Tuning was used in Hertz's original experimentsCecil Lewis Fortescue, Wireless Telegraphy, Read Books Ltd - 2013, chapter XIII and practical application of tuning showed up in the early to mid 1890s in wireless systems not specifically designed for radio communication. Nikola Tesla's March 1893 lecture demonstrating the wireless transmission of power for lighting (mainly by what he thought was ground conduction) included elements of tuning. The wireless lighting system consisted of a spark-excited grounded resonant transformer with a wire antenna which transmitted power across the room to another resonant transformer tuned to the frequency of the transmitter, which lighted a Geissler tube. Use of tuning in free space "Hertzian waves" (radio) was explained and demonstrated in Oliver Lodge's 1894 lectures on Hertz's work.Peter Rowlands, Oliver Lodge and the Liverpool Physical Society, Liverpool University Press - 1990, page 117 At the time Lodge was demonstrating the physics and optical qualities of radio waves instead of attempting to build a communication system but he would go on to develop methods (patented in 1897) of tuning radio (what he called "syntony"), including using variable inductance to tune antennas.Jed Z. Buchwald, Scientific Credibility and Technical Standards in 19th and early 20th century Germany and Britain, Springer Science & Business Media - 1996, pages 158-159Thomas H. Lee, The Design of CMOS Radio-Frequency Integrated Circuits, Cambridge University Press - 2004, page 35
By 1897 the advantages of tuned systems had become clear, and Marconi and the other wireless researchers had incorporated tuned circuits, consisting of capacitors and inductors connected together, into their transmitters and receivers. The tuned circuit acted like an electrical analog of a tuning fork. It had a high impedance at its resonant frequency, but a low impedance at all other frequencies. Connected between the antenna and the detector it served as a bandpass filter, passing the signal of the desired station to the detector, but routing all other signals to ground. The frequency of the station received f was determined by the capacitance C and inductance L in the tuned circuit:
Inductive coupling
In order to reject radio noise and interference from other transmitters near in frequency to the desired station, the bandpass filter (tuned circuit) in the receiver has to have a narrow bandwidth, allowing only a narrow band of frequencies through. The form of bandpass filter that was used in the first receivers, which has continued to be used in receivers until recently, was the double-tuned inductively-coupled circuit, or resonant transformer (oscillation transformer or RF transformer).McNicol, Donald (1946) Radio's Conquest of Space, p. 242-253 The antenna and ground were connected to a coil of wire, which was magnetically coupled to a second coil with a capacitor across it, which was connected to the detector. The RF alternating current from the antenna through the primary coil created a magnetic field which induced a current in the secondary coil which fed the detector. Both primary and secondary were tuned circuits; the primary coil resonated with the capacitance of the antenna, while the secondary coil resonated with the capacitor across it. Both were adjusted to the same resonant frequency.
This circuit had two advantages. One was that by using the correct turns ratio, the impedance of the antenna could be matched to the impedance of the receiver, to transfer maximum RF power to the receiver. Impedance matching was important to achieve maximum receiving range in the unamplified receivers of this era. The coils usually had taps which could be selected by a multiposition switch. The second advantage was that due to "loose coupling" it had a much narrower bandwidth than a simple tuned circuit, and the bandwidth could be adjusted. Unlike in an ordinary transformer, the two coils were "loosely coupled"; separated physically so not all the magnetic field from the primary passed through the secondary, reducing the mutual inductance. This gave the coupled tuned circuits much "sharper" tuning, a narrower bandwidth than a single tuned circuit. In the "Navy type" loose coupler (see picture), widely used with crystal receivers, the smaller secondary coil was mounted on a rack which could be slid in or out of the primary coil, to vary the mutual inductance between the coils. When the operator encountered an interfering signal at a nearby frequency, the secondary could be slid further out of the primary, reducing the coupling, which narrowed the bandwidth, rejecting the interfering signal. A disadvantage was that all three adjustments in the loose coupler - primary tuning, secondary tuning, and coupling - were interactive; changing one changed the others. So tuning in a new station was a process of successive adjustments.
Selectivity became more important as spark transmitters were replaced by continuous wave transmitters which transmitted on a narrow band of frequencies, and broadcasting led to a proliferation of closely spaced radio stations crowding the radio spectrum. Resonant transformers continued to be used as the bandpass filter in vacuum tube radios, and new forms such as the variometer were invented. Another advantage of the double-tuned transformer for AM reception was that when properly adjusted it had a "flat top" frequency response curve as opposed to the "peaked" response of a single tuned circuit. This allowed it to pass the sidebands of AM modulation on either side of the carrier with little distortion, unlike a single tuned circuit which attenuated the higher audio frequencies. Until recently the bandpass filters in the superheterodyne circuit used in all modern receivers were made with resonant transformers, called IF transformers.
Patent disputes
Marconi's initial radio system had relatively poor tuning limiting its range and adding to interference.Hong, Sungook (2001). Wireless: From Marconi's Black-box to the Audion. MIT Press. pp. 91-99 To overcome this drawback he developed a four circuit system with tuned coils in "syntony" at both the transmitters and receivers. His 1900 British #7,777 (four sevens) patent for tuning filed in April 1900 and granted a year later opened the door to patents disputes since it infringed on the Syntonic patents of Oliver Lodge, first filed in May 1897, as well as patents filed by Ferdinand Braun. Marconi was able to obtain patents in the UK and France but the US version of his tuned four circuit patent, filed in November 1900, was initially rejected based on it being anticipated by Lodge's tuning system, and refiled versions were rejected because of the prior patents by Braun, and Lodge.Howard B. Rockman, Intellectual Property Law for Engineers and Scientists, John Wiley & Sons - 2004, page 198 A further clarification and re-submission was rejected because it infringed on parts of two prior patents Tesla had obtained for his wireless power transmission system.U.S. Patent No. 649,621, 3/15/1900, and part of 645,576, 3/20/1900 (filed Sept. 2, 1897) Marconi Wireless Telegraph Co. of America v. United States. United States v. Marconi Wireless Telegraph Co. of America. 320 U.S. 1 (63 S.Ct. 1393, 87 L.Ed. 1731) Marconi's lawyers managed to get a resubmitted patent reconsidered by another examiner who initially rejected it due to a pre-existing John Stone Stone tuning patent, but it was finally approved it in June 1904 based on it having a unique system of variable inductance tuning that was different from StoneUS Patent no. 714,756, John Stone Stone Method of electric signaling, filed: February 8, 1900, granted: December 2, 1902Marconi Wireless Telegraph Co. of America v. United States. United States v. Marconi Wireless Telegraph Co. of America. 320 U.S. 1 (63 S.Ct. 1393, 87 L.Ed. 1731) who tuned by varying the length of the antenna. When Lodge's Syntonic patent was extended in 1911 for another 7 years the Marconi Company agreed to settle that patent dispute, purchasing Lodge's radio company with its patent in 1912, giving them the priority patent they needed.Hong, Sungook (2001). Wireless: From Marconi's Black-box to the Audion. MIT Press. p. 48Susan J. Douglas, Listening in: Radio and the American Imagination, U of Minnesota Press, page 50 Other patent disputes would crop up over the years including a 1943 US Supreme Court ruling on the Marconi Companies ability to sue the US government over patent infringement during World War I. The Court rejected the Marconi Companies suit saying they could not sue for patent infringement when their own patents did not seem to have priority over the patents of Lodge, Stone, and Tesla.
Crystal radio receiver
Although it was invented in 1904 in the wireless telegraphy era, the crystal radio receiver could also rectify AM transmissions and served as a bridge to the broadcast era. In addition to being the main type used in commercial stations during the wireless telegraphy era, it was the first receiver to be used widely by the public. During the first two decades of the 20th century, as radio stations began to transmit in AM voice (radiotelephony) instead of radiotelegraphy, radio listening became a popular hobby, and the crystal was the simplest, cheapest detector. The millions of people who purchased or homemade these inexpensive reliable receivers created the mass listening audience for the first radio broadcasts, which began around 1920. By the late 1920s the crystal receiver was superseded by vacuum tube receivers and became commercially obsolete. However it continued to be used by youth and the poor until World War II. Today these simple radio receivers are constructed by students as educational science projects.
The crystal radio used a cat's whisker detector, invented by Harrison H. C. Dunwoody and Greenleaf Whittier Pickard in 1904, to extract the audio from the radio frequency signal. It consisted of a mineral crystal, usually galena, which was lightly touched by a fine springy wire (the "cat whisker") on an adjustable arm. The resulting crude semiconductor junction functioned as a Schottky barrier diode, conducting in only one direction. Only particular sites on the crystal surface worked as detector junctions, and the junction could be disrupted by the slightest vibration. So a usable site was found by trial and error before each use; the operator would drag the cat's whisker across the crystal until the radio began functioning. Frederick Seitz, a later semiconductor researcher, wrote:
Such variability, bordering on what seemed the mystical, plagued the early history of crystal detectors and caused many of the vacuum tube experts of a later generation to regard the art of crystal rectification as being close to disreputable.
The crystal radio was unamplified and ran off the power of the radio waves received from the radio station, so it had to be listened to with earphones; it could not drive a loudspeaker. It required a long wire antenna, and its sensitivity depended on how large the antenna was. During the wireless era it was used in commercial and military longwave stations with huge antennas to receive long distance radiotelegraphy traffic, even including transatlantic traffic. However, when used to receive broadcast stations a typical home crystal set had a more limited range of about 25 miles. In sophisticated crystal radios the "loose coupler" inductively coupled tuned circuit was used to increase the Q. However it still had poor selectivity compared to modern receivers.
Heterodyne receiver and BFO
Beginning around 1905 continuous wave (CW) transmitters began to replace spark transmitters for radiotelegraphy because they had much greater range. The first continuous wave transmitters were the Poulsen arc invented in 1904 and the Alexanderson alternator developed 1906–1910, which were replaced by vacuum tube transmitters beginning around 1920.
The continuous wave radiotelegraphy signals produced by these transmitters required a different method of reception.Phillips, Vivian 1980 Early Radio Wave Detectors, p. 172-185 The radiotelegraphy signals produced by spark gap transmitters consisted of strings of damped waves repeating at an audio rate, so the "dots" and "dashes" of Morse code were audible as a tone or buzz in the receivers' earphones. However the new continuous wave radiotelegraph signals simply consisted of pulses of unmodulated carrier (sine waves). These were inaudible in the receiver headphones. To receive this new modulation type, the receiver had to produce some kind of tone during the pulses of carrier.
The first crude device that did this was the tikker, invented in 1908 by Valdemar Poulsen.
This was a vibrating interrupter with a capacitor at the tuner output which served as a rudimentary modulator, interrupting the carrier at an audio rate, thus producing a buzz in the earphone when the carrier was present.Lee, Thomas H. (2004) The Design of CMOS Radio Frequency Integrated Circuits, 2nd Ed., p. 14-15 A similar device was the "tone wheel" invented by Rudolph Goldschmidt, a wheel spun by a motor with contacts spaced around its circumference, which made contact with a stationary brush.
In 1901 Reginald Fessenden had invented a better means of accomplishing this.US patent no. 1050441, Reginald A. Fessenden, Electrical signaling apparatus, filed July 27, 1905; granted January 14, 1913 In his heterodyne receiver an unmodulated sine wave radio signal at a frequency 'fO offset from the incoming radio wave carrier fC was applied to a rectifying detector such as a crystal detector or electrolytic detector, along with the radio signal from the antenna. In the detector the two signals mixed, creating two new heterodyne (beat) frequencies at the sum fC + fO and the difference fC − fO between these frequencies. By choosing fO correctly the lower heterodyne fC − fO was in the audio frequency range, so it was audible as a tone in the earphone whenever the carrier was present. Thus the "dots" and "dashes" of Morse code were audible as musical "beeps". A major attraction of this method during this pre-amplification period was that the heterodyne receiver actually amplified the signal somewhat, the detector had "mixer gain".
The receiver was ahead of its time, because when it was invented there was no oscillator capable of producing the radio frequency sine wave fO' with the required stability.Nahin, Paul J. (2001) The Science of Radio, p. 91 Fessenden first used his large radio frequency alternator, but this wasn't practical for ordinary receivers. The heterodyne receiver remained a laboratory curiosity until a cheap compact source of continuous waves appeared, the vacuum tube electronic oscillator invented by Edwin Armstrong and Alexander Meissner in 1913.McNicol, Donald (1946) Radio's Conquest of Space, p. 267-270 After this it became the standard method of receiving CW radiotelegraphy. The heterodyne oscillator is the ancestor of the beat frequency oscillator (BFO) which is used to receive radiotelegraphy in communications receivers today. The heterodyne oscillator had to be retuned each time the receiver was tuned to a new station, but in modern superheterodyne receivers the BFO signal beats with the fixed intermediate frequency, so the beat frequency oscillator can be a fixed frequency.
Armstrong later used Fessenden's heterodyne principle in his superheterodyne receiver (below).
Vacuum tube era
The Audion (triode) vacuum tube invented by Lee De Forest in 1906 was the first practical amplifying device and revolutionized radio. Vacuum tube transmitters replaced spark transmitters and made possible four new types of modulation: continuous wave (CW) radiotelegraphy, amplitude modulation (AM) around 1915 which could carry audio (sound), frequency modulation (FM) around 1938 which had much improved audio quality, and single sideband (SSB).
The amplifying vacuum tube used energy from a battery or electrical outlet to increase the power of the radio signal, so vacuum tube receivers could be more sensitive and have a greater reception range than the previous unamplified receivers. The increased audio output power also allowed them to drive loudspeakers instead of earphones, permitting more than one person to listen. The first loudspeakers were produced around 1915. These changes caused radio listening to evolve explosively from a solitary hobby to a popular social and family pastime. The development of amplitude modulation (AM) and vacuum-tube transmitters during World War I, and the availability of cheap receiving tubes after the war, set the stage for the start of AM broadcasting, which sprang up spontaneously around 1920.
The advent of radio broadcasting increased the market for radio receivers greatly, and transformed them into a consumer product.McNicol, Donald (1946) Radio's Conquest of Space, p. 341-344 At the beginning of the 1920s the radio receiver was a forbidding high-tech device, with many cryptic knobs and controls requiring technical skill to operate, housed in an unattractive black metal box, with a tinny-sounding horn loudspeaker. By the 1930s, the broadcast receiver had become a piece of furniture, housed in an attractive wooden case, with standardized controls anyone could use, which occupied a respected place in the home living room. In the early radios the multiple tuned circuits required multiple knobs to be adjusted to tune in a new station. One of the most important ease-of-use innovations was "single knob tuning", achieved by linking the tuning capacitors together mechanically. The dynamic cone loudspeaker invented in 1924 greatly improved audio frequency response over the previous horn speakers, allowing music to be reproduced with good fidelity.McNicol, Donald (1946) Radio's Conquest of Space, p. 336-340 Convenience features like large lighted dials, tone controls, pushbutton tuning, tuning indicators and automatic gain control (AGC) were added. The receiver market was divided into the above broadcast receivers and communications receivers, which were used for two-way radio communications such as shortwave radio.Terman, Frederick E. (1943) Radio Engineers' Handbook, p. 656
A vacuum-tube receiver required several power supplies at different voltages, which in early radios were supplied by separate batteries. By 1930 adequate rectifier tubes were developed, and the expensive batteries were replaced by a transformer power supply that worked off the house current.
Vacuum tubes were bulky, expensive, had a limited lifetime, consumed a large amount of power and produced a lot of waste heat, so the number of tubes a receiver could economically have was a limiting factor. Therefore, a goal of tube receiver design was to get the most performance out of a limited number of tubes. The major radio receiver designs, listed below, were invented during the vacuum tube era.
A defect in many early vacuum-tube receivers was that the amplifying stages could oscillate, act as an oscillator, producing unwanted radio frequency alternating currents.Lee, Thomas H. (2004) The Design of CMOS Radio Frequency Integrated Circuits, 2nd Ed., p. 15-18 These parasitic oscillations mixed with the carrier of the radio signal in the detector tube, producing audible beat notes (heterodynes); annoying whistles, moans, and howls in the speaker. The oscillations were caused by feedback in the amplifiers; one major feedback path was the capacitance between the plate and grid in early triodes. This was solved by the Neutrodyne circuit, and later the development of the tetrode and pentode around 1930.
Edwin Armstrong is one of the most important figures in radio receiver history, and during this period invented technology which continues to dominate radio communication. He was the first to give a correct explanation of how De Forest's triode tube worked. He invented the feedback oscillator, regenerative receiver, the superregenerative receiver, the superheterodyne receiver, and modern frequency modulation (FM).
The first vacuum-tube receivers
The first amplifying vacuum tube, the Audion, a crude triode, was invented in 1906 by Lee De Forest as a more sensitive detector for radio receivers, by adding a third electrode to the thermionic diode detector, the Fleming valve.McNicol, Donald (1946) Radio's Conquest of Space, p. 254-259 The link is to a reprint of the paper in the Scientific American Supplement, Nos. 1665 and 1666, November 30, 1907 and December 7, 1907, p.348-350 and 354-356. It was not widely used until its amplifying ability was recognized around 1912. The first tube receivers, invented by De Forest and built by hobbyists until the mid 1920s, used a single Audion which functioned as a grid-leak detector which both rectified and amplified the radio signal. There was uncertainty about the operating principle of the Audion until Edwin Armstrong explained both its amplifying and demodulating functions in a 1914 paper.McNicol, Donald (1946) Radio's Conquest of Space, p. 180Lee, Thomas H. (2004) The Design of CMOS Radio Frequency Integrated Circuits, 2nd Ed., p. 13 The grid-leak detector circuit was also used in regenerative, TRF, and early superheterodyne receivers (below) until the 1930s.
To give enough output power to drive a loudspeaker, 2 or 3 additional Audion stages were needed for audio amplification. Many early hobbyists could only afford a single tube receiver, and listened to the radio with earphones, so early tube amplifiers and speakers were sold as add-ons.
In addition to very low gain of about 5 and a short lifetime of about 30 – 100 hours, the primitive Audion had erratic characteristics because it was incompletely evacuated. De Forest believed that ionization of residual air was key to Audion operation. This made it a more sensitive detector but also caused its electrical characteristics to vary during use. As the tube heated up, gas released from the metal elements would change the pressure in the tube, changing the plate current and other characteristics, so it required periodic bias adjustments to keep it at the correct operating point. Each Audion stage usually had a rheostat to adjust the filament current, and often a potentiometer or multiposition switch to control the plate voltage. The filament rheostat was also used as a volume control. The many controls made multitube Audion receivers complicated to operate.
By 1914, Harold Arnold at Western Electric and Irving Langmuir at GE realized that the residual gas was not necessary; the Audion could operate on electron conduction alone. They evacuated tubes to a lower pressure of 10−9 atm, producing the first "hard vacuum" triodes. These more stable tubes did not require bias adjustments, so radios had fewer controls and were easier to operate. During World War I civilian radio use was prohibited, but by 1920 large-scale production of vacuum tube radios began. The "soft" incompletely evacuated tubes were used as detectors through the 1920s then became obsolete.
Regenerative (autodyne) receiver
The regenerative receiver, invented by Edwin Armstrong in 1913 when he was a 23-year-old college student, was used very widely until the late 1920s particularly by hobbyists who could only afford a single-tube radio. Today transistor versions of the circuit are still used in a few inexpensive applications like walkie-talkies. In the regenerative receiver the gain (amplification) of a vacuum tube or transistor is increased by using regeneration (positive feedback); some of the energy from the tube's output circuit is fed back into the input circuit with a feedback loop.Army Technical Manual TM 11-665: C-W and A-M Radio Transmitters and Receivers, 1952, p. 187-190Terman, Frederick E. (1943) Radio Engineers' Handbook, p. 574-575McNicol, Donald (1946) Radio's Conquest of Space, p. 260-262 The early vacuum tubes had very low gain (around 5). Regeneration could not only increase the gain of the tube enormously, by a factor of 15,000 or more, it also increased the Q factor of the tuned circuit, decreasing (sharpening) the bandwidth of the receiver by the same factor, improving selectivity greatly. The receiver had a control to adjust the feedback. The tube also acted as a grid-leak detector to rectify the AM signal.
Another advantage of the circuit was that the tube could be made to oscillate, and thus a single tube could serve as both a beat frequency oscillator and a detector, functioning as a heterodyne receiver to make CW radiotelegraphy transmissions audible. This mode was called an autodyne receiver. To receive radiotelegraphy, the feedback was increased until the tube oscillated, then the oscillation frequency was tuned to one side of the transmitted signal. The incoming radio carrier signal and local oscillation signal mixed in the tube and produced an audible heterodyne (beat) tone at the difference between the frequencies.
A widely used design was the Armstrong circuit, in which a "tickler" coil in the plate circuit was coupled to the tuning coil in the grid circuit, to provide the feedback. The feedback was controlled by a variable resistor, or alternately by moving the two windings physically closer together to increase loop gain, or apart to reduce it. This was done by an adjustable air core transformer called a variometer (variocoupler). Regenerative detectors were sometimes also used in TRF and superheterodyne receivers.
One problem with the regenerative circuit was that when used with large amounts of regeneration the selectivity (Q) of the tuned circuit could be too sharp, attenuating the AM sidebands, thus distorting the audio modulation. This was usually the limiting factor on the amount of feedback that could be employed.
A more serious drawback was that it could act as an inadvertent radio transmitter, producing interference (RFI) in nearby receivers.In the early 1920s Armstrong, David Sarnoff head of RCA, and other radio pioneers testified before the US Congress on the need for legislation against radiating regenerative receivers. In AM reception, to get the most sensitivity the tube was operated very close to instability and could easily break into oscillation (and in CW reception did oscillate), and the resulting radio signal was radiated by its wire antenna. In nearby receivers, the regenerative's signal would beat with the signal of the station being received in the detector, creating annoying heterodynes, (beats), howls and whistles. Early regeneratives which oscillated easily were called "bloopers", and were made illegal in Europe. One preventive measure was to use a stage of RF amplification before the regenerative detector, to isolate it from the antenna. But by the mid 1920s "regens" were no longer sold by the major radio manufacturers.
Superregenerative receiver
This was a receiver invented by Edwin Armstrong in 1922 which used regeneration in a more sophisticated way, to give greater gain.Army Technical Manual TM 11-665: C-W and A-M Radio Transmitters and Receivers, 1952, p. 190-193Williams, Lyle Russell (2006) The New Radio Receiver Building Handbook, p. 31-32McNicol, Donald (1946) Radio's Conquest of Space, p. 279-282 It was used in a few shortwave receivers in the 1930s, and is used today in a few cheap high frequency applications such as walkie-talkies and garage door openers.
In the regenerative receiver the loop gain of the feedback loop was less than one, so the tube (or other amplifying device) did not oscillate but was close to oscillation, giving large gain. In the superregenerative receiver, the loop gain was made equal to one, so the amplifying device actually began to oscillate, but the oscillations were interrupted periodically. This allowed a single tube to produce gains of over 106.
TRF receiver
The tuned radio frequency (TRF) receiver, invented in 1916 by Ernst Alexanderson, improved both sensitivity and selectivity by using several stages of amplification before the detector, each with a tuned circuit, all tuned to the frequency of the station.Army Technical Manual TM 11-665: C-W and A-M Radio Transmitters and Receivers, 1952, p. 170-175McNicol, Donald (1946) Radio's Conquest of Space, p. 263-267
A major problem of early TRF receivers was that they were complicated to tune, because each resonant circuit had to be adjusted to the frequency of the station before the radio would work. In later TRF receivers the tuning capacitors were linked together mechanically ("ganged") on a common shaft so they could be adjusted with one knob, but in early receivers the frequencies of the tuned circuits could not be made to "track" well enough to allow this, and each tuned circuit had its own tuning knob.Army Technical Manual TM 11-665: C-W and A-M Radio Transmitters and Receivers, 1952, p. 177-179 Therefore, the knobs had to be turned simultaneously. For this reason most TRF sets had no more than three tuned RF stages.
A second problem was that the multiple radio frequency stages, all tuned to the same frequency, were prone to oscillate, and the parasitic oscillations mixed with the radio station's carrier in the detector, producing audible heterodynes (beat notes), whistles and moans, in the speaker. This was solved by the invention of the Neutrodyne circuit (below) and the development of the tetrode later around 1930, and better shielding between stages.
Today the TRF design is used in a few integrated (IC) receiver chips. From the standpoint of modern receivers the disadvantage of the TRF is that the gain and bandwidth of the tuned RF stages are not constant but vary as the receiver is tuned to different frequencies. Since the bandwidth of a filter with a given Q is proportional to the frequency, as the receiver is tuned to higher frequencies its bandwidth increases.Army Technical Manual TM 11-665: C-W and A-M Radio Transmitters and Receivers, 1952, p. 195-197
Neutrodyne receiver
The Neutrodyne receiver, invented in 1922 by Louis Hazeltine,US Patent No. 1450080, Louis Alan Hazeltine, "Method and electric circuit arrangement for neutralizing capacity coupling"; filed August 7, 1919; granted March 27, 1923 was a TRF receiver with a "neutralizing" circuit added to each radio amplification stage to cancel the feedback to prevent the oscillations which caused the annoying whistles in the TRF. In the neutralizing circuit a capacitor fed a feedback current from the plate circuit to the grid circuit which was 180° out of phase with the feedback which caused the oscillation, canceling it. The Neutrodyne was popular until the advent of cheap tetrode tubes around 1930.
Reflex receiver
The reflex receiver, invented in 1914 by Wilhelm Schloemilch and Otto von Bronk, and rediscovered and extended to multiple tubes in 1917 by Marius Latour<ref name="Latour">US Patent no. 1405523, Marius Latour [https://www.google.com/patents/US1405523?dq=1405523+latour&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiP9_XngMPKAhVC9WMKHd5ZBcEQ6AEIIzAB Audion or lamp relay or amplifying apparatus, filed December 28, 1917; granted February 7, 1922 and William H. Priess, was a design used in some inexpensive radios of the 1920s which enjoyed a resurgence in small portable tube radios of the 1930s and again in a few of the first transistor radios in the 1950s. It is another example of an ingenious circuit invented to get the most out of a limited number of active devices. In the reflex receiver the RF signal from the tuned circuit is passed through one or more amplifying tubes or transistors, demodulated in a detector, then the resulting audio signal is passed again'' though the same amplifier stages for audio amplification. The separate radio and audio signals present simultaneously in the amplifier do not interfere with each other since they are at different frequencies, allowing the amplifying tubes to do "double duty". In addition to single tube reflex receivers, some TRF and superheterodyne receivers had several stages "reflexed". Reflex radios were prone to a defect called "play-through" which meant that the volume of audio did not go to zero when the volume control was turned down.
Superheterodyne receiver
The superheterodyne, invented in 1918 during World War I by Edwin Armstrong when he was in the Signal Corps, is the design used in almost all modern receivers, except a few specialized applications. It is a more complicated design than the other receivers above, and when it was invented required 6 - 9 vacuum tubes, putting it beyond the budget of most consumers, so it was initially used mainly in commercial and military communication stations. However, by the 1930s the "superhet" had replaced all the other receiver types above.
In the superheterodyne, the "heterodyne" technique invented by Reginald Fessenden is used to shift the frequency of the radio signal down to a lower "intermediate frequency" (IF), before it is processed. Its operation and advantages over the other radio designs in this section are described above in The superheterodyne design
By the 1940s the superheterodyne AM broadcast receiver was refined into a cheap-to-manufacture design called the "All American Five", because it only used five vacuum tubes: usually a converter (mixer/local oscillator), an IF amplifier, a detector/audio amplifier, audio power amplifier, and a rectifier. This design was used for virtually all commercial radio receivers until the transistor replaced the vacuum tube in the 1970s.
Semiconductor era
The invention of the transistor in 1947 revolutionized radio technology, making truly portable receivers possible, beginning with transistor radios in the late 1950s. Although portable vacuum tube radios were made, tubes were bulky and inefficient, consuming large amounts of power and requiring several large batteries to produce the filament and plate voltage. Transistors did not require a heated filament, reducing power consumption, and were smaller and much less fragile than vacuum tubes.
Portable radios
Companies first began manufacturing radios advertised as portables shortly after the start of commercial broadcasting in the early 1920s. The vast majority of tube radios of the era used batteries and could be set up and operated anywhere, but most did not have features designed for portability such as handles and built in speakers. Some of the earliest portable tube radios were the Winn "Portable Wireless Set No. 149" that appeared in 1920 and the Grebe Model KT-1 that followed a year later. Crystal sets such as the Westinghouse Aeriola Jr. and the RCA Radiola 1 were also advertised as portable radios.
Thanks to miniaturized vacuum tubes first developed in 1940, smaller portable radios appeared on the market from manufacturers such as Zenith and General Electric. First introduced in 1942, Zenith's Trans-Oceanic line of portable radios were designed to provide entertainment broadcasts as well as being able to tune into weather, marine and international shortwave stations. By the 1950s, a "golden age" of tube portables included lunchbox-sized tube radios like the Emerson 560, that featured molded plastic cases. So-called "pocket portable" radios like the RCA BP10 had existed since the 1940s, but their actual size was compatible with only the largest of coat pockets.
The development of the bipolar junction transistor in the early 1950s resulted in it being licensed to a number of electronics companies, such as Texas Instruments, who produced a limited run of transistorized radios as a sales tool. The Regency TR-1, made by the Regency Division of I.D.E.A. (Industrial Development Engineering Associates) of Indianapolis, Indiana, was launched in 1951. The era of true, shirt-pocket sized portable radios followed, with manufacturers such as Sony, Zenith, RCA, DeWald, and Crosley offering various models. The Sony TR-63 released in 1957 was the first mass-produced transistor radio, leading to the mass-market penetration of transistor radios.
Digital technology
The development of integrated circuit (IC) chips in the 1970s created another revolution, allowing an entire radio receiver to be put on an IC chip. IC chips reversed the economics of radio design used with vacuum-tube receivers. Since the marginal cost of adding additional amplifying devices (transistors) to the chip was essentially zero, the size and cost of the receiver was dependent not on how many active components were used, but on the passive components; inductors and capacitors, which could not be integrated easily on the chip. The development of RF CMOS chips, pioneered by Asad Ali Abidi at UCLA during the 1980s and 1990s, allowed low power wireless devices to be made.
The current trend in receivers is to use digital circuitry on the chip to do functions that were formerly done by analog circuits which require passive components. In a digital receiver the IF signal is sampled and digitized, and the bandpass filtering and detection functions are performed by digital signal processing (DSP) on the chip. Another benefit of DSP is that the properties of the receiver; channel frequency, bandwidth, gain, etc. can be dynamically changed by software to react to changes in the environment; these systems are known as software-defined radios or cognitive radio.
Many of the functions performed by analog electronics can be performed by software instead. The benefit is that software is not affected by temperature, physical variables, electronic noise and manufacturing defects.
Digital signal processing permits signal processing techniques that would be cumbersome, costly, or otherwise infeasible with analog methods. A digital signal is essentially a stream or sequence of numbers that relay a message through some sort of medium such as a wire. DSP hardware can tailor the bandwidth of the receiver to current reception conditions and to the type of signal. A typical analog only receiver may have a limited number of fixed bandwidths, or only one, but a DSP receiver may have 40 or more individually selectable filters. DSP is used in cell phone systems to reduce the data rate required to transmit voice.
In digital radio broadcasting systems such as Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB), the analog audio signal is digitized and compressed, typically using a modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT) audio coding format such as AAC+.
"PC radios", or radios that are designed to be controlled by a standard PC are controlled by specialized PC software using a serial port connected to the radio. A "PC radio" may not have a front-panel at all, and may be designed exclusively for computer control, which reduces cost.
Some PC radios have the great advantage of being field upgradable by the owner. New versions of the DSP firmware can be downloaded from the manufacturer's web site and uploaded into the flash memory of the radio. The manufacturer can then in effect add new features to the radio over time, such as adding new filters, DSP noise reduction, or simply to correct bugs.
A full-featured radio control program allows for scanning and a host of other functions and, in particular, integration of databases in real-time, like a "TV-Guide" type capability. This is particularly helpful in locating all transmissions on all frequencies of a particular broadcaster, at any given time. Some control software designers have even integrated Google Earth to the shortwave databases, so it is possible to "fly" to a given transmitter site location with a click of a mouse. In many cases the user is able to see the transmitting antennas where the signal is originating from.
Since the Graphical User Interface to the radio has considerable flexibility, new features can be added by the software designer. Features that can be found in advanced control software programs today include a band table, GUI controls corresponding to traditional radio controls, local time clock and a UTC clock, signal strength meter, a database for shortwave listening with lookup capability, scanning capability, or text-to-speech interface.
The next level in integration is "software-defined radio", where all filtering, modulation and signal manipulation is done in software. This may be a PC soundcard or by a dedicated piece of DSP hardware. There will be a RF front-end to supply an intermediate frequency to the software defined radio. These systems can provide additional capability over "hardware" receivers. For example, they can record large swaths of the radio spectrum to a hard drive for "playback" at a later date. The same SDR that one minute is demodulating a simple AM broadcast may also be able to decode an HDTV broadcast in the next. An open-source project called GNU Radio is dedicated to evolving a high-performance SDR.
All-digital radio transmitters and receivers present the possibility of advancing the capabilities of radio.
See also
Shortwave radio
Dielectric wireless receiver
Digital Audio Broadcast (DAB)
Direct conversion receiver
Minimum detectable signal
Radiogram (furniture)
Receiver (information theory)
Selectivity (electronic)
Sensitivity (electronics)
Noise (electronics)
Distortion
Satnav
Telecommunication
Television receive-only
Tuner (radio)
References
Further reading
Communications Receivers, Third Edition, Ulrich L. Rohde, Jerry Whitaker, McGraw Hill, New York, 2001, |
22947099 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service-oriented%20software%20engineering | Service-oriented software engineering | Service-oriented Software Engineering (SOSE), also referred to as service engineering, is a software engineering methodology focused on the development of software systems by composition of reusable services (service-orientation) often provided by other service providers. Since it involves composition, it shares many characteristics of component-based software engineering, the composition of software systems from reusable components, but it adds the ability to dynamically locate necessary services at run-time. These services may be provided by others as web services, but the essential element is the dynamic nature of the connection between the service users and the service providers.
Service-oriented interaction pattern
There are three types of actors in a service-oriented interaction: service providers, service users and service registries. They participate in a dynamic collaboration which can vary from time to time. Service providers are software services that publish their capabilities and availability with service registries. Service users are software systems (which may be services themselves) that accomplish some task through the use of services provided by service providers. Service users use service registries to discover and locate the service providers they can use. This discovery and location occurs dynamically when the service user requests them from a service registry.
See also
Service-oriented architecture (SOA)
Service-oriented analysis and design
Separation of concerns
Component-based software engineering
Web services
References
Further reading
Breivold, H.P. and Larsson, M. "Component-Based and Service-Oriented Software Engineering: Key Concepts and Principles" in Software Engineering and Advanced Applications, 2007. 33rd EUROMICRO Conference on, .
Stojanović, Zoran, A Method for Component-Based and Service-Oriented Software Systems Engineering. Doctoral Dissertation, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands.
External links
University of Notre Dame Service-oriented Software Engineering Group homepage
Lancaster University Component & Service-oriented Software Engineering project homepage
Software engineering |
8491612 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Silver%20Case | The Silver Case | is an adventure visual novel video game developed by Grasshopper Manufacture and published by ASCII Entertainment for the PlayStation in 1999. It was directed, designed and co-written by Goichi Suda. A remastered version was released digitally by Grasshopper Manufacture worldwide for Windows and macOS in 2016, while a port, a physical release, for the PlayStation 4 was released by NIS America in 2017; a Japanese release of the PlayStation 4 version was released in March 2018 by Nippon Ichi Software. A Linux port was released in August 2017. A port for the Nintendo DS was also in development, but never released due to Suda's dissatisfaction with the final product.
The setting is contemporary Japan, and takes place in a universe which would be used by Suda in later works. Within a city called the 24 Districts, a series of bizarre murders occurs, prompting the 24 Districts Police Department to send two detectives from their Heinous Crimes Unit to solve the case. The killings are soon linked to Kamui Uehara, a notorious serial killer who supposedly died several years before. The gameplay revolves around text-based situations, point-and-click mechanics, and interactive question and answer segments.
The Silver Case was the debut title of Grasshopper Manufacture, beginning development with the studio's formation in 1998. As they had limited staff and resources, Suda devised the window-based story-telling to make best use of their assets. The story, written by Suda, Masahi Ooka and Sako Kato revolved around themes of crime and the clashing of people on different sides: its themes would become a recurring feature in later titles developed by Suda. The character designs were done by Takashi Miyamoto, while the music was composed by Masafumi Takada.
Prior to its remaster, the game did not see a release outside Japan, despite Suda wanting a Western release: this was attributed by Suda and others to concerns over properly translating and localizing the game's dialogue and text-based puzzles. The localization was handled by Active Gaming Media in collaboration with Grasshopper Manufacture. The original version was positively reviewed in Japan, while the remaster received generally mixed opinions from journalists. A sequel for mobiles was released in 2005, receiving a remake following the success of the remaster's release.
Gameplay
The Silver Case is a text-based point and click adventure visual novel video game where players take control of different characters through two linear scenarios: in the "Transmitter" scenario, players take the role of a detective solving a serial murder mystery, while in the "Placebo" scenario, they control a freelance journalist covering the investigation. The scenarios are divided into six chapters each, making a total of twelve chapters.
During gameplay sequences, the player moves through environments in first-person. Proceeding through the scenario, story events play out in special windows against a single background: some are dedicated to text, while others show scenery related to events in the game. These scenery are a combination of 2D and 3D artwork, real-world photographs incorporated into the game, limited full-motion graphics, and short live-action sequences. At some points in the game, quiz questions are shown for the player to answer, in addition to mini-games the player can complete. There are also puzzles which are strongly related to the game's text-based features and presentation.
Synopsis
Characters and structure
The Silver Case revolves around two different groups of characters in Ward 24. The Heinous Crimes Unit consists of detectives Tetsugoro Kusabi, Sumio Kodai, Chizuru Hachisuka, Kiyoshi Morikawa, Morichika Nakategawa, HCU chief Shinji Kotobuki, and the rookie player character. Crossing paths with the detectives is freelance reporter Tokio Morishima. Both parties soon come into conflict with Kamui Uehara, an assassin who was involved in a brutal crime 20 years ago and is now resurfacing as a threat to order in Ward 24.
The game divides the story into two threads: "Transmitter" follows the player character, Kusabi, and the HCU as they solve crimes; while "Placebo" follows Tokio as he reports on those same crimes, whilst dealing with his own personal issues.
Plot
The Silver Case is set in the year 1999, in a fictional "Ward 24" of Tokyo, Japan. A series of mysterious and bizarre murders have surfaced, prompting the Heinous Crimes Unit (HCU) of the 24 Wards Police Department to investigate. They find that the murders closely match the profile of an infamous serial killer, Kamui Uehara, who assassinated many key government figures during the "Silver Case" of 1979, which officially ended with Kusabi arresting Uehara. Uehara was held in a mental hospital and was thought to be completely unfit to commit crime again, but these new incidents imply otherwise.
Development
The Silver Case was the debut title of Grasshopper Manufacture, a then-independent company formed in 1998 by video game developer Goichi Suda after leaving Human Entertainment following the completion of Moonlight Syndrome, a spin-off from Human's Twilight Syndrome series. The Silver Case, and consequently Grasshopper Manufacture, was born from Suda's wish to create something original, having only worked on pre-existing projects for Human. While the development team was independent, the production itself was supported by the game's publisher ASCII Entertainment, who had initially suggested a collaboration with Suda when he left Human, and whom Suda had approached with the concept for The Silver Case following the formation of Grasshopper Manufacture. When the genre had been selected, Suda's main challenge was to create something different from any other game in the genre. During development, the team was faced with severe financial restrictions, which further exacerbated the problems caused by a small staff as they could not produce all the art assets normally needed for such a game. To compensate, Suda created what he termed the "film window engine": illustrations and text were relegated to dedicated windows. This allowed development to continue. Story sequences were also communicated through 3D CGI and inserted live-action and anime sequences.
It was developed for the PlayStation with a five-person team, who created the basic core of the game. During the last six months of development, the team expanded to include ten people. Suda acted as both director and designer in addition to other duties, partially due to the constricted nature of development. The character designs were done by Takashi Miyamoto, who would go on to work on Grasshopper Manufacture's following title Flower, Sun, and Rain. His design was influenced by a large range of media, from books to films and television: many of those he used for influence for The Silver Case crossed over with Suda's own tastes. His drawing style was meant to be realistic, rather than in line with typical manga illustrations of the time.
When designing the characters, both Suda and Miyamoto had creative input: Suda would explain the characters to Miyamoto and show him fashion magazines to demonstrate the style of clothing he wanted each character to have, then Miyamoto would create his own vision and make his own choices about clothing. The two would then agree on a middle ground and Miyamoto would then create the character illustrations. His dark artistic style was a conscious emulation of film noir. He incorporated general visual references to multiple films including Metropolis, Gattaca, Heat, and Seven. While it was set in the then-present day of 1999, it incorporated futuristic concepts drawn from the works of William Gibson. Suda told him to design characters Morikawa and Kotobuki to be like characters from the television series Taiyō ni Hoero!. The music was composed by Masafumi Takada, who would go on to work extensively in the video game industry and contribute to future games developed by Grasshopper Manufacture. One of the major parts of the score was the main theme, which was used as a leitmotif throughout The Silver Case. He used the main theme, in addition to other dedicated character motifs, to create remixes and tunes that highlighted important parts of the game.
The game's two scenarios were handled by different writers: Suda wrote the "Transmitter" scenario, while the "Placebo" scenario was written by Masahi Ooka and Sako Kato. Suda's focus on the activities of a serial killer was in reaction to government censorship on general media following the Kobe child murders and its resultant controversy. To avoid trouble with the censors, Suda did not feature death from decapitation, in addition to focusing on the investigators rather than the murderer. According to Suda, before writing the scenario, the team created the setting and the social structure, with the main crime as the central event: rather than focusing on a particular character, the game instead looked at characters on either side of the crime, with the main theme being described as "human power VS. human power". This theme, in addition to delving into justice, evil and sin during the narrative, was intended by Suda to make the game original within its genre. The focus on crime would carry over into Suda's later scenario work. The character Tetsugoro Kusabi was based by Suda on his own ideal future vision of himself. Uehara came from his contemplation on what made someone a serial killer. In addition to the Kobe murders, Suda drew inspiration from the film Henry: Portrait of a Serial Killer. Another inspiration was Jean-Luc Godard's film Nouvelle Vague.
Suda and Ooka created the overall scenario together, with Suda in particular handling the events surrounding Kamui. Suda had not intended to write so much of the game, but he was forced into that position due to the limited staff: though having had previous experience with scenario writing at Human, it was difficult for him to create a wholly original premise and script for the game. Ooka was brought onto the team based on a companion piece he had written for a strategy guide for Moonlight Syndrome that acted as a subtext within the main narrative. Suda liked Ooka's work, and asked him to create a similar set-up for The Silver Case. Due to space limitations, "Placebo" became more text-focused than "Transmitter": according to Ooka, Suda would write his part, they would brainstorm about the story, then Ooka would use the text to create his part of the story. This was both a relief and a challenge, as having preexisting material took pressure off Ooka while also restricting his creative abilities. "Placebo" was not intended to be such a large part of the game, but its scope expanded as the game's development progressed. Speaking later, Suda noted that The Silver Case was very different from the studio's later titles, with no action gameplay and a lack of bloody violence. The Silver Case shares a setting and some characters with Moonlight Syndrome and Flower, Sun, and Rain.
Release
The Silver Case was published by ASCII Entertainment on October 7, 1999. The PlayStation version would later be reissued through the PlayStation Network on December 10, 2008. While Suda wished for the game to be localized in English, translating and localizing the game properly initially prevented this: issues with translation ranged from the sheer amount of dialogue and some of its more nuanced and technical aspects, to questions in gameplay that required deep knowledge of how Japanese worked due to its implementation in puzzles and dialogue. Prior to its Western release, the title was alternately referred to as The Silver and its romaji reading Silver Jiken.
Suda had wanted to re-release the game in some form, but similar issues with its story and dialogue initially kept it exclusive to Japan. A remake for the Nintendo DS was announced in 2007. It was also announced that it would receive a Western release. Suda chose the platform as it was the most popular gaming console at the time. The gameplay was revamped to work with the DS' dual screen and touchscreen functions, but he also wanted the title to be more "complete" as it was Grasshopper Manufacture's first title. No extra storyline was created. During this period, Suda was also working on No More Heroes 2: Desperate Struggle, and so when asked about the game, said that its Western release needed time. Suda later stated in 2009 that the DS port was "up in the air": while the game had been successfully ported to the DS, Suda and his team felt that they needed to completely remake the title to fit in with current gaming trends. Suda eventually confirmed in February 2012 that the DS port would not be released. Speaking in later interviews, Suda said that the DS port was cancelled because it did not feel right, as it would have needed drastic changes to suit its new environment.
The Silver Case HD Remaster
First teased in April 2016, The Silver Case HD Remaster is a high-definition remake of The Silver Case. Co-developed by Grasshopper Manufacture and Active Gaming Media, it was set for a worldwide digital release in Autumn 2016 for Windows through Steam and Playism, in addition to other unspecified platforms. Active Gaming Media approached Suda about localizing the game in 2014, several years after the DS port was cancelled. Having been keen to release The Silver Case overseas, Suda agreed to the collaboration, acting as producer for the project: Active Gaming Media handled the high-definition assets and localization, while Grasshopper Manufacture acted as general supervisor and supplied the original assets. The remaster was developed using the Unity 5 game engine, so porting to multiple platforms would be simplified.
While updating the original version's engine, its age made such an approach impractical. According to the programmer Yuki Yamazaki, while some algorithms such as those related to videos and scene changes were completely redone, others such as the film window system were kept as intact as possible to maintain the original atmosphere. The main problem with the port was that the original source code had been lost, so the audio data needed to be extracted from the PlayStation disc version using a converter. The localization was directed by Douglas Watt, while the main translator was James Mountain. Suda felt that Mountain took the majority of the load during the game's difficult translation and localization process.
Suda noted that local and overseas interest in the title had been piqued with the release of an artbook containing concept and character artwork from the company's titles, including The Silver Case. He was initially skeptical about whether the game could be properly translated into English, but in 2016 he said that he was satisfied by the results to that point. The game's question segments needed to be entirely rewritten due to their reliance on a knowledge of Japanese. According to the game's director Douglas Watt, the resolution needed to be upscaled from the PlayStation original's 480p to a modern 1080p. In addition, the UI and interface underwent modifications to be user-friendly for modern gamers. The 3D graphics and color balance were also altered and improved. Another difficult part was re-creating the game as a high-definition experience: some of the original data had been lost, so it needed to be reconstructed. The original music was remixed by Silent Hill composer Akira Yamaoka. Alongside all these updates and alterations, Suda wanted to keep the original atmosphere intact. In the end, Suda felt that they had produced the best possible remastered version. He decided against a full remake, which would have undergone changes, as he felt the game did not need it.
The remastered version of The Silver Case was released on October 7, 2016. In addition to its physical edition, a limited physical copy was produced and published by Limited Run Games; having previously handled releases for PlayStation titles, The Silver Case was their first PC title. In addition to a physical copy of the game, Limited Run Games included a full-color artbook, a manga written by Suda which acts as a prequel to the game, a game manual, and a soundtrack CD. The game was also released for the macOS platform on November 7. It was announced in October that Nippon Ichi Software would publish the game in both physical and digital formats for the PlayStation 4 through its NIS America branch. According to Suda, he had intended to make the remaster available for new PlayStation consoles but did not know how to set about it. When approached by Nippon Ichi Software at the 2016 Tokyo Game Show, Suda broached the subject to them and they agreed to act as overseas publisher, giving Suda the impetus to develop the port. NIS America was chosen due to a strong Western fanbase built up by its lauded releases from the Danganronpa series. The port would not be released in Japan. This version included twelve remixed and two new tracks by Yamaoka, Erika Ito, and the Grasshopper Sound Team. It also included two new scenarios—"Yami", which takes place several months after the game's events and concludes the main narrative; and "Whiteout Prologue", which takes place after a time skip. Suda and Ooka returned to write the new scenarios: Ooka wrote "Yami", while both Suda and Ooka wrote "Whiteout Prologue". The game was released on April 17, 2017 in North America, and on April 21 in Europe. The PlayStation 4 version was released on March 15, 2018 in Japan, and was packaged with the remake of its sequel under the title The Silver Case 2425. The game was released for the Linux platform on August 1, 2017. A port of The Silver Case 2425 for the Nintendo Switch was announced on November 7, 2020 for a Japanese release on February 18, 2021. It was announced on March 4, 2021 that The Silver Case 2425 for the Nintendo Switch would be available on July 6, 2021 in North America and July 9, 2021 in Europe.
Reception
Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu gave The Silver Case a score of 30 points out of 40: while one of the reviewers noted that the display windows were sometimes difficult to see, the magazine's critics were generally positive about the game's atmosphere, comparing it favorably to Suda's previous work on Moonlight Syndrome. Prior to its release in the West, The Silver Case was highlighted in multiple articles by 1UP.com as an early example of Suda's distinctive style.
Legacy
The release of The Silver Case helped establish both Suda and Grasshopper Manufacture in the Japanese gaming industry. The themes explored in The Silver Case would recur in later Suda projects, including the internationally released Killer7. Suda would later say that, when making Killer7, he tried to revisit and refine the thematic, narrative and gameplay elements he envisioned and developed for The Silver Case.
An episodic sequel to The Silver Case was developed for mobile platforms by Grasshopper Manufacture. Titled The 25th Ward: The Silver Case, it was a text-based adventure game with action commands linked to number inputs. The episodes released between October 2005 and March 2007, with later versions releasing between 2007 and 2011: the game was divided into three scenarios of five episodes each. A remake of Ward 25 for the DS was initially planned alongside its predecessor, being announced around the same time. It was eventually remade for PlayStation 4 and PC, releasing in 2018.
Notes
References
External links
(archived 2001)
1999 video games
Adventure games
Alternate history video games
Cancelled Nintendo DS games
Fiction about murder
Grasshopper Manufacture games
Linux games
MacOS games
Nintendo Switch games
PlayStation (console) games
PlayStation 4 games
PlayStation Network games
Single-player video games
Video game remakes
Video games about police officers
Video games developed in Japan
Video games directed by Goichi Suda
Video games scored by Masafumi Takada
Video games set in 1999
Visual novels
Windows games |
1825874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Development%20of%20Doom | Development of Doom | Doom, a first-person shooter game by id Software, was released in December 1993 and is considered one of the most significant and influential titles in video game history. Development began in November 1992, with programmers John Carmack and John Romero, artists Adrian Carmack and Kevin Cloud, and designer Tom Hall. Late in development, Hall was replaced by Sandy Petersen and programmer Dave Taylor joined. The music and sound effects were created by Bobby Prince.
The Doom concept was proposed in late 1992, after the release of Wolfenstein 3D and its sequel Spear of Destiny. John Carmack was working on an improved 3D game engine from those games, and the team wanted to have their next game take advantage of his designs. Several ideas were proposed, including a new game in their Commander Keen series, but John proposed a game about using technology to fight demons inspired by the Dungeons & Dragons campaigns the team played. The initial months of development were spent building prototypes, while Hall created the Doom Bible, a design document for his vision of the game and its story; after id released a grandiose press release touting features that the team had not yet begun working on, the Doom Bible was rejected in favor of a plotless game with no design document at all.
Over the next six months, Hall designed levels based on real military bases, Romero built features, and artists Adrian and Cloud created textures and demons based on clay models they built. Hall's level designs, however, were deemed uninteresting and Romero began designing his own levels; Hall, increasingly frustrated with his limited influence, was fired in July. He was replaced by Petersen in September, and the team worked increasingly long hours until the game was completed in December 1993. Doom was self-published by id on December 10, 1993, and immediately downloaded by thousands of players.
Design
Concept
In May 1992, id Software released Wolfenstein 3D. It is often referred to as being the "grandfather of 3D shooters", specifically first-person shooters, because it established the fast-paced action and technical prowess commonly expected in the genre and greatly increased the genre's popularity. Immediately following its release, most of the team began work on a set of new Wolfenstein episodes, Spear of Destiny. As the episodes used the same game engine as the original game, id co-founder and lead programmer John Carmack instead focused on technology research for the company's next game, just as he had experimented with creating a 3D game engine prior to the development of Wolfenstein 3D. Between May and Spear of Destinys release in September 1992, he created several experimental engines, including one for a racing game, before working on an enhanced version of the Wolfenstein engine to be licensed to Raven Software for their game ShadowCaster. For this engine, he developed several enhancements to the Wolfenstein engine, including sloped floors, textures on the floors and ceilings in addition to the walls, and fading visibility over a distance. The resulting engine was much slower than the Wolfenstein one, but was deemed acceptable for an adventure game like ShadowCaster.
Following the release of Spear of Destiny and the completion of the ShadowCaster engine, id Software discussed what their next title would be. They wanted to create another 3D game using Carmack's new engine as a starting point, but were largely tired of Wolfenstein. Lead designer Tom Hall was especially weary of it, and pushed for the team to make another game in the Commander Keen series; the team had created seven episodes in the series in 1990–91 as their first games, but the planned third set of episodes had been dropped in favor of Wolfenstein 3D. While Carmack was initially interested in the idea, the rest of the team was not. They collectively felt that the platforming gameplay of the series was a poor fit for Carmack's fast-paced 3D engines, and especially after the success of Wolfenstein were interested in pursuing more games of that type. Additionally, the other two co-founders of id were not interested in creating another Keen game: John Romero, the designer of Wolfenstein, was not interested in doing another "cutesy" game, and lead artist Adrian Carmack preferred to create art in a darker style than the Keen games. John Carmack soon lost interest in Keen idea as well, instead coming up with his own concept: a game about using technology to fight demons, inspired by the Dungeons & Dragons campaigns the team played, combining the styles of Evil Dead II and Aliens. The concept originally had a working title of "Green and Pissed", which was also the name of a concept Hall had proposed prior to Wolfenstein, but Carmack soon named the proposed game after a line in the film The Color of Money: "'What's in the case?' / 'In here? Doom.'"
The team agreed to pursue the Doom concept, and development began in November 1992. The initial development team was composed of five people: programmers John Carmack and John Romero, artists Adrian Carmack and Kevin Cloud, and designer Tom Hall. They moved offices to a dark office building, which they named "Suite 666", and drew inspiration from the noises coming from the dentist's office next door. They also cut ties with Apogee Software, who had given them the initial advance money for creating their first game, Commander Keen in Invasion of the Vorticons, and through which they had published the shareware versions of their games to date. While they had a good personal relationship with owner Scott Miller, they felt that they were outgrowing the publisher. Cloud, who was involved in id's business dealings, pushed for id to take over shareware publishing duties themselves after investigating and finding that Apogee was unable to reliably handle the volume of customers buying id's games through Apogee. He convinced the others that the increased sales revenue would make up for the problems of handling their own publishing. The two companies parted amicably, and Doom was set to be self-published.
Development
Early in development, rifts in the team began to appear. Hall, who despite having wanted to develop a different game remained the lead designer and creative director for the company, did not want Doom to have the same lack of plot as Wolfenstein 3D. At the end of November he delivered a design document, which he named the Doom Bible, that described the plot, backstory, and design goals for the project. His design was a science fiction horror concept wherein scientists on the Moon open a portal from which aliens emerge. Over a series of levels the player discovers that the aliens are demons; Hell also steadily infects the level design as the atmosphere becomes darker and more terrifying. While Romero initially liked the idea, John Carmack not only disliked it but dismissed the idea of having a story at all: "Story in a game is like story in a porn movie; it's expected to be there, but it's not that important." Rather than a deep story, John Carmack wanted to focus on the technological innovations, dropping the levels and episodes of Wolfenstein in favor of a fast, continuous world. Hall disliked the idea, but Romero sided with Carmack. Although John Carmack was the lead programmer rather than a designer, he was becoming seen in the company as the most important source of ideas; the company considered taking out key person insurance on Carmack but no one else. According to Bethesda Softworks, Terminator: Rampage was influential in the development of Doom. Id Software showed a lot of interest in the production of this particular game at Bethesda's stands at various trade shows.
Hall spent the next few weeks reworking the Doom Bible to work with Carmack's technological ideas, while the rest of the team planned how they could implement them. His adjusted vision for the plot had the player character assigned to a large military base on an alien planet, Tei Tenga. At the start of the game, as the first of four player character soldiers, named Buddy, played cards with the others, scientists on the base accidentally open a portal to Hell, through which demons poured through, killing the other soldiers. He envisioned a six episode structure with a storyline involving traveling to Hell and back through the gates which the demons used, and the destruction of the planet, for which the players would be sent to jail. Buddy was named after Hall's character in a Dungeons & Dragons campaign run by John Carmack that had featured a demonic invasion. Hall was forced to rework the Doom Bible again in December, however, after John Carmack and the rest of the team had decided that they were unable to create a single, seamless world with the hardware limitations of the time, which contradicted much of the new document.
At the start of 1993, id put out a press release by Hall, touting Buddy's story about fighting off demons while "knee-deep in the dead", trying to eliminate the demons and find out what caused them to appear. The press release proclaimed the new game features that John Carmack had created, as well as other features, including multiplayer gaming features, that had not yet been started on by the team or even designed. The company told Computer Gaming World that Doom would be "Wolfenstein times a million!" Early versions were built to match the Doom Bible; a "pre-alpha" version of the first level included the other characters at a table and movable rolling chairs based on ones at the id office. Initial versions also retained "arcade" elements present in Wolfenstein 3D, like score points and score items, but those were removed early in development as they felt unrealistic and not in keeping with the tone. Other elements, such as a complex user interface, an inventory system, a secondary shield protection, and lives were modified and slowly removed over the course of development.
Soon, however, the Doom Bible as a whole was rejected: Romero wanted a game even "more brutal and fast" than Wolfenstein, which did not leave room for the character-driven plot Hall had created. Additionally, the team did not feel that they needed a design document at all, as they had not created one for prior games; the Doom Bible was discarded altogether. Several ideas were retained, including starting off in a military base, as well as some locations, items, and monsters, but the story was dropped and most of the design was removed as the team felt it emphasized realism over entertaining gameplay. Some elements, such as weapons, a hub system of maps, and monorails later appeared in later Doom or id games. Work continued, and a demo was shown to Computer Gaming World in early 1993, who raved about it. John Carmack and Romero, however, disliked Hall's military base-inspired level design. Romero especially felt that while John Carmack had originally asked for realistic levels as they would make the engine run quickly, that Hall's level designs were uninspiring. He felt that the boxy, flat levels were too similar to Wolfensteins design, and did not show off everything the engine could do. He began to create his own, more abstract levels, beginning with a curving staircase into a large open area in what became the second level of the final game, which the rest of the team felt was much better.
Hall was upset with the reception to his designs and how little impact he was having as the lead designer; Romero has since claimed that Hall was also still uninterested in the Doom concept at all. Hall was also upset with how much he was having to fight with John Carmack in order to get what he saw as obvious gameplay improvements, such as flying enemies. He began to spend less time working in the office, and in response John Carmack proposed that he be fired from id. Romero initially resisted, as it would mean that Hall would not receive any proceeds, but in July he and the other founders of id fired Hall, who went to work for Apogee. Hall was replaced in September, ten weeks before Doom was released, by game designer Sandy Petersen, despite misgivings over his relatively high age of 37 compared to the other early-20s employees and his religious background. The team also added a third programmer, Dave Taylor. Petersen and Romero designed the rest of the levels for Doom, with different aims: the team felt that Petersen's designs were more technically interesting and varied, while Romero's were more aesthetically interesting. Romero's level design process was to build a level or part of a level, starting at the beginning, then play through it and iterate on the design, so that by the time he was satisfied with the flow and playability of the level he had played it "a thousand times". The first level, made by Romero, was the last created, intended to show off the new elements of the engine. The ending screen of each level, like in Wolfenstein 3D, displays a "par time" for the level, as set by Romero.
In late 1993, after the multiplayer component was coded, the development team began playing four-player multiplayer games matches, which Romero termed "deathmatch"; he proposed adding a cooperative multiplayer mode as well. According to Romero, the deathmatch mode was inspired by fighting games. The team frequently played Street Fighter II, Fatal Fury and Art of Fighting during breaks, while developing elaborate rules involving trash-talk and smashing furniture or equipment. Romero later stated that "you could say that Japanese fighting games fueled the creative impulse to create deathmatch in our shooters".
Programming
Doom was programmed largely in the ANSI C language, with a few elements in assembly language, on NeXT computers running the NeXTSTEP operating system. The data, including level designs and graphics files, is stored in WAD files, short for "Where's All the Data". This allows for any part of the design to be changed without needing to adjust the engine code. Carmack had been impressed by the modifications made by fans of Wolfenstein 3D, and wanted to support that with an easily swappable file structure, and released the map editor online.
Romero and Carmack spent the early stage of development focusing on engine features instead of the game concept. Wolfenstein had required levels to be a flat plane, with walls at the same height and at right angles; while the Doom world was still a variation on a flat plane, in that two traversable areas could not be on top of each other, it could have walls and floors at any angle or height, allowing greater level design variety. The fading visibility in ShadowCaster was improved by adjusting the color palette by distance, darkening far surfaces and creating a grimmer, more realistic appearance. This concept was also used for the lighting system: rather than calculating how light traveled from light sources to surfaces using ray tracing, the engine calculates the "light level" of a section of a level, which can be as small as a single stair step, based on its distance from light sources. It then darkens the color palette of that section's surface textures accordingly. Romero used the map editing tool he developed to build grandiose areas with these new possibilities, and came up with new ways to use Carmack's lighting engine such as strobe lights. He also programmed engine features such as switches and movable stairs and platforms.
In the first half of 1993, Carmack worked on improving the graphics engine. After Romero's level designs started to cause engine problems, he researched and began to use binary space partitioning to quickly select the portion of a level that the player could see at any given time. In March 1993, the team stopped work on Doom to spend three weeks building a Super Nintendo Entertainment System port of Wolfenstein 3D, after the contractor hired for the port had made no progress. Taylor, along with programming other features, added cheat codes; some, such as "idspispopd", were based on ideas their fans had come up with while eagerly awaiting the game. By late 1993, Doom was nearing completion and player anticipation was high, spurred on by a leaked press demo. John Carmack began to work on the multiplayer component; within two weeks he had two computers playing the same game over the internal office network. Soon, the office was playing four-player deathmatch games.
Graphics and sound
Adrian Carmack was the lead artist for Doom, with Kevin Cloud as an additional artist. Additionally, Don Ivan Punchatz was hired to create the package art and logo, and his son Gregor Punchatz created some of the monsters. Doom was the style of game that Adrian Carmack had wanted to create since id was founded, one with a dark style and demons. He and Cloud designed the monsters to be "nightmarish", and developed a new technique for animating them. The intent was to have graphics that were realistic and dark as opposed to staged or rendered, so a mixed media approach was taken to the artwork. Unlike Wolfenstein, where Carmack had drawn every frame of animation for the Nazi enemy sprites, for Doom the artists sculpted models of some of the enemies out of clay, and took pictures of them in stop motion from five to eight different angles so that they could be rotated realistically in-game; the images were then digitized and converted to 2D characters with a program written by John Carmack. Adrian Carmack made clay models for the player character, the Cyberdemon and the Baron of Hell, before deciding that the problems of keeping the clay consistent under lighting while moving the models through animations was too great. Later, he had practical effects specialist Gregor Punchatz build latex and metal sculptures of the Arch-Vile, Mancubus, Spider Mastermind and Revenant demons. Punchatz got the materials from hardware and hobby stores and used what he called "rubber band and chewing gum effects". The weapons were toys, with parts combined from different toys to make more guns. They scanned themselves as well, using Cloud's arm as the model for the player character's arm holding a gun, and Adrian's snakeskin boots and wounded knee for in-game textures. Romero was the body model used for cover; while trying to work with a male model to get a reference photograph for Don Ivan Punchatz to work from, Romero became frustrated while trying to convey to him how to pose as if "the Marine was going to be attacked by an infinite amount of demons". Romero posed shirtless as a demonstration of the look he was trying for, and that photograph was the one used by Punchatz. Electronic Arts's Deluxe Paint II was used in the creation of the sprites.
Like they had for Wolfenstein 3D, id hired Bobby Prince to create the music and sound effects. Romero directed Prince to make the music in techno and metal styles; many of the songs were directly inspired by songs from popular metal bands such as Alice in Chains and Pantera. Prince felt that more ambient music would work better, especially given the hardware limitations of the time on what sounds he could produce, and produced numerous tracks in both styles in the hopes of convincing Romero; Romero, however, still liked the metal tracks and added both styles. Prince did not make music for specific levels; most of the music was composed before the levels they were eventually assigned to were completed. Instead, Romero assigned each track to each level late in development. Unlike the music, the sound effects for the enemies and weapons were created by Prince for specific purposes; Prince designed them based on short descriptions or concept art of a monster or weapon, and then adjusted the sound effects to match the completed animations. The sound effects for the monsters were created from animal noises, and Prince designed all the sound effects to be distinct on the limited sound hardware of the time, even when many sound effects were playing at once.
Release
Because id planned to self-publish Doom, as it neared completion they had to set up the systems to sell it. Jay Wilbur, who had been brought on as CEO and sole member of the business team, planned the marketing and distribution of Doom. He felt that the mainstream press was uninterested, and as id would make the most money off of copies they sold directly to customers—up to 85 percent of the planned US$40 price—he decided to leverage the shareware market as much as possible, buying only a single ad in any gaming magazine. Instead, he reached out directly to software retailers, offering them copies of the first Doom episode for free, allowing them to charge any price for it, in order to spur customer interest in buying the full game directly from id.
Dooms original release date was the third quarter of 1993, which the team did not meet. By December 1993, the team was working non-stop, with several employees sleeping at the office; programmer Dave Taylor claimed that the work gave him such a rush that he would pass out from the intensity. Id began receiving calls from people interested in the game or angry that it had missed its planned release date, as hype for the game had been building online. At midnight on Friday, December 10, 1993, after working for 30 straight hours, the team uploaded the first episode to the internet, letting interested players distribute it for them. So many users were connected to the first network that they planned to upload the game to—the University of Wisconsin–Parkside FTP network—that even after the network administrator increased the number of connections while on the phone with Wilbur, id was unable to connect, forcing them to kick all other users off to allow id to upload the game. When the upload finished thirty minutes later, 10,000 people attempted to download it at once, crashing the university's network. Within hours, other university networks were banning Doom multiplayer games, as a rush of players overwhelmed their systems.
Development release versions
While Doom was in development, five pre-release versions were given names or numbers and shown to testers or the press.
References
Sources
External links
The Doom Bible
Doom (franchise)
Doom |
53686052 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPTraf | IPTraf | IPTraf is a software - based console that provides network statistics. It works by collecting information from TCP connections, such as statistics and activity interfaces and drops TCP and UDP traffic. It is available in Linux operating systems.
Features
In addition to a menu of options to full screen, IPTraf has the following characteristics:
IP traffic monitor displays information about network traffic.
General statistics Interfaces.
LAN statistics module that discovers s host displays data about their activity.
Monitor TCP, UDP account showing the network packets for port connections of applications.
Use the "raw socket interface" that takes kernel allowing it to be used by a wide range of "network cards".
Recognized protocols
IPTtraf supports multiple protocols:
IP
TCP
UDP
ICMP
IGP
IGMP
IGRP
OSPF
ARP
RARP
Supported interfaces
IPTraf supports a wide range of network interfaces:
Local loopback
All Ethernet interfaces supported by Linux.
All FDDI interfaces supported by Linux.
SLIP
Asynchronous PPP
Synchronous PPP over ISDN
ISDN with encapsulation Raw IP
ISDN with encapsulation Cisco HDLC
Parallel Line IP.
Data structures
The main data structures using the various facilities of the program are in doubly linked list, which facilitates their movement. The maximum number of entries is limited only by available memory. Search operations in most of the facilities are carried out linearly, a fact that causes a mild but almost imperceptible impact. Because of the speed with which tends to increase the traffic monitor IPs, it use a hash table to perform searches more efficiently. (Search operations are carried out whenever the program needs to check if it is already listed the Ethernet or IP address or protocol or network port.
In addition, also it has a folding mechanism links merely contains notes on old entries that are available for reuse. Every time a connection is restarted or completely closed, the ticket information is not released, but added an entry to the closed-list. By detecting a new connection, the list is checked and if it is not empty, the first entry in use that is available will be reused, then, clear the list-closed
References
External links
IPTraf web site
IPTraf-ng, current fork of IPtraf
Free software
Linux software |
29763896 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photodex | Photodex | Photodex was a software company specializing in the digital imaging market. They are primarily known for the ProShow product line, which is photo slideshow software.
Photodex released one of the first consumer level slideshow programs in 1991 with a program named GDS or Graphic Display System. In the mid-1990s they focused on the photo management software product CompuPic, which also included slideshow capability. In 2002 they released the first version of ProShow, which focused primarily on slideshow creation.
Announced in January of 2020 the company was shutting down it servers as of January 31, 2020.
Products
Photodex's current products are the ProShow product line. ProShow consists of ProShow Gold, ProShow Producer, and ProShow Web.
ProShow Gold
ProShow Gold is a consumer-level tool for creating slideshows from photos, video clips, and music. Built-in features allow users to customize slideshows with transitions, slide styles, and motion effects in the style of the Ken Burns Effect. The software also has built-in CD, DVD and Blu-ray burning capabilities and outputs to other formats including MPEG video, QuickTime video, Flash Video, Facebook, Vimeo, and YouTube.
In 2006, USA Today writer Jefferson Graham named ProShow Gold “the best program for mixing pictures and video clips.”
PC Magazine named ProShow Gold the Editors' Choice for creating slideshows.
ProShow Producer
ProShow Producer is professional-grade slideshow software for creating photo and video slideshows. Features including keyframing, masking and adjustment effects can be used for further customization. The software has built-in CD, DVD and Blu-ray burning capabilities. It also supports output to an Executable file (.exe) for playing on most computers (excluding Apple) as well as to other formats including MPEG video, HTML5 video, QuickTime video, Flash Video, Facebook, Vimeo and YouTube.
Beginners can use the built-in Wizard to create a slideshow even without prior experience with the application. After supplying the Wizard with the slideshow material (images, videos and/or audio files) ProShow Producer will create the slideshow automatically. After that, users can further customize their project and easily share it on popular sites such as YouTube and Facebook.
On Dec. 5th 2013, FileCluster.com reviewed ProShow Producer and rated it with 5 stars.
ProShow Web
ProShow Web automatically creates video slideshows online from a user’s photos, video clips and music. Finished shows can be shared online through social networking sites including Facebook and YouTube or downloaded to a user’s computer.
References
External links
Company website
Photo software
Presentation
Software companies based in Texas
Companies based in Austin, Texas
Software companies of the United States |
14004831 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond%20George | Raymond George | Raymond Edward George (January 7, 1918 – January 12, 1995) was an American football player and coach. He played college football at the University of Southern California (USC) and professionally in the National Football League (NFL) with the Detroit Lions and Philadelphia Eagles. George was the head football coach at Texas A&M University from 1951 to 1953, compiling a record of 12–14–4. He also served three stints as an assistant football coach at his alma mater, USC.
Playing career
George played college football at the University of Southern California as a tackle under Hall of Fame coach Howard Jones from 1936 to 1938. His senior season was successful, as the Trojans upset both top-ranked rival Notre Dame, 13–0, and previously unbeaten and unscored-upon Duke, 7–3, in the 1939 Rose Bowl.
In 1939, George was the second USC player ever drafted by an NFL team; he taken by the Detroit Lions as the 87th pick. He played two years of professional football, in 1939 with the Lions and in 1940 with the Philadelphia Eagles.
Coaching career
After playing football George returned to California and became a coach at Porterville High School in Porterville, California before joining the military in 1942 and ultimately reaching the rank of lieutenant. He returned from the service to USC where he acted as a line coach from 1946 to 1950.
Texas A&M
George was the 17th head coach of the Texas A&M Aggies in College Station, Texas. He was head coach from 1951 until the completion of the 1953 season. His teams produced a total record of 12 wins, 14 losses, and 4 ties. Among his wins were victories over Bud Wilkinson's Oklahoma Sooners, Henry Russell Sanders' UCLA Bruins and Bear Bryant's Kentucky Wildcats. Bryant succeeded George at Texas A&M.
Return to USC
After leaving Texas A&M, George went into private business. He persuaded to return to coaching by USC head coach Don Clark in 1958. For five years, George served as John McKay's senior assistant, where he was a part of the 1962 championship team.
George retired after the championship, reentering the private business realm and serving as vice president of sales for Transamerica Title Insurance Company for six years. He returned to USC again in January 1971, this time as both an assistant athletic director and assistant football coach. He was an assistant on both the 1972 and 1974 national championship teams before focusing solely on working as an assistant athletic director, retiring from that position in 1985.
George died on January 12, 1995, at age 78, of complications from a stroke, in Costa Mesa, California. In 2001, he was inducted into the USC Athletic Hall of Fame.
Head coaching record
College
References
External links
1918 births
1995 deaths
American football tackles
Texas A&M Aggies football coaches
USC Trojans football coaches
USC Trojans football players
High school football coaches in California
People from Porterville, California
Players of American football from Los Angeles
Players of American football from St. Louis
Sports coaches from Los Angeles |
1624694 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGP-30 | LGP-30 | The LGP-30, standing for Librascope General Purpose and then Librascope General Precision, was an early off-the-shelf computer. It was manufactured by the Librascope company of Glendale, California (a division of General Precision Inc.), and sold and serviced by the Royal Precision Electronic Computer Company, a joint venture with the Royal McBee division of the Royal Typewriter Company. The LGP-30 was first manufactured in 1956, at a retail price of $47,000, .
The LGP-30 was commonly referred to as a desk computer. Its height, width, and depth, excluding the typewriter shelf, was . It weighed about , and was mounted on sturdy casters which facilitated moving the unit.
Design
The primary design consultant for the Librascope computer was Stan Frankel, a Manhattan Project veteran and one of the first programmers of ENIAC. He designed a usable computer with a minimal amount of hardware. The single address instruction set had only 16 commands. Magnetic drum memory held the main memory, and the central processing unit (CPU) processor registers, timing information, and the master bit clock, each on a dedicated track. The number of vacuum tubes was minimized by using solid-state diode logic, a bit-serial architecture and multiple use of each of the 15 flip-flops.
It was a binary, 31-bit word computer with a 4096-word drum memory. Standard inputs were the Flexowriter keyboard and paper tape (ten six-bit characters/second). The standard output was the Flexowriter printer (typewriter, working at 10 characters/second). An optional higher-speed paper tape reader and punch was available as a separate peripheral.
The computer contained 113 electronic tubes and 1450 diodes. The tubes were mounted on 34 etched circuit pluggable cards which also contain associated components. The 34 cards were of only 12 different types. Card-extenders were available to permit dynamic testing of all machine functions. 680 of the 1450 diodes were mounted on one pluggable logic board.
The LGP-30 required 1500 watts operating under full load. The power inlet cord could plug into any standard 115 volt 60-cycle single-phase line. The computer incorporated voltage regulation suitable for powerline variation of 95 to 130 volts. In addition to power regulation, the computer also contained circuitry for a warm-up stage, which minimized thermal shock to the tubes to ensure longer life. The computer contained a cooling fan which directed filtered air through ducts to the tubes and diodes, to extend component life and ensure proper operation. No expensive air conditioning was necessary if the LGP-30 was operated at reasonable temperatures.
There were 32 bit locations per drum word, but only 31 were used, permitting a "restoration of magnetic flux in the head" at the 32nd bit time. Since there was only one address per instruction, a method was needed to optimize allocation of operands. Otherwise, each instruction would wait a complete drum (or disk) revolution each time a data reference was made. The LGP-30 provided for operand-location optimization by interleaving the logical addresses on the drum so that two adjacent addresses (e.g., 00 and 01) were separated by nine physical locations. These spaces allowed for operands to be located next to the instructions which use them. There were 64 tracks, each with 64 words (sectors). The time between two adjacent physical words was about 0.260 millisecond (ms), and the time between two adjacent addresses was 9 x 0.260 or 2.340 ms. The worst-case access time was 16.66 ms.
Half of the instruction (15 bits) was unused. The unused half could have been used for extra instructions, indexing, indirect addressing, or a second (+1) address to locate the next instruction, each of which would have increased program performance. None of these features were implemented in the LGP-30, but some were realized in its 1960 successor, the RPC-4000.
A unique feature of the LGP-30 was its built-in multiplication, despite being inexpensive. Since this was a drum computer, bits were processed serially as they were read from the drum. As it did each of the additions associated with the multiplication, it effectively shifted the operand right, acting as if the binary point were on the left side of the word, as opposed to the right side as on most other computers. The divide operation worked similarly.
To further reduce costs, the traditional front panel lights showing internal registers were absent. Instead, Librascope mounted a small oscilloscope on the front panel that displayed the output from the three register read heads, one above the other, allowing the operator to see and read the bits. Horizontal and vertical size controls let the operator adjust the display to match a plastic overlay engraved with the bit numbers.
To read bits the operator counted the up- and down-transitions of the oscilloscope trace.
Unlike other computers of its day, internal data was represented in hexadecimal instead of octal, but being a very inexpensive machine it used the physical typewriter keys that correspond to positions 10 to 15 in the type basket for the six non-decimal characters (as opposed to the now normal A – F) to represent those values, resulting in 0 – 9 f g j k q w, which was remembered using the phrase "FiberGlass Javelins Kill Quite Well".
Specifications
Word length: 31 bits, including a sign bit, but no blank spacer bit
Memory size: 4096 words
Speed: 0.260 milliseconds access time between two adjacent physical words; access times between two adjacent addresses 2.340 milliseconds.
Clock rate: 120 kHz
Power consumption: 1500 Watts
Heat dissipation:
Arithmetic element: three working registers: C the counter register, R the instruction register and A the accumulator register.
Instruction format: Sixteen instructions using half-word format
Technology: 113 vacuum tubes and 1350 diodes.
Number produced; 320~493
First delivery: September 1956
Price: $47,000
Successor: LGP-21
Achievements: The LGP-30 was one of the first desk-sized computers offering small scale scientific computing. The LGP-30 was fairly popular with "half a thousand" units sold, including one to Dartmouth College where students implemented Dartmouth ALGOL 30 and DOPE (Dartmouth Oversimplified Programming Experiment) on the machine.
ACT-III programming language
The LGP-30 had a high-level language called ACT-III. Every token had to be delimited by an apostrophe, making it hard to read and even harder to prepare tapes:
<nowiki>
s1'dim'a'500'm'500'q'500''
index'j'j+1'j-1''
daprt'e'n't'e'r' 'd'a't'a''cr''
rdxit's35''
s2'iread'm'1''iread'q'1''iread'd''iread'n''
1';'j''
0'flo'd';'d.''
s3'sqrt'd.';'sqrd.''
1'unflo'sqrd.'i/'10';'sqrd''
2010'print'sqrd.''2000'iprt'sqrd''cr''cr''
...
</nowiki>
ALGOL 30
Dartmouth College developed two implementations of ALGOL 60 for the LGP-30. Dartmouth ALGOL 30 was a three-pass system (compiler, loader, and interpreter) that provided almost all features of ALGOL except those requiring run-time storage allocation. SCALP, a Self Contained Algol Processor, was a one-pass system for a small subset of ALGOL (no blocks other than the entire program), no procedure declarations, conditional statements but no conditional expressions, no constructs other than while in a for statement, no nested switch declarations (nested calls are permitted), and no boolean variables and operators. As in ACT-III, every token had to be separated by an apostrophe.
Starting the machine
The procedure for starting, or "booting" the LGP-30 was one of the most complicated ever devised. First, the bootstrap paper tape was snapped into the console typewriter, a Friden Flexowriter. The operator pressed a lever on the Flexowriter to read an address field and pressed a button on the front panel to transfer the address into a computer register. Then the lever on the Flexowriter was pressed to read the data field and three more buttons were pressed on the front panel to store it at the specified address. This process was repeated, maybe six to eight times, and a rhythm was developed:
burrrp, clunk,
burrrp, clunk, clunk, clunk,
burrrp, clunk,
burrrp, clunk, clunk, clunk,
burrrp, clunk,
burrrp, clunk, clunk, clunk,
burrrp, clunk,
burrrp, clunk, clunk, clunk,
burrrp, clunk,
burrrp, clunk, clunk, clunk,
burrrp, clunk,
burrrp, clunk, clunk, clunk.
The operator then removed the bootstrap tape, snapped in the tape containing the regular loader, carefully arranging it so it would not jam, and pressed a few more buttons to start up the bootstrap program. Once the regular loader was in, the computer was ready to read in a program tape. The regular loader read a more compact format tape than the bootstrap loader. Each block began with a starting address so the tape could be rewound and retried if an error occurred. If any mistakes were made in the process, or if the program crashed and damaged the loader program, the process had to be restarted from the beginning.
LGP-21
In 1963, Librascope produced a transistorized update to the LGP-30 named the LGP-21. The new computer had about 460 transistors and about 375 diodes. It cost only $16,250, one-third the price of its predecessor. Unfortunately it was also about one-third as fast as the earlier computer.
The central computer weighed about , the basic system (including printer and stands) about .
RPC 4000
Another, more-powerful successor machine, was the General Precision RPC 4000, announced in 1960. Similar to the LGP-30, but transistorized, it featured 8,008 32-bit words of memory drum storage. It had 500 transistors and 4,500 diodes, sold for $87,500 and weighed .
Notable uses
Today, the RPC-4000 (along with LGP-30) is remembered as the computer on which Mel Kaye performed a legendary programming task in machine code, retold by Ed Nather in the hacker epic The Story of Mel. The LGP-30 was also used by Edward Lorenz in his attempt to model changing weather patterns. His discovery that massive differences in forecast could derive from tiny differences in initial data led to him coining the terms strange attractor and butterfly effect, core concepts in chaos theory.
See also
IBM 650
List of vacuum tube computers
Further reading
References
External links
Working LGP-30 on display in Stuttgart, Germany
LGP-30 description
LGP-21 description
1962 advertisement showing both the LGP-30 and RPC-4000
Story of Stan P. Frankel, designer of the LGP-30, with photos.
Programming manual
Warming up the LGP-30 on YouTube
technikum 29: LGP 30
1950-1959 Librazettes – company newsletters on LGP-30:
Vacuum tube computers |
260811 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZSNES | ZSNES | ZSNES is a free software Super Nintendo Entertainment System emulator written mostly in x86 assembly with official ports for Linux, DOS, Windows, and unofficial ports for Xbox and macOS.
Background
Development of ZSNES began on 3 July 1997 and the first version was released on 14 October 1997, for DOS. Since then, official ports have been made for Windows and Linux. The emulator became free software under the GPL-2.0-or-later license on 2 April 2001. Despite an announcement by adventure_of_link stating that "ZSNES is NOT dead, it's still in development" made on the ZSNES board after the departure of its original developers zsKnight and _Demo_, development has slowed dramatically since its last version (1.51 released on 24 January 2007). Much of the development efforts concentrated on increasing the emulator's portability, by rewriting assembly code in C and C++, including a new GUI using Qt.
ZSNES is notable in that it was among the first to emulate most SNES enhancement chips at some level. Until version 1.50, ZSNES featured netplay via TCP/IP or UDP.
Because ZSNES is largely written in low-level assembly language for x86 processors, the idea of porting ZSNES to devices using RISC architectures such as ARM is highly unfeasible. Commercial gaming consoles did not typically use x86 processors (with the original Xbox being the most well-known exception) prior to the eighth generation, with the 2013 releases of the Xbox One and PlayStation 4.
Reception
ZSNES was generally well-regarded in its heyday, with British game magazine Retro Gamer in 2005 calling the emulator "very impressive" and praising the "incredible toaster mode".
However, with the more recent development of more accurate SNES emulators such as Snes9x and higan as computers have gradually become more powerful, retrospective reviews have criticized ZSNES not only for its relatively low accuracy, but also because its former popularity has led several fan-made translations and modifications to be designed with specific workarounds for the emulator's inaccuracies, which often makes them unplayable both on real hardware and in the newer emulators that have superseded ZSNES. Some of these other emulators even include a mode which is explicitly designed to replicate the quirks of ZSNES, allowing the ZSNES-focused mods to become playable again.
In 2015 an exploit that allowed a specially crafted SNES ROM to gain control of the host system, and thus be able to execute malicious code, was discovered in version 1.51; a partially fixed preview build was released shortly afterwards.
See also
List of video game console emulators
References
External links
ZSNES Documentation
Interview with zsKnight
Super Nintendo Entertainment System emulators
Linux emulation software
Windows emulation software
DOS emulation software
Free emulation software
Free software that uses SDL
Cross-platform software
Free software programmed in C
Free software programmed in C++
Assembly language software
Portable software |
29700632 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yanbu%20University%20College | Yanbu University College | Yanbu University College (YUC) is a public university located in Yanbu Al-Sinaiyah, Saudi Arabia. YUC is a non-profitable government institution founded in 2005 by the Royal Commission for Jubail and Yanbu. It offers bachelor degrees in the fields of Management Science, Computer Science, Information Technology, Interior Design Engineering and Applied Linguistics
Academics
The medium of instruction in undergraduate programs is English.
The grading system is the standard Grade Point Average (GPA) 0 to 4.0 scale with classes of:
Applicants are required to pass an English examination to determine the level of English course they are going to have in their preparation year.
Admission
For how Yanbu University college (male campus) calculate their balanced score, it comprises 50% for the high school certificate and 50% for the general capabilities test.
As for YUC(female campus), the balanced score comprises 20% for high school certificate, 30% general capabilities test, and 50% for the collective test performances (test of high school's maths, physics, chemistry and Biology). Both the general capabilities test and the collective test are evaluated by Qiyas.
Library
The libraries in YUC (Male and Female Campuses) which are located to all classrooms as well as the laboratories and it is an “open-stack” library, that allows students and faculty members free access to its resources.
The current number of books(hard copy) for YUC (male campus) is 4500 books, and for YUC (female campus) is 3200 books, categorized in computer science, computer engineering, social science, applied science, religion, accounting, management science, languages and literature and reference collection books. Also the library has over 600,000 total e-sources like e-books/e-journals (arabic) 100,000, for the e-journals (english) 3,204 and for e-books database (english) 533,449.
Also the seating capacity for YUC(male campus) is 81, and for the female campus is 225
Campus life
Student clubs
Yanbu University college (Male Campus)
Computer Club
Supply Chain Club
Yanbu University College (Female Campus)
Ata’a Club
Computer Club
Ghars Club
Management Club
Toastmasters Club
Design Club
Translation Club
Fashionista Club
Culture Club
English Express Club
Photography Club
Sports Club
Fun House Club
Happiness Club
Academic Departments
There are two departments of the Yanbu University College (Male), and four departments for Yanbu University College (Female) that offer degree programs, each with its own internal structure and activities. Teaching at YUC male and female is structured around these departments of study. A student is registered in one of the departments depending on the program the student is interested in pursuing. In addition to these departments, the Department of General Studies and Yanbu English Language Institute (YELI) offer courses which students need to take in order to complete their degrees.
Yanbu University College (Male Campus)
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
BS in Computer Engineering
BS in Computer Science
AD in Information and Computing Technology
Department of Management Sciences
BS in Management Information System
BS in Business Management (HRM)
BS in Business Management (Marketing)
BS in Accounting
BS in Business Management (Supply Chain Management)
AD in Office Management Technology
AD in Material Management Technology
AD in Accounting and Financial Management Technology
Yanbu University College (Female Campus)
Management Science
BS-Management Information System
BS-Accounting
BS -Business Management (Human Resources Management)
Applied Linguistics
Bachelor of Science in Applied Linguistics
Internal Design Engineering
Bachelor of Science in Interior Design Engineering
Computer Science and Engineering
BS in Computer Science
BS in Computer Engineering
Accreditations And Alignments
Yanbu University College, Management Science Department got first accreditation by ACBSP in 2006 for their diploma programs. In 2016 Management Science Department got the certificate of the renewal of the previous accreditations, and This time the BS programs also got accredited. The full list of Accredited programs are as follows:
BS in Management Information System
BS in Business Management (Human Resource Management)
BS in Business Management (Marketing)
BS in Accounting
BS in Business Management (Supply Chain Management)
AD in Office Management Technology
AD in Material Management Technology
AD in Accounting and Financial Management Technology
Yanbu University College has been implementing Quality Management system in all of its academic areas. And the acknowledgment of these quality management system awarded ISO 9001-2008 standard to YUC in 2014.
Accreditations underway:
NCAAA
ABET
Alignment of academic programs to professional bodies:
BS in BM (HRM) program is aligned to SHRM (Society of Human Resources Management)
BS in BM (Supply Chain Management) program is aligned to CILT (Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport)
BS in BM (Accounting) program is aligned with SOCPA (Saudi Organization for Certified Public Accountants)
References
YUC Official Website
YUC Library website
Yanbu Supply Chain & Logistics Center Twitter
RCYCI Libraries & Learning Resources
2005 establishments in Saudi Arabia
Educational institutions established in 2005
Universities and colleges in Saudi Arabia
Education in Saudi Arabia
Yanbu |
1513980 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lineo | Lineo | Lineo was a thin client and embedded systems company spun out of Caldera Thin Clients by 20 July 1999.
History
Caldera Thin Clients, Inc., had been created as a subsidiary of Caldera, Inc., on 2 September 1998. Caldera Thin Clients' original President and CEO was Roger Alan Gross, who resigned in January 1999. In April 1999, Caldera Thin Clients released the no longer needed sources to GEM and ViewMAX under the GNU General Public License (GPL).
In July 1999, Caldera Thin Clients decided on a major refocus on Linux and consequently changed its name to Lineo.
Lineo licensed a stripped down OpenLinux distribution from Caldera Systems and named it Embedix. They continued to maintain the former Caldera Thin Clients sales office in Taipei in 1999. In January 2000, Lineo reincorporated in Delaware.
Lineo's technologies fully owned were well ahead of competitors' products in the embedded system portion. These technologies included:
Rt-Control provided μClinux - a version of Linux for microcontrollers, such as the Motorola 68k/ColdFire line, i960, ARM7, and ETRAX CRIS chips. With these chips lacking MMU and thus unable to provide multi-tasking capabilities, uClinux was able to run full-featured in as little as 150 KB of RAM with a 1 MB ROM chip.
FirePlug - Linux-based projects, such as their Linux firewall built on the ThinLinux product, which ran in as little as 2 MB of disk/flash storage and 8 MB RAM.
Embedix - Lineo's flagship product that ran a complete multitasking, networked Linux operating system in 2 MB of ROM/flash and 4 MB of RAM.
Embedix SDK and the Embrowser - a fully graphical internet browser for embedded systems. Embrowser was Lineo's port of the 32-bit Extended DOS-based browser DR-WebSpyder, originally based on the Arachne browser.
This combination of technologies allowed Caldera Thin Clients to offer a full Linux operating system with a graphical browser that could run off a floppy disk. More importantly the product was unique, and this came from the fact that Lineo's view on the Linux embedded market was different from other vendors. All the other vendors believed that Linux was heavily fragmented and that the solution was to offer Linux features for real time OSes, that is a Linux API for some other OSes. Red Hat with its EL/IX created a kernel independent framework (API) which allowed some Linux software to run on the eCos kernel. Lineo did not agree with this assessment and believed the API offered far more advantages and allowed for a fully hardened system, that is, Lineo utilized a custom Linux kernel. Through the six companies Lineo acquired, they were able to extend the same Linux technology across multiple chip architectures and add real-time capabilities. The acquisitions gave broader Linux support, from very small microcontrollers, through traditional platforms like x86, and up to high end, high availability systems.
Lineo's president and CEO, when it reformed under the new name, became Bryan Wayne Sparks, who also had been one of the original founders of Caldera, Inc., in 1994. At the time of its creation, Lineo had 14 employees.
Lineo's main product was Embedix, a lightweight Linux distribution for embedded systems, licensed from Caldera Systems, Inc., another subsidiary of Caldera, Inc.
Another product was DR-DOS, a DOS–compatible operating system, previously developed by Caldera UK Ltd. between 1996 and 1999 and originally acquired from Novell by Caldera, Inc., on 23 July 1996.
Through its acquisitions Lineo also had a range of products in many different product categories.
Through a series of acquisitions and mergers, Lineo eventually ballooned to a peak of about 350 employees, with offices in seven countries. The companies that it acquired or merged with were:
Zentropix – realtime Linux specialists
Rt-Control Inc. – uClinux creators, very small board (uCdimm) vendors
Moreton Bay – VPN/Router vendor (located in Brisbane, Australia)
United Systems Engineering (USE) – Japanese Linux consulting company
Fireplug – Canadian Linux consulting company (ThinLinux product)
Inup – High availability Linux
Embedded Power Corporation – Realtime and DSP OS (RTXC product)
Decline
In October 2001, Lineo refreshed and expanded a free license for the redistribution and modification of original Digital Research binaries and sources related to CP/M and MP/M through "The Unofficial CP/M Web site" a license originally issued by Caldera in 1997.
After some assets were auctioned off in April 2002, by July 2002 the company had reformed as Embedix, Inc. under the lead of Matthew R. Harris, formerly a Summit Law attorney for Caldera, Inc. However, Embedix, Inc. was short-lived and ceased to exist later that year, when the Embedix division was purchased and absorbed by Motorola's Metrowerks.
The remaining Digital Research assets fell back to the investor Canopy Group, and parts of the DR-DOS sources were acquired by DeviceLogics in 2002.
Parts of the embedded modules and uClinux software assets (formerly Rt-Control Inc.) were acquired by Arcturus Networks Inc. in 2002.
The router division (formerly Moreton Bay) spun out as SnapGear, and was later acquired by CyberGuard and then Secure Computing, and Secure Computing was acquired by McAfee and as of 2008 was still producing the SnapGear brand of VPN/routers.
Lineo Japan, a former Japanese acquisition and at one time wholly owned subsidiary, United System Engineers, Inc. (USE), now trades as Lineo Solutions.
See also
Caldera Systems Smallfoot
HP Jornada X25
References
Further reading
External links
Lineo, Inc. (archived web site calderathin.com from 1999-10-12 to 1999-11-05, lineo.com from 2000-05-10 to 2003-03-20 and embedix.com from 2002-06-03 to 2003-02-20)
Lineo Solutions, Inc. (archived web site lineo.co.jp from 2003-04-09 to 2018-08-05)
Defunct software companies of the United States
Software companies established in 1999
Software companies disestablished in 2002
Defunct companies based in Utah
Defunct companies based in Delaware
Linux companies
Caldera (company)
1999 establishments in Utah
2002 disestablishments in Utah
de:Lineo |
2288348 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White%20box%20%28computer%20hardware%29 | White box (computer hardware) | In computer hardware, a white box is a personal computer or server without a well-known brand name. For instance, the term applies to systems assembled by small system integrators and to home-built computer systems assembled by end users from parts purchased separately at retail. In this latter sense, building a white box system is part of the DIY movement. The term is also applied to high volume production of unbranded PCs that began in the mid-1980s with 8 MHz Turbo XT systems selling for just under $1000.
In 2002, around 30% of personal computers sold annually were white box systems. Although saving money is a common motivation for building one's own PC, today it is generally more expensive to build a low-end PC than to buy a pre-built equivalent.
Operating system
While PCs built by system manufacturers generally come with a pre-installed operating system, white boxes from both large and small system vendors and other VAR channels can be ordered with or without a pre-installed OS. Usually when ordered with an operating system, the system builder uses an OEM copy of the OS.
Whitebook or Intel "Common Building Blocks"
Intel Corporation defined form factor and interconnection standards for notebook computer components, including "Barebones" (chassis and motherboard), hard disk drive, optical disk drive, LCD, battery pack, keyboard, and AC/DC adapter. These building blocks are primarily marketed to computer building companies, rather than DIY users.
See also
Beige box
DIY ethic
Homebuilt computer
White-label product
References
Computer enclosure
Electronics manufacturing
Personal computers
Computer jargon |
49197939 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Jersey%20Cybersecurity%20and%20Communications%20Integration%20Cell | New Jersey Cybersecurity and Communications Integration Cell | The New Jersey Cybersecurity and Communications Integration Cell (NJCCIC), also known as the New Jersey Office of Homeland Security and Preparedness' (NJOHSP) Division of Cybersecurity, is the first American state-level information sharing and analysis organization in the United States that exchanges cyber threat intelligence and conducts incident response for governments, businesses, and citizens in New Jersey. Located at NJ’s Regional Operations and Intelligence Center (ROIC), and acting in a cyber fusion center capacity the NJCCIC is composed of staff from NJOHSP, the NJ Office of Information Technology, and the NJ State Police. The NJCCIC's nomenclature is derived from its federal counterpart, the National Cybersecurity and Communications Integration Center, which encompasses the U.S. Department of Homeland Security's Computer Emergency Readiness Team (US-CERT).
History
On May 20, 2015, Governor Chris Christie signed an Executive order to establish the New Jersey Cybersecurity and Communications Integration Cell, proclaiming that "protecting the citizens and public and private institutions within the State of New Jersey from the threat of cybersecurity attacks is priority of [his] Administration." Governor Christie's directive followed a Presidential Executive Order from February 2015 signed at Stanford University "encourag[ing] the development and formation of Information Sharing and Analysis Organizations (ISAOs)...organized on the basis of sector, sub-sector, region, or any other affinity..." The formation of the NJCCIC also coincided with the aftermath of crippling and costly cyber-attacks against Rutgers University, New Jersey's largest public academic institution. The NJCCIC played a role in protecting Pope Francis during his 2015 visit to New York City and Philadelphia.
Leadership
Jared Maples was named Director of the New Jersey Office of Homeland Security and Preparedness (NJOHSP) by Governor Philip Murphy on April 17, 2018. In his role, he serves as the federally designated Homeland Security Advisor (HSA) to the Governor and is the Cabinet-level executive responsible for coordinating and leading New Jersey’s Counterterrorism, Cybersecurity, and Emergency Preparedness efforts.
Michael Geraghty is New Jersey's Chief Information Security Officer and the first Director of the NJCCIC. Director Geraghty manages the day-to-day functions of the NJCCIC.
Mission
The NJCCIC acts in a clearinghouse capacity providing New Jersey with a resource to coordinate cyber security information sharing and incident reporting, perform cybersecurity threat analysis, and promote shared and real-time situational awareness between and among public and private sectors. Beyond just sharing cyber threat intelligence, the NJCCIC also provides strategies and tactics that businesses, as well as state, county and local governments, academic institutions, and other organizations can implement to mitigate against current and emerging threats. Additionally, the NJCCIC manages a membership based information sharing platform where members receive cyber alerts, advisories, training announcements and bulletins directly via email, maintains an active social media presence and manages the cyber.nj.gov website to provide free cybersecurity resources.
The "Garden State Model" for cybersecurity
The NJCCIC received praise from Stanford University's Center for Internet and Society for "innovating" on cybersecurity information sharing at a pace and scale that few states have achieved. Incident response is currently limited to Executive Branch agencies in New Jersey, but according to a November 2015 study, "State of the States on Cybersecurity" by the Pell Center for International Relations and Public Policy, there are "plans to create a NJ CERT", or New Jersey Computer Emergency Readiness Team, to be deployed statewide.
Partnerships
On July 8, 2015, the New Jersey Cybersecurity and Communications Integration Cell partnered with the Financial Services Information Sharing and Analysis Center (FS-ISAC) to "share and analyze cyber threat information on behalf of New Jersey's banking institutions".
In January 2016, the NJCCIC and the National Health Information Sharing and Analysis Center announced a partnership to improve cybersecurity information sharing with New Jersey’s healthcare providers.
References
External links
NCCIC
New Jersey Office of Homeland Security and Preparedness
Financial Services Information Sharing and Analysis Center
State agencies of New Jersey
2015 establishments in New Jersey
Computer security organizations
Government agencies established in 2015 |
44536967 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20Men%27s%20Basketball%20Tournament | 2018 NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament | The 2018 NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament was a single-elimination tournament of 68 teams to determine the men's National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I college basketball national champion for the 2017–18 season. The 80th annual edition of the tournament began on March 13, 2018, and concluded with the championship game on April 2 at the Alamodome in San Antonio, Texas.
During the first round, UMBC became the first 16-seed to defeat a 1-seed in the men's tournament by defeating Virginia 74–54. For the first time in tournament history, none of the four top seeded teams in a single region (the South) advanced to the Sweet 16. The tournament also featured the first regional final matchup of a 9-seed (Kansas State) and an 11-seed (Loyola-Chicago).
Villanova, Michigan, Kansas, and Loyola-Chicago, the "Cinderella team" of the tournament, reached the Final Four. Villanova defeated Michigan in the championship game, 79–62.
Atlantic Sun Conference champion Lipscomb made its NCAA tournament debut.
The 2018 tournament was the first time since 1978 that none of the six Division I college basketball-playing schools based in the Washington, DC metropolitan area – American, Georgetown, George Mason, George Washington, Howard, and Maryland – made the NCAA Tournament.
Tournament procedure
A total of 68 teams entered the 2018 tournament. 32 automatic bids were awarded, one to each program that won their conference tournament. The remaining 36 bids were "at-large", with selections extended by the NCAA Selection Committee.
Eight teams (the four lowest-seeded automatic qualifiers and the four lowest-seeded at-large teams) played in the First Four (the successor to what had been popularly known as "play-in games" through the 2010 tournament). The winners of these games advanced to the main draw of the tournament.
The Selection Committee seeded the entire field from 1 to 68.
Schedule and venues
The following sites were selected to host each round of the 2018 tournament:
First Four
March 13 and 14
University of Dayton Arena, Dayton, Ohio (Host: University of Dayton)
First and Second Rounds
March 15 and 17
PPG Paints Arena, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (Host: Duquesne University)
Intrust Bank Arena, Wichita, Kansas (Host: Wichita State University)
American Airlines Center, Dallas, Texas (Host: Big 12 Conference)
Taco Bell Arena, Boise, Idaho (Host: Boise State University)
March 16 and 18
Spectrum Center, Charlotte, North Carolina (Host: University of North Carolina at Charlotte)
Little Caesars Arena, Detroit, Michigan (Host: University of Detroit Mercy)
Bridgestone Arena, Nashville, Tennessee (Host: Ohio Valley Conference)
Viejas Arena, San Diego, California (Host: San Diego State University)
Regional Semifinals and Finals (Sweet Sixteen and Elite Eight)
March 22 and 24
West Regional, Staples Center, Los Angeles, California (Host: Pepperdine University)
South Regional, Philips Arena, Atlanta, Georgia (Host: Georgia Institute of Technology)
March 23 and 25
East Regional, TD Garden, Boston, Massachusetts (Host: Boston College)
Midwest Regional, CenturyLink Center Omaha, Omaha, Nebraska (Host: Creighton University)
National Semifinals and Championship (Final Four and Championship)
March 31 and April 2
Alamodome, San Antonio, Texas (Host: University of Texas at San Antonio)
For the fourth time, the Alamodome and city of San Antonio are hosting the Final Four. This is the first tournament since 1994 in which no games were played in an NFL stadium, as the Alamodome is a college football stadium, although the Alamodome hosted some home games for the New Orleans Saints during their 2005 season. The 2018 tournament featured three new arenas in previous host cities. Philips Arena, the home of the Atlanta Hawks and replacement for the previously used Omni Coliseum, hosted the South regional games, and the new Little Caesars Arena, home of the Detroit Pistons and Detroit Red Wings, hosted games. And for the first time since 1994, the tournament returned to Wichita and Kansas where Intrust Bank Arena hosted first round games.
The state of North Carolina was threatened with a 2018-2022 championship venue boycott by the NCAA, due to the HB2 law passed in 2016. However, the law was repealed (but with provisos) days before the NCAA met to make decisions on venues in April 2017. At that time, the NCAA board of governors "reluctantly voted to allow consideration of championship bids in North Carolina by our committees that are presently meeting". Therefore, Charlotte was eligible and served as a first weekend venue for the 2018 tournament.
Qualification and selection
Four teams, out of 351 in Division I, were ineligible to participate in the 2018 tournament due to failing to meet APR requirements: Alabama A&M, Grambling State, Savannah State, and Southeast Missouri State. However, the NCAA granted the Savannah State Tigers a waiver which would have allowed the team to participate in the tournament, but the team failed to qualify.
Automatic qualifiers
The following 32 teams were automatic qualifiers for the 2018 NCAA field by virtue of winning their conference's automatic bid.
Tournament seeds
The tournament seeds were determined through the NCAA basketball tournament selection process. The seeds and regions were determined as follows:
*See First Four
Regional brackets
All times are listed as Eastern Daylight Time (UTC−4)
* – Denotes overtime period
First Four – Dayton, Ohio
{{align|left|{{2TeamBracket | RD1= March 14 – Midwest Region
| team-width =
| RD1-seed1=11
| RD1-team1=Syracuse
| RD1-score1=60
| RD1-seed2=11
| RD1-team2=Arizona State'| RD1-score2=56
}}}}
South Regional – Atlanta, Georgia
South Regional Final
South Regional all tournament team
Ben Richardson (Sr, Loyola-Chicago) – South Regional most outstanding player
Clayton Custer (Jr, Loyola-Chicago)
Donte Ingram (Sr, Loyola-Chicago)
Xavier Sneed (So, Kansas State)
Barry Brown Jr. (Jr, Kansas State)
West Regional – Los Angeles, California
West Regional Final
West Regional all tournament team
Charles Matthews (So, Michigan) – West Regional most outstanding player
Moritz Wagner (Jr, Michigan)
Muhammad-Ali Abdur-Rahkman (Sr, Michigan)
Phil Cofer (Sr, Florida State)
Terance Mann (Jr, Florida State)
East Regional – Boston, Massachusetts
East Regional Final
East Regional all tournament team
Jalen Brunson (Jr, Villanova) – East Regional most outstanding player
Omari Spellman (Fr, Villanova)
Eric Paschall (Jr, Villanova)
Carsen Edwards (So, Purdue)
Keenan Evans (Sr, Texas Tech)
Midwest Regional – Omaha, Nebraska
Midwest Regional Final
Midwest Regional all tournament team
Malik Newman (So, Kansas) – Midwest Regional most outstanding player
Trevon Duval (Fr, Duke)
Gabe DeVoe (Sr, Clemson)
Marvin Bagley III (Fr, Duke)
Devonte' Graham (Sr, Kansas)
Gary Trent Jr. (Fr, Duke)
Final Four
During the Final Four round, regardless of the seeds of the participating teams, the champion of the top overall top seed's region (Virginia's South Region) plays against the champion of the fourth-ranked top seed's region (Xavier's West Region), and the champion of the second overall top seed's region (Villanova's East Region) plays against the champion of the third-ranked top seed's region (Kansas' Midwest Region).
Alamodome – San Antonio, Texas
National Semifinals
National Championship
Final Four all-tournament team
Donte DiVincenzo (So, Villanova) – Final Four Most Outstanding Player
Mikal Bridges (Jr, Villanova)
Jalen Brunson (Jr, Villanova)
Eric Paschall (Jr, Villanova)
Moritz Wagner (Jr, Michigan)
Record by conference
The R64, R32, S16, E8, F4, CG, and NC columns indicate how many teams from each conference were in the round of 64 (first round), round of 32 (second round), Sweet 16, Elite Eight, Final Four, championship game, and national champion, respectively.
The "Record" column includes wins in the First Four for the ACC, Atlantic 10, Big South, and SWAC conferences and two losses in the First Four for the Pac-12 conference.
The MEAC and NEC conferences each had one representative, eliminated in the First Four with a record of 0–1.
The Atlantic Sun, Big Sky, Big West, CAA, Horizon, Ivy League, MAAC, Ohio Valley, Patriot, Southern, Southland, Summit, Sun Belt and WAC conferences each had one representative, eliminated in the First Round with a record of 0–1.
The Pac-12 lost all of its teams after the first day of the main tournament draw, marking the first time since the Big 12 began play in 1996 that one of the six major conferences—defined as the ACC, Big Ten, Big 12, Pac-12, SEC, and both versions of the Big East—failed to have a team advance to the tournament's round of 32.
Media coverage
Television
CBS Sports and Turner Sports had U.S. television rights to the Tournament under the NCAA March Madness brand. As part of a cycle beginning in 2016, TBS held the rights to the Final Four and to the championship game.
For the first time, TBS held the rights to the Selection Show, which expanded into a two-hour format, was presented in front of a studio audience, and promoted that the entire field of the tournament would be unveiled within the first ten minutes of the broadcast. However, this entailed the 68-team field (beginning with automatic qualifiers, followed by at-large teams) being revealed in alphabetical order, and not by bracket matchups (which was done later in the show). The new format was criticized for lacking suspense, and the show also faced criticism for technical issues, as well as a segment containing product placement for Pizza Hut.
Television channels
First Four – TruTV
First and Second Rounds – CBS, TBS, TNT, and TruTV
Regional Semifinals and Finals (Sweet Sixteen and Elite Eight) – CBS and TBS
National Semifinals (Final Four) and Championship – TBS
Studio hosts
Greg Gumbel (New York City and San Antonio) – First Round, Second Round, Regionals, Final Four and National Championship Game
Ernie Johnson Jr. (New York City, Atlanta, and San Antonio) – First Round, Second Round, Regional Semi-Finals, Final Four and National Championship Game
Casey Stern (Atlanta) – First Four, First Round and Second Round
Studio analysts
Charles Barkley (New York City and San Antonio) – First Round, Second Round, Regionals, Final Four and National Championship Game
Seth Davis (Atlanta and San Antonio) – First Four, First Round, Second Round, Regional Semi-Finals, Final Four and National Championship Game
Brendan Haywood (Atlanta and San Antonio) – First Four, First Round, Second Round, Regional Semi-Finals and Final Four
Clark Kellogg (New York City and San Antonio) – First Round, Second Round, Regionals, Final Four and National Championship Game
Gregg Marshall (Atlanta) – Regional Semi-Finals
Frank Martin (Atlanta) – Second Round
Candace Parker (Atlanta and San Antonio) – First Four, First Round, Second Round, Regional Semi-Finals and Final Four
Kenny Smith (New York City and San Antonio) – First Round, Second Round, Regionals, Final Four and National Championship Game
Wally Szczerbiak (New York City) – Second Round
Brad Underwood (Atlanta) – First Round
Christian Laettner (San Antonio) – Final Four
Danny Manning (San Antonio) – Final Four
Kris Jenkins (San Antonio) – Final Four
Commentary teams
Jim Nantz/Bill Raftery/Grant Hill/Tracy Wolfson – First and Second Rounds at Charlotte, North Carolina; Midwest Regional at Omaha, Nebraska; Final Four and National Championship at San Antonio, Texas
Brian Anderson/Chris Webber/Lisa Byington – First and Second Rounds at Boise, Idaho; South Regional at Atlanta, Georgia
Ian Eagle/Jim Spanarkel/Allie LaForce – First Four at Dayton, Ohio (Wednesday); First and Second Rounds at Detroit, Michigan; East Regional at Boston, Massachusetts
Kevin Harlan/Reggie Miller/Dan Bonner/Dana Jacobson – First and Second Rounds at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; West Regional at Los Angeles, California
Brad Nessler/Steve Lavin/Evan Washburn – First and Second Rounds at Wichita, Kansas
Spero Dedes/Steve Smith/Len Elmore/Rosalyn Gold-Onwude – First Four at Dayton, Ohio (Tuesday); First and Second Rounds at Dallas, Texas
Andrew Catalon/Steve Lappas/Jamie Erdahl – First and Second Rounds at Nashville, Tennessee
Carter Blackburn/Debbie Antonelli/John Schriffen – First and Second Rounds at San Diego, California
Team Stream broadcasts
Final Four
Matt Park/Jay Feely/Dr. Sanjay Gupta – Michigan Team Stream on TNT
Jeff Hagedorn/Jerry Harkness/Shams Charania – Loyola–Chicago Team Stream on truTV
Dave Armstrong/Scot Pollard/Rob Riggle– Kansas Team Stream on TNT
Scott Graham/Randy Foye/Kacie McDonnell – Villanova Team Stream on truTV
National Championship Game
Matt Park/Jay Feely/Dr. Sanjay Gupta – Michigan Team Stream on TNT
Scott Graham/Randy Foye/Kacie McDonnell – Villanova Team Stream on truTV
Radio
Westwood One had exclusive radio rights to the entire tournament.
First Four
Ted Emrich and Austin Croshere – at Dayton, Ohio
First and Second rounds
Scott Graham and Kelly Tripucka – Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Brandon Gaudin and Donny Marshall – Wichita, Kansas
Ryan Radtke and Jim Jackson – Dallas, Texas
Jason Benetti and Dan Dickau – Boise, Idaho
Kevin Kugler and Eric Montross/John Thompson – Charlotte, North Carolina (Montross – Friday night; Thompson – Friday Afternoon & Sunday)
Chris Carrino and P. J. Carlesimo – Detroit, Michigan
Ted Emrich – Friday Afternoon/Craig Way – Friday Night & Sunday and Will Perdue – Nashville, Tennessee
John Sadak and Mike Montgomery – San Diego, California
Regionals
Gary Cohen and P. J. Carlesimo – East Regional at Boston, Massachusetts
Kevin Kugler and Donny Marshall – Midwest Regional at Omaha, Nebraska
Brandon Gaudin and John Thompson – South Regional at Atlanta, Georgia
Tom McCarthy and Jim Jackson – West Regional at Los Angeles, California
Final four
Kevin Kugler, John Thompson, Clark Kellogg, and Jim Gray – San Antonio, Texas
Internet
Video
Live video of games was available for streaming through the following means:
NCAA March Madness Live (website and app, no CBS games on digital media players; access to games on Turner channels requires TV Everywhere authentication through provider; 3 hour preview for Turner games is provided before authentication is required)
CBS All Access (only CBS games, service subscription required)
CBS Sports website and app (only CBS games)
Bleacher Report website and Team Stream'' app (only Turner games, access requires subscription)
Watch TBS website and app (only TBS games, requires TV Everywhere authentication)
Watch TNT website and app (only TNT games, requires TV Everywhere authentication)
Watch truTV website and app (only truTV games, requires TV Everywhere authentication)
Websites and apps of cable, satellite, and OTT providers of CBS & Turner (access requires subscription)
Audio
Live audio of games was available for streaming through the following means:
NCAA March Madness Live (website and app)
Westwood One Sports website
TuneIn (website and app)
Websites and apps of Westwood One Sports affiliates
See also
2018 NCAA Division II Men's Basketball Tournament
2018 NCAA Division III Men's Basketball Tournament
2018 NAIA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament
2018 U Sports Men's Basketball Championship
2018 UMBC vs. Virginia men's basketball game
References
Ncaa Tournament
NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament
Basketball in San Antonio
NCAA Division I Men's Basketball
21st century in San Antonio |
1459625 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken%20Norton%20Jr. | Ken Norton Jr. | Kenneth Howard Norton Jr. (born September 29, 1966) is an American football coach and former linebacker who most recently served as the defensive coordinator for the Seattle Seahawks of the National Football League (NFL) from 2018 to 2021. He is the son of Ken Norton, former world champion heavyweight boxer.
Early years
Norton Jr. is a graduate of Westchester High School in California, where he played as a running back averaging 8.8 yards per carry as a senior.
He went on to play at UCLA from 1984 to 1987, where he was converted to linebacker, the position he would play for the remainder of his football career.
Norton was a member of the 1985 conference championship team, and helped the Bruins to four consecutive bowl game wins. He led the team with 106 tackles in 1986 and 125 in 1987. He ranks sixth in school history with 339 career tackles.
He was named the team's defensive MVP in 1987, earned All-American honors, and was a finalist for the Butkus Award.
Norton was inducted in the UCLA Hall of Fame in 1998.
Playing career
Dallas Cowboys
Norton was drafted in the second round of the 1988 NFL Draft by the Dallas Cowboys. He spent most of his rookie year on the injured reserve list with a broken thumb.
In 1989, Norton and Jesse Solomon shared the weakside linebacker position. He played the first and third quarters, Solomon the second and fourth.
In 1990, he became a full-time starter when Solomon held out and was eventually traded to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. A knee injury sidelined him for the last two games of the season.
In 1991, he bounced back from knee surgery and was used at strongside linebacker and middle linebacker during that season, eventually settling in at the middle linebacker spot.
In 1992, he blossomed as a player and became the leader of the defense, leading the team in tackles with 120 and helping the Cowboys win their first Super Bowl in the 1990s. That year the Cowboys had the number one defense in the league, but no player was voted to the Pro Bowl.
He also started doing his trademarked punching of the goal posts or the air, after making good plays. A tribute to his father, the one time boxing heavyweight champion of the world, Ken Norton.
In 1993, he had to play through a torn biceps injury, but still managed to lead the team in tackles with 159, helping the Cowboys win their second straight Super Bowl. He was also selected to his first Pro Bowl.
Norton played in Dallas between 1988 and 1993, assisting the Cowboys to victory in Super Bowl XXVII and Super Bowl XXVIII. Norton scored a touchdown on a fumble recovery in the fourth quarter of Super Bowl XXVII, helping to seal a Cowboys victory.
In 1994 when a salary cap was instituted in the NFL, the Cowboys organization felt they could find linebackers through the draft, without the need of paying a premium and adversely impacting the salary cap, so they allowed talented and productive players like Ken Norton Jr., Darrin Smith, Dixon Edwards, and Robert Jones to leave via free agency, instead of signing them into long-term contracts.
San Francisco 49ers
During the first year of free agency, he joined the San Francisco 49ers from 1994 to 2000, becoming the first player to win three consecutive Super Bowls (Super Bowl XXIX). Norton was selected to his second Pro Bowl in 1995. Norton was also named to the NFL All-Pro Team following the 1995 season. Norton is also notable for his part in ending the career of Napoleon McCallum. In the first game of the 1994 season, Norton, along with Bryant Young, tackled McCallum during a rushing play. While he was being pulled to the ground, McCallum's knee collapsed backwards into an unnatural position, almost at a 90 degree angle. After the play, Norton remained under McCallum while medical staff attended to McCallum.
Norton finished his 13 NFL seasons with 12 sacks and 5 interceptions, which he returned for 127 yards and 2 touchdowns (both in the same game against the St. Louis Rams in 1995). He also recovered 13 fumbles and returned them for 36 yards. Along with ex-teammate Deion Sanders, Norton won consecutive Super Bowls on different teams. Years later, LeGarrette Blount and Chris Long would become the third and fourth players to do so.
Coaching career
USC (2004-2009)
In 2004, he joined the coaching staff of the USC Trojan football team under Head Coach Pete Carroll. From 2004–2009, he served as the linebacker coach for the Trojans; while at USC he helped recruit and develop NFL-bound linebackers such as NFL Pro Bowler Lofa Tatupu, Dallas Sartz, Keith Rivers, Brian Cushing, Kaluka Maiava, Clay Matthews III, and Rey Maualuga.
On January 7, 2009, Norton was promoted to USC Assistant Head Coach for Defense. A form of recognition of his continuing work with the USC linebacker corps, he has developed three consecutive Rose Bowl MVPs: Brian Cushing (2007), Rey Maualuga (2008) and Kaluka Maiava (2009).
Attending the player evaluations of the by-invitation-only 2009 NFL Scouting Combine were all four of Norton's Trojan senior class linebacker protégés: Brian Cushing, Kaluka Maiava, Clay Matthews III, and Rey Maualuga.
Seattle Seahawks (2010-2014)
On January 11, 2010, it was announced that USC linebackers coach Norton would be joining head coach Pete Carroll in Seattle to fill the same role with the Seahawks, reuniting him with his protégé, Seahawks defensive standout Lofa Tatupu.
Norton would also win his fourth Super Bowl, Super Bowl XLVIII on February 2, 2014, his first as a coach.
Norton was instrumental in the development of the Seattle Seahawks star linebacker group consisting of All-Pro Bobby Wagner, Pro Bowler K.J. Wright, Super Bowl MVP Malcolm Smith, special teams captain Heath Farwell, veteran Leroy Hill and pass rush specialist Bruce Irvin.
Oakland Raiders (2015-2017)
On February 6, 2015, he was named the defensive coordinator for the Oakland Raiders. The Raiders also signed Seattle Seahawks outside linebacker Bruce Irvin reuniting him with his former coach.
Under Norton’s tutelage, outside linebacker Khalil Mack won the NFL Defensive Player of the Year Award at the end of the 2016 season.
He was fired by head coach Jack Del Rio on November 21, 2017, two days after the Raiders suffered a blowout 33 to 8 loss to the New England Patriots and the defense having not intercepted a pass in 11 weeks.
San Francisco 49ers and Seahawks (2018-2021)
On January 8, 2018, he was hired as the 49ers assistant head coach, leaving the position just 1 week later when the Seahawks hired him as defensive coordinator. Norton was fired after the conclusion of the 2021 NFL season lasting 4 seasons in his second stint with the Seahawks.
Return to UCLA
In February of 2022, Norton returned to his alma mater, UCLA, as the linebackers coach on Chip Kelly's staff.
Personal life
Norton is the son of Ken Norton, former world champion heavyweight boxer, who was one of the few to ever beat Muhammad Ali. He and his wife, Angela, have three children: Brittney, Sabrina, and Ken III. After retiring from the NFL, Norton served as a radio and television commentator and analyst, and coached football at Hamilton High School in Los Angeles, California.
References
External links
Seattle Seahawks profile
1966 births
Living people
American football linebackers
Dallas Cowboys players
National Conference Pro Bowl players
National Football League defensive coordinators
Oakland Raiders coaches
Players of American football from Illinois
San Francisco 49ers coaches
San Francisco 49ers players
Seattle Seahawks coaches
Sportspeople from Jacksonville, Illinois
UCLA Bruins football players
USC Trojans football coaches
Westchester High School (Los Angeles) alumni |
60644 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral | Peripheral | A peripheral or peripheral device is an auxiliary device used to put information into and get information out of a computer. The term peripheral device refers to all hardware components that are attached to a computer and are controlled by the computer system, but they are not the core components of the computer, such as the CPU or power supply unit. In other words, peripherals can also be defined as devices that can be easily removed and plugged into a computer system.
Several categories of peripheral devices may be identified, based on their relationship with the computer:
An input device sends data or instructions to the computer, such as a mouse, keyboard, graphics tablet, image scanner, barcode reader, game controller, light pen, light gun, microphone and webcam;
An output device provides output data from the computer, such as a computer monitor, projector, printer, headphones and computer speaker;
An input/output device performs both input and output functions, such as a computer data storage device (including a disk drive, solid-state drive, USB flash drive, memory card and tape drive), modem, network adapter and multi-function printer.
Many modern electronic devices, such as Internet-enabled digital watches, keyboards, and tablet computers, have interfaces for use as computer peripheral
devices.
See also
Display device
Expansion card
Punched card input/output
Punched tape
Video game accessory
References |
5848756 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VAX%20MACRO | VAX MACRO | VAX MACRO is the computer assembly language implementing the VAX instruction set for the OpenVMS operating system, originally released by Digital Equipment Corporation in 1977.
The syntax, directives, macro language, and lexical substitution operators of VAX MACRO previously appeared in MACRO-11, the assembler for the PDP-11 series of computers. The MACRO-32 assembler supported the VAX processors developed and manufactured by Digital Equipment Corporation. It ran under the VMS operating system and produced object files suitable for the VMS linker. Both the MACRO-32 assembler and the linker were bundled with the operating system.
In order to port VMS to the Alpha, VAX MACRO was implemented for the Alpha architecture. Since the Alpha used a different instruction set than the VAX, MACRO-32 was implemented as a compiler, compiling VAX assembly language into Alpha instructions.
The Alpha AXP chips have their own native instruction set architecture, the OpenVMS assembler for Alpha assembly code is called MACRO-64.
A compiler from MACRO-32 is available for Intel Itanium architecture, and for x86-64.
References
External links
VSI OpenVMS VAX MACRO and Instruction Set Reference Manual
VSI OpenVMS MACRO Compiler Porting and User's Guide
Assembly languages
OpenVMS
OpenVMS software
Digital Equipment Corporation |
1754950 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote%20backup%20service | Remote backup service | A remote, online, or managed backup service, sometimes marketed as cloud backup or backup-as-a-service, is a service that provides users with a system for the backup, storage, and recovery of computer files. Online backup providers are companies that provide this type of service to end users (or clients). Such backup services are considered a form of cloud computing.
Online backup systems are typically built for a client software program that runs on a given schedule. Some systems run once a day, usually at night while computers aren't in use. Other newer cloud backup services run continuously to capture changes to user systems nearly in real-time. The online backup system typically collects, compresses, encrypts, and transfers the data to the remote backup service provider's servers or off-site hardware.
There are many products on the market – all offering different feature sets, service levels, and types of encryption. Providers of this type of service frequently target specific market segments. High-end LAN-based backup systems may offer services such as Active Directory, client remote control, or open file backups. Consumer online backup companies frequently have beta software offerings and/or free-trial backup services with fewer live support options.
History
In the mid-1980s, the computer industry was in a great state of change with modems at speeds of 1200 to 2400 baud, making transfers of large amounts of data slow (1 MB in 72 minutes). While faster modems and more secure network protocols were in development, tape backup systems gained in popularity. During that same period the need for an affordable, reliable online backup system was becoming clear, especially for businesses with critical data.
More online/remote backup services came into existence during the heyday of the dot-com boom in the late 1990s. The initial years of these large industry service providers were about capturing market share and understanding the importance and the role that these online backup providers were playing in the web services arena. Today, most service providers of online backup services position their services using the SaaS (software as a service) and PaaS (Platform as a service) strategy and its relevance is predicted to increase exponentially in the years to come as personal and enterprise data storage needs rise. The last few years have also witnessed a healthy rise in the number of independent online backup providers.
Characteristics
Service-based
The assurance, guarantee, or validation that what was backed up is recoverable whenever it is required is critical. Data stored in the service provider's cloud must undergo regular integrity validation to ensure its recoverability.
Cloud BUR (BackUp & Restore) services need to provide a variety of granularity when it comes to RTO's (Recovery Time Objective). One size does not fit all either for the customers or the applications within a customer's environment.
The customer should never have to manage the back end storage repositories in order to back up and recover data.
The interface used by the customer needs to enable the selection of data to protect or recover, the establishment of retention times, destruction dates as well as scheduling.
Cloud backup needs to be an active process where data is collected from systems that store the original copy. This means that cloud backup will not require data to be copied into a specific appliance from where data is collected before being transmitted to and stored in the service provider's data centre.
Ubiquitous access
Cloud BUR utilizes standard networking protocols (which today are primarily but not exclusively IP based) to transfer data between the customer and the service provider.
Vaults or repositories need to be always available to restore data to any location connected to the Service Provider’s Cloud via private or public networks.
Scalable and elastic
Cloud BUR enables flexible allocation of storage capacity to customers without limit. Storage is allocated on demand and also de-allocated as customers delete backup sets as they age.
Cloud BUR enables a Service Provider to allocate storage capacity to a customer. If that customer later deletes their data or no longer needs that capacity, the Service Provider can then release and reallocate that same capacity to a different customer in an automated fashion.
Metered by use
Cloud Backup allows customers to align the value of data with the cost of protecting it. It is procured on a per-gigabyte per month basis. Prices tend to vary based on the age of data, type of data (email, databases, files etc.), volume, number of backup copies and RTOs.
Shared and secure
The underlying enabling technology for Cloud Backup is a full stack native cloud multitenant platform (shared everything).
Data mobility/portability prevents service provider lock-in and allows customers to move their data from one Service Provider to another, or entirely back into a dedicated Private Cloud (or a Hybrid Cloud).
Security in the cloud is critical. One customer can never have access to another’s data. Additionally, even Service Providers must not be able to access their customer’s data without the customer’s permission.
Enterprise-class cloud backup
An enterprise-class cloud backup solution must include an on-premises cache, to mitigate any issues due to inconsistent Internet connectivity.
Hybrid cloud backup works by storing data to local disk so that the backup can be captured at high speed, and then either the backup software or a D2D2C (Disk to Disk to Cloud) appliance encrypts and transmits data to a service provider. This adds protection against local
disasters. Recent backups are retained locally, to speed data recovery operations.
There are a number of cloud storage appliances on the market that can be used as a backup target, including appliances from CTERA Networks, StorSimple and TwinStrata.
Hybrid cloud backup is also beneficial for enterprise users who have security concerns. When storing data locally before sending it to the cloud, backup users can perform the necessary encryption operations, incl. technologies like:
Data encryption cipher (AES 128, AES192, AES256 or blowfish)
Windows Encrypting File System (EFS)
Verification of files previously catalogued, permitting a Tripwire-like capability
CRAM-MD5 password authentication between each component (storage, client and cloud)
Configurable TLS (SSL) communications encryption between each component (storage, client and cloud)
Computation of MD5 or SHA1 signatures of the file data, if configured
Data encryption should additionally be applied when you choose a public cloud service provider.
The same is important for the compression of backup data. The local backup cache is used to compress the data before sending it to the cloud in order to lower the network bandwidth load and improve backup speed. This becomes critical for enterprises which backup huge databases like Oracle or MS SQL or huge files like virtual machine images or mail server databases (EDB files of Exchange).
Recent improvements in CPU availability allow increased use of software agents instead of hardware appliances for enterprise cloud backup. The software-only approach can offer advantages including decreased complexity, simple scalability, significant cost savings and improved data recovery times.
Typical features
Encryption Data should be encrypted before it is sent across the internet, and it should be stored in its encrypted state. Encryption should be at least 256 bits, and the user should have the option of using his own encryption key, which should never be sent to the server.
Network backup A backup service supporting network backup can back up multiple computers, servers or Network Attached Storage appliances on a local area network from a single computer or device.
Continuous backup - Continuous Data Protection Allows the service to back up continuously or on a predefined schedule. Both methods have advantages and disadvantages. Most backup services are schedule-based and perform backups at a predetermined time. Some services provide continuous data backups which are used by large financial institutions and large online retailers. However, there is typically a trade-off with performance and system resources.
File-by-File Restore The ability for users to restore files themselves, without the assistance of a Service Provider by allowing the user select files by name and/or folder. Some services allow users to select files by searching for filenames and folder names, by dates, by file type, by backup set, and by tags.
Online access to files Some services allow you to access backed-up files via a normal web browser. Many services do not provide this type of functionality.
Data compression Data will typically be compressed with a lossless compression algorithm to minimize the amount of bandwidth used.
Differential data compression A way to further minimize network traffic is to transfer only the binary data that has changed from one day to the next, similar to the open source file transfer service Rsync. More advanced online backup services use this method rather than transfer entire files.
Bandwidth usage User-selectable option to use more or less bandwidth; it may be possible to set this to change at various times of day.
Off-Line Backup Off-Line Backup allows along with and as part of the online backup solution to cover daily backups in time when network connection is down. At this time the remote backup software must perform backup onto a local media device like a tape drive, a disk or another server. The minute network connection is restored remote backup software will update the remote datacenter with the changes coming out of the off-line backup media .
Synchronization Many services support data synchronization allowing users to keep a consistent library of all their files across many computers. The technology can help productivity and increase access to data.
Common features for business users
Bulk restore
A way to restore data from a portable storage device when a full restore over the Internet might take too long.
Centralized management console
Allows for an IT department or staff member to monitor and manage backups & restores for the regular user.
File retention policies
Many businesses require a flexible file retention policy that can be applied to an unlimited number of groups of files called "sets".
Fully managed services
Some services offer a higher level of support to businesses that might request immediate help, proactive monitoring, personal visits from their service provider, or telephone support.
Redundancy
Multiple copies of data backed up at different locations. This can be achieved by having two or more mirrored data centers, or by keeping a local copy of the latest version of backed up data on site with the business.
Regulatory compliance
Some businesses are required to comply with government regulations that govern privacy, disclosure, and legal discovery. A service provider that offers this type of service assists customers with proper compliance with and understanding of these laws.
Seed loading
Ability to send a first backup on a portable storage device rather than over the Internet when a user has large amounts of data that they need quickly backed up.
Server backup
Many businesses require backups of servers and the special applications or databases that run on them, such as groupware, SQL, ERP- or CRM-systems and directory services. This requires not only regular file-based approach, but specific point-in-time backups and restores for databases.
Versioning
Keeps multiple past versions of files to allow for rollback to or restoration from a specific point in time.
Cost factors
Online backup services are usually priced as a function of the following things:
The total amount of data being backed up.
The total amount of data being restored.
The number of machines covered by the backup service.
The maximum number of versions of each file that are kept.
Data retention and archiving period options
Managed backups vs. Unmanaged backups
The level of service and features available
Some vendors limit the number of versions of a file that can be kept in the system. Some services omit this restriction and provide an unlimited number of versions. Add-on features (plug-ins), like the ability to back up currently open or locked files, are usually charged as an extra, but some services provide this built in.
Most remote backup services reduce the amount of data to be sent over the wire by only backing up changed files. This approach to backing up means that the customers total stored data is reduced. Reducing the amount of data sent and also stored can be further drastically reduced by only transmitting the changed data bits by binary or block level incremental backups. Solutions that transmit only these changed binary data bits do not waste bandwidth by transmitting the same file data over and over again if only small amounts change.
Advantages
Remote backup has advantages over traditional backup methods:
Remote backup does not require user intervention. The user does not have to change tapes, label CDs or perform other manual steps.
Unlimited data retention (presuming the backup provider stays in business).
Some remote backup services will work continuously, backing up files as they are changed.
Most remote backup services will maintain a list of versions of your files.
Most remote backup services will use a 128 - 2048 bit encryption to send data over unsecured links (e.g. internet).
A few remote backup services can reduce backup by only transmitting changed data.
Manage and secure digital data information.
Disadvantages
Remote backup has some disadvantages over traditional backup methods:
Depending on the available network bandwidth, the restoration of data can be slow. Because data is stored offsite, the data must be recovered either via the Internet or via a disk shipped from the online backup service provider.
Some backup service providers have no guarantee that stored data will be kept private.
It is possible that a remote backup service provider could go out of business or be purchased, which may affect the accessibility of one's data or the cost to continue using the service.
If the encryption password is lost, data recovery will be impossible. However, with managed services this should not be a problem.
Residential broadband services often have monthly limits that preclude large backups. They are also usually asymmetric; the user-to-network link regularly used to store backups is much slower than the network-to-user link used only when data is restored.
In terms of price, when looking at the raw cost of hard disks, remote backups cost about 1-20 times per GB what a local backup would.
Managed vs. unmanaged
Some services provide expert backup management services as part of the overall offering. These services typically include:
Assistance configuring the initial backup
Continuous monitoring of the backup processes on the client machines to ensure that backups actually happen
Proactive alerting in the event that any backups fail
Assistance in restoring and recovering data
Scheduled vs. manual vs. event-based backup
There are three distinct types of backup modes: scheduled, manual and Event-based.
Scheduled Backup – data is backed up according to a fixed schedule.
Manual Backup – backup of data is triggered by user input.
Event-based Backup – backup of data is triggered by some computer events, e.g. database or application stoppage (cold backup).
See also
Cloud storage
Comparison of backup software (includes Managed backup providers)
Comparison of file hosting services
Comparison of file synchronization software
Comparison of online backup services
Comparison of online music lockers
File hosting service
File sharing
List of backup software
Off-site data protection – The practice of sending data off-site for safe keeping, but not necessarily using a remote backup service.
Shared disk access
References
External links
NIST definition of Cloud Computing
Backup service
Backup software
Backup
Cloud storage |
61814062 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnemaspis%20thackerayi | Cnemaspis thackerayi | Cnemaspis thackerayi, also known as Thackeray's dwarf gecko, is a species of gecko endemic to India.
Etymology
The epithet, thackerayi, is in honor of Indian conservationist and wildlife researcher Tejas Thackeray.
References
http://reptile-database.reptarium.cz/species?genus=Cnemaspis&species=thackerayi
thackerayi
Reptiles of India
Reptiles described in 2019 |
3556173 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian%20Information%20Security%20Association | Australian Information Security Association | The Australian Information Security Association (AISA) is an Australian-based professional membership association, not-for-profit and peak industry body that seeks to facilitate the development of a robust information security sector by building the capacity of professionals in Australia and advancing the cyber security and safety of the Australian public as well as businesses and governments in Australia. Established in 1999, AISA has a membership of over 7,000 individuals. AISA seeks caters to all domains of the information security industry with a particular focus on sharing expertise from the field at meetings, focus groups and networking opportunities around Australia.
AISA works towards a vision where people, businesses and governments are educated about the risks and dangers of cyber attack and data theft, and to enable them to take all reasonable precautions to protect themselves.
AISA has branches in all Australian states and territories, including in Sydney, Melbourne, Canberra, Brisbane, Perth, Adelaide, Darwin and Hobart. AISA also hosts a 'cloud' branch that caters for individuals who are unable to attend in-person branch events. Meetings occur in each state every month and attract information security professionals, IT professionals, professionals from privacy, law and risk management, as well as enthusiasts and students from a wide cross-section of organisations.
AISA is an organisation for individuals rather than companies and aims to maintain an unbiased view of information security in Australia.
AISA hosts two major conferences annually, The Australian Cyber Conference. Conferences are hosted in Canberra every year, with a second annual conference alternating between Sydney and Melbourne. In addition, smaller conferences take place in Perth, Brisbane and Adelaide.
AISA works closely with international cybersecurity and auditing organisations such as (ISC)², ISACA, and IAPP.
References
External links
Official Website
Computer security organizations
Professional associations based in Australia |
30929777 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenPuff | OpenPuff | OpenPuff Steganography and Watermarking, sometimes abbreviated OpenPuff or Puff, is a free steganography tool for Microsoft Windows created by Cosimo Oliboni and still maintained as independent software. The program is notable for being the first steganography tool (version 1.01 released on December 2004) that:
lets users hide data in more than a single carrier file. When hidden data are split among a set of carrier files you get a carrier chain, with no enforced hidden data theoretical size limit (256MB, 512MB, ... depending only on the implementation)
implements 3 layers of hidden data obfuscation (cryptography, whitening and encoding)
extends deniable cryptography into deniable steganography
Last revision supports a wide range of carrier formats
Images Bmp, Jpg, Png, Tga
Audios Aiff, Mp3, Wav
Videos 3gp, Mp4, Mpeg I, Mpeg II, Vob
Flash-Adobe Flv, Pdf, Swf
Use
OpenPuff is used primarily for anonymous asynchronous data sharing:
the sender hides a hidden stream inside some public available carrier files (password + carrier files + carrier order are the secret key)
the receiver unhides the hidden stream knowing the secret key
The advantage of steganography, over cryptography alone, is that messages do not attract attention to themselves. Plainly visible encrypted messages — no matter how unbreakable — will arouse suspicion, and may in themselves be incriminating in countries where encryption is illegal. Therefore, whereas cryptography protects the contents of a message, steganography can be said to protect both messages and communicating parties.
Watermarking is the action of signing a file with an ID or copyright mark. OpenPuff does it in an invisible steganographic way, applied to any supported carrier. The invisible mark, being not password protected, is accessible by everyone (using the program).
Multi-cryptography
OpenPuff is a semi-open source program:
cryptography, CSPRNG, hashing (used in password hexadecimal extension), and scrambling are open source
Cryptographic algorithms (16 taken from AES, NESSIE and CRYPTREC) are joined into a unique multi-cryptography algorithm:
keys and internal static data are initialized for each algorithm f
each data block D [ i ] (128bit) will be encrypted using a different algorithm f [ i ]
f [ i ] is chosen with a pseudorandom oracle, seeded with a second independent password
1. Choosing the cryptography algorithm for data block i
f [ i ] = rand ( Oracle )
2. Applying cryptography to data block i
Cipher ( D [ i ] ) = f [ i ] ( D [ i ] )
Statistical resistance
Extensive testing has been performed on the statistical resistance properties of the CSPRNG and multi-cryptography modules, using the ENT, NIST and DIEHARD test suites. Provided results are taken from 64KB, 128KB, ... 256MB samples:
bit entropy test: >7.9999xx / 8.000000
compression test: 0% size reduction after compression
chi square distribution test: 40% < deviation < 60%
mean value test: 127.4x / 127.5
Monte Carlo test: error < 0.01%
serial correlation test: < 0.0001
Steganalysis resistance
Security, performance and steganalysis resistance are conflicting trade-offs.
[Security vs. Performance]: Whitening
Pro: ensures higher data security
Pro: allows deniable steganography
Con1: requires a lot of extra carrier bits
[Security vs. Steganalysis]: Cryptography + Whitening
Pro: ensure higher data security
Con2: their random statistical response marks carriers as more "suspicious"
Data, before carrier injection, is encrypted and whitened: a small amount of hidden data turns into a big chunk of pseudorandom "suspicious data". Carrier injection encodes it using a non linear covering function that takes also original carrier bits as input. Modified carriers will need much less change (Con1) and, lowering their random-like statistical response, deceive many steganalysis tests (Con2).
Deniable steganography
There will always be a non-negligible probability of being detected, even if the hidden stream behaves like a “natural container” (unpredictable side-effects, being caught in Flagrante delicto, etc.). Resisting these unpredictable attacks is also possible, even when the user is forced (by legal or physical coercion) to provide a valid password. Deniable steganography (a decoy-based technique) allows the user to deny convincingly the fact that sensitive data is being hidden. The user needs to provide some expendable decoy data that he would plausibly want to keep confidential and reveal it to the attacker, claiming that this is all there is.
See also
Steganography tools
Portable application
List of portable software
References
External links
HomePage
SourcePage
Steganography
Cryptographic software
Espionage techniques
Applications of cryptography
Portable software
Free security software
Computer security software
2004 software |
11052041 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Determination%20of%20equilibrium%20constants | Determination of equilibrium constants | Equilibrium constants are determined in order to quantify chemical equilibria. When an equilibrium constant is expressed as a concentration quotient,
it is implied that the activity quotient is constant. For this assumption to be valid, equilibrium constants must be determined in a medium of relatively high ionic strength. Where this is not possible, consideration should be given to possible activity variation.
The equilibrium expression above is a function of the concentrations [A], [B] etc. of the chemical species in equilibrium. The equilibrium constant value can be determined if any one of these concentrations can be measured. The general procedure is that the concentration in question is measured for a series of solutions with known analytical concentrations of the reactants. Typically, a titration is performed with one or more reactants in the titration vessel and one or more reactants in the burette. Knowing the analytical concentrations of reactants initially in the reaction vessel and in the burette, all analytical concentrations can be derived as a function of the volume (or mass) of titrant added.
The equilibrium constants may be derived by best-fitting of the experimental data with a chemical model of the equilibrium system.
Experimental methods
There are four main experimental methods. For less commonly used methods, see Rossotti and Rossotti. In all cases the range can be extended by using the competition method. An example of the application of this method can be found in palladium(II) cyanide.
Potentiometric measurements
A free concentration [A] or activity {A} of a species A is measured by means of an ion selective electrode such as the glass electrode. If the electrode is calibrated using activity standards it is assumed that the Nernst equation applies in the form
where is the standard electrode potential. When buffer solutions of known pH are used for calibration the meter reading will be a pH.
At 298 K, 1 pH unit is approximately equal to 59 mV.
When the electrode is calibrated with solutions of known concentration, by means of a strong acid–strong base titration, for example, a modified Nernst equation is assumed.
where is an empirical slope factor. A solution of known hydrogen ion concentration may be prepared by standardization of a strong acid against borax. Constant-boiling hydrochloric acid may also be used as a primary standard for hydrogen ion concentration.
Range and limitations
The most widely used electrode is the glass electrode, which is selective for the hydrogen ion. This is suitable for all acid–base equilibria. values between about 2 and 11 can be measured directly by potentiometric titration using a glass electrode. This enormous range of stability constant values (ca. 100 to 1011 is possible because of the logarithmic response of the electrode. The limitations arise because the Nernst equation breaks down at very low or very high pH.
When a glass electrode is used to obtain the measurements on which the calculated equilibrium constants depend, the precision of the calculated parameters is limited by secondary effects such as variation of liquid junction potentials in the electrode. In practice it is virtually impossible to obtain a precision for log β better than ±0.001.
Spectrophotometric measurements
Absorbance
It is assumed that the Beer–Lambert law applies.
where is the optical path length, is a molar absorbance at unit path length and is a concentration. More than one of the species may contribute to the absorbance. In principle absorbance may be measured at one wavelength only, but in present-day practice it is common to record complete spectra.
Fluorescence (luminescence) intensity
It is assumed that the scattered light intensity is a linear function of species’ concentrations.
where is a proportionality constant.
Range and limitations
Absorbance and luminescence : An upper limit on of 4 is usually quoted, corresponding to the precision of the measurements, but it also depends on how intense the effect is. Spectra of contributing species should be clearly distinct from each other
NMR chemical shift measurements
Chemical exchange is assumed to be rapid on the NMR time-scale. An individual chemical shift is the mole-fraction-weighted average of the shifts of nuclei in contributing species.
Example: the pKa of the hydroxyl group in citric acid has been determined from 13C chemical shift data to be 14.4. Neither potentiometry nor ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy could be used for this determination.
Range and limitations
Limited precision of chemical shift measurements also puts an upper limit of about 4 on . Limited to diamagnetic systems. 1H NMR cannot be used with solutions of compounds in 1H2O.
Calorimetric measurements
Simultaneous measurement of and for 1:1 adducts is routinely carried out using isothermal titration calorimetry. Extension to more complex systems is limited by the availability of suitable software.
Range and limitations
Insufficient evidence is currently available.
The competition method
The competition method may be used when a stability constant value is too large to be determined by a direct method. It was first used by Schwarzenbach in the determination of the stability constants of complexes of EDTA with metal ions.
For simplicity consider the determination of the stability constant of a binary complex, AB, of a reagent A with another reagent B.
where the [X] represents the concentration, at equilibrium, of a species X in a solution of given composition.
A ligand C is chosen which forms a weaker complex with A The stability constant, KAC, is small enough to be determined by a direct method. For example, in the case of EDTA complexes A is a metal ion and C may be a polyamine such as diethylenetriamine.
The stability constant, K for the competition reaction
can be expressed as
It follows that
where K is the stability constant for the competition reaction. Thus, the value of the stability constant may be derived from the experimentally determined values of K and .
Computational methods
It is assumed that the collected experimental data comprise a set of data points. At each th data point, the analytical concentrations of the reactants, , etc. are known along with a measured quantity, , that depends on one or more of these analytical concentrations. A general computational procedure has four main components:
Definition of a chemical model of the equilibria
Calculation of the concentrations of all the chemical species in each solution
Refinement of the equilibrium constants
Model selection
The value of the equilibrium constant for the formation of a 1:1 complex, such as a host-guest species, may be calculated with a dedicated spreadsheet application, Bindfit: In this case step 2 can be performed with a non-iterative procedure and the pre-programmed routine Solver can be used for step 3.
The chemical model
The chemical model consists of a set of chemical species present in solution, both the reactants added to the reaction mixture and the complex species formed from them. Denoting the reactants by A, B..., each complex species is specified by the stoichiometric coefficients that relate the particular combination of reactants forming them.
{\mathit p A} + \mathit q B \cdots <=> A_\mathit{p}B_\mathit{q} \cdots:
When using general-purpose computer programs, it is usual to use cumulative association constants, as shown above. Electrical charges are not shown in general expressions such as this and are often omitted from specific expressions, for simplicity of notation. In fact, electrical charges have no bearing on the equilibrium processes other that there being a requirement for overall electrical neutrality in all systems.
With aqueous solutions the concentrations of proton (hydronium ion) and hydroxide ion are constrained by the self-dissociation of water.
H2O <=> H+ + OH-:
With dilute solutions the concentration of water is assumed constant, so the equilibrium expression is written in the form of the ionic product of water.
When both H+ and OH− must be considered as reactants, one of them is eliminated from the model by specifying that its concentration be derived from the concentration of the other. Usually the concentration of the hydroxide ion is given by
In this case the equilibrium constant for the formation of hydroxide has the stoichiometric coefficients −1 in regard to the proton and zero for the other reactants. This has important implications for all protonation equilibria in aqueous solution and for hydrolysis constants in particular.
It is quite usual to omit from the model those species whose concentrations are considered negligible. For example, it is usually assumed then there is no interaction between the reactants and/or complexes and the electrolyte used to maintain constant ionic strength or the buffer used to maintain constant pH. These assumptions may or may not be justified. Also, it is implicitly assumed that there are no other complex species present. When complexes are wrongly ignored a systematic error is introduced into the calculations.
Equilibrium constant values are usually estimated initially by reference to data sources.
Speciation calculations
A speciation calculation is one in which concentrations of all the species in an equilibrium system are calculated, knowing the analytical concentrations, TA, TB etc. of the reactants A, B etc. This means solving a set of nonlinear equations of mass-balance
for the free concentrations [A], [B] etc. When the pH (or equivalent e.m.f., E).is measured, the free concentration of hydrogen ions, [H], is obtained from the measured value as or and only the free concentrations of the other reactants are calculated. The concentrations of the complexes are derived from the free concentrations via the chemical model.
Some authors include the free reactant terms in the sums by declaring identity (unit) constants for which the stoichiometric coefficients are 1 for the reactant concerned and zero for all other reactants. For example, with 2 reagents, the mass-balance equations assume the simpler form.
In this manner, all chemical species, including the free reactants, are treated in the same way, having been formed from the combination of reactants that is specified by the stoichiometric coefficients.
In a titration system the analytical concentrations of the reactants at each titration point are obtained from the initial conditions, the burette concentrations and volumes. The analytical (total) concentration of a reactant R at the th titration point is given by
where R0 is the initial amount of R in the titration vessel, is the initial volume, [R] is the concentration of R in the burette and is the volume added. The burette concentration of a reactant not present in the burette is taken to be zero.
In general, solving these nonlinear equations presents a formidable challenge because of the huge range over which the free concentrations may vary. At the beginning, values for the free concentrations must be estimated. Then, these values are refined, usually by means of Newton–Raphson iterations. The logarithms of the free concentrations may be refined rather than the free concentrations themselves. Refinement of the logarithms of the free concentrations has the added advantage of automatically imposing a non-negativity constraint on the free concentrations. Once the free reactant concentrations have been calculated, the concentrations of the complexes are derived from them and the equilibrium constants.
Note that the free reactant concentrations can be regarded as implicit parameters in the equilibrium constant refinement process. In that context the values of the free concentrations are constrained by forcing the conditions of mass-balance to apply at all stages of the process.
Equilibrium constant refinement
The objective of the refinement process is to find equilibrium constant values that give the best fit to the experimental data. This is usually achieved by minimising an objective function, , by the method of non-linear least-squares. First the residuals are defined as
Then the most general objective function is given by
The matrix of weights, , should be, ideally, the inverse of the variance-covariance matrix of the observations. It is rare for this to be known. However, when it is, the expectation value of U is one, which means that the data are fitted within experimental error. Most often only the diagonal elements are known, in which case the objective function simplifies to
with when . Unit weights, , are often used but, in that case, the expectation value of is the root mean square of the experimental errors.
The minimization may be performed using the Gauss–Newton method. Firstly the objective function is linearised by approximating it as a first-order Taylor series expansion about an initial parameter set, .
The increments are added to the corresponding initial parameters such that is less than . At the minimum the derivatives , which are simply related to the elements of the Jacobian matrix,
where is the th parameter of the refinement, are equal to zero. One or more equilibrium constants may be parameters of the refinement. However, the measured quantities (see above) represented by are not expressed in terms of the equilibrium constants, but in terms of the species concentrations, which are implicit functions of these parameters. Therefore, the Jacobian elements must be obtained using implicit differentiation.
The parameter increments are calculated by solving the normal equations, derived from the conditions that at the minimum.
The increments are added iteratively to the parameters
where is an iteration number. The species concentrations and values are recalculated at every data point. The iterations are continued until no significant reduction in is achieved, that is, until a convergence criterion is satisfied. If, however, the updated parameters do not result in a decrease of the objective function, that is, if divergence occurs, the increment calculation must be modified. The simplest modification is to use a fraction, , of calculated increment, so-called shift-cutting.
In this case, the direction of the shift vector, , is unchanged. With the more powerful Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm, on the other hand, the shift vector is rotated towards the direction of steepest descent, by modifying the normal equations,
where is the Marquardt parameter and is an identity matrix. Other methods of handling divergence have been proposed.
A particular issue arises with NMR and spectrophotometric data. For the latter, the observed quantity is absorbance, , and the Beer–Lambert law can be written as
It can be seen that, assuming that the concentrations, c, are known, that absorbance, , at a given wavelength, , and path length , is a linear function of the molar absorbptivities, . With 1 cm path-length, in matrix notation
There are two approaches to the calculation of the unknown molar absorptivities
(1) The values are considered parameters of the minimization and the Jacobian is constructed on that basis. However, the values themselves are calculated at each step of the refinement by linear least-squares:
using the refined values of the equilibrium constants to obtain the speciation. The matrix
is an example of a pseudo-inverse.
Golub and Pereyra showed how the pseudo-inverse can be differentiated so that parameter increments for both molar absorptivities and equilibrium constants can be calculated by solving the normal equations.
(2) The Beer–Lambert law is written as
The unknown molar absorbances of all "coloured" species are found by using the non-iterative method of linear least-squares, one wavelength at a time. The calculations are performed once every refinement cycle, using the stability constant values obtaining at that refinement cycle to calculate species' concentration values in the matrix .
Parameter errors and correlation
In the region close to the minimum of the objective function, , the system approximates to a linear least-squares system, for which
Therefore, the parameter values are (approximately) linear combinations of the observed data values and the errors on the parameters, , can be obtained by error propagation from the observations, , using the linear formula. Let the variance-covariance matrix for the observations be denoted by and that of the parameters by . Then,
When , this simplifies to
In most cases the errors on the observations are un-correlated, so that is diagonal.
If so, each weight should be the reciprocal of the variance of the corresponding observation. For example, in a potentiometric titration, the weight at a titration point, , can be given by
where is the error in electrode potential or pH, is the slope of the titration curve and is the error on added volume.
When unit weights are used (, ) it is implied that the experimental errors are uncorrelated and all equal: , where is known as the variance of an observation of unit weight, and is an identity matrix. In this case is approximated by
where is the minimum value of the objective function and and are the number of data and parameters, respectively.
In all cases, the variance of the parameter is given by and the covariance between parameters and is given by . Standard deviation is the square root of variance. These error estimates reflect only random errors in the measurements. The true uncertainty in the parameters is larger due to the presence of systematic errors—which, by definition, cannot be quantified.
Note that even though the observations may be uncorrelated, the parameters are always correlated.
Derived constants
When cumulative constants have been refined it is often useful to derive stepwise constants from them. The general procedure is to write down the defining expressions for all the constants involved and then to equate concentrations. For example, suppose that one wishes to derive the pKa for removing one proton from a tribasic acid, LH3, such as citric acid.
The stepwise association constant for formation of LH3 is given by
Substitute the expressions for the concentrations of LH3 and into this equation
whence
and since its value is given by
Note the reverse numbering for pK and log β. When calculating the error on the stepwise constant, the fact that the cumulative constants are correlated must accounted for. By error propagation
and
Model selection
Once a refinement has been completed the results should be checked to verify that the chosen model is acceptable. generally speaking, a model is acceptable when the data are fitted within experimental error, but there is no single criterion to use to make the judgement. The following should be considered.
The objective function
When the weights have been correctly derived from estimates of experimental error, the expectation value of is 1. It is therefore very useful to estimate experimental errors and derive some reasonable weights from them as this is an absolute indicator of the goodness of fit.
When unit weights are used, it is implied that all observations have the same variance. is expected to be equal to that variance.
Parameter errors
One would want the errors on the stability constants to be roughly commensurate with experimental error. For example, with pH titration data, if pH is measured to 2 decimal places, the errors of should not be much larger than 0.01. In exploratory work where the nature of the species present is not known in advance, several different chemical models may be tested and compared. There will be models where the uncertainties in the best estimate of an equilibrium constant may be somewhat or even significantly larger than , especially with those constants governing the formation of comparatively minor species, but the decision as to how large is acceptable remains subjective. The decision process as to whether or not to include comparatively uncertain equilibria in a model, and for the comparison of competing models in general, can be made objective and has been outlined by Hamilton.
Distribution of residuals
At the minimum in the system can be approximated to a linear one, the residuals in the case of unit weights are related to the observations by
The symmetric, idempotent matrix is known in the statistics literature as the hat matrix, . Thus,
and
where is an identity matrix and and are the variance-covariance matrices of the residuals and observations, respectively. This shows that even though the observations may be uncorrelated, the residuals are always correlated.
The diagram at the right shows the result of a refinement of the stability constants of Ni(Gly)+, Ni(Gly)2 and (where GlyH = glycine). The observed values are shown a blue diamonds and the species concentrations, as a percentage of the total nickel, are superimposed. The residuals are shown in the lower box. The residuals are not distributed as randomly as would be expected. This is due to the variation of liquid junction potentials and other effects at the glass/liquid interfaces. Those effects are very slow compared to the rate at which equilibrium is established.
Physical constraints
Some physical constraints are usually incorporated in the calculations. For example, all the concentrations of free reactants and species must have positive values and association constants must have positive values.
With spectrophotometric data the calculated molar absorptivity (or emissivity) values should all be positive. Most computer programs do not impose this constraint on the calculations.
Chemical constraints
When determining the stability constants of metal-ligand complexes, it is common practice to fix ligand protonation constants at values that have been determined using data obtained from metal-free solutions. Hydrolysis constants of metal ions are usually fixed at values which were obtained using ligand-free solutions. When determining the stability constants for ternary complexes, MpAqBr it is common practice the fix the values for the corresponding binary complexes Mp′Aq′ and Mp′′Bq′′, at values which have been determined in separate experiments. Use of such constraints reduces the number of parameters to be determined, but may result in the calculated errors on refined stability constant values being under-estimated.
Other models
If the model is not acceptable, a variety of other models should be examined to find one that best fits the experimental data, within experimental error. The main difficulty is with the so-called minor species. These are species whose concentration is so low that the effect on the measured quantity is at or below the level of error in the experimental measurement. The constant for a minor species may prove impossible to determine if there is no means to increase the concentration of the species.
.
Implementations
Some simple systems are amenable to spreadsheet calculations.
A large number of general-purpose computer programs for equilibrium constant calculation have been published. See for a bibliography. The most frequently used programs are:
Potentiometric data: Hyperquad, BEST PSEQUAD, ReactLab pH PRO
Spectrophotometric data:HypSpec, SQUAD, Specfit, ReactLab EQUILIBRIA
NMR data HypNMR, EQNMR
Calorimetric data HypΔH. Affinimeter Commercial Isothermal titration calorimeters are usually supplied with software with which an equilibrium constant and standard formation enthalpy for the formation of a 1:1 adduct can be obtained. Some software for handling more complex equilibria may also be supplied.
References
Equilibrium chemistry
Analytical chemistry |
43336 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X.25 | X.25 | X.25 is an ITU-T standard protocol suite for packet-switched data communication in wide area networks (WAN). It was originally defined by the International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee (CCITT, now ITU-T) in a series of drafts and finalized in a publication known as The Orange Book in 1976.
This makes it one of the oldest packet-switching communication protocols available; it was developed several years before IPv4 (1981) and the OSI Reference Model (1984). The protocol suite is designed as three conceptual layers, which correspond closely to the lower three layers of the seven-layer OSI model. It also supports functionality not found in the OSI network layer.
Networks using X.25 were popular during the late 1970s and 1980s with telecommunications companies and in financial transaction systems such as automated teller machines. An X.25 WAN consists of packet-switching exchange (PSE) nodes as the networking hardware, and leased lines, plain old telephone service connections, or ISDN connections as physical links. However, most users have moved to Internet Protocol (IP) systems instead. X.25 was used up to 2015 (e.g. by the credit card payment industry) and is still used by aviation, purchasable from telecoms companies. X.25 was also available in niche applications such as Retronet that allow vintage computers to use the Internet.
History
The CCITT (later ITU-T) Study Group VII began developing a standard for packet-switched data communication in the mid-1970s based upon a number of emerging data network projects. Participants in the design of X.25 included engineers from Canada, France, Japan, the UK, and the USA representing a mix of national PTTs (France, Japan, UK) and private operators (Canada, USA). In particular, the work of Rémi Després, contributed significantly to the standard. A few minor changes, which complemented the proposed specification, were accommodated to enable Larry Roberts to join the agreement. Various updates and additions were worked into the standard, eventually recorded in the ITU series of technical books describing the telecommunication systems. These books were published every fourth year with different-colored covers. The X.25 specification is only part of the larger set of X-Series.
Publicly accessible X.25 networks, commonly called public data networks, were set up in most countries during the late 1970s and 1980s to lower the cost of accessing various online services. Examples include Iberpac, TRANSPAC, Compuserve, Tymnet, Telenet, Euronet, PSS, Datapac, Datanet 1 and AUSTPAC as well as the International Packet Switched Service. Their combined network had large global coverage during the 1980s and into the 1990s.
Beginning in the early 1990s, in North America, use of X.25 networks (predominated by Telenet and Tymnet) started to be replaced by Frame Relay services offered by national telephone companies. Most systems that required X.25 now use TCP/IP, however it is possible to transport X.25 over TCP/IP when necessary.
X.25 networks are still in use throughout the world. A variant called AX.25 is used widely by amateur packet radio. Racal Paknet, now known as Widanet, remains in operation in many regions of the world, running on an X.25 protocol base. In some countries, like the Netherlands or Germany, it is possible to use a stripped version of X.25 via the D-channel of an ISDN-2 (or ISDN BRI) connection for low-volume applications such as point-of-sale terminals; but, the future of this service in the Netherlands is uncertain.
X.25 is still used in the aeronautical business (especially in Asia) even though a transition to modern protocols like X.400 is without option as X.25 hardware becomes increasingly rare and costly. As recently as March 2006, the United States National Airspace Data Interchange Network has used X.25 to interconnect remote airfields with air route traffic control centers.
France was one of the last remaining countries where commercial end-user service based on X.25 operated. Known as Minitel it was based on Videotex, itself running on X.25. In 2002, Minitel had about 9 million users, and in 2011 it accounted for about 2 million users in France when France Télécom announced it would shut down the service by 30 June 2012. As planned, service was terminated 30 June 2012. There were 800,000 terminals in operation at the time.
Architecture
The general concept of the X.25 was to create a universal and global packet-switched network. Much of the X.25 system is a description of the rigorous error correction needed to achieve this, as well as more efficient sharing of capital-intensive physical resources.
The X.25 specification defines only the interface between a subscriber (DTE) and an X.25 network (DCE). X.75, a protocol very similar to X.25, defines the interface between two X.25 networks to allow connections to traverse two or more networks. X.25 does not specify how the network operates internally many X.25 network implementations used something very similar to X.25 or X.75 internally, but others used quite different protocols internally. The ISO protocol equivalent to X.25, ISO 8208, is compatible with X.25, but additionally includes provision for two X.25 DTEs to be directly connected to each other with no network in between. By separating the Packet-Layer Protocol, ISO 8208 permits operation over additional networks such as ISO 8802 LLC2 (ISO LAN) and the OSI data link layer.
X.25 originally defined three basic protocol levels or architectural layers. In the original specifications these were referred to as levels and also had a level number, whereas all ITU-T X.25 recommendations and ISO 8208 standards released after 1984 refer to them as layers. The layer numbers were dropped to avoid confusion with the OSI Model layers.
Physical layer: This layer specifies the physical, electrical, functional and procedural characteristics to control the physical link between a DTE and a DCE. Common implementations use X.21, EIA-232, EIA-449 or other serial protocols.
Data link layer: The data link layer consists of the link access procedure for data interchange on the link between a DTE and a DCE. In its implementation, the Link Access Procedure, Balanced (LAPB) is a data link protocol that manages a communication session and controls the packet framing. It is a bit-oriented protocol that provides error correction and orderly delivery.
Packet layer: This layer defined a packet-layer protocol for exchanging control and user data packets to form a packet-switching network based on virtual calls, according to the Packet Layer Protocol.
The X.25 model was based on the traditional telephony concept of establishing reliable circuits through a shared network, but using software to create "virtual calls" through the network. These calls interconnect "data terminal equipment" (DTE) providing endpoints to users, which looked like point-to-point connections. Each endpoint can establish many separate virtual calls to different endpoints.
For a brief period, the specification also included a connectionless datagram service, but this was dropped in the next revision. The "fast select with restricted response facility" is intermediate between full call establishment and connectionless communication. It is widely used in query-response transaction applications involving a single request and response limited to 128 bytes of data carried each way. The data is carried in an extended call request packet and the response is carried in an extended field of the call reject packet, with a connection never being fully established.
Closely related to the X.25 protocol are the protocols to connect asynchronous devices (such as dumb terminals and printers) to an X.25 network: X.3, X.28 and X.29. This functionality was performed using a packet assembler/disassembler or PAD (also known as a triple-X device, referring to the three protocols used).
Relation to the OSI Reference Model
Although X.25 predates the OSI Reference Model (OSIRM), the physical layer of the OSI model corresponds to the X.25 physical layer, the data link layer to the X.25 data link layer, and the network layer to the X.25 packet layer. The X.25 data link layer, LAPB, provides a reliable data path across a data link (or multiple parallel data links, multilink) which may not be reliable itself. The X.25 packet layer provides the virtual call mechanisms, running over X.25 LAPB. The packet layer includes mechanisms to maintain virtual calls and to signal data errors in the event that the data link layer cannot recover from data transmission errors. All but the earliest versions of X.25 include facilities which provide for OSI network layer Addressing (NSAP addressing, see below).
User device support
X.25 was developed in the era of computer terminals connecting to host computers, although it also can be used for communications between computers. Instead of dialing directly “into” the host computer which would require the host to have its own pool of modems and phone lines, and require non-local callers to make long-distance calls the host could have an X.25 connection to a network service provider. Now dumb-terminal users could dial into the network's local “PAD” (packet assembly/disassembly facility), a gateway device connecting modems and serial lines to the X.25 link as defined by the X.29 and X.3 standards.
Having connected to the PAD, the dumb-terminal user tells the PAD which host to connect to, by giving a phone-number-like address in the X.121 address format (or by giving a host name, if the service provider allows for names that map to X.121 addresses). The PAD then places an X.25 call to the host, establishing a virtual call. Note that X.25 provides for virtual calls, so appears to be a circuit switched network, even though in fact the data itself is packet switched internally, similar to the way TCP provides connections even though the underlying data is packet switched. Two X.25 hosts could, of course, call one another directly; no PAD is involved in this case. In theory, it doesn't matter whether the X.25 caller and X.25 destination are both connected to the same carrier, but in practice it was not always possible to make calls from one carrier to another.
For the purpose of flow-control, a sliding window protocol is used with the default window size of 2. The acknowledgements may have either local or end to end significance. A D bit (Data Delivery bit) in each data packet indicates if the sender requires end to end acknowledgement. When D=1, it means that the acknowledgement has end to end significance and must take place only after the remote DTE has acknowledged receipt of the data. When D=0, the network is permitted (but not required) to acknowledge before the remote DTE has acknowledged or even received the data.
While the PAD function defined by X.28 and X.29 specifically supported asynchronous character terminals, PAD equivalents were developed to support a wide range of proprietary intelligent communications devices, such as those for IBM System Network Architecture (SNA).
Error control
Error recovery procedures at the packet layer assume that the data link layer is responsible for retransmitting data received in error. Packet layer error handling focuses on resynchronizing the information flow in calls, as well as clearing calls that have gone into unrecoverable states:
Level 3 Reset packets, which re-initializes the flow on a virtual call (but does not break the virtual call).
Restart packet, which clears down all virtual calls on the data link and resets all permanent virtual circuits on the data link.
Addressing and virtual circuits
X.25 supports two types of virtual circuits; virtual calls (VC) and permanent virtual circuits (PVC). Virtual calls are established on an as-needed basis. For example, a VC is established when a call is placed and torn down after the call is complete. VCs are established through a call establishment and clearing procedure. On the other hand, permanent virtual circuits are preconfigured into the network. PVCs are seldom torn down and thus provide a dedicated connection between end points.
VC may be established using X.121 addresses. The X.121 address consists of a three-digit data country code (DCC) plus a network digit, together forming the four-digit data network identification code (DNIC), followed by the national terminal number (NTN) of at most ten digits. Note the use of a single network digit, seemingly allowing for only 10 network carriers per country, but some countries are assigned more than one DCC to avoid this limitation. Networks often used fewer than the full NTN digits for routing, and made the spare digits available to the subscriber (sometimes called the sub-address) where they could be used to identify applications or for further routing on the subscribers networks.
NSAP addressing facility was added in the X.25(1984) revision of the specification, and this enabled X.25 to better meet the requirements of OSI Connection Oriented Network Service (CONS). Public X.25 networks were not required to make use of NSAP addressing, but, to support OSI CONS, were required to carry the NSAP addresses and other ITU-T specified DTE facilities transparently from DTE to DTE. Later revisions allowed multiple addresses in addition to X.121 addresses to be carried on the same DTE-DCE interface: Telex addressing (F.69), PSTN addressing (E.163), ISDN addressing (E.164), Internet Protocol addresses (IANA ICP), and local IEEE 802.2 MAC addresses.
PVCs are permanently established in the network and therefore do not require the use of addresses for call setup. PVCs are identified at the subscriber interface by their logical channel identifier (see below). However, in practice not many of the national X.25 networks supported PVCs.
One DTE-DCE interface to an X.25 network has a maximum of 4095 logical channels on which it is allowed to establish virtual calls and permanent virtual circuits, although networks are not expected to support a full 4095 virtual circuits. For identifying the channel to which a packet is associated, each packet contains a 12 bit logical channel identifier made up of an 8-bit logical channel number and a 4-bit logical channel group number. Logical channel identifiers remain assigned to a virtual circuit for the duration of the connection. Logical channel identifiers identify a specific logical channel between the DTE (subscriber appliance) and the DCE (network), and only has local significance on the link between the subscriber and the network. The other end of the connection at the remote DTE is likely to have assigned a different logical channel identifier. The range of possible logical channels is split into 4 groups: channels assigned to permanent virtual circuits, assigned to incoming virtual calls, two-way (incoming or outgoing) virtual calls, and outgoing virtual calls. (Directions refer to the direction of virtual call initiation as viewed by the DTE they all carry data in both directions.) The ranges allowed a subscriber to be configured to handle significantly differing numbers of calls in each direction while reserving some channels for calls in one direction. All International networks are required to implement support for permanent virtual circuits, two-way logical channels and one-way logical channels outgoing; one-way logical channels incoming is an additional optional facility. DTE-DCE interfaces are not required to support more than one logical channel. Logical channel identifier zero will not be assigned to a permanent virtual circuit or virtual call. The logical channel identifier of zero is used for packets which don't relate to a specific virtual circuit (e.g. packet layer restart, registration, and diagnostic packets).
Billing
In public networks, X.25 was typically billed as a flat monthly service fee depending on link speed, and then a price-per-segment on top of this. Link speeds varied, typically from 2400 bit/s up to 2 Mbit/s, although speeds above 64 kbit/s were uncommon in the public networks. A segment was 64 bytes of data (rounded up, with no carry-over between packets), charged to the caller (or callee in the case of reverse charged calls, where supported). Calls invoking the Fast Select facility (allowing 128 bytes of data in call request, call confirmation and call clearing phases) would generally attract an extra charge, as might use of some of the other X.25 facilities. PVCs would have a monthly rental charge and a lower price-per-segment than VCs, making them cheaper only where large volumes of data are passed.
X.25 packet types
X.25 details
The network may allow the selection of the maximal length in range 16 to 4096 octets (2n values only) per virtual circuit by negotiation as part of the call setup procedure. The maximal length may be different at the two ends of the virtual circuit.
Data terminal equipment constructs control packets which are encapsulated into data packets. The packets are sent to the data circuit-terminating equipment, using LAPB Protocol.
Data circuit-terminating equipment strips the layer-2 headers in order to encapsulate packets to the internal network protocol.
X.25 facilities
X.25 provides a set of user facilities defined and described in ITU-T Recommendation X.2. The X.2 user facilities fall into five categories:
Essential facilities;
Additional facilities;
Conditional facilities;
Mandatory facilities; and,
Optional facilities.
X.25 also provides X.25 and ITU-T specified DTE optional user facilities defined and described in ITU-T Recommendation X.7. The X.7 optional user facilities fall into four categories of user facilities that require:
Subscription only;
Subscription followed by dynamic invocation;
Subscription or dynamic invocation; and,
Dynamic invocation only.
X.25 protocol versions
The CCITT/ITU-T versions of the protocol specifications are for public data networks (PDN). The ISO/IEC versions address additional features for private networks (e.g. local area networks (LAN) use) while maintaining compatibility with the CCITT/ITU-T specifications.
The user facilities and other features supported by each version of X.25 and ISO/IEC 8208 have varied from edition to edition. Several major protocol versions of X.25 exist:
CCITT Recommendation X.25 (1976) Orange Book
CCITT Recommendation X.25 (1980) Yellow Book
CCITT Recommendation X.25 (1984) Red Book
CCITT Recommendation X.25 (1988) Blue Book
ITU-T Recommendation X.25 (1993) White Book
ITU-T Recommendation X.25 (1996) Grey Book
The X.25 Recommendation allows many options for each network to choose when deciding which features to support and how certain operations are performed. This means each network needs to publish its own document giving the specification of its X.25 implementation, and most networks required DTE appliance manufacturers to undertake protocol conformance testing, which included testing for strict adherence and enforcement of their network specific options. (Network operators were particularly concerned about the possibility of a badly behaving or misconfigured DTE appliance taking out parts of the network and affecting other subscribers.) Therefore, subscriber's DTE appliances have to be configured to match the specification of the particular network to which they are connecting. Most of these were sufficiently different to prevent interworking if the subscriber didn't configure their appliance correctly or the appliance manufacturer didn't include specific support for that network. In spite of protocol conformance testing, this often lead to interworking problems when initially attaching an appliance to a network.
In addition to the CCITT/ITU-T versions of the protocol, four editions of ISO/IEC 8208 exist:
ISO/IEC 8208:1987, First Edition, compatible with X.25 (1980) and (1984)
ISO/IEC 8208:1990, Second Edition, compatible with 1st Ed. and X.25 (1988)
ISO/IEC 8208:1995, Third Edition, compatible with 2nd Ed. and X.25 (1993)
ISO/IEC 8208:2000, Fourth Edition, compatible with 3rd Ed. and X.25 (1996)
See also
OSI protocol suite
Packet switched networks – are networks, including X.25 (as an old example), that have protocols using "packets".
Protocol Wars
Frame Relay – has its technical base in X.25 packet-switching technology, but does not attempt to correct errors.
XOT – is an "X.25 Over TCP" protocol, i.e. with X.25 encapsulation on TCP/IP networks.
X.PC
References
Further reading
Computer Communications, lecture notes by Prof. Chaim Ziegler PhD, Brooklyn College
External links
Recommendation X.25 at ITU-T
Cisco X.25 Reference
An X.25 Networking Guide with comparisons to TCP/IP
X.25 – Directory & Informational Resource
RFCs and other resources by Open Directory
Network layer protocols
OSI protocols
Wide area networks
ITU-T recommendations
ITU-T X Series Recommendations |
28681972 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joshua%20Mance | Joshua Mance | Ronell Joshua "Josh" Mance (born March 21, 1992) is an American sprinter who specialises in the 400 metres. He attends Florida State University in Tallahassee, Florida, where he has transferred after two years at the University of Southern California.
On June 24, 2012, he finished 4th in the 400 meters at the 2012 United States Olympic Trials, a result that won him a position on the United States Olympic team as a member of the 4x400 relay. At the Olympics, Mance was part of the precarious American silver medal winning team. In the semi-finals, Mance took the baton from Manteo Mitchell after Mitchell completed half a lap with what turned out to be a broken leg. Mance helped pull the team back into position to qualify for the final. In the final, the winning Bahamas team stacked their team, putting their best, Chris Brown in the lead leg. Mance's second leg pulled the U.S. into contention while the two teams broke away from the field. Mance handed to Tony McQuay who ran a spectacular 43.4 split to take the lead. Mitchell's replacement, hurdler Angelo Taylor was out kicked in the last 50 meters by Ramon Miller to give Bahamas the win.
At the 2010 World Junior Championships in Athletics in Moncton, Canada, Mance won a gold medal over 4×400 metres relay. One year earlier, at the 2009 World Youth Championships in Athletics in Brixen, Italy, he received a silver medal over 400 metres, finishing second to future Olympic and World Champion Kirani James. In June 2010, he committed to the USC Trojans.
While at Don Antonio Lugo High School in Chino, California, Mance was a 2010 All-USA high school track and field selection by USA Today. That year he won the CIF California State Meet championship in the 400 meters, and finished 4th in the 200. In 2009, he finished second in the 400 meters to Reggie Wyatt, in the same meet Wyatt set the National High School Record in the 300 hurdles.
Personal best
References
External links
DyeStat profile for Josh Mance
Florida State Seminoles bio
USC Trojans bio
Personal website
1992 births
Living people
American male sprinters
Sportspeople from Pomona, California
USC Trojans men's track and field athletes
Athletes (track and field) at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Olympic silver medalists for the United States in track and field
Medalists at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Track and field athletes from California
World Athletics Championships winners |
25366924 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PathGuide%20Technologies | PathGuide Technologies | PathGuide Technologies is a privately held software company based in Washington State that develops, markets and implements real time warehouse management systems (WMS) and time and attendance systems. It’s largely known as the company that Dr. David Allais, an expert and inventor in the fields of bar coding and automatic identification and data capture (AIDC), founded. PathGuide’s main product, Latitude Warehouse Management System, makes use of bar code scanning and RF data communications. The company integrates its products with Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) and Automatic Identification and Data Capture companies like Microsoft, Oracle and Intermec. PathGuide primarily markets to wholesale/industrial distributors.
History
David Allais founded PathGuide, then Applied Tactical Systems, in 1989 in Lynnwood, Washington.
In 2000, the company changed names to PathGuide Technologies and moved to Mukilteo, Washington. David Allais’ son, Eric, became CEO in 2006 after serving as the company’s vice president of marketing since 1999.
In 2009, on PathGuide’s 20th anniversary of being in business, the company reported record revenue and cash flow.
Products and services
The company offers two major products, Latitude WMS and Oasys Time Management System.
Latitude Warehouse Management System (WMS)
Latitude WMS is a software suite that automates warehousing and distribution to provide real-time online information about inventory. It automates all operations from receiving and order picking to manifesting to truck route/stop management, and integrates with major ERP business systems such as SAP, Microsoft Dynamics, Oracle, JD Edwards, Epicor, Infor, and others. Customers are primarily industrial/wholesale distributors serving manufacturers, contractors and retail stores, and include McLendon Hardware Synq Solutions, Becker Electric Supply and E.B. Horsman & Son.
Oasys
PathGuide OASYS is a software system that captures employee time and labor data in real time online using a variety of tools. OASYS supports complex pay rules and specialized accounting requirements for organizations with thousands of employees. It automatically flags all time and labor data exceptions, and computes overtime and shift differentials according to a company's pay rules.
References
Industry Recognition
– 2009 Supply & Demand Chain Executive Pros to Know
– 2008 Supply & Demand Chain Executive Pros to Know
– 2008 Supply & Demand Chain Executive 100
– 2008 Supply Chain Brain 100 Great Supply Chain Partners
External links
PathGuide – Official website
PathGuide customers by region – PathGuide customers
Software companies based in Washington (state)
Software companies established in 1989
Software companies of the United States |
7092305 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Command%20and%20control | Command and control | Command and control (abbr. C2) is a "set of organizational and technical attributes and processes ... [that] employs human, physical, and information resources to solve problems and accomplish missions" to achieve the goals of an organization or enterprise, according to a 2015 definition by military scientists Marius Vassiliou, David S. Alberts, and Jonathan R. Agre. The term often refers to a military system.
Versions of the United States Army Field Manual 3-0 circulated circa 1999 define C2 in a military organization as the exercise of authority and direction by a properly designated commanding officer over assigned and attached forces in the accomplishment of a mission.
A 1988 NATO definition is that command and control is the exercise of authority and direction by a properly designated individual over assigned resources in the accomplishment of a common goal. An Australian Defence Force definition, similar to that of NATO, emphasises that C2 is the system empowering designated personnel to exercise lawful authority and direction over assigned forces for the accomplishment of missions and tasks. (The Australian doctrine goes on to state: The use of agreed terminology and definitions is fundamental to any C2 system and the development of joint doctrine and procedures. The definitions in the following paragraphs have some agreement internationally, although not every potential ally will use the terms with exactly the same meaning.)
Overview
US perspective
The US Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms defines command and control as: "The exercise of authority and direction by a properly designated commander over assigned and attached forces in the accomplishment of the mission. Also called C2. Source: JP 1".
The edition of the Dictionary "As Amended Through April 2010" elaborates, "Command and control functions are performed through an arrangement of personnel, equipment, communications, facilities, and procedures employed by a commander in planning, directing, coordinating, and controlling forces and operations in the accomplishment of the mission." However, this sentence is missing from the "command and control" entry for the edition "As Amended Through 15 August 2014."
Commanding officers are assisted in executing these tasks by specialized staff officers and enlisted personnel. These military staff are a group of officers and enlisted personnel that provides a bi-directional flow of information between a commanding officer and subordinate military units.
The purpose of a military staff is mainly that of providing accurate, timely information which by category represents information on which command decisions are based. The key application is that of decisions that effectively manage unit resources. While information flow toward the commander is a priority, information that is useful or contingent in nature is communicated to lower staffs and units.
Computer security industry
This term is also in common use within the computer security industry and in the context of cyberwarfare. Here the term refers to the influence an attacker has over a compromised computer system that they control. For example, a valid usage of the term is to say that attackers use "command and control infrastructure" to issue "command and control instructions" to their victims. Advanced analysis of command and control methodologies can be used to identify attackers, associate attacks, and disrupt ongoing malicious activity.
Derivative terms
There are a plethora of derivative terms which emphasise different aspects, uses and sub-domains of C2. These terms come with a plethora of associated abbreviations – for example, in addition to C2, command and control is also often abbreviated as C2, and sometimes as C&C.
Command and control have been coupled with
Communication / communications
(Military) intelligence
Information / information systems
Computers / computing
Surveillance
Target acquisition
Reconnaissance
Interoperability
Collaboration
Electronic warfare
and others.
Some of the more common variations include:
C2I – Command, control & intelligence
C2I – command, control & information (a less common usage)
R2C2I - rapid advanced manufacturing, command, control & untelligence [developed by SICDRONE]
C2IS – command and control information systems
C2ISR – C2I plus surveillance and reconnaissance
C2ISTAR – C2 plus ISTAR (intelligence, surveillance, target acquisition, and reconnaissance)
C3 – command, control & communication (human activity focus)
C3 – command, control & communications (technology focus)
C3 – consultation, command, and control [NATO]
C3I – 4 possibilities; the most common is command, control, communications and intelligence
C3ISTAR – C3 plus ISTAR
C3ISREW – C2ISR plus communications plus electronic warfare (technology focus)
C3MS - cyber command and control mission system
C3/SA - C3 plus situational awareness
C4, C4I, C4ISR, C4ISTAR, C4ISREW, C4ISTAREW – plus computers (technology focus) or computing (human activity focus)
C4I2 – command, control, communications, computers, intelligence, and interoperability
C5I – command, control, communications, computers, collaboration and intelligence
C6ISR – command, control, communications, computers, cyber-defense and combat systems and intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance
MDC2 - multi-domain command and control
NC2 − nuclear command and control
NC3 − nuclear command and control and communications
and others.
Command: The exercise of authority based upon certain knowledge to attain an objective.
Control: The process of verifying and correcting activity such that the objective or goal of command is accomplished.
Communication: Ability to exercise the necessary liaison to exercise effective command between tactical or strategic units to command.
Computers: The computer systems and compatibility of computer systems. Also includes data processing.
Intelligence: Includes collection as well as analysis and distribution of information.
Command and control centers
A command and control center is typically a secure room or building in a government, military or prison facility that operates as the agency's dispatch center, surveillance monitoring center, coordination office and alarm monitoring center all in one. Command and control centers are operated by a government or municipal agency.
Various branches of the US military such as the US Coast Guard and Navy have command and control centers. They are also common in many large correctional facilities.
A command and control center that is used by a military unit in a deployed location is usually called a "command post". A warship has a combat information center for tactical control of the ship's resources, but commanding a fleet or joint operation requires additional space for commanders and staff plus C4I facilities provided on a flagship (e.g., aircraft carriers), sometimes a command ship or upgraded logistics ship such as USS Coronado.
Command and control warfare
Command and control warfare encompasses all the military tactics that use communications technology. It can be abbreviated as C2W. An older name for these tactics is "signals warfare", derived from the name given to communications by the military. Newer names include information operations and information warfare.
The following techniques are combined:
Operations security (OPSEC)
Military deception
Psychological operations (PSYOP)
Electronic warfare (EW)
Psychological warfare
Cyber operations
with the physical destruction of enemy communications facilities. The objective is to deny information to the enemy and so disrupt its command and control capabilities. At the same time precautions are taken to protect friendly command and control capabilities against retaliation.
In addition to targeting the enemy's command and control, information warfare can be directed to the enemy's politicians and other civilian communications.
See also
Battlespace
Battle command
Civilian control of the military
Command and control warfare
Command center
Command ship
Communications protection
Defence Information Infrastructure
Electronic warfare
Fingerspitzengefühl
Fog of war
Intent (military)
International Command and Control Research and Technology Symposium
Military communications
Mission Command
Mission-type tactics
Network-centric warfare
Reconnaissance, surveillance, and target acquisition (RSTA)
Signal Corps (disambiguation)
Signals intelligence (SIGINT)
Surveillance and Target Acquisition (STA)
US and other NATO specific:
505th Command and Control Wing
Command and Control Research Program (CCRP)
Deployable Joint Command and Control
Future Combat Systems Command and Control Vehicle
Global Command and Control System
Joint Force Air Component Headquarters
Joint Interoperability of Tactical Command and Control Systems
National Command Authority (United States)
NATO Communications and Information Systems Agency
NATO Consultation, Command and Control Agency
NORAD
Worldwide Military Command and Control System
Command systems in the United States Army
Other
Military Institute of Telecommunications and Information Technologies
References
Citations
Sources
External links
Command and control definitions and procedures, UK College of Policing, www.app.college.police.uk
The Command and Control Research Program (CCRP)
"Understanding Command and Control" by D. S. Alberts and R. E. Hayes (2006)
Military terminology
Military science
Military organization |
12942085 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic%20messaging | Electronic messaging | Electronic messaging may refer to:
One-to-one-communication
Instant message (on a computer network)
Personal message (on a computer network)
Text message (on a cellular phone network)
SMTP (on a computer network)
Email (on a computer Network)
Voicemail (using the PSTN)
Fax (using the PSTN)
Pager (using the PSTN)
One-to-many communication
Bulletin board system (on a computer network)
Internet forum (on a computer network)
Usenet newsgroup (on a computer network) |
13650030 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthcare%20Information%20Technology%20Standards%20Panel | Healthcare Information Technology Standards Panel | The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Healthcare Information Technology Standards Panel (HITSP) was created in 2005 as part of efforts by the Office of the National Coordinator for Health Information Technology (ONC, part of the United States Department of Health and Human Services) to promote interoperability in health care by harmonizing health information technology standards. HITSP is chaired by John Halamka, MD, CIO of Harvard Medical School.
Membership
Membership is by organization and there is currently no cost to join. Volunteers commit time to working on standards harmonization efforts as prioritized by the American Health Information Community (AHIC).
Goals
According to their website, HITSP's mission is to "serve as a cooperative partnership between the public and private sectors for the purpose of achieving a widely accepted and useful set of standards specifically to enable and support widespread interoperability among healthcare software applications, as they will interact in a local, regional and national health information network for the United States."
HITSP is committed to an open, transparent operation as they encourage anyone to participate and become members. Also they publish work products for public review and comment before review.
HITSP is generally organized around Use Cases, which are profiles of specific interoperability needs that have been identified by AHIC as being important national priorities. The initial 2006 Use Cases were:
Consumer Empowerment
Registration Summary
Medication History
Electronic Health Records (EHRs)
Laboratory Result Reporting
Biosurveillance
Visit
Utilization
Clinical Data
Lab and Radiology
The 2007 Use Cases are:
Consumer Access to Clinical Information
Access to Clinical Data
Provider Permissions
Personal Health Record (PHR) Transfer
Emergency Responder EHR
On-site Care
Emergency Care
Definitive Care
Provider Authentication and Authorization
Medication Management
Medication Reconciliation
Ambulatory Prescriptions
Contraindications
Quality
Hospital Measurement and Reporting
Clinician Measurement and Reporting
Feedback to Clinicians
See also
Health care in the United States
References
External links
Products & Solutions For Healthcare website
Standards for electronic health records
American National Standards Institute
Office of the National Coordinator for Health Information Technology |
31772659 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qisda%20ES900 | Qisda ES900 | Qisda ES900 is a discontinued electronic-book reader developed by Qisda Corporation and based on a Linux platform. The device is sold under various brand names worldwide.
Features
Qisda ES900 provides a 16 levels of grayscale SiPix touchscreen display for viewing digital content. Pages are turned using the buttons on the device or touchscreen. The ES900 connects to the internet through available Wi-Fi connections.
Users can read books without a wireless connection. Disconnecting the wireless connection can prolong the battery life.
Specifications
CPU
Samsung 2416 ARM9 @ 400 MHz
OS
Linux 2.6.21
Memory
128 MB (MDDR)
2 GB (NAND)
External microSD/microSDHC (up to 16 GB)
Connectivity
Wi-Fi b/gOptional: 3.5G HSDPA
microUSB high speed
audio jack
Miscellaneous
1530 mAh, 3.7 V
487 gram (without Wi-Fi)
Reading mode
> 10.000 pages (Wi-Fi off)
Formats supported
Text
ePUB
HTML
PDF
RTF
TXT
Picture
BMP
JPEG
PNG
Audio
MP3
Sold as
The device is sold worldwide under various brand names.
Asia
Taiwan: Asus Eee Reader DR900 / TZ900
Europe
Asus Eee Reader DR900 / DR950
bq Avant XL
Modification
Being that the hardware utilizes Linux-based software it can be changed or improved to the owners content. The firmware is labeled as “QT Software” and varies from vendor to vendor. The upgrade contains multiple image files with the .img extension, along with other system files.
Flashing to upgrade the firmware can be taken advantage of as it does not seem to check if the version that is being installed is older. Due to this, using firmware made by the other vendors on the model each sold in particular is possible.
Dual-boot
The devices seem to contain a native dual-boot capability. When a device specific key combination is pressed during power-on any linux-kernel + ramdisk combination is booted from the sd-card.
References
External links
Asus Eee Reader DR900
bq Avant XL
Electronic paper technology
Dedicated e-book devices
Linux-based devices |
58661 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CDC%206600 | CDC 6600 | The CDC 6600 was the flagship of the 6000 series of mainframe computer systems manufactured by Control Data Corporation. Generally considered to be the first successful supercomputer, it outperformed the industry's prior recordholder, the IBM 7030 Stretch, by a factor of three. With performance of up to three megaFLOPS, the CDC 6600 was the world's fastest computer from 1964 to 1969, when it relinquished that status to its successor, the CDC 7600.
The first CDC 6600s were delivered in 1965 to Livermore and Los Alamos. They quickly became a must-have system in high-end scientific and mathematical computing, with systems being delivered to Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences, CERN, the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, and many others. At least 100 were delivered in total.
A CDC 6600 is on display at the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California. The only running CDC 6000 series machine has been restored by Living Computers: Museum + Labs.
History and impact
CDC's first products were based on the machines designed at ERA, which Seymour Cray had been asked to update after moving to CDC. After an experimental machine known as the Little Character, in 1960 they delivered the CDC 1604, one of the first commercial transistor-based computers, and one of the fastest machines on the market. Management was delighted, and made plans for a new series of machines that were more tailored to business use; they would include instructions for character handling and record keeping for instance. Cray was not interested in such a project, and set himself the goal of producing a new machine that would be 50 times faster than the 1604. When asked to complete a detailed report on plans at one and five years into the future, he wrote back that his five-year goal was "to produce the largest computer in the world", "largest" at that time being synonymous with "fastest", and that his one-year plan was "to be one-fifth of the way".
Taking his core team to new offices nearby the original CDC headquarters, they started to experiment with higher quality versions of the "cheap" transistors Cray had used in the 1604. After much experimentation, they found that there was simply no way the germanium-based transistors could be run much faster than those used in the 1604. The "business machine" that management had originally wanted, now forming as the CDC 3000 series, pushed them about as far as they could go. Cray then decided the solution was to work with the then-new silicon-based transistors from Fairchild Semiconductor, which were just coming onto the market and offered dramatically improved switching performance.
During this period, CDC grew from a startup to a large company and Cray became increasingly frustrated with what he saw as ridiculous management requirements. Things became considerably more tense in 1962 when the new CDC 3600 started to near production quality, and appeared to be exactly what management wanted, when they wanted it. Cray eventually told CDC's CEO, William Norris that something had to change, or he would leave the company. Norris felt he was too important to lose, and gave Cray the green light to set up a new laboratory wherever he wanted.
After a short search, Cray decided to return to his home town of Chippewa Falls, Wisconsin, where he purchased a block of land and started up a new laboratory.
Although this process introduced a fairly lengthy delay in the design of his new machine, once in the new laboratory, without management interference, things started to progress quickly. By this time, the new transistors were becoming quite reliable, and modules built with them tended to work properly on the first try. The 6600 began to take form, with Cray working alongside Jim Thornton, system architect and "hidden genius" of the 6600.
More than 100 CDC 6600s were sold over the machine's lifetime. Many of these went to various nuclear weapon-related laboratories, and quite a few found their way into university computing laboratories. Cray immediately turned his attention to its replacement, this time setting a goal of ten times the performance of the 6600, delivered as the CDC 7600. The later CDC Cyber 70 and 170 computers were very similar to the CDC 6600 in overall design and were nearly completely backwards compatible.
The 6600 was three times faster than the previous record-holder, the IBM 7030 Stretch; this alarmed IBM. Then-CEO Thomas Watson Jr. wrote a memo to his employees: "Last week, Control Data ... announced the 6600 system. I understand that in the laboratory developing the system there are only 34 people including the janitor. Of these, 14 are engineers and 4 are programmers ... Contrasting this modest effort with our vast development activities, I fail to understand why we have lost our industry leadership position by letting someone else offer the world's most powerful computer." Cray's reply was sardonic: "It seems like Mr. Watson has answered his own question."
Description
Typical machines of the era used a single CPU to drive the entire system. A typical program would first load data into memory (often using pre-rolled library code), process it, and then write it back out. This required the CPUs to be fairly complex in order to handle the complete set of instructions they would be called on to perform. A complex CPU implied a large CPU, introducing signalling delays while information flowed between the individual modules making it up. These delays set a maximum upper limit on performance, as the machine could only operate at a cycle speed that allowed the signals time to arrive at the next module.
Cray took another approach. At the time, CPUs generally ran slower than the main memory to which they were attached. For instance, a processor might take 15 cycles to multiply two numbers, while each memory access took only one or two cycles. This meant there was a significant time where the main memory was idle. It was this idle time that the 6600 exploited.
The CDC 6600 used a simplified central processor (CP) that was designed to run mathematical and logic operations as rapidly as possible, which demanded it be built as small as possible to reduce the length of wiring and the associated signalling delays. This led to the machine's (typically) cross-shaped main chassis with the circuit boards for the CPU arranged close to the center, and resulted in a much smaller CPU. Combined with the faster switching speeds of the silicon transistors, the new CPU ran at 10 MHz (100 ns cycle), about ten times faster than other machines on the market. In addition to the clock being faster, the simple processor executed instructions in fewer clock cycles; for instance, the CPU could complete a multiplication in ten cycles.
Supporting the CPU were ten 12-bit 4 KiB peripheral processors (PPs), each with access to a common pool of 12 I/O channels, that handled input and output, as well as controlling what data were sent into central memory for processing by the CP. The PPs were designed to access memory during the times when the CPU was busy performing operations. This allowed them to perform input/output essentially for free in terms of central processing time, keeping the CPU busy as much as possible.
The 6600's CP used a 60-bit word and a ones' complement representation of integers, something that later CDC machines would use into the late 1980s, making them the last systems besides some DSP's to use this architecture.
Later, CDC offered options as to the number and type of CPs, PPs and channels, e.g., the CDC 6700 had a 6400 CP and a 6600 CP.
Peripheral processors (characteristics)
However, the CPU could only execute a limited number of simple instructions. A typical CPU of the era had a complex instruction set, which included instructions to handle all the normal "housekeeping" tasks, such as memory access and input/output. Cray instead implemented these instructions in separate, simpler processors dedicated solely to these tasks, leaving the CPU with a much smaller instruction set. This was the first of what later came to be called reduced instruction set computer (RISC) design.
By allowing the CPU, peripheral processors (PPs) and I/O to operate in parallel, the design considerably improved the performance of the machine. Under normal conditions a machine with several processors would also cost a great deal more. Key to the 6600's design was to make the I/O processors, known as peripheral processors (PPs), as simple as possible. The PPs were based on the simple 12-bit CDC 160-A, which ran much slower than the CPU, gathering up data and transmitting it as bursts into main memory at high speed via dedicated hardware.
The 10 PPs were implemented virtually; there was CPU hardware only for a single PP. This CPU hardware was shared and operated on 10 PP register sets which represented each of the 10 PP states (similar to modern multithreading processors). The PP register barrel would "rotate", with each PP register set presented to the "slot" which the actual PP CPU occupied. The shared CPU would execute all or some portion of a PP's instruction whereupon the barrel would "rotate" again, presenting the next PP's register set (state). Multiple "rotations" of the barrel were needed to complete an instruction. A complete barrel "rotation" occurred in 1000 nanoseconds (100 nanoseconds per PP), and an instruction could take from one to five "rotations" of the barrel to be completed, or more if it was a data transfer instruction.
Instruction-set architecture
The basis for the 6600 CPU is what would today be called a RISC system, one in which the processor is tuned to do instructions which are comparatively simple and have limited and well-defined access to memory. The philosophy of many other machines was toward using instructions which were complicated — for example, a single instruction which would fetch an operand from memory and add it to a value in a register. In the 6600, loading the value from memory would require one instruction, and adding it would require a second one. While slower in theory due to the additional memory accesses, the fact that in well-scheduled code, multiple instructions could be processing in parallel offloaded this expense. This simplification also forced programmers to be very aware of their memory accesses, and therefore code deliberately to reduce them as much as possible.
Models
The CDC 6000 series included four basic models, the CDC 6400, the CDC 6500, the CDC 6600, and the CDC 6700. The models of the 6000 series differed only in their CPUs, which were of two kinds, the 6400 CPU and the 6600 CPU. The 6400 CPU had a unified arithmetic unit, rather than discrete functional units. As such, it could not overlap instructions' execution times. For example, in a 6400 CPU, if an add instruction immediately followed a multiply instruction, the add instruction could not be started until the multiply instruction finished, so the net execution time of the two instructions would be the sum of their individual execution times. The 6600 CPU had multiple functional units which could operate simultaneously, i.e., "in parallel", allowing the CPU to overlap instructions' execution times. For example, a 6600 CPU could begin executing an add instruction in the next CPU cycle following the beginning of a multiply instruction (assuming, of course, that the result of the multiply instruction was not an operand of the add instruction), so the net execution time of the two instructions would simply be the (longer) execution time of the multiply instruction. The 6600 CPU also had an instruction stack, a kind of instruction cache, which helped increase CPU throughput by reducing the amount of CPU idle time caused by waiting for memory to respond to instruction fetch requests. The two kinds of CPUs were instruction compatible, so that a program that ran on either of the kinds of CPUs would run the same way on the other kind but would run faster on the 6600 CPU. Indeed, all models of the 6000 series were fully inter-compatible. The CDC 6400 had one CPU (a 6400 CPU), the CDC 6500 had two CPUs (both 6400 CPUs), the CDC 6600 had one CPU (a 6600 CPU), and the CDC 6700 had two CPUs (one 6600 CPU and one 6400 CPU).
Central Processor (CP)
The Central Processor (CP) and main memory of the 6400, 6500, and 6600 machines had a 60-bit word length. The Central Processor had eight general purpose 60-bit registers X0 through X7, eight 18-bit address registers A0 through A7, and eight 18-bit "increment" registers B0 through B7. B0 was held at zero permanently by the hardware. Many programmers found it useful to set B1 to 1, and similarly treat it as inviolate.
The CP had no instructions for input and output, which are accomplished through Peripheral Processors (below). No opcodes were specifically dedicated to loading or storing memory; this occurred as a side effect of assignment to certain A registers. Setting A1 through A5 loaded the word at that address into X1 through X5 respectively; setting A6 or A7 stored a word from X6 or X7. No side effects were associated with A0. A separate hardware load/store unit, called the stunt box, handled the actual data movement independently of the operation of the instruction stream, allowing other operations to complete while memory was being accessed, which required eight cycles, in the best case.
The 6600 CP included ten parallel functional units, allowing multiple instructions to be worked on at the same time. Today, this is known as a superscalar processor design, but it was unique for its time. Unlike most modern CPU designs, functional units were not pipelined; the functional unit would become busy when an instruction was "issued" to it and would remain busy for the entire time required to execute that instruction. (By contrast, the CDC 7600 introduced pipelining into its functional units.) In the best case, an instruction could be issued to a functional unit every 100 ns clock cycle. The system read and decoded instructions from memory as fast as possible, generally faster than they could be completed, and fed them off to the units for processing. The units were:
floating point multiply (two copies)
floating point divide
floating point add
"long" integer add
incrementers (two copies; performed memory load/store)
shift
boolean logic
branch
Floating-point operations were given pride of place in this architecture: the CDC 6600 (and kin) stand virtually alone in being able to execute a 60-bit floating point multiplication in time comparable to that for a program branch.
A recent analysis by Mitch Alsup of James Thornton's book, "Design of a Computer",
revealed that the 6600's Floating Point unit is a 2 stage pipelined design.
Fixed point addition and subtraction of 60-bit numbers were handled in the Long Add Unit, using ones' complement for negative numbers. Fixed point multiply was done as a special case in the floating-point multiply unit—if the exponent was zero, the FP unit would do a single-precision 48-bit floating-point multiply and clear the high exponent part, resulting in a 48-bit integer result. Integer divide was performed by a macro, converting to and from floating point.
Previously executed instructions were saved in an eight-word cache, called the "stack". In-stack jumps were quicker than out-of-stack jumps because no memory fetch was required. The stack was flushed by an unconditional jump instruction, so unconditional jumps at the ends of loops were conventionally written as conditional jumps that would always succeed.
The system used a 10 MHz clock, with a four-phase signal. A floating-point multiplication took ten cycles, a division took 29, and the overall performance, taking into account memory delays and other issues, was about 3 MFLOPS. Using the best available compilers, late in the machine's history, FORTRAN programs could expect to maintain about 0.5 MFLOPS.
Memory organization
User programs are restricted to use only a contiguous area of main memory. The portion of memory to which an executing program has access is controlled by the RA (Relative Address) and FL (Field Length) registers which are not accessible to the user program. When a user program tries to read or write a word in central memory at address a, the processor will first verify that a is between 0 and FL-1. If it is, the processor accesses the word in central memory at address RA+a. This process is known as base-bound relocation; each user program sees core memory as a contiguous block words with length FL, starting with address 0; in fact the program may be anywhere in the physical memory. Using this technique, each user program can be moved ("relocated") in main memory by the operating system, as long as the RA register reflects its position in memory. A user program which attempts to access memory outside the allowed range (that is, with an address which is not less than FL) will trigger an interrupt, and will be terminated by the operating system. When this happens, the operating system may create a core dump which records the contents of the program's memory and registers in a file, allowing the developer of the program a means to know what happened. Note the distinction with virtual memory systems; in this case, the entirety of a process's addressable space must be in core memory, must be contiguous, and its size cannot be larger than the real memory capacity.
All but the first seven CDC 6000 series machines could be configured with an optional Extended Core Storage (ECS) system. ECS was built from a different variety of core memory than was used in the central memory. This memory was slower, but cheap enough that it could be much larger. The primary reason was that ECS memory was wired with only two wires per core (contrast with five for central memory). Because it performed very wide transfers, its sequential transfer rate was the same as that of the small core memory. A 6000 CPU could directly perform block memory transfers between a user's program (or operating system) and the ECS unit. Wide data paths were used, so this was a very fast operation. Memory bounds were maintained in a similar manner as central memory, with an RA/FL mechanism maintained by the operating system. ECS could be used for a variety of purposes, including containing user data arrays that were too large for central memory, holding often-used files, swapping, and even as a communication path in a multi-mainframe complex.
Peripheral Processors (PPs)
To handle the "housekeeping" tasks, which in other designs were assigned to the CPU, Cray included ten other processors, based partly on his earlier computer, the CDC 160-A. These machines, called Peripheral Processors, or PPs, were full computers in their own right, but were tuned to performing I/O tasks and running the operating system. (Substantial parts of the operating system ran on the PP's; thus leaving most of the power of the Central Processor available for user programs.) Only the PPs had access to the I/O channels. One of the PPs (PP0) was in overall control of the machine, including control of the program running on the main CPU, while the others would be dedicated to various I/O tasks; PP9 was dedicated to the system console. When the CP program needed to perform an operating system function, it would put a request in a known location (Reference Address + 1) monitored by PP0. If necessary, PP0 would assign another PP to load any necessary code and to handle the request. The PP would then clear RA+1 to inform the CP program that the task was complete.
The unique role of PP0 in controlling the machine was a potential single point of failure, in that a malfunction here could shut down the whole machine, even if the nine other PPs and the CPU were still functioning properly. Cray fixed this in the design of the successor 7600, when any of the PPs could be the controller, and the CPU could reassign any one to this role.
Each PP included its own memory of 4096 12-bit words. This memory served for both for I/O buffering and program storage, but the execution units were shared by ten PPs, in a configuration called the Barrel and slot. This meant that the execution units (the "slot") would execute one instruction cycle from the first PP, then one instruction cycle from the second PP, etc. in a round robin fashion. This was done both to reduce costs, and because access to CP memory required 10 PP clock cycles: when a PP accesses CP memory, the data is available next time the PP receives its slot time.
Wordlengths, characters
The central processor had 60-bit words, while the peripheral processors had 12-bit words. CDC used the term "byte" to refer to 12-bit entities used by peripheral processors; characters were 6-bit, and central processor instructions were either 15 bits, or 30 bits with a signed 18-bit address field, the latter allowing for a directly addressable memory space of 128K words of central memory (converted to modern terms, with 8-bit bytes, this is 0.94 MB). The signed nature of the address registers limited an individual program to 128K words. (Later CDC 6000-compatible machines could have 256K or more words of central memory, budget permitting, but individual user programs were still limited to 128K words of CM.) Central processor instructions started on a word boundary when they were the target of a jump statement or subroutine return jump instruction, so no-op instructions were sometimes required to fill out the last 15, 30 or 45 bits of a word. Experienced assembler programmers could fine-tune their programs by filling these no-op spaces with misc instructions that would be needed later in the program.
The 6-bit characters, in an encoding called CDC display code, could be used to store up to 10 characters in a word. They permitted a character set of 64 characters, which is enough for all upper case letters, digits, and some punctuation. It was certainly enough to write FORTRAN, or print financial or scientific reports. There were actually two variations of the CDC display code character sets in use — 64-character and 63-character. The 64-character set had the disadvantage that the ":" (colon) character would be ignored (interpreted as zero fill) if it were the last character in a word. A complementary variant, called 6/12 display code, was also used in the Kronos and NOS timesharing systems to allow full use of the ASCII character set in a manner somewhat compatible with older software.
With no byte addressing instructions at all, code had to be written to pack and shift characters into words. The very large words, and comparatively small amount of memory, meant that programmers would frequently economize on memory by packing data into words at the bit level.
Due to the large word size, and with 10 characters per word, it was often faster to process wordfuls of characters at a time, rather than unpacking/processing/repacking them. For example, the CDC COBOL compiler was actually quite good at processing decimal fields using this technique. These sorts of techniques are now commonly used in the "multi-media" instructions of current processors.
Physical design
The machine was built in a plus-sign-shaped cabinet with a pump and heat exchanger in the outermost of each of the four arms. Cooling was done with Freon circulating within the machine and exchanging heat to an external chilled water supply. Each arm could hold four chassis, each about thick, hinged near the center, and opening a bit like a book. The intersection of the "plus" was filled with cables that interconnected the chassis. The chassis were numbered from 1 (containing all 10 PPUs and their memories, as well as the 12 rather minimal I/O channels) to 16. The main memory for the CPU was spread over many of the chassis. In a system with only 64K words of main memory, one of the arms of the "plus" was omitted.
The logic of the machine was packaged into modules about square and about thick. Each module had a connector (30 pins, two vertical rows of 15) on one edge, and six test points on the opposite edge. The module was placed between two aluminum cold plates to remove heat. The module consisted of two parallel printed circuit boards, with components mounted either on one of the boards or between the two boards. This provided a very dense package; generally impossible to repair, but with good heat transfer characteristics. It was known as cordwood construction.
Operating system and programming
There was a sore point with the 6600 operating system support — slipping timelines. The machines originally ran a very simple job-control system known as COS (Chippewa Operating System), which was quickly "thrown together" based on the earlier CDC 3000 operating system in order to have something running to test the systems for delivery. However the machines were intended to be delivered with a much more powerful system known as SIPROS (for Simultaneous Processing Operating System), which was being developed at the company's System Sciences Division in Los Angeles. Customers were impressed with SIPROS' feature list, and many had SIPROS written into their delivery contracts.
SIPROS turned out to be a major fiasco. Development timelines continued to slip, costing CDC major amounts of profit in the form of delivery delay penalties. After several months of waiting with the machines ready to be shipped, the project was eventually cancelled. The programmers who had worked on COS had little faith in SIPROS and had continued working on improving COS.
Operating system development then split into two camps. The CDC-sanctioned evolution of COS was undertaken at the Sunnyvale, California software development laboratory. Many customers eventually took delivery of their systems with this software, then known as SCOPE (Supervisory Control Of Program Execution). SCOPE version 1 was, essentially, dis-assembled COS; SCOPE version 2 included new device and file system support; SCOPE version 3 included permanent file support, EI/200 remote batch support, and INTERCOM time-sharing support. SCOPE always had significant reliability and maintainability issues.
The underground evolution of COS took place at the Arden Hills, Minnesota assembly plant. MACE ([Greg] Mansfield And [Dave] Cahlander Executive) was written largely by a single programmer in the off-hours when machines were available. Its feature set was essentially the same as COS and SCOPE 1. It retained the earlier COS file system, but made significant advances in code modularity to improve system reliability and adaptiveness to new storage devices. MACE was never an official product, although many customers were able to wrangle a copy from CDC.
The unofficial MACE software was later chosen over the official SCOPE product as the basis of the next CDC operating system, Kronos, named after the Greek god of time. The story goes that Dave Mansfield called the University of Minnesota library and asked for an ancient word meaning "time". He wrote down "Kronos" instead of "Chronos". The main marketing reason for its adoption was the development of its TELEX time-sharing feature and its BATCHIO remote batch feature. Kronos continued to use the COS/SCOPE 1 file system with the addition of a permanent file feature.
An attempt to unify the SCOPE and Kronos operating system products produced NOS, (Network Operating System). NOS was intended to be the sole operating system for all CDC machines, a fact CDC promoted heavily. Many SCOPE customers remained software-dependent on the SCOPE architecture, so CDC simply renamed it NOS/BE (Batch Environment), and were able to claim that everyone was thus running NOS. In practice, it was far easier to modify the Kronos code base to add SCOPE features than the reverse.
The assembly plant environment also produced other operating systems which were never intended for customer use. These included the engineering tools SMM for hardware testing, and KALEIDOSCOPE, for software smoke testing. Another commonly used tool for CDC Field Engineers during testing was MALET (Maintenance Application Language for Equipment Testing), which was used to stress test components and devices after repairs or servicing by engineers. Testing conditions often used hard disk packs and magnetic tapes which were deliberately marked with errors to determine if the errors would be detected by MALET and the engineer.
The names SCOPE and COMPASS were used by CDC for both the CDC 6000 series, including the 6600, and the CDC 3000 series:
The name COMPASS was used by CDC for the Assembly languages on both families.
The name SCOPE was used for its implementations on the 3000 and 6000 series.
CDC 7600
The CDC 7600 was originally intended to be fully compatible with the existing 6000-series machines as well; it started life known as the CDC 6800. But during its design, the designers determined that maintaining complete compatibility with the existing 6000-series machines would limit how much performance improvement they could attain and decided to sacrifice compatibility for performance. While the CDC 7600's CPU was basically instruction compatible with the 6400 and 6600 CPUs, allowing code portability at the high-level language source code level, the CDC 7600's hardware, especially that of its Peripheral Processor Units (PPUs), was quite different, and the CDC 7600 required a different operating system. This turned out to be somewhat serendipitous because it allowed the designers to improve on some of the characteristics of the 6000-series design, such as the latter's complete dependence on Peripheral Processors (PPs), particularly the first (called PP0), to control operation of the entire computer system, including the CPU(s). Unlike the 6600 CPU, the CDC 7600's CPU could control its own operation via a Central Exchange jump (XJ) instruction that swapped all register contents with core memory. In fact, the 6000-series machines were retrofitted with this capability.
See also
History of supercomputing
Notes
References
Grishman, Ralph (1974). Assembly Language Programming for the Control Data 6000 Series and the Cyber 70 Series. New York, NY: Algorithmics Press.
Control Data 6400/6500/6600 Computer Systems Reference Manual
Thornton, J. (1963). Considerations in Computer Design – Leading up to the Control Data 6600
Thornton, J. (1970). Design of a Computer—The Control Data 6600. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman and Co.
(1990) Understanding Computers: Speed and Power, a Time Life series
External links
Neil R. Lincoln with 18 Control Data Corporation (CDC) engineers on computer architecture and design, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. Engineers include Robert Moe, Wayne Specker, Dennis Grinna, Tom Rowan, Maurice Hutson, Curt Alexander, Don Pagelkopf, Maris Bergmanis, Dolan Toth, Chuck Hawley, Larry Krueger, Mike Pavlov, Dave Resnick, Howard Krohn, Bill Bhend, Kent Steiner, Raymon Kort, and Neil R. Lincoln. Discussion topics include CDC 1604, CDC 6600, CDC 7600, CDC 8600, CDC STAR-100 and Seymour Cray.
Parallel operation in the Control Data 6600, James Thornton
Presentation of the CDC 6600 and other machines designed by Seymour Cray – by C. Gordon Bell of Microsoft Research (formerly of DEC)
– overview with pictures
6600
Supercomputers
Transistorized computers
Computer-related introductions in 1964
60-bit computers |
1013680 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaluation%20Assurance%20Level | Evaluation Assurance Level | The Evaluation Assurance Level (EAL1 through EAL7) of an IT product or system is a numerical grade assigned following the completion of a Common Criteria security evaluation, an international standard in effect since 1999. The increasing assurance levels reflect added assurance requirements that must be met to achieve Common Criteria certification. The intent of the higher levels is to provide higher confidence that the system's principal security features are reliably implemented. The EAL level does not measure the security of the system itself, it simply states at what level the system was tested.
To achieve a particular EAL, the computer system must meet specific assurance requirements. Most of these requirements involve design documentation, design analysis, functional testing, or penetration testing. The higher EALs involve more detailed documentation, analysis, and testing than the lower ones. Achieving a higher EAL certification generally costs more money and takes more time than achieving a lower one. The EAL number assigned to a certified system indicates that the system completed all requirements for that level.
Although every product and system must fulfill the same assurance requirements to achieve a particular level, they do not have to fulfill the same functional requirements. The functional features for each certified product are established in the Security Target document tailored for that product's evaluation. Therefore, a product with a higher EAL is not necessarily "more secure" in a particular application than one with a lower EAL, since they may have very different lists of functional features in their Security Targets. A product's fitness for a particular security application depends on how well the features listed in the product's Security Target fulfill the application's security requirements. If the Security Targets for two products both contain the necessary security features, then the higher EAL should indicate the more trustworthy product for that application.
Assurance levels
EAL1: Functionally Tested
EAL1 is applicable where some confidence in correct operation is required, but the
threats to security are not viewed as serious. It will be of value where independent
assurance is required to support the contention that due care has been exercised with
respect to the protection of personal or similar information.
EAL1 provides an evaluation of the TOE (Target of Evaluation) as made available to the customer, including
independent testing against a specification, and an examination of the guidance
documentation provided. It is intended that an EAL1 evaluation could be successfully
conducted without assistance from the developer of the TOE, and for minimal cost. An
evaluation at this level should provide evidence that the TOE functions in a manner
consistent with its documentation, and that it provides useful protection against
identified threats.
EAL2: Structurally Tested
EAL2 requires the cooperation of the developer in terms of the delivery of design
information and test results, but should not demand more effort on the part of the
developer than is consistent with good commercial practice. As such it should not
require a substantially increased investment of cost or time.
EAL2 is therefore applicable in those circumstances where developers or users require a
low to moderate level of independently assured security in the absence of ready
availability of the complete development record. Such a situation may arise when
securing legacy systems.
EAL3: Methodically Tested and Checked
EAL3 permits a conscientious developer to gain maximum assurance from positive
security engineering at the design stage without substantial alteration of existing sound
development practices.
EAL3 is applicable in those circumstances where developers or users require a moderate
level of independently assured security, and require a thorough investigation of the TOE
and its development without substantial re-engineering.
EAL4: Methodically Designed, Tested and Reviewed
EAL4 permits a developer to gain maximum assurance from positive security engineering based on good commercial development practices which, though rigorous, do not require substantial specialist knowledge, skills, and other resources. EAL4 is the highest level at which it is likely to be economically feasible to retrofit to an existing product line. EAL4 is therefore applicable in those circumstances where developers or users require a moderate to high level of independently assured security in conventional commodity TOEs and are prepared to incur additional security-specific engineering costs.
Commercial operating systems that provide conventional, user-based security features are typically evaluated at EAL4. Examples of such operating systems are AIX, HP-UX, Oracle Linux, NetWare, Solaris, SUSE Linux Enterprise Server 9, SUSE Linux Enterprise Server 10, Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5, Windows 2000 Service Pack 3, Windows 2003, Windows XP, Windows Vista,
Windows 7, Windows Server 2008 R2, z/OS version 2.1 and z/VM version 6.3.
Operating systems that provide multilevel security are evaluated at a minimum of EAL4. Examples include Trusted Solaris, Solaris 10 Release 11/06 Trusted Extensions, an early version of the XTS-400, VMware ESXi version 4.1, 3.5, 4.0, AIX 4.3, AIX 5L, AIX 6, AIX7, Red Hat 6.2 & SUSE Linux Enterprise Server 11 (EAL 4+). vSphere 5.5 Update 2 did not achieve EAL4+ level it was an EAL2+ and certified on June 30, 2015.
EAL5: Semiformally Designed and Tested
EAL5 permits a developer to gain maximum assurance from security engineering based
upon rigorous commercial development practices supported by moderate application of
specialist security engineering techniques. Such a TOE will probably be designed and
developed with the intent of achieving EAL5 assurance. It is likely that the additional
costs attributable to the EAL5 requirements, relative to rigorous development without
the application of specialized techniques, will not be large.
EAL5 is therefore applicable in those circumstances where developers or users require a
high level of independently assured security in a planned development and require a
rigorous development approach without incurring unreasonable costs attributable to
specialist security engineering techniques.
Numerous smart card devices have been evaluated at EAL5, as have multilevel secure devices such as the Tenix Interactive Link. XTS-400 (STOP 6) is a general-purpose operating system which has been evaluated at EAL5 augmented.
LPAR on IBM System z is EAL5 Certified.
EAL6: Semiformally Verified Design and Tested
EAL6 permits developers to gain high assurance from application of security
engineering techniques to a rigorous development environment in order to produce a
premium TOE for protecting high-value assets against significant risks.
EAL6 is therefore applicable to the development of security TOEs for application in
high risk situations where the value of the protected assets justifies the additional costs.
Green Hills Software's INTEGRITY-178B RTOS has been certified to EAL6 augmented.
EAL7: Formally Verified Design and Tested
EAL7 is applicable to the development of security TOEs for application in extremely high risk situations and/or where the high value of the assets justifies the higher costs.
Practical application of EAL7 is currently limited to TOEs with tightly focused security functionality that is amenable to extensive formal analysis. The Tenix Interactive Link Data Diode Device and the Fox-IT Fox Data Diode (one-way data communications device) claimed to have been evaluated at EAL7 augmented (EAL7+).
Implications of assurance levels
Technically speaking, a higher EAL means nothing more, or less, than that the evaluation completed a more stringent set of quality assurance requirements. It is often assumed that a system that achieves a higher EAL will provide its security features more reliably (and the required third-party analysis and testing performed by security experts is reasonable evidence in this direction), but there is little or no published evidence to support that assumption.
Impact on cost and schedule
In 2006, the US Government Accountability Office published a report on Common Criteria evaluations that summarized a range of costs and schedules reported for evaluations performed at levels EAL2 through EAL4.
In the mid to late 1990s, vendors reported spending US$1 million and even US$2.5 million on evaluations comparable to EAL4. There have been no published reports of the cost of the various Microsoft Windows security evaluations.
Augmentation of EAL requirements
In some cases, the evaluation may be augmented to include assurance requirements beyond the minimum required for a particular EAL. Officially this is indicated by following the EAL number with the word augmented and usually with a list of codes to indicate the additional requirements. As shorthand, vendors will often simply add a "plus" sign (as in EAL4+) to indicate the augmented requirements.
EAL notation
The Common Criteria standards denote EALs as shown in this article: the prefix "EAL" concatenated with a digit 1 through 7 (Examples: EAL1, EAL3, EAL5). In practice, some countries place a space between the prefix and the digit (EAL 1, EAL 3, EAL 5). The use of a plus sign to indicate augmentation is an informal shorthand used by product vendors (EAL4+ or EAL 4+).
References
External links
CCEVS Validated Products List
Common Criteria Assurance Level information from IACS
Cisco Common Criteria Certifications
IBM AIX operating system certifications
Microsoft Windows and the Common Criteria Certification
SUSE Linux awarded government security cert
XTS-400 information
Understanding the Windows EAL4 Evaluation
Computer security procedures
Evaluation of computers
de:Evaluation Assurance Level |
47643347 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teknokrat | Teknokrat | Universitas Teknokrat Indonesia is a private higher education in Bandar Lampung, Sumatra, Indonesia. Subjects taught include information management, computer science, and languages.
History
The school was first known as Technocrat Course and Training Center. This course was first established based on Depdikbud permit of Lampung Province on February 29, 1986 by Dr. H.M. Nasrullah Yusuf, S.E., M.B.A.
When it was first established, Technocrat Course and Training Center was designed only for English course, Accounting, training center and manually typing. The tutors were Dr. Masrullah Yusuf and his wife, Hj. Hernaini, S.S., M.Pd.
In 1995, Technocrat Course and Training Center changed its name into Teknokrat Education Institution. This institution led two departments, they were Course and Training Department, and Business and Management Education Institution Department. Then, Business and Management Education Institution continued to develop its education programs. In 1996, Teknokrat one-year Institution of higher education began its teaching and learning process and it lasts until now. The Higher School of Teknokrat was established in 2000.
College
Teknokrat is located at Zainal Abidin Pagaralam street No. 9-11 Labuhan Ratu, Bandar Lampung. This school provides three institutions, they are Higher School of Information Management and Computer Teknokrat, Academic of Information Management and Computer science Teknokrat and Higher School of Foreign Language Teknokrat.
Higher School of Information Management and Computer (STMIK) Teknokrat
STMIK Teknokrat received its operational permission and legal status on February 8, 2001 and has registered itself to the Indonesian Directorate General of Higher Education with the letter No. 13/D/O/2001. Its study programs are S1 degrees of Information Technique (TI) and Information System (SI). Those programs have been accredited ‘B’ by the National Accreditation Board for Higher Education (BAN PT).
Academy of Information Management and Computer (AMIK) Teknokrat
AMIK Teknokrat received its operational permission and legal status on June 9, 2000 and has registered itself to the Indonesian Directorate General of Higher Education with the letter No. 92/D/O/2000. Its study programs are Computerized Accounting (TA), Information Management (MI), and Computer Technique (TK). These D3 programs have been accredited by the National Accreditation Board for Higher Education (BAN PT) since 2003. In 2014, the Computerized Accounting program study got ‘A’ for its accreditation. This is now the only Computerized Accounting program accredited ‘A’ in Indonesia.
Higher School of Foreign Language (STBA) Teknokrat
STBA Teknokrat received its operational permission and legal status on April 25, 2000 and has registered itself to the Indonesian Directorate-General of Higher Education with the letter No. 48/D/O/2000. Its study programs are S1 English Literature, D3 English, and D3 Japanese. These three study programs have also been accredited by the National Accreditation Board for Higher Education (BAN PT) since 2003.
Achievement
Among the achievements made by Teknokrat in 2014 are general winner of Kontes Robot Indonesia (Indonesian robotic contest), national winner of Kontes Robot Terbang Indonesia (KRTI, Indonesian contest for flying robots), national winner of Kontes Kapal Cepat Tak Berawak (unmanned, fast robo-boat contest), and the 1st winner of Kontest Robot Seni Indonesia (Indonesian art-robot contest). In addition, Teknokrat is one of five Indonesian colleges awarded The National ICT's Smartest Campus Award in 2013.
Achievements by students of the Teknokrat language unit are becoming National Champion of News Casting ALSA ’19 in 2015 and becoming the champion of Japanese speech in Sumatra level in 2013, 2014 and 2015. Besides, students of Teknokrat foreign language school were the Asia runner up of spoken English in Asean English Olimpic in 2014.
Other achievements by Teknocrat students are representing Indonesia in World English language Debating Championship in De La Salle University (Philippines) and are succeeded become an ambassador of Youth Exchange Program in 2012, 2013 and 2015.
Student Activity Unit
Student Activity Unit (UKM) is a student organization whose function is to accommodate a variety of interests and talents of the students in Teknokrat. Those Student Activity Unit are:
Student Academic Units
UKM Robotics
UKM TEC
UKM Animation Design
UKM Programming
Spirituality Units
UKM Islam
UKM Catholic Lumen Cristi
UKM Cristian Youth of Teknokrat
UKM Hindu
UKM Buddha
Student Art Units
UKM Dance
UKM Choir
UKM Band
UKM Ambassador
UKM T-Action
Sport Units
UKM Football
UKM Futsal
UKM Basketball
UKM Volley
UKM Karate
UKM Pencak Silat
UKM Badminton
UKM Taekwondo
UKM Student Regiment
Facilities
Computer Laboratory
Teknokrat has eight computer laboratories, including internet laboratory, intranet and multimedia, hardware and networking laboratory, digital electronics laboratory, and software laboratory.
All computers in the laboratory are connected to the internet with high speed access. Besides, the entire area has been connected via a wireless internet network, Wi-Fi. The other technologies, multimedia computer with technology LAN, LED TV 60 and 70 inch, are equipped with a multimedia projector.
Language Laboratory
There are two language laboratories. These laboratories are equipped with Multimedia computers and LED TV 60 and 70 inch. In addition, the language laboratory has been equipped with a set of electronic equipment, audio video consisting of instructor console as the main engine, equipped with a repeater language learning machine, tape recorder, DVD player, video monitors, headsets, and 40 students booth installed with a set of computer and screen in a single space. There are also components of a multimedia computer that can be used as additional components which are combined with all of them. If this is done then the language laboratory also serves as a multimedia language laboratory.
Office and Secretarial Laboratory
In the Office and Secretarial laboratory, a variety of modern office equipment is available, such as:
Room and table for the receptionist
Director's room with a desk director
Meeting room with modern table
Small rooms in each section / unit
Computer connected to a Local Area Network including printer CCTV
Manual typewriting
Fax Machine
Paper shredder
Infocuswith screen
File Cabinets, etc.
Library
Teknokrat has a library which provides a complete collection consisting of books, thesis, scientific paper of lecturers, scientific journals, popular magazines, newspapers, dictionaries, encyclopedias, and handbooks. There is also a collection of thesis from the field of informatics and languages.
Auditorium
There is an auditorium which is used for seminars, workshops, meetings, training, art activity, and others. The auditorium has a capacity of 700 people.
Indoor Stadium
Teknokrat has an indoor stadium with 1500 capacity of people which functions as auditorium for sport activity (basketball, futsal, volleyball and badminton), educational activity (seminar, general stadium, training, English and art contest) and college activity (propti, yudisium, art event)
Classrooms
Facilities in all classrooms in Teknokrat include full AC, personal computer, and 60-inch LED TV as projector. Activity at the classroom is controlled by Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) to control the teaching and learning process.
References
External links
Universities in Indonesia
Universities in Lampung
Bandar Lampung
Lampung |
4878438 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical%20University%2C%20Sofia | Technical University, Sofia | The Technical University of Sofia (), based in Sofia, is the largest technical university in Bulgaria.
Founded on 15 October 1945 as part of the Higher Technical School (later renamed to State Polytechnic), it is an independent institution since 1953, when the Polytechnic was divided into four separate technical institutes. It has had its present name and university status since 21 July 1995 and has 14 main faculties based in Sofia, Plovdiv and Sliven, as well as 3 additional ones with education only in foreign languages — German, English and French.
History
With Decree No 237, published in the State Gazette issue 248 from 24.10.1945, of the National Assembly of Bulgaria, a school called "State Polytechnic" is created with Mechanical engineering faculty with four divisions - mechanical engineering, electrical engineering and mining and geology.
In 1953, the State Polytechnic was split into four new higher institutes, one of which was the Institute of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering. It had two faculties - one of mechanical and one of electrical engineering.
Two years later, in 1955, the word "Higher" was added to the name.
In 1959, a faculty of Transport and Communications was formed which four years later (in 1963) was split into Faculty of Transport (existing until today) and Faculty of Radio Electronics.
The last was split into three in 1987 - Faculty of Electronic Engineering and Technology, Faculty of Telecommunications and Faculty of Computer Systems and Control all existing today. Some of the staff of the newly formed Faculty of Computer Systems and Control used to previously work in the Faculty of Automatics, which was separated from the faculty of Electrical Engineering in 1974.
The Faculty of Mechanical Engineering was only split once, in 1963, when two new faculties - of Machine Technology and of Power Engineering and Power Machines, were formed from it.
In 1991, the faculty of Management was formed.
Since 1991 the Higher Institute of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering was renamed to Technical University of Sofia.
The Technical University of Sofia is one of the eight holders of the European University of Technology, EUt+, with the Riga Technical University (Latvia), the Cyprus University of Technology (Cyprus), the Hochschule Darmstadt, University of Applied Sciences (Germany), the Technological University Dublin (Ireland), the Polytechnic University of Cartagena (Spain), the University of Technology of Troyes (France), the Technological University Dublin (Ireland) and the Technical University of Cluj-Napoca (Romania).
The European University of Technology, EUt+ is the result of the alliance of eight European partners who share in common the "Think Human First" vision towards a human-centred approach to technology and the ambition to establish a new type of institution on a confederal basis.
Through EUt+, the partners are committed to creating a sustainable future for students and learners in European countries, for the staff of each of the institutions and for the territories and regions where each campus is anchored.
Campuses
The Technical University of Sofia consists of 5 campuses: Sofia, Plovdiv, Sliven, Botevgrad, Kazanlak.
The Central Campus in Sofia includes 14 buildings.
Building 1 used to be army barracks and now houses the administration of the university as well as the administration, the offices of scientists and most laboratories of:
The Faculty of Electronics Engineering and Technology
The Faculty of Telecommunications
The Faculty of Computer Systems and Control
The University Publishing House, the University Information Resources Center are also situated there. The language center is a building dedicated only to foreign language learning. Also a separate building - Sports center houses an olympic size swimming pool and a number of other sports halls.
Faculties
The Technical University of Sofia includes the following branches:
Faculties in Sofia (11):
Faculty of Automation
Faculty of Electronic Engineering and Technology
Faculty of Electrical Engineering
Faculty of Power Engineering and Power Machines
Faculty of Computer Systems and Control
Faculty of Communications and Communications technologies
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Faculty of Machine Technology
Faculty of Management
Faculty of Transport
Faculty of Applied Mathematics and Informatics
Department of Applied Physics
Faculties in Plovdiv (2):
Faculty of Electronics and Automation
Faculty of Mechanical and Device Engineering
Faculty in Sliven:
Faculty of Engineering and Pedagogy
Faculties with education in foreign languages in Sofia (3):
Faculty of German Engineering Education and Industrial Management
English Language Department of Engineering
French Language Department of Electrical Engineering
Others
In its educational structure the Technical University of Sofia includes as well:
Colleges (higher schools):
United Technical College of Sofia
"John Atanasoff" Technical College of Plovdiv
College of Sliven
High schools
Technological School of Electronic Systems, Sofia
Professional secondary school of Computer Technologies and Systems, Pravets
See also
List of colleges and universities
Sofia
References
External links
Technical University of Sofia Website
Electronic catalogue of the university library
Why Choose Technical University of Sofia
Блога на 58 Група ”a survival guide in TU…”
Технологично училище "Електронни системи"
Life technical - Channel on Youtube
Technical universities and colleges in Bulgaria
Educational institutions established in 1953
1953 establishments in Bulgaria |
10105654 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fmt%20%28Unix%29 | Fmt (Unix) | The command in Unix, Plan 9, Inferno, and Unix-like operating systems is used to format natural language text for humans to read.
Overview
The command has been traditionally used to reformat email messages after composition and prior to delivery. Its syntax is similar among various Unixes, but not identical. attempts to break, fill and join input lines to produce globally optimal, balanced output with the lengths of each line approaching the target width as closely as possible, rather than wrapping the input lines exactly as (from GNU Core Utilities) does.
In most implementations of , the word wrap optimization procedure usually requires two criteria: the target output line width, and the maximum acceptable line width (which should be larger than the previous one to give room for optimization). It might be not always possible to give these two options simultaneously. For example, early versions of GNU can only accept the maximum width option, which is given by switch, or directly as the first command line option for compatibility (later versions use to specify the goal width and for the maximum width). See the Solaris man page for and FreeBSD manual entry for for detailed examples, and compare with the latest documentation of GNU utility included by most Linux distributions. See also the Plan 9 man page.
Unlike , has no Unicode support, and does not support text justification.
The command is available as a separate package for Microsoft Windows as part of the UnxUtils collection of native Win32 ports of common GNU Unix-like utilities.
Example
Given text like this as input:
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Curabitur dignissim
venenatis pede. Quisque dui dui, ultricies ut, facilisis non, pulvinar non. Duis quis arcu a purus volutpat iaculis. Morbi id dui in diam ornare
dictum. Praesent consectetuer vehicula ipsum. Praesent tortor massa, congue et,
ornare in, posuere eget, pede.
Vivamus rhoncus. Quisque lacus. In hac habitasse platea dictumst. Nullam mauris
tellus, sollicitudin non, semper eget, sodales non, pede. Phasellus varius
ullamcorper libero. Fusce ipsum lorem, iaculis nec, vulputate vitae, suscipit
vel, tortor. Cras varius.
Nullam fringilla pellentesque orci. Nulla eu ante pulvinar velit rhoncus
lacinia. Morbi fringilla lacus quis arcu. Vestibulum sem quam, dapibus in,
fringilla ut, venenatis ut, neque.
After passing this through , the width of each line is at most 50 characters and the text flows within this constraint:
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer
adipiscing elit. Curabitur dignissim venenatis
pede. Quisque dui dui, ultricies ut, facilisis
non, pulvinar non, purus. Duis quis arcu a
purus volutpat iaculis. Morbi id dui in diam
ornare dictum. Praesent consectetuer vehicula
ipsum. Praesent tortor massa, congue et, ornare
in, posuere eget, pede.
Vivamus rhoncus. Quisque lacus. In hac
habitasse platea dictumst. Nullam mauris tellus,
sollicitudin non, semper eget, sodales non,
pede. Phasellus varius ullamcorper libero. Fusce
ipsum lorem, iaculis nec, vulputate vitae,
suscipit vel, tortor. Cras varius.
Nullam fringilla pellentesque orci. Nulla eu ante
pulvinar velit rhoncus lacinia. Morbi fringilla
lacus quis arcu. Vestibulum sem quam, dapibus in,
fringilla ut, venenatis ut, neque.
See also
List of Unix commands
References
External links
Unix text processing utilities
Plan 9 commands
Inferno (operating system) commands |
901867 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple%20Open%20Collaboration%20Environment | Apple Open Collaboration Environment | Apple Open Collaboration Environment (AOCE), is a collection of messaging-related technologies introduced for the classic Mac OS in the early 1990s. It includes the PowerTalk mail engine, which is the primary client-side interface to the system, the PowerShare mail server for workgroup installations, and a number of additional technologies such as Open Directory, encryption, and digital signature support.
AOCE and PowerTalk were heavily marketed between 1993 and 1996, but the hardware requirements meant that most users couldn't even install or use it. Developers were likewise stymied by the complex system, and since the installed base was so small their potential sales were even smaller. In 1996, Apple Computer quietly dropped its efforts to market AOCE, and the project quickly disappeared.
History
Development of AOCE started in 1989, largely the "pet project" of Apple Fellow Gursharan Sidhu, formerly engineering lead at Apple for LaserWriter, AppleShare, and related networking products.
Objective
The project started by taking a "20,000 foot overview" of existing mail systems, and trying to find common concepts and problems. Their key conclusion was that email systems were designed for the wrong purpose—to deliver email to people, when they should instead store and forward things to places. Compare this with the real-world postal service, which delivers not only mail, but magazines, packages, large parcels, and even (in one example) building materials to a worksite.
The team also found other problems with existing email systems. They tended to support plain text mail only, and rarely supported non-English characters. Support for mobile users was poor, often relying on third party workarounds that were of dubious reliability. And they were all based on a dedicated email server that was typically complex to set up, and often excessive for small installations with only a few people in an office.
Finally, none of the existing products could give the user what they really wanted: a single universal mailbox and a single universal address book. In this pre-Internet era, savvy users often had mailboxes on their corporate network, online services such as CompuServe or AppleLink, and perhaps also a number of Bulletin board systems (BBSs). Each email system used its own standards for collecting and storing information, forcing users to run multiple clients to access the different services. Although a single-mailbox system could be constructed by administrators with the use of email gateways, these tended to be expensive and technically challenging to maintain.
Solutions
AOCE aimed to fix all of these issues at the same time. At one end of the system, AOCE focuses on the underlying delivery and addressing systems, generalizing the email concept so the system can be used to deliver anything from email to word processor documents to print jobs. Addressing was another issue the market was struggling with, so AOCE offers a single universal addressing mechanism and address book, one that could support not only people's email addresses, but the addresses of things like printers and fax machines as well. These could be looked up in an interface much easier to use than the existing Macintosh solution, the Chooser.
AOCE normally store users' email on each personal computer, as opposed to a server. This not only allows the user to read mail offline, but also removes the need for a single machine with huge storage space. Small networks can be set up simply by installing the standard client software; the machines discover each other on AppleTalk and communicate directly. AOCE understands that users are not always connected to the network, so outbound mail is cached on the sender's machine until both the sender and recipient are online. Even on a LAN this is valuable, as many users turn off their computers at night and the mail would must wait until the next morning for delivery.
Since the mail is stored locally, users with laptop computers are able to read and compose mail while mobile. Everything automatically updates upon reconnection to the office LAN. AppleTalk Remote Access, Apple's standard implementation of AppleTalk over modems, provides remote sync.
For security over the potentially open phone lines, all communications can be secured using RSA encryption and digital signing, even on the local network. Additionally, the Keychain stores various login credentials in an encrypted file. This allows the users to use a different username and password on the various systems, placing them in the keychain database for secure storage. This requires only a single password for the keychain; AOCE can retrieve the credentials for a particular service on demand.
Users can share documents directly simply by dropping the address on the document, or vice versa, bypassing a message at all – the document would arrive automatically in the other user's mailbox. Delivery of email (which in this scenario is nothing more than a text document in a specialized format), or of anything else, was handled entirely by plugins, allowing the user to collect mail from all of their sources into a single inbox.
An optional server can be installed for performance and maintenance needs for those sites that required it. In this case any attempted delivery would be intercepted immediately by the server, thereby avoiding delays if the recipient was not online. The server then delivers the message on behalf of the sender when the recipient connects online.
The AOCE project suffered from what is known as second-system effect, where engineers spend considerable time designing a system that does everything. Invariably these projects fail as the demands are not only incredibly difficult to meet, but often fail to meet real user needs. Often the ideas themselves are good, but buried inside unusable implementations.
Release
By early 1993 the client side of AOCE was nearing completion, which was then referred to as PowerTalk. Apple started a pre-release marketing campaign, telling larger customers and even third party email vendors that AOCE would soon arrive and change the market completely. Their claim was that nothing else would be able to compete with its usability, power, and lack of maintenance overhead – all hallmarks of the Apple way.
The system was first widely shown at the Macworld Expo in Boston in mid-1993. At the show the developers found that the choice of naming was unwise, due to confusion between PowerTalk and Apple's new voice recognition system, PlainTalk.
AOCE was publicly released in September 1993, part of the System 7 Pro bundle that also includes AppleScript utilities.
Deployment
When the product finally shipped after years of hype, users were dismayed to find that to install it requires a machine with 2.5 MB of RAM minimum, and needed 4 MB to run well. This is the maximum available RAM in many Mac systems of the era. Removing unneeded components do little to address this, and AOCE and the other Apple technology, QuickDraw GX, typically could not be run together because of a lack of memory. While newer machines were able to run AOCE more comfortably, as an email system intended to be run on diverse networks of non-homogeneous machines the requirements greatly impaired market acceptance. Simply downloading and installing separate stand-alone client applications for each mail system the user actually had would use considerably less disk space, and had no constant memory footprint.
While PowerTalk was generally an interesting system, a combination of design features made it frustrating to use. For instance, the addressing system is so deeply embedded into the core of the system that simply typing in a new address is an ordeal. First the user clicks on a button, selects the address type, types it in, and then finally clicks OK to have it appear in the message. Disk usage is also a problem because each message is stored as a separate file, requiring 1 kB or more of space in an era where 40 MB and 80 MB disks are still common. Thus a few hundred messages are enough to fill the free space on the drive. Backing up email was likewise almost impossible as a side-effect of the design; the mail was spread out over the network, some of it remote and inaccessible.
The system could not know who a user was, because the single-user Mac OS 7 does not require users to log in. Thus documents had to be delivered to a user's machine. This does not work well when the user has two or more machines, making the concept of a universal mailbox difficult to achieve in practice.
Even the remote access functionality is doomed by feature interaction. To ensure that all messages are delivered in a reasonable time on a network where machines might appear and disappear at random (when they are turned on and off), AOCE has a 15-minute timeout in which it repeatedly tries to deliver pending messages. If the user is using a dialup connection on a modem, AOCE keeps the line open for a full 15 minutes before giving up on disconnected user, driving up long distance bills to deliver a potentially tiny message.
Many of these problems were intended to be solved with the PowerShare server, which acts as an always-on, always responsive super-peer. The basic AOCE protocol notices these machines when attempting delivery, and sends to them first, thereby eliminating the delays and centralizing storage and maintenance. Sadly the server was not ready in time for the release, and did not ship for another year. When it did it was likewise slow and resource hungry, largely a side effect of various features of the Mac OS that makes it unsuitable for server applications—a role for which it was never designed in the first place.
Cancellation
AOCE had one year at Apple's Worldwide Developers Conference in 1995 when it was finally selling, but by this point, the market was moving toward SMTP-based Internet mail as a universal format. By 1996 Apple had given up on AOCE, and started talking about the CyberDog project based on the OpenDoc platform. AOCE is not supported in Mac OS 7.6.
Overview
AOCE's Open Directory and related software introduced the concept of directory entries (such as business cards) as first-class desktop objects. This is used to create a drag-and-drop metaphor for mail, fax, and other directory-based activities. Each endpoint, a mail server for instance, is driven by a plug-in extension that is driven by a common AOCE-supplied queue and queue viewer. PowerTalk provides a set of standard forms for interacting with the items in the queues, and a common interface for mail, and a universal mailbox. Encryption is supported by a single keychain that remembered all your passwords and digital signatures, encrypting them together so only a single password needed to be remembered.
The system was designed in an era when there were many email formats and services, including online services such as CompuServe and AppleLink, networking standards like X.400 and SMTP (Internet mail), and LAN-based servers such as Microsoft Mail and QuickMail. In order to support this diverse environment, AOCE includes a robust layered protocol stack that, in theory, can be used with practically any store-and-forward type of environment. This is used within AOCE not only to service mail, but faxes, printing and even directly sending files from one machine to another without enclosing them in a mail message or needing a file server.
Adoption of AOCE among third party developers was slow due to a complicated API. The book documenting the system is larger than all of the books describing the rest of the pre-System 7 Macintosh combined. Adding a simple feature like "mail this document" to an application requires wading through hundreds of pages of documentation, and writing a core AOCE component is many times more complex.
Several parts of the AOCE engine are useful on their own, such as the Keychain. However, in order to get the keychain, the user must install all of AOCE, a cost the users were not willing to pay. Many years later the keychain was finally shipped as a stand-alone component in Mac OS 9. The encryption and signing support is arguably also useful (although not widely deployed), and it reappeared in Apple's bundled Mail application starting with Mac OS X 10.2 Jaguar in August 2002.
Reception
In August 1994, Mel Beckman of MacWorld gave AOCE one star out of five, citing profoundly poor usability, documentation, hardware resource requirements, and telephone technical support. A network administrator of five years, Beckman failed to even properly send email after three dedicated days, saying "setting up and maintaining a PowerShare server is not a chore for the fainthearted" with daily tasks being "odious".
References
External links
Apple Open Collaboration Environment (AOCE) documentation on Apple Developer Connection
AOCE - The next great Macintosh Advantage?
1990-1995: Apple vs. Microsoft in the Enterprise, PowerTalk overview
Apple Inc. services
Email |
303330 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboration | Collaboration | Collaboration (from Latin com- "with" + laborare "to labor", "to work") is the process of two or more people, entities or organizations working together to complete a task or achieve a goal. Collaboration is similar to cooperation. Most collaboration requires leadership, although the form of leadership can be social within a decentralized and egalitarian group. Teams that work collaboratively often access greater resources, recognition and rewards when facing competition for finite resources.
Structured methods of collaboration encourage introspection of behavior and communication. Such methods aim to increase the success of teams as they engage in collaborative problem-solving. Collaboration is present in opposing goals exhibiting the notion of adversarial collaboration, though this is not a common use of the term. In its applied sense, "(a) collaboration is a purposeful relationship in which all parties strategically choose to cooperate in order to accomplish a shared outcome."
Examples
Trade
Trade is a form of collaboration between two societies that produce different portfolios of goods. Trade began in prehistoric times and continues because it benefits all of its participants. Prehistoric peoples bartered goods and services with each other without a modern currency. Peter Watson dates the history of long-distance commerce from circa 150,000 years ago. Trade exists because different communities have a comparative advantage in the production of tradable goods.
Community organization: Intentional Community
The members of an intentional community typically hold a common social, political or spiritual vision. They share responsibilities and resources. Intentional communities include cohousing, residential land trusts, ecovillages, communes, kibbutzim, ashrams, and housing cooperatives. Typically, new members of an intentional community are selected by the community's existing membership, rather than by real estate agents or land owners (if the land is not owned by the community).
Hutterite, Austria (founded 16th century)
In Hutterite communities housing units are built and assigned to individual families, but belong to the colony with little personal property. Meals are taken by the entire colony in a common long room.
Oneida Community, Oneida, New York (1848)
The Oneida Community practiced Communalism (in the sense of communal property and possessions) and Mutual Criticism, where every member of the community was subject to criticism by committee or the community as a whole, during a general meeting. The goal was to remove bad character traits.
Kibbutz (1890)
A Kibbutz is an Israeli collective community. The movement combines socialism and Zionism seeking a form of practical Labor Zionism. Choosing communal life, and inspired by their own ideology, kibbutz members developed a communal mode of living. The kibbutzim lasted for several generations as utopian communities, although most became capitalist enterprises and regular towns.
Indigenous Collaboration
Collaboration in indigenous communities, particularly in the Americas, often involves the entire community working toward a common goal in a horizontal structure with flexible leadership. Children in some indigenous American communities collaborate with the adults. Children can be contributors in the process of meeting objectives by taking on tasks that suit their skills.
Indigenous learning techniques comprise Learning by Observing and Pitching In. For example, a study of Mayan fathers and children with traditional Indigenous ways of learning worked together in collaboration more frequently when building a 3D model puzzle than Mayan fathers with western schooling. Also, Chillihuani people of the Andes value work and create work parties in which members of each household in the community participate. Children from indigenous-heritage communities want to help around the house voluntarily.
In the Mazahua Indigenous community of Mexico, school children show initiative and autonomy by contributing in their classroom, completing activities as a whole, assisting and correcting their teacher during lectures when a mistake is made. Fifth and sixth graders in the community work with the teacher installing a classroom window; the installation becomes a class project in which the students participate in the process alongside the teacher. They all work together without needing leadership, and their movements are all in sync and flowing. It is not a process of instruction, but rather a hands-on experience in which students work together as a synchronous group with the teacher, switching roles and sharing tasks. In these communities, collaboration is emphasized, and learners are trusted to take initiative. While one works, the other watches intently and all are allowed to attempt tasks with the more experienced stepping in to complete more complex parts, while others pay close attention.
Collaboration in the free market
Ayn Rand said that one way people pursue their rational self-interest is by building strong relationships with other people. According to Rand, participants in capitalism are connected through the voluntary division of labor in the free market, where value is exchanged always for value. Rand's theory of rational egoism claims that acting in one's self-interest entails looking out for others in order to protect the innocent from injustice, and to aid friends, allies, and loved ones.
Game theory
Game theory is a branch of applied mathematics, computer science, and economics that looks at situations where multiple players make decisions in an attempt to maximize their returns. The first documented discussion of game theory is in a letter written by James Waldegrave, 1st Earl Waldegrave in 1713. Antoine Augustin Cournot's Researches into the Mathematical Principles of the Theory of Wealth in 1838 provided the first general theory. In 1928 it became a recognized field when John von Neumann published a series of papers. Von Neumann's work in game theory culminated in the 1944 book The Theory of Games and Economic Behavior by von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern.
Military-industrial complex
The term military-industrial complex refers to a close and symbiotic relationship among a nation's armed forces, its private industry, and associated political interests. In such a system, the military is dependent on industry to supply material and other support, while the defence industry depends on government for revenue.
Skunk Works
Skunk Works is a term used in engineering and technical fields to describe a group within an organization given a high degree of autonomy unhampered by bureaucracy, tasked with advanced or secret projects. One such group was created at Lockheed in 1943. The team developed highly innovative aircraft in short time frames, notably beating its first deadline by 37 days.
Manhattan Project
The Manhattan Project was a collaborative project during World War II among the Allies that developed the first atomic bomb . It was a collaborative effort by the United States, the United Kingdom and Canada.
The value of this project as an influence on organized collaboration is attributed to Vannevar Bush. In early 1940, Bush lobbied for the creation of the National Defense Research Committee. Frustrated by previous bureaucratic failures in implementing technology in World War I, Bush sought to organize the scientific power of the United States for greater success.
The project succeeded in developing and detonating three nuclear weapons in 1945: a test detonation of a plutonium implosion bomb on July 16 (the Trinity test) near Alamogordo, New Mexico; an enriched uranium bomb code-named "Little Boy" on August 6 over Hiroshima, Japan; and a second plutonium bomb, code-named "Fat Man" on August 9 over Nagasaki, Japan.
Project management
As a discipline, Project Management developed from different fields including construction, engineering and defense. In the United States, the forefather of project management is Henry Gantt, who is known for his use of the "bar" chart as a project management tool, for being an associate of Frederick Winslow Taylor's theories of scientific management and for his study of the management of Navy ship building. His work is the forerunner to many modern project management tools including the work breakdown structure (WBS) and resource allocation.
The 1950s marked the beginning of the modern project management era. Again, in the United States, prior to the 1950s, projects were managed on an ad hoc basis using mostly Gantt charts, and informal techniques and tools. At that time, two mathematical project scheduling models were developed: (1) the "Program Evaluation and Review Technique" or PERT, developed as part of the United States Navy's (in conjunction with the Lockheed Corporation) Polaris missile submarine program; and (2) the "Critical Path Method" (CPM) developed in a joint venture by both DuPont Corporation and Remington Rand Corporation for managing plant maintenance projects. These mathematical techniques quickly spread into many private enterprises.
In 1969, the Project Management Institute (PMI) was formed to serve the interest of the project management industry. The premise of PMI is that the tools and techniques of project management are common even among the widespread application of projects from the software industry to the construction industry. In 1981, the PMI Board of Directors authorized the development of what has become A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK), standards and guidelines of practice that are widely used throughout the profession. The International Project Management Association (IPMA), founded in Europe in 1967, has undergone a similar development and instituted the IPMA Project Baseline. Both organizations are now participating in the development of a global project management standard.
However, the exorbitant cost overruns and missed deadlines of large-scale infrastructure, military R&D/procurement and utility projects in the US demonstrates that these advances have not been able to overcome the challenges of such projects.
Academia
Black Mountain College
Founded in 1933 by John Andrew Rice, Theodore Dreier and other former faculty of Rollins College, Black Mountain College was experimental by nature and committed to an interdisciplinary approach, attracting a faculty which included leading visual artists, poets and designers.
Operating in a relatively isolated rural location with little budget, Black Mountain fostered an informal and collaborative spirit. Innovations, relationships and unexpected connections formed at Black Mountain had a lasting influence on the postwar American art scene, high culture and eventually pop culture. Buckminster Fuller met student Kenneth Snelson at Black Mountain, and the result was the first geodesic dome (improvised out of slats in the school's back yard); Merce Cunningham formed his dance company; and John Cage staged his first happening.
Black Mountain College was a consciously directed liberal arts school that grew out of the progressive education movement. In its day it was a unique educational experiment for the artists and writers who conducted it, and as such an important incubator for the American avant garde.
Learning
Dr. Wolff-Michael Roth and Stuart Lee of the University of Victoria assert that until the early 1990s the individual was the 'unit of instruction' and the focus of research. The two observed that researchers and practitioners switched to the idea that "knowing" is better thought of as a cultural practice. Roth and Lee also claim that this led to changes in learning and teaching design in which students were encouraged to share their ways of doing mathematics, history, science, with each other. In other words, that children take part in the construction of consensual domains, and 'participate in the negotiation and institutionalization of … meaning'. In effect, they are participating in learning communities.
This analysis does not consider the appearance of Learning communities in the United States in the early 1980s. For example, The Evergreen State College, which is widely considered a pioneer in this area, established an intercollegiate learning community in 1984. In 1985, this same college established The Washington Center for Improving the Quality of Undergraduate Education, which focuses on collaborative education approaches, including learning communities as one of its centerpieces. The school later became notorious for less-successful collaborations.
Classical music
Although relatively rare compared with collaboration in popular music, there have been some notable examples of music written collaboratively by classical composers. Perhaps the best-known examples are:
Hexameron, a set of variations for solo piano on a theme from Vincenzo Bellini's opera I puritani. It was written and first performed in 1837. The contributors were Franz Liszt, Frédéric Chopin, Carl Czerny, Sigismond Thalberg, Johann Peter Pixis, and Henri Herz.
The F-A-E Sonata, a sonata for violin and piano, written in 1853 as a gift for the violinist Joseph Joachim. The composers were Albert Dietrich (first movement), Robert Schumann (second and fourth movements), and Johannes Brahms (third movement).
The Roman Empire
The Roman Empire used collaboration through ruling with visible control, which lasted from 31BC to 1453CE across around fifty countries. The growth of trade was supported by the stable administration of the Romans. Evidence shows that The Roman Empire and Julius Caesar were influenced by the Greek writer Xenophon ‘The Education of Cyrus’ on leadership. This says that ‘social bonds, not command and control, were to be the primary mechanisms of governance’. The Roman Empire ‘extended their citizenship to enemies, former enemies of state, to people who’d helped them. The Romans were incredibly good at co-opting people and ideas’. Creating a stable empire that benefitted ruled & allied countries. Gold and silver were currencies created by The Romans which supported a market economy. Leading to trading within The Roman Empire and taxes.
Occupational examples
Arts
Figurative arts
The romanticized notion of a lone, genius artist has existed since the time of Giorgio Vasari’s Lives of the Artists, published in 1568. Vasari promulgated the idea that artistic skill was endowed upon chosen individuals by gods, which created an enduring and largely false popular misunderstanding of many artistic processes. Artists have used collaboration to complete large scale works for centuries, but the myth of the lone artist was not widely questioned until the 1960s and 1970s.
Collaborative art groups
Dada (1913)
Fluxus (1957)
Situationist International (1957)
Experiments in Art and Technology (1967)
Mujeres Muralistas (1973)
Colab (1977)
Guerrilla Girls (1985)
SITO (1993)
2 Easy Fashion (2008)
Ballet
Ballet is a collaborative art form. Ballet entails music, dancers, costumes, a venue, lighting, etc. Hypothetically, one person could control all of this, but most often every work of ballet is the by-product of collaboration. From the earliest formal works of ballet, to the great 19th century masterpieces of Pyotr Tchaikovsky and Marius Petipa, to the 20th century masterworks of George Balanchine and Igor Stravinsky, to today’s ballet companies, feature strong collaborative connections between choreographers, composers and costume designers are essential. Within dance as an art form, there is also the collaboration between choreographer and dancer. The choreographer creates a movement in her/his head and then physically demonstrates the movement to the dancer, which the dancer sees and attempts to either mimic or interpret.
Music
Musical collaboration occurs when musicians in different places or groups work on the piece. Typically, multiple parties are involved (singers, songwriters, lyricists, composers, and producers) and come together to create one work. For example, one specific collaboration from recent times (2015) was the song "FourFiveSeconds". This single represents a type of collaboration because it was developed by pop idol Rihanna, Paul McCartney (former bassist, composer and vocalist for The Beatles), and rapper/composer Kanye West. Websites and software facilitate musical collaboration over the Internet, resulting in the emergence of Online Bands.
Several awards exist specifically for collaboration in music:
Grammy Award for Best Country Collaboration with Vocals—awarded since 1988
Grammy Award for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals—awarded since 1995
Grammy Award for Best Rap/Sung Collaboration—awarded since 2002
Collaboration has been a constant feature of Electroacoustic Music, due to the technology's complexity. Embedding technological tools into the process stimulated the emergence of new agents with new expertise: the musical assistant, the technician, the computer music designer, the music mediator (a profession that has been described and defined in different ways over the years) – aiding with writing, creating new instruments, recording and/or performance. The musical assistant explains developments in musical research and translates artistic ideas into programming languages. Finally, he or she transforms those ideas into a score or a computer program and often performs the musical piece during the concerts. Examples of collaboration include Pierre Boulez and Andrew Gerzso, Alvise Vidolin and Luigi Nono, Jonathan Harvey and Gilbert Nouno, among others.
Entertainment
Collaboration in entertainment dates from the origin of theatrical productions, millennia ago. It takes the form of writers, directors, actors, producers and other individuals or groups work on the same production. In the twenty-first century, new technology has enhanced collaboration. A system developed by Will Wright for the TV series title Bar Karma on CurrentTV facilitates plot collaboration over the Internet. Screenwriter organizations bring together professional and amateur writers and filmmakers.
Business
Collaboration in business can be found both within and across organizations and ranges from partnership and crowd funding to the complexity of a multinational corporation. Inter-organizational collaboration brings participating parties to invest resources, mutually achieve goals, share information, resources, rewards and responsibilities, as well as make joint decisions and solve problems. Collaboration between public, private and voluntary sectors can be effective in tackling complex policy problems, but may be handled more effectively by boundary-spanning teams and networks than by formal organizational structures. In turn, business and management scholars have paid much attention to the importance of both formal and informal mechanisms to support inter-organizational collaboration. It especially points to the role of contractual and relational mechanisms and the inherent tensions between these two mechanisms. Collaboration allows for better communication within the organization and along supply chains. It is a way of coordinating different ideas from numerous people to generate a wide variety of knowledge. Collaboration with a selected few firms has been shown to positively impact firm performance and innovation outcomes.
Technology has provided the internet, wireless connectivity and collaboration tools such as blogs and wikis, and has as such created the possibility of "mass collaboration". People are able to rapidly communicate and share ideas, crossing longstanding geographical and cultural boundaries. Social networks permeate business culture where collaborative uses include file sharing and knowledge transfer. According to author Evan Rosen command-and-control organizational structures inhibit collaboration and replacing such structures allows collaboration to flourish.
Studies have found that collaboration can increase achievement and productivity. However, a four-year study of interorganizational collaboration found that successful collaboration can be rapidly derailed through external policy steering, particularly where it undermines relations built on trust. Collaboration is also threatened by opportunism from the business partners and the possibility of coordination failures that can derail the efforts of even well-intentioned parties.
Coworking spaces are businesses that provide space for freelancers to work with others in a collaborative environment.
Education
In recent years, co-teaching has become more common, found in US classrooms across all grade levels and content areas. Once regarded as connecting special education and general education teachers, it is now more generally defined as "…two professionals delivering substantive instruction to a diverse group of students in a single physical space."
As American classrooms have become increasingly diverse, so have the challenges for educators. Due to the diverse needs of students with designated special needs, English language learners (ELL), and students of varied academic levels, teachers have developed new approaches that provide additional student support. In practice, students remain in the classroom and receive instruction by both their general teacher and special education teachers.
In the 1996 report "What Matters Most: Teaching for America’s Future" economic success could be enhanced if students developed the capacity to learn how to "manage teams… and…work together successfully in teams".
Teachers increasingly use collaborative software to establish virtual learning environments (VLEs). This allows them to share learning materials and feedback with both students and in some cases, parents. Approaches include:
Collaborative Partnerships: Business/Industry-Education
Learning circle
Collaborative partnerships
21st century skills
Publishing
Collaboration in publishing can be as simple as dual-authorship or as complex as commons-based peer production. Tools include Usenet, e-mail lists, blogs and Wikis while 'brick and mortar' examples include monographs (books) and periodicals such as newspapers, journals and magazines. One approach is for an author to publish early drafts/chapters of a work on the Internet and solicit suggestions from the world at large. This approach helped ensure that the technical aspects of the novel The Martian were as accurate as possible.
Technical Communication
Collaboration in technical communication (also commonly referred to as technical writing) has become increasingly important in the creation and dissemination of technical documents in multiple technical and occupational fields, including: computer hardware and software, medicine, engineering, robotics, aeronautics, biotechnology, information technology, and finance. Collaboration in technical communication allows for greater flexibility, productivity and innovation for technical writers and the companies they work for, resulting in technical documents that are more comprehensive and accurate than documents produced by individuals. Technical communication collaboration typically occurs on shared document work-spaces (such as Google Docs), through social media sites, videoconferencing, SMS and IM, and on Cloud-based authoring platforms.
Science
Scientific collaboration rapidly advanced throughout the twentieth century as measured by the increasing numbers of coauthors on published papers. Wagner and Leydesdorff found international collaborations to have doubled from 1990 to 2005. While collaborative authorships within nations has also risen, this has done so at a slower rate and is not cited as frequently. Notable examples of scientific collaboration include CERN, the International Space Station, the ITER nuclear fusion experiment, and the European Union's Human Brain Project.
Medicine
Collaboration in health care is defined as health care professionals assuming complementary roles and cooperatively working together, sharing responsibility for problem-solving and making decisions to formulate and carry out plans for patient care. Collaboration between physicians, nurses, and other health care professionals increases team members’ awareness of each other's type of knowledge and skills, leading to continued improvement in decision making. A collaborative plan is filed with each state board of medicine where the PA works. This plan formally delineates the scope of practice approved by the physician.
Technology
Collaboration in technology encompasses a broad range of tools that enable groups of people to work together including social networking, instant messaging, team spaces, web sharing, audio conferencing, video, and telephony. Many large companies adopt collaboration platforms to allow employees, customers and partners to intelligently connect and interact.
Enterprise collaboration tools focus on encouraging collective intelligence and staff collaboration at the organization level, or with partners. These include features such as staff networking, expert recommendations, information sharing, expertise location, peer feedback, and real-time collaboration. At the personal level, this enables employees to enhance social awareness and their profiles and interactions Collaboration encompasses both asynchronous and synchronous methods of communication and serves as an umbrella term for a wide variety of software packages. Perhaps the most commonly associated form of synchronous collaboration is web conferencing, but the term can encompass IP telephony, instant messaging, and rich video interaction with telepresence, as well.
The effectiveness of a collaborative effort is driven by three critical factors:
Communication
Content Management
Workflow
The Internet
The Internet's low cost and nearly instantaneous sharing of ideas, knowledge, and skills has made collaborative work dramatically easier. Not only can a group cheaply communicate, but the wide reach of the Internet allows groups to easily form, particularly among dispersed, niche participants. An example of this is the free software movement in software development which produced GNU and Linux from scratch and has taken over development of Mozilla and OpenOffice.org (formerly known as Netscape Communicator and StarOffice).
With the recent development of social media platforms, there has been a constant and quick growth in the use of the Internet for communication and collaboration between people. The 2.0 version of the internet has become a tool for collaborative projects, blogs, online communities, social networks, group games. An example of how social media aids in more effective collaboration is seen via the business environment. Communication and collaboration create new hierarchies and wider networks for employees and partners of organisations. Additionally, it also enables businesses to broaden their marketing strategies by collaborating with influencers of those social media platforms.
Commons-based peer production
Commons-based peer production is a term coined by Yale Law professor Yochai Benkler to describe a new model of economic production in which the creative energy of large numbers of people is coordinated (usually with the aid of the internet) into large, meaningful projects, mostly without hierarchical organization or financial compensation. He compares this to firm production (where a centralized decision process decides what has to be done and by whom) and market-based production (when tagging different prices to different jobs serves as an attractor to anyone interested in doing the job).
Examples of products created by means of commons-based peer production include Linux, a computer operating system; Slashdot, a news and announcements website; Kuro5hin, a discussion site for technology and culture; Wikipedia, an online encyclopedia; and Clickworkers, a collaborative scientific work. Another example is Socialtext, a software solution that uses tools such as wikis and weblogs and helps companies to create a collaborative work environment.
Massively distributed collaboration
The term massively distributed collaboration was coined by Mitchell Kapor, in a presentation at UC Berkeley on 2005-11-09, to describe an emerging activity of wikis and electronic mailing lists and blogs and other content-creating virtual communities online.
See also
Classical music written in collaboration
Clinical collaboration
Collaborative editing
Collaborative governance
Collaborative innovation network
Collaborative leadership
Collaborative search engine
Collaborative software
Collaborative translation
Commons-based peer production
Community film
Conference call
Cooperative game theory
Critical thinking
Crowdsourcing
Design thinking
Digital collaboration
Elaboration
Facilitation
Intranet portal
Knowledge management
Learning circle
Postpartisan
Role-based collaboration
Sociality
Teamwork
Telepresence
The Culture of Collaboration
Unorganisation
Wikinomics
Outsourcing
Outstaffing
Coworking
References
Further reading
Daugherty, Patricia J, R. Glenn Richey, Anthony S. Roath, Soonhong Min, Haozhe Chen, Aaron D. Arndt, Stefan E. Genchev (2006), "Is Collaboration Paying Off For Firms?" Business Horizons, Vol. 49, pp. 61–70.
Lewin, Bruce. "The Tension in Collaboration".
London, Scott. "Collaboration and Community"
Marcum, James W. After the Information Age: A Dynamic Learning Manifesto. Vol. 231. Counterpoints: Studies in the Postmodern Theory of Education. New York, NY: Peter Lang, 2006.
Rosen, Evan.The Bounty Effect: 7 Steps to The Culture of Collaboration
Rosen, Evan.The Culture of Collaboration: Maximizing Time, Talent and Tools to Create Value in the Global Economy
Schneider, Florian: Collaboration: Some Thoughts Concerning New Ways of Learning and Working Together., in: Academy, edited by Angelika Nollert and Irit Rogoff, 280 pages, Revolver Verlag, .
The Power of Collectives, IT NEXT, Jatinder Singh https://web.archive.org/web/20101228101119/http://www.itnext.in/content/power-collectives.html
Spence, Muneera U. "Graphic Design Collaborative Processes: a Course in Collaboration." Oregon State University. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: AIGA, 2005.
Toivonen, Tuukka (2013) "The Emergence of the Social Innovation Community: Towards Collaborative Changemaking?" University of Oxford. Available on SSRN. (See section on "Cultures of Changemaking and the Collaborative Logic")
https://web.archive.org/web/20181219155647/http://www.iste.org/standards/nets-for-students.aspx
https://web.archive.org/web/20181211155949/http://www.iste.org/standards/nets-for-teachers.aspx
International relations
Organizational behavior |
13356403 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali%20Jafari | Ali Jafari | Ali Jafari (, is a serial entrepreneur who is well known for his research and entrepreneurship in the area of Information Technology (IT), more specifically, on development of a series of "Learning Management System(s)" (LMS). Dr. Jafari is currently working as a Professor of Computer and Information Technology at the Purdue School of Engineering and Technology and Director of the CyberLab at Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI). He continues to bring innovation and new perspectives to the smart learning environment industry to make teaching and learning easier and more powerful.
Ali Jafari earned his BS in Business Administration from the University of Isfahan, Iran, before he moved to the United States to pursue a MS in Media Technology at the University of Wisconsin. He completed doctorate studies in Telecommunications/Mass Communication from Indiana University in Bloomington, Indiana. Since then, Jafari has envisioned, created and commercialized four major software systems, which are competing among a dozen internationally known LMS products such as Blackboard, Moodle, Desire2Learn, etc. Jafari's projects included Indiana University's (1999) Oncourse (now Sakai), ANGEL Learning Management System (2000), Epsilen Environment, and CourseNetworking, LLC or theCN.com (2011).
In less than a decade ANGEL became an industry competitor and was acquired (May 2009) by Blackboard for $100 million. By forming a partnership and securing venture capital from The New York Times Company, Epsilen became one of the fastest growing IT companies headquartered in Indianapolis in 2008. His most recent company, CourseNetworking, LLC (The CN) began in 2011 with seed funding from Indiana University and Dr. Jafari. The CN (The CN) will combine learning management and social networking to form a new solution to teaching and learning. This will be done through academic networking that is free and open to the world. In this environment, learning becomes more social, engaging, interesting, global, open, and free (use of CN is free to end users and schools throughout the world).
Research and Interests
Recognized as a founding “Father of LMS”, Dr. Jafari has contributed his entrepreneurial savvy to three books, co-editing and authoring Handbook of Research on ePortfolios, Designing Portals and Course Management Systems for Learning: Beyond Accidental Pedagogy He has presented papers and delivered keynote addresses in over a hundred national and international conferences. His research has been published in professional and scholarly journals on a variety of subjects in information technology. His research interests include user interface design, smart learning environments, distance learning, and intelligent agents both from conceptual and architectural perspectives, which guide the Professor’s passion for improving the integration of technology into teaching and learning.
Dr. Jafari desires to see the milestones of research go further than the acquisition of knowledge. In order to tackle real life problems, he feels, "It would be progress if higher education were to put a greater emphasis on commercialization of discoveries—perhaps even assigning commercialization the same level of importance as getting published and attracting grants”. In the future, he hopes to further develop products for commercialization to effectively exploit the uses and opportunities of modern technology in education.
Notes
Living people
American computer scientists
Iranian computer scientists |
13114393 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miss%20Susan%20Gay%27s%20Falmouth%20chronology | Miss Susan Gay's Falmouth chronology | A chronology of the town of Falmouth was described by Miss Susan E. Gay in Old Falmouth (1903), pages 230–238.
Before the eighteenth century
9th century. Pendennis supposed to have been fortified by the Danes.
1120 The naming of Gyllyngvase.
1403 Manor of Arwenack acquired by the Killigrew family, temp. Richard II; Landing of the Duchess Dowager of Bretagne at Falmouth Haven, on her way to wed Henry IV.
1538 Old Fort erected on Pendennis Point; oldest (existing) fortification of Pendennis built.
1542 St. Mawes Castle built.
1542–44 Pendennis Castle built, temp. Henry VIII. Sir John Killigrew first Governor, which office he retained until 1567.
1544 Supposed date of Henry VIII's visit to the two castles.
1552 Date of Sir Walter Raleigh's visit.
1567 Arwenack manor house built by John Killigrew.
1600 Ale-house called "Penny-come-quick," near Greenbank quay, established by Mr. Pendarves' servant."
1600 Arwenack House, and a few fishermen's huts, all that were built (1550 has also been mentioned as the date, possibly of the erection of the house).
1613 Date of the rise of Falmouth; Sir John Killigrew's plan.
1613 Petitions of Truro, Penryn and Helston to James I against its progress.
1619 Sir John established a lighthouse at the Lizard.
1620 Visitation of the Heralds.
1642 Prince Charles (Charles II) at Pendennis Castle, protected by the Governor, John Arundel.
1644-5 Duke of Hamilton confined in Pendennis Castle.
1644 Queen Henrietta Maria at Pendennis Castle on her way to France.
1646 Pendennis Castle besieged by Cromwell's forces under Sir Thomas Fairfax, in March, and Arwenack House partly destroyed by fire. Surrendered in August 1646.
1650 The Custom-house removed from Penryn to Falmouth, near the Market Strand.
1652 Markets established by Sir Peter Killigrew.
1655 George Fox (the founder of the Quakers) visited Falmouth.
1660 The names of Smithike and Penny-come-quick changed to Falmouth by Charles II's proclamation, 20 August.
1660 William Killigrew created a baronet.
1660 A prison built.
1661 October 5. Charter of the Incorporation of Falmouth granted by Charles II.
1661 A quay authorised.
1662 Parish church built; opened 1663; consecrated 1664.
1662 An Independent Congregation formed by Thomas Tregosse.
1663 Register of baptisms at Falmouth Church commences.
1664 Registers of marriages and burials commence.
1664 Falmouth Parish separated from Budock and Gluvias by Act of Parliament.
1664 Falmouth Parish Church consecrated by Dr. Seth Ward, Bishop of Exeter.
1664 Two hundred houses in Falmouth.
1664 (or 61) Earldom of Falmouth created by Charles II.
1670 Society of Friends (Quakers) first established.
1670 Sir Peter Killigrew built a new quay near Arwenack.
1670 Baptist Society established.
1684 Chancel built at east end of Parish Church, by Walter Quarme, rector.
1686 Gallery built at west end of Parish Church by Sir Peter Killigrew and Mr. Bryan Rogers.
1688 Falmouth became a Packet station.
1696 Constitution of Falmouth drawn up and adopted.
1699 Gallery on north side of Parish Church, built by contributions.
Close of 17th century, 350 houses in Falmouth
Eighteenth century
1703 Gallery on south side of Parish church built, and also organ at west end.
1704 Sir Peter Killigrew (second) d. at Ludlow, Shropshire, 8 January. Interred in Falmouth Church.
1705 Five Packets sailed between Falmouth and the West Indies.
1709. The Mayor and Corporation of Falmouth established their claim against Truro to the jurisdiction of Falmouth harbour. (1703/4 also given)
1713–15 Independent Chapel erected in Prince Street.
1715 Congregational Chapel built; enlarged 1789.
1717 Pendennis Castle struck by lightning and seriously damaged.
1723 Independent Chapel in High Street.
1725 Town Hall in High Street given by Mr. M. L. Killigrew, a brick building, previously a chapel.
1737-8 Granite pyramid built by Mr. M. L. Killigrew, near Arwenack.
1740 Large church bell provided by Mr. M. L. Killigrew.
1745 John Wesley at Falmouth.
1748 Fairs at Falmouth; July and October.
1749 Alterations made at the Parish Church, probably to the tower, etc.
1750 Seamen's Hospital established.
1750 Church enlarged at West End.
1750 Between 500 and 600 houses in Falmouth.
1751 Freemasons Lodge (of Love and Honour) established (the "Mother Lodge" of the Province).
1753 New Independent Chapel built in High Street.
1754 Methodists first established in Falmouth by John Wesley.
1757 Benjamin Franklin landed at Falmouth on his way to America.
1766 First Jews' Synagogue, near Mount Sion.
1769 Baptist Chapel in Well Lane.
1779 Death of Joan Davis, aged 101.
1780 Mrs. Ann Davell's Charity of £9 per annum to poor widows or their sons.
1781 Falmouth Bank established; Joseph Banfield and Co., afterwards Came, Lake and Co.
1781 October 25. A fire, which caused distress to twenty-five families.
1785 New Custom House built near Arwenack.
1788 August 16. A great fire in Church Street, extending up Well Lane, and as far as the present Public Rooms.
1789 Grove Hill House begun.
1790 New Independent Chapel in High Street; Mr. Wildbore, minister.
1791 Methodist (or Wesleyan) Chapel in Killigrew Street, enlarged in 1814, organ in 1859; great thunderstorm; Trescobeas and ships in harbour struck.
1792 August 21. Great fire which destroyed forty-two houses and the theatre.
1792 Market-house re-built owing to insecurity of the old foundation.
1792 Sunday Schools founded from 1792 to 1810.
1793 Death of Catherine Freeman, aged 117.
1794 A brew-house built, disclosing a bed of beach sand under the ground.
1795 Crab Quay and Half Moon batteries built below the Castle.
1795 The Crown purchased the land on which the Castle stands (about sixty acres), from Sir John Wodehouse.
1797 Pendennis Volunteer Artillery commissioned.
1798 Organ placed in the gallery of the Parish Church.
1799 Baptist Chapel built.
1800 The Church tower raised for the clock.
Nineteenth century
1801–1810
1801 Falmouth population: 4,849. 1801–11: 719 houses.
1801 Illuminations on peace being proclaimed.
1801 Cornwall Gazette and Falmouth Packet started.
1802 Richard Pidgeley bequeathed £5 per annum for distribution of bread to the poor, from the estate of Mulberry Square, for 1,000 years.
1802 Church Charity School founded for girls, and in 1804 for boys.
1803-5 Friends' Meeting-house built in Quay Street.
1803 Roman Catholic Mission founded.
1804 Baptist Chapel built in Webber Street; enlarged in 1807 and re-built in 1814; and enlarged by a gallery, 1834.
1805 Methodist Sunday School.
1806 Cornish Naval Bank (afterwards Cornish Bank), opened in Church Street.
1806 Second Jews' Synagogue built on Forhan Hill.
1807 April 3. Public Dispensary opened.
1807 Misericordia Society founded by Lieut.-Governor Melvill.
1808 October 9. Expedition under Sir David Baird of 150 transports carrying between 12,000 and 13,000 men, convoyed by H.M.S. Louis, Amelia and Champion. On 13th entered Corunna Harbour.
1809 Celebration of fifty years reign of George III.
1809 Church Sunday School founded by the Rev. R. H. Hitchins and Captain Melvill.
1809 The harbour pilots regulated by the Trinity Board.
1809 A Basking shark long caught at Penryn.
1809 Second Freemasons' Lodge founded, "Love and Unity." Other orders.
1809 National Schools on Wodehouse Terrace.
1810 Charitable Society founded.
1810 Widows' Retreat founded by Lord Wodehouse and Mr. Samuel Tregelles.
1810 Mutiny of the Packets-men.
1810 Baptist Sunday School.
1811–1820
1811 Howellian Girls' Free School; Boys' ditto; organised by Miss Howell.
1811 Bible society established.
1812 Lord Clinton, bearer of the news of the victory of Salamanca, on 21 July.
1812 Death of John Zouster, aged 105.
1812 Unitarian Society founded.
1812 Parish Church lengthened one-third at east end, at a cost of £1,643.
1812 250 sail sheltered from a storm in Falmouth Harbour, convoyed by several of H.M's. ships.
1812 Lancastrian Boys' School established.
1812 Accident at the Parish Church, causing loss of several lives, 29 November.
1812 Removal of the Market.
1813 Market-house built by Lord Wodehouse.
1813 British Girls' School founded at Smithick Hill.
1813 Humane Society founded.
1814 Proclamation of peace and rejoicings in Falmouth, 2 November. .
1814 The Queen transport wrecked at Trefusis Point on her way home from Lisbon to Plymouth, and 195 persons drowned.
1814 Adult School founded.
1814 Infant School founded.
1815 Between thirty and forty Packets sailing to and from Falmouth.
1815 Napoleon brought into Falmouth Harbour on board HMS Northumberland.
1817 Provident Institution for the relief of poor in winter founded.
1817 Falmouth Savings Bank founded.
1818 Unitarian Chapel built in the Moor.
1819 Cornish Naval Bank carried on by Messrs. Praed, Rogers, Tweedy, and Williams.
1819 First Gas-Works established by Mr. Wynne.
1820 Roman Catholic Chapel built on Green Bank (formerly in Well Lane).
1821–1830
1821 850 houses, and 7,000 population.
1824 Classical and Mathematical School built, Headmaster, Rev. T. Sheepshanks. Endowed 1892 by a bequest from Miss Curgenven, aunt of H. M. Jeffery, F.R.S.
1825 Loss of the E.I.C. ship Kent by fire in the Bay of Biscay, on 24 February: 547 persons rescued and brought in the Cambria to Falmouth.
1826 Public Reading and News Rooms built and opened in Church Street.
1826 Swanpool tunnel made.
1827 National School on Mount Sion opened, including Church Charity School, through the exertions of the Rev. L.Mathias and Mr. B. B. Falck, jun.
1827 Fire at Quay Street, and another at Tregedna.
1827 900 houses, and over 8,000 inhabitants.
1827 Visit of H.R.H. the Duke of Clarence, Lord High Admiral, in the Royal Sovereign yacht, and inspection of the Packets.
1827-8 Penwerris Church built.
1828 Donna Maria da Gloria, second Queen of Portugal, landed at Falmouth, 27 September.
1828-9 Losses of the Redpole, Hearty, Arid, and Myrtle Packets.
1828 Disaster at a Falmouth ball.
1829 Falmouth Packet and Cornish Herald started (discontinued in 1848).
1829 Wesleyan Chapel in Porhan Street built.
1830 Bible Christian Chapel built on Smithick Hill.
1831–1840
1831 The ex-Emperor and Empress of Brazil visited Falmouth (on board the Volage).
1832 United Borough of Penryn and Falmouth incorporated, returning two M.P.s. In 1885 Flushing added, and the representation reduced to one. St. Mawes disfranchised.
1832 Steam Packet to Lisbon twice a month.
1832 Primitive Methodist Chapel built in Chapel Terrace; enlarged by gallery in 1836.
1833 Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society founded and Public Library.
1833 Cholera at Falmouth.
1834 Polytechnic Hall built.
1834 Act creating Unions passed; meetings of Guardians shortly after.
1834 St. Anthony's lighthouse begun.
1835 The cone and iron standard on the Black Rock built by the Trinity House.
1835 Municipal Corporation Act passed.
1835 Lieut.-Governorship of Pendennis Castle abolished.
1836 Meridian Stone placed in field near Beacon.
1836 The Killigrew obelisk removed to the top of the old ropewalk.
1837 The office of Governor of Pendennis Castle abolished.
1837 Some forty Packets sailing to and from Falmouth.
1838 Rev. William J. Coope, Rector of Falmouth.
1840 Gyllyngdune House built by the Coope family.
1841–1850
1842 Governorship of St. Mawes Castle abolished.
1843 Queen Victoria and Prince Albert visited Falmouth, 1 September, Mr. Joseph Fox, Mayor.
1845 Oddfellows' Lodge opened.
1845 Destructive fire at the Market Strand in January.
1846 Second visit of Queen Victoria and the Prince Consort on 14 September, in steam yacht Victoria and Albert. Mr. R. R. Broad, Mayor.
1846 County Court founded: held in Old Town Hall (now Oddfellows' Hall).
1847-8 Falmouth Water-works established.
1848 Western Provident Association founded.
1848 Atheneum Library and Museum founded.
1848 Penwerris made a District Church.
1849 British and Foreign Sailors' Society founded-Seamen's Bethel and Institute.
1849 Vestry added on north side of Parish Church.
1850 Falmouth ceased to be a Packet Station.
1851–1860
1851 H.M.S. Astrea left Falmouth Harbour.
1851 Union Workhouse founded.
1852 Royal Cornwall Sailors' Home founded.
1852 Art Union formed in connection with the Roryal Cornwall Polytechnic Society.
1852 Swanpool Mine first worked, 16 March.
1853 Congregational Chapel built in High Street.
1853 July 23. 149 vessels for orders in Falmouth under 21 different flags.
1853 Town Mission established.
1855 Young Men's Christian Association.
1855 Lake's Falmouth Packet started.
1857 Falmouth Cemetery laid out; consecrated (church ground) in 1857.
1857 Electric Telegraph Company opened a station in Arwenack Street.
1858 H.M.S. Russell, training-ship, at Falmouth.
1859 Cornwall Railway opened to Truro.
1860 The Docks begun.
1860 Mail S.S. Hungarian lost with all hands, including G. P. Nash, of Falmouth, mail master.
1860 Greenwich Time generally adopted at Falmouth.
1860 Falmouth Archery Club.
1861–1870
1861 Parish Church provided with three bells.
1861 Repairs at Parish Church, Sir Peter Killigrew's vault seen, 24 April.
1861 Foresters' Court opened.
1861 The Duke and Duchess de Montpensier arrived in a Spanish Man-of-War, 5 July.
1861 Missions to Seamen commenced.
1861 Maria Camilla Training School for girls founded.
1862 Testimonial to Mr. T. H. Tilly, for his work in behalf of the Docks.
1862 Penny Savings Bank opened.
1862 Falmouth Debating Society.
1862 H.R.H. Prince Arthur visited Falmouth.
1862 April 12. Great fire in High Street, destroying thirty houses. A smaller fire same year in Church Street.
1863 Falmouth adopted the Local Government Act.
1863 Gyllyngdune sold by Rev. W. J. Coope to Mr. Sampson Waters for £10,000.
1863 Old Rectory premises sold for £720.
1863 August 21. Railway opened to Falmouth; town decorated and illuminated; and great whale long, and round, towed in from Cadgwith.
1863 Catholic and Apostolic (Irvingite) Church closed.
1864 New Town Hall begun.
1864 April 7. General Garibaldi in Duke of Sutherland's yacht, at Falmouth.
1864 May 10. H.M.S. St. George (training) at Falmouth.
1865 Falmouth Hotel opened.
1865 Drive made round Pendennis Castle.
1865 July 10. H.R.H. the Duke of Cornwall and Grand Duke Alexis visited Falmouth, 1866.
1865 March. Hoard of 960 Roman Brass Coins, A.D. 306, found at Pennance Head.
1865 Fire at Masonic Lodge, destroying valuable paintings, etc.
1866 February 10. Church of Saint Laud, Mabe injured by lightning.
1866 Working Men's Club and Institute at Bell's Court opened.
1866 Wesleyan Chapel built at Pike's Hill.
1866 Chamber of Commerce founded.
1866 New Gas Works opened.
1867 Falmouth Observatory established by the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society; (first Meteorological) maintained by grant from the Meteorological Council.
1867 Life-boat established; launched 29 August.
1867 Bible Christian Chapel built.
1867 Wesleyan Chapel built at Pike's Hill.
1867 Three wrecks at Gyllyngvase, and damage to shipping.
1867 Royal Cornwall Home for Destitute Girls built.
1868 March 14. Bank House burnt down.
1868 June 1. Exhibition of Bath and West of England Agricultural Society.
1868 St. Mawes Steamboats established.
1869 Roman Catholic Church built in Killigrew Street.
1869 Earle's Retreat built for aged persons, by Mr. George Earle, of Philadelphia, D.S.A., and Falmouth.
1870 June 5. Great Fire at Market Street.
1870 Harbour Board.
1871–1880
1871 New landing places at Fish Strand and Market Strand built. At the latter a sub-marine forest discovered. Foundation stones laid by Lord Kimberley.
1871 Penwerris Day Schools opened.
1871 The Killigrew Obelisk removed to green in front of Arwenack.
1872 Royal Cornwall Yacht Club opened (1874 also given).
1873 Direct Spanish Telegraph established.
1873 Friends' New Meeting-house built.
1873 H.M.S. Russell removed.
1873 Volunteer Drill hall built.
1874 May 13. H.M.S. Ganges arrived.
1874 Wesleyan Chapel rebuilt in the Moor.
1875 Baptist Chapel built in Market Street.
1875 School Board formed.
1876 Mission Church or Chapel-of-Ease established in Lower Killigrew Street.
1877 Kimberley Park presented by the Earl of Kimberley
1877-8 Trevethan Girls' and Infants' Board Schools built.
1878 August 14. Portrait of Mr. R. R. Broad, Senr., presented by Lord Northbrook at banquet at the Royal Hotel.
1881–1890
1881 Congregational Sunday School erected in Prince Street.
1881 Climatological Station established at Observatory.
1882 Young Women's Christian Association founded.
1882 Girls' British School (Clare Terrace) opened in May.
1882 Jubilee Exhibition of the Polytechnic Society.
1882 The Rev. Brian Christopherson became Rector.
1883 Cottage Hospital and Nursing Home founded by Mrs. FitzGerald.
1883 Church Institute founded.
1883 Cornwall Volunteer Artillery established.
1884 August 12. Foundation stone of second Meteorological Observatory laid by Earl of Mount Edgcumbe.
1885 New Masonic Hall built, opened in 1886.
1885 Falmouth lost one Member of Parliament by the Redistribution of Seats Act.
1886 Self-recording magnetographs placed in new Observatory.
1887 High School for Girls built.
1887 Recreation Ground opened.
1887 Jubilee of Queen Victoria's reign celebrated.
1887 Visit of H.R.H. the Prince of Wales, who laid the foundation stone of All Saints' Church.
1888 Good Templars' Lodge founded.
1889 Consecration of All Saints' Church.
1890 All Saints' Church opened.
1891–1900
1891 March 9 and l0th. Great Snow Blizzard. Trains snowed up in Cornwall.
1891 Census, 2,400 houses, and over 10,000 inhabitants (excluding ships).
1891 Association for befriending Young Servants founded.
1892 Order of Rechabites founded.
1892 Maria Camilla School closed.
1892 May 20. Broad gauge altered to narrow on G.W.R., from Exeter, in 50 hours.
1892 Extension and consolidation of the Borough.
1892 Bequest of nearly £2,000 from Mr. Octavius Ferris for a Free Library.
1893 Mission Church in Killigrew Street repaired and opened.
1893 May 3. Foundation stone of Falmouth Hospital laid by Mr. Passmore Edwards.
1893 July. Pendennis Hotel opened.
1893 The Mayor's gold chain purchased for £125.
1894 Municipal Building and Free Library built by Passmore Edwards.
1894 Falmouth Sailing Club founded.
1894 R.C. Agricultural Show held at Falmouth.
1894 Art Gallery built.
1894 Golf Club and Links at Higher Argal; removed to Higher Kergillick in 1898.
1895 Buffaloes Lodge founded.
1896 Presentation of his portrait and some plate to Mr. Thos. Webber, "eight times Mayor of Falmouth."
1896 March 9, Science and Art Rooms opened in Municipal Buildings.
1897 Board School for boys built at Wellington Terrace.
1897 Smithick (Infants') Board School purchased from Trustees of British School.
1897 January 16, the Falmouth Rector's rate abolished as such by special Act of Parliament.
1897 Diamond Jubilee (60 years) of the reign of Queen Victoria celebrated. Bonfires on all heights.
1897 Time-ball fixed at Pendennis Castle.
1898 Restoration of Parish Church completed. The tower struck by lightning without damage.
1898 March 26. Fire at Ellerslie, Melville Road.
1898 Packet Memorial erected in the Moor, and unveiled Moor.
1898 Wreck of the SS Mohegan on The Manacles.
, and loss of 106 lives.
1899 H.M.S. Ganges left Falmouth, 28 August.
1899 Stranding of the SS Paris near the Manacles.
1899 May 26. Devon and Cornwall Regiment, marching through Cornwall, received at Falmouth.
1899 Gallery, etc., added to Drill Hall.
1899 October 6. First Conversazione of Polytechnic Society held (alternately with Exhibition).
1900 Rifle Club formed.
Twentieth century
1901 January 26. King Edward VII proclaimed.
1901 August 19. Art School commenced in Manor Avenue, in memoriam Anna Maria Fox; stone laid by Lord St. Levan.
1901 Church House in memoriam E. D. ALDERTON opened in Arwenack Street.
1901 New Police Station built in the Moor.
1901 Census taken; Falmouth population, 11,173.
1901 Old King's Arms Inn pulled down at Market Strand.
Sources
Gay, Susan E., Old Falmouth, The Story of the town from the days of the Killigrews to the earliest part of the 19th Century
References
Falmouth, Cornwall
History of Cornwall
Cornwall-related lists
falmouth |
140583 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna%20Development%20Method | Vienna Development Method | The Vienna Development Method (VDM) is one of the longest-established formal methods for the development of computer-based systems. Originating in work done at the IBM Laboratory Vienna in the 1970s, it has grown to include a group of techniques and tools based on a formal specification language—the VDM Specification Language (VDM-SL). It has an extended form, VDM++, which supports the modeling of object-oriented and concurrent systems. Support for VDM includes commercial and academic tools for analyzing models, including support for testing and proving properties of models and generating program code from validated VDM models. There is a history of industrial usage of VDM and its tools and a growing body of research in the formalism has led to notable contributions to the engineering of critical systems, compilers, concurrent systems and in logic for computer science.
Philosophy
Computing systems may be modeled in VDM-SL at a higher level of abstraction than is achievable using programming languages, allowing the analysis of designs and identification of key features, including defects, at an early stage of system development. Models that have been validated can be transformed into detailed system designs through a refinement process. The language has a formal semantics, enabling proof of the properties of models to a high level of assurance. It also has an executable subset, so that models may be analyzed by testing and can be executed through graphical user interfaces, so that models can be evaluated by experts who are not necessarily familiar with the modeling language itself.
History
The origins of VDM-SL lie in the IBM Laboratory in Vienna where the first version of the language was called the Vienna Definition Language (VDL). The VDL was essentially used for giving operational semantics descriptions in contrast to the VDM – Meta-IV which provided denotational semantics
«Towards the end of 1972 the Vienna group again turned their attention to the problem of systematically developing a compiler from a language definition. The overall approach adopted has been termed the "Vienna Development Method"... The meta-language actually adopted ("Meta-IV") is used to define major portions of PL/1 (as given in ECMA 74 – interestingly a "formal standards document written as an abstract interpreter") in BEKIČ 74.»
There is no connection between Meta-IV, and Schorre's Meta-II language, or its successor Tree Meta; these were compiler-compiler systems rather than being suitable for formal problem descriptions.
So Meta-IV was "used to define major portions of" the PL/I programming language. Other programming languages retrospectively described, or partially described, using Meta-IV and VDM-SL include the BASIC programming language, FORTRAN, the APL programming language, ALGOL 60, the Ada programming language and the Pascal programming language. Meta-IV evolved into several variants, generally described as the Danish, English and Irish Schools.
The "English School" derived from work by Cliff Jones on the aspects of VDM not specifically related to language definition and compiler design (Jones 1980, 1990). It stresses modelling persistent state through the use of data types constructed from a rich collection of base types. Functionality is typically described through operations which may have side-effects on the state and which are mostly specified implicitly using a precondition and postcondition. The "Danish School" (Bjørner et al. 1982) has tended to stress a constructive approach with explicit operational specification used to a greater extent. Work in the Danish school led to the first European validated Ada compiler.
An ISO Standard for the language was released in 1996 (ISO, 1996).
VDM features
The VDM-SL and VDM++ syntax and semantics are described at length in the VDMTools language manuals and in the available texts. The ISO Standard contains a formal definition of the language's semantics. In the remainder of this article, the ISO-defined interchange (ASCII) syntax is used. Some texts prefer a more concise mathematical syntax.
A VDM-SL model is a system description given in terms of the functionality performed on data. It consists of a series of definitions of data types and functions or operations performed upon them.
Basic types: numeric, character, token and quote types
VDM-SL includes basic types modelling numbers and characters as follows:
Data types are defined to represent the main data of the modelled system. Each type definition introduces a new type name and gives a representation in terms of the basic types or in terms of types already introduced. For example, a type modelling user identifiers for a log-in management system might be defined as follows:
types
UserId = nat
For manipulating values belonging to data types, operators are defined on the values. Thus, natural number addition, subtraction etc. are provided, as are Boolean operators such as equality and inequality. The language does not fix a maximum or minimum representable number or a precision for real numbers. Such constraints are defined where they are required in each model by means of data type invariants—Boolean expressions denoting conditions that must be respected by all elements of the defined type. For example, a requirement that user identifiers must be no greater than 9999 would be expressed as follows (where <= is the "less than or equal to" Boolean operator on natural numbers):
UserId = nat
inv uid uid <= 9999
Since invariants can be arbitrarily complex logical expressions, and membership of a defined type is limited to only those values satisfying the invariant, type correctness in VDM-SL is not automatically decidable in all situations.
The other basic types include char for characters. In some cases, the representation of a type is not relevant to the model's purpose and would only add complexity. In such cases, the members of the type may be represented as structureless tokens. Values of token types can only be compared for equality – no other operators are defined on them. Where specific named values are required, these are introduced as quote types. Each quote type consists of one named value of the same name as the type itself. Values of quote types (known as quote literals) may only be compared for equality.
For example, in modelling a traffic signal controller, it may be convenient to define values to represent the colours of the traffic signal as quote types:
<Red>, <Amber>, <FlashingAmber>, <Green>
Type constructors: union, product and composite types
The basic types alone are of limited value. New, more structured data types are built using type constructors.
The most basic type constructor forms the union of two predefined types. The type (A|B) contains all elements of the type A and all of the type B. In the traffic signal controller example, the type modelling the colour of a traffic signal could be defined as follows:
SignalColour = <Red> | <Amber> | <FlashingAmber> | <Green>
Enumerated types in VDM-SL are defined as shown above as unions on quote types.
Cartesian product types may also be defined in VDM-SL. The type (A1*…*An) is the type composed of all tuples of values, the first element of which is from the type A1 and the second from the type A2 and so on. The composite or record type is a Cartesian product with labels for the fields. The type
T :: f1:A1
f2:A2
...
fn:An
is the Cartesian product with fields labelled f1,…,fn. An element of type T can be composed from its constituent parts by a constructor, written mk_T. Conversely, given an element of type T, the field names can be used to select the named component. For example, the type
Date :: day:nat1
month:nat1
year:nat
inv mk_Date(d,m,y) d <=31 and m<=12
models a simple date type. The value mk_Date(1,4,2001) corresponds to 1 April 2001. Given a date d, the expression d.month is a natural number representing the month. Restrictions on days per month and leap years could be incorporated into the invariant if desired. Combining these:
mk_Date(1,4,2001).month = 4
Collections
Collection types model groups of values. Sets are finite unordered collections in which duplication between values is suppressed. Sequences are finite ordered collections (lists) in which duplication may occur and mappings represent finite correspondences between two sets of values.
Sets
The set type constructor (written set of T where T is a predefined type) constructs the type composed of all finite sets of values drawn from the type T. For example, the type definition
UGroup = set of UserId
defines a type UGroup composed of all finite sets of UserId values. Various operators are defined on sets for constructing their union, intersections, determining proper and non-strict subset relationships etc.
Sequences
The finite sequence type constructor (written seq of T where T is a predefined type) constructs the type composed of all finite lists of values drawn from the type T. For example, the type definition
String = seq of char
Defines a type String composed of all finite strings of characters. Various operators are defined on sequences for constructing concatenation, selection of elements and subsequences etc. Many of these operators are partial in the sense that they are not defined for certain applications. For example, selecting the 5th element of a sequence that contains only three elements is undefined.
The order and repetition of items in a sequence is significant, so [a, b] is not equal to [b, a], and [a] is not equal to [a, a].
Maps
A finite mapping is a correspondence between two sets, the domain and range, with the domain indexing elements of the range. It is therefore similar to a finite function. The mapping type constructor in VDM-SL (written map T1 to T2 where T1 and T2 are predefined types) constructs the type composed of all finite mappings from sets of T1 values to sets of T2 values. For example, the type definition
Birthdays = map String to Date
Defines a type Birthdays which maps character strings to Date. Again, operators are defined on mappings for indexing into the mapping, merging mappings, overwriting extracting sub-mappings.
Structuring
The main difference between the VDM-SL and VDM++ notations are the way in which structuring is dealt with. In VDM-SL there is a conventional modular extension whereas VDM++ has a traditional object-oriented structuring mechanism with classes and inheritance.
Structuring in VDM-SL
In the ISO standard for VDM-SL there is an informative annex that contains different structuring principles. These all follow traditional information hiding principles with modules and they can be explained as:
Module naming: Each module is syntactically started with the keyword module followed by the name of the module. At the end of a module the keyword end is written followed again by the name of the module.
Importing: It is possible to import definitions that has been exported from other modules. This is done in an imports section that is started off with the keyword imports and followed by a sequence of imports from different modules. Each of these module imports are started with the keyword from followed by the name of the module and a module signature. The module signature can either simply be the keyword all indicating the import of all definitions exported from that module, or it can be a sequence of import signatures. The import signatures are specific for types, values, functions and operations and each of these are started with the corresponding keyword. In addition these import signatures name the constructs that there is a desire to get access to. In addition optional type information can be present and finally it is possible to rename each of the constructs upon import. For types one needs also to use the keyword struct if one wish to get access to the internal structure of a particular type.
Exporting: The definitions from a module that one wish other modules to have access to are exported using the keyword exports followed by an exports module signature. The exports module signature can either simply consist of the keyword all or as a sequence of export signatures. Such export signatures are specific for types, values, functions and operations and each of these are started with the corresponding keyword. In case one wish to export the internal structure of a type the keyword struct must be used.
More exotic features: In earlier versions of the VDM-SL tools there was also support for parameterized modules and instantiations of such modules. However, these features was taken out of VDMTools around 2000 because they was hardly ever used in industrial applications and there was a substantial number of tool challenges with these features.
Structuring in VDM++
In VDM++ structuring are done using classes and multiple inheritance. The key concepts are:
Class: Each class is syntactically started with the keyword class followed by the name of the class. At the end of a class the keyword end is written followed again by the name of the class.
Inheritance: In case a class inherits constructs from other classes the class name in the class heading can be followed by the keywords is subclass of followed by a comma-separated list of names of superclasses.
Access modifiers: Information hiding in VDM++ is done in the same way as in most object oriented languages using access modifiers. In VDM++ definitions are per default private but in front of all definitions it is possible to use one of the access modifier keywords: private, public and protected.
Modelling functionality
Functional modelling
In VDM-SL, functions are defined over the data types defined in a model. Support for abstraction requires that it should be possible to characterize the result that a function should compute without having to say how it should be computed. The main mechanism for doing this is the implicit function definition in which, instead of a formula computing a result, a logical predicate over the input and result variables, termed a postcondition, gives the result's properties. For example, a function SQRT for calculating a square root of a natural number might be defined as follows:
SQRT(x:nat)r:real
post r*r = x
Here the postcondition does not define a method for calculating the result r but states what properties can be assumed to hold of it. Note that this defines a function that returns a valid square root; there is no requirement that it should be the positive or negative root. The specification above would be satisfied, for example, by a function that returned the negative root of 4 but the positive root of all other valid inputs. Note that functions in VDM-SL are required to be deterministic so that a function satisfying the example specification above must always return the same result for the same input.
A more constrained function specification is arrived at by strengthening the postcondition. For example, the following definition constrains the function to return the positive root.
SQRT(x:nat)r:real
post r*r = x and r>=0
All function specifications may be restricted by preconditions which are logical predicates over the input variables only and which describe constraints that are assumed to be satisfied when the function is executed. For example, a square root calculating function that works only on positive real numbers might be specified as follows:
SQRTP(x:real)r:real
pre x >=0
post r*r = x and r>=0
The precondition and postcondition together form a contract that to be satisfied by any program claiming to implement the function. The precondition records the assumptions under which the function guarantees to return a result satisfying the postcondition. If a function is called on inputs that do not satisfy its precondition, the outcome is undefined (indeed, termination is not even guaranteed).
VDM-SL also supports the definition of executable functions in the manner of a functional programming language. In an explicit function definition, the result is defined by means of an expression over the inputs. For example, a function that produces a list of the squares of a list of numbers might be defined as follows:
SqList: seq of nat -> seq of nat
SqList(s) == if s = [] then [] else [(hd s)**2] ^ SqList(tl s)
This recursive definition consists of a function signature giving the types of the input and result and a function body. An implicit definition of the same function might take the following form:
SqListImp(s:seq of nat)r:seq of nat
post len r = len s and
forall i in set inds s & r(i) = s(i)**2
The explicit definition is in a simple sense an implementation of the implicitly specified function. The correctness of an explicit function definition with respect to an implicit specification may be defined as follows.
Given an implicit specification:
f(p:T_p)r:T_r
pre pre-f(p)
post post-f(p, r)
and an explicit function:
f:T_p -> T_r
we say it satisfies the specification iff:
forall p in set T_p & pre-f(p) => f(p):T_r and post-f(p, f(p))
So, "f is a correct implementation" should be interpreted as "f satisfies the specification".
State-based modelling
In VDM-SL, functions do not have side-effects such as changing the state of a persistent global variable. This is a useful ability in many programming languages, so a similar concept exists; instead of functions, operations are used to change state variables (also known as globals).
For example, if we have a state consisting of a single variable someStateRegister : nat, we could define this in VDM-SL as:
state Register of
someStateRegister : nat
end
In VDM++ this would instead be defined as:
instance variables
someStateRegister : nat
An operation to load a value into this variable might be specified as:
LOAD(i:nat)
ext wr someStateRegister:nat
post someStateRegister = i
The externals clause (ext) specifies which parts of the state can be accessed by the operation; rd indicating read-only access and wr being read/write access.
Sometimes it is important to refer to the value of a state before it was modified; for example, an operation to add a value to the variable may be specified as:
ADD(i:nat)
ext wr someStateRegister : nat
post someStateRegister = someStateRegister~ + i
Where the ~ symbol on the state variable in the postcondition indicates the value of the state variable before execution of the operation.
Examples
The max function
This is an example of an implicit function definition. The function returns the largest element from a set of positive integers:
max(s:set of nat)r:nat
pre card s > 0
post r in set s and
forall r' in set s & r' <= r
The postcondition characterizes the result rather than defining an algorithm for obtaining it. The precondition is needed because no function could return an r in set s when the set is empty.
Natural number multiplication
multp(i,j:nat)r:nat
pre true
post r = i*j
Applying the proof obligation forall p:T_p & pre-f(p) => f(p):T_r and post-f(p, f(p)) to an explicit definition of multp:
multp(i,j)
if i=0
then 0
else if is-even(i)
then 2*multp(i/2,j)
else j+multp(i-1,j)
Then the proof obligation becomes:
forall i, j : nat & multp(i,j):nat and multp(i, j) = i*j
This can be shown correct by:
Proving that the recursion ends (this in turn requires proving that the numbers become smaller at each step)
Mathematical induction
Queue abstract data type
This is a classical example illustrating the use of implicit operation specification in a state-based model of a well-known data structure. The queue is modelled as a sequence composed of elements of a type Qelt. The representation is Qelt is immaterial and so is defined as a token type.
types
Qelt = token;
Queue = seq of Qelt;
state TheQueue of
q : Queue
end
operations
ENQUEUE(e:Qelt)
ext wr q:Queue
post q = q~ ^ [e];
DEQUEUE()e:Qelt
ext wr q:Queue
pre q <> []
post q~ = [e]^q;
IS-EMPTY()r:bool
ext rd q:Queue
post r <=> (len q = 0)
Bank system example
As a very simple example of a VDM-SL model, consider a system for maintaining details of customer bank account. Customers are modelled by customer numbers (CustNum), accounts are modelled by account numbers (AccNum). The representations of customer numbers are held to be immaterial and so are modelled by a token type. Balances and overdrafts are modelled by numeric types.
AccNum = token;
CustNum = token;
Balance = int;
Overdraft = nat;
AccData :: owner : CustNum
balance : Balance
state Bank of
accountMap : map AccNum to AccData
overdraftMap : map CustNum to Overdraft
inv mk_Bank(accountMap,overdraftMap) for all a in set rng accountMap & a.owner in set dom overdraftMap and
a.balance >= -overdraftMap(a.owner)
With operations:
NEWC allocates a new customer number:
operations
NEWC(od : Overdraft)r : CustNum
ext wr overdraftMap : map CustNum to Overdraft
post r not in set dom ~overdraftMap and overdraftMap = ~overdraftMap ++ { r |-> od};
NEWAC allocates a new account number and sets the balance to zero:
NEWAC(cu : CustNum)r : AccNum
ext wr accountMap : map AccNum to AccData
rd overdraftMap map CustNum to Overdraft
pre cu in set dom overdraftMap
post r not in set dom accountMap~ and accountMap = accountMap~ ++ {r|-> mk_AccData(cu,0)}
ACINF returns all the balances of all the accounts of a customer, as a map of account number to balance:
ACINF(cu : CustNum)r : map AccNum to Balance
ext rd accountMap : map AccNum to AccData
post r = {an |-> accountMap(an).balance | an in set dom accountMap & accountMap(an).owner = cu}
Tool support
A number of different tools support VDM:
VDMTools are the leading commercial tools for VDM and VDM++, owned, marketed, maintained and developed by CSK Systems, building on earlier versions developed by the Danish Company IFAD. The manuals and a practical tutorial are available. All licenses are available, free of charge, for the full version of the tool. The full version includes automatic code generation for Java and C++, dynamic link library and CORBA support.
Overture is a community-based open source initiative aimed at providing freely available tool support for VDM++ on top of the Eclipse platform. Its aim is to develop a framework for interoperable tools that will be useful for industrial application, research and education.
vdm-mode is a collection of Emacs packages for writing VDM specifications using VDM-SL, VDM++ and VDM-RT. It supports syntax highlighting and editing, on-the-fly syntax checking, template completion and interpreter support.
SpecBox: from Adelard provides syntax checking, some simple semantic checking, and generation of a LaTeX file enabling specifications to be printed in mathematical notation. This tool is freely available but it is not being further maintained.
LaTeX and LaTeX2e macros are available to support the presentation of VDM models in the ISO Standard Language's mathematical syntax. They have been developed and are maintained by the National Physical Laboratory in the UK. Documentation and the macros are available online.
Industrial experience
VDM has been applied widely in a variety of application domains. The most well-known of these applications are:
Ada and CHILL compilers: The first European validated Ada compiler was developed by Dansk Datamatik Center using VDM. Likewise the semantics of CHILL and Modula-2 were described in their standards using VDM.
ConForm: An experiment at British Aerospace comparing the conventional development of a trusted gateway with a development using VDM.
Dust-Expert: A project carried out by Adelard in the UK for a safety related application determining that the safety is appropriate in the layout of industrial plants.
The development of VDMTools: Most components of the VDMTools tool suite are themselves developed using VDM. This development has been made at IFAD in Denmark and CSK in Japan.
TradeOne: Certain key components of the TradeOne back-office system developed by CSK systems for the Japanese stock exchange were developed using VDM. Comparative measurements exist for developer productivity and defect density of the VDM-developed components versus the conventionally developed code.
FeliCa Networks have reported the development of an operating system for an integrated circuit for cellular telephone applications.
Refinement
Use of VDM starts with a very abstract model and develops this into an implementation. Each step involves data reification, then operation decomposition.
Data reification develops the abstract data types into more concrete data structures, while operation decomposition develops the (abstract) implicit specifications of operations and functions into algorithms that can be directly implemented in a computer language of choice.
Data reification
Data reification (stepwise refinement) involves finding a more concrete representation of the abstract data types used in a specification. There may be several steps before an implementation is reached. Each reification step for an abstract data representation ABS_REP involves proposing a new representation NEW_REP. In order to show that the new representation is accurate, a retrieve function is defined that relates NEW_REP to ABS_REP, i.e. retr : NEW_REP -> ABS_REP. The correctness of a data reification depends on proving adequacy, i.e.
forall a:ABS_REP & exists r:NEW_REP & a = retr(r)
Since the data representation has changed, it is necessary to update the operations and functions so that they operate on NEW_REP. The new operations and functions should be shown to preserve any data type invariants on the new representation. In order to prove that the new operations and functions model those found in the original specification, it is necessary to discharge two proof obligations:
Domain rule:
forall r: NEW_REP & pre-OPA(retr(r)) => pre-OPR(r)
Modelling rule:
forall ~r,r:NEW_REP & pre-OPA(retr(~r)) and post-OPR(~r,r) => post-OPA(retr(~r,), retr(r))
Example data reification
In a business security system, workers are given ID cards; these are fed into card readers on entry to and exit from the factory.
Operations required:
INIT() initialises the system, assumes that the factory is empty
ENTER(p : Person) records that a worker is entering the factory; the workers' details are read from the ID card)
EXIT(p : Person) records that a worker is exiting the factory
IS-PRESENT(p : Person) r : bool checks to see if a specified worker is in the factory or not
Formally, this would be:
types
Person = token;
Workers = set of Person;
state AWCCS of
pres: Workers
end
operations
INIT()
ext wr pres: Workers
post pres = {};
ENTER(p : Person)
ext wr pres : Workers
pre p not in set pres
post pres = pres~ union {p};
EXIT(p : Person)
ext wr pres : Workers
pre p in set pres
post pres = pres~\{p};
IS-PRESENT(p : Person) r : bool
ext rd pres : Workers
post r <=> p in set pres~
As most programming languages have a concept comparable to a set (often in the form of an array), the first step from the specification is to represent the data in terms of a sequence. These sequences must not allow repetition, as we do not want the same worker to appear twice, so we must add an invariant to the new data type. In this case, ordering is not important, so [a,b] is the same as [b,a].
The Vienna Development Method is valuable for model-based systems. It is not appropriate if the system is time-based. For such cases, the calculus of communicating systems (CCS) is more useful.
See also
Formal methods
Formal specification
Pidgin code
Predicate logic
Propositional calculus
Z specification language, the main alternative to VDM-SL (compare)
COMPASS Modelling Language (CML), a combination of VDM-SL with CSP, based on Unifying Theories of Programming, developed for modelling Systems of Systems (SoS)
Further reading
Fitzgerald, J.S. and Larsen, P.G., Modelling Systems: Practical Tools and Techniques in Software Engineering. Cambridge University Press, 1998 (Japanese Edition pub. Iwanami Shoten 2003 ).
Fitzgerald, J.S., Larsen, P.G., Mukherjee, P., Plat, N. and Verhoef,M., Validated Designs for Object-oriented Systems. Springer Verlag 2005. . Supporting web site includes examples and free tool support.
Jones, C.B., Systematic Software Development using VDM, Prentice Hall 1990. . Also available on-line and free of charge: http://www.csr.ncl.ac.uk/vdm/ssdvdm.pdf.zip
Bjørner, D. and Jones, C.B., Formal Specification and Software Development Prentice Hall International, 1982.
J. Dawes, The VDM-SL Reference Guide, Pitman 1991.
International Organization for Standardization, Information technology – Programming languages, their environments and system software interfaces – Vienna Development Method – Specification Language – Part 1: Base language International Standard ISO/IEC 13817-1, December 1996.
Jones, C.B., Software Development: A Rigorous Approach, Prentice Hall International, 1980.
Jones, C.B. and Shaw, R.C. (eds.), Case Studies in Systematic Software Development, Prentice Hall International, 1990.
Bicarregui, J.C., Fitzgerald, J.S., Lindsay, P.A., Moore, R. and Ritchie, B., Proof in VDM: a Practitioner's Guide. Springer Verlag Formal Approaches to Computing and Information Technology (FACIT), 1994. .
References
External links
Information on VDM and VDM++ (archived copy at archive.org)
Vienna Definition Language (VDL)
Formal methods
Formal specification languages |
375818 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marilyn%20Hacker | Marilyn Hacker | Marilyn Hacker (born November 27, 1942) is an American poet, translator and critic. She is Professor of English emerita at the City College of New York.
Her books of poetry include Presentation Piece (1974), which won the National Book Award, Love, Death, and the Changing of the Seasons (1986), and Going Back to the River (1990). In 2003, Hacker won the Willis Barnstone Translation Prize. In 2009, she subsequently won the PEN Award for Poetry in Translation for King of a Hundred Horsemen by Marie Étienne, which also garnered the first Robert Fagles Translation Prize from the National Poetry Series. In 2010, she received the PEN/Voelcker Award for Poetry. She was shortlisted for the 2013 PEN Award for Poetry in Translation for her translation of Tales of a Severed Head by Rachida Madani.
Early life and education
Hacker was born and raised in Bronx, New York, the only child of Jewish immigrant parents. Her father was a management consultant and her mother a teacher. Hacker attended the Bronx High School of Science, where she met her future husband Samuel R. Delany, who would become a well-known science-fiction writer. She enrolled at New York University at the age of fifteen (B.A., 1964). Three years later, Hacker and Delany traveled from New York to Detroit, Michigan and were married. In The Motion of Light in Water, Delany said they married in Detroit because of age-of-consent laws and because he was African-American and she was Caucasian: "there were only two states in the union where we could legally wed. The closest one was Michigan." They settled in New York's East Village. Their daughter, Iva Hacker-Delany, was born in 1974. Hacker and Delany, after being separated for many years, were divorced in 1980, but remain friends. Hacker identifies as lesbian, and Delany has identified as a gay man since adolescence.
In the '60s and '70s, Hacker worked mostly in commercial editing. She graduated with a bachelor of arts degree in Romance Languages in 1964.
Career
Hacker's first publication was in Cornell University's Epoch. After moving to London in 1970, she found an audience through the pages of The London Magazine and Ambit. She and her husband edited the magazine Quark: A Quarterly of Speculative Fiction (4 issues; 1970–71). Early recognition came for her when Richard Howard, then editor of the New American Review, accepted three of Hacker's poems for publication.
In 1974, when she was thirty-one, Presentation Piece was published by The Viking Press. The book was a Lamont Poetry Selection of the Academy of American Poets and won the annual National Book Award for Poetry. Winter Numbers, which details the loss of many of her friends to AIDS and her own struggle with breast cancer, garnered a Lambda Literary Award and The Nation's Lenore Marshall Poetry Prize. Her Selected Poems 1965-1990 received the 1996 Poets' Prize, and Squares and Courtyards won the 2001 Audre Lorde Award. She received an Award in Literature from the American Academy of Arts and Letters in 2004.
Hacker often employs strict poetic forms in her poetry: for example, in Love, Death, and the Changing of the Seasons, which is a verse novel in sonnets. She is also recognized as a master of "French forms" such as the rondeau and villanelle.
In 1990 she became the first full-time editor of the Kenyon Review, a position she held until 1994. She was noted for "broaden[ing] the quarterly's scope to include more minority and marginalized viewpoints."
Hacker served as a Chancellor of the Academy of American Poets from 2008 to 2014.
Hacker lives in New York and Paris and has retired from teaching at the City College of New York and the CUNY Graduate Center.
Though not a character, a poem of Hacker's is reprinted in Heavenly Breakfast, Delany's memoir of a Greenwich Village commune in 1967; in Delany's autobiography, The Motion of Light in Water; and her prose and incidents about her appear in his journals, The Journals of Samuel R. Delany: In Search of Silence, Volume 1, 1957–1969, edited by Kenneth R. James (Wesleyan University Press, 2017).
Hacker was a judge for the 2012 Hippocrates Prize for Poetry and Medicine. In 2013, she was inducted into the New York Writers Hall of Fame. In 2014, she published a collaboration with a Palestinian-American poet, Deema Shehabi, written in the style of a Japanese renga, a form of alternating call and answer. The book, Diaspo/renga: a collaboration in alternating renga explores the emotional journey of living in exile.
In a laudatory review of Hacker's 2019 collection Blazons, A. M. Juster states that "there is no poet writing in English with a better claim for the Nobel Prize in Literature than Marilyn Hacker."
Bibliography
Poetry
Presentation Piece (1974) —winner of the National Book Award
Separations (1976)
Taking Notice (1980)
Assumptions 1985
Love, Death, and the Changing of the Seasons (1986)
Going Back to the River (1990)
The Hang-Glider's Daughter: New and Selected Poems (1991)
Selected Poems: 1965 - 1990 (1994)
Winter Numbers: Poems (1995)
Squares and Courtyards (2000)
Desesperanto: Poems 1999-2002 (2003)
First Cities: Collected Early Poems 1960-1979 (2003)
Essays on Departure: New and Selected Poems (2006)
Names: Poems (2009)
A Stranger's Mirror: New and Selected Poems 1994 - 2014 (2015)
Blazons: New and Selected Poems, 2000 - 2018 (2019), Carcanet Press,
Translations
Claire Malroux, Birds and Bison (2005)
Rachida Madani, Tales of a Severed Head. Trans. Marilyn Hacker. New Haven: Yale UP, 2012.
Samira Negrouche. The Olive Trees' Jazz and Other Poems.Translator Marilyn Hacker. Pleiades Press, 2020
Anthologies
(edited with Samuel R. Delany) Quark/1 (1970, science fiction)
(edited with Samuel R. Delany) Quark/2 (1971, science fiction)
(edited with Samuel R. Delany) Quark/3 (1971, science fiction)
(edited with Samuel R. Delany) Quark/4 (1971, science fiction)
Literary criticism
Hacker, Marilyn. Unauthorized Voices (Poets on Poetry Series, University of Michigan Press, 2010)
References
External links
Marilyn Hacker at www.poets.org
About Marilyn Hacker at Ploughshares
Marilyn Hacker's 'Translator's Preface' to King of a Hundred Horseman
Marilyn Hacker Papers. Yale Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.
Formalist poets
National Book Award winners
American speculative fiction editors
American speculative fiction translators
American speculative fiction critics
Science fiction editors
Jewish American writers
American lesbian writers
LGBT Jews
American women poets
Lambda Literary Award for Lesbian Poetry winners
People from the Bronx
The Bronx High School of Science alumni
1942 births
Living people
20th-century American poets
21st-century American poets
American LGBT poets
LGBT people from New York (state)
20th-century American women writers
21st-century American women writers
20th-century translators
21st-century translators
American women non-fiction writers
20th-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American non-fiction writers
People from the East Village, Manhattan
Women speculative fiction editors
21st-century American Jews |
32081994 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012%20Mexican%20general%20election | 2012 Mexican general election | General elections were held in Mexico on Sunday, July 1, 2012. Voters went to the polls to elect a new President of the Republic to serve a six-year term, replacing Felipe Calderón, 500 members of the Chamber of Deputies and 128 members of the Mexican Senate.
Several local ballots were held on the same day, including the election of a new Head of Government and new Legislative Assembly of the Federal District, gubernatorial elections in six states (Chiapas, Guanajuato, Jalisco, Morelos, Tabasco and Yucatán) and municipal and local congressional elections several states.
Electoral reform
In December 2009, president Felipe Calderón sent a bill to Congress aimed at reducing the number of legislators in both chambers and another mechanism for the presidential election which have not yet been passed. If approved, the following reforms will be implemented:
Second round voting in case no presidential candidate receives an absolute majority of the votes.
96 Senators of the Republic, 3 for each state, elected by plurality for a period of six years, renewable once.
400 Federal Deputies (240 by first-past-the-post and 160 by proportional representation) elected for a period of three years with possibility of reelection.
Presidential candidates
The following are individuals who have either formally announced that they are running for president in 2012, or have formed an exploratory committee for a possible presidential run in 2012.
National Action Party (PAN) Nomination
Nominee:
Josefina Vázquez Mota, Representative from Mexico City
Other pre-candidates:
Ernesto Cordero, former Secretary of Finance and Public Credit from Mexico City
Santiago Creel, Senator from Mexico City
Javier Lozano Alarcón, withdrew July 21, 2011
Alonso Lujambio, withdrew August 29, 2011
Emilio González Márquez, withdrew September 22, 2011
Pre-Candidates gallery
On Feb. 5th Josefina Vázquez Mota was announced as PAN presidential candidate following her victory in the internal selection process.
Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD) Nomination
Nominee:
Andrés Manuel López Obrador, former Head of Government of the Federal District from Tabasco.
Candidates
Marcelo Ebrard, withdrew November 15, 2011
Candidates gallery
Other pre-candidates
Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) Nomination
Nominee:
Enrique Peña Nieto, former Governor of the State of Mexico
Former candidates
Manlio Fabio Beltrones, withdrew November 21, 2011
Candidates gallery
New Alliance Party (PNA) Nomination
Nominee:
Gabriel Quadri de la Torre
Candidates gallery
Opinion polls
Allegations of media bias and Yo Soy 132 student protests
Mass protests have taken place in Mexico City against alleged bias towards PRI and Peña Nieto in the print and television media, particularly Televisa.
The movement Yo Soy 132 ("I am 132") formed in response to this perceived bias, with initial focus on Peña Nieto as the flagship of "corruption, tyranny and authoritarianism". On May 11, 2012, Peña Nieto visited Universidad Iberoamericana and was received with scorn. Both printed and televised media reported this as a minor mishap, called the students intolerant, and claimed that they had been paid by leftist organizations. In response, 131 students identified themselves on a YouTube video by their university IDs and stated that their actions were independent. This caused a ripple effect as many tweeted "I'm the 132nd student" in solidarity. Mass protests organized by public and private university students then took place across the country. The movement successfully demanded that, unlike the first debate, the second presidential debate be broadcast on national television, and has proposed a third debate to cover a broader scope of issues.
Claims of hacking
In a 31 March 2016 article published by Bloomberg Business Week, a Colombian hacker named Andrés Sepúlveda claimed to have been paid US$600,000 by the PRI for hacking files (including phone calls, e-mails, and strategies) pertaining to the respective political campaigns of Peña Nieto's rivals, and also to manipulate social media to create fake news against his opponents with 30,000 fake Twitter accounts, creating fake trending topics and the perception of public enthusiasm toward Peña Nieto's campaign. On election day, Sepúlveda claimed to have been watching a live feed from Bogota, Colombia and destroyed evidence right after Peña Nieto was declared winner. He said he was helped by a team of six hackers, which he led. The hacker is serving a 10-year prison sentence in Colombia for hacking crime, in favor of the election campaign of Óscar Iván Zuluaga.
Results
President
Senate
Chamber of Deputies
Recount
Following the elections, López Obrador demanded a full recount, claiming there had been widespread irregularities. The Federal Electoral Institute subsequently announced that there would be a partial recount, with presidential ballots from 78,012 of the 143,132 polling stations to be recounted, whilst ballots for the Congressional elections would be re-examined at two-thirds of polling stations. On July 6 after a partial recount of approximately 50% of the votes, the Federal Electoral Institute declared they had found anomalies but that Nieto still had majority and was confirmed as the winner with 38.2% of the popular vote. which officially has until 6 September to announce a winner.
Request to invalidate election
On July 12, López Obrador presented his formal complaint to invalidate the election to the Electoral Tribunal of the Federal Judiciary on grounds of violation of constitutional article 41 which states that the elections must be free and authentic and with equal benefits for all competing parties. Alleging that the Mexican media had treated them with inequality in relation to Peña Nieto and presenting the numerous evidence of paraphernalia used to buy votes for the PRI as well as pre-marked ballots and notarized witness statements of people who sold their votes to the PRI. The complaint also pointed towards the PRI's campaign going over budget an alleged 1000% over the established allowed budget by the Federal Electoral Institute which is of 336 million Mexican pesos. On July 18 López Obrador accused Peña Nieto of using illicit funds and money laundering to finance his campaign. After presenting new audio evidence regarding the PRI's use of Monex cards, López Obrador commented that it would be better if the Electoral Tribunal invalidated the election and move in an interim President than to violate the constitution and acting in an "anti-democratic" way. He said that if the Electoral Tribunal does not invalidate the election, Mexico will be governed by a "gang of evildoers".
On 30 August 2012, the TEPJF, Mexico's highest election-law court rejected the allegations of fraud after they concluded that there was "insufficient evidence of wrongdoing."
Post-electoral protests and claims of fraud
After the preliminary results of the Federal Electoral Institute announced Enrique Peña Nieto as virtual President-elect, several student protests led by the youth movement Yo Soy 132 and independent citizen movements, have broken out throughout the country claiming the forced imposition of a President and electoral fraud, as evidence of an alleged fraud has surfaced and pointed towards the PRI buying votes by providing voting citizens with store credit cards of Mexican supermarket chain Soriana. Mexico's Federal Electoral Institute (IFE) confirmed in January 2013 that Peña Nieto's party spent $5.2 million in electronic cards throughout the whole campaign. Opposition parties complained that this represented a form of illicit funding, but the IFE claimed the contrary. The PRI party claimed that the electronic cards were intended for party personnel, but this method rose suspicions because some of the money was transacted through "several shadowy companies instead of being disbursed directly from party coffers." This also increased the suspicions that the PRI had received illegal donations from corporations (given that this move is prohibited under law). The IFE stated on 24 January 2013 and ruled by 5–4 votes that the fundings were not violating the law, but opposition parties and critics believe that the IFE did not thoroughly investigate the origins of the money.
Further alleged evidence arose as pictures of ballots already marked in favor of the PRI, with the logo of the party printed over the marking, have been shared widely over online social networks, and there have also been numerous videos and photos of that show the irregularities between local ballot boxes and the official result of those ballot boxes. More allegations appeared as videos showing protection of local police patrols protecting supposed "Mapaches". Following a request from Andrés Manuel López Obrador, the Federal Electoral Institute agreed to recount more than half of the ballots cast in the presidential election. It later reconfirmed the original result. The result was endorsed by Barack Obama, the president of the United States, and by the Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez, who backed López Obrador in a similar dispute in 2006.
On July 7, a national protest in opposition of Enrique Peña Nieto was organized through online social networks, and demonstrations occurred in several cities. The protest in Mexico City was billed as a "mega-march", but the number of demonstrators equalled only around half the number which attended anti-PRI demonstrations held prior to the election. Statements from the Yo Soy 132 student movement formally uninvolved themselves from the protest cautioning against violent results; alleging that it may have been organized by a similarly named movement linked to the PRI. Despite the statement the protests effectively took place in 37 cities in Mexico, Canada, the United States, and Europe with no incidents of violence or known involvement of the PRI. Though in Xalapa, Veracruz a man identified as Juan Pablo Frianzoni, presumed member of the youth PRI group "Juventud Dinamica"; threw chairs at the protesters and then pointed a handgun at them from his balcony. Frianzoni was then apprehended by Police officers who were standing by the protest. Televisa did not broadcast the National protests, and instead presented a live broadcast of Eugenio Derbez and Alessandra Rosaldo's wedding which was interrupted due to "technical difficulties" when loud protest chants became audible outside of the event. Derbez however stated that he was in support of the protests, and though he regrets them happening on the day of his wedding; he said he will cherish the memory.
As of July 15 protests and further acts of civil resistance against Peña Nieto and Televisa continue around the country. On July 27 protesters set up a 24-hour blockade around the main Televisa studios in Chapultepec, Mexico City.
On August 30 several protesters gathered outside the offices of the Electoral Tribunal of the Federal Judiciary as the Magistrates declared that the claims made by the left-wing coalition were "unfounded" and were therefore rejected.
On December 1, 2012, as Peña Nieto was being sworn in as President, protesters rioted outside of the national palace and clashed with Federal Police forces, in an event that has been labeled by the media as the 1DMX, while vandalizing hotel structures and setting fires around Mexico City. More than 90 protesters were arrested and several were injured. Mexico City Mayor Marcelo Ebrard blamed anarchist groups for causing the violent outcomes.
References
Further reading
Jorge I. Dominguez et al. eds. Mexico's Evolving Democracy: A Comparative Study of the 2012 Elections (Johns Hopkins University Press; 2015) 304 pages
External links
Federal Electoral Institute
Official candidate websites
National Action Party
Ernesto Cordero
Santiago Creel
Josefina Vázquez Mota
Party of the Democratic Revolution
Andrés Manuel López Obrador
Institutional Revolutionary Party
Enrique Peña Nieto
Mexico
General
Elections in Mexico
Presidential elections in Mexico
July 2012 events in Mexico |
7903 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffie%E2%80%93Hellman%20key%20exchange | Diffie–Hellman key exchange | Diffie–Hellman key exchange is a method of securely exchanging cryptographic keys over a public channel and was one of the first public-key protocols as conceived by Ralph Merkle and named after Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman. DH is one of the earliest practical examples of public key exchange implemented within the field of cryptography. Published in 1976 by Diffie and Hellman, this is the earliest publicly known work that proposed the idea of a private key and a corresponding public key.
Traditionally, secure encrypted communication between two parties required that they first exchange keys by some secure physical means, such as paper key lists transported by a trusted courier. The Diffie–Hellman key exchange method allows two parties that have no prior knowledge of each other to jointly establish a shared secret key over an insecure channel. This key can then be used to encrypt subsequent communications using a symmetric-key cipher.
Diffie–Hellman is used to secure a variety of Internet services. However, research published in October 2015 suggests that the parameters in use for many DH Internet applications at that time are not strong enough to prevent compromise by very well-funded attackers, such as the security services of some countries.
The scheme was published by Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman in 1976, but in 1997 it was revealed that James H. Ellis, Clifford Cocks, and Malcolm J. Williamson of GCHQ, the British signals intelligence agency, had previously shown in 1969 how public-key cryptography could be achieved.
Although Diffie–Hellman key agreement itself is a non-authenticated key-agreement protocol, it provides the basis for a variety of authenticated protocols, and is used to provide forward secrecy in Transport Layer Security's ephemeral modes (referred to as EDH or DHE depending on the cipher suite).
The method was followed shortly afterwards by RSA, an implementation of public-key cryptography using asymmetric algorithms.
Expired from 1977 describes the now public-domain algorithm. It credits Hellman, Diffie, and Merkle as inventors.
Name
In 2002, Hellman suggested the algorithm be called Diffie–Hellman–Merkle key exchange in recognition of Ralph Merkle's contribution to the invention of public-key cryptography (Hellman, 2002), writing:
Description
General overview
Diffie–Hellman key exchange establishes a shared secret between two parties that can be used for secret communication for exchanging data over a public network. An analogy illustrates the concept of public key exchange by using colors instead of very large numbers:
The process begins by having the two parties, Alice and Bob, publicly agree on an arbitrary starting color that does not need to be kept secret (but should be different every time). In this example, the color is yellow. Each person also selects a secret color that they keep to themselves – in this case, red and blue-green. The crucial part of the process is that Alice and Bob each mix their own secret color together with their mutually shared color, resulting in orange-tan and light-blue mixtures respectively, and then publicly exchange the two mixed colors. Finally, each of them mixes the color they received from the partner with their own private color. The result is a final color mixture (yellow-brown in this case) that is identical to their partner's final color mixture.
If a third party listened to the exchange, it would only know the common color (yellow) and the first mixed colors (orange-tan and light-blue), but it would be difficult for this party to determine the final secret color (yellow-brown). Bringing the analogy back to a real-life exchange using large numbers rather than colors, this determination is computationally expensive. It is impossible to compute in a practical amount of time even for modern supercomputers.
Cryptographic explanation
The simplest and the original implementation of the protocol uses the multiplicative group of integers modulo p, where p is prime, and g is a primitive root modulo p. These two values are chosen in this way to ensure that the resulting shared secret can take on any value from 1 to p–1. Here is an example of the protocol, with non-secret values in blue, and secret values in red.
Alice and Bob publicly agree to use a modulus p = 23 and base g = 5 (which is a primitive root modulo 23).
Alice chooses a secret integer a = 4, then sends Bob A = ga mod p
A = 54 mod 23 = 4
Bob chooses a secret integer b = 3, then sends Alice B = gb mod p
B = 53 mod 23 = 10
Alice computes s = Ba mod p
s = 104 mod 23 = 18
Bob computes s = Ab mod p
s = 43 mod 23 = 18
Alice and Bob now share a secret (the number 18).
Both Alice and Bob have arrived at the same values because under mod p,
More specifically,
Only a and b are kept secret. All the other values – p, g, ga mod p, and gb mod p – are sent in the clear. The strength of the scheme comes from the fact that gab mod p = gba mod p take extremely long times to compute by any known algorithm just from the knowledge of p, g, ga mod p, and gb mod p. Once Alice and Bob compute the shared secret they can use it as an encryption key, known only to them, for sending messages across the same open communications channel.
Of course, much larger values of a, b, and p would be needed to make this example secure, since there are only 23 possible results of n mod 23. However, if p is a prime of at least 600 digits, then even the fastest modern computers using the fastest known algorithm cannot find a given only g, p and ga mod p. Such a problem is called the discrete logarithm problem. The computation of ga mod p is known as modular exponentiation and can be done efficiently even for large numbers.
Note that g need not be large at all, and in practice is usually a small integer (like 2, 3, ...).
Secrecy chart
The chart below depicts who knows what, again with non-secret values in blue, and secret values in red. Here Eve is an eavesdropper – she watches what is sent between Alice and Bob, but she does not alter the contents of their communications.
g = public (prime) base, known to Alice, Bob, and Eve. g = 5
p = public (prime) modulus, known to Alice, Bob, and Eve. p = 23
a = Alice's private key, known only to Alice. a = 6
b = Bob's private key known only to Bob. b = 15
A = Alice's public key, known to Alice, Bob, and Eve. A = ga mod p = 8
B = Bob's public key, known to Alice, Bob, and Eve. B = gb mod p = 19
Now s is the shared secret key and it is known to both Alice and Bob, but not to Eve. Note that it is not helpful for Eve to compute AB, which equals ga + b mod p.
Note: It should be difficult for Alice to solve for Bob's private key or for Bob to solve for Alice's private key. If it is not difficult for Alice to solve for Bob's private key (or vice versa), Eve may simply substitute her own private / public key pair, plug Bob's public key into her private key, produce a fake shared secret key, and solve for Bob's private key (and use that to solve for the shared secret key. Eve may attempt to choose a public / private key pair that will make it easy for her to solve for Bob's private key).
Another demonstration of Diffie–Hellman (also using numbers too small for practical use) is given here.
Generalization to finite cyclic groups
Here is a more general description of the protocol:
Alice and Bob agree on a finite cyclic group G of order n and a generating element g in G. (This is usually done long before the rest of the protocol; g is assumed to be known by all attackers.) The group G is written multiplicatively.
Alice picks a random natural number a with 1 < a < n, and sends the element ga of G to Bob.
Bob picks a random natural number b with 1 < b < n, and sends the element gb of G to Alice.
Alice computes the element (gb)a = gba of G.
Bob computes the element (ga)b = gab of G.
Both Alice and Bob are now in possession of the group element gab = gba, which can serve as the shared secret key. The group G satisfies the requisite condition for secure communication if there is not an efficient algorithm for determining gab given g, ga, and gb.
For example, the elliptic curve Diffie–Hellman protocol is a variant that represents an element of G as a point on an elliptic curve instead of as an integer modulo n. Variants using hyperelliptic curves have also been proposed. The supersingular isogeny key exchange is a Diffie–Hellman variant that has been designed to be secure against quantum computers.
Ephemeral and/or Static Keys
The used keys can either be ephemeral or static (long term) key, but could even be mixed, so called semi-static DH. These variants have different properties and hence different use cases. An overview over many variants and some also discussions can for example be found in NIST SP 800-56A. Here just a basic list:
ephemeral, ephemeral: Usually used for key agreement. Provides forward secrecy, but no authenticity.
static, static: Would generate a long term shared secret. Does not provide forward secrecy, but implicit authenticity. Since the keys are static it would for example not protect against replay-attacks.
ephemeral, static: For example used in ElGamal encryption or Integrated Encryption Scheme (IES). If used in key agreement it could provide implicit one-sided authenticity (the ephemeral side could verify the authenticity of the static side). No forward secrecy is provided.
It is possible to use ephemeral and static keys in one key agreement to provide more security as for example shown in NIST SP 800-56A, but it is also possible to combine those in a single DH key exchange, which is then called triple DH (3-DH).
Triple Diffie-Hellman (3-DH)
In 1997 a kind of double DH was proposed by Simon Blake-Wilson, Don Johnson, Alfred Menezes in "Key Agreement Protocols and their Security Analysis (1997)", which was improved by C. Kudla and K. G. Paterson in “Modular Security Proofs for Key Agreement Protocols (2005)” and shown to be secure. It's also used or mentioned in other variants. For example:
Extended Triple Diffie-Hellman
sci.crypt news group (from 18.08.2002)
Double Ratchet Algorithm
Signal Protocol
The long term secret keys of Alice and Bob are denoted by a and b respectively, with public keys A and B, as well as the ephemeral key pairs x, X and y, Y. Then protocol is:
The long term public keys need to be transferred somehow. That can be done beforehand in a separate, trusted channel, or the public keys can be encrypted using some partial key agreement to preserve anonymity. For more of such details as well as other improvements like side channel protection or explicit key confirmation, as well as early messages and additional password authentication, one could e.g. have a look at "Advanced modular handshake for key agreement and optional authentication"
Operation with more than two parties
Diffie–Hellman key agreement is not limited to negotiating a key shared by only two participants. Any number of users can take part in an agreement by performing iterations of the agreement protocol and exchanging intermediate data (which does not itself need to be kept secret). For example, Alice, Bob, and Carol could participate in a Diffie–Hellman agreement as follows, with all operations taken to be modulo p:
The parties agree on the algorithm parameters p and g.
The parties generate their private keys, named a, b, and c.
Alice computes and sends it to Bob.
Bob computes () = and sends it to Carol.
Carol computes () = and uses it as her secret.
Bob computes gb and sends it to Carol.
Carol computes () = and sends it to Alice.
Alice computes () = = and uses it as her secret.
Carol computes and sends it to Alice.
Alice computes () = and sends it to Bob.
Bob computes () = = and uses it as his secret.
An eavesdropper has been able to see , , , , , and , but cannot use any combination of these to efficiently reproduce .
To extend this mechanism to larger groups, two basic principles must be followed:
Starting with an "empty" key consisting only of g, the secret is made by raising the current value to every participant's private exponent once, in any order (the first such exponentiation yields the participant's own public key).
Any intermediate value (having up to N-1 exponents applied, where N is the number of participants in the group) may be revealed publicly, but the final value (having had all N exponents applied) constitutes the shared secret and hence must never be revealed publicly. Thus, each user must obtain their copy of the secret by applying their own private key last (otherwise there would be no way for the last contributor to communicate the final key to its recipient, as that last contributor would have turned the key into the very secret the group wished to protect).
These principles leave open various options for choosing in which order participants contribute to keys. The simplest and most obvious solution is to arrange the N participants in a circle and have N keys rotate around the circle, until eventually every key has been contributed to by all N participants (ending with its owner) and each participant has contributed to N keys (ending with their own). However, this requires that every participant perform N modular exponentiations.
By choosing a more optimal order, and relying on the fact that keys can be duplicated, it is possible to reduce the number of modular exponentiations performed by each participant to using a divide-and-conquer-style approach, given here for eight participants:
Participants A, B, C, and D each perform one exponentiation, yielding ; this value is sent to E, F, G, and H. In return, participants A, B, C, and D receive .
Participants A and B each perform one exponentiation, yielding , which they send to C and D, while C and D do the same, yielding , which they send to A and B.
Participant A performs an exponentiation, yielding , which it sends to B; similarly, B sends to A. C and D do similarly.
Participant A performs one final exponentiation, yielding the secret = , while B does the same to get = ; again, C and D do similarly.
Participants E through H simultaneously perform the same operations using as their starting point.
Once this operation has been completed all participants will possess the secret , but each participant will have performed only four modular exponentiations, rather than the eight implied by a simple circular arrangement.
Security
The protocol is considered secure against eavesdroppers if G and g are chosen properly. In particular, the order of the group G must be large, particularly if the same group is used for large amounts of traffic. The eavesdropper has to solve the Diffie–Hellman problem to obtain gab. This is currently considered difficult for groups whose order is large enough. An efficient algorithm to solve the discrete logarithm problem would make it easy to compute a or b and solve the Diffie–Hellman problem, making this and many other public key cryptosystems insecure. Fields of small characteristic may be less secure.
The order of G should have a large prime factor to prevent use of the Pohlig–Hellman algorithm to obtain a or b. For this reason, a Sophie Germain prime q is sometimes used to calculate , called a safe prime, since the order of G is then only divisible by 2 and q. g is then sometimes chosen to generate the order q subgroup of G, rather than G, so that the Legendre symbol of ga never reveals the low order bit of a. A protocol using such a choice is for example IKEv2.
g is often a small integer such as 2. Because of the random self-reducibility of the discrete logarithm problem a small g is equally secure as any other generator of the same group.
If Alice and Bob use random number generators whose outputs are not completely random and can be predicted to some extent, then it is much easier to eavesdrop.
In the original description, the Diffie–Hellman exchange by itself does not provide authentication of the communicating parties and is thus vulnerable to a man-in-the-middle attack. Mallory (an active attacker executing the man-in-the-middle attack) may establish two distinct key exchanges, one with Alice and the other with Bob, effectively masquerading as Alice to Bob, and vice versa, allowing her to decrypt, then re-encrypt, the messages passed between them. Note that Mallory must continue to be in the middle, actively decrypting and re-encrypting messages every time Alice and Bob communicate. If she is ever absent, her previous presence is then revealed to Alice and Bob. They will know that all of their private conversations had been intercepted and decoded by someone in the channel. In most cases it will not help them get Mallory's private key, even if she used the same key for both exchanges.
A method to authenticate the communicating parties to each other is generally needed to prevent this type of attack. Variants of Diffie–Hellman, such as STS protocol, may be used instead to avoid these types of attacks.
Practical attacks on Internet traffic
The number field sieve algorithm, which is generally the most effective in solving the discrete logarithm problem, consists of four computational steps. The first three steps only depend on the order of the group G, not on the specific number whose finite log is desired. It turns out that much Internet traffic uses one of a handful of groups that are of order 1024 bits or less. By precomputing the first three steps of the number field sieve for the most common groups, an attacker need only carry out the last step, which is much less computationally expensive than the first three steps, to obtain a specific logarithm. The Logjam attack used this vulnerability to compromise a variety of Internet services that allowed the use of groups whose order was a 512-bit prime number, so called export grade. The authors needed several thousand CPU cores for a week to precompute data for a single 512-bit prime. Once that was done, individual logarithms could be solved in about a minute using two 18-core Intel Xeon CPUs.
As estimated by the authors behind the Logjam attack, the much more difficult precomputation needed to solve the discrete log problem for a 1024-bit prime would cost on the order of $100 million, well within the budget of a large national intelligence agency such as the U.S. National Security Agency (NSA). The Logjam authors speculate that precomputation against widely reused 1024-bit DH primes is behind claims in leaked NSA documents that NSA is able to break much of current cryptography.
To avoid these vulnerabilities, the Logjam authors recommend use of elliptic curve cryptography, for which no similar attack is known. Failing that, they recommend that the order, p, of the Diffie–Hellman group should be at least 2048 bits. They estimate that the pre-computation required for a 2048-bit prime is 109 times more difficult than for 1024-bit primes.
Other uses
Encryption
Public key encryption schemes based on the Diffie–Hellman key exchange have been proposed. The first such scheme is the ElGamal encryption. A more modern variant is the Integrated Encryption Scheme.
Forward secrecy
Protocols that achieve forward secrecy generate new key pairs for each session and discard them at the end of the session. The Diffie–Hellman key exchange is a frequent choice for such protocols, because of its fast key generation.
Password-authenticated key agreement
When Alice and Bob share a password, they may use a password-authenticated key agreement (PK) form of Diffie–Hellman to prevent man-in-the-middle attacks. One simple scheme is to compare the hash of s concatenated with the password calculated independently on both ends of channel. A feature of these schemes is that an attacker can only test one specific password on each iteration with the other party, and so the system provides good security with relatively weak passwords. This approach is described in ITU-T Recommendation X.1035, which is used by the G.hn home networking standard.
An example of such a protocol is the Secure Remote Password protocol.
Public key
It is also possible to use Diffie–Hellman as part of a public key infrastructure, allowing Bob to encrypt a message so that only Alice will be able to decrypt it, with no prior communication between them other than Bob having trusted knowledge of Alice's public key. Alice's public key is . To send her a message, Bob chooses a random b and then sends Alice (unencrypted) together with the message encrypted with symmetric key . Only Alice can determine the symmetric key and hence decrypt the message because only she has a (the private key). A pre-shared public key also prevents man-in-the-middle attacks.
In practice, Diffie–Hellman is not used in this way, with RSA being the dominant public key algorithm. This is largely for historical and commercial reasons, namely that RSA Security created a certificate authority for key signing that became Verisign. Diffie–Hellman, as elaborated above, cannot directly be used to sign certificates. However, the ElGamal and DSA signature algorithms are mathematically related to it, as well as MQV, STS and the IKE component of the IPsec protocol suite for securing Internet Protocol communications.
See also
Elliptic-curve Diffie–Hellman key exchange
Supersingular isogeny key exchange
Forward secrecy
Notes
References
General references
The History of Non-Secret Encryption JH Ellis 1987 (28K PDF file) (HTML version)
The First Ten Years of Public-Key Cryptography Whitfield Diffie, Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 76, no. 5, May 1988, pp: 560–577 (1.9MB PDF file)
Menezes, Alfred; van Oorschot, Paul; Vanstone, Scott (1997). Handbook of Applied Cryptography Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. . (Available online)
Singh, Simon (1999) The Code Book: the evolution of secrecy from Mary Queen of Scots to quantum cryptography New York: Doubleday
An Overview of Public Key Cryptography Martin E. Hellman, IEEE Communications Magazine, May 2002, pp. 42–49. (123kB PDF file)
External links
Oral history interview with Martin Hellman, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. Leading cryptography scholar Martin Hellman discusses the circumstances and fundamental insights of his invention of public key cryptography with collaborators Whitfield Diffie and Ralph Merkle at Stanford University in the mid-1970s.
– Diffie–Hellman Key Agreement Method. E. Rescorla. June 1999.
– More Modular Exponential (MODP) Diffie–Hellman groups for Internet Key Exchange (IKE). T. Kivinen, M. Kojo, SSH Communications Security. May 2003.
Summary of ANSI X9.42: Agreement of Symmetric Keys Using Discrete Logarithm Cryptography (64K PDF file) (Description of ANSI 9 Standards)
Talk by Martin Hellman in 2007, YouTube video
Crypto dream team Diffie & Hellman wins $1M 2015 Turing Award (a.k.a. "Nobel Prize of Computing")
A Diffie–Hellman demo written in Python3 This demo properly supports very-large key data and enforces the use of prime numbers where required.
Key-agreement protocols
Public-key cryptography |
64999857 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Call%20of%20Duty%3A%20Black%20Ops%20Cold%20War | Call of Duty: Black Ops Cold War | Call of Duty: Black Ops Cold War is a 2020 first-person shooter video game developed by Treyarch and Raven Software and published by Activision. It was released worldwide on November 13, 2020, for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Xbox One, and Xbox Series X/S. It serves as the sixth installment in the Black Ops series and the seventeenth installment in the overall Call of Duty series. The game is the second Call of Duty title since 2011's Modern Warfare 3 to be co-developed by two studios.
Black Ops Cold Wars campaign is set during the early 1980s of the Cold War, taking place between Call of Duty: Black Ops (2010) and Black Ops II (2012) chronologically. It is centered around a pursuit of the alleged Soviet spy Perseus, whose stated goal is to subvert the United States and tilt the balance of power toward the Soviet Union. For the campaign, the player takes control of "Bell", who is recruited by CIA officer Russell Adler into a multinational task force created to hunt down Perseus. The campaign also sees the return of Black Ops characters Alex Mason, Frank Woods, and Jason Hudson, with Mason also being the playable character in certain missions. The game's multiplayer introduced new game modes as well as new map dynamics and elements, carrying over several design choices introduced in Call of Duty: Modern Warfare. It features a seasonal content system similar to Modern Warfare, which includes a battle pass as well as free maps and weapons added every season. Cold War also features narrative tie-ins to Modern Warfare via the campaign and multiplayer, establishing a shared universe across multiple Call of Duty sub-series.
The game was originally developed by Raven and Sledgehammer Games and not intended to be an entry in the Black Ops subseries. However, the development suffered from disagreements among the two teams, resulting in Activision placing Treyarch in charge of the game's development in 2019, with Raven acting as a co-developer to them. Marketing for the game began in August 2020 and was done in different forms, including certain content creators receiving slide projectors, puzzles made to be solved online by fans, and a website showcasing historical Cold War events. A public multiplayer beta for the game was also made live in October 2020. Black Ops Cold War received generally favorable reviews from critics at release. It became the best-selling game of 2020 in the US.
Gameplay
Call of Duty: Black Ops Cold War is set during the Cold War in the early 1980s. The story follows Green Beret turned CIA SAD/SOG operative Russell Adler and his mission to stop a USSR extremist group in 1981. The story is inspired by actual events and the campaign features locations such as East Berlin, Vietnam, Turkey, and the Soviet KGB headquarters. Adler is supported by Call of Duty: Black Ops characters Mason, Woods and Hudson. With new characters being Adler's MACV-SOG friend Sims, Mossad fixer Lazar, and MI6 officer Park. Players assume a custom character for the campaign, codenamed “Bell”, with the ability to choose their intelligence agency, skin tone, nationality, and gender; as well as different personality traits that provide in-game perks. The campaign features multiple endings, dependent on player choice throughout the campaign.
Multiplayer features new and returning game modes, as well as maps that accommodate both the traditional 6v6 format, as well as larger 12v12 combat. The game also introduced a new game mode named "Fireteam", which can support up to 40 players. The Create-a-Class system from Modern Warfare returns, with two major differences: field upgrades are implemented as part of class loadouts, and each class has a wildcard choice out of four possible ones: Gunfighter (allows up to 8 primary weapon attachments), Perk Greed (allows 2 perks from each perk type for a total of 6 usable perks), Danger Close (double grenade equipment), or Lawbreaker (allows mixing and matching any weapon/perk type in any slot). Like Modern Warfare, Cold War also support cross-platform play and cross-platform progression. Following an update, the progression system for multiplayer is integrated with Call of Duty: Warzone, allowing for a unified level system across Cold War, Warzone and Modern Warfare. In addition, Operator characters and weapons from Cold War are also added to Warzone to be used alongside Modern Warfare Operators and weapons, though the multiplayer modes remain separated and do not share Operators and weapons.
Zombies features a new storyline titled "Dark Aether" which expands on the original Aether story, concluded in Black Ops 4, while also staying true to the main narrative of the campaign. Instead of playing as predefined characters, players can take on the role of Operator characters from Multiplayer, as part of a CIA response team codenamed "Requiem". Progression from Multiplayer is shared with Zombies, as players are able to use any weapon to start a Zombies match, alongside Gunsmith, scorestreaks and field upgrades, in addition to returning mechanics such as wallbuys, the Mystery Box, Pack-a-Punch and past fan-favorite Perks. For the first time in Zombies, players can opt to "exfil" the map, which will put them in a difficult wave with increased enemy spawn that they must survive before they can escape. Collectible intels are also scattered around the playable maps, allowing players to keep track of and unfold the main story as they progress. A skill upgrade system is featured in the game, allowing players to enhance weapons, perks, ammo mods and field upgrades with Aetherium Crystals, a currency acquired from reaching round milestones. A new game mode, Onslaught, is introduced exclusively to PlayStation players until November 1, 2021. In this mode, which are played within Multiplayer maps, up to 2 players defend areas grounded off by the Dark Aether orb, which must be powered by zombie kills. Sufficient kills will move the orb to new positions, forcing the players to move or die outside of the orb's protection zone. The Season Two update introduces "Outbreak", a large-scale mode where players fight off zombie hordes and complete objectives in an open-world area, composed of locations featured in the larger Multiplayer modes.
Plot
Campaign
In January 1981, CIA SAD/SOG operatives Russell Adler, Alex Mason, and Frank Woods are sent to target Qasim Javadi and Arash Kadivar for their roles in the Iran hostage crisis. With intelligence gained from interrogating Qasim, the team tracks Arash to Turkey. Arash boasts that Perseus was the one responsible for organizing the hostage crisis before being executed. US President Ronald Reagan authorizes a black operation team to neutralize Perseus after being briefed of his threat by Jason Hudson and Adler.
Adler’s team consists of CIA operative Lawrence Sims, American born Mossad operative Eleazar "Lazar" Azoulay, and MI6 intelligence officer Helen Park, with Mason and Woods providing tactical support. The final member of the team is an agent known only by the codename “Bell", who served with Adler and Sims in MACV-SOG during the Vietnam War. The team starts by asking Bell to recall Operation Fracture Jaw in 1968, where Adler believes he, Bell, and Sims first encountered Perseus. Afterwards, the team proceeds to East Berlin to apprehend/kill Anton Volkov, a Russian mafia boss with ties to Perseus.
Following an infiltration into a secret Spetsnaz training facility by Bell and Woods, the team discovers that Perseus had infiltrated Operation Greenlight, a top secret American program that secretly planted neutron bombs in every major European city to deny their use to the Soviets in the event of an invasion. Mason and Woods are deployed to Mount Yamantau in the Ural Mountains, where they infiltrate Nikita Dragovich's destroyed base in hopes of retrieving his list of sleeper agents. However, the team finds out that Perseus has wiped the data from the Yamantau base's mainframe, leaving their only option to infiltrate KGB Headquarters to retrieve the list. Enlisting the help of one of their KGB double agent allies, Dimitri Belikov, they manage to get Adler and Bell inside the Lubyanka Building. The team learns that an Operation Greenlight scientist is one of the sleeper agents and has fled to Cuba. Hoping to catch Perseus there, the team launches a raid. They learn that Perseus has managed to steal the detonation codes for every Operation Greenlight bomb, meaning he can devastate Europe and lay the blame on the United States. The team comes under heavy fire and Lazar and Park are injured in the process, leaving Bell only enough time to save one of them.
After rescuing Bell, Adler continues to press them by provoking their memories of Vietnam once more. At this point, Bell's true identity is revealed as an agent of Perseus, having been shot by Arash in Turkey out of jealousy. Bell was found by Adler and was brainwashed using Project MKUltra into believing they were his comrade. With Bell's memory returned, Adler interrogates them on the location of Perseus' headquarters. Bell can then either choose to remain loyal to Perseus and lie to Adler, or choose to betray Perseus and reveal his location.
Endings
In the non-canonical endings where Bell chooses to stay loyal to Perseus, they lie by telling Adler to head to the Duga radar array, where the team will be too far away to stop Perseus from activating the nukes. If Bell has established contact with the Soviet Army beforehand, they will trick the team into a trap and kill them with the help of Perseus and the Soviet Union Army before they activate the nukes. If Bell refuses to kill the team, Bell is executed by Adler but the nukes will still go off. Europe is devastated by the explosions and public opinion of the United States plummets. The CIA is forced to erase the existence of Adler and his team in an effort to cover up the United States' involvement in Operation Greenlight. Perseus boasts that his agents in Europe will take advantage of the chaos to infiltrate every European government and turn them towards the Soviet Union, while his agents in the United States will continue to undermine the country.
In the canonical ending where Bell decides to betray Perseus and help the CIA, they along with the team assault Perseus' headquarters in the Solovetsky Islands and destroy the transmitters needed to send the detonation signal. With the failure of Operation Greenlight, Perseus goes into hiding, though Adler swears to continue pursuing him and dismantle his spy network. Later, Adler takes Bell out for a private conversation, assuring them that their choice to turn against Perseus was of their own free will and that they are a hero. Adler then admits that Bell must be eliminated as a loose end and both draw their guns, with the scene fading to black as gunshots are heard.
Multiplayer/Warzone
Two years after Operation Greenlight's failure, a Perseus cell infiltrates the Cheyenne Mountain Complex and successfully hijacks a nuclear ICBM during military exercise Able Archer 83. Operators from NATO and Warsaw Pact countries are deployed to various hot zones, where Perseus activities are sighted. On January 20, 1984, a Perseus cell, led by Vikhor "Stitch" Kuzmin, raids a CIA safe house in West Berlin in order to gain intel on Adler. Stitch, who was in charge of Nova-6 production on Rebirth Island, vowed vengeance on Adler, who captured and tortured him during the CIA’s assault on the island in 1968. Stitch leaves behind a message to taunt Adler that leads him to a mall in New Jersey. At the mall, Adler’s team runs into an ambush by Stitch, who has also set up a cache of Nova-6. The team attempts to escape, but Adler is ultimately captured and taken away by Stitch and his men.
Three months later, Woods leads a squad to Laos where Adler was last sighted, only to learn that he has been transported to Verdansk. On June 2, 1984, two Perseus operatives, Freya "Wraith" Helvig and Roman "Knight" Gray, infiltrate the Yamantau secret military base and retrieve data related to Dragovich's numbers program, which Stitch plans to use in order to create more sleeper agents across the nation. They then detonate the base, intending to shift the blame toward the U.S. and spark another war. Eight days later, Woods manages to locate Adler in Verdansk and rescue him.
Some times later, Stitch orders Perseus operative Owethu "Jackal" Mabuza to assault Jumpseat Satellite Ground Station in South Africa. The station's surviving specialist is forced to obey Stitch's order as he de-orbits two CIA satellites, which end up crashing in Verdansk and Algeria, respectively. Following his recovery, Adler immediately leads a squad to investigate the satellite crash in Algeria. As they approach the crash site, Adler recklessly charges in and eliminates Perseus agents, while secretly recovering a data recorder from the satellite debris. A month later, Woods leads a response unit, accompanied by agent Colton "Stryker" Greenfield, to the Echelon Listening Station in Teufelsburg, where they attempt to apprehend Perseus operative Kaori "Kitsune" Tanaka. Kitsune, who has just finished uploading the numbers protocol, activates the sequence, turning the response team against Woods and Stryker, who narrowly escape death. Afterwards, Hudson meets with Woods in private and reveals an inconsistency in Adler's statement about the data recorder from the Algeria satellite crash site, as well as his recent unmonitored activities in Verdansk. Recognizing that Adler may have been compromised due to the numbers program, Hudson orders Woods to contact Mason for help.
On August 2, 1984, Stitch and Perseus operative Benito "Fuze" Ortega attempt to defuse several explosive charges planted all across Verdansk by Adler. Meanwhile, Adler is put through extensive torturing by Mason and Hudson in order to break his programming. Mason succeeds in curing Adler, while Stitch's team fails to stop most of the charges from detonating. Woods, Adler, Mason and Hudson are deployed at a heavily-destroyed Verdansk to confront Stitch for the final time. They eventually find Stitch in the woods, where Adler learns that he had taken over the mantle of Perseus, while the previous one passed away from cancer in 1983. Having finished his work, Stitch willingly surrenders his life, while taunting Adler of his actions. A gunshot is heard as the scene cuts to black.
A few days after, Adler, Mason, Woods and Hudson investigate an underground Nazi bunker in the ruins of Verdansk, where they meet Captain Carver Butcher, a retired Special Operations Executive agent and founder of Task Force Vanguard. Butcher begins telling Adler and the others of his mission in leading various special operations task forces to hunt down remnants of the Nazi empire in the Pacific.
Zombies
Following the collapse of the Aether multiverse, a young Samantha Maxis and Edward "Eddie" Richtofen traveled to a new singular universe, initially free from the influence of the old world. However, at some point, elements from the Dark Aether dimension begin to leak into the new world.
In 1983, CIA Special Officer Grigori Weaver is contacted by Maxis, now an independent operative, who provides him with secret KGB intelligence. Weaver learns from Maxis that during World War II, the Nazis attempted an experiment in a secret bunker in Morasko, Poland where they managed to reanimate dead soldiers into zombies. Afterwards, the bunker was discovered and sealed by the Soviet Union, only to be recently uncovered by Omega Group, a KGB-Spetsnaz joint research team working in favor of the Soviet Union. A classified task force codenamed Requiem is assembled to combat arising global undead threats as well as conduct research into the anomalies for technological advancement.
On November 1983, Requiem deploys a strike team to the bunker in Morasko, dubbed Projekt Endstation, where they discover a rift that acts as a gateway to the Dark Aether dimension, responsible for other global dimensional breaches. Upon further investigation, the strike team uncovers a device in the facility called Der Wechsler, which can restore a zombie's brain functionality. The strike team uses it on one of the roaming zombies in the facility, who was a former Omega Group member named Orlov. In turn, he agrees to help the team close the dimensional rift. Orlov successfully seals the rift, destroying Endstation and sacrificing himself in the process, while allowing the strike team to escape.
Following the destruction of Endstation, Maxis investigates further into Omega Group's activities, and travels to Outpost 25, located in A Sầu Valley, Vietnam, but is captured by Omega forces and thrown into the Dark Aether dimension. On June 1984, the Requiem strike team arrives at Outpost 25, and makes contact with Captain Sergei Ravenov, Maxis' mole within Omega. Ravenov guides the strike team through the undead-infested facility, while also dealing with Doctor William Peck, an American scientist who defected to Omega. After learning from Peck of Maxis' current situation, the strike team attempts to open a portal and stabilize it long enough for Maxis to escape the dimension. They eventually succeed and exfiltrate with Maxis, while Ravenov elects to remain undercover as Omega continues their operations in the Ural Mountains. Following Requiem's success, Omega's leaders, Colonel Lev Kravchenko and Doctor Aleksandra Valentina, travel to Outpost 25 to confront Peck about his failure.
In an effort to catch up to Omega Group's progress, Requiem launches Operation Threshold, a large-scale mission across the Ural Mountains where the largest outbreak zones have been identified. Over the next several months, Requiem operators are deployed in multiple Ural regions in order to eliminate undead targets, capture specimen and commence further research on the mysterious Aetherium element. Meanwhile, Maxis is quarantined under isolation due to her time spent inside the Dark Aether dimension. On November 1984, Maxis secretly contacts the Requiem strike team during their mission, requesting them to meet with Ravenov. At the missile silo in Ruka, Ravenov reveals that Peck has been using Aetherium crystals to supercharge nuclear warheads, which would allow Omega Group to create new outbreak zones wherever they choose. Not wishing to let either side possess the warheads, Maxis instructs Ravenov and the strike team to work together and direct the warheads toward the Pacific Ocean where they can be safely dumped. After clearing out a massive zombie horde guarding the silo, the strike team succeeds in deploying the warheads and manages to exfil.
Afterwards, Ravenov contacts Weaver via Maxis' secret radio channel, and requests Requiem's help in extracting several Omega scientists who wish to defect from the group. Though angry at Ravenov and Maxis' secrecy, Weaver agrees to help him carry out the operation. Some times later, the strike team receives intel from Ravenov that he has lost contact with the scientists. The team is sent to the State Sanatorium U-23 to investigate a crash site and help extract the scientists; however, they were all murdered by Doctor Hugo Jager, an Omega scientist who was secretly a mole planted by Kravchenko to root out the defectors. The strike team attempts to exfil, but is captured by Kravchenko and Omega forces.
Amidst the operations at the Ural Mountains, both Requiem and Omega come into contact with Kazimir Zykov, a Soviet engineer who was originally sent to the Endstation bunker in 1945 to shut it down, and has been trapped inside the Dark Aether since then. Zykov, who wishes to escape the dimension, has attempted to reach out to the real world, giving both Requiem and Omega warnings of a mysterious entity commanding the undead forces from within. Meanwhile, Valentina continues to further her own agenda: to open a gateway to the Dark Aether in hopes of freeing her father, who seemingly has been communicating with her from the other side since her childhood. Omega Group eventually deduces Valentina's real identity as the daughter of Ulrich Vogel, a Nazi scientist who previously lead Projekt Endstation.
Two months after the strike team's capture, an outbreak occurs in East Berlin, where Valentina was last sighted. Having learned of her true allegiance, Kravchenko decides to deploy the Requiem strike team at the Berlin site to stop her, while overseeing their mission. Upon arriving in Berlin, Kravchenko and the strike team learn that Valentina has been mutated with Dark Aether energy by the Forsaken, the entity mentioned by Zykov, who was also masquerading as Vogel to trick Valentina into doing his bidding. The strike team reaches an abandoned CIA safehouse and reactivates Klaus, a combat robot customized with an artificial intelligence module created by the Director of Requiem. With Omega Group's instructions, the team constructs a miniature Aetherium warhead using components left onsite by the CIA. Valentina attempts to stop them, but is ultimately defeated, and her energy is used to refine the Aetherium for the warhead. As the Forsaken taunts Requiem of his imminent arrival, Klaus carries the warhead through the portal to complete the mission. Kravchenko attempts to betray the strike team at the last minute, but Maxis, using her Dark Aether power, manages to open a portal, allowing the team to return home safely. Meanwhile, the Director monitors Maxis, and sends a group memo to an unknown recipient, noting her growing power as a concern toward Project Janus.
As Operation Threshold expands into the North Atlantic Sea and Algeria, the Director continues to pressure Maxis in isolation, coercing her into using her powers. Meanwhile, Omega Group authorizes a new operation in order to free Zykov from the Dark Aether, intending to use this opportunity to take down the Forsaken with their own warheads. Requiem, after receiving intel on Omega's new operation from Ravenov, also intends to free Zykov by their own means. On June 4, 1985, the Requiem strike team is deployed to an Omega test site in Ukraine, where Kravchenko and Peck are conducting the final steps to open a Dark Aether gateway. They succeed in freeing Zykov, only to learn that he was the Forsaken all along. As Kravchenko and Peck attempt to escape the facility, Maxis and the strike team make their final stand against the Forsaken. Eventually, Maxis sacrifices herself by plunging into a Dark Aether portal, weakening the Forsaken enough for him to be captured by Omega's containment chamber. With the Forsaken contained, all global outbreak zones are collapsed, and the undead threat is contained. The Director - revealed to be Richtofen - orders Requiem to be shut down, and its department leads apprehended alongside the strike team, while the Forsaken's chamber is delivered elsewhere. Five years later, Peck travels to Japan and charters a boat to the middle of the Pacific Ocean, claiming that he is looking for "some old friends".
Development
On May 18, 2019, Kotaku reported that the game was in upheaval as developers Sledgehammer Games and Raven Software had increasing tensions between the studios. Two sources described the game as a "mess". In response, Activision assigned Treyarch to lead development alongside Raven. This led to a shorter development period compared to previous entries as well as the two studios having different responsibilities, with Raven Software leading the development of the single-player campaign.
On August 4, 2020, Activision in their Q2 earnings call confirmed that a new Call of Duty title was planned to be released in 2020 and that Treyarch and Raven were developing the game. It is the first Call of Duty game since Modern Warfare 3 to be co-developed by two studios, as well as the first time Raven Software is a main developer, as in previous games they assisted on the multiplayer and extra features. Activision president Rob Kostich confirmed during the Q2 earnings call that Black Ops Cold War will be "tightly connected" to Call of Duty: Modern Warfare (2019) and Call of Duty: Warzone.
Raven Software's Dan Vondrak said on the idea of multiple endings, "when we started creating the story, we had multiple endings in mind right away. And that really helped ... But we knew right away that we wanted to do that. I absolutely loved the idea that we could [have a] little bit of homage to Black Ops 2 by having these [multiple endings]."
Marketing
Announcements and marketing relating to a Call of Duty game have traditionally been around April or May prior to the game's fall release. However, Activision began teasing the game with an alternate reality game (ARG) in August 2020. Various YouTubers prevalent to the Call of Duty community on YouTube were shipped crates. Once authorized to open on August 10, 2020, they were greeted by a slide projector, 10 different slides per crate, and a manifest. Starting on August 14, 2020, the game was marketed, after initial ciphers solved, by enticing fans to solve ciphers and puzzles on pawntakespawn.com. The website allowed fans to watch VHS tapes containing news segments and footage that pertained to the corresponding year(s) throughout the Cold War. Throughout the VHS tapes, at random intervals, two-digit nixie tube combinations appeared, required to solve ciphers, in addition to one set of coordinates per VHS tape that led to a location in Warzone.
On August 19, 2020, once all ciphers were solved, the teaser trailer was revealed. The teaser trailer contains segments of a 1984 interview with former Soviet PGU KGB informant and defector Yuri Bezmenov discussing active measures, taken from a 1984 interview with conspiracy theorist G. Edward Griffin. The worldwide reveal was on August 26, 2020.
Starting on September 22, 2020, another alternate reality game (ARG) on pawntakespawn.com, teasing the Zombies mode, began when various Call of Duty YouTubers such as NoahJ456 and MrDalekJD were sent crates with 1980s technology and ciphers to solve. The official reveal for Zombies was on September 30.
Pre-orders of all Black Ops Cold War editions grant early access to the open-access beta, a weapons pack, and a Frank Woods operator pack in Call of Duty: Modern Warfare and Call of Duty: Warzone. The Ultimate Edition grants access to three additional cosmetic skin packs, plus access to the Battle Pass of the current Season for Black Ops Cold War (dependent on time of purchase). The Cross-gen Bundle and Ultimate Edition grant console players two versions of the game for use on the current console generation (PlayStation 4 and Xbox One) and the next generation (PlayStation 5 and Xbox Series S or Xbox Series X) upon availability.
Controversies
CBR.com reported that the teaser trailer had been banned in China due to a one-second depiction of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests. An edited teaser was released worldwide instead. PC Gamer's Andy Chalk wrote: "There's also no mistaking the irony of active censorship in a promo trailer for a game whose tagline is, literally, "Know your history"."
An editorial by Ian Walker in Kotaku accused Call of Duty of legitimating the views of Bezmenov when it included footage of his interview with Griffin in its August trailer. Among the complaints he had was that Bezmenov's views acted as a magnet for far-right conspiracy theories and personalities, that Activision presented Bezmenov's interview without the proper context and that Bezmenov himself held views that Walker argued were on the far right.
Post-launch content
All downloadable content (DLC) maps for the game, both for multiplayer and Zombies, were completely free. As with Modern Warfare, the game features post-launch microtranscations via the battle pass system and cosmetic bundles available via the in-game store.
In May 2021, for the mid-season update of Season 3, Activision and Treyarch announced a collaboration event, titled "'80s Action Heroes", featuring the addition of John Rambo and John McClane as playable characters, as well as new limited-time game modes inspired by the Rambo franchise and the Die Hard film series. Rambo and McClane's appearances are based on Rambo: First Blood Part II and Die Hard, respectively, with their voice lines adapted directly from the films.
In October 2021, Activision and Treyarch announced The Haunting seasonal event as part of its sixth season content update, which would feature game modes and purchasable cosmetic items based on several horror movie franchises. Ahead of the event's release, details were leaked about some of the items, including a Ghostface operator character based on the Scream franchise, as well as a Frank the Bunny outfit based on the character from Donnie Darko.
Reception
Call of Duty: Black Ops Cold War received "generally favorable" reviews from critics, according to review aggregator Metacritic.
Game Informer gave the game a 8.75/10 rating, praising the campaign and saying: "If Call of Duty: Black Ops Cold War excels at anything, it's options. This isn't uncommon for a Call of Duty title, but with a vast array of game modes for myriad player profiles and a fun campaign that retains a summer-blockbuster feel while getting weird and wild, the ride is a good one."
There have been multiple reports of Black Ops Cold War bricking video game consoles. This has affected the releases of both the PlayStation 5 and Xbox Series X.
Sales
The PlayStation 4 version sold 84,475 physical copies within its first week on sale in Japan, making it the bestselling retail game of the week in the country. The PlayStation 5 version was the nineteenth bestselling retail game in Japan throughout the same week, with 6,045 copies being sold. In December 2020, it was confirmed that the game had sold 5.7 million digital units. Within its first six weeks of release, the game earned $678 million. The NPD Group named it the best selling game of 2020 and also ranked it as the twentieth bestselling video game in the United States by lifetime dollar sales.
Notes
References
External links
Official website
2020 video games
Activision games
Advertising and marketing controversies
Angolan Civil War video games
Alternate history video games
Call of Duty
Cold War video games
Cultural depictions of Mikhail Gorbachev
Cultural depictions of Ronald Reagan
Interquel video games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
PlayStation 4 games
PlayStation 5 games
Political video games
Raven Software games
Treyarch games
Video game sequels
Video games developed in the United States
Video games set in 1968
Video games set in 1981
Video games set in the 1980s
Video games set in Angola
Video games set in Cuba
Video games set in Germany
Video games set in East Germany
Video games set in Turkey
Video games set in Vietnam
Video games set in Los Angeles
Video games set in Moscow
Video games set in Miami
Video games set in Nevada
Video games set in New Jersey
Video games set in the Netherlands
Video games set in Ukraine
Video games set in Uzbekistan
Video games set in Berlin
Video games set in the Soviet Union
Video games set in Poland
Video games set in Nicaragua
Video games set in Laos
Video games set in New Mexico
Video games set in Kyrgyzstan
Video games set in Algeria
Video games set in Georgia (U.S. state)
Video games set in Panama
Video games set in Nebraska
Spy video games
Stealth video games
Vietnam War video games
War video games set in the United States
Video games with alternate endings
World War III video games
Video games about nuclear war and weapons
Video games featuring protagonists of selectable gender
Windows games
Xbox One games
Xbox Series X and Series S games
Video games about zombies
Video games containing battle passes |
20341886 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-aided%20lean%20management | Computer-aided lean management | Computer-aided lean management, in business management, is a methodology of developing and using software-controlled, lean systems integration. Its goal is to drive innovation towards cost and cycle-time savings. It attempts to create an efficient use of capital and resources through the development and use of one integrated system model to run a business's planning, engineering, design, maintenance, and operations.
Overview
Computer-Aided Lean Management (CALM) is a management philosophy that uses computational software to reduce risk and inefficiencies. CALM acts on uncertainties and business inefficiencies to increase profitability through the use of computational decision-making tools that enable opportunities for additional value creation. It is based on the application of software to enable continuous improvement through an Integrated System Model (ISM) of the business’s physical assets, business processes, and machine learning. This unique integration of software applications using lean principles was developed in the aerospace industry and has migrated to the energy industry.
The creation of an integrated system model removes the barriers posed by the silos or stovepipes inherent in the departmentalization of most companies. Integration enables lean uses of information for the creation of actionable knowledge. CALM strives to create such a lean management approach to running the company through the rigors of software enforcement. From this software enforcement comes clear policy and procedures that are adhered to, activity-based costing, measurement of effectiveness, and the capability of using advanced algorithms for dramatic improvements in optimization of resources. CALM creates business capabilities through software to enable technology application, streamlining of processes, and a lean organizational structure. The methodology is based on a commonsense approach for running a business, by measuring of actions taken and using those measurements to design improved processes in order to drive out inefficiencies.
History
CALM was inspired by lean processes and techniques that were already dominant management technologies with a wide diversity of applications and successes. Motorola and General Electric (GE) had been known for the concepts of Six Sigma; Boeing had been managing mass (using modular and flexible assembly options), and Toyota put it all together into a truly lean business through its Toyota Production System. Boeing in turn took the Toyota model and added computer-aided enforcement of lean methodologies throughout the manufacturing process.
One of the major sources for CALM's outgrowth was integrated definition (IDEF) modeling in aerospace manufacturing that was pioneered by the U.S. Air Force in the 1970s. IDEF is a methodology designed to model the end-to-end decisions, actions, and activities of an organization or system so that costs, performance, and cycle times can be optimized. IDEF methods have been adapted for wider use in automotive, aerospace, pharmaceuticals, and even software development industries. IDEF methods serve as a starting point to understand lean management through semantic data modeling. The IDEF process begins by mapping the as-is functions of an enterprise, creating a graphical model, or road map, that shows what controls each important function, who performs it, what resources are required for carrying it out, what it produces, how much it costs, and what relationships it has to other functions of the organization. IDEF simulations of the to-be enterprise have been found to be efficient at streamlining and modernizing both companies and governmental agencies.
Perhaps the best-developed evolution of the IDEF model beyond Toyota was at Boeing. Their project life-cycle process has grown into a rigorous software system that links people, tasks, tools, materials, and the environmental impact of any newly planned project, before any building is allowed to begin. Routinely, more than half of the time for any given project is spent building the precedence diagrams, or three-dimensional process maps, integrating with outside suppliers, and designing the implementation plan-all on the computer. Once real activity is initiated, an action tracker is used to monitor inputs and outputs versus the schedule and delivery metrics in real time throughout the organization. When the execution of a new airplane design begins, it is so well organized that it consistently cuts both costs and build time in half for each successive generation of airframe. And, of course, it is paperless. Boeing created a complex lean management process called 'define and control airplane configuration/manufacturing resource management' (DCAC/MRM). The process was built with the help of the operations research and computer sciences departments of the University of Pittsburgh. The manufacture of the Boeing 777 was ultimately a success, and it became the precursor to succeeding generations of CALM at Boeing. Boeing is four generations beyond that airplane now, and they have succeeded in cutting the time and cost for each new generation of airplane. Boeing’s successes in conversion from inefficient silos of manufacturing to a lean and efficient operation have become legendary.
The methodology of CALM has recently been applied to field orientated infrastructure based businesses with highly interdependent systems, such as electric utilities where a smart grid concept is being researched and developed. The management of infrastructure-based industries like oil, gas, electricity, water, transportation, and renewables requires massive investments in interdependent, physical infrastructure, as well as simultaneous attention to disparate market forces. In infrastructure businesses that manage field assets, uncertainty is the prime impediment to profitability, rather than the maintenance of efficient supply chains or the management of factory assembly lines. These businesses are dominated by risk from uncertainties such as weather, market variations, transportation disruptions, government actions, logistic difficulties, geology, and asset reliability. CALM has been applied to deal with these types of infrastructure based challenges.
References
Anderson, Boulanger, Johnson, Kressner (2008), Computer-Aided Lean Management for the Energy Industry,
Anderson, R. Boulanger, A, Johnson, J., Kressner, A,. Getting lean and efficient. Energy Biz Magazine – July/August 2006
Lean Energy Management – 12 Part Series – Oil & Gas Journal – Penn Well 2003–2007
Gross, P., R. Anderson, et al. 2007 Predicting electricity distribution feeder failures using machine learning susceptibility analysis – International Association of Artificial Intelligence.
External links
Lean Energy Initiative: "Lean Energy Initiative" – Columbia University – Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory
LAI: MIT – The Lean Advancement Initiative – lots of articles, manuals and case studies
AndersonBoulanger.pdf: "Chapter 1 of Computer-Aided Lean Management for the Energy Industry"
Boeing Frontiers on DCAC/MRM
Predicting Electricity Distribution Feeder Failures
Real-time Ranking of Electric Feeders using Expert Advice
Lean manufacturing |
54589969 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biometric%20voter%20registration | Biometric voter registration | Biometric voter registration implicates using biometric technology (capturing unique physical features of an individual – fingerprinting is the most commonly used), most of the times in addition to demographics of the voter, for polling registration and/or authentication. The enrollment infrastructure allows collecting and maintaining a database of the biometric templates for all voters.
A biometric voting project might include introducing biometric registration kits for enrolment of voters; using electronic voter identification devices before and on Election Day; issuing of voter identification documents (i.e. biometric voter cards), among others. The chronological stages for adopting a biometric voting registration project usually include assessment; feasibility studies; securing funding; reviewing legislation; doing pilot projects and mock registration exercises; procurement; distribution of equipment, installation, and testing; recruitment and training of staff; voter information; deployment and, post-election audits.
The final aim of implementing biometric election technology is achieving de-duplication of the voting register, thus preventing multiple voter registration and multiple voting; improving identification of the voter at the polling station, and mitigating the incidence of voter fraud (e.g. buy/rent of voters IDs before an election).
However, it is vital that commissions carrying out these election projects first and foremost guarantee that the legal framework supports biometric voter identification, and then that the data captured during the registration process will be secured while maintaining two basic requirements: personalization and privacy. Likewise, it is imperative to have contingency mechanisms in place, in case biometric systems malfunction. One of the main challenges is to ensure that given the eventualities of technological hitches and failures, not a single voter is disenfranchised.
Countries with biometric voter registration
According to International IDEA's ICTs in Elections Database, as of 2016, the number of countries adopting biometrics in elections has steadily increased to over 50, with significant differences between regions. "While there are virtually no users in Europe, about half of the countries in Africa and Latin America use this technology in elections." 35 per cent of over 130 surveyed Electoral Management Bodies is capturing biometric data (such as fingerprints or photos) as part of their voter registration process (2016).
Countries which have used Biometric voting registration include Armenia, Angola, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Bolivia, Brazil, Burkina Faso, Cambodia, Cameroon, Chad, Colombia, Comoros, Congo (Democratic Republic of), Costa Rica, Cote d'Ivoire, Dominican Republic, Fiji, Gambia, Ghana, Guatemala, India, Iraq, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mexico, Morocco, Mozambique, Namibia, Nepal, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Panama, Peru, The Philippines, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Solomon Islands, Somaliland, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, Uruguay, Venezuela, Yemen, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.
Advocacy and criticism
Some promoters of biometric voting registration point out that this technology, if properly customised to the country's needs and well implemented, could offer better accessibility for citizens; help avoiding long queues and waiting times for registration and voting; add simplicity and speed to the election cycle (e.g. voter identification documents can make it easier for polling staff to verify voter details); make voters and Commissions feel confident about the quality of their registry (more accurate, reliable and complete data); improve e-voting security, considerably reduce or eliminate multiple registration and multiple voting, while mitigating the risk of impersonation, identity theft, the misuse of records of deceased voters, carousel voting and ballot-box stuffing.
On the other hand, those who criticise and disapprove the use of biometrics for voter identification maintain that using biometrics for election purposes raises concerns over voters' privacy, human dignity and governmental disclosure of personal information. Some critics go further to claim that biometrics in voting poses a serious threat to democracy, due to fears of violation of the secrecy of the vote (or correlation voter-vote).
The concerns as with any other application of biometrics for identification and authentication can be manifold. There is, for example, the possibility of voter disenfranchisement when characteristics typically used to identify or verify voters might become unavailable (e.g. bandaged finger, loss of a finger, failure to acquire due to dirt or fingerprint quality degradation). Similarly, there are also claims of potential logistical and procedural "new problems" that biometric identification devices can bring to an election cycle: increasing costs (initial purchase costs of biometric readers and infrastructure, costs linked to maintenance, storage and upgrades) and resources' allocation (human, time, material); additional training of commissions and polling staff, technological failures that could disenfranchise voters; and extra data storage that demands higher security.
See also
Electoral roll
Electronic identification
Electronic pollbook
Voter ID laws
References
Biometrics
Voter registration
Authentication
Identity management |
390335 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20computer%20term%20etymologies | List of computer term etymologies | This is a list of the origins of computer-related terms or terms used in the computing world (i.e., a list of computer term etymologies). It relates to both computer hardware and computer software.
Names of many computer terms, especially computer applications, often relate to the function they perform, e.g., a compiler is an application that compiles (programming language source code into the computer's machine language). However, there are other terms with less obvious origins, which are of etymological interest. This article lists such terms.
A
ABEND – originally from an IBM System/360 error message, short for "abnormal end". Jokingly reinterpreted as German Abend ("evening"), because "it is what system operators do to the machine late on Friday when they want to call it a day."
Ada – named after Ada Lovelace, who is considered by many to be the first programmer.
Apache – originally chosen from respect for the Native American Indian tribe of Apache. It was suggested that the name was appropriate, as Apache began as a series of patches to code written for NCSA's HTTPd daemon. The result was "a patchy" server.
AWK – composed of the initials of its authors Aho, Weinberger, and Kernighan.
B
B – probably a contraction of "BCPL", reflecting Ken Thompson's efforts to implement a smaller BCPL in 8 KB of memory on a DEC PDP-7. Or, named after Bon.
biff – named after a dog known by the developers at Berkeley, who – according to the UNIX manual page – died on 15 August 1993, at the age of 15, and belonged to a certain Heidi Stettner. Some sources report that the dog would bark at the mail carrier, making it a natural choice for the name of a mail notification system. The Jargon File contradicts this description, but confirms at least that the dog existed.
bit – first used by Claude E. Shannon in his seminal 1948 paper A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Shannon's "bit" is a portmanteau of "binary digit". He attributed its origin to John W. Tukey, who had used the word in a Bell Labs memo of 9 January 1947.
Bon – created by Ken Thompson and named either after his wife Bonnie, or else after "a religion whose rituals involve the murmuring of magic formulas" (a reference to the Tibetan native religion Bön).
booting or bootstrapping – from the phrase "to pull oneself up by one's bootstraps", originally used as a metaphor for any self-initiating or self-sustaining process. Used in computing due to the apparent paradox that a computer must run code to load anything into memory, but code cannot be run until it is loaded.
bug – often (but erroneously) credited to Grace Hopper. In 1946, she joined the Harvard Faculty at the Computation Laboratory where she traced an error in the Harvard Mark II to a moth trapped in a relay. This bug was carefully removed and taped to the log book. However, use of the word 'bug' to describe defects in mechanical systems dates back to at least the 1870s, perhaps especially in Scotland. Thomas Edison, for one, used the term in his notebooks and letters.
byte – coined by Werner Buchholz in June 1956 during the early design phase for the IBM Stretch computer.
C
C – a programming language.
Dennis Ritchie, having improved on the B language, named his creation New B. He later renamed it C. (See also D).
C++ – an object-oriented programming language, a successor to the C programming language.
C++ creator Bjarne Stroustrup named his new language "C with Classes" and then "new C". The original language began to be called "old C" which was considered insulting to the C community. At this time Rick Mascitti suggested the name C++ as a successor to C. In C the '++' operator increments the value of the variable it is appended to, thus C++ would increment the value of C.
computer – from the human computers who carried out calculations mentally and possibly with mechanical aids, now replaced by electronic programmable computers.
cookie – a packet of information that travels between a browser and the web server.
The term was coined by web browser programmer Lou Montulli after the term "magic cookies" used by Unix programmers. The term "magic cookie" in turn derives from "fortune cookie", a cookie with an embedded message.
Cursor (user interface) - Cursor is Latin for 'runner.' A cursor is the name given to the transparent slide engraved with a hairline that is used for marking a point on a slide rule. The term was then transferred to computers through analogy.
D
D – a programming language.
Designed by Walter Bright as an improved C, avoiding many of the design problems of C (e.g., extensive pointer manipulation, unenforced array boundaries, etc.).
daemon – a process in an operating system that runs in the background.
It is not an acronym for Disk And Execution Monitor: according to the original team that introduced the concept, the use of the word daemon was inspired by the Maxwell's demon of physics and thermodynamics (an imaginary agent which helped sort molecules with differing velocities and worked tirelessly in the background) The term was embraced, and possibly popularized, by the Unix operating systems which supported multiple background processes: various local (and later Internet) services were provided by daemons. This is exemplified by the BSD mascot, John Lasseter's drawing of a friendly imp.
Dashboard - Originally, the word dashboard applied to a barrier of wood or leather fixed at the front of a horse-drawn carriage or sleigh to protect the driver from mud or other debris "dashed up" (thrown up) by the horses' hooves.[1] The first known use of the term (hyphenated as dash-board, and applied to sleighs) dates from 1847.[2] Commonly these boards did not perform any additional function other than providing a convenient handhold for ascending into the driver's seat, or a small clip with which to secure the reins when not in use.
Debian – a Linux distribution.
A portmanteau of the names Ian Murdock, the Debian Project creator, and Debra Lynn, Ian's then girlfriend and future wife.
default – an initial value for a variable or user setting.
The original meaning of the word 'default' is 'failure to fulfill an obligation'. The obligation here is to provide an input that is required by a program. In the early days of programming, if an input value was missing, or 'null', the program would almost certainly crash. This is often to do with variable 'typing' – for example, a simple calculation program would expect a number as an input: any other type of input such as a text string or even a null (no value), would make any mathematical operation such as multiplication impossible. In order to guard against this possibility, programmers defined initial values that would be used if the user *defaulted* or failed to fulfill the obligation of providing the correct input value. Over time, the term 'default' has come to refer to the initial value itself.
E
Ethernet – a computer networking technology.
According to Robert Metcalfe (one of its initial developers), he devised the name in an early company memo as an endocentric compound of "luminiferous ether"—the "substance" that was widely believed to be the medium through which electromagnetic radiation propagated in the late 19th century—and "net", short for "network". When the networking team would describe data flowing into the network infrastructure, they would routinely describe it as data packets going "up into the ether".
F
finger – Unix command that provides information about users logged into a system.
Les Earnest wrote the finger program in 1971 to provide for users who wanted information about other users on a network or system. According to Earnest, it was named after the act of pointing, because it "bypassed the need to point to a user ID and ask, 'Who is that?'"
foobar – from the U.S. Army slang acronym, FUBAR. Both foo and bar are commonly used as metasyntactic variables.
G
Gentoo – a Linux distribution.
Named after a variety of penguin, the universal Linux mascot.
Git – a distributed version control system.
In the project's initial README file, Linus Torvalds wrote that "'git' can mean anything, depending on your mood", and offers several definitions:
A random three-letter combination which is pronounceable and not a preexisting Unix command
British English slang, meaning a stupid or contemptible person
An acronym for "global information tracker" (when it works)
An acronym for "goddamn idiotic truckload of sh*t" (when it breaks)
When asked about the origin of the name, Torvalds jokingly stated, "I'm an egotistical bastard, and I name all my projects after myself."
GNU – a project with an original goal of creating a free operating system.
The gnu is also a species of African antelope. The founder of the GNU project Richard Stallman liked the name because of the humour associated with its pronunciation, and was also influenced by The Gnu Song, by Flanders and Swann, which is sung by a gnu. It is also an early example of a recursive acronym: "GNU's Not Unix".
Google – a search engine.
The name started as an exaggerated boast about the amount of information the search engine would be able to search. It was originally named 'Googol', a word for the number represented by 1 followed by 100 zeros. The word was originally invented by Milton Sirotta, nephew of mathematician Edward Kasner, in 1938 during a discussion of large numbers and exponential notation.
Gopher – an early protocol for distributing documents over a network. Declined in favor of the World Wide Web.
The name was coined by developer Farhad Anklesaria, as a play on , an assistant who fetches things, and a gopher, who digs, as if through nested hierarchies. The name was also inspired by Goldy Gopher, the mascot for the University of Minnesota where the protocol was developed.
grep – a Unix command line utility
The name comes from a command in the Unix text editor ed that takes the form g/re/p meaning search globally for a regular expression and print lines where instances are found. "Grep" like "Google" is often used as a verb, meaning "to search".
H
Hotmail – free email service, now named Outlook.com.
Founder Jack Smith got the idea of accessing e-mail via the web from a computer anywhere in the world. When Sabeer Bhatia came up with the business plan for the mail service, he tried all kinds of names ending in 'mail' and finally settled for Hotmail as it included the letters "HTML" – the markup language used to write web pages. It was initially referred to as HoTMaiL with selective upper casing.
I
i18n – short for "internationalization".
"18" is for the number of letters between the i and the n. Related, less common terms include l10n (for localization), g11n (for globalization) and a11y (for accessibility).
ICQ – an instant messaging service.
ICQ is not an initialism. It is a play on the phrase "I seek you" or "Internet seek you" (similar to CQ in ham radio usage).
ID10T – pronounced "ID ten T" – is a code frequently used by a customer service representative (CSR) to annotate their notes and identify the source of a problem as the person who is reporting the problem rather than the system being blamed. This is a thinly veiled reference to the CSR's opinion that the person reporting the problem is an IDIOT. Example: Problem reported caused by ID10T, no resolution possible. See also PEBKAC.
J
Jakarta Project – a project constituted by Sun and Apache to create a web server for Java servlets and JSPs.
Jakarta was the name of the conference room at Sun where most of the meetings between Sun and Apache took place. The conference room was most likely named after Jakarta, the capital city of Indonesia, which is located on the northwest coast of the island of Java.
Java – a programming language by Sun Microsystems, later acquired by Oracle.
Named after , a blend of coffee from the island of Java, and also used as slang for coffee in general. The language was initially called "Greentalk" and later "Oak", but this was already trademarked by Oak Technologies, so the developers had to choose another name shortly before release. Other suggested names were "WebRunner", "DNA", and "Silk".
JavaScript – a programming language.
It was originally developed by Brendan Eich of Netscape under the name "Mocha", which was later renamed to "LiveScript", and finally to "JavaScript". The change of name from LiveScript to JavaScript roughly coincided with Netscape adding support for Java technology in its Netscape Navigator web browser. JavaScript was first introduced and deployed in the Netscape browser version 2.0B3 in December 1995. The naming has caused confusion, giving the impression that the language is a spin-off of Java, and it has been characterized by many as a marketing ploy by Netscape to give JavaScript the cachet of what was then the hot new web-programming language.
K
Kerberos – a computer network authentication protocol that is used by both Windows 2000 and Windows XP as their default authentication method.
When created by programmers at MIT in the 1970s, they wanted a name that suggested high security for the project, so they named it after Kerberos, in Greek mythology the three-headed dog guarding the gates of Hades. The reference to Greek mythology is most likely because Kerberos was developed as part of Project Athena.
L
Linux – an operating system kernel, and the common name for many of the operating systems which use it.
Linux creator Linus Torvalds originally used the MINIX operating system on his computer, didn't like it, liked DOS less, and started a project to develop an operating system that would address the problems of MINIX. Hence the working name was Linux (Linus' Minix). Originally, however, Linus had planned to have it named Freax (free + freak + x). His friend Ari Lemmke encouraged Linus to upload it to a network so it could be easily downloaded. Ari gave Linus a directory named linux on his FTP server, as he did not like the name Freax.
Lisa – A personal computer designed at Apple Computer during the early 1980s.
Apple stated that Lisa was an acronym for Local Integrated Software Architecture; however, it is often inferred that the machine was originally named after the daughter of Apple co-founder Steve Jobs, and that this acronym was invented later to fit the name. Accordingly, two humorous suggestions for expanding the acronym included Let's Invent Some Acronyms, and Let's Invent Silly Acronyms.
liveware – computer personnel.
A play on the terms "software" and "hardware". Coined in 1966, the word indicates that sometimes the computer problem is not with the computer itself, but with the user.
Lotus Software – Lotus founder Mitch Kapor got the name for his company from 'The Lotus Position' ('Padmasana' in Sanskrit). Kapor used to be a teacher of Transcendental Meditation technique as taught by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi.
M
Macintosh, Mac – a personal computer from Apple Computer.
From McIntosh, a popular type of apple.
N
Nerd – A colloquial term for a computer person, especially an obsessive, singularly focused one. Originally created by Dr. Seuss from his book If I Ran the Zoo.
O
Oracle – a relational database management system (RDBMS).
Larry Ellison, Ed Oates and Bob Miner were working on a consulting project for the CIA (Central Intelligence Agency). The code name for the project was Oracle (the CIA evidently saw this as a system that would give answers to all questions). The project was designed to use the newly written SQL database language from IBM. The project eventually was terminated but they decided to finish what they started and bring it to the world. They kept the name Oracle and created the RDBMS engine.
P
Pac-Man – a video arcade game.
The term comes from paku paku which is a Japanese onomatopoeia used for noisy eating; similar to chomp chomp. The game was released in Japan with the name Puck-Man, and released in the US with the name Pac-Man, fearing that kids may deface a Puck-Man cabinet by changing the P to an F.
Patch – A set of changes to a computer program or its supporting data designed to update, fix, or improve it.
Historically, software suppliers distributed patches on paper tape or on punched cards, expecting the recipient to cut out the indicated part of the original tape (or deck), and patch in (hence the name) the replacement segment
PCMCIA – the standards body for PC card and ExpressCard, expansion card form factors.
The Personal Computer Memory Card International Association is an international standards body that defines and promotes standards for expansion devices such as modems and external hard disk drives to be connected to notebook computers. Over time, the acronym PCMCIA has been used to refer to the PC card form factor used on notebook computers. A twist on the acronym is People Can't Memorize Computer Industry Acronyms.
PEBKAC – an acronym for "Problem Exists Between Keyboard And Chair", which is a code frequently used by a customer service representative (CSR) to annotate their notes and identify the source of a problem as the person who is reporting the problem rather than the system being blamed. This is a thinly veiled reference to the CSR's opinion that the person reporting the problem is the problem. Example: PEBKAC, no resolution possible. See also ID10T.
Pentium – a series of microprocessors from Intel.
The fifth microprocessor in the 80x86 series. It would have been named i586 or 80586, but Intel decided to name it Pentium (penta = five) after it lost a trademark infringement lawsuit against AMD due to a judgment that numbers like "286", "386", and "486" cannot be trademarked. According to Intel, Pentium conveys a meaning of strength, like titanium.
Since some early Pentium chips contained a mathematical precision error, it has been jokingly suggested that the reason for the chip being named Pentium rather than 586 was that Intel chips would calculate 486 + 100 = 585.99999948.
Perl – an interpreted scripting language.
Perl was originally named Pearl, after the "pearl of great price" of Matthew 13:46. Larry Wall, the creator of Perl, wanted to give the language a short name with positive connotations and claims to have looked at (and rejected) every three- and four-letter word in the dictionary. He even thought of naming it after his wife Gloria. Before the language's official release Wall discovered that there was already a programming language named Pearl, and changed the spelling of the name. Although the original manuals suggested the backronyms "Practical Extraction and Report Language" and "Pathologically Eclectic Rubbish Lister", these were intended humorously.
PHP – a server-side scripting language
Originally named "Personal Home Page Tools" by creator Rasmus Lerdorf, it was rewritten by developers Zeev Suraski and Andi Gutmans who gave it the recursive name "PHP Hypertext Preprocessor". Lerdorf currently insists the name should not be thought of as standing for anything, for he selected "Personal Home Page" as the name when he did not foresee PHP evolving into a general-purpose programming language.
Pine – e-mail client.
Many people believe that Pine stands for "Pine Is Not Elm". However, one of its original authors, Laurence Lundblade, insists this was never the case and that it started off simply as a word and not an acronym; his first choice of a backronym for pine would be "Pine Is Nearly Elm". Over time it was changed to mean Program for Internet News and E-mail.
ping – a computer network tool used to detect hosts.
The author of ping, Mike Muuss, named it after the pulses of sound made by a sonar called a "ping". Later Dave Mills provided the backronym "Packet Internet Groper".
Python – an interpreted scripting programming language.
Named after the television series Monty Python's Flying Circus.
R
Radio button – a GUI widget used for making selections.
Radio buttons got their name from the preset buttons in radio receivers. When one used to select preset stations on a radio receiver physically instead of electronically, depressing one preset button would pop out whichever other button happened to be pushed in.
Red Hat Linux – a Linux distribution from Red Hat.
Company founder Marc Ewing was given the Cornell lacrosse team cap (with red and white stripes) by his grandfather while at college. People would turn to him to solve their problems, and he was referred to as "that guy in the red hat". He lost the cap and had to search for it desperately. The manual of the beta version of Red Hat Linux had an appeal to readers to return the hat if found by anyone.
RSA – an asymmetric algorithm for public key cryptography.
Based on the surnames of the authors of this algorithm – Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir and Len Adleman.
S
Samba – a free implementation of Microsoft's networking protocol.
The name samba comes from inserting two vowels into the name of the standard protocol that Microsoft Windows network file system use, named Server Message Block (SMB). The author searched a dictionary using grep for words containing S M and B in that order; the only matches were Samba and Salmonberry.
shareware – coined by Bob Wallace to describe his word processor PC-Write in early 1983. Before this Jim Knopf (also known as Jim Button) and Andrew Fluegelman called their distributed software "user supported software" and "freeware" respectively, but it was Wallace's terminology that prevailed.
spam – unwanted repetitious messages, such as unsolicited bulk e-mail.
The term spam is derived from the Monty Python SPAM sketch, set in a cafe where everything on the menu includes SPAM luncheon meat. While a customer plaintively asks for some kind of food without SPAM in it, the server reiterates the SPAM-filled menu. Soon, a chorus of Vikings join in with a song: "SPAM, SPAM, SPAM, SPAM, SPAM, lovely SPAM, wonderful SPAM", over and over again, drowning out all conversation.
SPIM – a simulator for a virtual machine closely resembling the instruction set of MIPS processors, is simply MIPS spelled backwards. In recent time, spim has also come to mean SPam sent over Instant Messaging.
Swing – a graphics library for Java.
Swing was the code-name of the project that developed the new graphic components (the successor of AWT). It was named after swing, a style of dance band jazz that was popularized in the 1930s and unexpectedly revived in the 1990s. Although an unofficial name for the components, it gained popular acceptance with the use of the word in the package names for the Swing API, which begin with javax.swing.
T
Tomcat – a web server from the Jakarta Project.
Tomcat was the code-name for the JSDK 2.1 project inside Sun. Tomcat started off as a servlet specification implementation by James Duncan Davidson who was a software architect at Sun. Davidson had initially hoped that the project would be made open-source, and since most open-source projects had O'Reilly books on them with an animal on the cover, he wanted to name the project after an animal. He came up with Tomcat since he reasoned the animal represented something that could take care of and fend for itself.
troff – a document processing system for Unix.
Troff stands for "typesetter roff", although many people have speculated that it actually means "Times roff" because of the use of the Times font family in troff by default. Troff has its origins from roff, an earlier formatting program, whose name is a contraction of "run off".
Trojan horse – a malicious program that is disguised as legitimate software.
The term is derived from the classical myth of the Trojan Horse. Analogously, a Trojan horse appears innocuous (or even to be a gift), but in fact is a vehicle for bypassing security.
Tux – The penguin mascot used as the primary logo for the Linux kernel, and Linux-based operating systems.
Linus Torvalds, the creator of Linux, suggested a penguin mascot because he "likes penguins a lot", and wanted Linux to be associated with something "kind of goofy and fun". The logo was originally created by Larry Ewing in 1996 as an entry in a Linux Logo competition. The name Tux was contributed by James Hughes, who suggested "(T)orvolds (U)ni(X) — TUX!"
U
Ubuntu Linux – a Debian-based Linux distribution sponsored by Canonical Ltd.
Derived from ubuntu, a South African ideology.
Unix – an operating system.
When Bell Labs pulled out of the MULTiplexed Information and Computing System (MULTICS) project, which was originally a joint Bell Labs/GE/MIT project, Ken Thompson of Bell Labs, soon joined by Dennis Ritchie, wrote a simpler version of the operating system for a spare DEC minicomputer, allegedly found in a corridor. They needed an OS to run the game Space Travel, which had been compiled under MULTICS. The new OS was named UNICS – UNiplexed Information and Computing System by Brian Kernighan.
V
vi – a text editor,
Initialism for visual, a command in the ex editor which helped users to switch to the visual mode from the ex mode. the first version was written by Bill Joy at UC Berkeley.
Vim – a text editor.
Acronym for Vi improved after Vim added several features over the vi editor. Vim however had started out as an imitation of Vi and was expanded as Vi imitation.
Virus – a piece of program code that spreads by making copies of itself.
The term virus was first used as a technical computer science term by Fred Cohen in his 1984 paper "Computer Viruses Theory and Experiments", where he credits Len Adleman with coining it. Although Cohen's use of virus may have been the first academic use, it had been in the common parlance long before that. A mid-1970s science fiction novel by David Gerrold, When H.A.R.L.I.E. was One, includes a description of a fictional computer program named VIRUS that worked just like a virus (and was countered by a program named ANTIBODY). The term "computer virus" also appears in the comic book "Uncanny X-Men" No. 158, published in 1982. A computer virus's basic function is to insert its own executable code into that of other existing executable files, literally making it the electronic equivalent to the biological virus, the basic function of which is to insert its genetic information into that of the invaded cell, forcing the cell to reproduce the virus.
W
Wiki or WikiWiki – a hypertext document collection or the collaborative software used to create it.
Coined by Ward Cunningham, the creator of the wiki concept, who named them for the "wiki wiki" or "quick" shuttle buses at Honolulu Airport. Wiki wiki was the first Hawaiian term he learned on his first visit to the islands. The airport counter agent directed him to take the wiki wiki bus between terminals.
Worm – a self-replicating program, similar to a virus.
The name 'worm' was taken from a 1970s science fiction novel by John Brunner entitled The Shockwave Rider. The book describes programs known as "tapeworms" which spread through a network for the purpose of deleting data. Researchers writing an early paper on experiments in distributed computing noted the similarities between their software and the program described by Brunner, and adopted that name.
WYSIWYG – describes a system in which content during editing appears very similar to the final product.
Acronym for What You See Is What You Get, the phrase was originated by a newsletter published by Arlene and Jose Ramos, named WYSIWYG. It was created for the emerging Pre-Press industry going electronic in the late 1970s.
X
X Window System – a windowing system for computers with bitmap displays.
X derives its name as a successor to a pre-1983 window system named the W Window System.
Y
Yahoo! – internet portal and web directory.
Yahoo!'s history site says the name is an acronym for "Yet Another Hierarchical Officious Oracle", but some remember that in its early days (mid-1990s), when Yahoo! lived on a server named akebono.stanford.edu, it was glossed as "Yet Another Hierarchical Object Organizer." The word "Yahoo!" was originally invented by Jonathan Swift and used in his book Gulliver's Travels. It represents a person who is repulsive in appearance and action and is barely human. Yahoo! founders Jerry Yang and David Filo selected the name because they considered themselves yahoos.
Z
zip – a file format, also used as a verb to mean compress.
The file format was created by Phil Katz, and given the name by his friend Robert Mahoney. The compression tool Phil Katz created was named PKZIP. Zip means "speed", and they wanted to imply their product would be faster than ARC and other compression formats of the time.
See also
Glossary of computer terms
List of company name etymologies
Lists of etymologies
References
Etymologies
Computer terms |
67564387 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derimacheia%20%28mythology%29 | Derimacheia (mythology) | In Greek mythology, Derimacheia (Ancient Greek: Δηριμάχεια) was one of the Amazons, a race of warrior-women. She came with their queen, Penthesilia to the Trojan War.
Mythology
During the siege of Troy, Derimacheia was killed in battle by the Argive hero Diomedes, son of Tydeus.". . .and on Alcibie Tydeus' terrible son swooped, and on Derimacheia: head with neck clean from the shoulders of these twain he shore w ith ruin-wreaking brand. Together down fell they, as young calves by the massy axe of brawny flesher felled, that, shearing through the sinews of the neck, lops life away. So, by the hands of Tydeus' son laid low upon the Trojan plain, far, far away from their own highland-home, they fell."
Notes
References
Quintus Smyrnaeus, The Fall of Troy translated by Way. A. S. Loeb Classical Library Volume 19. London: William Heinemann, 1913. Online version at theio.com
Quintus Smyrnaeus, The Fall of Troy. Arthur S. Way. London: William Heinemann; New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. 1913. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Amazons (Greek mythology)
Women of the Trojan war
Women in Greek mythology
Characters in Greek mythology |
6707347 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upstart%20%28software%29 | Upstart (software) | Upstart was an event-based replacement for the traditional init daemon—the method by which several Unix-like computer operating systems perform tasks when the computer is started. It was written by Scott James Remnant, a former employee of Canonical Ltd. In 2014, Upstart was placed in maintenance mode, and other init daemons, such as systemd, were recommended in place of Upstart. Ubuntu moved away from Upstart with the release of version 15.04 (Vivid Vervet) in favor of migrating to systemd. As of January 2022, there have been no updates released for Upstart since September 2014.
Rationale
The traditional init process was originally only responsible for bringing the computer into a normal running state after power-on, or gracefully shutting down services prior to shutdown. As a result, the design is strictly synchronous, blocking future tasks until the current one has completed. Its tasks must also be defined in advance, as they are limited to this prep or cleanup function. This leaves it unable to handle various non-startup-tasks on a modern desktop computer elegantly, including:
The addition or removal of USB flash drives and other portable storage or network devices while the machine is running
The discovery and scanning of new storage devices, especially when a disk may not even power on until it is scanned
The loading of firmware for a device, which may need to occur after it is detected but before it is usable
Upstart's event-driven model allows it to respond to events asynchronously as they are generated.
Design
Upstart operates asynchronously; it handles starting of the tasks and services during boot and stopping them during shutdown, and also supervises the tasks and services while the system is running.
Easy transition and perfect backward compatibility with sysvinit were the explicit design goals; accordingly, Upstart can run unmodified sysvinit scripts. In this way it differs from most other init replacements (beside systemd and OpenRC), which usually assume and require complete transition to run properly, and do not support a mixed environment of traditional and new startup methods.
Upstart allows for extensions to its event model through the use of initctl to input custom, single events, or event bridges to integrate many or more-complicated events. By default, Upstart includes bridges for socket, dbus, udev, file, and dconf events; additionally, more bridges are possible.
Adoption
Linux distributions and other operating systems based on the Linux kernel which use Upstart as the default init system:
Upstart is used in Google's Chrome OS and Chromium OS.
Linux distributions that support or have supported Upstart to some extent, but moved away since or no longer use it as their default init system:
Debian decided that systemd will be the default init system beginning with the Jessie release, after considering switching to Upstart. It was eventually removed from the Debian archives in December 2015.
Upstart was first included in Ubuntu in the Ubuntu 6.10 "Edgy Eft" release in late 2006, replacing sysvinit. Ubuntu 9.10 "Karmic Koala" introduced native Upstart bootup as of Alpha 6. In turn, after the Debian project decided to adopt systemd on a future release in 2014, Mark Shuttleworth announced that Ubuntu would begin plans to migrate to systemd itself to maintain consistency with upstream. Ubuntu finished the switch to systemd as its default init system in version 15.04 (Vivid Vervet), with the exception of Ubuntu Touch.
In Fedora 9, Upstart replaced sysvinit, however, systemd replaced Upstart in the Fedora 15 release.
Red Hat includes Upstart in their Red Hat Enterprise Linux 6 release. As a result, it is also used by RHEL 6 variants such as CentOS, Scientific Linux, and Oracle Linux. For RHEL 7, systemd is used instead.
openSUSE included Upstart in version 11.3 Milestone 4, but not as default. systemd replaced Upstart, as the default init system in openSUSE 12.1.
Upstart is used in HP's webOS for the Palm Pre, Palm Pixi (both before Palm was bought out by HP), HP Veer, and HP Pre 3 smart phones, along with the HP TouchPad tablet.
Upstart replaced the sysvinit in Maemo 5 for Nokia Internet tablets.
The latest release was version 1.13 on July 11, 2014. Since December 2018 the project website says that Upstart is in maintenance mode only, and recommends other init system, like systemd.
See also
Systemd
launchd
runit
Operating system service management
Service Management Facility
References
External links
Upstart on Launchpad
Upstart Cookbook
Upstart Cookbook
Init systems comparison: part 1 and part 2 at LWN.net
Init systems comparison table
Ubuntu
Unix process- and task-management-related software |
13307469 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical%20software%20engineering | Empirical software engineering | Empirical software engineering (ESE) is a subfield of software engineering (SE) research that uses empirical research methods to study and evaluate an SE phenomenon of interest. The phenomenon may refer to software development tools/technology, practices, processes, policies, or other human and organizational aspects.
ESE has roots in experimental software engineering, but as the field has matured the need and acceptance for both quantitative and qualitative research has grown. Today, common research methods used in ESE for primary and secondary research are the following:
Primary research (Experimentnation, Case study research, Survey research, Simulations in particular Software Process simulation)
Secondary research methods (Systematic reviews, Systematic mapping studies, Rapid reviews)
Teaching empirical software engineering
Two comprehensive books for students, professionals and researchers interested in ESE are available.
Furthermore, the following open courseware and public resources are available for courses on empirical research methods in software engineering:
Empirical Research Methods for Computer Scientists, University of Toronto, Canada
Empirical Software Engineering, University of Toronto, Canada
Empirical Methods, Carnegie Mellon University
Empirical SE: Bridging Research and Practice at University of Victoria
References
Software engineering |
4530540 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacula | Bacula | Bacula is an open-source, enterprise-level computer backup system for heterogeneous networks. It is designed to automate backup tasks that had often required intervention from a systems administrator or computer operator.
Bacula supports Linux, UNIX, Windows, and macOS backup clients, and a range of professional backup devices including tape libraries. Administrators and operators can configure the system via a command line console, GUI or web interface; its back-end is a catalog of information stored by MySQL, PostgreSQL, or SQLite.
Overview
Bacula is a set of computer programs for managing backup, recovery, and verification of computer data across a network—providing a backup solution for mixed operating system environments.
Bacula is open-source and released under the AGPL version 3 license with exceptions to permit linking with OpenSSL and distributing Windows binaries.
Bacula is available under a "dual license" (see Multi-licensing) AGPLv3 or Proprietary license. Several entities offer commercial support for the AGPL "Bacula community version" while Bacula Systems sells various levels of annual support contracts for "Bacula Enterprise Edition", which contains various non-GPL components developed in-house. In 2015, Bacula Systems was named "Top 20 Most Promising Data Center Solution Providers" by CIO Review.
In common with other dual-license software, components developed for the Bacula Enterprise Edition are released into Bacula Community edition after some period of exclusivity to the proprietary version.
Since April 2002, Bacula has over 2 million downloads, which makes it the most downloaded open-source backup program.
Features
Bacula's features include:
Network options
TCP/IP - client–server communication uses standard ports and services instead of RPC for NFS, SMB, etc.; this eases firewall administration and network security
CRAM-MD5 - configurable client–server authentication
GZIP/LZO - client-side compression to reduce network bandwidth consumption; this runs separate from hardware compression done by the backup device
TLS - network communication encryption
MD5/SHA - verify file integrity
CRC - verify data block integrity
PKI - backup data encryption
NDMP - enterprise version plugin
cloud backup with some S3 file storage services
Client OS
The client software, executed by a "file daemon" running on a Bacula client, supports multiple operating systems.
Considerations
By default, Bacula's differential and incremental backups are based on system time stamps. Consequently, if you move files into an existing directory or move a whole directory into the backup FileSet after a full backup, those files may not be backed up by an incremental save because they may have old dates. You must explicitly update the date/time stamp on all moved files. Bacula versions starting with 3.0 or later support Accurate backup, which is an option that addresses this issue without requiring modification of the files timestamps. This feature should always be used if an accurate state of the filesystem is important. Which criteria should be applied is configurable, i.e. inode comparisons, modification times or md5/sha1 signatures.
History
Forks of Bacula
In 2011, Graham Keeling, a "former" Bacula community developer, released a friendly fork of Bacula.
In February 2013 a former Bacula community developer (with several other Free Software users) released Bareos as a fork of Bacula.
See also
Amanda
Proxmox Backup Server
References
External links
Bacula Systems' home page
Free software programmed in C
Free software programmed in C++
Free backup software
Backup software
Backup software for Linux
2000 software
Software using the GNU AGPL license |
51684378 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EXAPT | EXAPT | EXAPT ("EXtended Subset of APT") is a production oriented programming language to generate NC programs with control information for machining tools and enables to consider production-related issues of various machining processes.
EXAPT has developed historically regarding industrial requirements. Through the years software solutions for the manufacturing industry were created which today form a broad scalable portfolio with future-oriented products and services.
Today the tradename EXAPT is primarily understood as CAD/CAM-System and production data und tool management Software of the German company EXAPT Systemtechnik GmbH based in Aachen.
General
EXAPT is a modularly built programming system for all NC machining operations as
Drilling
Turning
Milling
Turn-Milling
Nibbling
Flame-, Laser-, Plasma- and Water jet cutting
Wire eroding
Operations with Industrial robots
Due to the modular structure the main product groups EXAPTcam and EXAPTpdo are gradually expandable and permit individual software solutions for the manufacturing industry used individually and also in compound with an existing IT environment.
Functionality
EXAPTcam meets the requirements for NC planning especially for the cutting operations as turning, drilling and milling up to 5-axis simultaneous machining. Thereby new process technologies, tool and machine concepts are constantly involved. In the NC programming data from different sources as 3D CAD models, drawings or tables can flow in. The possibilities of NC programming reaches from the language-oriented to the feature-oriented NC programming. The integrated EXAPT knowledge database and intelligent and scalable automatisms support the user. The EXAPT NC planning also covers the generation of production information as clamping and tool plans, presetting data or time calculations. The realistic simulation possibilities of NC planning and NC control data provide with production reliability.
EXAPTpdo (EXAPT ProductionsDataOrganization) provides a neutrally applicable technology platform for the information compound of the NC planning - to the shop floor. This applies to all NC production data which are necessary for the set-up of NC machines, for the provision, presetting and stocking of manufacturing resources and provided by EXAPTpdo in a central database. Beside classical functions of the tool management system (TMS) as the management of cutting tools, measuring, testing and clamping devices the technology data management and tool lifecycle management (TLM) is also included. System-supported "where-used lists" help to handle the manufacturing resource cycle by secured requirement determination and requirement fulfillment. Unnecessary transports and unplanned dispositive adjustments are dropped, stocks are reduced, set-up times reduced and the throughput is increased. EXAPTpdo synchronizes involved systems within the value chain. Stock systems, MES systems or ERP systems (e.g. from the purchasing or production areas) do not work in isolation from each other but they interact with each other. EXAPTpdo provides the base to Smart Factory, for more flexibility in production and a faster communication.
History
With the foundation of the EXAPT-Verein in 1967 as spin-off of the universities Aachen, Berlin and Stuttgart the further development „EXAPT (EXtended Subset of APT)“ of the programming language „APT (Automatically Programmed Tool)“ was focused and so the first milestone for the EXAPT history was set.
In the same year the system EXAPT 1 for drilling and simple milling tasks is available.
1969 the industrial application of EXAPT 2 for the programming of NC machines with 2-axis linear and path control begins. In the following year the development of the EXAPT modular system starts.
1972 BASIC-EXAPT is provided for the universal, homogeneous programming of all NC tasks. The support is made by the EXAPT applications consultancy.
1973 EXAPT 1.1 is provided for the programming of straight-cut and continuous-path controlled drilling and milling machines and machining centres. At the Hanover Fair (IHA 73) the interactive access to a mainframe via time-sharing terminal for the part program entry and correction is presented and starts the replacement of the punch card.
1974 the possibilities for the use of process computers for the NC data transfer are levelled out. As a pioneer EXAPT offers the possibility of the result simulation when using plotters with display of tool paths and tool in assignment to the workpiece.
In April 1975 the EXAPT NC Systemtechnik GmbH is founded with the aim, to enable the entry into the NC technique for small and medium-sized companies by a complete product and service program. In the following year the system portfolio is extended with further system modules and service programs and the provision of postprocessors.
1978 the development activities on the EXAPT module system started 1970 are completed. Using modern software techniques the different system parts BASIC-EXAPT, EXAPT 1, EXAPT 1.1 and EXAPT 2 are composed to a total system. System support and applications consultancy become a new working focus.
From the beginning to the middle of the 1980s beside new portable software modules for CAD/CAM applications (e. g. CAPEX, NESTEX, CADEX, CADCPL) the first version of the EXAPT DNC system and extensions of the EXAPT NC programming system für the machining of sculptured surfaces are presented.
1988 EXAPT expands the software product range by systems for the tool data management (BMO) and production data management (FDO). In 1988 EXAPT trains more than 1.300 course participants including company-specific courses.
1992 the first version of the completely new product generation EXAPTplus is presented and the agency in Dresden is opened.
1993 the company name " EXAPT NC Systemtechnik GmbH“ is changed to „EXAPT Systemtechnik GmbH“.EXAPTplus is presented on PC under Windows NT at the EMO '93. The decentralization of the use of EXAPT systems expands the range of application considerably. In the following year EXAPT-DNC is executable under Windows on customary PC. Special hardware is not needed and so it can be used in compound with the database-supported EXAPT production data management system (FDO).
1995 EXAPTplus is also ready for complex application cases as machining of tubes at extrusion tools. EXAPT-CADI provides the transfer of 2D CAD data to EXAPTplus. With the new office Gießen the marketing is strengthened. In the following year the EXAPT NC editor is developed for the direct processing of NC control data with tool path display and visualization of the tools.
In the course of the market entry of more comfortable 3D CAD systems for the solid modelling of components a detailed evaluation of current systems is made in 1997. It is decided to use SolidWorks as reference system for the solid oriented NC planning with EXAPT.
1998 the first solution for the transfer of geometry data between SolidWorks and EXAPTplus is generated. The EXAPT organization systems are (beside SQL) also executable under Oracle now. The use of client server solutions supports the data flow in the production.
1999 AFR functions are provided in connection with EXAPTsolid to support a workpiece modelling for NC. The millennium capability is ensured for all EXAPT systems. AFR is ground-breaking for the integration of third-party products.
2002 EXAPT-BMG is developed for the generation and visualization of tools with additional functions for the assembly from components. The acquisition of tools with its geometric and technological presentation offers extensive support of the NC planning with EXAPT systems.
2003 EXAPTpdo is available to optimize the process chains in production planning and production execution optimally regarding the increasing requirements of changing production conditions.
2004 are diverse system extensions made in EXAPTplus, EXAPTsolid, EXAPT NC editor, EXAPTpdo for the complete machining on turning/ milling centres with result reliability because of more extensive simulation based on realNC (Tecnomatix), for the use of new complex tool systems and for the compound use between ERP systems as SAP and intelligent CNC systems. In the following year EXAPTpdo is extended for the cross-order set-up optimization and provision of manufacturing re-sources especially for single and small series production with connection to purchase and physical portfolio management.
2006 the EXAPT systems are available in the extended use as information platform for the production, the time management and similar requirements. EXAPTsolid is extended for the feature-oriented milling operation and machine simulation. The NC programming of complex machine tools, e.g. three-turret-turning/milling centres is supported by EXAPT systems, as well as the use of multi-functional tools.
2007 a module for 3-5-axis simultaneous milling machining is presented.
References
Application software
Computer-aided design software
Computer-aided manufacturing software
Planning
Industrial machinery
Programming languages |
12788829 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YoYo%20Games | YoYo Games | YoYo Games is a British software development company based in Dundee, Scotland. From February 2015 to January 2021, the company was owned by Playtech, which was then sold to Opera Software to launch its new gaming division.
History
YoYo Games was founded in 2007 by Michel Cassius, Sandy Duncan, Spencer Hyman and James North-Hearn, former entertainment and video game industry executives. Duncan was appointed chief executive officer of the company. On 26 January 2007, Mark Overmars announced his partnership with a company based in Dundee, Scotland, called YoYo Games.
The company established its European office in Dundee in May 2010 by opening an office within Abertay University with two team members. The company currently employs more than 25 employees. YoYo Games has announced plans to create an additional 25 positions, over the next 18 months, in systems development, software engineering, sales and customer service. The employees will be hired to help the company keep pace with the rapid evolution of the global games market and demand for Game Maker: Studio. To accommodate this expansion, in June 2013, YoYo Games moved from its old location within Abertay University into new office space on Dundee’s Waterfront redevelopment. On 16 February 2015 it was announced that Playtech acquired YoYo Games for £10.65 million (USD$16.4 million). Shortly thereafter, Duncan stepped down from his position. He was later replaced by James Cox as general manager, who himself stepped down in October 2018 to be replaced by Stuart Poole in January 2019.
Playtech sold YoYo Games to Opera Software for in January 2021. Opera announced with YoYo's acquisition, it was launching a new Opera Gaming division alongside their browser software.
References
External links
Video game companies of the United Kingdom
Video game development companies
British companies established in 2007
Video game companies established in 2007
2007 establishments in Scotland
Companies based in Dundee
2015 mergers and acquisitions
2021 mergers and acquisitions
Opera Software
British subsidiaries of foreign companies |
33141767 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barebox | Barebox | Barebox is a primary boot loader used in embedded devices. It is free software under the GPL-2.0-only license. It is available for a number of different computer architectures, including ARM, x86, MIPS and RISC-V.
History
The Barebox project began in July 2007 as u-boot-v2, as it was derived from Das U-Boot, but with heavier borrowings from Linux like similar utilities and with a more Linux-like coding style.
See also
Das U-Boot
Comparison of boot loaders
References
External links
ELCE2009 slides
ELCE2012 slides
Firmware
Software related to embedded Linux
Free boot loaders |
429836 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Message-oriented%20middleware | Message-oriented middleware | Message-oriented middleware (MOM) is software or hardware infrastructure supporting sending and receiving messages between distributed systems. MOM allows application modules to be distributed over heterogeneous platforms and reduces the complexity of developing applications that span multiple operating systems and network protocols. The middleware creates a distributed communications layer that insulates the application developer from the details of the various operating systems and network interfaces. APIs that extend across diverse platforms and networks are typically provided by MOM.
This middleware layer allows software components (applications, Enterprise JavaBeans, servlets, and other components) that have been developed independently and that run on different networked platforms to interact with one another. Applications distributed on different network nodes use the application interface to communicate. In addition, by providing an administrative interface, this new, virtual system of interconnected applications can be made reliable and secure.
MOM provides software elements that reside in all communicating components of a client/server architecture and typically support asynchronous calls between the client and server applications. MOM reduces the involvement of application developers with the complexity of the master-slave nature of the client/server mechanism.
Middleware categories
Remote Procedure Call or RPC-based middleware
Object Request Broker or ORB-based middleware
Message Oriented Middleware or MOM-based middleware
All these models make it possible for one software component to affect the behavior of another component over a network. They are different in that RPC- and ORB-based middleware create systems of tightly coupled components, whereas MOM-based systems allow for a loose coupling of components. In an RPC- or ORB-based system, when one procedure calls another, it must wait for the called procedure to return before it can do anything else. In these synchronous messaging models, the middleware functions partly as a super-linker, locating the called procedure on a network and using network services to pass function or method parameters to the procedure and then to return results.
Advantages
Central reasons for using a message-based communications protocol include its ability to store (buffer), route, or transform messages while conveying them from senders to receivers.
Another advantage of messaging provider mediated messaging between clients is that by adding an administrative interface, you can monitor and tune performance. Client applications are thus effectively relieved of every problem except that of sending, receiving, and processing messages. It is up to the code that implements the MOM system and up to the administrator to resolve issues like interoperability, reliability, security, scalability, and performance.
Asynchronicity
Using a MOM system, a client makes an API call to send a message to a destination managed by the provider. The call invokes provider services to route and deliver the message. Once it has sent the message, the client can continue to do other work, confident that the provider retains the message until a receiving client retrieves it. The message-based model, coupled with the mediation of the provider, makes it possible to create a system of loosely coupled components.
MOM comprises a category of inter-application communication software that generally relies on asynchronous message-passing, as opposed to a request-response architecture. In asynchronous systems, message queues provide temporary storage when the destination program is busy or not connected. In addition, most asynchronous MOM systems provide persistent storage to back up the message queue. This means that the sender and receiver do not need to connect to the network at the same time (asynchronous delivery), and problems with intermittent connectivity are solved. It also means that should the receiver application fail for any reason, the senders can continue unaffected, as the messages they send will simply accumulate in the message queue for later processing when the receiver restarts.
Routing
Many message-oriented middleware implementations depend on a message queue system. Some implementations permit routing logic to be provided by the messaging layer itself, while others depend on client applications to provide routing information or allow for a mix of both paradigms. Some implementations make use of broadcast or multicast distribution paradigms.
Transformation
In a message-based middleware system, the message received at the destination need not be identical to the message originally sent. A MOM system with built-in intelligence can transform messages and route to match the requirements of the sender or of the recipient. In conjunction with the routing and broadcast/multicast facilities, one application can send a message in its own native format, and two or more other applications may each receive a copy of the message in their own native format. Many modern MOM systems provide sophisticated message transformation (or mapping) tools which allow programmers to specify transformation rules applicable to a simple GUI drag-and-drop operation.
Disadvantages
The primary disadvantage of many message-oriented middleware systems is that they require an extra component in the architecture, the message transfer agent (message broker). As with any system, adding another component can lead to reductions in performance and reliability, and can also make the system as a whole more difficult and expensive to maintain.
In addition, many inter-application communications have an intrinsically synchronous aspect, with the sender specifically wanting to wait for a reply to a message before continuing (see real-time computing and near-real-time for extreme cases). Because message-based communication inherently functions asynchronously, it may not fit well in such situations. That said, most MOM systems have facilities to group a request and a response as a single pseudo-synchronous transaction.
With a synchronous messaging system, the calling function does not return until the called function has finished its task. In a loosely coupled asynchronous system, the calling client can continue to load work upon the recipient until the resources needed to handle this work are depleted and the called component fails. Of course, these conditions can be minimized or avoided by monitoring performance and adjusting message flow, but this is work that is not needed with a synchronous messaging system. The important thing is to understand the advantages and liabilities of each kind of system. Each system is appropriate for different kinds of tasks. Sometimes, a combination of the two kinds of systems is required to obtain the desired behavior.
Standards
Historically, there was a lack of standards governing the use of message-oriented middleware that has caused problems. Most of the major vendors have their own implementations, each with its own application programming interface (API) and management tools.
One of the long-standing standards for message oriented middleware is X/Open group's XATMI specification (Distributed Transaction Processing: The XATMI Specification) which standardizes API for interprocess communications. Known implementations for this API is ATR Baltic's Enduro/X middleware and Oracle's Tuxedo.
The Advanced Message Queuing Protocol (AMQP) is an approved OASIS and ISO standard that defines the protocol and formats used between participating application components, so implementations are interoperable. AMQP may be used with flexible routing schemes, including common messaging paradigms like point-to-point, fan-out, publish/subscribe, and request-response (note that these are intentionally omitted from v1.0 of the protocol standard itself, but rely on the particular implementation and/or underlying network protocol for routing). It also supports transaction management, queuing, distribution, security, management, clustering, federation and heterogeneous multi-platform support. Java applications that use AMQP are typically written in Java JMS. Other implementations provide APIs for C#, C++, PHP, Python, Ruby, and other languages.
The High-Level Architecture (HLA IEEE 1516) is an IEEE and SISO standard for simulation interoperability. It defines a set of services, provided through an API in C++ or Java. The services offer publish/subscribe based information exchange, based on a modular Federation Object Model. There are also services for coordinated data exchange and time advance, based on logical simulation time, as well as synchronization points. Additional services provide transfer of ownership, data distribution optimizations and monitoring and management of participating Federates (systems).
The MQ Telemetry Transport (MQTT) is an ISO standard (ISO/IEC PRF 20922) supported by the OASIS organization. It provides a lightweight publish/subscribe reliable messaging transport protocol on top of TCP/IP suitable for communication in M2M/IoT contexts where a small code footprint is required and/or network bandwidth is at a premium.
The Object Management Group's Data Distribution Service (DDS) provides message-oriented Publish/Subscribe (P/S) middleware standard that aims to enable scalable, real-time, dependable, high performance and interoperable data exchanges between publishers and subscribers. The standard provides interfaces to C++, C++11, C, Ada, Java and Ruby.
The eXtensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP) is a communications protocol for message-oriented middleware based on XML (Extensible Markup Language). Designed to be extensible, the protocol has also been used for publish-subscribe systems, signalling for VoIP, video, file transfer, gaming, Internet of Things applications such as the smart grid, and social networking services. Unlike most instant messaging protocols, XMPP is defined in an open standard and uses an open systems approach of development and application, by which anyone may implement an XMPP service and interoperate with other organizations' implementations. Because XMPP is an open protocol, implementations can be developed using any software license; although many server, client, and library implementations are distributed as free and open-source software, numerous freeware and proprietary software implementations also exist. The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) formed an XMPP working group in 2002 to formalize the core protocols as an IETF instant messaging and presence technology. The XMPP Working group produced four specifications (RFC 3920, RFC 3921, RFC 3922, RFC 3923), which were approved as Proposed Standards in 2004. In 2011, RFC 3920 and RFC 3921 were superseded by RFC 6120 and RFC 6121 respectively, with RFC 6122 specifying the XMPP address format. In addition to these core protocols standardized at the IETF, the XMPP Standards Foundation (formerly the Jabber Software Foundation) is active in developing open XMPP extensions. XMPP-based software is deployed widely across the Internet, according to the XMPP Standards Foundation, and forms the basis for the Department of Defense (DoD) Unified Capabilities Framework.
The Java EE programming environment provides a standard API called JMS (Java Message Service), which is implemented by most MOM vendors and aims to hide the particular MOM API implementations; however, JMS does not define the format of the messages that are exchanged, so JMS systems are not interoperable.
A similar effort is with the actively evolving OpenMAMA project, which aims to provide a common API, particularly to C clients. However, at the moment (August 2012) it is primarily appropriate for distributing market-oriented data (e.g. stock quotes) over pub-sub middleware.
Message queuing
Message queues allow the exchange of information between distributed applications. A message queue can reside in memory or disk storage. Messages stay in the queue until the time they are processed by a service consumer. Through the message queue, the application can be implemented independently - they do not need to know each other's position, or continue to implement procedures to remove the need for waiting to receive this message.
Trends
Advanced Message Queuing Protocol (AMQP) provides an open standard application layer protocol for message-oriented middleware.
The Object Management Group's Data Distribution Service (DDS) has added many new standards to the basic DDS specification. See Catalog of OMG Data Distribution Service (DDS) Specifications for more details.
XMPP is a communications protocol for message-oriented middleware based on XML (Extensible Markup Language).
Streaming Text Oriented Messaging Protocol (STOMP), formerly known as TTMP, is a simple text-based protocol, provides an interoperable wire format that allows STOMP clients to talk with any Message Broker supporting the protocol.
An additional trend sees message-oriented middleware functions being implemented in hardware - usually FPGAs or other specialized silicon chips.
See also
Enterprise Integration Patterns
Enterprise messaging system
Enterprise service bus
Flow-based programming
References
External links
Enterprise application integration
Middleware
Systems engineering |
291175 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trustix | Trustix | Trustix Secure Linux was a Linux distribution intended for use on servers and focused on security and stability. It was a hardened and secure OS, meaning that non-essential services and binaries are not installed, while UNIX staples like Sendmail are replaced by programs like Postfix.
Trustix was originally produced by Trustix AS. The company was established late in 1997 by entrepreneurs from USA and Norway. The company went bankrupt in 2003 and Comodo Group bought the assets in November 2003. Shortly thereafter Comodo announced the end of the free version of Trustix Secure Linux. Not long thereafter Comodo changed their minds and the free version reappeared.
By late 2005 a series of budget cuts had resulted in many of the developers being laid off, and by early 2006 all members of the original Trustix team had left the company. Trustix Secure Linux continues to be maintained by a very small team of developers in India.
By late 2007 Comodo announced that it will discontinue all distribution, updates and direct support for Trustix Secure Linux effective December 31, 2007.
External links
Trustix Secure Linux at DistroWatch.com
Discontinued Linux distributions
RPM-based Linux distributions
Gateway/routing/firewall distribution
Linux distributions |
7367379 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius%20%28software%29 | Julius (software) | Julius is a speech recognition engine, specifically a high-performance, two-pass large vocabulary continuous speech recognition (LVCSR) decoder software for speech-related researchers and developers. It can perform almost real-time computing (RTC) decoding on most current personal computers (PCs) in 60k word dictation task using word trigram (3-gram) and context-dependent Hidden Markov model (HMM). Major search methods are fully incorporated.
It is also modularized carefully to be independent from model structures, and various HMM types are supported such as shared-state triphones and tied-mixture models, with any number of mixtures, states, or phones. Standard formats are adopted to cope with other free modeling toolkit. The main platform is Linux and other Unix workstations, and it works on Windows. Julius is free and open-source software, released under a revised BSD style software license.
Julius has been developed as part of a free software toolkit for Japanese LVCSR research since 1997, and the work has been continued at Continuous Speech Recognition Consortium (CSRC), Japan from 2000 to 2003.
From rev.3.4, a grammar-based recognition parser named Julian is integrated into Julius. Julian is a modified version of Julius that uses hand-designed type of finite-state machine (FSM) termed a deterministic finite automaton (DFA) grammar as a language model. It can be used to build a kind of voice command system of small vocabulary, or various spoken dialog system tasks.
About models
To run, the Julius recognizer needs a language model and an acoustic model for each language.
Julius adopts acoustic models in Hidden Markov Model Toolkit (HTK) ASCII format, pronunciation dictionary in HTK-like format, and word 3-gram language models in ARPA standard format: forward 2-gram and reverse 3-gram as trained from speech corpus with reversed word order.
Although Julius is only distributed with Japanese models, the VoxForge project is working to create English acoustic models for use with the Julius Speech Recognition Engine.
In April 2018, thanks to the effort of Mozilla foundation, a 350-hour audio corpus of spoken English was made available. The new English ENVR-v5.4 open-source speech model was released alongside with Polish PLPL-v7.1 models and are available from SourceForge.
See also
List of speech recognition software
References
External links
, at osdn.jp
Speech recognition software
Computational linguistics
Free software projects |
13231749 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic%20Studio | Logic Studio | Logic Studio is a discontinued professional music production suite by Apple Inc. The first version of Logic Studio was unveiled on September 12, 2007.
It claims to be the largest collection of modeled instruments, sampler instruments, effect plug-ins, and audio loops ever put in a single application.
The package contains Logic Pro, Mainstage, Soundtrack Pro, WaveBurner, Studio Instruments, Studio Effects, Apple Loops, Apple Loops Utility, Impulse Response Utility, Compressor, and QuickTime Pro. It also contains 6 content DVDs containing Jam Pack collections, sound effects, surround music beds, EXS24 samples, and impulse response files and a demo content DVD.
On December 8, 2011, it was announced that the boxed version of Logic Studio suite would be discontinued. Instead, Logic Pro and Mainstage would be sold separately on the Mac App Store. Soundtrack Pro was discontinued as part of the move.
Components
Apple Loops Utility
The Apple Loops Utility software is a small companion utility to Soundtrack Pro, GarageBand, Logic Express, and Logic Pro, all made by Apple Inc. Apple Loops Utility allows users to create loops of audio that can be time-stretched. Audio files converted to "Apple Loops" via the Apple Loops Utility can also be tagged with their publishing (Author, Comments, etc.) and musical information (Key, Tempo, etc.). Multiple files can be tagged at the same time, a process known as batch tagging. Apple Loops Utility can read both AIFF and WAV file formats, but it will convert the latter to AIFF when saved with tagging information.
Compressor
Compressor is a video and audio media compression and encoding application for use with Final Cut Studio and Logic Studio on Mac OS X. It can be used with Qmaster for clustering. Compressor is used for encoding MPEG-1, MPEG-2 for DVD, QuickTime .mov, MPEG-4 (Simple Profile), MPEG-4 H.264 and optional (third Party and often commercial) QuickTime Exporter Components to export to Windows Media, for example. Among its other features is the ability to convert from NTSC to PAL and vice versa, and the ability to 'upconvert' from standard-definition video to high-definition video with feature detail detection to prevent serious quality losses.
Impulse Response Utility
The Impulse Response Utility is used to create custom convolution reverbs.
Logic Pro
Logic Pro is a hybrid 32 / 64 bit digital audio workstation and MIDI sequencer software application for the Mac OS X platform. Originally created by German software developer Emagic, Logic Pro became an Apple product when Apple bought Emagic in 2002. Logic Pro provides software instruments, synthesizers, audio effects and recording facilities for music synthesis. It also supports Apple Loops – royalty-free professionally recorded instrument loops. Audio effects include distortions, dynamics processors, equalization filters, and delays. The Space Designer plugin simulates the acoustics of audio played in different environments, such as rooms of varying size, or producing the echoes that might be heard on high mountains. Logic Pro can work with MIDI keyboards and control surfaces for input and processing, and for MIDI output. It features real-time scoring in musical notation, supporting guitar tablature, chord abbreviations and drum notation.
The application features distributed processing abilities, which can function across an Ethernet LAN. One machine runs the Logic Pro app, while the other machines on the network run the Logic node app. Logic will then offload the effects and synth processing to the other machines on the network. If the network is fast enough (i.e. gigabit Ethernet) this can work in near-real time, depending on buffer settings and CPU loads. This allows users to combine the power of several Mac computers to process Logic Pro’s built-in software instruments and plug-ins, and 3rd party processing plug-ins.
MainStage
MainStage's primary purpose is to serve as a method of centralizing any virtual instruments that users might have installed on their computers that are normally used in Apple's DAW software Logic Pro for use in live performance.
The instruments can then be played using a pre-recorded MIDI file or via a MIDI controller such as a keyboard. MainStage's other features include the ability to play back pre-recorded backing tracks and to function as a guitar and vocal multi-effects processor.
The second version, MainStage 2, was released on July 23, 2009, along with updated releases of many of the other applications in the Logic Studio package.
Soundtrack Pro
Soundtrack Pro is a music composing and audio editing application made by Apple Inc., which includes a collection of just over 5000 royalty free professional instrument loops and sound effects. The program also allows multitrack projects to be exported directly with Compressor settings.
Waveburner
WaveBurner can be used for assembling, mastering, and burning audio CDs. Audio CDs created with WaveBurner can be played back on any audio CD player, and can be used as premasters to produce CDs in large numbers for possible distribution.
WaveBurner has several notable features:
Allows for up to 99 tracks and 99 subindexes per track
Includes ISRC codes for each track
Includes copy prevention and pre-emphasis for each track
Adds UPC/EAN codes for the CD
Supports CD-Text
Create DDP (CD-image)
System requirements
According to Apple, one needs to meet the following requirements to install all applications:
Mac computer with an Intel processor (PPC is supported prior to v9.1.11)
2GB of RAM (4GB or more recommended)
Display with 1280x768 or higher resolution
Mac OS X v10.6.8 or later
QuickTime 7.6 or later
DVD drive for installation
9GB to install all applications and required content
Additional 38GB to install all optional content (large content packages can be installed on separate disk):
10GB for Jam Pack collections
16GB for sound effects
6GB for surround music beds
6GB for other optional content
See also
Logic Express
Logic Pro
Logic Control
Audio Units
Core Audio
GarageBand
Comparison of multitrack recording software
References
Digital audio workstation software
Software synthesizers
MacOS-only software made by Apple Inc. |
39384134 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackhat%20%28film%29 | Blackhat (film) | Blackhat is a 2015 American action thriller film produced and directed by Michael Mann and starring Chris Hemsworth, Tang Wei, Viola Davis, Holt McCallany, and Wang Leehom. The film premiered at the TCL Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles on January 8, 2015, and was released in theaters on January 16. Blackhat was a box-office bomb, earning only $19.7 million at the box office against a budget of $70 million. The film received generally mixed reviews, with criticisms focused on casting and pace, though the film appeared on some critics' year-end lists.
Plot
A nuclear plant in Chai Wan, Hong Kong, goes into meltdown when a hacker causes the coolant pumps to overheat and explode. Soon after, the Mercantile Trade Exchange in Chicago gets hacked, causing soy futures to rise. The Chinese government and Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) determine that the hack was performed using a remote access tool (RAT). Captain Chen Dawai of the People's Liberation Army cyber warfare unit is tasked with finding the hacker, and enlists the aid of his sister Lien, a networking engineer. He meets with FBI Special Agent Carol Barrett in Los Angeles and reveals the code in the RAT was written by himself and Nicholas Hathaway, his college roommate, during their time at MIT. Dawai requests that Hathaway, who is in prison for hacking banks, be offered a temporary release in exchange for his services. Hathaway, knowing how necessary he is to the investigation, demands new terms: his prison sentence commuted if his assistance leads to the hacker's identification and capture. He is required to wear an ankle bracelet monitor and be accompanied by deputy U.S. marshal Mark Jessup.
Hathaway manipulates the update system on Jessup’s phone GPS that tracks his location, allowing him to follow his own lead and arrange a meeting with the hacker's partner at a restaurant. While they wait, he tells Lien about his past, but the partner does not arrive. Hathaway discovers a camera watching them and, following it to the connected computer, messages the hacker that he is now on his trail.
Clues uncovered by Dawai and Barrett lead the team to Hong Kong, where they work with Police Inspector Alex Trang. The team traces the stock trade money to a paramilitary operative named Elias Kassar. Hathaway, Jessup, Chen, and Trang, along with a Special Duties Unit team, raid Kassar's hideout, and a shootout ensues in a drainage tunnel, resulting in the deaths of Trang and several officers as Kassar and his men escape.
The nuclear plant has stabilized enough to have a data drive be recovered from the control room, but it is corrupted by radiation. The National Security Agency's Black Widow software has the power to repair the data, but they refuse to allow the Chinese access. Reluctantly sanctioned by Barret, Hathaway hacks into the NSA and uses Black Widow, discovering that the hacker's server is based in Jakarta. Lien finds out the hacker has been buying high-resolution satellite photos of a site near Seri Manjung, Malaysia.
For his illegal hack, the NSA and FBI demand Hathaway’s return to prison. Dawai's superiors advise him to turn Hathaway over to the U.S. government, but he instead alerts Hathaway to their plans. Meanwhile, one of Kassar's men secretly plants a tracking device on Dawai's car. As Hathaway and Lien, who have become romantically involved, argue about his fleeing alone, Dawai is blown up by a rocket launched by Kassar; Barret and Jessup, arriving on the scene, manage to shoot several of Kassar's men before they are both killed. Lien and Hathaway escape on a subway train, and she uses her connections to charter a plane to Malaysia.
Hathaway deduces that the hacker's attack at the nuclear plant was merely a test for a later plan: to sabotage a large dam and destroy several major tin mines in Malaysia, allowing the hacker to make a profit buying tin options. In Jakarta, he hacks into a bank's computer to drain the hacker's bank accounts, forcing the hacker, Sadak, to contact him. Sadak and Hathaway agree to meet and discuss a partnership; Hathaway anticipates a double-cross and arms himself with makeshift weapons and body armor which he conceals under his clothes.
Though Hathaway insists Sadak and Kassar come alone, they bring their henchmen. Lien spots them and alerts Hathaway, who orders them to a new location in a park during a large religious procession. Hathaway trails them, but is caught at gunpoint by Kassar. As he is being frisked, Hathaway blindsides and stabs Kassar to death with a sharpened screwdriver. Sadak's men catch up and a firefight ensues; Hathaway is shot several times, but manages to kill the reinforcements. Sadak stabs Hathaway with a knife before Hathaway kills him. He reunites with Lien, who treats his wounds, before they leave Indonesia with Sadak's money.
Cast
Production
In an interview done at the LMU Film school, Michael Mann said he was inspired to make Blackhat after reading about the events surrounding Stuxnet, which was a computer worm that targeted and reportedly ruined almost one fifth of Iran's nuclear centrifuges. In keeping with his high standard for authenticity, Mann brought in several technical advisors and consultants like former hackers Kevin Poulsen (senior editor for Wired News) and Christopher McKinley, to make the film as authentic as possible. McKinlay was famous for hacking the online dating site OkCupid in order to make his profile the most attractive to women. Director Mann also met with Mike Rogers, who was chairman of the Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence until 2015. Parisa Tabriz, who manages Google's information security engineering team, said that "It's the most accurate information security film I've seen."
The film was tentatively titled Cyber, however the final title was revealed on July 26, 2014, during a panel at San Diego Comic-Con International, and it was being estimated that it might qualify for the Oscars. The first official trailer for the film was released on September 25, 2014.
Filming began on May 17, 2013, in Los Angeles, California; Hong Kong; Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; and at Lapangan Banteng in Jakarta, Indonesia.
The film would be Mann's first feature to be shot entirely using digital cameras. Although Collateral, Miami Vice and Public Enemies were predominantly digital features, Mann employed 35mm film sparingly.
Director Mann donated HK$300,000 (US$38,500) to The Community Chest of Hong Kong in the name of Hang Seng Bank, to thank the bank for allowing him to film Blackhat for five evenings in the bank's lobby area.
In November 2013, Universal set the North American release date for January 16, 2015.
Soundtrack
The film score was composed by Harry Gregson-Williams with Atticus Ross. Upon viewing the film, however, Gregson-Williams posted a message on Facebook stating that his score went almost unused in the final edit, which included synthesized music not prepared by Ross or himself. He went on to say that, "I therefore reluctantly join the long list of composers who have had their scores either sliced and diced mercilessly or ignored completely by Michael Mann." He stated that although he is credited for the score, the final film "contains almost none of my compositions". He later deleted the status update containing this information.
Mann later explained that he often prefers to use more than one composer "to rotate among different emotional perspectives", stating, "If a composer wants to have his music stand alone, he should be a recording artist and let his work contest itself in that arena."
Some of Ryan Amon's music that was originally used for Elysium was reused in the film. Mike Dean also contributed additional music.
Release
Blackhat opened on January 16, 2015, against the wide release of American Sniper, an "unexpected juggernaut", which set records for the largest January opening weekend in history. Blackhat was a box-office bomb, opening at number 11 and earning only $1.7 million on its opening day. It made just $4.4 million for the weekend against its $70 million budget. This made the movie one of the worst debuts ever for a movie playing in over 2,500 locations. After only two weeks, Universal decided to withdraw the film from all but 236 theaters. It had been in 2,568 theaters, making it the sixth-biggest drop in history for a third-week film.
An in-depth analysis by industry trade publication Deadline of why Blackhat did not perform primarily examined the marketing strategy as “the major challenge they were unable to overcome” with independent tracking services supporting this conclusion: “total awareness for Blackhat was in the 40-50% range on January 4 and grew to 50-60% on January 15 (versus American Sniper’s 80-90%).” Additionally, “the film wasn’t helped by a marketing campaign that failed to convey a sophisticated plot and a romance… Blackhat instead chased a young audience with action footage that did not seem fresh.”
Internationally, the film grossed $2.33 million in 19 territories in its opening weekend. It played below expectations in markets including Denmark, Greece, Poland, Taiwan, Turkey and Vietnam. Deadline credited Lee Hom Wang and Tang Wei’s inclusion with increased success in other nations including Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand. In its third weekend, the film grossed $1.8 million with openings of $595,000 and $446,000 in Russia and Spain, respectively. In its fourth weekend, the film grossed $1.2 million for a total of $8.4 million, with its top opener in Germany at $526,000.
Due to the less-than-stellar numbers at the American and Asian box offices, Universal Pictures International opted not to release Blackhat theatrically in Australia. The film was also scrapped for a theatrical release in Belgium.
In the aftermath, Legendary took a $90 million write-down on the film.
On February 20, 2015, Blackhat debuted in the UK.
Home media
Blackhat was released on Blu-ray and DVD on May 12, 2015, in North America. The Blu-ray edition includes both a DVD copy of the film and a voucher for an UltraViolet/iTunes digital copy, as well as three featurettes: "The Cyber Threat", "On Location Around the World", and "Creating Reality". The DVD edition contains only one featurette: "Creating Reality".
In Australia, the film was originally slated to be released theatrically on February 25, 2015, but due to its poor performance at the US box office, it was instead released straight to home video on May 14, 2015. In the UK, the film was also released on Blu-ray and DVD on June 22, 2015.
Director's cut
Michael Mann premiered a re-edited 136-minute director's cut of the film at the Brooklyn Academy of Music on February 20, 2016. The re-edited version played once, as part of a retrospective series of Mann's films. The primary change in this cut was the movement of the film's nuclear reactor attack sequence from the opening to the middle of the film. Mann originally intended to place the reactor sequence in the middle, but moved it to the beginning of the theatrical cut just before its release. It premiered on FX on May 9, 2017. It was available exclusively on DirecTV., but it has since been removed from the service. It is one of the two Mann movies with the most interest in a director’s cut release, the other one being The Keep.
Reception
Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 32% based on 190 reviews, with an average rating of 4.90/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Thematically timely, but dramatically inert, Blackhat strands Chris Hemsworth in a muddled misfire from director Michael Mann." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 51 out of 100, based on 37 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". According to CinemaScore, audiences gave the film a grade of "C−" on an A+ to F scale.
For many critics, a significant issue of the film is the casting of Chris Hemsworth as a hacker. Christy Lemire in the Chicago Sun-Times stated in her review, "Anyone who makes his or her way in the world sitting in front of a computer screen all day is not going to look as hunky as Hemsworth." Hemsworth himself was unsatisfied with his performance, saying, "I didn’t enjoy what I did in the film...It just felt flat, and it was also an attempt to do what I thought people might have wanted to see. But I don’t think I’m good in that space."
Manohla Dargis of The New York Times gave the film a largely positive review, stating, "Michael Mann’s thriller Blackhat, a story about the intersection of bodies and machines, is a spectacular work of unhinged moviemaking." Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times also gave it a positive review, writing, “It lures us in with the promise of up-to-the-minute villainy, but the satisfactions of ‘Blackhat’ are surprisingly old school.” The Hollywood Reporter’s Sheri Linden noted, “The essential problem of cyber-thrillers is one that even so gifted a director hasn’t quite solved, particularly in the film’s first half: Characters looking at computer screens and explaining the significance of what they see doesn’t make for the most riveting viewing.” Matt Zoller Seitz, the editor-in-chief of RogerEbert.com, gave Blackhat three and a half out of four stars, stating in his review, "‘Blackhat’ is mainly about what happens when the real world is annexed by the virtual: what it does to geography and relationships; how it signal-jams our species' sense of time as a series of self-contained moments, and substitutes an existence that can feel like an endless, intrusive buzz."
Year-end lists
Although Blackhat received generally mixed reviews, many critics found merit in its filmmaking to include it in their "best-of" lists for 2015. In Sight & Sound magazine's poll for the best films of 2015, six critics voted for it as one of the five best films of the year.
2nd – Andrew Wright – Parallax View
3rd – Michael Nordine – Village Voice
4th – Ben Sachs – Chicago Reader
6th – Bruce Reid – Parallax View
7th – Scout Tafoya – RogerEbert.com
8th – Danny Bowes – RogerEbert.com
8th – Staff consensus – Slant
10th – Brian Doan – RogerEbert.com
11th – Matt Zoller Seitz – RogerEbert.com
Accolades
Themes and interpretation
Blackhat, like several of Mann's crime thrillers, is a notable pop-cultural work on the theme of mass surveillance. According to critic Nick Pinkerton, Mann's concern with surveillance follows in the footsteps of earlier films by Fritz Lang and Henry Hathaway. The emerging relationship between power and network technology in the mid–20th century was a major theme in those directors' respective works, particularly Lang's The Thousand Eyes of Dr. Mabuse(1960) and Hathaway's The House on 92nd Street(1945) and Call Northside 777(1948). Pinkerton suggested that Blackhats protagonist was named "Hathaway" in an intentional allusion to the latter director.
In an early scene, several books seen on Hathaway's prison-cell bookshelf serve as an "ideological gate key" to the film, according to critic Niles Schwartz. These include books of philosophy and critical theory like Michel Foucault's Discipline and Punish, Jean-François Lyotard's The Postmodern Condition, Jacques Derrida's The Animal That Therefore I Am, and Jean Baudrillard's America; a biography of nuclear physicists Ernest Lawrence and J. Robert Oppenheimer; and Brian Greene's The Elegant Universe, an introduction to string theory. Mahola Darghis at the New York Times said Blackhat demonstrated Mann's "hybrid approach" to filmmaking, "at the crossroads of the classical Hollywood cinema and the European art film", as an action film containing highbrow philosophical references more typical of arthouse cinema from directors like Jean-Luc Godard.
References
External links
2015 films
English-language films
2015 action thriller films
2015 crime thriller films
2010s English-language films
American films
American action thriller films
American crime thriller films
Films about computer hacking
Films about the Federal Bureau of Investigation
Films about terrorism in Asia
Films directed by Michael Mann
Films produced by Michael Mann
Films produced by Thomas Tull
Films scored by Harry Gregson-Williams
Films scored by Atticus Ross
Films set in Chicago
Films set in Hong Kong
Films set in Indonesia
Films set in Los Angeles
Films set in Malaysia
Films shot in Hong Kong
Films shot in Indonesia
Films shot in Los Angeles
Films shot in Malaysia
Legendary Pictures films
Malware in fiction
Films about the People's Liberation Army
Techno-thriller films
Universal Pictures films |
41476797 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meanings%20of%20minor%20planet%20names%3A%204001%E2%80%935000 | Meanings of minor planet names: 4001–5000 |
4001–4100
|-
| 4001 Ptolemaeus || 1949 PV || Ptolemy (c. AD 100–170), Greek astronomer ||
|-id=002
| 4002 Shinagawa || 1950 JB || Seishi Shinagawa (born 1944), first to use electronic computers for orbit computation in Japan ||
|-id=003
| 4003 Schumann || 1964 ED || Robert Schumann (1810–1856), German composer ||
|-id=004
| 4004 List'ev || || Vladislav Listyev (1956–1995), a Russian television journalist who was murdered ||
|-id=005
| 4005 Dyagilev || || Sergei Diaghilev (1872–1929), Russian impresario ||
|-id=006
| 4006 Sandler || 1972 YR || Grigori Sandler (1912–1994), a Russian musician ||
|-id=007
| 4007 Euryalos || 1973 SR || Euryalos, mythical Greek warrior ||
|-id=008
| 4008 Corbin || 1977 BY || Thomas E. Corbin, American astronomer, and his wife Brenda Corbin, Librarian, both at the US Naval Observatory ||
|-id=009
| 4009 Drobyshevskij || || Edward Drobyshevski (1936–2012), Russian astro- and plasma physicist at Ioffe Institute in St. Petersburg ||
|-id=010
| 4010 Nikol'skij || || Gennadij Nikol'skij (1929–1982), Soviet solar astronomer ||
|-id=011
| 4011 Bakharev || || Anatolij Bakharev (1918–1979), observer and researcher on comets and meteors. He is one of the co-discoverers of near-parabolic comet C/1955 N1 (Bakharev-Macfarlane-Krienke) ||
|-id=012
| 4012 Geballe || || Tom Geballe (born 1944), American astronomer ||
|-id=013
| 4013 Ogiria || || Maiya Borisovna Ogir' (1933–1991), Russian solar physicist ||
|-id=014
| 4014 Heizman || || Leonie and Charles Heizman from San Juan Capistrano, California, who hosted the discoverer Nikolai Chernykh during the conference on Near Earth Asteroids in 1991 ||
|-id=015
| 4015 Wilson-Harrington || 1979 VA || American co-discoverers Albert G. Wilson (1918–2012) and Robert G. Harrington (1904–1987) ||
|-id=016
| 4016 Sambre || 1979 XK || The Sambre River, France and Belgium ||
|-id=017
| 4017 Disneya || || Walt Disney (1901–1966), American animator ||
|-id=018
| 4018 Bratislava || 1980 YM || Bratislava, capital city of Slovakia ||
|-id=019
| 4019 Klavetter || || James Jay Klavetter (1960–1997), professor of physics at California State University, Sacramento ||
|-id=020
| 4020 Dominique || || Dominique Bockelée-Morvan (born 1957), researcher at the Paris Observatory, France ||
|-id=021
| 4021 Dancey || || Roy Dancey and Bruce D. Dancey, father and son, both Canadian designers of telescope mirrors ||
|-id=022
| 4022 Nonna || || Nonna Mordyukova (1925–2008), Soviet actress ||
|-id=023
| 4023 Jarník || 1981 UN || Vojtěch Jarník (1897–1970), Czech mathematician ||
|-id=024
| 4024 Ronan || 1981 WQ || Colin Ronan (1920–1995), author and writer on astronomy ||
|-id=025
| 4025 Ridley || 1981 WU || Harold B. Ridley, British astrophotographer ||
|-id=026
| 4026 Beet || || Ernest Agar Beet, teacher and amateur astronomer ||
|-id=027
| 4027 Mitton || 1982 DN || Simon Mitton (born 1946), British astronomer and author ||
|-id=028
| 4028 Pancratz || || Chris Pancratz (1950–2003), formerly of the National Space Society ||
|-id=029
| 4029 Bridges || || Patricia M. Bridges, planetary cartographer with the U.S. Geological Survey ||
|-id=030
| 4030 Archenhold || || Friedrich Simon Archenhold (1861–1939), a German astronomer and the first director the Archenhold Observatory in Berlin, who, in 1896, made it possible to build the world's longest refractor telescope with a focal length of 21 meters. The telescope was originally known as the Great Treptow Refractor. ||
|-id=031
| 4031 Mueller || 1985 CL || Jean Mueller (born 1950), American astronomer and discoverer of comets, minor planets, and supernovae. The first woman to operate the historic Hooker telescope at Mount Wilson Observatory, and was the first woman hired as a telescope operator at Palomar Observatory in 1985. ||
|-id=032
| 4032 Chaplygin || || Sergey Chaplygin (1869–1942), Russian and Soviet physicist and one of the founders of the aerodynamics ||
|-id=033
| 4033 Yatsugatake || 1986 FA || Mount Yatsugatake, one of Japan's 100 famous mountains ||
|-id=034
| 4034 Vishnu || 1986 PA || Vishnu is the Hindu god of preservation ||
|-id=035
| 4035 Thestor || 1986 WD || Thestor was a grandson of Apollo and the father of Kalchas. ||
|-id=036
| 4036 Whitehouse || || David Robert Whitehouse (born 1956), British science journalist and BBC Online's Science Editor, recipient of the European Internet Journalist of the Year award in 2002 ||
|-id=037
| 4037 Ikeya || 1987 EC || Kaoru Ikeya (born 1943), Japanese amateur astronomer ||
|-id=038
| 4038 Kristina || || Kristina Leterme, Dutch literature professor and partner of the discoverer ||
|-id=039
| 4039 Souseki || 1987 SH || Natsume Sōseki (1867–1916), Japanese novelist ||
|-id=040
| 4040 Purcell || || Henry Purcell (1659–1695), English composer ||
|-id=041
| 4041 Miyamotoyohko || || Yohko Miyamoto (born 1922) wife of Japanese astronomer, Yukio (or Sachio) Miyamoto ||
|-id=042
| 4042 Okhotsk || || Sea of Okhotsk, between Japan and Russia ||
|-id=043
| 4043 Perolof || 1175 T-3 || Per Olof Lindblad, Swedish astronomer, director of the Stockholm Observatory, and son of Bertil Lindblad (1895–1965) ||
|-id=044
| 4044 Erikhøg || 5142 T-3 || Erik Høg (born 1932), Danish astronomer at the Copenhagen Observatory ||
|-id=045
| 4045 Lowengrub || 1953 RG || Morton Lowengrub, American mathematician and forerunner of the WIYN Observatory at Kitt Peak, Arizona ||
|-id=046
| 4046 Swain || 1953 TV || Joseph Swain (1857–1927), professor of mathematics at and president of Indiana University ||
|-id=047
| 4047 Chang'E || || The Chinese moon goddess, Chang'e, and the Chinese lunar probe launched in 2007, initiating the Chinese Lunar Exploration Program ||
|-id=048
| 4048 Samwestfall || 1964 UC || Richard S. Westfall (1924–1996), American historian of science ||
|-id=049
| 4049 Noragal' || || Nora Gal (1912–1991), Soviet literary translator ||
|-id=050
| 4050 Mebailey || 1976 SF || Mark Edward Bailey, British astronomer ||
|-id=051
| 4051 Hatanaka || 1978 VP || Takeo Hatanaka (1914–1963), Japanese astronomer ||
|-id=052
| 4052 Crovisier || || Jacques Crovisier (born 1948), French astronomer ||
|-id=053
| 4053 Cherkasov || || Nikolay Cherkasov (1903–1966), Soviet actor ||
|-id=054
| 4054 Turnov || 1983 TL || Turnov, Czech Republic ||
|-id=055
| 4055 Magellan || || Ferdinand Magellan (c. 1480–1521), Portuguese explorer ||
|-id=056
| 4056 Timwarner || || Timothy Warner (1961–1990), chief mission planner for the Diffuse Infrared Background Experiment ||
|-id=057
| 4057 Demophon || 1985 TQ || Demophon, mythical king of Athens ||
|-id=058
| 4058 Cecilgreen || 1986 JV || Cecil Howard Green (1900–2003), British geophysicist, co-founder of Texas Instruments and philanthropist extraordinary ||
|-id=059
| 4059 Balder || || Balder, Norse god ||
|-id=060
| 4060 Deipylos || || Deipylos, mythical Greek hero ||
|-id=061
| 4061 Martelli || || Giuseppe Martelli, Italian architect and engineer ||
|-id=062
| 4062 Schiaparelli || 1989 BF || Giovanni Schiaparelli (1835–1910), Italian astronomer best known for his telescopic observations of Mars ||
|-id=063
| 4063 Euforbo || || Euphorbus (Euforbo), the Greek hero of the Trojan War, who wounded Patroclus in the breast before being killed by Hektor. ||
|-id=064
| 4064 Marjorie || 2126 P-L || Marjorie Meinel and her husband Aden Meinel (parent of Carolyn Meinel) ||
|-id=065
| 4065 Meinel || 2820 P-L || Aden Meinel (1922–2011), American astronomer ||
|-id=066
| 4066 Haapavesi || 1940 RG || Haapavesi, Finland, birthplace of the discoverer's father ||
|-id=067
| 4067 Mikhel'son || 1966 TP || Nikolaj Mikhel'son (born 1918), outstanding Soviet scientist and optician of telescopes ||
|-id=068
| 4068 Menestheus || 1973 SW || Menestheus, mythical king of Athens ||
|-id=069
| 4069 Blakee || || Lawrence E. Blakee, observatory assistant ||
|-id=070
| 4070 Rozov || || Victor Sergeevich Rozov (born 1913), Russian playwright ||
|-id=071
| 4071 Rostovdon || || Rostov-on-Don, Russia, the discoverer's birthplace ||
|-id=072
| 4072 Yayoi || || Yayoi period in prehistoric Japan from 300 BC–300 AD during the Iron Age ||
|-id=073
| 4073 Ruianzhongxue || || Ruianzhongxue (Ruian Middle School), Zhejiang, China, 110-year-old school of mathematics ||
|-id=074
| 4074 Sharkov || || Viktor Sharkov (born 1935), an experimental astrophysicist at Ioffe Institute in St Petersburg, Russia ||
|-id=075
| 4075 Sviridov || || Georgy Sviridov (1915–1998), Russian composer ||
|-id=076
| 4076 Dörffel || || Georg Samuel Dörffel (1643–1688), German pastor and astronomer ||
|-id=077
| 4077 Asuka || || Asuka period, from 6th century to 8th in Japan ||
|-id=078
| 4078 Polakis || 1983 AC || Thomas A. Polakis (born 1961), an American mechanical engineer, friend of the discoverer Brian A. Skiff, and amateur astronomer at the Command Module Observatory in Arizona (Src, Src). ||
|-id=079
| 4079 Britten || 1983 CS || Benjamin Britten (1913–1976), Baron Britten, British composer ||
|-id=080
| 4080 Galinskij || 1983 PW || Nikolaj Galinskij, Soviet radio engineer ||
|-id=081
| 4081 Tippett || || Michael Tippett (1905–1998), British composer ||
|-id=082
| 4082 Swann || || Gordon A. Swann, American geologist, principal investigator for the geological field investigations conducted at the Apollo 14 and 15 lunar landing sites ||
|-id=083
| 4083 Jody || 1985 CV || Joan D. Swann, planetary data librarian with the U.S. Geological Survey ||
|-id=084
| 4084 Hollis || 1985 GM || Andrew J. Hollis, British astronomer ||
|-id=085
| 4085 Weir || 1985 JR || Doris Blackman Weir, geologist with the U.S. Geological Survey ||
|-id=086
| 4086 Podalirius || || Podalirius, mythical Greek warrior ||
|-id=087
| 4087 Pärt || || Arvo Pärt (born 1935), Estonian composer ||
|-id=088
| 4088 Baggesen || 1986 GG || Jens Baggesen (1764–1826), Danish poet and satirist ||
|-id=089
| 4089 Galbraith || 1986 JG || John Kenneth Galbraith (1908–2006), Canadian-born, American economist and polemicist ||
|-id=090
| 4090 Říšehvězd || || Říše hvězd, Czech astronomy journal ||
|-id=091
| 4091 Lowe || || Andrew Lowe (born 1959), Canadian geophysicist and amateur astronomer ||
|-id=092
| 4092 Tyr || || Tyr, Norse god ||
|-id=093
| 4093 Bennett || 1986 VD || Jack C. Bennett, South African amateur astronomer ||
|-id=094
| 4094 Aoshima || 1987 QC || Masaki Aoshima (1947–1987), Japanese amateur astronomer ||
|-id=095
| 4095 Ishizuchisan || 1987 SG || Ishizuchisan, mountain in Ehime, Japan ||
|-id=096
| 4096 Kushiro || 1987 VC || Kushiro, city in Japan ||
|-id=097
| 4097 Tsurugisan || 1987 WW || Tsurugisan, mountain in Tokushima, Japan ||
|-id=098
| 4098 Thraen || || Anton Thraen (1843–1902), German amateur astronomer and Catholic priest ||
|-id=099
| 4099 Wiggins || || Patrick Wiggins (born 1949), American astronomy educator at the Hansen Planetarium (1975–2001) in Salt Lake City, UT. Currently NASA/JPL Solar System Ambassador ||
|-id=100
| 4100 Sumiko || 1988 BF || Sumiko Hioki (born 1965), wife Japanese co-discoverer Tsutomu Hioki ||
|}
4101–4200
|-
| 4101 Ruikou || 1988 CE || Ruikou Kuroiwa (1862–1920), Japanese writer ||
|-id=102
| 4102 Gergana || || Gergana Georgieva Gelkova (born 2000) is the adorable grandniece of the discoverer. The name also honors the discoverer's parents, combining their first names Georgy and Ana ||
|-id=103
| 4103 Chahine || 1989 EB || Moustafa Chahine, (1935–2011) Lebanese-American scientist, chief scientist for NASA JPL ||
|-id=104
| 4104 Alu || 1989 ED || Jeff Alu (born 1966), American amateur astronomer and discoverer of minor planets who participated in the Palomar Planet-Crossing Asteroid Survey. He is a musician and composer. ||
|-id=105
| 4105 Tsia || 1989 EK || Zia sun symbol used by the Zia people in New Mexico ||
|-id=106
| 4106 Nada || 1989 EW || Nada Junior and Senior High School, in Kobe, Japan ||
|-id=107
| 4107 Rufino || 1989 GT || Rufus J. Walker, supporter of the U.S. space program and friend of American discoverer, Eleanor F. Helin ||
|-id=108
| 4108 Rakos || 3439 T-3 || Karl D. Rakos (born 1925), Croatian-born Austrian astronomer who was professor of astronomy at the University of Vienna and a director of the Vienna Observatory ||
|-id=109
| 4109 Anokhin || 1969 OW || Sergei Anokhin (1910–1986), Russian test pilot and cosmonaut-select ||
|-id=110
| 4110 Keats || 1977 CZ || John Keats (1795–1821), English romantic poet ||
|-id=111
| 4111 Lamy || || Philippe Louis Lamy, French-born American astronomer at Laboratoire d'Astronomie Spatiale, Marseilles ||
|-id=112
| 4112 Hrabal || 1981 ST || Bohumil Hrabal (1914–1997), Czech writer ||
|-id=113
| 4113 Rascana || 1982 BQ || Royal Astronomical Society of Canada ||
|-id=114
| 4114 Jasnorzewska || || Maria Pawlikowska-Jasnorzewska (1891–1945), Polish poet ||
|-id=115
| 4115 Peternorton || || Peter Norton (born 1943), American software engineer ||
|-id=116
| 4116 Elachi || 1982 SU || Charles Elachi (born 1947), Lebanese-American electrical engineering and planetary science at Caltech ||
|-id=117
| 4117 Wilke || || Alfred Wilke (1893–1972), German optician ||
|-id=118
| 4118 Sveta || || Svetlana Savitskaya (born 1948), Russian cosmonaut who became the second woman in space in 1982 ||
|-id=119
| 4119 Miles || 1983 BE || Howard G. Miles, member of the Order of the British Empire and director of the Artificial Satellite Section of the British Astronomical Association ||
|-id=120
| 4120 Denoyelle || || Jozef Denoyelle (born 1937), Belgian astronomer ||
|-id=121
| 4121 Carlin || 1986 JH || Carlin Singer-Brewster, daughter of Stephen Singer-Brewster, an American astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=122
| 4122 Ferrari || 1986 OA || Enzo Ferrari (1898–1988), Italian builder of racing cars and sports cars ||
|-id=123
| 4123 Tarsila || || Tarsila do Amaral (1886–1973), Brazilian modernist painter ||
|-id=124
| 4124 Herriot || 1986 SE || James Herriot (1916–1995), British writer and veterinary surgeon ||
|-id=125
| 4125 Lew Allen || 1987 MO || Lew Allen (1925–2010), American physicist, director of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and a United States Air Force four-star general ||
|-id=126
| 4126 Mashu || 1988 BU || Lake Mashū, a crater lake in Akan National Park on the island of Hokkaidō, Japan. ||
|-id=127
| 4127 Kyogoku || || Kyōgoku, town in Japan ||
|-id=128
| 4128 UKSTU || || UK Schmidt Telescope Unit at the Royal Observatory Edinburgh and the 1.2-m U.K. Schmidt Telescope at the Siding Spring Observatory in Australia ||
|-id=129
| 4129 Richelen || 1988 DM || Richard A. Keen and Helen C. Duran, friends of the discoverer, Robert H. McNaught ||
|-id=130
| 4130 Ramanujan || || Srinivasa Ramanujan (1887–1920), Indian mathematician ||
|-id=131
| 4131 Stasik || || John S. Stasik, American educator ||
|-id=132
| 4132 Bartók || 1988 EH || Béla Bartók (1881–1945), Austro-Hungarian composer ||
|-id=133
| 4133 Heureka || 1942 DB || Heureka, science center in Vantaa, Finland, north of Helsinki ||
|-id=134
| 4134 Schütz || 1961 CR || Heinrich Schütz (1585–1672), German composer and organist of the 17th century ||
|-id=135
| 4135 Svetlanov || 1966 PG || Yevgeny Svetlanov (1928–2002), Soviet-Russian conductor ||
|-id=136
| 4136 Artmane || 1968 FJ || Vija Artmane (1929–2008), Latvian actress ||
|-id=137
| 4137 Crabtree || 1970 WC || William Crabtree (1610–1644), an astronomer, mathematician, and cloth merchant in Salford, near Manchester, second person to knowingly observe a transit of Venus, in 1639 ||
|-id=138
| 4138 Kalchas || 1973 SM || Calchas, mythical person related to Trojan War ||
|-id=139
| 4139 Ul'yanin || || Sergej Alekseevich Ul'yanin (1871–1921), Russian pilot and inventor of new airplane designs ||
|-id=140
| 4140 Branham || 1976 VA || Richard L. Branham Jr (born 1943), American astronomer at U.S. Naval Observatory and director of the Yale-Columbia Southern Station at Leoncito Astronomical Complex ||
|-id=141
| 4141 Nintanlena || || Nina, Tanya and Elena, wife and daughters of Kiev astronomer Klim Churyumov (1937–2016) ||
|-id=142
| 4142 Dersu-Uzala || 1981 KE || Dersu Uzala, character in eponymous novel by Vladimir Arsenyev ||
|-id=143
| 4143 Huziak || || Richard Huziak (born 1957), Canadian amateur astronomer ||
|-id=144
| 4144 Vladvasil'ev || || Vladimir Vasiliev (born 1940), Russian ballet dancer and choreographer ||
|-id=145
| 4145 Maximova || || Ekaterina Maximova (1939–2009), Soviet and Russian ballet dancer ||
|-id=146
| 4146 Rudolfinum || || The Rudolfinum, important building in Prague ||
|-id=147
| 4147 Lennon || 1983 AY || John Lennon (1940–1980), member of the Beatles ||
|-id=148
| 4148 McCartney || 1983 NT || Paul McCartney (born 1942), member of the Beatles ||
|-id=149
| 4149 Harrison || 1984 EZ || George Harrison (1943–2001), member of the Beatles ||
|-id=150
| 4150 Starr || || Ringo Starr (born 1940), member of the Beatles ||
|-id=151
| 4151 Alanhale || || Alan Hale (born 1958), American astronomer who co-discovered Comet Hale–Bopp ||
|-id=152
| 4152 Weber || 1985 JF || Carl Maria von Weber (1786–1826), German composer ||
|-id=153
| 4153 Roburnham || || Robert Burnham Jr. (1931–1993), American astronomer, author, and senior editor of Astronomy magazine. He is a discoverer of minor planets and comets. ||
|-id=154
| 4154 Rumsey || 1985 NE || Norman Rumsey (1922–2007), a New Zealand astronomer and optical designer ||
|-id=155
| 4155 Watanabe || || Kazuro Watanabe (born 1955), Japanese amateur astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=156
| 4156 Okadanoboru || 1988 BE || Noboru Okada (1953–2002), Japanese adventurer, photographer, mountain-climber and amateur astronomer ||
|-id=157
| 4157 Izu || || Izu Peninsula, Japan ||
|-id=158
| 4158 Santini || 1989 BE || Giovanni Santini (1786–1877), Italian astronomer and director of the Padua Observatory and author of textbook Elementi di Astronomia ||
|-id=159
| 4159 Freeman || 1989 GK || Ann Freeman, executive secretary of the Seismological Laboratory of the California Institute of Technology, supporter of the Palomar Planet-Crossing Asteroid Survey and friend of discoverer Eleanor F. Helin ||
|-id=160
| 4160 Sabrina-John || 1989 LE || Sabrina M. Gonsalves (1962–1980) and John H. Riggins (1962–1980) in memory of the young couple ||
|-id=161
| 4161 Amasis || 6627 P-L || Amasis II (Amasis), Egyptian pharaoh ||
|-id=162
| 4162 SAF || 1940 WA || Société Astronomique de France, the French Astronomical Society ||
|-id=163
| 4163 Saaremaa || 1941 HC || Saaremaa island, Estonia ||
|-id=164
| 4164 Shilov || 1969 UR || Alexandr Shilov (born 1943), Soviet-Russian painter ||
|-id=165
| 4165 Didkovskij || || Leonid Vladimirovich Didkovskij (born 1948), astrophysicist and deputy director of the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory, who developed scientific instrumentation for the Soviet space telescope Astron ||
|-id=166
| 4166 Pontryagin || || Lev Pontryagin (1908–1988), Russian mathematician ||
|-id=167
| 4167 Riemann || || Bernhard Riemann (1826–1866), German mathematician ||
|-id=168
| 4168 Millan || 1979 EE || Julio Rodolfo Millan (1923–1995), first rector of the National University of San Juan in Argentina, where the old Yale-Columbia Southern Station was located at the time ||
|-id=169
| 4169 Celsius || || Anders Celsius (1701–1744), Swedish physicist and astronomer, after whom the Celsius temperature scale was named ||
|-id=170
| 4170 Semmelweis || 1980 PT || Ignaz Semmelweis (1818–1865), German-Hungarian physician and an early pioneer of antiseptic procedures ||
|-id=171
| 4171 Carrasco || || Juan Carrasco, senior night assistant and operator of the Hale Telescope at the Palomar Observatory in California ||
|-id=172
| 4172 Rochefort || || The town of Rochefort in Belgium ||
|-id=173
| 4173 Thicksten || || Robert P. Thicksten, superintendent of Palomar Observatory ||
|-id=174
| 4174 Pikulia || || Valentin Pikul (1928–1990), Soviet historical novelist ||
|-id=175
| 4175 Billbaum || 1985 GX || William A. Baum (1924–2012), American astronomer Src ||
|-id=176
| 4176 Sudek || 1987 DS || Josef Sudek (1896–1976), outstanding Czech photographer ||
|-id=177
| 4177 Kohman || || Truman Paul Kohman (1916–2010), was an emeritus professor of nuclear chemistry at Carnegie-Mellon University, who co-discovered aluminium-26, an isotope that has given important information about meteorites and the early history of the Solar System. Kohman was also an ardent amateur astronomer and teacher. He coined the word "nuclide". ||
|-id=178
| 4178 Mimeev || || Alexandr Pavlovich Mimeev (born 1951), Russian radio engineer and amateur astronomer ||
|-id=179
| 4179 Toutatis || 1989 AC || Toutatis, Celtic god ||
|-id=180
| 4180 Anaxagoras || 6092 P-L || Anaxagoras (c. 510–428 BC), Greek philosopher ||
|-id=181
| 4181 Kivi || || Aleksis Kivi (1834–1872), the first Finnish-language dramatist and novelist ||
|-id=182
| 4182 Mount Locke || 1951 JQ || Mount Locke, one of two mountains atop which the McDonald Observatory facilities are located ||
|-id=183
| 4183 Cuno || 1959 LM || Cuno Hoffmeister (1892–1968), German astronomer and a discoverer of minor planets, comets and variable stars, who discovered this Apollo asteroid ||
|-id=184
| 4184 Berdyayev || || Nikolai Berdyaev (1874–1948), Russian philosopher ||
|-id=185
| 4185 Phystech || 1975 ED || Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (Phystech) ||
|-id=186
| 4186 Tamashima || || Tamashima, a town of Kurashiki, Okayama, Japan ||
|-id=187
| 4187 Shulnazaria || || Leonid Markovich Shul'man and Galina Kirillovna Nazarchuk, couple of astronomers, researchers on comets, and staff members of the Main Ukrainian Astronomical Observatory at Golosseevo, near Kiev ||
|-id=188
| 4188 Kitezh || || Kitezh, phantom city of Russian folklore ||
|-id=189
| 4189 Sayany || || The Sayan Mountains, a mountain chain in southern Siberia, Russia ||
|-id=190
| 4190 Kvasnica || 1980 JH || Jozef Kvasnica (1930–1992), Czech physicist ||
|-id=191
| 4191 Assesse || 1980 KH || The Belgian village of Assesse, birthplace of the father of the discoverer, Henri Debehogne ||
|-id=192
| 4192 Breysacher || 1981 DH || Jacques Breysacher, French astronomer ||
|-id=193
| 4193 Salanave || || Leon E. Salanave, originally a meteorologist, as first executive officer of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific and first editor of Mercury, he took steps to ensure that amateur astronomers felt a sense of "belonging" to an organization dominated by professionals. ||
|-id=194
| 4194 Sweitzer || 1982 RE || Paul A. Sweitzer (born 1936), American reporter ||
|-id=195
| 4195 Esambaev || || Makhmud Alisultanovich Esambayev (1924–2000), a Chechen folk dancer ||
|-id=196
| 4196 Shuya || || The Russian town of Shuya, Ivanovo Oblast ||
|-id=197
| 4197 Morpheus || 1982 TA || Morpheus, the a god of dreams who appears in Ovid's "Metamorphoses" ||
|-id=198
| 4198 Panthera || || Panthera, Latin word for panther ||
|-id=199
| 4199 Andreev || || Gennadij Andreev (and his family), a professor of celestial mechanics at the University of Tomsk. He has led several expeditions to the site of the Tunguska event ||
|-id=200
| 4200 Shizukagozen || 1983 WA || Shizuka Gozen (1165–1211), Japanese mistress of Minamoto no Yoshitsune ||
|}
4201–4300
|-
| 4201 Orosz || || Elizabeth M. Orosz (born 1970), staff member at the Melton Memorial Observatory and friend of discoverer Brian Skiff ||
|-id=202
| 4202 Minitti || || Michelle Minitti (born 1973), American areological mineralogist at Arizona State University who studies the mineralogy of Mars. She has identified a new hematite formation mechanism for Mars. ||
|-id=203
| 4203 Brucato || || Robert Joseph Brucato, American astronomer and assistant director of the Palomar Observatory ||
|-id=204
| 4204 Barsig || || Walter Barsig, German science teacher and director of the Annual Cultural Festival of the Ries of Nordlingen and a state school board in Bavaria, Germany ||
|-id=205
| 4205 David Hughes || 1985 YP || David Hughes (born 1941), British astronomer and professor of astronomy at the University of Sheffield ||
|-id=206
| 4206 Verulamium || 1986 QL || Verulamium is an ancient British Roman city, now St Albans, Hertfordshire ||
|-id=207
| 4207 Chernova || || Galina Pavlovna Chernova, a researcher at the Astrophysical Institute of the Tajik Academy of Sciences, Dushanbe ||
|-id=208
| 4208 Kiselev || || Nikolaj Nikolaevich Kiselev, department head of the Astrophysical Institute of the Tajik Academy of Sciences, Dushanbe ||
|-id=209
| 4209 Briggs || || Geoffrey A. Briggs, American space physicist and director of the Solar System Exploration Division at NASA Headquarters during the 1980s ||
|-id=210
| 4210 Isobelthompson || || Isobel Thompson, British archaeologist and co-author of Alban's Buried Towns: An Assessment of St. Albans' Archaeology up to A.D. 1600 ||
|-id=211
| 4211 Rosniblett || 1987 RT || Rosalind Niblett, British archaeologist and co-author of Alban's Buried Towns: An Assessment of St. Albans' Archaeology up to A.D. 1600 ||
|-id=212
| 4212 Sansyu-Asuke || || Japanese town of Asuke, Aichi. The discovering Toyota Observatory is located nearby in Toyota. ||
|-id=213
| 4213 Njord || || Njord, Norse god of winds, navigation and prosperity ||
|-id=214
| 4214 Veralynn || || Vera Lynn (born 1917), British singer, famous during World War II ||
|-id=215
| 4215 Kamo || || Akira Kamo (born 1943), Japanese amateur astronomer who founded the Comet Observers Network (Hoshi no Hiroba) in 1968 ||
|-id=216
| 4216 Neunkirchen || || Neunkirchen, town in Austria ||
|-id=217
| 4217 Engelhardt || || Wolf von Engelhardt (1910–2008), German meteorite researcher ||
|-id=218
| 4218 Demottoni || || Glauco de Mottoni y Palacios (1901–1988), an Italian electrotechnical engineer and amateur astronomer ||
|-id=219
| 4219 Nakamura || 1988 DB || Giichi Nakamura, founder of an optical instruments factory, Mitaka Kohki, Japan ||
|-id=220
| 4220 Flood || 1988 DN || Thomas Flood (1919–1988), Scottish amateur astronomer, member of the British Astronomical Association and co-founder of the Dundee Astronomical Society in 1955 ||
|-id=221
| 4221 Picasso || 1988 EJ || Pablo Picasso (1881–1973), Spanish artist ||
|-id=222
| 4222 Nancita || || Nancy Coker Helin, daughter-in-law of the discoverer Eleanor F. Helin ||
|-id=223
| 4223 Shikoku || 1988 JM || Shikoku, Japan ||
|-id=224
| 4224 Susa || 1988 KG || Susan and Sarah Hicks, daughters of Bill and Nancy Hicks enthusiast of space-related research (acquainted with discoverer E. F. Helin) ||
|-id=225
| 4225 Hobart || 1989 BN || Joseph R. Hobart (born 1944) is an electrical engineer, amateur radio operator W7LUX, and minor-planet and variable-star observer. As of March 2011 he has improved the orbits of more than 700 minor planets, many of which were in danger of loss, and discovered 80 minor planets including NEO ||
|-id=226
| 4226 Damiaan || 1989 RE || Father Damien (1840–1889), Belgian priest ||
|-id=227
| 4227 Kaali || 1942 DC || Kaali crater, Estonia ||
|-id=228
| 4228 Nemiro || || Andrej Nemiro (1909–1995), Russian astronomer at Pulkovo Observatory ||
|-id=229
| 4229 Plevitskaya || 1971 BK || Nadezhda Plevitskaya (1884–1940), popular female Russian singer (and a Soviet agent) ||
|-id=230
| 4230 van den Bergh || || Sidney van den Bergh (born 1929), Dutch-born Canadian astronomer ||
|-id=231
| 4231 Fireman || 1976 WD || Edward Fireman (1922–1990), American planetary geologist and physicist at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, known for his measurements of radioactive isotopes to determine the cosmic-ray exposure ages of freshly fallen meteorites ||
|-id=232
| 4232 Aparicio || 1977 CD || Emiliano Pedro Aparicio (1921–1988), mineralogist and geologist at the National University of Cuyo and the National University of San Juan ||
|-id=233
| 4233 Pal'chikov || || Nikolaj Borisovich Pal'chikov (1913–1937), a student in the astronomy department at Leningrad University who was killed during one of Stalin's purges ||
|-id=234
| 4234 Evtushenko || || Yevgeny Yevtushenko (1933–2017), Russian poet ||
|-id=235
| 4235 Tatishchev || || Vasily Tatishchev (1686–1750), Russian statesman, historian and ethnographer ||
|-id=236
| 4236 Lidov || || Mikhail Lidov (1926–1993), Soviet–Russian astronomer best known for the Kozai-Lidov mechanism ||
|-id=237
| 4237 Raushenbakh || || Boris Rauschenbach (1915–2001), Russian space scientist ||
|-id=238
| 4238 Audrey || 1980 GF || Audrey Hepburn (1929–1993), actress, born in Brussels, Belgium, to an English father and Dutch mother (a baroness) ||
|-id=239
| 4239 Goodman || 1980 OE || Neville J. Goodman, a member of the British Astronomical Association ||
|-id=240
| 4240 Grün || || Eberhard Grün (born 1942), German astronomer ||
|-id=241
| 4241 Pappalardo || || Neil Pappalardo, pioneer in medical information technology, founder of Meditech and supporter of the Magellan Telescopes ||
|-id=242
| 4242 Brecher || 1981 FQ || Aviva Brecher and Kenneth Brecher, American astronomers and staff members at MIT ||
|-id=243
| 4243 Nankivell || || Garry Nankivell (born 1929), New Zealand optician who produced the optics of the 1-meter McLellan Telescope at the Mount John University Observatory, New Zealand ||
|-id=244
| 4244 Zakharchenko || || Vasilij Dmitrievich Zakharchenko (1915–1999), a Russian journalist and writer ||
|-id=245
| 4245 Nairc || || The Nanjing Astronomical Instrument Research Center (NAIRC) of Chinese Academy of Sciences, founded in 1958. ||
|-id=246
| 4246 Telemann || || Georg Philipp Telemann (1681–1767), German composer ||
|-id=247
| 4247 Grahamsmith || 1983 WC || Francis Graham-Smith (born 1923), British astronomer, former Astronomer Royal ||
|-id=248
| 4248 Ranald || 1984 HX || Ranald McIntosh (born 1933), programmer, who maintains the database for the Variable Star Section of the Royal Astronomical Society of New Zealand ||
|-id=249
| 4249 Křemže || || Křemže, Czech Republic ||
|-id=250
| 4250 Perun || 1984 UG || Perun, Slavic god of thunder ||
|-id=251
| 4251 Kavasch || || Julius Kavasch (1920–1978) and son, Wulf-Dietrich Kavasch, both German amateur geologists and popular science writers about the impact crater in the Nördlinger Ries in western Bavaria, Germany ||
|-id=252
| 4252 Godwin || || Richard Godwin (born 1952), American board member of the Space Frontier Foundation, brother of Robert Godwin, space expert and space-history researcher ||
|-id=253
| 4253 Märker || || Wolfgang Märker, a German long-time supporter of geological research. His factory is located on the edge of the Ries impact crater, known as Nördlinger Ries. It is one of the world's best studied impact craters. ||
|-id=254
| 4254 Kamél || || Lars Kamél (born 1960), Swedish astronomer ||
|-id=255
| 4255 Spacewatch || 1986 GW || The Spacewatch project ||
|-id=256
| 4256 Kagamigawa || 1986 TX || Kagami River, Japan ||
|-id=257
| 4257 Ubasti || 1987 QA || Ubasti Egyptian goddess of feline ||
|-id=258
| 4258 Ryazanov || || Eldar Ryazanov (1927–2015), a Soviet movie producer, writer and poet ||
|-id=259
| 4259 McCoy || || Timothy James McCoy (born 1964), American planetary geologist and curator of the national meteorite collection at the National Museum of Natural History in Washington ||
|-id=260
| 4260 Yanai || 1989 AX || Masayuki Yanai (born 1959), Japanese amateur astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=261
| 4261 Gekko || 1989 BJ || Gekko Observatory, Japan ||
|-id=262
| 4262 DeVorkin || 1989 CO || David H. DeVorkin (born 1944), Chair of the Historical Astronomy Division of the American Astronomical Society (1997–1999) ||
|-id=263
| 4263 Abashiri || || Abashiri, Hokkaidō, Japan ||
|-id=264
| 4264 Karljosephine || 1989 TB || Karl Wilhelm Cwach and Josephine Anna-Maria Cwach, parents of the discoverer Karl F. J. Cwach ||
|-id=265
| 4265 Kani || 1989 TX || Kani, Gifu, Japan ||
|-id=266
| 4266 Waltari || 1940 YE || Mika Waltari (1908–1979), Finnish author ||
|-id=267
| 4267 Basner || 1971 QP || Veniamin Basner (1925–1996), Russian composer ||
|-id=268
| 4268 Grebenikov || || Evgenij Alexandrovich Grebenikov (Eugeniu Grebenicov), Romanian-born Russian mathematician and astronomer ||
|-id=269
| 4269 Bogado || 1974 FN || Manuel D. Bogado (born 1934) is a Paraguayan amateur astronomer, known for his contributions to amateur astronomy in his country and for his work involving astrophotography and variable stars. The name was suggested by W. A. Froger ||
|-id=270
| 4270 Juanvictoria || || Juan Victoria (1906–1986), a mining engineer by training, legal representative of the Yale-Columbia Southern Observatory (YCSO) station when it was under construction in the early 1960s, and supervised the construction of the dome and facilities for the U.S. Naval Observatory's station nearby. He also taught and researched in the engineering department of the Cuyo National University ||
|-id=271
| 4271 Novosibirsk || || Novosibirsk, Russia ||
|-id=272
| 4272 Entsuji || || Entsuji, temple of Okayama, Japan ||
|-id=273
| 4273 Dunhuang || || Dunhuang, China ||
|-id=274
| 4274 Karamanov || || Alemdar Karamanov, Ukrainian composer of symphonies, ballets, piano concerti, musicals and cinema films such as the 1965 movie Triumph Over Violence. ||
|-id=275
| 4275 Bogustafson || || Bo Åke Sture Gustafson (born 1953), Swedish-American astronomer at the University of Florida who studied small particles in the Solar System, their formation, evolution and fate ||
|-id=276
| 4276 Clifford || 1981 XA || Clifford Cunningham (born 1955), Canadian amateur astronomer and writer, known for his book Introduction to Asteroids ||
|-id=277
| 4277 Holubov || 1982 AF || Holubov, Czech Republic ||
|-id=278
| 4278 Harvey || 1982 SF || G. Roger Harvey, American educator and visual observer of minor planets who was instructor in astronomy at the University of North Carolina in Charlotte ||
|-id=279
| 4279 De Gasparis || 1982 WB || Annibale de Gasparis (1819–1892), Italian astronomer and early discoverer of minor planets who was the director of the Astronomical Observatory of Capodimonte in Naples ||
|-id=280
| 4280 Simonenko || || Alla Nikolaevna Simonenko (1935–1984), Russian or Ukrainian astronomer who published two books on the study of asteroids and studied study meteoroid fragmentation and the distribution of radiants ||
|-id=281
| 4281 Pounds || || Kenneth Pounds (born 1934), British astronomer ||
|-id=282
| 4282 Endate || || Kin Endate (born 1960), Japanese amateur astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=283
| 4283 Stöffler || 1988 BZ || Dieter Stöffler, German astronomer and director of the Institute for Planetology at the University of Münster ||
|-id=284
| 4284 Kaho || || Shigeru Kaho (1909–1981), Japanese astronomer and observer of variable stars at the Tokyo Observatory. He discovered comet (Kaho-Kozik-Lis; a.k.a. comet 1936 III), the first Japanese cometary discovery in modern times. ||
|-id=285
| 4285 Hulkower || 1988 NH || Neal D. Hulkower, American mathematician and celestial mechanician ||
|-id=286
| 4286 Rubtsov || || Nikolay Rubtsov (1936–1971), Russian poet ||
|-id=287
| 4287 Třísov || || Třísov, Czech Republic ||
|-id=288
| 4288 Tokyotech || || Tokyo Institute of Technology, the largest national institution of higher learning in Japan dedicated to science and technology ||
|-id=289
| 4289 Biwako || || Biwako, largest lake in Japan ||
|-id=290
| 4290 Heisei || || The Heisei era, Japanese history ||
|-id=291
| 4291 Kodaihasu || 1989 VH || Ancient Lotus, that seed was excavated from Yayoi ruins and germinated in Japan ||
|-id=292
| 4292 Aoba || 1989 VO || Aoba Castle, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan ||
|-id=293
| 4293 Masumi || 1989 VT || Masumi Hurukawa (also Masumi Furukawa; 1917–?), Japanese worked for public outreach of astronomy in Kyushu, and a board member of the International Foundation for Cultural Harmony ||
|-id=294
| 4294 Horatius || 4016 P-L || Horace (Quintus Horatius Flaccus; 65–8 BC), Roman poet ||
|-id=295
| 4295 Wisse || 6032 P-L || Marijke Wisse-Schouten, staff member at Leiden Observatory and photometrist with the Palomar–Leiden trojan surveys during the 1970s ||
|-id=296
| 4296 van Woerkom || || Adriaan van Woerkom, Dutch astronomer who worked at Leiden and Yale observatories on the distribution of comets and on celestial mechanics. ||
|-id=297
| 4297 Eichhorn || 1938 HE || Heinrich Karl Eichhorn (born 1927), Austrian-American astronomer, teacher of astronomy and innovator in the field of stellar positions and motions ||
|-id=298
| 4298 Jorgenúnez || 1941 WA || Jorge Núnez (born 1953), physicist, astronomer and member of the Royal Academy of Sciences and Arts of Barcelona, researcher of robotic observatories and the treatment of astronomical CCD images ||
|-id=299
| 4299 WIYN || 1952 QX || The WIYN Consortium of observatories ||
|-id=300
| 4300 Marg Edmondson || || Margaret Russell Edmondson (1914–1999), daughter of American astronomer Henry Norris Russell and wife of American astronomer Frank K. Edmondson ||
|}
4301–4400
|-
| 4301 Boyden || 1966 PM || Uriah A. Boyden (1804–1879), American mechanical engineer, whose bequest allowed the Harvard College Observatory to establish the Boyden Observatory ||
|-id=302
| 4302 Markeev || 1968 HP || Anatolij Pavlovich Markeev, professor at the Moscow Aviation Institute ||
|-id=303
| 4303 Savitskij || || Yevgeniy Savitskiy (1910–1990), Russian aviator, father of cosmonaut Svetlana Savitskaya ||
|-id=304
| 4304 Geichenko || || Semyon Stepanovich Geichenko, Russian writer and literary scholar ||
|-id=305
| 4305 Clapton || 1976 EC || Eric Clapton (born 1945), British musician ||
|-id=306
| 4306 Dunaevskij || || Isaak Dunayevsky (1900–1955), Soviet composer ||
|-id=307
| 4307 Cherepashchuk || || Anatolii Mikhailovich Cherepashchuk (born 1941), Russian astronomer and director of the Sternberg Astronomical Institute ||
|-id=308
| 4308 Magarach || || Research Institute of wine-making and viticulture at Magarach, Yalta ||
|-id=309
| 4309 Marvin || 1978 QC || Ursula Marvin (1921–2018), American planetary geologist ||
|-id=310
| 4310 Strömholm || || Stig Strömholm (born 1931), Swedish legal scholar and writer ||
|-id=311
| 4311 Zguridi || || Aleksandr Mikhajlovich Zguridi (1904–1998), Soviet producer ||
|-id=312
| 4312 Knacke || || Roger Fritz Knacke (born 1941), American astronomer ||
|-id=313
| 4313 Bouchet || || Patrice Bouchet (born 1953), French astronomer at the European Southern Observatory ||
|-id=314
| 4314 Dervan || || Peter Dervan, the Bren Professor of Chemistry at the California Institute of Technology ||
|-id=315
| 4315 Pronik || || Iraida and Vladimir Pronik (born 1932), astronomers at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory ||
|-id=316
| 4316 Babinkova || || Artur Nikolaevich Babin (born 1936) and his wife Aleksandra Koval', solar astrophysicists at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory ||
|-id=317
| 4317 Garibaldi || || Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807–1882), Italian nation-builder ||
|-id=318
| 4318 Baťa || || Tomáš Baťa (1876–1932), Czech businessman ||
|-id=319
| 4319 Jackierobinson || || Jackie Robinson (1919–1972), American baseball player ||
|-id=320
| 4320 Jarosewich || || Eugene Jarosewich (1926–2007), research chemist emeritus at the Smithsonian Institution ||
|-id=321
| 4321 Zero || || Zero Mostel (1915–1977), an American actor, singer and artist; also chosen because the asteroid's number sounds like a countdown ||
|-id=322
| 4322 Billjackson || || William M. Jackson (born 1936) of the Department of Chemistry, University of California ||
|-id=323
| 4323 Hortulus || 1981 QN || Hortulus, Latin word for a small, cozy garden ||
|-id=324
| 4324 Bickel || || Wolf Bickel (born 1942), a German amateur astronomer who started observing minor planets in 1995 at his private observatory, located close to Bergisch Gladbach ||
|-id=325
| 4325 Guest || 1982 HL || John Edward Guest (1938–2012), British volcanologist and planetary scientist (also see other Solar System features named after him) Src ||
|-id=326
| 4326 McNally || || Derek McNally (1934-2020), British astronomer ||
|-id=327
| 4327 Ries || || The Nördlinger Ries, a meteorite impact crater in southern Germany, that was formed about 14 million years ago ||
|-id=328
| 4328 Valina || || Valentina Arkadievna Andreichenko and daughter Alina Eduardovna, for their collaboration with the discoverer Henri Debehogne in the Tomsk-Observatory-Brussels-Program ||
|-id=329
| 4329 Miró || || Joan Miró (1893–1983), a famous Spanish Catalan painter, sculptor and ceramicist. ||
|-id=330
| 4330 Vivaldi || || Antonio Vivaldi (1678–1741), Italian composer ||
|-id=331
| 4331 Hubbard || 1983 HC || Ralph Hubbard (1885–1980), of Medora, North Dakota, involved in promoting and preserving Native American culture ||
|-id=332
| 4332 Milton || 1983 RC || Daniel J. Milton, American astrogeologist ||
|-id=333
| 4333 Sinton || || William M. Sinton, American astronomer ||
|-id=334
| 4334 Foo || || Lillian Foo (born 1972), Singaporean consultant at the World Bank ||
|-id=335
| 4335 Verona || || Verona, city in Italy ||
|-id=336
| 4336 Jasniewicz || || Gerard Jasniewicz, astronomer at Strasbourg Observatory ||
|-id=337
| 4337 Arecibo || 1985 GB || Arecibo Observatory, Puerto Rico ||
|-id=338
| 4338 Velez || || Reinaldo Velez, telescope operator at Arecibo Observatory ||
|-id=339
| 4339 Almamater || 1985 UK || Alma mater, in anticipation of the 650th anniversary of the Charles University in Prague, the oldest university in central Europe ||
|-id=340
| 4340 Dence || 1986 JZ || Michael R. Dence, Canadian geologist and executive director of the Royal Society of Canada ||
|-id=341
| 4341 Poseidon || 1987 KF || Poseidon, Greek god ||
|-id=342
| 4342 Freud || || Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), Austrian founder of psychoanalysis ||
|-id=343
| 4343 Tetsuya || 1988 AC || Tetsuya Fujii (born 1960), Japanese astronomer ||
|-id=344
| 4344 Buxtehude || || Dieterich Buxtehude (c. 1637–1707), Danish or German organist and composer ||
|-id=345
| 4345 Rachmaninoff || || Sergei Rachmaninoff (1873–1943), Russian composer, pianist and conductor ||
|-id=346
| 4346 Whitney || || Mary Watson Whitney (1847–1921), American astronomer ||
|-id=347
| 4347 Reger || || Max Reger (1873–1916), German composer ||
|-id=348
| 4348 Poulydamas || 1988 RU || Poulydamas, the closest counselor and strategist of the Trojan prince Hector. Born on the same night, the gods gave Hector the ability to perfectly master his arms, while Poulydamas was given the present of better judgment. It was Poulydamas who urged to lock the gates of Troy against Achilles, but Hector left the city and confronted Achilles nonetheless. ||
|-id=349
| 4349 Tibúrcio || 1989 LX || Julio Cesar dos Santos Tibúrcio, Brazilian amateur astronomer ||
|-id=350
| 4350 Shibecha || || Shibecha, Hokkaidō, Japan ||
|-id=351
| 4351 Nobuhisa || || Nobuhisa Kojima (born 1933), Japanese amateur astronomer ||
|-id=352
| 4352 Kyoto || || Kyoto, city in Japan ||
|-id=353
| 4353 Onizaki || || Onizaki, town in Tokoname, Aichi, Japan ||
|-id=354
| 4354 Euclides || 2142 P-L || Euclid (fl. 300 BC), Greek mathematician ||
|-id=355
| 4355 Memphis || 3524 P-L || Memphis, former capital of old Egyptian kingdom ||
|-id=356
| 4356 Marathon || 9522 P-L || Marathon, Greece ||
|-id=357
| 4357 Korinthos || 2069 T-2 || Korinthos, Greece ||
|-id=358
| 4358 Lynn || A909 TF || William Thynne Lynn (1835–1911), assistant at Greenwich Observatory ||
|-id=359
| 4359 Berlage || 1935 TG || Hendrik Petrus Berlage (1896–1968), Dutch meteorologist, son of architect Hendrik Petrus Berlage ||
|-id=360
| 4360 Xuyi || || Xuyi County, China ||
|-id=361
| 4361 Nezhdanova || || Antonina Nezhdanova (1873–1950), Russian opera singer ||
|-id=362
| 4362 Carlisle || || Albert John Carlisle (1917–1993), hunter of meteorites on the Nullarbor Plain of Western Australia ||
|-id=363
| 4363 Sergej || || Sergej Vasil'evich Ezhov (born 1953), surgeon in the district hospital at Bakhchisaraj, Crimea, since the 1970s ||
|-id=364
| 4364 Shkodrov || || Vladimir Shkodrov (1930–2010), Bulgarian astronomer ||
|-id=365
| 4365 Ivanova || || Violeta G. Ivanova, Bulgarian astronomer ||
|-id=366
| 4366 Venikagan || || Veniamin Kagan (1869–1953), Soviet and Russian mathematician ||
|-id=367
| 4367 Meech || || Karen Jean Meech (born 1959), American astronomer ||
|-id=368
| 4368 Pillmore || || Charles L. Pillmore, American geologist with the U.S. Geological Survey ||
|-id=369
| 4369 Seifert || 1982 OR || Jaroslav Seifert (1901–1986), Czech poet ||
|-id=370
| 4370 Dickens || 1982 SL || Charles Dickens (1812–1870), English writer ||
|-id=371
| 4371 Fyodorov || || Svyatoslav Fyodorov (1927–2000), Russian ophthalmologist ||
|-id=372
| 4372 Quincy || 1984 TB || John Quincy Adams (1767–1848), sixth president of the United States ||
|-id=373
| 4373 Crespo || 1985 PB || Antonio Crespo, electrical engineer at Arecibo Observatory ||
|-id=374
| 4374 Tadamori || 1987 BJ || Taira no Tadamori, early samurai ||
|-id=375
| 4375 Kiyomori || 1987 DQ || Taira no Kiyomori, early samurai and Daijō Daijin ||
|-id=376
| 4376 Shigemori || 1987 FA || Taira no Shigemori, early samurai ||
|-id=377
| 4377 Koremori || 1987 GD || Taira no Koremori, early samurai ||
|-id=378
| 4378 Voigt || 1988 JF || Hans-Heinrich Voigt (1921–2017), German astronomer ||
|-id=379
| 4379 Snelling || || Reginald and Heather Snelling, friends of the discoverers Eugene and Carolyn Shoemaker ||
|-id=380
| 4380 Geyer || || Edward H. Geyer, German astronomer at the Hoher List Observatory ||
|-id=381
| 4381 Uenohara || || Uenohara, town in Japan ||
|-id=382
| 4382 Stravinsky || || Igor Stravinsky (1882–1971), Russian-American composer ||
|-id=383
| 4383 Suruga || 1989 XP || Suruga Province (ancient name of eastern part of Shizuoka Prefecture), Japan ||
|-id=384
| 4384 Henrybuhl || 1990 AA || Henry Buhl Jr. (1848–1927), a philanthropist who established the Buhl Foundation ||
|-id=385
| 4385 Elsässer || 2534 P-L || Hans F. Elsässer (born 1929), German astronomer, former director of the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy ||
|-id=386
| 4386 Lüst || 6829 P-L || Reimar Lüst (born 1923), German astrophysicist ||
|-id=387
| 4387 Tanaka || 4829 T-2 || Yasuo Tanaka (1931–2018), Japanese astrophysicist ||
|-id=388
| 4388 Jürgenstock || 1964 VE || Jürgen Stock (born 1923), German-Venezuelan astronomer, developer observatories, and the director of the CTIO and the Llano del Hato observatories in South America ||
|-id=389
| 4389 Durbin || || Deanna Durbin (1921–2013), Canadian-American cinema actress ||
|-id=390
| 4390 Madreteresa || || Mother Teresa (1910–1997), an Albanian-Indian nun and missionary. She is known as Saint Teresa of Calcutta in the Roman Catholic Church. ||
|-id=391
| 4391 Balodis || || Jānis Balodis, chief of the cosmic geodesy department at the Astronomical Observatory of the Latvian University ||
|-id=392
| 4392 Agita || || Agita Tarasova, a scientific worker at the Astronomical Observatory of the Latvian University ||
|-id=393
| 4393 Dawe || || John A. Dawe, British astronomer at the UK Schmidt Telescope ||
|-id=394
| 4394 Fritzheide || || Fritz Heide (1891–1973), German meteorite researcher ||
|-id=395
| 4395 Danbritt || || Daniel Britt (born 1950), research professor at the University of Tennessee, who studies the relationships between minor planets and meteorites using reflectance spectroscopy ||
|-id=396
| 4396 Gressmann || 1981 JH || Michael Gressmann, German astro-optician and amateur astronomer ||
|-id=397
| 4397 Jalopez || || José Augusto Lopez (born 1922), astronomer and long-time director of the Felix Aguilar Observatory in Argentina ||
|-id=398
| 4398 Chiara || || Chiara Maria Faletti (born 1955), wife of the discoverer Walter Ferreri ||
|-id=399
| 4399 Ashizuri || 1984 UA || Cape Ashizuri, Kochi, Japan ||
|-id=400
| 4400 Bagryana || || Elisaveta Bagriana (1893–1991), Bulgarian poet ||
|}
4401–4500
|-
| 4401 Aditi || 1985 TB || Aditi, Hindu goddess of the sky and air ||
|-id=402
| 4402 Tsunemori || 1987 DP || Taira no Tsunemori (1124–1185), early samurai ||
|-id=403
| 4403 Kuniharu || 1987 EA || Kuniharu Observatory, founded in 1958 in Okazaki, Aichi prefecture, Japan ||
|-id=404
| 4404 Enirac || 1987 GG || Carine Maury, wife of the French astronomer Alain Maury, who discovered this minor planet ||
|-id=405
| 4405 Otava || || Otava River, Czech Republic ||
|-id=406
| 4406 Mahler || || Gustav Mahler (1860–1911), Austrian composer ||
|-id=407
| 4407 Taihaku || || Taihaku-ku, Sendai, the southernmost ward of the city Sendai, Japan ||
|-id=408
| 4408 Zlatá Koruna || || Zlatá Koruna, a gothic monastery and a village in South Bohemia, Czech Republic ||
|-id=409
| 4409 Kissling || 1989 MD || Warwick M. Kissling (born 1957), New Zealand mathematician ||
|-id=410
| 4410 Kamuimintara || 1989 YA || Daisetsuzan's another name in Ainu mythology - meaning Playground of Kamuys ||
|-id=411
| 4411 Kochibunkyo || 1990 AF || The Kochi Prefecture Cultural and Educational Association, an association of volunteers active in education including the popularization of astronomy. The association inaugurated in the city of Kochi in April 1948. ||
|-id=412
| 4412 Chephren || 2535 P-L || Khafra (Chephren), pharaoh of the Fourth dynasty of Egypt who built the eponymous pyramid at Giza and the Sphinx ||
|-id=413
| 4413 Mycerinos || 4020 P-L || Menkaura (Mycerinos), pharaoh of the Fourth dynasty of Egypt ||
|-id=414
| 4414 Sesostris || 4153 P-L || Senusret I, Senusret II, and Senusret III (Sesostris I,II and III), three pharaohs of the Twelfth dynasty of Egypt ||
|-id=415
| 4415 Echnaton || 4237 P-L || Akhenaten (Echnaton), pharaoh of the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt ||
|-id=416
| 4416 Ramses || 4530 P-L || Ramesses II, pharaoh of the Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt ||
|-id=417
| 4417 Lecar || 1931 GC || Myron Lecar (born 1930), American astrophysicist ||
|-id=418
| 4418 Fredfranklin || || Fred Aldrich Franklin (born 1932), American astronomer ||
|-id=419
| 4419 Allancook || 1932 HD || Allan F. Cook II (1922–1998), American astrophysicist ||
|-id=420
| 4420 Alandreev || 1936 PB || Aleksandr Fedorovich Andreev (born 1939), vice-president of the Russian Academy of Sciences and director of the P. Kapitsa Institute of Physical Problems in Moscow. ||
|-id=421
| 4421 Kayor || 1942 AC || Kay and Roy Williams, parents of Gareth V. Williams, an astronomer at the Minor Planet Center ||
|-id=422
| 4422 Jarre || 1942 UA || Jean-Michel Jarre (born 1948), a French composer, and his father Maurice Jarre (1924–2009) ||
|-id=423
| 4423 Golden || 1949 GH || William T. Golden (1909–2007), author-editor of books on science policy. ||
|-id=424
| 4424 Arkhipova || 1967 DB || Irina Konstantinovna Arkhipova (born 1925), Russian soloist at the Bolshoi Theatre ||
|-id=425
| 4425 Bilk || 1967 UQ || German city district Düsseldorf-Bilk, where the Düsseldorf-Bilk Observatory () existed from 1843 to 1943 ||
|-id=426
| 4426 Roerich || || Nicholas Roerich (1874–1947), Russian painter, as well as for Elena Ivanovna Roerich (1879–1955), Russian writer, Yurij Nikolaevich Roerich (1902–1960), Russian scientist, and Svetoslav Roerich (1904–1993), Russian painter ||
|-id=427
| 4427 Burnashev || || Vladislav Ivanovich Burnashev (born 1943) also Bella Alekseevna Burnasheva (born 1944) (Crimean Astrophysical Observatory) ||
|-id=428
| 4428 Khotinok || 1977 SN || Roman L'vovich Khotinok (1928–2016), Russian meteorite researcher ||
|-id=429
| 4429 Chinmoy || || Sri Chinmoy (1931–2007), Indian poet, artist and philosopher ||
|-id=430
| 4430 Govorukhin || || Stanislav Govorukhin (1936–2018), Russian cinematic producer and playwright ||
|-id=431
| 4431 Holeungholee || || S. H. Ho, K.-K. Leung, T. Ho and Q.-W. Lee jointly established the Holeungholee Foundation in 1994 to reward high-level Chinese achievements in science and technology and to promote the further development of those achievements ||
|-id=432
| 4432 McGraw-Hill || || the McGraw-Hill Telescope at the MDM Observatory ||
|-id=433
| 4433 Goldstone || 1981 QP || Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex, California ||
|-id=434
| 4434 Nikulin || || Yuri Nikulin (1921–1997), a Russian circus artist, clown and film star ||
|-id=435
| 4435 Holt || || Henry E. Holt (born 1929), a discoverer of minor planets and planetary geologist with the U.S. Geological Survey ||
|-id=436
| 4436 Ortizmoreno || 1983 EX || José Luis Ortiz Moreno (born 1967), a planetary scientist at the IAA (CSIC) at Granada, Spain ||
|-id=437
| 4437 Yaroshenko || || Nikolai Yaroshenko (1846–1898), Russian/Ukrainian painter ||
|-id=438
| 4438 Sykes || 1983 WR || Mark V. Sykes, American planetary scientist at the Steward Observatory, Arizona ||
|-id=439
| 4439 Muroto || 1984 VA || Muroto, Kōchi, city in Japan ||
|-id=440
| 4440 Tchantchès || 1984 YV || Tchantchès (Walloon dialect for François), the typical Walloon hero of the region of the discoverer. Tchantchès is obstinate but has a great heart ||
|-id=441
| 4441 Toshie || 1985 BB || Toshie Seki, mother of Japanese astronomer Tsutomu Seki, who discovered this minor planet ||
|-id=442
| 4442 Garcia || || Jerry Garcia (1942–1995), lead guitarist of the Grateful Dead ||
|-id=443
| 4443 Paulet || || Pedro Paulet (1874–1945), Peruvian scientist and diplomat ||
|-id=444
| 4444 Escher || 1985 SA || M. C. Escher (1898–1972), Dutch graphic artist ||
|-id=445
| 4445 Jimstratton || 1985 TC || James Michael Stratton (born 1976), an American space engineer, helped further the exploration of the planets through his roles as both the propulsion and deputy mission systems engineer on NASA's New Horizons Pluto-Kuiper Belt mission. ||
|-id=446
| 4446 Carolyn || 1985 TT || Carolyn Shoemaker (1929–2021), comet and asteroid discoverer ||
|-id=447
| 4447 Kirov || || After Kirov, the city in Russia, or after the Kirov Opera and Ballet Theatre ||
|-id=448
| 4448 Phildavis || 1986 EO || Philip A. Davis, astronomer and planetary geologist with the U.S. Geological Survey ||
|-id=449
| 4449 Sobinov || || Leonid Sobinov (1872–1934), Russian opera singer ||
|-id=450
| 4450 Pan || 1987 SY || Pan god of Arcady ||
|-id=451
| 4451 Grieve || 1988 JJ || Richard Andrew Francis Grieve, Canadian geologist with the Geological Survey of Canada ||
|-id=452
| 4452 Ullacharles || 1988 RN || Ulla Augustesen (1914–1990) and Charles Augustesen (1909–1987), the parents of Brorfelde observer Karl Augustesen ||
|-id=453
| 4453 Bornholm || 1988 VC || The beautiful and famous Danish rocky island of Bornholm is situated in the southern part of the Baltic Sea ||
|-id=454
| 4454 Kumiko || 1988 VW || Kumiko Kaneda (born 1951), wife of Japanese astronomer Hiroshi Kaneda, who co-discovered this minor planet ||
|-id=455
| 4455 Ruriko || 1988 XA || Ruriko Ueda (born 1957), wife of Japanese astronomer Seiji Ueda, who co-discovered this minor planet ||
|-id=456
| 4456 Mawson || 1989 OG || Sir Douglas Mawson (1882–1958), Antarctic explorer ||
|-id=457
| 4457 van Gogh || 1989 RU || Vincent van Gogh (1853–1890), Dutch painter ||
|-id=458
| 4458 Oizumi || 1990 BY || Ōizumi, Yamanashi, Japan ||
|-id=459
| 4459 Nusamaibashi || || Nusamai Bridge, located in Kushiro, on the Island of Hokkaidō in northern Japan ||
|-id=460
| 4460 Bihoro || 1990 DS || Bihoro, town in Japan ||
|-id=461
| 4461 Sayama || 1990 EL || Sayama, Saitama, Japan ||
|-id=462
| 4462 Vaughan || || Curtis T. Vaughan Jr., a businessman, and community leader of San Antonio, Texas ||
|-id=463
| 4463 Marschwarzschild || || Martin Schwarzschild (1912–1997), German-American astrophysicist ||
|-id=464
| 4464 Vulcano || 1966 TE || Aeolian Islands, site of the "original" volcano ||
|-id=465
| 4465 Rodita || || Tat'yana Mikhajlovna Rodina (1914–1989), a Soviet art critic, was the author of Russian Theatre Art at the Beginning of the 19th Century and Blok and Russian Theatre of the Beginning of the 20th Century, as well as of numerous papers in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia and the Theatre Encyclopedia. ||
|-id=466
| 4466 Abai || || Abai Qunanbaiuli (Abai Kunanbaev) (1845–1904), Kazakh poet and philosopher ||
|-id=467
| 4467 Kaidanovskij || || Naum L'vovich Kaidanovskii (1907–), Russian astronomer ||
|-id=468
| 4468 Pogrebetskij || || Mikhail Pogrebetskiy (1892–1956), Ukrainian mountaineer ||
|-id=469
| 4469 Utting || || Muriel Utting (1914–), Australian historian of the Perth Observatory ||
|-id=470
| 4470 Sergeev-Censkij || || Sergey Sergeev-Tsensky (1875–1958), Soviet writer ||
|-id=471
| 4471 Graculus || 1978 VB || Pyrrhocorax graculus is the Alpine species of choughs. In great flocks they are sometimes a bit of a nuisance, but to watch their masterly elegant flight, especially in turbulent air, is a great delight ||
|-id=472
| 4472 Navashin || || Mikhail Sergeevich Navashin (1896–1973), Russian author of the Teleskop astronoma-lyubitelya (The Amateur Astronomer's Telescope) ||
|-id=473
| 4473 Sears || || Derek W. G. Sears (born 1948), British meteoriticist ||
|-id=474
| 4474 Proust || || Dominique Proust, French astrophysicist ||
|-id=475
| 4475 Voitkevich || || Georgii Vitol'dovich Voitkevich (1920–1997), Russian geochemist ||
|-id=476
| 4476 Bernstein || 1983 DE || Leonard Bernstein (1918–1990), American composer, conductor and pianist ||
|-id=477
| 4477 Kelley || 1983 SB || Michael Shawn Kelley (born 1958), a program officer at the Planetary Science Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, D.C. ||
|-id=478
| 4478 Blanco || || Carlo Blanco, professor of astronomy at Catania University ||
|-id=479
| 4479 Charlieparker || || Charlie "Bird" Parker (1920–1955), American saxophonist, principal inventor of bebop ||
|-id=480
| 4480 Nikitibotania || || Nikitian State Botanical Gardens, founded in 1812, on the Crimean peninsula ||
|-id=481
| 4481 Herbelin || 1985 RR || Claude Herbelin (born 1931), Swiss electrotechnical engineer of Neuchâtel and friend of the family of Edward L. G. Bowell (discoverer) ||
|-id=482
| 4482 Frèrebasile || 1986 RB || Nicolas Dupont, a French professor of mathematics, amateur astronomer and member of the De La Salle Brothers, ||
|-id=483
| 4483 Petöfi || || Sándor Petőfi (1823–1849), Hungarian poet ||
|-id=484
| 4484 Sif || 1987 DD || Sif, Norse goddess ||
|-id=485
| 4485 Radonezhskij || || Sergij Radonezhskij (c. 1321–1391), Russian church official ||
|-id=486
| 4486 Mithra || 1987 SB || Mithra, Indo-Iranian god ||
|-id=487
| 4487 Pocahontas || 1987 UA || Pocahontas, Native American woman ||
|-id=488
| 4488 Tokitada || 1987 UK || Taira no Tokitada (1130–1189), early samurai ||
|-id=489
| 4489 Dracius || 1988 AK || Dracius was one of the commanders of the Epeans who fought to protect the Argive ships from Hektor's attack. ||
|-id=490
| 4490 Bambery || 1988 ND || Raymond Bambery, American chemist and image-processing scientist at JPL ||
|-id=491
| 4491 Otaru || 1988 RP || Otaru, Hokkaidō, Japan ||
|-id=492
| 4492 Debussy || 1988 SH || Claude Debussy (1862–1918), French composer ||
|-id=493
| 4493 Naitomitsu || || Mitsu Naito (born 1925), mother of the first female Japanese astronaut, Chiaki Mukai ||
|-id=494
| 4494 Marimo || || Marimo, a rare growth form of green algae that inhabit Lake Akan in Hokkaido, Japan. ||
|-id=495
| 4495 Dassanowsky || 1988 VS || Elfi Dassanowsky (1924–2007), an Austrian-born film pioneer ||
|-id=496
| 4496 Kamimachi || || Kamimachi, town in Kōchi, Japan. Birthplace of discover ||
|-id=497
| 4497 Taguchi || || Takeo Taguchi (born 1950), Japanese optical engineer ||
|-id=498
| 4498 Shinkoyama || || Shin Koyama (born 1927), Japanese astronomer ||
|-id=499
| 4499 Davidallen || || David Anthony Allen, British astronomer ||
|-id=500
| 4500 Pascal || 1989 CL || Blaise Pascal (1623–1662), French mathematician, physicist, and religious philosopher ||
|}
4501–4600
|-
| 4501 Eurypylos || || Eurypylos, mythical king of Thessaly ||
|-id=502
| 4502 Elizabethann || 1989 KG || Elizabeth Ann Holt, daughter of the discoverer Henry E. Holt ||
|-id=503
| 4503 Cleobulus || 1989 WM || Ancient Greek poet Cleobulus, one of the Seven Sages of Greece ||
|-id=504
| 4504 Jenkinson || 1989 YO || Nora Jenkinson, Scottish amateur astronomer and astronomy educator ||
|-id=505
| 4505 Okamura || || Keiichiro Okamura, Japanese headmaster ||
|-id=506
| 4506 Hendrie || 1990 FJ || Michael J. Hendrie, British amateur astronomer and author, astronomy correspondent for The Times ||
|-id=507
| 4507 Petercollins || 1990 FV || Peter L. Collins, American amateur astronomer ||
|-id=508
| 4508 Takatsuki || || Yukihiro Takatsuki, contributing editor of Japanese astronomical magazine ||
|-id=509
| 4509 Gorbatskij || A917 SG || Vitaly Gerasimovich Gorbatskij (born 1920), professor at St. Petersburg University ||
|-id=510
| 4510 Shawna || 1930 XK || Shawna Willoughby, granddaughter of the discoverer Clyde Tombaugh ||
|-id=511
| 4511 Rembrandt || || Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn, Dutch painter and engraver ||
|-id=512
| 4512 Sinuhe || 1939 BM || Sinuhe, hero of The Egyptian by Mika Waltari ||
|-id=513
| 4513 Louvre || || The Louvre, museum ||
|-id=514
| 4514 Vilen || 1972 HX || Vilen Valentinovich Nesterov, Russian astronomer ||
|-id=515
| 4515 Khrennikov || || Tikhon Nikolayevich Khrennikov, Russian composer ||
|-id=516
| 4516 Pugovkin || || Mikhail Pugovkin, Russian comic actor ||
|-id=517
| 4517 Ralpharvey || 1975 SV || Ralph Harvey (born 1960), An assistant professor at Case Western University ||
|-id=518
| 4518 Raikin || || Arkady Raikin, Russian actor ||
|-id=519
| 4519 Voronezh || || Voronezh, Russia ||
|-id=520
| 4520 Dovzhenko || || Alexander Dovzhenko, Ukrainian filmmaker ||
|-id=521
| 4521 Akimov || || Nikolai Pavlovich Akimov, Ukrainian scenic designer and stage designer ||
|-id=522
| 4522 Britastra || 1980 BM || British Astronomical Association ||
|-id=523
| 4523 MIT || || Massachusetts Institute of Technology ||
|-id=524
| 4524 Barklajdetolli || || Prince Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly, Russian field marshal of Scottish descent ||
|-id=525
| 4525 Johnbauer || || John Bauer, American teacher of astronomy and physics ||
|-id=526
| 4526 Konko || || Konkō, Okayama, Japan ||
|-id=527
| 4527 Schoenberg || 1982 OK || Arnold Schoenberg, Austrian-American composer ||
|-id=528
| 4528 Berg || 1983 PP || Alban Berg, Austrian composer ||
|-id=529
| 4529 Webern || 1984 ED || Anton Webern, Austrian composer ||
|-id=530
| 4530 Smoluchowski || 1984 EP || Roman Smoluchowski, Polish-born physicist and astrophysicist ||
|-id=531
| 4531 Asaro || 1985 FC || Frank Asaro, American nuclear chemist and colleague of Walter and Louis Alvarez ||
|-id=532
| 4532 Copland || || Aaron Copland, American composer ||
|-id=533
| 4533 Orth || 1986 EL || Charles J. Orth, American geochemist at the Los Alamos National Laboratory, New Mexico ||
|-id=534
| 4534 Rimskij-Korsakov || || Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov (1844–1908), Russian composer ||
|-id=535
| 4535 Adamcarolla || || Adam Carolla, American comedic radio and television personality, former co-host of the syndicated radio program Loveline ||
|-id=536
| 4536 Drewpinsky || || David Drew Pinsky (Dr. Drew), American doctor who co-hosts the syndicated radio program Loveline ||
|-id=537
| 4537 Valgrirasp || || Valentin Rasputin, Soviet writer ||
|-id=538
| 4538 Vishyanand || 1988 TP || Viswanathan (Vishy) Anand (born 1969), India's first chess grandmaster ||
|-id=539
| 4539 Miyagino || || Miyagino-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan ||
|-id=540
| 4540 Oriani || || Barnaba Oriani (Barnabus Oriani), Italian astronomer ||
|-id=541
| 4541 Mizuno || 1989 AF || Yoshikane Mizuno, Japanese amateur astronomer ||
|-id=542
| 4542 Mossotti || 1989 BO || Ottaviano-Fabrizio Mossotti, Italian physicist and astronomer ||
|-id=543
| 4543 Phoinix || || Phoinix, mythical Greek warrior ||
|-id=544
| 4544 Xanthus || 1989 FB || Xanthus (Greek word for "Fair"), was one of Achilles' semi-divine horses (in the Iliad). Also Xanthus (or Xanthos) is the name given to the river God, (known as Scamander or Skamandros to mortals). The official naming citation also mentions that it is an alternative name for the Olympian god Apollo. ||
|-id=545
| 4545 Primolevi || || Primo Levi (1919–1987), an Italian chemist and writer ||
|-id=546
| 4546 Franck || || César Franck, Belgian composer ||
|-id=547
| 4547 Massachusetts || 1990 KP || Massachusetts, United States ||
|-id=548
| 4548 Wielen || 2538 P-L || Roland Wielen (born 1938), German astronomer ||
|-id=549
| 4549 Burkhardt || 1276 T-2 || Gernot Burkhardt (born 1951), German astronomer, co-editor of Astronomy and Astrophysics Abstracts ||
|-id=550
| 4550 Royclarke || || Roy Clarke Jr. (born 1925) served as curator of the U.S. National Meteorite Collection at the Smithsonian Institution for nearly 30 years. Clarke's research interests have focused on the structures of iron meteorites and have included the classification and study of Antarctic iron meteorites ||
|-id=551
| 4551 Cochran || 1979 MC || Anita Light Cochran, American astronomer and William David Cochran, American astronomer ||
|-id=552
| 4552 Nabelek || 1980 JC || Jan Nabelek, Moravian teacher ||
|-id=553
| 4553 Doncampbell || 1982 RH || Donald B. Campbell, Australian-born astronomer and planetary scientist at Cornell University ||
|-id=554
| 4554 Fanynka || 1986 UT || "Fanynka" Burian, friend of the discoverer ||
|-id=555
| 4555 Josefapérez || 1987 QL || María Josefa Pérez (1970–2014), an astronomer at the Instituto de Astronomía y Física del Espacio, Buenos Aires, and at the La Plata Astronomical Observatory ||
|-id=556
| 4556 Gumilyov || || Nikolay Gumilyov, Russian poet ||
|-id=557
| 4557 Mika || 1987 XD || Mika Watanabe, wife of one of discovers ||
|-id=558
| 4558 Janesick || 1988 NF || James R. Janesick, American optical engineer ||
|-id=559
| 4559 Strauss || || Johann Strauss II, Austrian composer ||
|-id=560
| 4560 Klyuchevskij || || Vasily Klyuchevsky, Russian historian ||
|-id=561
| 4561 Lemeshev || || Sergey Lemeshev, Russian opera singer ||
|-id=562
| 4562 Poleungkuk || || This name celebrates the 125th anniversary of the founding of Po Leung Kuk, a famous charity in Hong Kong. With a firm commitment to care and protection for the young and the innocent, Po Leung Kuk serves the local community ||
|-id=563
| 4563 Kahnia || 1980 OG || Franz D. Kahn, professor of astronomy and head of the department of astronomy at the University of Manchester ||
|-id=564
| 4564 Clayton || || Robert Clayton (born 1930), a professor at the University of Chicago ||
|-id=565
| 4565 Grossman || || Lawrence Grossman (born 1946), Canadian-American geophysicist ||
|-id=566
| 4566 Chaokuangpiu || || Kuang-Piu Chao, consulting professor at Tsinghua University and Zhejiang University. For many years, he made remarkable contributions to the development of Chinese educational and cultural programs ||
|-id=567
| 4567 Bečvář || || Antonín Bečvář, Slovak astronomer ||
|-id=568
| 4568 Menkaure || || Pharaoh Menkaure (c. 2530 B.C.), the son of Chephren ||
|-id=569
| 4569 Baerbel || || Baerbel K. Lucchitta, planetary geologist with the U.S. Geological Survey ||
|-id=570
| 4570 Runcorn || 1985 PR || Keith Runcorn (Stanley Keith Runcorn), British geophysicist ||
|-id=571
| 4571 Grumiaux || || Arthur Grumiaux, Belgian violinist ||
|-id=572
| 4572 Brage || 1986 RF || Brage, Norse god of poetry and music ||
|-id=573
| 4573 Piešťany || || Slovak spa town of Piešťany ||
|-id=574
| 4574 Yoshinaka || 1986 YB || Minamoto no Yoshinaka, early samurai ||
|-id=575
| 4575 Broman || || Brian Roman, American astronomer ||
|-id=576
| 4576 Yanotoyohiko || 1988 CC || Toyohiko Yano (born 1952) is a professor at the Research Laboratory for Nuclear Reactors, Tokyo Institute of Technology. His major work is materials science, particularly in the field of ceramics, and he is also a skillful electron microscopist. In their youth, he and the discoverer climbed mountains together ||
|-id=577
| 4577 Chikako || 1988 WG || Chikako Mitsuhashi (or Mihashi), Japanese astronomical educator ||
|-id=578
| 4578 Kurashiki || || Kurashiki, Okayama, Japan ||
|-id=579
| 4579 Puccini || || Giacomo Antonio Domenico Michele Secondo Maria Puccini, Italian operatic composer ||
|-id=580
| 4580 Child || 1989 EF || Jack B. Child, astronomer ||
|-id=581
| 4581 Asclepius || 1989 FC || Asclepius, god of medicine ||
|-id=582
| 4582 Hank || 1989 FW || Henry Reid Holt, son of discoverer of minor planets Henry E. Holt ||
|-id=583
| 4583 Lugo || || Raymond Lugo (born 1957), American deputy launch services manager on NASA's New Horizons Pluto-Kuiper Belt mission ||
|-id=584
| 4584 Akan || 1990 FA || Akan National Park, Hokkaidō, Japan ||
|-id=585
| 4585 Ainonai || 1990 KQ || Ainonai, a small Japanese town on Hokkaidō, west of Kitami ||
|-id=586
| 4586 Gunvor || 6047 P-L || Gunvor Ulla Marie Ollongren-Lundgren, wife of Dutch astronomer Alexander Ollongren ||
|-id=587
| 4587 Rees || 3239 T-2 || Martin Rees (born 1942), English astrophysicist and longtime Astronomer Royal ||
|-id=588
| 4588 Wislicenus || 1931 EE || Walter F. Wislicenus (1859–1905), a German astronomer ||
|-id=589
| 4589 McDowell || 1933 OB || Jonathan McDowell (born 1960), American astrophysicist ||
|-id=590
| 4590 Dimashchegolev || || Dmytrij Evgen'evich Shchegolev (1928–1988), a Russian astronomer at the Pulkovo Observatory near Saint Petersburg ||
|-id=591
| 4591 Bryantsev || 1975 VZ || Alexander Bryantsev (1883–1961), Russian theatre director ||
|-id=592
| 4592 Alkissia || || Aleksej Alekseevich Kiselev (born 1927), Russian astronomer ||
|-id=593
| 4593 Reipurth || || Bo Reipurth, Danish astronomer ||
|-id=594
| 4594 Dashkova || || Ekaterina Romanovna Dashkova, Russian princess ||
|-id=595
| 4595 Prinz || || Martin Prinz (born 1931), American curator of meteorites at the American Museum of Natural History ||
|-id=597
| 4597 Consolmagno || || Guy Consolmagno, American astronomer ||
|-id=598
| 4598 Coradini || || Marcello Coradini, Italian planetary scientist or Angioletta Coradini, Italian planetary scientist ||
|-id=599
| 4599 Rowan || || Michael Rowan-Robinson, British astronomer ||
|-id=600
| 4600 Meadows || || Jack Meadows, British astronomer ||
|}
4601–4700
|-
| 4601 Ludkewycz || 1986 LB || The maiden name of the Ukrainian-born mother of the discoverer, American NASA astronomer, writer, cartoonist, planetary scientist, artist and Hollywood special effects animator Marian Rudnyk ||
|-id=602
| 4602 Heudier || || Jean Louis Heudier, French astronomer ||
|-id=603
| 4603 Bertaud || || Charles Bertaud, French astronomer ||
|-id=604
| 4604 Stekarstrom || 1987 SK || Stephen E. and Karen M. Strom, American astronomers and photographers ||
|-id=605
| 4605 Nikitin || || Afanasy Nikitin, Russian explorer and travel writer ||
|-id=606
| 4606 Saheki || || Tsuneo Saeki, Japanese astronomer and president of the Toa Astronomical Society ||
|-id=607
| 4607 Seilandfarm || 1987 WR || Seiland Farm, Hokkaidō, Japan ||
|-id=608
| 4608 Wodehouse || || Sir Pelham Grenville Wodehouse, British comic writer ||
|-id=609
| 4609 Pizarro || || Guido and Oscar Pizarro, Chilean astronomers ||
|-id=610
| 4610 Kájov || 1989 FO || Village of Kájov, Czech Republic ||
|-id=611
| 4611 Vulkaneifel || || Volcanic Eifel (), a landscape in Germany, shaped by its volcanic geological history ||
|-id=612
| 4612 Greenstein || 1989 JG || Jesse L. Greenstein, an expert in stellar spectroscopy ||
|-id=613
| 4613 Mamoru || 1990 OM || Mamoru Mohri, Japanese astronaut ||
|-id=614
| 4614 Masamura || 1990 QN || Kazutada Masamura, Japanese amateur astronomer ||
|-id=615
| 4615 Zinner || A923 RH || Ernst Zinner, German astronomer and historian of astronomy ||
|-id=616
| 4616 Batalov || 1975 BF || Aleksei Vladimirovich Batalov, Russian actor ||
|-id=617
| 4617 Zadunaisky || 1976 DK || Pedro E. Zadunaisky (1918–), Argentinian astronomer and mathematician ||
|-id=618
| 4618 Shakhovskoj || || Nikolaj Mikhailovich Shakhovskoj (born 1930), astrophysicist at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory ||
|-id=619
| 4619 Polyakhova || || Elena Nikolaevna Palyakhova, assistant professor of astronomy at Saint Petersburg State University, Russia ||
|-id=620
| 4620 Bickley || 1978 OK || Named for the present site (since 1966) of the Perth Observatory. In 1915 the locality, in the Darling Range 23 km east-southeast of the center of the city, was officially named for Samuel Wallace Alexander Walsh Bickley (1810–1876), a pioneer in the area who was also a successful merchant and a nominated member of the Legislative Council of the colony (as it was at that time) of Western Australia ||
|-id=621
| 4621 Tambov || || Tambov, Russia ||
|-id=622
| 4622 Solovjova || || Sergey Solovyov (1820–1879), Russian historian, and his son Vladimir Solovyov, philosopher ||
|-id=623
| 4623 Obraztsova || || Elena Obraztsova, Russian singer ||
|-id=624
| 4624 Stefani || || J. Stefani Salazar, granddaughter of the first discoverer ||
|-id=625
| 4625 Shchedrin || || Rodion Konstantinovich Shchedrin, Russian composer ||
|-id=626
| 4626 Plisetskaya || || Maya Plisetskaya, Russian ballerina, wife of Rodion Konstantinovich Shchedrin ||
|-id=627
| 4627 Pinomogavero || || Giuseppe Mogavero (born 1954), an Italian medical doctor in Isnello, Palermo. ||
|-id=628
| 4628 Laplace || || Pierre-Simon Marquis de Laplace, French mathematician and astronomer ||
|-id=629
| 4629 Walford || || Roy Walford (1924–2004), professor of pathology at the UCLA School of Medicine in California ||
|-id=630
| 4630 Chaonis || 1987 WA || Italian comune of Chions in northern Italy, location of the Chaonis Observatory () ||
|-id=631
| 4631 Yabu || || Yasuo Yabu (born 1932), Japanese amateur astronomer ||
|-id=632
| 4632 Udagawa || 1987 YB || Tetsuo Udagawa (born 1947) developer of a laser holographic system for precise measurements ||
|-id=633
| 4633 Marinbica || || Marin Dacian Bica (1970–2013), a Romanian professor of physics and astronomy ||
|-id=634
| 4634 Shibuya || 1988 BA || Shibuya, Tokyo, Japan ||
|-id=635
| 4635 Rimbaud || || Arthur Rimbaud, French poet ||
|-id=636
| 4636 Chile || || Chile, South American country and location of the European Southern Observatory ||
|-id=637
| 4637 Odorico || 1989 CT || Odorico Mattiussi (1265–1331), Italian Franciscan monk and missionary ||
|-id=638
| 4638 Estens || 1989 EG || John Locke Estens (born 1919), Australian astronomy educator ||
|-id=639
| 4639 Minox || || Minox, a miniature camera ||
|-id=640
| 4640 Hara || 1989 GA || Megumi Hara, Japanese amateur astronomer ||
|-id=641
| 4641 Ayako || || Ayako Endate (b.~1971) is the wife of Japanese astronomer Kin Endate, who co-discovered this minor planet ||
|-id=642
| 4642 Murchie || || Scott L. Murchie (born 1959), of the Applied Physics Laboratory of Johns Hopkins University and contributor to the NEAR Shoemaker mission ||
|-id=643
| 4643 Cisneros || || Ernest Cisneros (born 1964), one of the unsung heroes of planetary science. Cisneros began his career as a field geologist but has turned his energies to computer system management, software development, networking and data processing. Throughout the flight portion of the NEAR mission, Ernest insured that key hardware and software elements were developed and implemented. During the flybys of (253) Mathilde and (433) Eros (as well as the earth), Ernest worked with the science team delivering calibrated data within minutes of telemetry arrival for both optical navigation and science analysis. Name proposed by J. Veverka and citation written by M. Robinson. ||
|-id=644
| 4644 Oumu || || Ōmu, Hokkaidō, Japan ||
|-id=645
| 4645 Tentaikojo || || Astronomical museum at Sapporo, Japan. Meaning "Star Factory" ||
|-id=646
| 4646 Kwee || 4009 P-L || Kiem Keng Kwee (born 1927), a Dutch-Indonesian astronomer at Leiden Observatory, who studies variable stars, using their lightcurves to determine the characteristics of those systems by means of the Wilson-Devinney program. While observing at Palomar in 1963, he co-discovered comet 59P/Kearns–Kwee. ||
|-id=647
| 4647 Syuji || || Shuji Hayakawa (born 1958), Japanese astronomer ||
|-id=648
| 4648 Tirion || 1931 UE || Wil Tirion (born 1943), Dutch astronomical cartographer ||
|-id=649
| 4649 Sumoto || 1936 YD || Sumoto, Hyōgo, city in Japan ||
|-id=650
| 4650 Mori || 1950 TF || Kiyoshi Mori, Japanese amateur astronomer ||
|-id=651
| 4651 Wongkwancheng || || Kwan-cheng Wong (1907–1986), a leader in Chinese industrial and commercial circles ||
|-id=652
| 4652 Iannini || 1975 QO || Gualberto Mario Iannini (1917–), Argentinean astronomer who has worked in the field of astrometry for almost 40 years. As a student, Iannini studied the orbit of C/1942 C1 (Whipple-Bernasconi-Kulin). In 1962 he joined the faculty of the School of Mathematics, Astronomy and Physics of the National University of Cordoba and became head of the Department of Astrometry of the Cordoba Observatory, where he finished the reduction of the meridian circle catalogue of the Southern Polar Cap, known as the Cordoba E catalogue. ||
|-id=653
| 4653 Tommaso || || Tommaso Campanella (1568–1639), Italian monk, philosopher, poet and political figure ||
|-id=654
| 4654 Gor'kavyj || || Nikolaj Nikolaevich Gor'kavyj (born 1959), staff member of the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory ||
|-id=655
| 4655 Marjoriika || 1978 RS || Marjo Riika Kuusela (born 1964), scholar in Russian literature ||
|-id=656
| 4656 Huchra || || John Huchra (1948–2010), an American astronomer and professor of cosmology at Harvard and known for the discovery of the Great Wall ||
|-id=657
| 4657 Lopez || || Álvaro López-García (born 1941), professor of astronomy at Valencia University, director of the Valencia University Observatory ||
|-id=658
| 4658 Gavrilov || || Aleksej Evgenievich Gavrilov, Ukrainian architect of bridges and director of the "Kievinterproekt" Institute of the International Academy of Architecture; friend of the discoverer, Nikolai Chernykh ||
|-id=659
| 4659 Roddenberry || || Eugene Wesley (Gene) Roddenberry, American creator of Star Trek ||
|-id=660
| 4660 Nereus || 1982 DB || Nereus, a Titan. The name was chosen following a competition organized by the Planetary Society ||
|-id=661
| 4661 Yebes || 1982 WM || Yebes, a Spanish village in the Alcarria region, beautifully described by the Spanish Nobel laureate Camilo José Cela in one of his early books. ||
|-id=662
| 4662 Runk || 1984 HL || Ferdinand Runk (1764–1834), German-Austrian landscape painter ||
|-id=663
| 4663 Falta || || Josef Falta (1786–1847), an engineer and cartographer of the Schwarzenberg court in Český Krumlov, Czech Republic ||
|-id=664
| 4664 Hanner || 1985 PJ || Martha S. Hanner, American planetary scientist at JPL ||
|-id=665
| 4665 Muinonen || || Karri O. Muinonen, Finnish planetary scientist at the Lowell Observatory ||
|-id=666
| 4666 Dietz || || Robert S. Dietz (1914–1995), American geologist, pioneering researcher discoverer of terrestrial impact craters ||
|-id=667
| 4667 Robbiesh || 1986 VC || Hans-Christian Robert (Robbie) Wade Schmidt-Harms (born 1986), stepson of the discoverer Robert H. McNaught and son son of Soo Tan (see ) ||
|-id=668
| 4668 Rayjay || || Sri Lankan-born and raised Ray Jayawardhana (born 1971), known as "RayJay", an astronomer at the University of Toronto, and an award-winning science writer ||
|-id=669
| 4669 Høder || || Høder, Norse god ||
|-id=670
| 4670 Yoshinogawa || 1987 YJ || Yoshino River, Japan ||
|-id=671
| 4671 Drtikol || || František Drtikol, Czech photographer ||
|-id=672
| 4672 Takuboku || 1988 HB || Takuboku Ishikawa, Japanese poet ||
|-id=673
| 4673 Bortle || 1988 LF || John E. Bortle, American amateur astronomer ||
|-id=674
| 4674 Pauling || 1989 JC || Linus Carl Pauling, American chemist ||
|-id=675
| 4675 Ohboke || 1990 SD || Oboke Gorge, in Japan. The valleys were formed by the Yoshino River, and are famous for their tinted autumn leaves. ||
|-id=676
| 4676 Uedaseiji || || Seiji Ueda, Japanese amateur astronomer ||
|-id=677
| 4677 Hiroshi || || Hiroshi Kaneda, Japanese amateur astronomer ||
|-id=678
| 4678 Ninian || || Ninian T. McNaught, father of the discoverer Robert H. McNaught ||
|-id=679
| 4679 Sybil || || Sybil McNaught, mother of the discoverer Robert H. McNaught ||
|-id=680
| 4680 Lohrmann || 1937 QC || Wilhelm Gotthelf Lohrmann, German geodesist and selenographer ||
|-id=681
| 4681 Ermak || || Yermak Timofeyevich, a Cossack who started the Russian conquest of Siberia ||
|-id=682
| 4682 Bykov || || Leonid Bykov, Soviet-Ukrainian actor and film director ||
|-id=683
| 4683 Veratar || || Vera Petrovna Tarashchuk, an astrophysicist at the Astronomical Observatory of Kiev University ||
|-id=684
| 4684 Bendjoya || 1978 GJ || Philippe Bendjoya, French astronomer at the Nice Observatory in southeast France ||
|-id=685
| 4685 Karetnikov || || Valentin Grigor'evich Karetnikov (born 1938), astronomer, professor at Odessa University and director of its observatory ||
|-id=686
| 4686 Maisica || || Maria Luisa Grima Garcia, founder and curator of a small home museum in Spain ||
|-id=687
| 4687 Brunsandrej || || Andrej Vladimirovich Bruns (born 1931), Soviet astronomer and instrument designer at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory ||
|-id=689
| 4689 Donn || 1980 YB || Bertram D. Donn, American astronomer ||
|-id=690
| 4690 Strasbourg || 1983 AJ || Strasbourg, France ||
|-id=691
| 4691 Toyen || 1983 TU || Toyen (Marie Čermínová), Czech photographer ||
|-id=692
| 4692 SIMBAD || || SIMBAD, the astronomical database at Strasbourg ||
|-id=693
| 4693 Drummond || 1983 WH || Jack D. Drummond, American astronomer at Steward Observatory ||
|-id=694
| 4694 Festou || 1985 PM || Michel C. Festou, French astronomer at Midi-Pyrenees Observatory, Toulouse, France ||
|-id=695
| 4695 Mediolanum || || Milan, city in northern Italy and capital of Lombardy (Mediolanum is its Latin name) ||
|-id=696
| 4696 Arpigny || 1985 TP || Claude Arpigny, Belgian astronomer and cometary spectroscopist at the University of Liège ||
|-id=697
| 4697 Novara || 1986 QO || Novara, a city in the Piedmont region in northwest Italy ||
|-id=698
| 4698 Jizera || || Jizera River, Czech Republic ||
|-id=699
| 4699 Sootan || 1986 VE || Soo Hoay Tan (born 1956), high-school science teacher and partner of the discoverer Robert H. McNaught ||
|-id=700
| 4700 Carusi || || Andrea Carusi, Italian astronomer at the National Institute for Astrophysics (Istituto di Astrofisica Spaziale) ||
|}
4701–4800
|-
| 4701 Milani || || Andrea Milani, Italian astronomer ||
|-id=702
| 4702 Berounka || 1987 HW || Berounka River, Czech Republic ||
|-id=703
| 4703 Kagoshima || 1988 BL || Kagoshima, Kagoshima, Japan ||
|-id=704
| 4704 Sheena || || Sheena Fleming Phillips (born 1952), sister of the discoverer Robert H. McNaught ||
|-id=705
| 4705 Secchi || 1988 CK || Angelo Secchi, Italian astronomer and spectroscopist ||
|-id=706
| 4706 Dennisreuter || 1988 DR || Dennis C. Reuter (born 1952), of NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, co-investigator with NASA's Pluto-Kuiper Belt Mission ||
|-id=707
| 4707 Khryses || 1988 PY || Khryses, priest of Apollo ||
|-id=708
| 4708 Polydoros || 1988 RT || Polydorus, Trojan prince ||
|-id=709
| 4709 Ennomos || || Ennomos, mythical person related to Trojan War ||
|-id=710
| 4710 Wade || || Wade Richard Butler (born 1949), a friend of the discoverer Robert H. McNaught ||
|-id=711
| 4711 Kathy || 1989 KD || Kathleen Garnette Moeller, daughter of the discoverer Henry E. Holt ||
|-id=712
| 4712 Iwaizumi || 1989 QE || Iwaizumi, Iwate, Japan ||
|-id=713
| 4713 Steel || 1989 QL || Duncan Steel (born 1955), British astronomer ||
|-id=714
| 4714 Toyohiro || 1989 SH || Toyohiro Akiyama, Japanese cosmonaut ||
|-id=715
| 4715 Medesicaste || || Medesicaste was a daughter of Priam who was married to Imbrius. ||
|-id=716
| 4716 Urey || || Harold Urey (1893–1981), American physicist and Nobel laureate ||
|-id=717
| 4717 Kaneko || 1989 WX || Isao Kaneko (1918–), Japanese astronomical educator ||
|-id=718
| 4718 Araki || || Chikara Araki (born 1946), Japanese astronomical photographer ||
|-id=719
| 4719 Burnaby || || Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada ||
|-id=720
| 4720 Tottori || 1990 YG || Tottori, city in Japan ||
|-id=721
| 4721 Atahualpa || 4239 T-2 || Atahualpa, Inca ruler ||
|-id=722
| 4722 Agelaos || 4271 T-3 || Agelaus, mythical person related to Trojan War ||
|-id=723
| 4723 Wolfgangmattig || 1937 TB || Wolfgang Mattig (born 1927), German solar physicist and cosmologist ||
|-id=724
| 4724 Brocken || 1961 BC || Brocken, mountain in Germany ||
|-id=725
| 4725 Milone || 1975 YE || Eugene Milone, American/Canadian astronomer ||
|-id=726
| 4726 Federer || || Charles A. Federer Jr., founder of Sky & Telescope ||
|-id=727
| 4727 Ravel || || Joseph-Maurice Ravel, French composer ||
|-id=728
| 4728 Lyapidevskij || 1979 VG || Anatoly Lyapidevsky, Soviet aviator and general ||
|-id=729
| 4729 Mikhailmil' || || Mikhail Mil (1909–1970), Soviet scientist, aerospace engineer and designer of helicopters ||
|-id=730
| 4730 Xingmingzhou || 1980 XZ || Xing-Ming Zhou (1965–2004), Chinese amateur astronomer ||
|-id=731
| 4731 Monicagrady || || Monica Grady, head of petrology and meteoritics at the Natural History Museum in London ||
|-id=732
| 4732 Froeschlé || 1981 JG || Claude and Christiane Froeschlé, French astronomers at Côte d'Azur Observatory ||
|-id=733
| 4733 ORO || || Oak Ridge Observatory ||
|-id=734
| 4734 Rameau || || Jean-Philippe Rameau, French composer ||
|-id=735
| 4735 Gary || 1983 AN || George Gary Shoemaker, manager of Meteor Crater Enterprises, Inc. ||
|-id=736
| 4736 Johnwood || || John A. Wood, American planetary geologist and mineralogist ||
|-id=737
| 4737 Kiladze || || Rolan Kiladze (1931–2010), Georgian astronomer ||
|-id=738
| 4738 Jimihendrix || || Jimi Hendrix (1942–1970), an American musician ||
|-id=739
| 4739 Tomahrens || || Thomas J Ahrens, American geophysicist ||
|-id=740
| 4740 Veniamina || || Veniamin Vasil'evich Somov, brother of the discoverer ||
|-id=741
| 4741 Leskov || || Nikolay Leskov, Russian short story writer ||
|-id=742
| 4742 Caliumi || 1986 WG || Ferdinando Caliumi (1915–1993), Italian amateur astronomer ||
|-id=743
| 4743 Kikuchi || 1988 DA || Ryoko Kikuchi (born 1964), backup to first Japanese cosmonaut ||
|-id=744
| 4744 Rovereto || || Rovereto, City of Peace, is an ancient town in Trentino-Alto Adige (Italy), where the local administration is very active in promoting culture and science ||
|-id=745
| 4745 Nancymarie || || Nancy Marie Martinez, daughter of the discoverer Henry E. Holt ||
|-id=746
| 4746 Doi || || Takao Doi, backup payload specialist ||
|-id=747
| 4747 Jujo || 1989 WB || Jūjō Paper Industries, Japan ||
|-id=748
| 4748 Tokiwagozen || 1989 WV || Tokiwagozen, mother of Minamoto no Yoshitsune ||
|-id=749
| 4749 Ledzeppelin || || Led Zeppelin, a band from the UK whose nine albums (1969–1982) made them one of the most influential acts in rock history ||
|-id=750
| 4750 Mukai || || Chiaki Mukai, backup payload specialist ||
|-id=751
| 4751 Alicemanning || 1991 BG || Alice K. Manning, wife of the discoverer ||
|-id=752
| 4752 Myron || 1309 T-2 || Myron of Eleutherae, Ancient Greek (Athenian) sculptor ||
|-id=753
| 4753 Phidias || 4059 T-3 || Phidias, Ancient Greek sculptor ||
|-id=754
| 4754 Panthoos || 5010 T-3 || Panthoos, mythical person related to Trojan War ||
|-id=755
| 4755 Nicky || || Nichole Tombaugh, granddaughter of the discoverer Clyde Tombaugh ||
|-id=756
| 4756 Asaramas || 1950 HJ || Asociación Argentina Amigos de la Astronomía, an amateur astronomical association in Argentina ||
|-id=757
| 4757 Liselotte || 1973 ST || Elizabeth Charlotte, Princess of the Palatinate (1652–1722), daughter of Count Palatine Karl Ludwig von der Pfalz ||
|-id=758
| 4758 Hermitage || || Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg ||
|-id=759
| 4759 Åretta || || Åretta, the name of a school situated in the Norwegian town of Lillehammer. The school was one of three winners of the Best School Teaching of Astronomy competition held during the 2009 Year of Astronomy in Norway. ||
|-id=760
| 4760 Jia-xiang || || Zhang Jiaxiang (born 1932), Chinese astronomer at the Purple mountain observatory and a discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=761
| 4761 Urrutia || 1981 QC || Antonio Urrutia A., Chilean lawyer in Santiago ||
|-id=762
| 4762 Dobrynya || || Dobrynya Nikitich, Russian epic hero ||
|-id=763
| 4763 Ride || 1983 BM || Sally Ride, American astronaut ||
|-id=764
| 4764 Joneberhart || 1983 CC || Jonathan Eberhart, American science writer for the magazine Science News ||
|-id=765
| 4765 Wasserburg || || Gerald J. Wasserburg, American geologist and geophysicist ||
|-id=766
| 4766 Malin || || David F. Malin, British-Australian astronomer and photographer ||
|-id=767
| 4767 Sutoku || 1987 GC || Sutoku (1119–1164), the 75th emperor of Japan ||
|-id=768
| 4768 Hartley || || Malcolm Hartley (born 1947), British-Australian discoverer of minor planets and comets. He's the deputy astronomer in charge of the UK Schmidt Telescope at Siding Spring Observatory. Among his discoveries are two Amor asteroids and ten comets, including eight with a short period (Src). ||
|-id=769
| 4769 Castalia || 1989 PB || Castalia, Greek nymph ||
|-id=770
| 4770 Lane || 1989 PC || Arthur Lonne Lane, a physical chemist and planetary scientist, manager of the geology and planetary section at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory ||
|-id=771
| 4771 Hayashi || || Kohsuke Hayashi, Japanese astronomical educator ||
|-id=772
| 4772 Frankdrake || 1989 VM || Frank Drake (born 1930) is an American astronomer at the SETI Institute who pioneered the search for extraterrestrial intelligence and conducted the first SETI Search in 1960 ||
|-id=773
| 4773 Hayakawa || 1989 WF || Kazuo Hayakawa (1919–), Japanese mineralogist, petrologist and professor of engineering at Hokkaigakuen University in Sapporo ||
|-id=774
| 4774 Hobetsu || || Hobetsu, town in Japan ||
|-id=775
| 4775 Hansen || 1927 TC || Peter Andreas Hansen (1795–1874), Danish–German theoretical astronomer ||
|-id=776
| 4776 Luyi || 1975 VD || Luyi County, China ||
|-id=777
| 4777 Aksenov || || Evgenij Petrovich Aksenov (1933–1995), astronomer and director of the Sternberg Astronomical Institute in Moscow ||
|-id=778
| 4778 Fuss || || Swiss Nicolas Fuss (1755–1825), Swiss mathematician who contributed to the development of mathematical education in Russia, and his son Pavel Fuss (1798–1855) ||
|-id=779
| 4779 Whitley || 1978 XQ || Keith Whitley (1958–1989), American country music singer ||
|-id=780
| 4780 Polina || || Polina Evgen'evna Zakharova, stellar astronomer and director of the Kourovka Astronomical Observatory of the Ural University ||
|-id=781
| 4781 Sládkovič || 1980 TP || Andrej Sládkovič, Slovak poet ||
|-id=782
| 4782 Gembloux || || Gembloux, Belgium ||
|-id=783
| 4783 Wasson || || John T. Wasson, American cosmochemist and professor at the University of California at Los Angeles ||
|-id=784
| 4784 Samcarin || || Samcarin is the Sanskrit word for wanderer ||
|-id=785
| 4785 Petrov || || Andrei Pavlovich Petrov, Russian composer ||
|-id=786
| 4786 Tatianina || || Tatiana Aleksandrovna Somova, friend of the discoverer Nikolai Chernykh ||
|-id=787
| 4787 Shul'zhenko || || Klavdiya Shulzhenko, Soviet singer of war and popular songs ||
|-id=788
| 4788 Simpson || || Robert Simpson (1921–1997), English composer of symphonies and string quartets ||
|-id=789
| 4789 Sprattia || || Christopher E. Spratt (born 1942), Canadian amateur astronomer and member of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada (Src) ||
|-id=790
| 4790 Petrpravec || 1988 PP || Petr Pravec, Czech astronomer ||
|-id=791
| 4791 Iphidamas || || Iphidamas, mythical person related to Trojan War ||
|-id=792
| 4792 Lykaon || || Lycaon, son of Priam the king of Troy ||
|-id=793
| 4793 Slessor || || Mary Slessor (1848–1915), a Scottish missionary to Nigeria ||
|-id=794
| 4794 Bogard || || Donald Bogard (born 1940), American meteoriticist at NASA's Johnson Space Center ||
|-id=795
| 4795 Kihara || || Hideo Kihara (1911–1993), was a Japanese amateur astronomer and a founder of the Nayoro Astronomical Club ||
|-id=796
| 4796 Lewis || 1989 LU || Joseph Walter Lewis Jr. and Anne Beech Lewis, friends of the discoverer ||
|-id=797
| 4797 Ako || 1989 SJ || Akō, Hyōgo, Japan ||
|-id=798
| 4798 Mercator || || Gerardus Mercator (Gerard De Kremer), Flemish cartographer ||
|-id=799
| 4799 Hirasawa || || Yasuo Hirasawa, Japanese amateur astronomer ||
|-id=800
| 4800 Veveri || || Veveri is a suburb of the Italian town of Novara. It is a crossroad for a historical man-made irrigation system, one of the most important in northern Italy, consisting of the Cavour, Quinto Sella and Regina Elena channels, with the Roggia Mora connection, that supports rice cultivations covering an extended region. ||
|}
4801–4900
|-
| 4801 Ohře || || Ohře River, Czech Republic ||
|-id=802
| 4802 Khatchaturian || || Aram Khachaturian (1903–1978), Georgian-Armenian-Russian composer ||
|-id=803
| 4803 Birkle || 1989 XA || Kurt Birkle (1939–2010), German astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=804
| 4804 Pasteur || || Louis Pasteur (1822–1895), French chemist and microbiologist ||
|-id=805
| 4805 Asteropaios || || Asteropaios, Trojan hero from Greek mythology ||
|-id=806
| 4806 Miho || 1990 YJ || Miho, a town of Shimizu-ku, Shizuoka, Japan ||
|-id=807
| 4807 Noboru || 1991 AO || Noboru Yamada (1950–1989), Japanese alpinist ||
|-id=808
| 4808 Ballaero || 1925 BA || Ball Aerospace and Technology Corporation has contributed to the scientific investigation of minor planets and comets through the development of instruments for the Hubble and Spitzer telescopes, the planned Widefield Infrared Survey Explorer and the spacecraft for the Deep Impact mission to comet 9P/Tempel ||
|-id=809
| 4809 Robertball || 1928 RB || Robert Stawell Ball (1840–1913), a British mathematician and astronomer ||
|-id=810
| 4810 Ruslanova || 1972 GL || Lidia Ruslanova (1900–1973), Russian folk singer ||
|-id=811
| 4811 Semashko || || Nikolai Semashko (1874–1949), father of Soviet medicine ||
|-id=812
| 4812 Hakuhou || || Hakuhō, Japanese unofficial Era name in lower half of 7th century ||
|-id=813
| 4813 Terebizh || || Valerij Yuzefovich Terebizh (born 1941), theoretical astrophysicist and observer at the Crimean station of the Sternberg Astronomical Institute ||
|-id=814
| 4814 Casacci || 1978 RW || Claudio Casacci (born 1958), Italian space scientist and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=815
| 4815 Anders || || Edward Anders (born 1926), professor emeritus at the University of Chicago, has made many seminal contributions to the field of meteoritics. His work provided early evidence that meteorites are derived from minor planets rather than a larger fragmented planet and that meteoritic organics are of abiotic origin. ||
|-id=816
| 4816 Connelly || 1981 PK || Robert Connelly (born 1942), American mathematician at Cornell University ||
|-id=817
| 4817 Gliba || || George Gliba (born 1948), co-founder of the Chagrin Valley Astronomical Society. ||
|-id=818
| 4818 Elgar || 1984 EM || Edward Elgar (1857–1934), British composer ||
|-id=819
| 4819 Gifford || 1985 KC || Charles Gifford (1861–1948) published important papers on the impact origin of lunar craters. He established an observatory at Wellington College, which is now reopening as Gifford Observatory. Mt. Gifford and the Gifford Crack, in Fiordland, are named for his legendary exploits in tramping and photography ||
|-id=820
| 4820 Fay || 1985 RZ || Fay Gillis Wells (1908–2002) an American pioneer aviator, globe-trotting journalist and guiding spirit of the Ninety-Nines, an international organization of women pilots ||
|-id=821
| 4821 Bianucci || || Piero Bianucci, Italian science writer ||
|-id=822
| 4822 Karge || || Orville B. Karge (1919–1990), American teacher of physics ||
|-id=823
| 4823 Libenice || || Libenice, Czech archaeological site ||
|-id=824
| 4824 Stradonice || || Stradonice, Czech Republic ||
|-id=825
| 4825 Ventura || || Ventura, California ||
|-id=826
| 4826 Wilhelms || 1988 JO || Don E. Wilhelms, American planetary geologist ||
|-id=827
| 4827 Dares || 1988 QE || Dares, mythical person related to Trojan War ||
|-id=828
| 4828 Misenus || 1988 RV || Misenus, mythical Trojan warrior ||
|-id=829
| 4829 Sergestus || || Sergestus, mythical Trojan ||
|-id=830
| 4830 Thomascooley || || Thomas Benton Cooley, an American hematologist and professor of hygiene and medicine at the University of Michigan and Wayne State University ||
|-id=831
| 4831 Baldwin || || Through his pioneering work on the impact origins of lunar craters, Ralph Baldwin (born 1912) recognized the importance of impacts in the moon's geologic history. Baldwin's contributions to lunar science were published in his books The Face of the Moon (1949) and The Measure of the Moon (1963) ||
|-id=832
| 4832 Palinurus || || Palinurus, mythical Trojan ||
|-id=833
| 4833 Meges || || Mégês Phyleïdês, mythical Greek warrior ||
|-id=834
| 4834 Thoas || || Thoas, mythical person related to Trojan War ||
|-id=835
| 4835 Asaeus || 1989 BQ || Asaeus, from Greek mythology. During the Trojan War, he was the first Greek warrior to be slayed by Hector in the battle at the gates of Troy. ||
|-id=836
| 4836 Medon || || Medôn, mythical Greek warrior ||
|-id=837
| 4837 Bickerton || 1989 ME || Alexander W. Bickerton (1842–1929), professor of chemistry at Canterbury College, was an inspiring teacher and popularizer of science. Ernest Rutherford was one of his distinguished pupils. Bickerton was known for his "partial impact" theory of novae, which he extended to variable stars and other phenomena. ||
|-id=838
| 4838 Billmclaughlin || 1989 NJ || William I. McLaughlin (born 1935), American astronomer and space scientist formerly of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory ||
|-id=839
| 4839 Daisetsuzan || 1989 QG || Daisetsuzan Volcanic Group, Japan ||
|-id=840
| 4840 Otaynang || 1989 UY || Hanne Otaynang (born 1935), who appealed for the environmental preservation of the earth at the 1992 Earth Summit in Brazil ||
|-id=841
| 4841 Manjiro || || Nakahama Manjirō (1827–1898), Japanese traveler ||
|-id=842
| 4842 Atsushi || 1989 WK || Atsushi Takahashi (born 1965), Japanese amateur astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=843
| 4843 Mégantic || || Mont Mégantic, observatory in Québec ||
|-id=844
| 4844 Matsuyama || || Masanori Matsuyama (born 1950), Japanese amateur astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=845
| 4845 Tsubetsu || || The Japanese town of Tsubetsu on the island of Hokkaidō ||
|-id=846
| 4846 Tuthmosis || 6575 P-L || Thutmose, pharaoh ||
|-id=847
| 4847 Amenhotep || 6787 P-L || Amenhotep IV, pharaoh ||
|-id=848
| 4848 Tutenchamun || 3233 T-2 || Tutankhamun, pharaoh ||
|-id=849
| 4849 Ardenne || 1936 QV || Manfred von Ardenne (1907–1997), German inventor and researcher ||
|-id=850
| 4850 Palestrina || || Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (c. 1525–1594), Italian composer ||
|-id=851
| 4851 Vodop'yanova || || Galina Petrovna Vodop'yanova (born 1939), a surgeon of the Russian Academy of Sciences Hospital in St Petersburg ||
|-id=852
| 4852 Pamjones || 1977 JD || Pamela Ann Jones of the Lunar and Planetary Institute in Houston, Texas ||
|-id=853
| 4853 Marielukac || 1979 ML || Marie R. Lukac (born 1947), Staff member, US Naval Observatory ||
|-id=854
| 4854 Edscott || || Edward Scott (born 1947), professor at the University of Hawaii ||
|-id=855
| 4855 Tenpyou || || Tenpyō, Japanese Era name from 729 through 749 ||
|-id=856
| 4856 Seaborg || 1983 LJ || Glenn T. Seaborg (1912–1999), American atomic scientist ||
|-id=857
| 4857 Altgamia || 1984 FM || Andrew L. T. and Angela Maria Chiarappa Green, son and wife of D. W. E. Green, who was involved in taking the discovery films and who found the identifications for this minor planet ||
|-id=858
| 4858 Vorobjov || 1985 UA || Tomáš Vorobjov (born 1984), Slovak amateur astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=859
| 4859 Fraknoi || || Andrew Fraknoi (born 1948), American astronomer and author ||
|-id=860
| 4860 Gubbio || 1987 EP || Gubbio in Italy, site of the iridium anomaly of the K-T extinction boundary ||
|-id=861
| 4861 Nemirovskij || || Lev Ruful'evich Nemirovskij (born 1937), Russian engineer ||
|-id=862
| 4862 Loke || || Loki (Loke), Norse god of mischief ||
|-id=863
| 4863 Yasutani || || Keiki Yasutani (born 1958), Japanese astronomical photographer ||
|-id=864
| 4864 Nimoy || || Leonard Nimoy (1931–2015), American actor, film director and poet ||
|-id=865
| 4865 Sor || 1988 UJ || Fernando Sor (1778–1839), Spanish classical guitar composer ||
|-id=866
| 4866 Badillo || || Victor L. Badillo (born 1930), Filipino Jesuit astronomer, former director of the Manila Observatory, president of the Philippine Astronomical Society from 1972 to 1990, and honorary director of the Astronomical League of the Philippines + ||
|-id=867
| 4867 Polites || 1989 SZ || Polites, prince of Troy and son of king Priam, Greek mythology ||
|-id=868
| 4868 Knushevia || || Kyiv (Kiev) National Taras Shevchenko University is the Ukrainian national center of higher education, science and progressive thinking. Since its founding in 1834 the university has played a great role for the development of education, science and culture in the Ukraine ||
|-id=869
| 4869 Piotrovsky || || Boris Piotrovsky (1908–1990), Russian orientalist, director of the Hermitage ||
|-id=870
| 4870 Shcherban' || || Vladimir Onufrievich Shcherban' (born 1938), Russian engineer ||
|-id=871
| 4871 Riverside || || The city of Riverside, California, to celebrate the 35th anniversary of its affiliation with its "sister city" of Sendai, Japan ||
|-id=872
| 4872 Grieg || || Edvard Grieg (1843–1907), Norwegian composer ||
|-id=873
| 4873 Fukaya || 1990 EC || Fukaya, Saitama, Japan ||
|-id=874
| 4874 Burke || 1991 AW || James D. Burke, lunar settlement and exploration expert. He is known for being the first program manager of the Ranger Program, and advisor to the Planetary Society ||
|-id=875
| 4875 Ingalls || 1991 DJ || Laura Ingalls Wilder (1867–1957), American author of the "Little House" series, and her family ||
|-id=876
| 4876 Strabo || 1133 T-2 || Strabo, Greek historian and geographer ||
|-id=877
| 4877 Humboldt || 5066 T-2 || Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859), a Prussian geographer, naturalist and explorer ||
|-id=878
| 4878 Gilhutton || 1968 OF || Ricardo Gil-Hutton (born 1958), Argentine astronomer and dynamicist, specialist in the collisional evolution of minor planets ||
|-id=879
| 4879 Zykina || 1974 VG || Lyudmila Zykina (1929–2009), Soviet singer of folk songs, the favourite singer of Leonid Brezhnev ||
|-id=880
| 4880 Tovstonogov || || Georgy Tovstonogov (1915–1989), Russian director, after whom a major theatre in St Petersburg is named ||
|-id=881
| 4881 Robmackintosh || 1975 XJ || Roberto Mackintosh (1971–2012) was the President of the Asociación Argentina Amigos de la Astronomia (2009–2012) and worked to better coordinate amateur and professional activities ||
|-id=882
| 4882 Divari || || Nikolaj Borisovich Divari (1921–1993), Ukrainian astronomer and professor at the Odessa Polytechnical Institute ||
|-id=883
| 4883 Korolirina || || Leonidovna Korol', a friend of the discoverer Nikolai Chernykh ||
|-id=884
| 4884 Bragaria || || Luka Fedorovich Bragar' (born 1938), a senior lecturer on the staff of Tiraspol Pedagogical Institute (Moldova). ||
|-id=885
| 4885 Grange || 1980 LU || Alice Shoemaker Grange (born 1908), aunt of Eugene Shoemaker ||
|-id=886
| 4886 Kojima || || Hideyasu Kojima (born 1951), the curator of the Japanese Antarctic meteorite collection at the National Institute of Polar Research in Tokyo. ||
|-id=887
| 4887 Takihiroi || || Takahiro (Taki) Hiroi (born 1960), a researcher in the department of geological sciences at Brown University. ||
|-id=888
| 4888 Doreen || || Doreen Vingness Spellmann, sister-in-law of the discoverer Carolyn Shoemaker ||
|-id=889
| 4889 Praetorius || || Michael Praetorius (1571–1621), German composer ||
|-id=890
| 4890 Shikanosima || || Shikanosima, island in Japan ||
|-id=891
| 4891 Blaga || 1984 GR || Blaga Dimitrova, Bulgarian poetess, novelist and translator ||
|-id=892
| 4892 Chrispollas || || Christian Pollas (born 1947), a French astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=893
| 4893 Seitter || || Waltraut Seitter, German astronomer ||
|-id=894
| 4894 Ask || 1986 RJ || Ask, the first man, in Norse mythology ||
|-id=895
| 4895 Embla || || Embla, the first woman, in Norse mythology ||
|-id=896
| 4896 Tomoegozen || 1986 YA || Tomoe Gozen (c. 1157–1247), Japanese female samurai ||
|-id=897
| 4897 Tomhamilton || 1987 QD6 || Thomas William Hamilton (born 1939) determined radar and fuel requirements for the Apollo Project. Later he wrote shows (in a dozen languages and also for the deaf) for programmable planetaria, taught astronomy for 32 years and trained students to enter the planetarium field (see list of his books). ||
|-id=898
| 4898 Nishiizumi || 1988 FJ || Kunihiko Nishiizumi, Japanese nuclear chemist at the University of California at Berkeley ||
|-id=899
| 4899 Candace || 1988 JU || Candace P. Kohl, American chemist and investigator of ancient solar activity ||
|-id=900
| 4900 Maymelou || 1988 ME || Mayme Lou "Stevey" Stevens Bruce, together with her husband, wrote books about their travels, enthusiastic supporter and spokesperson for solar system research ||
|}
4901–5000
|-
| 4901 Ó Briain || 1988 VJ || Dara Ó Briain (born 1972), Irish comedian ||
|-id=902
| 4902 Thessandrus || || Thessandrus, mythical person related to Trojan War ||
|-id=903
| 4903 Ichikawa || 1989 UD || Kiyotaka (or Seikou) Ichikawa, Japanese amateur astronomer ||
|-id=904
| 4904 Makio || 1989 WZ || Makio Akiyama (born 1950), Japanese astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=905
| 4905 Hiromi || || Hiromi Takahashi, wife of one of the discoverers ||
|-id=906
| 4906 Seneferu || 2533 P-L || Sneferu (c. 2613–2589 BC), ancient Egyptian king, founder of the 4th dynasty and builder of pyramids ||
|-id=907
| 4907 Zoser || 7618 P-L || Djoser (Zoser) ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the 3rd dynasty (2630 BC – 2611 BC) ||
|-id=908
| 4908 Ward || 1933 SD || Steven Ward, electronics technician at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics ||
|-id=909
| 4909 Couteau || || Paul Couteau, French astronomer and observer of double-stars at Nice Observatory ||
|-id=910
| 4910 Kawasato || 1953 PR || Nobuhiro Kawasato, Japanese amateur astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=911
| 4911 Rosenzweig || 1953 UD || Jack Rosenzweig (1919–1994) and Marcelle Rosenzweig (1929–) "Pioneers of the Zone" in Puerto Ordaz, Venezuela ||
|-id=912
| 4912 Emilhaury || || Emil Haury (1904–1992), American archaeologist ||
|-id=913
| 4913 Wangxuan || 1965 SO || Wang Xuan (1937–2006), Chinese computer scientist ||
|-id=914
| 4914 Pardina || 1969 GD || Elsa Gutierrez Rodriguez-Pardina (born 1921), Argentinian astronomer at the La Plata Observatory in Argentina ||
|-id=915
| 4915 Solzhenitsyn || || Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn (1918–2008), Russian writer and critic of the Soviet Union and communism ||
|-id=916
| 4916 Brumberg || 1970 PS || Victor A. Brumberg (born 1933), Russian astronomer and former staff member at the Institute of Theoretical Astronomy ||
|-id=917
| 4917 Yurilvovia || || Yurij Alekseevich L'vov (1932–1994), deputy director of the Institute of Biology and Biophysics at the Tomsk State University ||
|-id=918
| 4918 Rostropovich || || Mstislav Rostropovich (1927–2007), a Russian cellist and conductor ||
|-id=919
| 4919 Vishnevskaya || || Galina Vishnevskaya (1926–2012), Russian opera singer, wife of Mstislav Rostropovich (see above) ||
|-id=920
| 4920 Gromov || || Mikhail Gromov (1899–1985), Russian aviator who set the world record for long-distance flight in 1934 ||
|-id=921
| 4921 Volonté || 1980 SJ || Gian Maria Volonté (1933–1994), Italian actor ||
|-id=922
| 4922 Leshin || || Laurie A. Leshin (born 1965), a planetary geologist and director of Sciences and Exploration at Goddard Space Flight Center ||
|-id=923
| 4923 Clarke || || Arthur C. Clarke (1917–2008), British-Sri Lankan science fiction author ||
|-id=924
| 4924 Hiltner || || W. Albert Hiltner (1914–1991), American astronomer ||
|-id=925
| 4925 Zhoushan || || City of Zhoushan, in east China ||
|-id=926
| 4926 Smoktunovskij || || Innokenty Smoktunovsky (1925–1994), Russian actor ||
|-id=927
| 4927 O'Connell || || Daniel O'Connell (1775–1847), Irish politician ||
|-id=928
| 4928 Vermeer || || Johannes Vermeer (1632–1675), Dutch painter ||
|-id=929
| 4929 Yamatai || 1982 XV || Yamataikoku (Yamatai), region of ancient Japan ||
|-id=930
| 4930 Rephiltim || || Rebecca Salyards (born 1988), Philip Salyards (born 1991) and Timothy Salyards (born 1995), children of American astronomer Stephen L. Salyards who discovered this minor planet ||
|-id=931
| 4931 Tomsk || || Siberian city of Tomsk, Russia ||
|-id=932
| 4932 Texstapa || || Texas Star Party, amateur astronomy gathering ||
|-id=933
| 4933 Tylerlinder || || Tyler Linder (born 1986), an assiduous observer of minor planets at the Astronomical Research Institute ||
|-id=934
| 4934 Rhôneranger || 1985 JJ || Randall Graham, wine producer ||
|-id=935
| 4935 Maslachkova || || Iya Mikhailovna Maslachkova (1937–1996), Russian poet and teacher from St. Petersburg ||
|-id=936
| 4936 Butakov || || Grigory Butakov (1820–1882), Russian admiral ||
|-id=937
| 4937 Lintott || || Chris Lintott (born 1980), British astronomer and public educator, co-presenter since 2004 of the long-standing BBC monthly television program The Sky at Night ||
|-id=938
| 4938 Papadopoulos || || Christos Papadopoulos (1910–1992), a Johannesburg-based South African astrophotographer and star atlas compiler, published his three-volume True Visual Magnitude Photographic Star Atlas in 1979. ||
|-id=939
| 4939 Scovil || || Charles E. Scovil (born 1928), an amateur astronomer and curator of the Stamford Observatory in Connecticut, United States ||
|-id=940
| 4940 Polenov || || Vasily Polenov (1844–1927), Russian landscape painter ||
|-id=941
| 4941 Yahagi || 1986 UA || Yahagi River, a river flows through Aichi, hometown of the discoverers ||
|-id=942
| 4942 Munroe || || Randall Munroe (born 1984) is a former NASA roboticist and the author of xkcd, a popular webcomic various themes including science, mathematics technology and computer science ||
|-id=943
| 4943 Lac d'Orient || 1987 OQ || Man-made lake in the Orient Forest Regional Natural Park (Lac de la Forêt d'Orient) in northern France ||
|-id=944
| 4944 Kozlovskij || || Ivan Kozlovsky (1900–1993), Russian opera singer ||
|-id=945
| 4945 Ikenozenni || 1987 SJ || Ikenozenni, second wife of Taira no Tadamori (1096–1153), Japanese samurai ||
|-id=946
| 4946 Askalaphus || || Askalaphus (Ascalaphus), son of Ares, brother of Ialmenus, participant in the Trojan War ||
|-id=947
| 4947 Ninkasi || || Ninkasi, Sumerian goddess of wine and beer ||
|-id=948
| 4948 Hideonishimura || || Hideo Nishimura (born 1949) observer of comets and discoverer of C/1994 N1 (Nakamura-Nishimura-Machholz) in 1965 ||
|-id=949
| 4949 Akasofu || 1988 WE || Syun-Ichi Akasofu (born 1930), Japanese professor of geophysics since 1964 at the University of Fairbanks, Alaska, where he served as director of the International Arctic Research Center (1998–2007) and his auroral work received national and international recognition ||
|-id=950
| 4950 House || || R. C. House, novelist and journalist and editor of JPL's Universe ||
|-id=951
| 4951 Iwamoto || 1990 BM || Masayuki Iwamoto (born 1954), Japanese amateur astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=952
| 4952 Kibeshigemaro || || Shigemaro Kibe (1912–1990), Japanese amateur telescope maker and an observer of the Sun, planets and variable stars ||
|-id=954
| 4954 Eric || 1990 SQ || Ancient Norse name, used for Scandinavian monarchs such as Erik the Red (c. 950–1003) and his son Leif Erikson (c. 970–1020), Eric IX (c. 1156–1160) king of Sweden, and Eric of Pomerania (1381–1459) king of Denmark, Norway and Sweden. Also named for Eric Dale Roman, son of discoverer Brian P. Roman ||
|-id=955
| 4955 Gold || || Robert E. Gold (born 1943), of the Applied Physics Laboratory of Johns Hopkins University and contributor to the NEAR Shoemaker mission ||
|-id=956
| 4956 Noymer || || Andrew J. Noymer (born 1971), American astronomer and discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=957
| 4957 Brucemurray || 1990 XJ || Bruce C. Murray (1931–2013), American planetary scientist, co-founder with Carl Sagan of the Planetary Society ||
|-id=958
| 4958 Wellnitz || || Dennis D. Wellnitz (born 1951), American physicist, observer and instrument builder at the University of Maryland ||
|-id=959
| 4959 Niinoama || || Taira no Tokiko (1126–1185), second wife of Taira no Kiyomori ||
|-id=960
| 4960 Mayo || 4657 P-L || Mayo Greenberg (1922–2001), American-Dutch astrochemist and expert on cometary structure and composition † ||
|-id=961
| 4961 Timherder || || Timothy Scott Herder (born 1955), American the deputy project manager of NASA's New Horizons-Pluto Kuiper Belt mission. As such, he has helped further the exploration of the planets. ||
|-id=962
| 4962 Vecherka || 1973 TP || Vechernij Peterburg, newspaper in St. Petersburg, Russia, that frequently publishes astronomical information ||
|-id=963
| 4963 Kanroku || || Kanroku (Gwalleuk), a 7th-century Korean Buddhist monk ||
|-id=964
| 4964 Kourovka || || Kourovka astronomical observatory, near Kourovka, Russia ||
|-id=965
| 4965 Takeda || || Hiroshi Takeda (born 1934), Japanese meteologist ||
|-id=966
| 4966 Edolsen || || Edward John Olsen (1927–), American meteoriticist ||
|-id=967
| 4967 Glia || || Latin for "glue". Glial cells provide support and protection for neurons in the central and peripheral nervous systems ||
|-id=968
| 4968 Suzamur || 1986 PQ || Suzanne Moss Murray, friend of American astronomer Eleanor Helin who discovered this minor planet ||
|-id=969
| 4969 Lawrence || 1986 TU || Kenneth J. Lawrence (born 1964), American astronomer, participant in Palomar Planet-Crossing Asteroid Survey, and a discoverer of minor planets ||
|-id=970
| 4970 Druyan || || Ann Druyan (born 1949), American author and producer, wife of Carl Sagan ||
|-id=971
| 4971 Hoshinohiroba || 1989 BY || Hoshinohiroba, Comet Observers Network in Japan ||
|-id=972
| 4972 Pachelbel || || Johann Pachelbel (1653–1706), German composer and organist ||
|-id=973
| 4973 Showa || 1990 FT || Manufacturer of telescopes in Japan ||
|-id=974
| 4974 Elford || 1990 LA || W. Graham Elford (1926–), Australian astronomer, radar meteor researcher at the University of Adelaide and former president of IAU Commission 22 ||
|-id=975
| 4975 Dohmoto || || Yoshio Dohmoto (1914- ), Japanese astronomer who directed the Asahikawa Observatory in Hokkaido ||
|-id=976
| 4976 Choukyongchol || 1991 PM || Cho Gyeong-chul (1929–2010), Korean astronomer ||
|-id=977
| 4977 Rauthgundis || 2018 P-L || Rauthgundis Seitz, friend of the discoverers ||
|-id=978
| 4978 Seitz || 4069 T-2 || Horstmar Seitz, friend of one of the discoverers ||
|-id=979
| 4979 Otawara || 1949 PQ || Akira Otawara (born 1950), Japanese photo artist and writer ||
|-id=980
| 4980 Magomaev || || Muslim Magomayev (1942–2008), a Soviet crooner and opera singer ||
|-id=981
| 4981 Sinyavskaya || 1974 VS || Tamara Sinyavskaya (born 1943), Soviet opera singer, wife of Muslim Magomayev (see above) ||
|-id=982
| 4982 Bartini || || Robert Ludvigovich Bartini (1897–1974), an Italian aircraft designer and researcher in aerodynamics, theoretical physics and cosmology. Active mostly in the Soviet Union, he was called "Barone Rosso" because of his noble descent. ||
|-id=983
| 4983 Schroeteria || || Johann Hieronymus Schröter (1745–1816), German astronomer ||
|-id=984
| 4984 Patrickmiller || || Patrick J. Miller (born 1949), professor of mathematics at Hardin-Simmons University in Abilene, TX ||
|-id=985
| 4985 Fitzsimmons || || Alan Fitzsimmons (DOB n.a.), a British astronomer, professor of astronomy and a discoverer of minor planets (Src) ||
|-id=986
| 4986 Osipovia || || Valery Ivanovich Osipov, Russian historian, archaeologist and linguist ||
|-id=987
| 4987 Flamsteed || || John Flamsteed (1646–1719), first Astronomer Royal of England, known for the Flamsteed designation used in his star catalog Historia Coelestis Britannica ||
|-id=988
| 4988 Chushuho || || Chu, Shu Ho David, Hong Kong physical educator, promoter of the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing ||
|-id=989
| 4989 Joegoldstein || || Joseph I. Goldstein (1939–2015), American meteoriticist ||
|-id=990
| 4990 Trombka || || Jacob Israel Trombka (born 1930), American physicist at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center ||
|-id=991
| 4991 Hansuess || || Hans Suess (1909–1993), Austrian-born American geochemist ||
|-id=992
| 4992 Kálmán || || Emmerich Kálmán (1882–1953), Hungarian composer of operettas ||
|-id=993
| 4993 Cossard || 1983 GR || Guido Cossard (born 1958), Italian archaeoastronomer ||
|-id=994
| 4994 Kisala || || Rachel Kisala (born 1985), Physics and Astronomy Major, worked for Dr. Brian Marsden at the Minor Planet Center ||
|-id=995
| 4995 Griffin || 1984 QR || Griffin Swanson, son of the discoverer ||
|-id=996
| 4996 Veisberg || || Vladimir Grigoryevich Weisberg (1924–1985), Russian painter ||
|-id=997
| 4997 Ksana || 1986 TM || Kseniya Andréevna Nessler, friend of Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Karachkina who discovered this minor planet ||
|-id=998
| 4998 Kabashima || 1986 VG || Fujio Kabashima (born 1939), Japanese amateur astronomer ||
|-id=999
| 4999 MPC || 1987 CJ || Minor Planet Circulars, astrometric observations published by the Minor Planet Center ||
|-id=000
| 5000 IAU || || International Astronomical Union ||
|}
References
004001-005000 |
925739 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sender%20ID | Sender ID | Sender ID is an historic anti-spoofing proposal from the former MARID IETF working group that tried to join Sender Policy Framework (SPF) and Caller ID. Sender ID is defined primarily in Experimental RFC 4406, but there are additional parts in RFC 4405, RFC 4407 and RFC 4408.
Principles of operation
Sender ID is heavily based on SPF, with only a few additions.
Sender ID tries to improve on SPF: SPF does not verify the header addresses (of which there can be more than one) that indicate the claimed sending party. One of these header addresses is typically displayed to the user and may be used to reply to emails. These header addresses can be different from the address that SPF tries to verify; that is, SPF verifies only the "MAIL FROM" address, also called the envelope sender.
However, there are many similar email header fields that all contain sending party information; therefore Sender ID defines in RFC 4407 a Purported Responsible Address (PRA) as well as a set of heuristic rules to establish this address from the many typical headers in an email.
Syntactically, Sender ID is almost identical to SPF except that v=spf1 is replaced with one of:
spf2.0/mfrommeaning to verify the envelope sender address just like SPF.
spf2.0/mfrom,pra or spf2.0/pra,mfrommeaning to verify both the envelope sender and the PRA.
spf2.0/prameaning to verify only the PRA.
The only other syntactical difference is that Sender ID offers the feature of positional modifiers not supported in SPF. In practice, so far no positional modifier has been specified in any Sender ID implementation.
In practice, the pra scheme usually only offers protection when the email is legitimate, while offering no real protection in the case of spam or phishing. The pra for most legitimate email will be either the familiar From: header field, or, in the case of mailing lists, the Sender: header field. In the case of phishing or spam, however, the pra may be based on Resent-* header fields that are often not displayed to the user. To be an effective anti-phishing tool, the MUA (Mail User Agent or Mail Client) will need to be modified to display either the pra for Sender ID, or the Return-Path: header field for SPF.
The pra tries to counter the problem of phishing, while SPF or mfrom tries to counter the problem of spam bounces and other auto-replies to forged Return-Paths. Two different problems with two different proposed solutions. However, Sender-ID and SPF yield the same result in approximately 80% of the cases, according to a billion message analysis.
Standardization issues
The pra has the disadvantage that forwarders and mailing lists can only support it by modifying the mail header, e.g. by inserting a Sender or Resent-Sender. The latter violates RFC 2822 and can be incompatible with RFC 822.
With SPF, mailing lists continue to work as is. Forwarders wishing to support SPF only need to modify SMTP MAIL FROM and RCPT TO, not the mail. This concept is not new: with the original RFC 821 SMTP forwarders always added their host name to the reverse path in the MAIL FROM.
The most problematic point in the core Sender ID specification is its recommendation to interpret v=spf1 policies like spf2.0/mfrom,pra instead of spf2.0/mfrom. This was never intended by all published SPF drafts since 2003, and for an unknown large number of v=spf1 policies an evaluation for pra could cause bogus results for many cases where pra and mfrom are different. This problem was the basis of an appeal to the Internet Architecture Board (IAB). In response to another prior appeal the IESG already noted that Sender ID cannot advance on the IETF standards track without addressing the incompatibility with a MUST in RFC 2822.
Various surveys performed in 2012, when SPF turned from experimental to proposed standard, showed that fewer than 3% of mail domains published specific requests for using the pra, compared to some 40~50% of mail domains using SPF.
Patents
The Sender ID proposal was the subject of controversy regarding licensing issues: Microsoft holds patents on key parts of Sender ID and used to license those patents under terms that were not compatible with the GNU General Public License and which were considered problematic for free software implementations in general. On October 23, 2006, Microsoft placed those patents under the Open Specification Promise, which is compatible with some free and open source licenses, but not with the most recent version of the GPL license, version 3.x.
See also
:Category:Email authentication
E-mail authentication overview
MARID (IETF WG in 2004)
DKIM
DomainKeys
References
External links
ASF Position Regarding Sender ID statement from the Apache Software Foundation
IAB appeal about Sender ID's reuse of v=spf1 for PRA from the SPF project (2006).
Debian project unable to deploy Sender ID statement by the Debian project
IETF Decides on SPF / Sender-ID issue coverage and discussion on slashdot
Is Sender ID Dead in the Water? - No MARID Working Group Consensus coverage and discussion on groklaw
MARID Co-Chairs Clarify Consensus Statement
MARID to close mailing list thread.
Sender ID: A Tale of Open Standards and Corporate Greed?
"SPF: SPF vs Sender ID"
"Sender Id Types in Different Countries"
"Sender Id"
Email authentication
Spam filtering
Microsoft initiatives |
4828383 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20color%20palettes | List of color palettes | This article is a list of the color palettes for notable computer graphics, terminals and video game console hardware.
Only a sample and the palette's name are given here. More specific articles are linked from the name of each palette, for the test charts, samples, simulated images, and further technical details (including references).
In the past, manufacturers have developed many different display systems in a competitive, non-collaborative basis (with a few exceptions, as the VESA consortium), creating many proprietary, non-standard different instances of display hardware. Often, as with early personal and home computers, a given machine employed its unique display subsystem, with its also unique color palette. Also, software developers had made use of the color abilities of distinct display systems in many different ways. The result is that there is no single common standard nomenclature or classification taxonomy which can encompass every computer colour palette.
In order to organize the material, color palettes have been grouped following arbitrary but rational criteria. First, generic monochrome and full RGB repertories common to various computer display systems. Second, usual color repertories used for display systems that employ indexed color techniques. And finally, specific manufacturers' color palettes implemented in many representative early personal computers and videogame consoles of various brands.
The list for personal computer palettes is split into two categories: 8-bit and 16-bit machines. This is not intended as a true strict categorization of such machines, because mixed architectures also exist (16-bit processors with an 8-bit data bus or 32-bit processors with a 16-bit data bus, among others). The distinction is based more on broad 8-bit and 16-bit computer ages or generations (around 1975–1985 and 1985–1995, respectively) and their associated state of the art in color display capabilities.
Here is the common color test chart and sample image used to render every palette in this series of articles:
{| style="border-style: none" border="0"
|-
||
||
|}
See further details in the summary paragraph of the corresponding article.
List of monochrome and RGB palettes
For the purpose of this article, the term monochrome palette means a set of intensities for a monochrome display, and the term RGB palette is defined as the complete set of combinations a given RGB display can offer by mixing all the possible intensities of the red, green, and blue primaries available in its hardware.
These are generic complete repertories of colors to produce black and white and RGB color pictures by the display hardware, not necessarily the total number of such colors that can be simultaneously displayed in a given text or graphic mode of any machine. RGB is the most common method to produce colors for displays; so these complete RGB color repertories have every possible combination of R-G-B triplets within any given maximum number of levels per component.
For specific hardware and different methods to produce colors than RGB, see the List of computer hardware palettes and the List of video game consoles sections.
For various software arrangements and sorts of colors, including other possible full RGB arrangements within 8-bit depth displays, see the List of software palettes section.
Monochrome palettes
These palettes only have some shades of gray.
{|
! scope="row" style="width: 50px;" | Bits
| Monochrome (1-bit)black and white
| 2-bit grayscale22 = 4 levels of gray
| 4-bit grayscale24 = 16 levels of gray
| 8-bit grayscale28 = 256 levels of gray
|-
! scope="row" style="width: 150px;" | no dithering
|
|
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|-
! scope="row" style="width: 150px;" | Floyd–Steinberg dithering
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|-
|}
Dichrome palettes
Each permuted pair of red, green, and blue (16-bit color palette, with 65,536 colors).
{| style="border-style: none" border="0"
|
| 16-bit Red Green
| 16-bit Red Blue
| 16-bit Green Blue
|-
! Additive
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|-
! Subtractive
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|}
Regular RGB palettes
These full RGB palettes employ the same number of bits to store the relative intensity for the red, green and blue components of every image's pixel color. Thus, they have the same number of levels per channel and the total number of possible colors is always the cube of a power of two. It should be understood that 'when developed' many of these formats were directly related to the size of some host computers 'natural word length' in bytes—the amount of memory in bits held by a single memory address such that the CPU can grab or put it in one operation.
{|
! scope="row" style="width: 80px;" | Bits
| 3-bit RGB21×3 = 8 colors
| 6-bit RGB22×3 = 64 colors
| 9-bit RGB23×3 = 512 colors
| 12-bit RGB24×3 = 4,096 colors
| 15-bit RGB25×3 = 32,768 colors
| 18-bit RGB26×3 = 262,144 colors
| 24-bit RGB28×3 = 16,777,216 colors
|-
! scope="row" style="width: 80px;" | no dithering
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|-
! scope="row" style="width: 80px;" | Floyd-Steinberg dithering
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|-
! Color cube
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|}
Non-regular RGB palettes
These are also RGB palettes, in the sense defined above (except for the 4-bit RGBI, which has an intensity bit that affects all channels at once), but either they do not have the same number of levels for each primary channel, or the numbers are not powers of two, so are not represented as separate bit fields. All of these have been used in popular personal computers.
{| style="border-style: none" border="0"
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
| 4-bit RGBI23×2 = 16 colors
| 3-level RGB33 = 27 colors
| 3-3-2 bit RGB 8×8×4 = 256 colors
| 16-bit RGB32×64×32 = 65,536 colors (HighColor)
|}
List of software palettes
Systems that use a 4-bit or 8-bit pixel depth can display up to 16 or 256 colors simultaneously. Many personal computers in the later 1980s and early 1990s displayed at most 256 different colors, freely selected by software (either by the user or by a program) from their wider hardware's color palette.
Usual selections of colors in limited subsets (generally 16 or 256) of the full palette includes some RGB level arrangements commonly used with the 8 bpp palettes as master palettes or universal palettes (i.e., palettes for multipurpose uses).
These are some representative software palettes, but any selection can be made in such types of systems.
System specific palettes
These are selections of colors officially employed as system palettes in some popular operating systems for personal computers that feature 8-bit displays.
{| style="border-style: none" border="0"
|-
| OS
| Windows
| Macintosh
| RISC OS
|-
| 16 colors
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|-
| 20 colors
|
|
|
|}
RGB arrangements
These are selections of colors based on evenly ordered RGB levels, mainly used as master palettes to display any kind of image within the limitations of the 8-bit pixel depth.
{| style="border-style: none" border="0"
|-
|6 level RGB63 = 216 colors
|6-8-5 levels RGB6×8×5 = 240 colors
|6-7-6 levels RGB6×7×6 = 252 colors
|8-8-4 levels RGB8×8×4 = 256 colors
|-
|
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|}
Other common uses of software palettes
{| style="border-style: none" border="0"
| Adaptive palettesPicked colors
| Grayscale palettesLevels of gray
| Color gradient palettesLevels of any hue
| False color palettesContinuous-tone colors
|-
|
|
|
|
|}
List of computer hardware palettes
In early personal computers and terminals that offered color displays, some color palettes were chosen algorithmically to provide the most diverse set of colors for a given palette size, and others were chosen to assure the availability of certain colors. In many early home computers, especially when the palette choices were determined at the hardware level by resistor combinations, the palette was determined by the manufacturer.
Many early models output composite video colors. When seen on TV devices, the perception of the colors may not correspond with the value levels for the color values employed (most noticeable with NTSC TV color system).
For current RGB display systems for PC's (Super VGA, etc.), see the 16-bit RGB and 24-bit RGB for HighColor (thousands) and TrueColor (millions of colors) modes.
For video game consoles, see the List of videogame consoles section.
For every model, their main different graphical color modes are listed based exclusively in the way they handle colors on screen, not all their different screen modes.
The list is ordered roughly historically by video hardware, not grouped by branch. They are listed according to the original model of every system, which implies that enhanced versions, clones and compatibles also support the original palette.
Terminals and 8-bit machines
{| style="border-style: none" border="0"
|-
||
|| Teletext (1976)2×3 cell graphic block characters on a 40×25 character page. 2 colors per block, chosen from 8 primary colors (1 bit each of Red, Green, and Blue). The first row is reserved for a page header and attributes are set with control codes which each occupy one character position giving a maximum resolution of 78×72.
|-
||
|| Apple II (1977)"Low" (text block) 16 color, "high resolution" (140x192 bitmap) 6 color and "double high" 16 color (NTSC artifact based; actually 280×192 monochrome) graphic modes.
|-
||
|| Commodore VIC-20 (1981)200 definable characters of 8×16 pixels each, 8 or 10 color palette modes with 2 colors per character cell.
|-
||
|| CGA for IBM-PC (1981)16 color text mode (unofficially adjustable to give a 160×100 16 color bitmap mode), 4 color medium and monochrome high resolution graphic modes; medium resolution modes select from six preset palettes (four official, two undocumented; actually three main palettes in low and high intensity form) for the three "foreground" colors, with a free choice amongst the 8 low intensity colors for the fourth, "background" color. All modes work within the same 16 color master palette (1 bit each of Red, Green, Blue, and Intensity/Brightness) as text mode.
|-
||
|| Commodore 64 (1982)Low-resolution "Multicolor" (4 colors per sprite or character cell) and medium resolution (2 color per sprite/cell) graphic modes, choosing from 16 color master palette.
|-
||
|| ZX Spectrum (1982)Bitmapped display with 15 colors (primary hues of RGB with two intensity levels for each except black), assigned on the basis of two "attributes" per 8×8 pixel character cell. Cells also share one intensity level between both "paper" and "ink" colors.
|-
||
|| Mattel Aquarius (1983) - Similar character block and "pixel" arrangement to Teletext, but resolution is a true 80×72 (2×3 pixels on 40×24 grid) and master palette is expanded to 16 colors (1 bit each of Red, Green, Blue, Brightness).
|-
||
|| MSX systems (1983)"Screen 2" and "Screen 3" 15-color graphic modes.
|-
||
|| Thomson MO5 (1984) - Fixed 16-color palette (1 bit each of Red, Green, Blue, and Brightness, with bright white replaced by orange), with 2 colors per block on an 8×1 pixel attribute grid.
|-
||
|| Commodore Plus/4 (1984)Multicolor and High resolution 16 color graphic modes, from 121 color master palette (black and 15 hues by 8 luminosity levels).
|-
||
|| Amstrad CPC (1984)Low 16-, medium 4- and high resolution 2-color graphic modes (160, 320 and 640 × 200 pixel), from 27 color master palette (3 levels for each of red, green and blue).
|-
||
|| MSX2 systems (1985)"Screen 8" 256-color (3 bits each of Red and Green, 2 bits for Blue) graphic modes
|-
||
|| Fujitsu FM-77 AV 40 (1986)Low 262,144-color and high resolution 8-color graphic modes, from 262,144 palette (6 bits for each of Red, Green, and Blue).
|-
||
|| MSX2+ systems (1988)"Screen 10&11" 12,499- YJK+YAE and "Screen 12" 19,268-color YJK graphic modes
|}
16-bit machines
{| style="border-style: none" border="0"
|-
||
|| EGA for IBM PC/AT (1984)Medium and high resolution 16-color graphic modes, out of 64 (2 bits for each of red, green, and blue).
|-
||
|| Atari ST (1985)Low 16-, medium 4-color and high resolution monochrome modes, out of 512 (3 bits for each of red, green, and blue) (4096 (4 bits each) on STe).
|-
||
|| Commodore Amiga OCS (1985)2-, 4-, 8-, 16- and 32-color standard graphic modes, EHB 64- and HAM 4096-color enhanced modes; 2 to 64 color modes pick from a 4096 color master palette (4 bits for each of red, green, and blue), with 64 color mode constructed from 32 normally chosen colors plus a second set of 32 fixed at half the intensity of the first. HAM mode restricted by only being able to change one color channel (Red, Green or Blue) per pixel.
|-
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|| Apple IIgs (1986)Super High Res 4-, 8-, 16- and 256-color graphic modes, from 4096 (4 bits of each of red, green, and blue), with some palette choice restrictions in 80-column modes.
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|| MCGA and VGA for IBM PC/AT (1987)Medium 256- and high resolution 16-color graphic modes, from 262,144 (6 bits of each of red, green, and blue).
|-
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|| Sharp X68000 (1987)Medium 65,536-color and high resolution 16-color graphic modes, from 65,536.
|}
Video game console palettes
Color palettes of some of the most popular video game consoles. The criteria are the same as those of the List of computer hardware palettes section.
See also
List of monochrome and RGB color formats
List of software palettes
List of 8-bit computer hardware palettes
List of 16-bit computer hardware palettes
List of video game console palettes
Palette (computing)
Indexed color
List of colors (compact)
Web colors
X11 color names
Color Lookup Table
Color depth
Computer display
List of home computers by video hardware
References
Palettes
Color depths
Computer graphics
Computing output devices
color palettes |
9945907 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muzaffarpur%20Institute%20of%20Technology | Muzaffarpur Institute of Technology | Muzaffarpur Institute of Technology (commonly referred to as MIT, Muzaffarpur) is a public, coeducational engineering college in Muzaffarpur, Bihar, India. It is administered by the Department of Science and Technology, Bihar and funded by Government of Bihar. It was founded in 1954, just after India attained independence in 1947. The foundation stone was laid by the first Prime Minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru. It runs undergraduate and postgraduate programmes in Engineering and Pharmacy. The institute has a campus at Muzaffarpur.
History
MIT (established with the name College of Civil Engineering, Muzaffarpur) began on 25 September 1954 with one discipline: Civil Engineering.
Committee recommended the establishment of higher technical institutions in India, along the lines of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and consulting from the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign along with affiliated secondary institutions. The report urged that work should start with the speedy establishment of major institutions in the four quarters of the country with the ones in the east and the west to be set up immediately
It was inaugurated by C.P.N. Singh, governor of then East Punjab (now Punjab, Haryana and parts of Himachal Pradesh). The first Prime Minister of India Jawaharlal Nehru laid the foundation of the main building on 21 April 1956. Mechanical Engineering and Electrical Engineering disciplines were added in 1960 and the institute was renamed as Muzaffarpur Institute of Technology. Pharmacy and Leather Technology were added in 1978 and 1986 respectively. Information Technology and Electronics and Communication Engineering disciplines were introduced in 2001. In December 2008, the government of Bihar declared that MIT would be developed into a model engineering college.
Campus
The campus is in the north-west corner of Muzaffarpur city, along Muzaffarpur–Motihari road, and spread over an area of four kilometers from Muzaffarpur railway station. The institute is flanked by the river Burhi Gandak on the north, a reservoir on the east, Muzaffarpur–Motihari road on the south, and the road network on the west.
The campus is divided into following zones:
Academic Zone that includes department offices, lecture theaters, libraries
Student Residential Zone
Faculty and Staff Residential Zone
Student Recreational Area that includes football ground, cricket ground, badminton courts.
AVH is the hall for the cultural activities.
It has also separate building for branches like Information technology building, electronic and communications building, lab building for physics and chemistry.
The campus has student activity centre, primary school named MIT Bal Niketan International School, branch of State Bank of India, post office, central bank of india and a temple.
Academic departments
Department of Civil Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Department of Electrical Engineering
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Department of Information Technology
Department of Leather Technology
Department of Pharmacy
Department of Mathematics
Department of Physics
Department of Chemistry
Department of Humanities
Academics
Admission
From 2019 onwards, admissions will be based on national Joint Entrance Examination – Main merit list. Students who want to enroll must appear at the exam that is conducted by National Testing Agency.
Earlier Undergraduate admissions were done through the Bihar Combined Entrance Competitive Examination Board). The entrance examination was held in two stages: First stage was the screening test or preliminary test. The screened candidates had to appear in the main examination (second stage). Based on the merit list in the second stage, successful candidates were allotted seats in different engineering colleges of Bihar.
Admission to postgraduate programmes is based upon score and rank in Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering (GATE) conducted by IITs/IISc.
University affiliation
Formerly it was affiliated to BABASAHEB BHIMRAO AMBEDKAR BIHAR UNIVERSITY (BRABU) But Later from 2010
MIT is affiliated to Aryabhatta Knowledge University, Patna.
Degree programs
Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech)
MIT has the following branches at the undergraduate Bachelor of Technology level. The number of seats available in each discipline is given in parentheses:
Civil Engineering (60)
Mechanical Engineering (60)
Electrical Engineering (60)
Electronics and Communication Engineering (40)
Information Technology (40)
Leather Technology (30)
Bachelor of Pharmacy (B.Pharm.)
Bachelor of Pharmacy (60)
Master of Technology
At the postgraduate M.Tech level MIT has the following branches:
Machine Design (under the department of Mechanical Engineering) (18 full-time + 4 part-time)
Thermal Engineering (under the department of Mechanical Engineering) (18 full-time + 5 part-time)
Manufacturing Technology (under the department of Mechanical Engineering) (18 full-time )
Facilities for Ph.D. research exist in all departments.
Student life
Hostels
There are seven boys hostels having a capacity to accommodate 1400 students and one girls hostel (the Golden Jubilee Girls Hostel) with a capacity to accommodate 200 students.hostel -01(damodar hostel) was constructed in 1952 before college main building was constructed.
Guest Houses for parents and others are also located in the campus.
MIT Sports Club
The sports club has been functioning since 1954 and provides facilities for Cricket, Lawn Tennis, Badminton, Volleyball, Basketball, Football Table- Tennis and Indore games. But since 2000 the sports club became inactive and unofficially closed. Later on, in 2017 a group of students from 2K15 batch has relaunched the platform of sports in this college as MIT SPORTS CLUB. The club organizes the institute's annual sports, an Inter-college sports meet and severals of lawn tennis, badminton, chess, etc. tournament every year at MIT sports grounds. Inter college and Interstates tournaments held every year.
Other
Junoon
The Start-up cell in MIT, Muzaffarpur is established on 16 January 2018.
SIRTDO
The Small Industries Research, Training and Development Organization (SIRTDO) was established at MIT in 1976 with financial support from the government of Bihar with the objective to encourage entrepreneurship among MIT students. The organization organizes orientation programmes with the collaboration of other national level institutes. SIRTDO acts as incubation center for new business ventures by providing facilities at the campus and provides training to the entrepreneurs in product design, development and management, marketing and finance.
References
External links
BCECE Board website
Aryabhatta Knowledge University website
DST, Bihar website
Engineering colleges in Bihar
Education in Muzaffarpur
Colleges affiliated to Aryabhatta Knowledge University
1954 establishments in Bihar
Educational institutions established in 1954 |
5273206 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison%20of%20open-source%20operating%20systems | Comparison of open-source operating systems | These tables compare free software / open-source operating systems. Where not all of the versions support a feature, the first version which supports it is listed.
General information
Supported architectures
Supported hardware
General
Networking
Network technologies
Supported file systems
Supported file system features
Security features
See also
Berkeley Software Distribution
Comparison of operating systems
Comparison of Linux distributions
Comparison of BSD operating systems
Comparison of kernels
Comparison of file systems
Comparison of platform virtualization software
Comparison of DOS operating systems
List of operating systems
Live CD
Microsoft Windows
RTEMS
Unix
Unix-like
References
External links
Open Source Operating Systems |
63733569 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five-Finger%20Square | Five-Finger Square | The Five-Finger Square (German: Fünffingerplätzchen) was a small place in the old town of the German city of Frankfurt am Main, which was formed by the meeting of five narrow streets. It was east of the east line of the Römerberg market square, south of the market street, west of the Langen Schirn and north of Bendergasse. The popular postcard motif and tourist destination was destroyed in an air raid on March 22, 1944. Instead of a possible reconstruction, the city decided after the war to remove the rubble. The area was built over in the early 1970s and with the construction of the Römerberg-Ostzeile from 1981 to 1983 and the Kunsthalle Schirn from 1984 to 1986. The western entrance to the Schirn Rotunda is located on the site of the former Five-Finger Square, making reconstruction impossible.
Origin, history and destruction
The appearance of the Five-Finger Square was unique for Frankfurt as well as in comparison with other medieval half-timbered towns. It was the central convergence point of several small streets; Schwertfegergässchen, Drachengässchen, Goldhutgasse and Flößergasse.
The Rapunzelgässchen, which ran directly behind what is today the Römerberg-Ostzeile, met the Flößergasse shortly before the entrance to the square. The name came from the fact that from a bird's eye view the very narrow passages of the old town or rows of buildings merged like the fingers of one hand.
Regarding the natural urban planning origin, two different theories are in balance: one follows the assumption that the north gate of the Merovingian Palatinate was located on the site of the five-finger square. Similar to later town planning in the Baroque era, the streets were laid out in a radial direction leading to the gate and were simply built over in the following centuries while maintaining this floor plan. The other theory argues that another large marketplace similar to the Römerberg was located on the site but in the early Middle Ages, the old town was short of space and the market was built over due to the shifting market activities.
In the middle of the 14th century, as descriptions of the times detail, a further passage called Löhergasse ran east of Goldhutgasse from Flößergasse towards the market. Later development led to the southern part of the former Löhergasse becoming a back yard for the surrounding houses on the market, the Langen Schirn and the Bendergasse. The house Little Paradise (Street address: Markt 27 ) could be due to its remarkably bent front (see picture.): This was because it was half built on an original street entrance, as could still be seen by the 20th century.
On the other hand, the earliest surviving topographical representations of Frankfurt, such as the plan by Conrad Faber von Creuznach from 1552 or the famous bird 's eye view plan by Matthäus Merian the Elder from 1628, showed that Löhergasse was already overbuilt and the Five-Finger Square was therefore almost in the same condition as it was in the 20th century. Accordingly, due to the constant lack of building land, the development was narrowed, at least roughly, in the period between 1350 and 1552. The shape of the Little Paradise allows a dating between 1470 and 1550 due to the exposed, transition-time half-timbering in the gable.
The Square remained largely unchanged for centuries. It was only when tourism emerged at the end of the 19th century that it was rediscovered and quickly made a popular travel destination and a frequent photo and postcard motif. Within a few years, it had become, in addition to other classic old Frankfurt views such as the Kannengießergasse or the Roseneck, the highest representative status for the beauty and type of the old town of Frankfurt.
On the other hand, in the second half of the 19th century (between 1862 and 1877 ) the rather small houses with the address Goldhutgasse 1 and 3 were torn down for unexplained reasons. The reason, as was so often the case at this time, was most likely dilapidation. In fact, the entire structure of the old town was in a catastrophic condition at the turn of the century. The unplastered and therefore unsightly firewall of the adjoining house at Drachengasse 5 now shaped the place until the 1930s. It therefore did not appear on most postcards from that time or is only slightly cut out of the photos.
At the end of the 1930s, a large-scale renovation of the old town was carried out in Frankfurt am Main. In contrast to the historicist renovations at the turn of the century, which often destroyed more substance than redeveloped ones, and the only superficial measures taken by the federal government of old town friends in the 1920s, they largely took place under modern monument conservation aspects.
In 1936, the houses at the five-finger site were also completely renovated, numerous half-timbered buildings were exposed, the firewall of the house at Drachengasse 5 was converted into a real facade with windows, and a completely new space was created to the east of Goldhutgasse by means of a coring measure with the Handwerkerhöfchen (see plan).
During the air raid on March 22, 1944, a devastating firestorm developed in this part of the old town because, without exception, there were half-timbered houses. Many of them were completely made of wood to the ground level and burned down completely. Only stone walls of the ground floors of individual houses remained. Although at least some of the destroyed old town houses could have been rebuilt, the city imposed a construction stop in 1946 and had the rubble cleared until 1950. The Butchers' Well had survived the war, badly damaged, and protruded from the ruins of the old town for a while until it was removed and initially disappeared into an urban depot. In 1968 it was restored by the Frankfurt sculptor Georg Krämer and was given a new location in the Große Rittergasse in Sachsenhausen next to the Kuhhirtenturm. As part of the Dom-Römer project, the city council received an application to set up the butcher fountain on the square in front of the reconstructed house of the Golden Scales.
After the rubble was cleared, the Five-Finger Square remained part of a parking lot until the early 1970s when the Dom / Römer underground station was created.
Any reconstruction of the square has become impossible in the long term since the Kunsthalle Schirn now covers large parts of the original site.
Description and topography
The Five-Finger Square was less a place than a crossroads of several alleys, since it was not limited by a closed front of houses except to the south. The impression of a small square was nevertheless created by the winding arrangement of the houses and the curved course of the alleys. Whoever stood at the intersection of the alleys could not see out, although two of the most important junctions in the old town, the market with the chicken market and the Römerberg, were only a few meters away.
The plots on the square were unusually small and, unlike on the surrounding main streets in the old town, had not been contracted over the centuries for larger construction projects. In order to achieve a maximum floor area despite the small footprint, each upper floor protruded considerably from the one below. For stability, the upper floors rested on strong lugs, as could be observed everywhere along Goldhutgasse (see picture).
The impression of space was reinforced by the butcher's or craftsman's well. The pump fountain, built around 1800, consisted of a simple, ornamentless stele made of main sandstone, on which stood a boy leaning against an ornate stone water jug; the name of the fountain was reminiscent of the nearby Haus zum Fleischer (house address at that time: Römerberg 14 ), which was demolished in 1873 due to dilapidation (see picture).
The street names and their etymology
The alley names on the Five-Finger Square have always been related to handicraft in the earliest records. Therefore, it can be assumed that, according to the medieval understanding of the guild, there were mainly craftsmen based on alleys:
The Goldhutgasse (see picture.), was previously known as Schuhgasse due to the presence of many wooden shoemakers, but got its modern name from the millinery in the house for the Golden Hut on the corner of Market / Goldhutgasse (Street address: Markt 31 ).
Löhergasse, which once ran east of Goldhutgasse, also got its name from the craft when Lohe, in old and middle high German still called Lö with umlaut, was used to denote tree bark used for tanning .
In Schwertfeger street, swords were the craft wrought by the former residents. The name of the dragon narrow calle - earlier referred to as flax weber alley after the craftmen who worked there - though not clarified completely, was possibly encouraged by the imagination of urban peoples about medieval legends that were associated with the dark, which was ever present, in the very narrow streets due to the lack of artificial light.
The name Rapunzelgässchen goes back to the 18th century and testified to the herbal market that was taking place at the time at the northern exit of Gässchen to the market. Previously, it was also called rope alley after a medieval craft. The name of the rafters alley explained as the same fountain from 1873 demolished house to the butcher - mundartlich was also called Flösser.
There was no direct road connection to Bendergasse, but there was a footpath through the basement of Goldhutgasse 14 / Bendergasse 26, popularly known as Stinkgasse - a descriptive name for the hygienic conditions prevailing here.
The Houses on the Five Finger Square
All the houses around the square belonged to one of the alleys that brought them together. In the south it was the back houses of Bendergasse 26 and 24 with the address Goldhutgasse 14 and 12, called Pesthaus and Haus zum Hasen. In the east between Flößergasse and Goldhutgasse was the very narrow Haus zum Widder (house address: Goldhutgasse 16 ). The head building between Goldhutgasse and Drachengasse in the northeast, after the demolition of houses Goldhutgasse 1 and 3, was the Haus zur wild Frau (house address: Goldhutgasse 7 ). House Drachengasse 5 closed in the northwest and Little Römer in the west (house address: Römerberg 12) and the small food stall (house address: Römerberg 14 ), which in turn were the annexes of the Großer Laubenberg house (house address: Römerberg 16 ).
The houses, which had a side facing the sword sweep or dragon alley, had no corresponding address, rather they were either closed to Goldhutgasse or to the market.
Other houses nearby included the port , the Hadder cat , the track mouth or the golden lower coronary . Many of them were designed as restaurants and pubs equally for the numerous tourists and the active Frankfurt nightlife.
Pesthaus
The most famous sight of the place was the so-called Pesthaus, in principle only a back house of the house with the address Bendergasse 26 (address for the five-finger cookie: Goldhutgasse 14). According to tradition, the plague first occurred here in 1349 in Frankfurt.
It is questionable, however, that the three-storey, plastered half-timbered house on view was actually still a Gothic building: the lack of overhangs, the more urban dimensions, and the ridge swivel expressed with a huge dwarf house rather refer to the 18th Century than to the Middle Ages.
When the Frankfurt wholesale merchant Johannes Georg Kipp had his parents' house restored in 1924, he called the Offenbach painter Heinrich Holz, who nonetheless oriented the traditional role of the building in the design of the facade and richly themed them with inscriptions decorated, which said:
Pain and bliss circulate
same as the earth and sun
but God liberates in his time
The painting below the windows on the 1st floor depicted the suffering caused by the plague - writhing figures fighting with snakes, while the painting below the 2nd and 3rd floors showed people dancing as a token of gratitude for the end of death. Between July 22, 1349 and February 2, 1350, the Black Death claimed over 2,000 lives in the city, about a fifth of the population at that time.
At the end of the 1930s, as part of the renovation of the old town, a half-timbering was uncovered, which the painting fell victim to, despite only being applied about 10 years earlier. With simple St. Andrew's crosses and rhombuses, the result showed a building that was originally designed from a visual point of view, but in no way elaborate with jewellery forms or even carvings and thus only confirms the thesis that the original plague house was replaced by a new building after the end of the Middle Ages.
Haus zum Hasen
The neighbouring Haus zum Hasen (English: House of the Rabbits) was almost completely identical to the neighboring Pesthaus, at least in terms of appearance, and thus probably also to be treated in the same way with regard to its time of origin. A closer look at the building history is no longer possible, since the half-timbering of the building has been plastered at least since the early 19th century and has never been documented in drawings or photographs. In 1924 it was painted like the plague house by Heinrich Holz and provided with an inscription by Rudolf Kilb:
Five streets lead from this house in pleasure and suffering
How many times have they caught drunken bliss
The Bender put a strong bond around the heart of the wine
but the youthful cheeky joke found a hole in the noise
So let's be such happy guys every day
and just like the rabbits make a mark on need and pain
Haus zum Widder
The house, which stood as a head building between Goldhut and Flössergasse and with only the northern firewall, was called Zum Widder (English: House of the Ram). Because of its extremely small parcel, which was two meters short on the narrowest side facing the Square, but on the other side extended over a total of three cantilevered floors and ended with a very pointed roof. It was not only an attractive sight but was often seen as the epitome of the Gothic house.
However, the half-timbering uncovered a progressive, in no detail really medieval construction on the building. This was made clear by two fully trained male figures in the half-timbering, which was only be present in half-timbered buildings from the second half of the 16th century. Because of the conservative citizenry and the associated very long finale of the late Gothic in Frankfurt, the construction can be dated but almost certainly at least in the first half of the 17th century.
On the other hand, the ground floor showed some peculiarities: it was not massive, but largely made of wood, apart from an approximately knee-high stone base. The dowel ceiling, which is visible from the outside between the ground floor and the first floor, is a further indication that a new building from the 17th century only extended to the upper floors but retained a ground floor from at least the first half of the 15th century.
All in all, the house was an interesting hybrid of medieval and modern carpentry. His loss due to the war is also extremely unfortunate from an engineering point of view, as modern investigation methods could certainly have provided valuable information about the specific development of the half-timbered building in Alt-Frankfurt.
Haus zur wilden Frau
The corner house between Drachengässchen and Goldhutgasse was called Zur wilden Frau (English: House of the Wild Woman) and had a thematic painting that was reminiscent of a dragon . There was hardly a larger side to the square than the neighbouring Haus zum Widder, but in depth it took up almost half of the block that extended to the market.
Apart from the narrow side, the house with its mansard roof and baroque windows looked like a product from the late 17th or 18th centuries, but here too the 1930s exposure brought unexpected details to light. They uncovered massive Gothic corner stands on the ground floor, so that here too it can be assumed that the building altered into a baroque with a core building from the late Middle Ages.
However, as photos from the early 1940s showed, the decision was made not to expose the original half-timbering, probably because, as so often, it was completely spoiled by the subsequent changes.
References
Literature
Paul Wolff, Fried Lübbecke: Old Frankfurt, New Series. Englert & Schlosser publishing house, Frankfurt am Main 1924, S. 39–42
Heinrich Voelcker, Die Altstadt in Frankfurt am Main innerhalb der Hohenstaufenmauer. Frankfurt am Main 1937, Moritz Diesterweg publishing house
Georg Hartmann, Fried Lübbecke: Alt-Frankfurt. Ein Vermächtnis. Verlag Sauer und Auvermann, Glashütten 1971
Hartwig Beseler, Niels Gutschow: Kriegsschicksale Deutscher Architektur – Verluste, Schäden, Wiederaufbau. Karl Wachholtz Verlag, Neumünster 1988,
External links
AltFrankfurt.com
History of Frankfurt
Frankfurt
Buildings and structures in Germany destroyed during World War II |
14227021 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common%20ARTS | Common ARTS | Common ARTS (or Automated Radar Terminal System) is an air traffic control computer system that air traffic controllers use to track aircraft.
The computer system is used to automate the air traffic controller's job by correlating the various radar and human inputs in a meaningful way. This system is being used in most of the TRACONs around the United States. Common ARTS is the most modern implementation of ARTS in use at various locations in the United States. Standard Terminal Automation Replacement System (STARS) was designed to replace Common ARTS at all the US TRACONS, however that project was stalled until 2010.
The United States Federal Aviation Administration announced in Spring 2011 that STARS will be replacing the 11 largest CARTS sites under the TAMR Segment 3 Phase 1 plan. The remaining CARTS sites will be replaced under TAMR Segment 3 Phase 2 in the near future.
RADAR Automation
A typical short range radar used in air traffic control will scan the area about 60 miles every 4–6 seconds. The primary signal returned will contain a range and azimuth of a target. Automation will correlate these targets scan to scan and make estimates of speed and direction. A secondary signal (Transponder (aviation)) may be available, containing the aircraft transponder code, and possibly altitude (and possibly other information if Mode S). The automation will correlate the primary and secondary signals, and measure horizontal and vertical speed estimates.
Once the automation systems know the details of the aircraft it is tracking, this information is available on the display, as part of the datablock near the aircraft representation. The information will typically show an aircraft ID, if the transponder code is associated with a known flight plan, the altitude, and speed.
Other systems can use the speed and direction information. The safety systems need to use this information. The conflict alert (CA) system will compare the direction, altitude and speed of multiple aircraft to see if there are any possibilities of aircraft being too close together. Maps of the area along with Mode C or S transponder elevations will allow minimum safe altitude warning (MSAW) systems to warn controllers of possible terrain conflicts.
Additional systems may include any of the Final Approach Spacing (FAST/pFAST) tools available, User Request Evaluation Tool, and Parallel Runway monitors.
History
ARTS was developed in the late 1960s by Univac corporation to help automate the TRACONS operations in the United States. At many TRACONs, a Unisys mainframe computer was installed to handle the processing. In the early 1970s virtually all TRACONs in the US were running ARTS software to help track aircraft displayed on the radar console. The Burroughs Corporation was also working on radar display consoles in the 1970s to 1980s.
In 1986, Univac and Burroughs Corporations merged creating Unisys.
By the early 1980s an effort was proposed to port the ARTS functionality to microprocessors. Unisys began this program, and the name changed to CommonARTS. The CommonARTS processes were running on Motorola 68000 microprocessors. The software was mostly rewritten in the C language, running on various real-time operating systems.
In the 1990s, Unisys split out some of the defense work, and Lockheed Martin acquired the air traffic management unit.
In the 1990s, most of the Common ARTS software was ported to PowerPC processors, still using the same source code, but with larger memory footprint, allowing control of more aircraft. By 1997, there were 131 small to medium TRACONS and five large TRACONS running Common ARTS software. The PowerPC also allowed the display software to drive ARTS Color Displays (ACD) replacing the vector-based Full Digital ARTs Displays (FDAD).
The STARS program was started to replace the Common ARTS systems at all TRACONS in the late 1990s.
In the late 1990s Automatic dependent surveillance-broadcast (ADS-B) support was added to Common ARTS software to augment RADAR sensors. Multiple sensor inputs were added including long range (ARSR) allowing larger TRACONS to have variable size and shape sectors, since they no longer needed to have round coverage areas matching a single sensor scan area.
Sources
http://www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-03-343 Look about page 18-21
http://www.usfamily.net/web/labenson/Legacy_files/Eagan_ATC_history.pdf
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0GZQ/is_27_43/ai_89156890
http://www.usfamily.net/web/labenson/SystemsAirTraffic.htm
http://www.linuxjournal.com/article/7066
http://www.tc.faa.gov/acb300/techreports/HighAltitude_memo.pdf
Air traffic control |
8594839 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison%20of%20disk%20encryption%20software | Comparison of disk encryption software | This is a technical feature comparison of different disk encryption software.
Background information
Operating systems
Features
Hidden containers: Whether hidden containers (an encrypted container (A) within another encrypted container (B) so the existence of container A can not be established) can be created for deniable encryption. Note that some modes of operation like CBC with a plain IV can be more prone to watermarking attacks than others.
Pre-boot authentication: Whether authentication can be required before booting the computer, thus allowing one to encrypt the boot disk.
Single sign-on: Whether credentials provided during pre-boot authentication will automatically log the user into the host operating system, thus preventing password fatigue and reducing the need to remember multiple passwords.
Custom authentication: Whether custom authentication mechanisms can be implemented with third-party applications.
Multiple keys: Whether an encrypted volume can have more than one active key.
Passphrase strengthening: Whether key strengthening is used with plain text passwords to frustrate dictionary attacks, usually using PBKDF2.
Hardware acceleration: Whether dedicated cryptographic accelerator expansion cards can be taken advantage of.
Trusted Platform Module: Whether the implementation can use a TPM cryptoprocessor.
Filesystems: What filesystems are supported.
Two-factor authentication: Whether optional security tokens (hardware security modules, such as Aladdin eToken and smart cards) are supported (for example using PKCS#11)
Layering
Whole disk: Whether the whole physical disk or logical volume can be encrypted, including the partition tables and master boot record. Note that this does not imply that the encrypted disk can be used as the boot disk itself; refer to pre-boot authentication in the features comparison table.
Partition: Whether individual disk partitions can be encrypted.
File: Whether the encrypted container can be stored in a file (usually implemented as encrypted loop devices).
Swap space: Whether the swap space (called a "pagefile" on Windows) can be encrypted individually/explicitly.
Hibernation file: Whether the hibernation file is encrypted (if hibernation is supported).
Modes of operation
Different modes of operation supported by the software. Note that an encrypted volume can only use one mode of operation.
CBC with predictable IVs: The CBC (cipher block chaining) mode where initialization vectors are statically derived from the sector number and are not secret; this means that IVs are re-used when overwriting a sector and the vectors can easily be guessed by an attacker, leading to watermarking attacks.
CBC with secret IVs: The CBC mode where initialization vectors are statically derived from the encryption key and sector number. The IVs are secret, but they are re-used with overwrites. Methods for this include ESSIV and encrypted sector numbers (CGD).
CBC with random per-sector keys: The CBC mode where random keys are generated for each sector when it is written to, thus does not exhibit the typical weaknesses of CBC with re-used initialization vectors. The individual sector keys are stored on disk and encrypted with a master key. (See GBDE for details)
LRW: The Liskov-Rivest-Wagner tweakable narrow-block mode, a mode of operation specifically designed for disk encryption. Superseded by the more secure XTS mode due to security concerns.
XTS: XEX-based Tweaked CodeBook mode (TCB) with CipherText Stealing (CTS), the SISWG (IEEE P1619) standard for disk encryption.
Authenticated encryption: Protection against ciphertext modification by an attacker
See also
Cold boot attack
Comparison of encrypted external drives
Disk encryption software
Disk encryption theory
List of cryptographic file systems
Notes and references
External links
DiskCryptor vs Truecrypt – Comparison between DiskCryptor and TrueCrypt
Buyer's Guide to Full Disk Encryption – Overview of full-disk encryption, how it works, and how it differs from file-level encryption
Disk encryption software
Disk encryption software |
6363825 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra%20Network%20Technologies | Ultra Network Technologies | Ultra Network Technologies (previously called Ultra Corporation) is a now defunct networking company. It offered high-speed network products for the scientific computing market as well as some commercial companies. It was founded in 1986 by James N. Perdue (formerly of NASA, Ames Research Center), Drew Berding, and Wes Meador (of Control Data Corporation) to provide higher speed connectivity and networking for supercomputers and their peripherals and workstations. At the time, the only other companies offering high speed networking and connectivity for the supercomputer and high-end workstation market was Network Systems Corporation (NSC) and Computer Network Technology Corporation (CNT). They both offered 50 megabytes per second (MB/s) bandwidth between controllers but at that time, their architecture was not implemented using standard networking protocols and their applications were generally focused on supporting connectivity at high speed between large mainframes and peripherals, often only implementing only point-to-point connections. Ethernet was available in 1986 and was used by most computer centers for general networking purposes. Its bandwidth was not high enough to manage the high data rate required by the 100 MB/s supercomputer channels and 4 MB/s VMEbus channels on workstations.
Ultra's first customer, Apple Computer, purchased a system to connect their Cray 1 supercomputer to a high speed graphics framebuffer so that Apple could simulate new personal computers on the Cray Research computer (at the hardware level) and use the framebuffer as the simulated computer display device. Although not a networking application, this first contract allowed Ultra to demonstrate the basic technologies and gave them capital to continue development on a true networking processor.
In 1988, Ultra introduced ISO TP4 (level 4 networking protocol) as part of their controllers and implemented a type of star configuration network using coax and fiber optic connections. They called this product, UltraNet. They later offered a fast version of TCP/IP in their controllers, as this protocol was most frequently encountered in an actual computer center network environment. The clock rates on the Ultra network processors provided 250 Mbit/s transfer rates and four of these could be connected together to achieve one gigabit per second transfer rates for a single logical connection. Effective transfer rates between Silicon Graphics and Sun Microsystems workstations exceeded 4 MB/s using one 250 Mbit/s physical connection, a factor of over 10 to 12 greater than then current Ethernet connections and often exceeded the effective transfer rates of the competing NSC and CNT connections in similar applications. Customers with dual Cray computers measured the connections between Cray processors over the UltraNet that exceeded 80 MB/s effective transfer rates. Ultra Network Technologies products included network cards for workstations and mini-supercomputers using VMEbus connectors and fiber optic cable for the network physical connections, host network cards which resided in the network hub for Cray Supercomputers, IBM mainframes, mini-supercomputers from Convex Computer, HIPPI standard channel, and others. There were two sizes of high speed network hubs that contained the mainframe host cards plus the fiber optic network hub to network hub cards. The network topology was in the form of connected hubs. Engineers at the Stuttgart University computer center demonstrated long distance connections using German PTT provided fiber optics of effective transfer rates over 4 MB/s up to an 800 km distance. Later products incorporated TCP/IP network protocols in their processors.
A typical network configuration of several workstations and a single mainframe host could cost $250,000. A configuration with many workstations and two or three mainframe computers could reach $1 Million.
The company grew to about 140 employees at its high point. Its headquarters was located at 101 Daggett Drive, San Jose, CA with other offices in Dallas, Los Angeles, Seattle, Washington DC, Düsseldorf, Germany, and Paris, France. In 1992, the company was abandoned by its investors and sold due to an inability to become profitable and the advent of less expensive network technologies, mainly created by the advent of the higher speed personal computers and lower cost workstations used in the scientific labs; the buyer was Computer Network Technology Corporation of Plymouth, Minnesota (NASDAQ: CMNT). The company's Chairman of the Board was M. Kenneth Oshman, formally chairman of ROLM Corporation, and President was Stan Tenold, previously the president of ROLM's Military Products division. The company's various customers included many high-end computer centers, including, several NASA sites, NSA, US Air Force, US Navy, Aramco, France's EDF, Pittsburg Supercomputer Center, University of Stuttgart, Leibniz University Hannover, Apple Computer, Houston Chronicle, and many other such high end computer users.
Citations
Defunct networking companies |
18908577 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francus | Francus | Francus is a mythological figure of Merovingian scholars which referred to a legendary eponymous king of the Franks, a descendant of the Trojans, founder of the Merovingian dynasty and forefather of Charlemagne. In the Renaissance, Francus was generally considered to be another name for the Trojan Astyanax (son of Hector) saved from the destruction of Troy. He is not considered to be historical, but in fact an attempt by medieval and Renaissance chroniclers to model the founding of France upon the same illustrious tradition as that used by Virgil in his Aeneid (which had Rome founded by the Trojan Aeneas).
The 7th century Chronicle of Fredegar contains the oldest mention of a medieval legend thus linking the Franks to the Trojans. The Carolingian Liber historiae Francorum elaborates new details, and the tradition continued to be elaborated throughout the Middle Ages, when it was taken seriously as genealogy and became a "veritable form of ethnic consciousness".
The 8th-century Historia Brittonum, borrowing from the 6th-century Frankish Table of Nations, makes mention of Francus as one of the four sons of Hisicion (Francus, Romanus, Alamanus, and Brutus), grandsons of Alanus, the first man to live in Europe.
The Grandes Chroniques de France (13th - 15th centuries), a vast compilation of historic material, make reference of the Trojan origins of the French dynasty.
Johannes Trithemius' De origine gentis Francorum compendium (1514) describes the Franks as originally Trojans (called "Sicambers" or "Sicambrians") after the fall of Troy who came into Gaul after being forced out of the area around the mouth of the Danube by the Goths in 439 B.C. (section 1, p, 33). He also details the reigns of each of these kings—including Francus (section 43, p. 76) from whom the Franks are named—and their battles with the Gauls, Goths, Saxons, etc.
Annio da Viterbo also describes the arrival of Trojans into Gaul.
Based on the medieval legend, Jean Lemaire de Belges's Illustrations de Gaule et Singularités de Troie (1510–12) has Astyanax survive the fall of Troy and arrive in Western Europe. He changes his name to Francus and becomes king of Celtic Gaul (while, at the same time, Bavo, cousin of Priam, comes to the city of Trier) and founds the dynasty leading to Pepin and Charlemagne. He is said to have founded and named the city of Paris in honor of his uncle Paris.
Gilles Corrozet's La Fleur des antiquitez... de Paris (1532) describes Francis I as the 64th descendant of Hector of Troy.<ref>Jerry C. Nash, op. cit.</ref>
Lemaire de Belges' work inspired Pierre de Ronsard's epic poem La Franciade (1572). In this poem, Jupiter saves Astyanax (renamed Francus). The young hero arrives in Crete and falls in love with the princess Hyanthe with whom he is destined to found the royal dynasty of France.
See also
In the tradition of translatio imperii, many medieval authors established Greek or Roman genealogies for European dynasties:
Brutus of Troy - the legendary founder of Britain
Benoît de Saint-Maure, in his Chronique des ducs de Normandie, linked the Plantagenet family to Aeneas.
References
Further reading
R.E. Asher. National Myths in Renaissance France: Francus, Samothes and the Druids'' (Edinburgh Univ Press, 1993)
Mythological city founders
Merovingian dynasty
Legendary rulers |
11514819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacTeX | MacTeX | MacTeX is a free redistribution of TeX Live, a typesetting environment based on TeX. While TeX Live is designed to be cross-platform (running on Unix, macOS, and Windows), MacTeX includes Mac-specific utilities and front-ends (such as TeXShop and BibDesk). It is also pre-configured to work out-of-the-box with macOS, as it provides sensible defaults for configuration options that, in TeX Live, are left up to the user to allow for its cross-platform compatibility.
Details
MacTeX is packaged and distributed by the MacTeX TeXnical working group, a subgroup of TeX Users Group (TUG). TeX Live is distributed by the TUG, making MacTeX less a fork of TeX Live than a customised repackaging.
The full MacTeX install package contains three subpackages:
TeX Live
GUI-Applications
BibDesk
Excalibur (a LaTeX spell checker)
LaTeXiT (a LaTeX equation editor)
TeX Live Utility (a utility to update, install or remove parts of TeX Live)
TeXShop (A Mac-based TeX editor)
Ghostscript (an open source version of PostScript)
A substantially smaller version of MacTeX, BasicTeX, which does not contain Ghostscript or the aforementioned GUI programs, can be used instead along with a TeX editor as well.
See also
BibDesk
MiKTeX
TeX Live
TeXShop
References
External links
Free TeX software
TeX software for macOS |
27729640 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenSource%20Maturity%20Model | OpenSource Maturity Model | The Open Source Maturity Model (OMM) is a methodology for assessing Free/Libre Open Source Software (FLOSS) and more specifically the FLOSS development process. This methodology is released under the Creative Commons license.
OMM may help in building trust in the development process of companies using or producing FLOSS. The aim of the methodology is to enable any enterprise or organization to use FLOSS software in production and, in particular, in their mainstream products and not only in prototypes.
OMM objectives are to provide FLOSS communities a basis for developing products efficiently and making their products trustworthy for the potential customers, and also for integrating companies and to provide FLOSS integrators a basis for evaluating the processes used by the FLOSS communities.
OMM is interchangeably referred to as model and methodology. It is first a model that contains all elements that have to be assessed, but it is also a set of rules and guidelines describing how to conduct the assessment process.
General structure
OMM is organized in levels, each level is building on and including the trustworthy elements (TWE) at the lower level. The trustworthy elements included in OMM were collected or inspired by two sources:
FLOSS-TWEs gathered from an extensive survey conducted on FLOSS developers, FLOSS users, and FLOSS integrators
CMMI Process Areas
Basic level
The basic level that can be easily reached by adopting a few necessary practices in the FLOSS development process:
PDOC – Product Documentation
STD – Use of Established and Widespread Standards
QTP – Quality of Test Plan
LCS – Licenses
ENV – Technical Environment
DFCT – Number of Commits and Bug Reports
MST – Maintainability and Stability
CM – Configuration Management
PP1 – Project Planning Part 1
REQM – Requirements Management
RDMP1 – Availability and Use of a (product) roadmap
Intermediate level
The intermediate level is the second level in OMM and can be achieved by fulfilling all trustworthy elements from the basic level and required trustworthy elements from the intermediate level.
RDMP2 – Availability and Use of a (product) roadmap
STK – Relationship between Stakeholders
PP2 – Project Planning Part 2
PMC – Project Monitoring and Control
TST1 – Test Part 1
DSN1 – Design Part 1
PPQA – Process and Product Quality Assurance
Advanced level
The advanced level is the highest level that FLOSS projects can achieve by fulfilling all trustworthy elements from basic and intermediate levels and required trustworthy elements from the advanced level.
PI – Product Integration
RSKM – Risk Management
TST2 – Test Part 2
DSN2 – Design 2
RASM – Results of third party assessment
REP – Reputation
CONT – Contribution to FLOSS Product from SW Companies
Development and Use
While attempting to develop such a model, a few basic facts had been considered:
OMM is a process model for development by developers and integration of FLOSS products by integrators.
OMM is intended for use by individuals and development teams that may be spread across locations worldwide, hence the emphasis on simplicity and ease of use. Being simple but organized as an evolutionary model, OMM can be useful for companies as well. This approach helped to keep the model lean but still practical.
The OMM model is now tested and validated in real FLOSS projects that are led by FLOSS communities or by software development companies.
See also
Open source software assessment methodologies
Open Source Software
Free Software
References
External links
Free software culture and documents
Maturity models |
19168805 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machtey%20Award | Machtey Award | The Machtey Award is awarded at the annual IEEE Symposium on Foundations of Computer Science (FOCS) to the author(s) of the best student paper(s). A paper qualifies as a student paper if all authors are full-time students at the date of the submission. The award decision is made by the Program Committee.
The award is named after Michael Machtey, who was a researcher in the theoretical computer science community in the 1970s. The counterpart of this award at the ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing (STOC) is the Danny Lewin Best Student Paper Award.
Past recipients
Past recipients of the Machtey award are tabulated below.
See also
List of computer science awards
Kleene award
References
Awards established in 1981
Computer science awards
IEEE awards
Student awards |
9516924 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manual%20testing | Manual testing | Compare with Test automation.
Manual testing is the process of manually testing software for defects. It requires a tester to play the role of an end user whereby they use most of the application's features to ensure correct behavior. To guarantee completeness of testing, the tester often follows a written test plan that leads them through a set of important test cases.
Overview
A key step in the process is testing the software for correct behavior prior to release to end users.
For small scale engineering efforts (including prototypes), ad hoc testing may be sufficient. With this informal approach, the tester does not follow any rigorous testing procedure and simply performs testing without planning or documentation. Conversely, exploratory testing, which involves simultaneous learning, test design and test execution, explores the user interface of the application using as many of its features as possible, using information gained in prior tests to intuitively derive additional tests. The success of exploratory manual testing relies heavily on the domain expertise of the tester, because a lack of knowledge will lead to incompleteness in testing. One of the key advantages of an informal approach is to gain an intuitive insight to how it feels to use the application.
Large scale engineering projects that rely on manual software testing follow a more rigorous methodology in order to maximize the number of defects that can be found. A systematic approach focuses on predetermined test cases and generally involves the following steps.
Choose a high level test plan where a general methodology is chosen, and resources such as people, computers, and software licenses are identified and acquired.
Write detailed test cases, identifying clear and concise steps to be taken by the tester, with expected outcomes.
Assign the test cases to testers, who manually follow the steps and record the results.
Author a test report, detailing the findings of the testers. The report is used by managers to determine whether the software can be released, and if not, it is used by engineers to identify and correct the problems.
A rigorous test case based approach is often traditional for large software engineering projects that follow a Waterfall model. However, at least one recent study did not show a dramatic difference in defect detection efficiency between exploratory testing and test case based testing.
Testing can be through black-, white- or grey-box testing. In white-box testing the tester is concerned with the execution of the statements through the source code. In black-box testing the software is run to check for the defects and is less concerned with how the processing of the input is done. Black-box testers do not have access to the source code. Grey-box testing is concerned with running the software while having an understanding of the source code and algorithms.
Static and dynamic testing approach may also be used. Dynamic testing involves running the software. Static testing includes verifying requirements, syntax of code and any other activities that do not include actually running the code of the program.
Testing can be further divided into functional and non-functional testing. In functional testing the tester would check the calculations, any link on the page, or any other field which on given input, output may be expected. Non-functional testing includes testing performance, compatibility and fitness of the system under test, its security and usability among other things.
Stages
There are several stages. They are:
Unit Testing This initial stage in testing normally carried out by the developer who wrote the code and sometimes by a peer using the white box testing technique.
Integration Testing This stage is carried out in two modes, as a complete package or as an increment to the earlier package. Most of the time black box testing technique is used. However, sometimes a combination of Black and White box testing is also used in this stage.
System Testing In this stage the software is tested from all possible dimensions for all intended purposes and platforms. In this stage Black box testing technique is normally used.
User Acceptance Testing This testing stage carried out in order to get customer sign-off of finished product. A 'pass' in this stage also ensures that the customer has accepted the software and is ready for their use.
Release or Deployment Testing Onsite team will go to customer site to install the system in customer configured environment and will check for the following points:
Whether SetUp.exe is running or not.
There are easy screens during installation
How much space is occupied by system on HDD
Is the system completely uninstalled when opted to uninstall from the system.
Advantages of Manual Testing
Low-cost operation as no software tools are used
Most of the bugs are caught by manual testing
Humans observe and judge better than the automated tools
Comparison to automated testing
Test automation may be able to reduce or eliminate the cost of actual testing. A computer can follow a rote sequence of steps more quickly than a person, and it can run the tests overnight to present the results in the morning. However, the labor that is saved in actual testing must be spent instead authoring the test program. Depending on the type of application to be tested, and the automation tools that are chosen, this may require more labor than a manual approach. In addition, some testing tools present a very large amount of data, potentially creating a time consuming task of interpreting the results.
Things such as device drivers and software libraries must be tested using test programs. In addition, testing of large numbers of users (performance testing and load testing) is typically simulated in software rather than performed in practice.
Conversely, graphical user interfaces whose layout changes frequently are very difficult to test automatically. There are test frameworks that can be used for regression testing of user interfaces. They rely on recording of sequences of keystrokes and mouse gestures, then playing them back and observing that the user interface responds in the same way every time. Unfortunately, these recordings may not work properly when a button is moved or relabeled in a subsequent release. An automatic regression test may also be fooled if the program output varies significantly.
See also
Test method
Usability testing
GUI testing
Software testing
Codeless test automation
References
Software testing |
422014 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wired%20Equivalent%20Privacy | Wired Equivalent Privacy | Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) was a security algorithm for 802.11 wireless networks. Introduced as part of the original IEEE 802.11 standard ratified in 1997, its intention was to provide data confidentiality comparable to that of a traditional wired network. WEP, recognizable by its key of 10 or 26 hexadecimal digits (40 or 104 bits), was at one time widely used, and was often the first security choice presented to users by router configuration tools.
In 2003, the Wi-Fi Alliance announced that WEP had been superseded by Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA). In 2004, with the ratification of the full 802.11i standard (i.e. WPA2), the IEEE declared that both WEP-40 and WEP-104 have been deprecated.
WEP was the only encryption protocol available to 802.11a and 802.11b devices built before the WPA standard, which was available for 802.11g devices. However, some 802.11b devices were later provided with firmware or software updates to enable WPA, and newer devices had it built in.
History
WEP was ratified as a Wi-Fi security standard in 1999. The first versions of WEP were not particularly strong, even for the time they were released due to U.S. restrictions on the export of various cryptographic technology. These restrictions led to manufacturers restricting their devices to only 64-bit encryption. When the restrictions were lifted, the encryption was increased to 128-bit. Despite the introduction of 256-bit WEP, 128-bit remains one of the most common implementations.
Encryption details
WEP was included as the privacy component of the original IEEE 802.11 standard ratified in 1997. WEP uses the stream cipher RC4 for confidentiality, and the CRC-32 checksum for integrity. It was deprecated in 2004 and is documented in the current standard.
Standard 64-bit WEP uses a 40 bit key (also known as WEP-40), which is concatenated with a 24-bit initialization vector (IV) to form the RC4 key. At the time that the original WEP standard was drafted, the U.S. Government's export restrictions on cryptographic technology limited the key size. Once the restrictions were lifted, manufacturers of access points implemented an extended 128-bit WEP protocol using a 104-bit key size (WEP-104).
A 64-bit WEP key is usually entered as a string of 10 hexadecimal (base 16) characters (0–9 and A–F). Each character represents 4 bits, 10 digits of 4 bits each gives 40 bits; adding the 24-bit IV produces the complete 64-bit WEP key (4 bits × 10 + 24 bits IV = 64 bits of WEP key). Most devices also allow the user to enter the key as 5 ASCII characters (0–9, a–z, A–Z), each of which is turned into 8 bits using the character's byte value in ASCII (8 bits × 5 + 24 bits IV = 64 bits of WEP key); however, this restricts each byte to be a printable ASCII character, which is only a small fraction of possible byte values, greatly reducing the space of possible keys.
A 128-bit WEP key is usually entered as a string of 26 hexadecimal characters. 26 digits of 4 bits each gives 104 bits; adding the 24-bit IV produces the complete 128-bit WEP key (4 bits × 26 + 24 bits IV = 128 bits of WEP key). Most devices also allow the user to enter it as 13 ASCII characters (8 bits × 13 + 24 bits IV = 128 bits of WEP key).
152-bit and 256-bit WEP systems are available from some vendors. As with the other WEP variants, 24 bits of that is for the IV, leaving 128 or 232 bits for actual protection. These 128 or 232 bits are typically entered as 32 or 58 hexadecimal characters (4 bits × 32 + 24 bits IV = 152 bits of WEP key, 4 bits × 58 + 24 bits IV = 256 bits of WEP key). Most devices also allow the user to enter it as 16 or 29 ASCII characters (8 bits × 16 + 24 bits IV = 152 bits of WEP key, 8 bits × 29 + 24 bits IV = 256 bits of WEP key).
Authentication
Two methods of authentication can be used with WEP: Open System authentication and Shared Key authentication.
In Open System authentication, the WLAN client does not provide its credentials to the Access Point during authentication. Any client can authenticate with the Access Point and then attempt to associate. In effect, no authentication occurs. Subsequently, WEP keys can be used for encrypting data frames. At this point, the client must have the correct keys.
In Shared Key authentication, the WEP key is used for authentication in a four-step challenge-response handshake:
The client sends an authentication request to the Access Point.
The Access Point replies with a clear-text challenge.
The client encrypts the challenge-text using the configured WEP key and sends it back in another authentication request.
The Access Point decrypts the response. If this matches the challenge text, the Access Point sends back a positive reply.
After the authentication and association, the pre-shared WEP key is also used for encrypting the data frames using RC4.
At first glance, it might seem as though Shared Key authentication is more secure than Open System authentication since the latter offers no real authentication. However, it is quite the reverse. It is possible to derive the keystream used for the handshake by capturing the challenge frames in Shared Key authentication. Therefore, data can be more easily intercepted and decrypted with Shared Key authentication than with Open System authentication. If privacy is a primary concern, it is more advisable to use Open System authentication for WEP authentication, rather than Shared Key authentication; however, this also means that any WLAN client can connect to the AP. (Both authentication mechanisms are weak; Shared Key WEP is deprecated in favor of WPA/WPA2.)
Weak security
Because RC4 is a stream cipher, the same traffic key must never be used twice. The purpose of an IV, which is transmitted as plain text, is to prevent any repetition, but a 24-bit IV is not long enough to ensure this on a busy network. The way the IV was used also opened WEP to a related key attack. For a 24-bit IV, there is a 50% probability the same IV will repeat after 5,000 packets.
In August 2001, Scott Fluhrer, Itsik Mantin, and Adi Shamir published a cryptanalysis of WEP that exploits the way the RC4 ciphers and IV are used in WEP, resulting in a passive attack that can recover the RC4 key after eavesdropping on the network. Depending on the amount of network traffic, and thus the number of packets available for inspection, a successful key recovery could take as little as one minute. If an insufficient number of packets are being sent, there are ways for an attacker to send packets on the network and thereby stimulate reply packets, which can then be inspected to find the key. The attack was soon implemented, and automated tools have since been released. It is possible to perform the attack with a personal computer, off-the-shelf hardware, and freely available software such as aircrack-ng to crack any WEP key in minutes.
Cam-Winget et al. surveyed a variety of shortcomings in WEP. They write "Experiments in the field show that, with proper equipment, it is practical to eavesdrop on WEP-protected networks from distances of a mile or more from the target." They also reported two generic weaknesses:
the use of WEP was optional, resulting in many installations never even activating it, and
by default, WEP relies on a single shared key among users, which leads to practical problems in handling compromises, which often leads to ignoring compromises.
In 2005, a group from the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation gave a demonstration where they cracked a WEP-protected network in three minutes using publicly available tools. Andreas Klein presented another analysis of the RC4 stream cipher. Klein showed that there are more correlations between the RC4 keystream and the key than the ones found by Fluhrer, Mantin, and Shamir which can additionally be used to break WEP in WEP-like usage modes.
In 2006, Bittau, Handley, and Lackey showed that the 802.11 protocol itself can be used against WEP to enable earlier attacks that were previously thought impractical. After eavesdropping a single packet, an attacker can rapidly bootstrap to be able to transmit arbitrary data. The eavesdropped packet can then be decrypted one byte at a time (by transmitting about 128 packets per byte to decrypt) to discover the local network IP addresses. Finally, if the 802.11 network is connected to the Internet, the attacker can use 802.11 fragmentation to replay eavesdropped packets while crafting a new IP header onto them. The access point can then be used to decrypt these packets and relay them on to a buddy on the Internet, allowing real-time decryption of WEP traffic within a minute of eavesdropping the first packet.
In 2007, Erik Tews, Andrei Pychkine, and Ralf-Philipp Weinmann were able to extend Klein's 2005 attack and optimize it for usage against WEP. With the new attack it is possible to recover a 104-bit WEP key with a probability of 50% using only 40,000 captured packets. For 60,000 available data packets, the success probability is about 80% and for 85,000 data packets about 95%. Using active techniques like Wi-Fi deauthentication attacks and ARP re-injection, 40,000 packets can be captured in less than one minute under good conditions. The actual computation takes about 3 seconds and 3 MB of main memory on a Pentium-M 1.7 GHz and can additionally be optimized for devices with slower CPUs. The same attack can be used for 40-bit keys with an even higher success probability.
In 2008 the Payment Card Industry (PCI) Security Standards Council updated the Data Security Standard (DSS) to prohibit use of WEP as part of any credit-card processing after 30 June 2010, and prohibit any new system from being installed that uses WEP after 31 March 2009. The use of WEP contributed to the TJ Maxx parent company network invasion.
Caffe Latte attack
The Caffe Latte attack is another way to defeat WEP. It is not necessary for the attacker to be in the area of the network using this exploit. By using a process that targets the Windows wireless stack, it is possible to obtain the WEP key from a remote client. By sending a flood of encrypted ARP requests, the assailant takes advantage of the shared key authentication and the message modification flaws in 802.11 WEP. The attacker uses the ARP responses to obtain the WEP key in less than 6 minutes.
Remedies
Use of encrypted tunneling protocols (e.g., IPSec, Secure Shell) can provide secure data transmission over an insecure network. However, replacements for WEP have been developed with the goal of restoring security to the wireless network itself.
802.11i (WPA and WPA2)
The recommended solution to WEP security problems is to switch to WPA2. WPA was an intermediate solution for hardware that could not support WPA2. Both WPA and WPA2 are much more secure than WEP. To add support for WPA or WPA2, some old Wi-Fi access points might need to be replaced or have their firmware upgraded. WPA was designed as an interim software-implementable solution for WEP that could forestall immediate deployment of new hardware. However, TKIP (the basis of WPA) has reached the end of its designed lifetime, has been partially broken, and had been officially deprecated with the release of the 802.11-2012 standard.
Implemented non-standard fixes
WEP2
This stopgap enhancement to WEP was present in some of the early 802.11i drafts. It was implementable on some (not all) hardware not able to handle WPA or WPA2, and extended both the IV and the key values to 128 bits. It was hoped to eliminate the duplicate IV deficiency as well as stop brute force key attacks.
After it became clear that the overall WEP algorithm was deficient (and not just the IV and key sizes) and would require even more fixes, both the WEP2 name and original algorithm were dropped. The two extended key lengths remained in what eventually became WPA's TKIP.
WEPplus
WEPplus, also known as WEP+, is a proprietary enhancement to WEP by Agere Systems (formerly a subsidiary of Lucent Technologies) that enhances WEP security by avoiding "weak IVs". It is only completely effective when WEPplus is used at both ends of the wireless connection. As this cannot easily be enforced, it remains a serious limitation. It also does not necessarily prevent replay attacks, and is ineffective against later statistical attacks that do not rely on weak IVs.
Dynamic WEP
Dynamic WEP refers to the combination of 802.1x technology and the Extensible Authentication Protocol. Dynamic WEP changes WEP keys dynamically. It is a vendor-specific feature provided by several vendors such as 3Com.
The dynamic change idea made it into 802.11i as part of TKIP, but not for the actual WEP algorithm.
See also
Stream cipher attack
Wireless cracking
Wi-Fi Protected Access
References
External links
The Evolution of 802.11 Wireless Security, by Kevin Benton, April 18th 2010
Broken cryptography algorithms
Cryptographic protocols
Computer network security
IEEE 802.11
Wireless networking |
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