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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xbox%20%28console%29
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Xbox (console)
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The Xbox is a home video game console and the first installment in the Xbox series of video game consoles manufactured by Microsoft. It was released as Microsoft's first foray into the gaming console market on November 15, 2001, in North America, followed by Australia, Europe and Japan in 2002. It is classified as a sixth-generation console, competing with Sony's PlayStation 2 and Nintendo's GameCube. It was also the first major console produced by an American company since the release of the Atari Jaguar in 1993.
The console was announced in March 2000. With the release of the PlayStation 2, which featured the ability to playback CD-ROMs and DVDs in addition to playing games, Microsoft became concerned that game consoles would threaten the personal computer as an entertainment device for living rooms. Whereas most games consoles to that point were built from custom hardware components, the Xbox was built around standard personal computer components, using variations of Microsoft Windows and DirectX as its operating system to support games and media playback. The Xbox was technically more powerful compared to its rivals, featuring a 733 MHz Intel Pentium III processor, a processor that could be found on a standard PC. The Xbox was the first console to feature a built-in hard disk. The console also was built with direct support for broadband connectivity to the Internet via an integrated Ethernet port, and with the release of Xbox Live, a fee-based online gaming service, a year after the console's launch, Microsoft gained an early foothold in online gaming and made the Xbox a strong competitor in the sixth generation of consoles. The popularity of blockbuster titles such as Bungie's Halo 2 contributed to the popularity of online console gaming, and in particular first-person shooters.
The Xbox had a record-breaking launch in North America, selling 1.5 million units before the end of 2001, aided by the popularity of one of the system's launch titles, Halo: Combat Evolved, which sold a million units by April 2002. The system went on to sell a worldwide total of 24 million units, including 16 million in North America; however, Microsoft was unable to make a steady profit off the console, which had a manufacturing price far more expensive than its retail price, despite its popularity, losing over $4 billion during its market life. The system outsold the GameCube and the Sega Dreamcast, but was vastly outsold by the PlayStation 2, which had sold over 100 million units by the system's discontinuation in 2005. It also underperformed outside of the Western market; particularly, it sold poorly in Japan due to its large console size and an overabundance of games marketed towards American audiences instead of Japanese-developed titles. Production of the system was discontinued in 2005. The Xbox was the first in an ongoing brand of video game consoles developed by Microsoft, with a successor, the Xbox 360, launching in 2005, followed by the Xbox One in 2013 and the Xbox Series X and Series S consoles in 2020.
History
Creation and development
Before the Xbox, Microsoft had found success publishing video games for its Windows PCs, releasing popular titles such as Microsoft Flight Simulator and the massively successful Age of Empires after the creation of DirectX, the application programming interface (API) that allowed for direct access of the computer hardware and bypassing Windows. However, the company had not delved into the home console market of video games, which was dominated at the time by Sony's PlayStation. Sony was working on its next video game console, the PlayStation 2 (PS2), announced officially to the public on March 2, 1999, and intended for the system to act as a gateway for all types of home entertainment. Sony presented a vision where the console would ultimately replace the desktop computer in the home. Microsoft CEO Bill Gates saw the upcoming PS2 as a threat to Microsoft's line of Windows PCs, worrying that the all-encompassing system could eliminate consumer interests in PCs and drive them out of the market. With video games rapidly growing into a massive industry, Gates decided that Microsoft needed to venture into the console gaming market to compete with Sony. Previously, Sega had developed a version of Windows CE for its Dreamcast console to be used by game developers. Additionally, Gates had directly approached Sony CEO Nobuyuki Idei before the public announcement of the PS2 regarding letting Microsoft develop programming software for the console. However, the offer was declined by Idei in favor of having Sony create proprietary software. Microsoft had also attempted to meet with Hiroshi Yamauchi and Genyo Takeda of Nintendo to potentially acquire the company, but Nintendo declined to go further.
In 1998, four engineers from Microsoft's DirectX team—Kevin Bachus, Seamus Blackley, Ted Hase and DirectX team leader Otto Berkes—began discussing ideas for a new console which would run off Microsoft's DirectX technology. Nat Brown, the Windows Software Architect at Microsoft, would also become a regular contributor to the project after meeting Hase in November 1998. The project was codenamed "Midway," in reference to the Battle of Midway during World War II in which Japan was decisively defeated by American forces, as a representation of Microsoft's desire to surpass Sony in the console market. The DirectX team held their first development meeting on March 30, 1999, in which they discussed issues such as getting a PC to boot at a quicker pace than usual. The console would run off Windows 2000 using DirectX 8.1, which would allow PC developers to easily transition into making games for the console while also granting it a larger processing power than that of most other home consoles. According to Blackley, using PC technology as the foundation for a video game console would eliminate the technological barriers of most home consoles, allowing game creators to expand further on their own creativity without having to worry about hardware limitations.
The 4 DirectX team members encountered disagreements with the Silicon Valley engineering team behind WebTV, which joined Microsoft after they purchased the rights to the device. Microsoft executive Craig Mundie wanted the project to be led by the WebTV team, who believed the console should be built from the ground-up as an appliance running off Windows CE; however, the DirectX team were adamant about the idea of repurposing PC hardware components, such as a hard disk drive, arguing that they were cheaply manufactured and could easily be updated every year. The 4 developers gained the support of Ed Fries, the head of Microsoft's gaming division, who believed the use of a hard drive, in particular, would give the console a technical edge among competitors despite its high manufacturing cost. The two opposing teams pitched their arguments to Gates on May 5, 1999, at a meeting attended by over twenty different people. WebTV's team, among whom were Nick Baker, Dave Riola, Steve Perlman, and Tim Bucher, and their sponsor, Craig Mundie, made the case that creating an appliance would be far cheaper, highlighting that most consoles were generally sold at around $300. They also wanted to use a custom-made graphics chip, which could be shared across several different home devices. Conversely, Fries, vouching for the DirectX team, argued that using a PC hard drive would set Microsoft's console apart from competitors by allowing for the direct implementation of online access, an argument which Gates sided with. When Gates questioned if PC games could be effectively ported to the new console, Blackley explained that the machine would utilize DirectX hardware, meaning that they could be converted easily. Gates heavily favored this proposition over WebTV's, whose concept relied on Windows CE, a heavily stripped-down Windows variant that was not compatible with DirectX. As such, Gates sided with the DirectX concept and gave Berkes' team permission to create a new video game console. Despite this, WebTV would still play a part in the Xbox's initial launch.
Rick Thompson and Robert J. Bach were responsible for overseeing the Xbox's design. The DirectX team began constructing prototype consoles, purchasing several Dell computers and using their internal parts. Initially, it envisioned that after designing the console, Microsoft would have worked with a third-party computer manufacturer to mass-produce the units. However, the early work showed that this would need to be something that Microsoft would have to produce themselves, making the prospect a far more costly operation; the name "Coffin Box" became associated with the project as there were fears the project would end careers at Microsoft. Further, as a gaming console, they could not provide the direct Windows interface to users. While Thompson and Bach had warned Gates and Steve Ballmer about these large-scale changes from the initial proposal in late 1999, the matter came to a head at a February 14, 2000, meeting, informally referred to as the Valentine's Day Massacre, in which Gates furiously vented about the new cost proposal and massive changes in this console from what had been previously presented, since the Xbox appeared to marginalize Windows. However, after being reminded that this was a product to compete against Sony, Gates and Ballmer gave the project the go-ahead along with the necessary marketing budget. Another contentious point of design was the addition of Ethernet connectivity rather than simple support for dial-up networking. At this point, most consumer homes had access to Internet connectivity, but social networks had yet to be established which would later demonstrate the viability of this decision. The Xbox leads argued that with the planned Xbox Live functionality, the Ethernet port would help friends be able to play after they have graduated from schools and colleges and moved across the country.
Throughout the console's prototyping, Microsoft was working with AMD for the CPU on the system. According to Blackley, just prior to the system's reveal in January 2001, the Microsoft engineers opted to switch to an Intel CPU, a fact that had not yet been communicated to AMD prior to the reveal.
Among the names considered for the new console were a number of acronyms, including "Windows Entertainment Project" (WEP), "Microsoft Total Gaming" (MTG), "Microsoft Interactive Network Device" (MIND), and "Microsoft Interactive Center" (MIC). Also among the names considered was "DirectX Box", referring to the system's reliance on Direct X. At one point, Hase jokingly came up with the names "XXX-Box" and "DirectXXX-Box" as a nod to the system's higher volume of adult content compared to Sony or Nintendo's consoles. "DirectX Box" was quickly shortened to "Xbox" through an e-mail conversation, and was ultimately favored by the development team, though a number of spelling variants were tossed around, such as xBox, XboX, and X-box. Microsoft's marketing department did not like this name, suggesting "11-X" or "Eleven-X" as alternatives. During focus testing, the company put the name "Xbox" on the list of possible names during focus testing simply to prove how unpopular the Xbox name would be with consumers. However, "Xbox" proved to be the more popular name on the list during consumer testing and was thus selected as the official name of the product.
When the physical design of the controller began, circuit boards for the controller had already been manufactured. Microsoft had asked Sony's supplier, Mitsumi Electric, for a similar folded and stacked circuit board design used in Sony's DualShock 2 controller, but the company refused to manufacture such a design for Microsoft. This led to the controller being bulky and nearly three times the size of Sony's controller. This initial controller design was never launched in Japan. The console instead launched with a smaller, redesigned version named "Controller S" that did use the more compact circuit board design.
As the development team began to tighten down the design of the Xbox, they got help from Flextronics not only in revising the design but in mass production, creating a factory in Guadalajara, Mexico, for this purpose. Early production units had a high failure rate of around 25%, which Flextronics repaired. Later iterations of the hardware design worked to eliminate these failures.
Initial announcement and content acquisitions
Gates first publicly mentioned the Xbox in an interview in late 1999, stating that he wanted the system "to be the platform of choice for the best and most creative game developers in the world". It was later announced officially by Gates in a keynote presentation at the Game Developers Conference in San Jose on March 10, 2000, showing off an early prototype build of the system and a series of demos showcasing its hardware. The presentation and the new system were well-received, impressing developers with both the hard drive and the Ethernet port and appealing to them with the notion of easy-to-use development tools.
Microsoft began looking at a series of acquisitions and partnerships to secure content for the console at this time. In early 2000, Sega's Dreamcast sales were diminishing, in part due to Electronic Arts' decision to bypass the console, and Sony's PlayStation 2 was just going on sale in Japan. Gates was in talks with Sega's late chairman Isao Okawa about the possibility of Xbox compatibility with Dreamcast games, but negotiations fell apart over whether the Dreamcast's SegaNet online service should be implemented. Microsoft also looked to acquire Electronic Arts, Nintendo, Square Enix, and Midway without success. The company did achieve success in convincing developers at Bethesda Game Studios and Tecmo about the power of the Xbox over the PS2, lining up The Elder Scrolls III: Morrowind and Dead or Alive 3 as Xbox console-exclusives.
Around this same time, Microsoft announced it was rebranding its Games Group, which had been focused on developing games for Windows, to the Microsoft Games division to make titles for both Windows and the Xbox. Microsoft began acquiring a number of studios to add to the division, notably Bungie in June 2000, shortly after their announcement of Halo: Combat Evolved. With Microsoft's acquisition, Halo switched from being a release for personal computers to being an Xbox exclusive release and as a launch time to help drive sales of the console.
Formal announcement and release
The Xbox was officially unveiled to the public by Gates and guest professional wrestler Dwayne "The Rock" Johnson at CES 2001 in Las Vegas on January 3, 2001. Microsoft announced Xbox's release dates and prices at E3 2001 in May. Most Xbox launch titles were unveiled at E3, most notably Halo and Dead or Alive 3.
The unit's release in November 2001 was partially hampered by the impact of the September 11 attacks on travel, as Microsoft could not travel to the Guadalajara facility to help test units. They were able to arrange to ship the units locally instead of testing at Microsoft facilities to have them ready for launch.
The system was officially launched at midnight on November 15, 2001, three days before the subsequent launch of the Nintendo GameCube. A special event was held on the prior night as part of the grand opening of the flagship store of Toys 'R' Us at Times Square in New York City, in which 1,000 systems were shipped to the store to kick off sales. Bill Gates was present at the event, personally selling the very first Xbox console and greeting people in line and playing games with them at the numerous display units present.
Promotion
In 2002, the Independent Television Commission (ITC) banned a television advertisement for the Xbox in the United Kingdom after complaints that it was "offensive, shocking and in bad taste." It depicted a mother giving birth to a baby boy, fired like a projectile through a window, aging rapidly as he flies through the air. The advertisement ends with an old man crash-landing into his own grave and the slogan, "Life is short. Play more."
Discontinuation and successors
The Xbox's successor, the Xbox 360, was officially announced on May 12, 2005 on MTV. It was the first next generation system to be announced. It was released in North America on November 22, 2005. Nvidia ceased production of the Xbox's GPU in August 2005, which marked the end of brand-new Xbox production. The last game for the Xbox in Japan was The King of Fighters Neowave released in March 2006, the last Xbox game in Europe was Xiaolin Showdown released in June 2007, and the last game in North America was Madden NFL 09 released in August 2008. Support for out-of-warranty Xbox consoles was discontinued on March 2, 2009. Support for Xbox Live on the console ended on April 15, 2010.
The Xbox 360 supports a limited number of the Xbox's game library if the player has an official Xbox 360 Hard Drive. Xbox games were added up until November 2007. Xbox game saves cannot be transferred to Xbox 360, and the ability to play Xbox games through Xbox LIVE has been discontinued since April 15, 2010. It is still possible to play Xbox games with System Link functionality online via both the original console and the Xbox 360 with tunneling software such as XLink Kai. It was announced at E3 2017 that the Xbox One would be gaining support for a limited number of the Xbox's game library.
Hardware
The Xbox was the first video game console to feature a built-in hard disk drive, used primarily for storing game saves and content downloaded from Xbox Live. This eliminated the need for separate memory cards (although some older consoles, such as the Amiga CD32, used internal flash memory, and others, such as the TurboGrafx-CD, Sega CD, and Sega Saturn, had featured built-in battery backup memory prior to 2001). An Xbox user could rip music from standard audio CDs to the hard drive, and these songs were used for the custom soundtracks in some games.
Unlike the PlayStation 2, which could play movie DVDs without the need for a remote control (although an optional remote was available), the Xbox required an external IR adapter to be plugged into a controller port in order to play movie DVDs. If DVD playback is attempted without the IR sensor plugged in, an error screen will pop up informing the user of the need for the Xbox DVD Playback Kit. The said kit included the IR sensor and a remote control (unlike the PS2, the Xbox controller could not control DVD playback). Said remote was manufactured by Thomson (which also manufactured optical drives for the console) and went on sale in late 2002, which meant a modified version of the remote design used by the RCA, GE and ProScan consumer electronics of the era was used for the Xbox remote, and therefore users wishing to use a universal remote were instructed to utilize RCA DVD remote codes.
The Xbox was the first gaming product to feature Dolby Interactive Content-Encoding Technology, which allows real-time Dolby Digital encoding in game consoles. Previous game consoles could only use Dolby Digital 5.1 during non-interactive "cut scene" playback.
The Xbox is based on commodity PC hardware and is much larger and heavier than its contemporaries. This is largely due to a bulky tray-loading DVD-ROM drive and the standard-size 3.5-inch hard drive. The Xbox has also pioneered safety features, such as breakaway cables for the controllers to prevent the console from being pulled from the surface upon which it rests.
Several internal hardware revisions have been made in an ongoing battle to discourage modding (hackers continually updated modchip designs in an attempt to defeat them), to cut manufacturing costs, and to make the DVD-ROM drive more reliable (some of the early units' drives gave disc-reading errors due to the unreliable Thomson DVD-ROM drives used). Later-generation units that used the Thomson TGM-600 DVD-ROM drives and the Philips VAD6011 DVD-ROM drives were still vulnerable to failure that, respectively, either rendered the consoles unable to read newer discs or caused them to halt the console with an error code usually indicating a PIO/DMA identification failure. These units were not covered under the extended warranty.
In 2002, Microsoft and Nvidia entered arbitration over a dispute on the pricing of Nvidia's chips for the Xbox. Nvidia's filing with the SEC indicated that Microsoft was seeking a $13 million discount on shipments for NVIDIA's fiscal year 2002. Microsoft alleged violations of the agreement the two companies entered, sought reduced chipset pricing, and sought to ensure that Nvidia fulfill Microsoft's chipset orders without limits on quantity. The matter was privately settled on February 6, 2003.
The Xbox includes a standard AV cable which provides composite video and monaural or stereo audio to TVs equipped with RCA inputs. European Xboxes also included an RCA jack to SCART converter block and the standard AV cable.
An 8 MB removable solid-state memory card can be plugged into the controllers, onto which game saves can either be copied from the hard drive when in the Xbox dashboard's memory manager or saved during a game. Most Xbox game saves can be copied to the memory unit and moved to another console, but some Xbox saves are digitally signed. It is also possible to save an Xbox Live account on a memory unit, to simplify its use on more than one Xbox. The ports at the top of the controllers could also be used for other accessories, primarily headsets for voice chat via Xbox Live.
Technical specifications
The Xbox CPU is a 32-bit 733 MHz, custom Intel Pentium III Coppermine-based processor. It has a 133 MHz 64-bit GTL+ front-side bus (FSB) with a 1.06 GB/s bandwidth. The system has 64 MB unified DDR SDRAM, with a 6.4 GB/s bandwidth, of which 1.06 GB/s is used by the CPU and 5.34 GB/s is shared by the rest of the system.
Its GPU is Nvidia's 233 MHz NV2A. It has a floating-point performance of 7.3 GFLOPS, capable of geometry calculations for up to a theoretical 115 million vertices/second. It has a peak fillrate of 932 megapixels/second, capable of rendering a theoretical 29 million 32-pixel triangles/second. With bandwidth limitations, it has a realistic fillrate of 250–700 megapixels/second, with Z-buffering, fogging, alpha blending, and texture mapping, giving it a real-world performance of 7.8–21 million 32-pixel triangles/second.
Controllers
The Xbox controller features two analog sticks, a pressure-sensitive directional pad, two analog triggers, a Back button, a Start button, two accessory slots and six 8-bit analog action buttons (A/Green, B/Red, X/Blue, Y/Yellow, and Black and White buttons). The standard Xbox controller (also nicknamed the "Fatty" and later, the "Duke") was originally the controller bundled with Xbox systems for all territories except Japan. The controller has been criticized for being bulky compared to other video game controllers; it was awarded "Blunder of the Year" by Game Informer in 2001, a Guinness World Record for the biggest controller in Guinness World Records Gamer's Edition 2008, and was ranked the second-worst video game controller ever by IGN editor Craig Harris.
The "Controller S" (codenamed "Akebono"), a smaller, lighter Xbox controller, was originally the standard Xbox controller only in Japan, designed for users with smaller hands. The "Controller S" was later released in other territories by popular demand and by 2002 replaced the standard controller in the Xbox's retail package, with the larger original controller remaining available as an accessory.
Software
Operating system
The Xbox runs a custom operating system which is based on a heavily modified version of Windows 2000. It exports APIs similar to those found in Microsoft Windows, such as Direct3D. Its source code was leaked in 2020.
The user interface for the Xbox is called the Xbox Dashboard. It features a media player that can be used to play music CDs, rip CDs to the Xbox's built-in hard drive and play music that has been ripped to the hard drive; it also lets users manage game saves, music, and downloaded content from Xbox Live, and lets Xbox Live users sign in, customize, and manage their account. The dashboard is only available when the user is not watching a movie or playing a game. It uses many shades of green and black for the user interface to be consistent with the physical Xbox color scheme. When the Xbox was released in 2001, the Live service was not online, so the dashboard's Live sections and the network settings sub-menu were not present yet.
Xbox Live was released in November 2002, but in order to access it, users had to buy the Xbox Live starter kit containing a headset and a subscription. While the Xbox was still being supported by Microsoft, the Xbox Dashboard was updated via Live several times to reduce cheating and add features.
Games
The Xbox launched in North America on November 15, 2001. Popular launch games included Halo: Combat Evolved, Project Gotham Racing, and Dead or Alive 3. All three of these games would go on to sell over a million copies in the US.
Although the console gained strong third-party support from its inception, many early Xbox games did not fully use its powerful hardware until a full year after its release. Xbox versions of cross-platform games sometimes came with a few additional features and/or graphical improvements to distinguish them from the PS2 and GameCube versions of the same game, thus negating one of the Xbox's main selling points. Sony countered the Xbox for a short time by temporarily securing PlayStation 2 exclusives for highly anticipated games such as the Grand Theft Auto series and the Metal Gear Solid series as well as Nintendo for the Resident Evil series. Notable third-party support came from Sega, who announced an 11-game exclusivity deal at Tokyo Game Show. Sega released exclusives such as Panzer Dragoon Orta and Jet Set Radio Future, which met with a strong reception among critics.
In 2002 and 2003, several high-profile releases helped the Xbox gain momentum and distinguish itself from the PS2. Microsoft purchased Rare, responsible for many Nintendo 64 hit games, to expand their first party portfolio. The Xbox Live online service was launched in late 2002 alongside pilot titles MotoGP, MechAssault and Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon. Several best-selling and critically acclaimed titles for the Xbox soon followed, such as Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell, and Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic. Take-Two Interactive's exclusivity deal with Sony was amended to allow Grand Theft Auto III and its sequels to be published for the Xbox. Many other publishers got into the trend of releasing the Xbox version alongside the PS2 version, instead of delaying it for months.
2004 saw the release of highly rated exclusives Fable and Ninja Gaiden: both games would become big hits for the Xbox. Later that year, Halo 2 was released and became the highest-grossing release in entertainment history, making over $125 million in its first day and became the best-selling Xbox game worldwide. Halo 2 became Xbox Live's third killer app after MechAssault & Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six 3. That year Microsoft made a deal to put Electronic Arts' popular titles on Xbox Live to boost the popularity of their service.
By 2005, despite notable first party releases in Conker: Live & Reloaded and Forza Motorsport, Microsoft began phasing out the Xbox in favor of their next console, the Xbox 360. Games such as Kameo: Elements of Power and Perfect Dark Zero, which were originally to be developed for the Xbox, became Xbox 360 launch titles instead. The last game released on the Xbox was Madden NFL 09, on August 12, 2008.
Services
On November 15, 2002, Microsoft launched its Xbox Live online gaming service, allowing subscribers to play online Xbox games with other subscribers around the world and download new content directly to the system's hard drive. The online service works only with a broadband Internet connection. In its first week of operation, Xbox Live received 100,000 subscriptions, and further grew to 250,000 subscribers within two months of the service's launch. In July 2004, Microsoft announced that Xbox Live had reached one million subscribers; in July 2005, membership reached two million, and by July 2007 there were more than three million subscribers. By May 2009, the number had ballooned to twenty million current subscribers. On February 5, 2010, it was reported that Xbox Live support for the original Xbox games would be discontinued as of April 14, 2010. Services were discontinued on schedule, but a group of users later known as the "Noble 14" continued to play for almost a month afterwards by simply leaving their consoles on connected to Halo 2.
Sales
Prior to launching, anticipation for the Xbox was high, with Toys 'R' Us and Amazon reporting that online preorders had sold out within just 30 minutes. Microsoft stated that it planned to ship 1–1.5 million units to retailers by the end of the year, followed by weekly shipments of 100,000 units.
The launch was one of the most successful in video game history, with unit sales surpassing 1 million after just 3 weeks and rising further to 1.5 million by the end of 2001. The system also attained one of the highest-ever attachment rates at launch, with over 3 games selling per unit according to the NPD Group. Strong sales were tied in large part to the highly anticipated launch title, Halo: Combat Evolved, which had surpassed sales of 1 million units by April 2002 and attained a 50% attach rate for the console. By July 2004, the system had sold 15.5 million units worldwide—10.1 million in North America, 3.9 million in Europe, and 1.5 million in Asia-Pacific—and had a 33% market share in the US.
Despite strong sales in North America, Microsoft struggled to make a profit from the Xbox due to its high manufacturing cost. With its initial retail price of $299, Microsoft lost about $125 for every system sold, which cost $425 to manufacture, meaning that the company would have to rely on software sales in order to make any money. According to Robbie Bach, "Probably six months after we shipped, you could see the price curve and do the math and know that we were going to lose billions of dollars." These losses were further exacerbated in April 2002, when Microsoft lowered the retail price of the Xbox even further to $199 in order to further driving hardware sales. Microsoft also struggled to compete with Sony's more popular PlayStation 2 console, which generally saw far higher sales numbers, although the Xbox outsold the PS2 in the U.S. in April 2004. By its manufacturing discontinuation in 2005, the Xbox had sold a total of 24 million units worldwide, 16 million of which had been sold in North America. These numbers fell short of Microsoft's predicted 50 million units, and failed to match the PlayStation 2's lifetime sales of 106 million units at the time, although it did surpass the GameCube and Dreamcast's lifetime sales of 21 million and 10.6 units, respectively. Ultimately, Microsoft lost an accumulative total of $4 billion from the Xbox, only managing to turn a profit at the end of 2004. While the Xbox represented an overall loss for Microsoft, Gates, Ballmer, and other executives still saw it as a positive result for the company as it brought them into the console marketplace against doubts raised by the industry, and led to Microsoft's further development of other consoles in the Xbox family.
Japan
Prior to its Japanese launch in February 2002, many analysts estimated that the Xbox would have trouble competing with the PS2 and the GameCube, its local counterparts in the region, noting its comparatively high price tag, lack of exclusives, and larger size which would not fit as well in Japan's smaller living spaces. Microsoft hoped to ship six million Japanese Xbox consoles by June 2002; however, the system had only sold a total of 190,000 units in the region by April of that year, two months after the system's launch in February. For the week ending April 14, 2002, the Xbox sold only 1,800 units, considerably less than the PS2 and GameCube, and failed to see a single title reach the top 50 best-selling video games in Japan. In November 2002, the Xbox chief in Japan stepped down, leading to further consultations about Xbox's future, which by that point had only sold 278,860 units in the country since its February launch. For the week ending July 18, 2004, the Xbox sold just 272 units, even fewer than the PSOne had sold in the same week. The Xbox did, however, outsell the GameCube for the week ending May 26, 2002. Ultimately, the Xbox had only sold 450,000 units as of November 2011. Factors believed to have contributed to the console's poor market presence included its large physical size, which contrasted the country's emphasis on more compact designs, and a lack of Japanese-developed games to aid consumer interest.
Modding
The popularity of the Xbox, as well as (in the United States) its comparatively short 90-day warranty, inspired efforts to circumvent the built-in hardware and software security mechanisms, a practice informally known as modding.
References
External links
at Xbox.com
2001 in video gaming
Computer-related introductions in 2001
Discontinued Microsoft products
Home video game consoles
Microsoft video game consoles
Products introduced in 2001
Products and services discontinued in 2009
Sixth-generation video game consoles
X86-based game consoles
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tandy%20Trower
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Tandy Trower
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Tandy Trower is the current CEO of Hoaloha Robotics LLC, a robotics company based in Seattle, Washington, developing an autonomously mobile, socially interactive robot, to empower senior citizens to live more independently.
Mr. Trower previously worked at Microsoft for 28 years where he was involved with over two dozen products, many of them well known in the market. In his last role at Microsoft he was the General Manager of the Robotics Group and spoke extensively at conferences and universities about the future of robotics. After leaving Microsoft, he founded Hoaloha Robotics.
Early career
After teaching himself to program, first on a Radio Shack TRS-80 Model 1 and later an Apple II, Tandy switched careers from working as an engineer in the semiconductor industry, and moved to developing software in 1979, when he was hired to work at the San Francisco office of Wicat, a company developing education and curriculum based products for schools. There he worked for Dr. Jim Schuyler on a classroom curriculum management package for the Apple II being developed for SRA. In 1980, he was hired by Atari in the personal computer division, which was the newest of the businesses at the time, and just after Atari's acquisition by Warner Communications from Nolan Bushnell.
Starting out by evaluating software product for possible acquisition, he quickly worked as a product manager for a variety of different educational and entertainment products for the Atari 400 and 800 computers, and recommended to executive management that Atari acquire a license for Microsoft BASIC, since at that time Atari's personal computers ran a BASIC created by Shepherdson Microsystems, and was not fully compatible with the BASICs that was featured on other early competitive PCs like the Apple II and Commodore PET. Bill Gates himself came down to the Atari office in Sunnyvale and negotiated the features in the spec.
Transition to Microsoft
In late 1981, Tandy inquired about possible openings at Microsoft and was invited up to interview and was offered a position by Steve Ballmer, Microsoft's then acting HR manager, to join the company. At that time there were about 90 employees. He joined as part of a new product marketing team which included Jeff Raikes, Chris Larson, Carl Stork, Mark Deutsch, and Mark Ursino. (See the end of the video on Channel 9).
The team was assigned responsibility for marketing all of the various BASIC products which included an OEM version of BASIC that IBM was shipping with their new PC, known as GW-BASIC. It also included a variety of BASIC interpreters for 6800, 6809, 6502, Z-80, 8080, and 8086 processors as well as BASIC compilers. In addition, he was responsible for the few games (Microsoft Decathlon, Adventure); educational products (Typing Tutor); a couple of hardware products including the already shipping Z-80 based SoftCard and RAMCard for the Apple II computers; muMath (a symbolic equation processor); and muLisp (a LISP interpreter). His first manager at Microsoft was Nigel Smith.
Within 3 months, responsibility for marketing COBOL and Microsoft Sort 80, a file sorting utility, were also transferred to him. About 6 months later he was also given responsibility for marketing Microsoft Pascal, FORTRAN, MacroAssembler, and the responsibility for launching the first Microsoft C compiler for MS-DOS. At this time he shed responsibility for the hardware products, and the games and educational products, but not before managing the release of the very first version of Microsoft Flight Simulator which was created for Microsoft by Bruce Artwick.
During the following 3 years, he built a small marketing team around the programming languages family and extended the family to include the first BASIC Interpreter and Compiler for the Apple Macintosh.
Windows
Late in 1984, Steve Ballmer, who had become Tandy's boss, asked him to take over retail marketing responsibility for Microsoft Windows. IBM had rejected licensing Windows in favor of their own character based windowed app manager called TopView, but Microsoft continued with the development of a graphical user interface. Windows 1.0 shipped in fall of 1985. That version of Windows bears a scant resemblance to today's version since it had to run on CGA cards which had a resolution of 320×200 pixels, and, prior to Tandy joining the team, it had been decided to use tiled windows rather than overlapping ones as it had in its original design.
Tandy wrote the specs for a set of desktop applets including a Paint program, a simple word processor called Windows Write, Calculator, Reversi game, Notepad, File Manager, and Calendar program. He also defined a way to change system parameters using an app called the Control Panel.
Applications for Windows were slow in coming to market at first. In July 1986 Tandy, as Director of Marketing for Windows, had to admit that there were less than a dozen third-party apps.
He stayed on to help manage Windows 2.0 and the interface shifted back to overlapping windows. It became the platform for one of the first significant applications to run on Windows, Microsoft Excel. By then a company called Aldus had also created a Windows version of their popular page layout product, Pagemaker, which took advantage of a printer driver for the HP LaserJet printer. At the time most printers were dot matrix.
By that time, there was a Joint Development Agreement with IBM (who still rejected licensing Windows) where Microsoft and IBM would work together on a new OS called OS/2 that would include its own window manager called Presentation Manager. The UIs for Windows and OS/2 Presentation Manager had to be kept in sync so users could move smoothly between them and Tandy became the liaison to negotiating features between the products in an effort to keep them operational compatible.
When Windows 2.0 shipped in November 1987, Tandy proposed the creation of a new group at Microsoft that would do usability testing, app interface design, publish UI guidelines, and create prototypes of new UIs. Subsequently, he founded Microsoft's first usability test labs and wrote most of the guidelines for designing Windows applications that were published by Microsoft Press. He was also a featured speaker on application interface design at early user interface conferences.
Around this time Steve Jobs left Apple and sued Microsoft over Windows. Tandy was involved in depositions and tasked with creating videos and other educational elements for the Microsoft legal team to use in court. Eventually, the matter was settled out of court.
Interactive Software Agents
As user interface design and usability assessment became more common practice and integrated into the product teams at Microsoft, Tandy shifted to primarily focus on promoting good design practice and new UI innovations. It was during this time that the ill-fated Microsoft Bob was being created within Microsoft Consumer Applications Division. Having met with team to evaluate the design work, Tandy felt the design approach had the right motivation and a good conceptual model based on the research of Stanford professors, Byron Reeves and Clifford Nass, which confirmed through a number of experiments that humans react to social stimuli, even when presented from non-human sources. However, he disagreed with the implementation that the Microsoft Bob team was developing. In response, Tandy hired a contract developer to create an interface for on-screen character agents, called Microsoft Agent which enabled any Windows developer to incorporate interactive characters into their application or Web pages. In addition to the code to support interaction, four characters that developers could license, including a robot (Robby), parrot (Peedy - borrowed from MSR Persona Project), wizard (Merlin), and genie (Genie), as well as a tool that enabled developers to create their own characters and animation sequences. In a paper presented at the ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems in 1997, Tandy discussed how to create conversational interfaces for interactive agents.
It was later used by the Office team to support the Office Assistant and replace the original Microsoft Bob code that had been used. However, the Office team created their own set of characters including the infamous Clippit (aka "Clippy"). Microsoft Agent was also included in the user registration component of Windows ME and featured in a number of Microsoft Research projects as well as third-party applications and websites. The code was later dropped out of both Windows and Office due to the unsatisfactory user acceptance of the technology and despite his efforts to improve the way the interface could be used, the project was discontinued at Microsoft.
Windows Media Center and beyond
In 2004, Tandy transferred to Craig Mundie's organization where he was responsible for the user interface team for Windows Media Center which subsequently was shifted under Will Poole's Digital Media Division. After building the initial team and specifications, he recruited Joe Belfiore to replace him and moved back to work for Mundie, this time with the mission of coming up with an application scenario that could demonstrate the value of the concurrency work that Mundie was incubating under a project called BigTop. BigTop's objective was to fulfill Mundie's vision of helping developers with the need to shift development from single threaded single processor based development to asynchronous, distributed processing without the conventional complications of managing threads, locks, and semaphores to manage interaction between the simultaneously running code modules. This eventually became the CCR (Concurrency and Coordination Runtime) and DSS (Decentralized Software Services) that were later included in Microsoft Robotics Developer Studio and CCR & DSS Toolkit). However, in this first attempt to identify a compelling scenario, Tandy investigated bio-inspired technologies like neural networks, genetic algorithms, and swarm processing, but eventually proposing a project to build a dialogue software engine that would enable natural conversation. However, the project was canceled.
Gates Strategic Staff and Research into Robotics
In 2005, Tandy transferred to work as part of Bill Gates' strategic staff, with the role of helping Gates keep up with ongoing internal and external developments.
During this time Tandy was invited to meetings with different parts of the robotics community, including researchers in universities, vendors like ABB and KUKA in the industrial robotics sector, and a LEGO VP who was looking for software for their new robotics kits, etc. There appeared to be a common message despite coming from diverse parts of the technology world: robotics was on a new "disruptive" course and moving toward a new personal form.
After talking with a number of leaders in the robotics community and assessing the available resources, Tandy discussed robotics with Bill Gates. This led to a proposal to create a development kit that could provide a consistent platform and tools that could be applied to a wide variety of robots. Gates requested review and input from Craig Mundie and MSR Senior VP, Rick Rashid and the proposal was approved to move to a prototype phase and would be integrated the concurrency work that Mundie had been incubating. Nine months later, after a subsequent review, the project was approved for product development. with the first Community Technology Preview (CTP) shipped in June 2006 called Microsoft Robotics Studio. The official release of V1.0 was in December 2006.
The 2.0 release in November 2008 was renamed to Microsoft Robotics Developer Studio. After the 4.0 release in 2012, Microsoft discontinued the product and closed down the Robotics Group. Since then there has been some work on Robotics within Microsoft, including on ROS (Robot Operating System) for Windows, but Microsoft's involvement in Robotics has been minimal.
Post Microsoft
Tandy Trower resigned from Microsoft in November 2009 to pursue a new venture to create software and services to support robotic solutions that can enhance the lives of an increasing worldwide population that require assistive care. The new venture named Hoaloha Robotics ("hoaloha" being the Hawaiian word for "friend") was launched in September 2010.
References
External links
Tandy Trower's LinkedIn profile
American computer scientists
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
Microsoft employees
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft%20Servers
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Microsoft Servers
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Microsoft Servers (previously called Windows Server System) is a discontinued brand that encompasses Microsoft software products for server computers. This includes the Windows Server editions of the Microsoft Windows operating system, as well as products targeted at the wider business market. Microsoft has since replaced this brand with Microsoft Azure, Microsoft 365 and Windows 365.
Servers
Operating system
The Windows Server family of operating systems consists of Windows operating systems developed and licensed for use on server computers. This family started with Windows Server 2003, for which Microsoft released a major upgrade every four years and a minor upgrade every two years following a major release.
This family has branded members too, such as Windows Home Server, Windows HPC Server and Windows MultiPoint Server.
Windows components
The following products are shipped as Windows component, as opposed to standalone products.
Internet Information Services (IIS): Web server, FTP server and basic email server
Hyper-V: Bare-metal hypervisor
Windows Services for UNIX
Windows Server Update Services
Productivity
Some of the products included in the Windows Server System product branding are designed specifically for interaction with Microsoft Office. These include:
BizTalk Server: Business process design and integration tools
Exchange Server: E-mail and collaboration server
Host Integration Server: Data and management connector between Windows environments and mainframe and midrange platforms such as IBM i. Formerly known as Microsoft SNA Server
Project Server: Project management and resource allocation services; works as the server component to Microsoft Project
SharePoint Server: Produces sites intended for collaboration, file sharing, web databases, social networking and web publishing.
Skype for Business Server: Instant messaging and presence server, integration with telephone PBX systems. Integrates with Skype for Business.
SQL Server: Relational Database Management and business intelligence server
Security
Exchange Online Protection
Identity Integration Server – Identity management product
Microsoft System Center
Microsoft System Center, a set of server products, aims specifically at helping corporate system administrators manage a network of Windows Server and client desktop systems.
System Center Advisor:
Software-as-a-service offering that helps change or assess the configuration of Microsoft Servers software over the Internet
System Center App Controller: Unified management for public and private clouds, including cloud-based virtual machines and services
System Center Capacity Planner Provides purchasing and best-practice capacity planning guidance
Microsoft Endpoint Configuration Manager: Configuration management, asset management, patch deployment tools for Windows desktops (previously Systems Management Server); includes Software Center.
System Center Data Protection Manager: Continuous data protection and data recovery
System Center Endpoint Protection: Anti-malware and security tools for Microsoft products
System Center Essentials: Combined features of Operations Manager and Windows Software Update Services (WSUS), aimed at small and medium-sized businesses
System Center Orchestrator (formerly Opalis): An automation platform for orchestrating and integrating administrative tools to decrease the cost of datacenter operations while improving the reliability of IT processes. It enables organizations to automate best practices, such as those found in Microsoft Operations Framework (MOF) and ITIL. Orchestrator operates through workflow processes that coordinate System Center and other management tools to automate incident response, change and compliance, and service-lifecycle management processes.
System Center Operations Manager: Services and application monitoring
System Center Service Manager: Ties in with SCOM, SCCM for asset tracking as well as incident, problem, change and configuration management (code name: Service Desk)
System Center Virtual Machine Manager: Virtual-machine management and datacenter virtualization
Discontinued server products
Microsoft Application Center: Deployment of web applications across multiple servers. Some of its capabilities are now in System Center.
Commerce Server: E-Commerce portal
Site Server (replaced by Commerce Server)
Merchant Server (replaced by Microsoft Site Server)
Content Management Server: Web site content management and publishing. Merged into Microsoft SharePoint Server.
Forefront: Comprehensive line of business security products
Threat Management Gateway: Firewall, routing, VPN and web caching server, formerly known as Microsoft ISA Server or Microsoft Proxy Server in its earlier iterations
Microsoft Proxy Server (replaced by Forefront Threat Management Gateway)
Protection for Exchange Server
Protection for SharePoint Server
Unified Access Gateway
Identity Manager
Forms Server: Server-based electronic forms
Groove Server: Collaboration server; works in conjunction with Microsoft SharePoint Workspace
PerformancePoint Server: Business performance management server
Project Portfolio Server
Search Server
Microsoft SNA Server (replaced by Host Integration Server)
Speech Server: Speech applications for automated telephone systems, including voice recognition
Virtual Server: Platform virtualization of operating systems
References
External links
Microsoft System Center web site
System Center technical library
Extending the Power of Microsoft System Center to Heterogeneous Environments web site
Servers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GDevelop
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GDevelop
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GDevelop is a 2D cross-platform, free and open-source game engine, which mainly focuses on creating PC and Mobile games, as well as HTML5 games playable in the browser. Created by Florian Rival, who is a software engineer at Google, GDevelop is mainly aimed at non-programmers and game developers of all skillsets, employing event based visual programming similar to such engines as Construct, Stencyl, and Tynker.
Due to its ease of use and being distributed under an open-source license, GDevelop has found use in games education, ranging from primary school to university courses. It has also been used by educators and researchers to create learning and serious games.
Game Creation without Programming Languages
One of GDevelop's primary goals is to allow creators to make full video games without using any programming languages. This is primarily done through three methods:
Event-based logic
GDevelop's primary focus is to allow all users to create games without code or a programming language. This is accomplished via the Event system, which creates logic by monitoring for Conditions on when to trigger, and actions to take once the event conditions are met. The majority of events are presented in normalized language, so creators can avoid having to understand coding concepts found in many programming languages.
Behaviors
Behaviors allow for advanced combinations of pre-built functions and events to add logic like physics-based movement, pathfinding, acting as a platform or platform character game, allowing to move the object with the mouse or touch, transitions, etc. Behaviors can be added to game objects, and the same object can have several behaviors. Behaviors can also be created using the Event system - allowing users to extend the existing set of behaviors without coding.
Easy content pipeline
All game content, such as character art, backgrounds, text, etc, can be added directly through a point and click interface in the editor. Some example content types are Sprites, Tiled Sprites, 9-Patch (Panel) Sprites, Text Objects, Text Objects with BBText support, Shape Painters, and more. Music and Sounds can be imported directly into the events that utilize them.
Other Features
GDevelop has two separate clients, Web and Local. The web client allowing for game development directly through the browser and saving to a cloud storage solution. Both versions share the majority of their feature-set. A non-exhaustive feature-set available to both clients include:
Extensions
User-made extensions can be created to allow for custom events, behaviors, or functions. Existing events can be turned into extensions from within a project's event sheet. These extensions can be shared within the IDE to the entire community and can be added within a few clicks. Extensions can also implement new engine capabilities such as Kongregate API integrations or full masking support. Extensions can do a lot of things to help your game be better. Some things extensions can do are add gamepad support and cheats like the Konami code.
Javascript Language Support
Although GDevelop's primary focus is using the event system to enable development without any programming language code, a Javascript Code block can also be used in place of any event.
In addition to using JavaScript code blocks for game logic, this also allows advanced users to extend the capabilities of events by directly manipulating the engine. This opens up new horizons for any developer.
Monetization Support
GDevelop supports AdMob, Shopify, and Facebook Ads allowing for advertising in the form of video, banner, interstitial screen and link to purchase.
Shader effects
Introduced in beta 84, GDevelop currently supports effects applied to each layer of a game scene. Shaders allow for advanced graphical effects such as drop shadows, reflections, scanlines, color swapping, and much more without having to create custom art for the effect.
Built-in Content Editors
Gdevelop's IDE also has built in editors for graphics and audio. Piskel is integrated for editing art, and JFXR is integrated for creating sound effects.
One-Click Export
Games can be exported directly to Android, Windows, Linux, and Web platforms. It is possible to make a local export that allows for manual iOS, Android, or desktop OS compiling, as well as export to platforms like Kongregate, itch.io, Google Play, etc.
Supported platforms
GDevelop allows users to compile games into stand-alone games, without requiring the software to run.
The following platforms are supported for One-Click Export:
Windows 7/8/10
Ubuntu (Linux)
Android
HTML5 (Web)
Additionally, the projects can be exported locally, and manually compiled to the following platforms:
Windows 7/8/10
Windows Store UWP
Linux
Android
iOS
HTML5 (Web)
Technologies used
GDevelop 5 uses GDJS, the same JavaScript engine as GDevelop 4, an older and currently unsupported version. It uses Pixi.JS v5 as a renderer. The editor interface is in React and uses asm.js to manipulate projects using the C++ code inherited from GDevelop 4. Both the editor interface and games are packaged using Electron.
GDevelop 4 uses a GDCpp, a C++ engine, as well as GDJS, a JavaScript engine. GDCpp uses SFML and GDJS uses Pixi.JS v4 as a renderer. The editor interface is written in C++ and is essentially based on the library SFML for multimedia management and on wxWidgets user interface. The software also uses Boost and TinyXML. The IDE and GDCpp were packaged via a standard C++ compiler.
History
According to the main author of the software:The idea with GDevelop is making game creation accessible to anyone, from beginners to seasoned game developers. GDevelop allows you to create the logic of your game using visual events, composed of conditions and actions. You can also build your game objects by composing pre-defined and customizable behaviors. This means that the entry barrier of learning the syntax and idioms of a programming language is removed. For people that are not developers, it’s a way to quickly get up and running with an intuitive interface. Lots of people love sandbox games. GDevelop is a sandbox - but what you can do with it is unlimited.GDevelop's initial 1.0 release was in 2008, on a foundation that was primarily C++ and had a more native OS focus. Over the years more and more features were added such as tilemap support, a particle system, and limited network support. Leading up to 2018, discussions were had around migrating GDevelop to a more portable and platform-agnostic base, and in January of 2018 GDevelop 5 (GD5) was released.
Until GD5, the main engine was the C++ engine (GDCpp). GD5 dropped support for it in favor of the JavaScript engine (GDJS), first introduced the 1. July 2013. The reason of the drop was because it had issues across platforms, couldn't run in the browser or on phones due to the renderer (SFML) it was using, and GDevelop was lacking too many contributors in general to support both a JavaScript and a C++ engine.
It is planned to bring a native engine back in the long term, but not in the short term
GD5 included a complete rework of the IDE to begin using web technologies, like Pixi.JS and React. Support around GD4 was shifted over to GD5 to bring focus on enhancing the future of the engine.
Since GD5's launch, additional features and functionality have continually been added, such as BBText support, Dialogue Support via Yarnspinner, and layer based shaders via PixiJS Shaders. Development and enhancement of the platform continues from 4ian and a group of repeat contributors.
References
External links
Official website
Official Forum
GitHub project
Games Showcase page
Video game engines
HTML5
Video game IDE
Game engines for Linux
Visual programming languages
Educational programming languages
Video game development software
Video game development software for Linux
Free game engines
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AWS%20Elemental
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AWS Elemental
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AWS Elemental, formerly known as Elemental Technologies, is a software company headquartered in Portland, Oregon and owned by Amazon Web Services that specializes in multiscreen video. Founded in August 2006, Elemental creates software that performs video encoding, decoding, transcoding, and pixel processing tasks on commodity hardware for adaptive bitrate streaming of video over IP networks. Elemental video processing software runs in turnkey, cloud-based and virtualized deployment models. The company has offices in the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Hong Kong, Singapore, Japan, China, Russia, India and Brazil.
History
Elemental was founded in 2006 by three engineers formerly of the semiconductor company Pixelworks: Sam Blackman (CEO), Jesse Rosenzweig (CTO), and Brian Lewis.
In July 2012, Elemental products supported the broadcast of the 2012 Summer Olympics on internet devices for media companies including the BBC, Eurosport, Terra Networks and others.
In September 2013, Elemental was named to the Silicon Forest top 25 by The Oregonian. The company ranked #24 among the region's largest technology companies.
In October 2013, Elemental provided live 4K HEVC video streaming of the 2013 Osaka Marathon in a workflow designed by K-Opticom, a telecommunications operator in Japan.
In April 2017, the company changed its name from Elemental Technologies to AWS Elemental.
In August 2017, Sam Blackman, the company's CEO and co-founder, died suddenly from cardiac arrest at the age of 41.
Feared security compromise
In 2015, during security testing conducted as a prelude to a possible acquisition by Amazon, it was reported that some Elemental servers contained chips from Chinese manufacturing subcontractors that allowed backdoor access. According to a U.S. government investigation, the chips were inserted by a People’s Liberation Army unit.
These reports were denied by all of the companies involved, no such chips were ever found, and the acquisition proceeded without further incident.
Funding
Elemental received its initial investments in 2007 in the amount of $1.05 million from three angel funds: the Seattle-based Alliance of Angels, the Oregon Angel Fund, and the Bend Venture Conference.
In July 2008, Elemental announced it had closed its first round of venture capital financing, receiving $7.1 million, which included investments from General Catalyst Partners of Boston, Massachusetts and Voyager Capital of Seattle, Washington.
In 2009, Elemental formed a partnership with In-Q-Tel - the venture capital arm of the Central Intelligence Agency. Elemental servers were subsequently used in various secure capacities, including by the United States Department of Defense, the United States Navy, NASA, the United States Congress and the Department of Homeland Security.
In July 2010, Elemental raised an additional $7.5 million in Series B financing. Steamboat Ventures, a venture capital firm affiliated with The Walt Disney Company, joined existing venture funds General Catalyst and Voyager Capital in the financing round.
In May 2012, Elemental closed its Series C financing for $13 million from Norwest Venture Partners.
In December 2014, Elemental closed its Series D financing for $14.5 million led by Telstra and Sky.
In September 2015, Elemental was acquired by Amazon Web Services, for an estimated $350 million.
Products
AWS Media Services
In November 2017, Amazon Web Services announced AWS Media Services, a group of five services that let video providers create scalable video offerings in the cloud. Based on AWS Elemental video solutions, these cloud services let customers build video workflows for both broadcast and streaming content. AWS Media Services include the following individual services:
AWS Elemental MediaConvert transcodes file-based video content.
AWS Elemental MediaLive encodes live video for televisions or connected devices.
AWS Elemental MediaPackage prepares and secures live video streams for delivery to connected devices.
AWS Elemental MediaStore delivers video from media-optimized storage.
AWS Elemental MediaTailor inserts targeted advertising into streaming video.
Elemental Live
In April 2010, Elemental introduced its enterprise product, Elemental Live, a GPU-accelerated, enterprise-class video processing system that provides content distributors with video and audio encoding for live streaming to new media platforms.
Elemental Live made its debut at NAB in Las Vegas April 12–15, 2010, with a four-screen demonstration featuring simultaneous real-time encoding of multiple video streams targeted to mobile, tablet, web and HDTV platforms.
Elemental Server
In November 2009, Elemental released the first video server appliance to utilize the graphics processing unit for video on demand (VOD) transcoding. The company claims its performance equals that of seven dual quad-core CPU servers. Other potential benefits include conversion speed, reduced power usage, less physical space, and overall cost, which is reported to be less than half of a CPU server. Elemental Servers reportedly sold for as much as $100,000 per machine, with a profit margin of up to 70%.
Elemental Delta
Elemental Delta is a video delivery platform designed to optimize the monetization, management and distribution of multiscreen video across internal and external IP networks. Elemental Delta has been presented at IBC in September 2014 and won the IABM Design and Innovation award for Playout and Delivery Systems.
Elemental Cloud
Elemental Cloud provides transcoding services in a cloud computing environment using clustered graphics processors.
Elemental Statmux
Elemental Statmux is a software-based statistical multiplexer that optimizes content delivery for pay TV operators by reallocating bits in real time between video encoders and combining the outputs from multiple encoders into a single transport stream.
Elemental Conductor
Elemental Conductor is a scalable management system of two or more Elemental video processing systems.
Badaboom
On October 23, 2008, Elemental released Badaboom, a consumer media converter, in partnership with NVIDIA Corporation. Badaboom uses Elemental's video engine to transcode video files from several formats, including MPEG2, H.264, HDV, AVCHD, and RAW, into the H.264 format for devices such as the iPod, iPhone, and Sony PSP.
Elemental Technologies announced Badaboom 2.0 is the final version and discontinued the product. The company supported Badaboom until April, 2013, without further software updates.
Awards
2017 NAB Best of Show – Recognized for 4K video processing by NewBay Media
2016 EY Entrepreneur of the Year – Sam Blackman was named the winner of the EY Entrepreneur of the Year 2016 award in the Pacific Northwest region in the technology category
2015 TVB Awards – Winner in the Multiplatform Production and Delivery category
2014 IABM Design and Innovation—Best Playout and Delivery System
2013 Cable & Satellite International (CSI) -- Best in Digital Video Processing, Elemental Technologies
2013 ConnectedWorld.TV Awards—Best Delivery Technology, Elemental Technologies
2013 Portland Business Journal 100 Fastest Growing Companies -- #6, Elemental Technologies
2013 Oregon Technology Awards—Technology Growth Company of the Year, Elemental Technologies
2012 Forbes America's 100 Most Promising Companies -- #23, Elemental Technologies
2012 Inc. (magazine) 500, America's Fastest Growing Private Companies -- #52, Elemental Technologies
2011 Forbes America's 100 Most Promising Companies -- #54, Elemental Technologies
2011 Streaming Media Editors' Pick—Elemental Live
2010 TV Technology Mario Award—Elemental Live
References
External links
Software companies based in Oregon
Companies based in Portland, Oregon
Technology companies established in 2006
American companies established in 2006
2006 establishments in Oregon
Amazon (company)
2015 mergers and acquisitions
Software companies of the United States
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19263419
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social%20VPN
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Social VPN
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A social VPN is a virtual private network that is created among individual peers, automatically, based on relationships established by them through a social networking service. A social VPN aims at providing peer-to-peer (P2P) network connectivity between a user and his or her friends, in an easy to set up manner that hides from the users the complexity in setting up and maintaining authenticated/encrypted end-to-end VPN tunnels.
Architecture
An architecture of a social VPN is based on a centralized infrastructure where users authenticate, discover their friends and exchange cryptographic public keys, and a P2P overlay which is used to route messages between VPN endpoints. For example, this allows an organization to have routed connections with separate offices, or with other organizations, over the Internet. A routed VPN connection across the Internet logically operates as a dedicated Wide Area Network (WAN) link.
Packet capture and injection
A social VPN uses a virtual network interface (such as TUN/TAP devices in Windows and Unix systems) to capture and inject IP packets from a host. Once captured, packets are encrypted, encapsulated, and routed over an overlay network.
Security
A social VPN uses online social networks to distribute public keys and advertise node address to friends. The acquired public keys are used to establish encrypted communication between two endpoints. Symmetric keys are exchanged during the process of establishing an end-to-end link by two social VPN peers.
Routing
Routing in the social VPN is peer-to-peer. One approach that has been implemented uses a structured P2P system for sending IP packets encapsulated in overlay messages from a source to destination.
Private IP address space
A social VPN uses dynamic IP address assignment and translation to avoid collision with existing (private) address spaces of end hosts, and to allow the system to scale to the number of users that today's successful online social network services serve (tens of millions). Users are able to connect directly only to a small subset of the total number of users of such a service, where the subset is determined by their established relationships.
Naming
A social VPN uses names derived from the social network service to automatically assign host names to endpoints. These names are translated to virtual private IP addresses in the overlay by a loop-back DNS virtual server.
Related systems
The MIT Unmanaged Internet Architecture (UIA)provides ad hoc, zero-configuration routing infrastructure for mobile devices, but the ad hoc connections are not established through a social networking infrastructure.
"Friend Net" is a similar concept put forth in a 2002 blog entry.
Hamachi is a zero-configuration VPN which uses a security architecture different from that of social VPN. The leafnetworks VPN also supports the creation of networks using the Facebook API.
Software
An open-source social VPN implementation based on the Facebook social network service and the Brunet P2P overlay is available for Windows and Linux systems under MIT license. It creates direct point-to-point secure connections between computers with the help of online social networks, and supports transparent traversal of NATs. It uses the P2P overlay to create direct VPN connections between pairs of computers (nodes). To establish a connection, two nodes advertise their P2P node address (as well as public keys for secure communication) to each other through an online social network. Once each node acquires the node address (and public keys) of the other node, an IP-to-nodeAddress mapping is created and IP packets can be routed through the VPN tunnel.
References
External links
Free network-related software
Virtual private networks
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38371962
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20the%20United%20States%20Army%20munitions%20by%20supply%20catalog%20designation
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List of the United States Army munitions by supply catalog designation
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The Ammunition Identification Code (AIC) was a sub-set of the Standard Nomenclature List (SNL). The SNL was an inventory system used from 1930 to 1958 to catalog all the items the Army's Ordnance Corps issued.
The AIC was used by the US Army's Ordnance Corps from January, 1942 to 1958. It listed munitions and explosives (items from SNLs P, R, S, and T), items that were considered priority issue for soldiers in combat. The markings used by the system made it easier for soldiers to quickly identify and procure the right items.
It used a code that had five parts.
The first character consisted of the item's SNL Group and was represented by its letter.
The second character indicated the sub-group and was represented by its number.
The third character represented the weapon or weapons that could use it and was represented by a letter.
The fourth character represented the type and model of ammunition (i.e., Training Blank, Ball, Armor-Piercing, Incendiary, Tracer, etc.), which differed from weapon to weapon, and was represented by a letter.
The fifth and last character detailed the packing method (Cartons, Bandoleers, or Belts / Links) and container type used (M1917 Rifle Ammunition Packing Box, M23 Ammo Crate, etc.) and was designated by a letter.
The AIC was replaced by the FSN (Federal Stock Number) in 1958, which later became the NSN (National Stock Number) in 1975.
Packing Terminology
Cartons
Ammunition came packed in single-ply chipboard cartons lined with Manila paper. A label marked with the number of cartridges, caliber and type of ammo, manufacturer, and Lot Code was glued over the top flap, front, and back to seal the carton. Wartime boxes (1942 to 1945) had wide vertical colored stripes, like those used on the packing box, as a background for the text. This allowed the soldier to quickly visually identify the ammo he needed.
.45 ACP
.45 ACP ammo for the Colt M1911 semi-automatic pistol and Thompson submachine gun originally came in 20-round boxes. It was later changed to 50-round boxes in 1942 for ease of packing and distribution. They were packed in the small M1917 Pistol Ammunition Packing Boxes.
.45 ACP ammo for the Colt M1917 and Smith & Wesson M1917 revolvers came packed in 3-round Half-Moon clips. They were packed eight clips per carton in two-row (2x12 cell – sideways interlocking "zig-zag" style) or three-row (3x9 cell – inline overlapping "spoons" style) rectangular cartons of 24 rounds. They were packed in the larger M1917 Rifle / Machinegun Ammunition Packing Boxes.
.30 Carbine
M1 Carbine ammo was originally packed in 3-row 45-round boxes to reduce waste, as the carbine had a 15-round magazine. This was later changed in 1942 to 50-round boxes to ship as much ammo as possible. They were packed in a special small wooden crate, perhaps so a soldier wouldn't grab the wrong ammunition.
.30 Caliber
.30-caliber rifle (Grade "R") and machine gun (Grade "MG") ammo came in 20-round boxes. Early-war cartons for use in bolt-action rifles like the Springfield M1903 came with the ammo already in 5-round stripper clips.
.50 Caliber
.50-caliber machine gun ammo (Grades "AC" and "MG") came bulk-packed in 10-round boxes for loading into belts or links in-theater.
M1917 Ammunition Packing Box
A wooden box designed to be reused. The lid was secured by tightening brass wingnuts over threaded metal posts in the walls of the chest. They were meant to be carried by means of handles milled into the ends of the chest; troops assigned to carry ammo found them hard to grasp. Ammunition was shipped in boxes with a waterproof zinc metal lining that had the top soldered on to seal it; this was ripped open using a wire handle built into the top. It came in two standard sizes.
There was a large packing box (Dimensions: 18-7/16" Length × 9-7/16" Width × 14-13/16" Height; Tare Weight: 9 lbs. Volume: 1.49 cubic feet) secured with 6 threaded posts (one on each end and two on each side). It was used to store and carry .30- and .50-caliber ammunition.
The smaller box (Dimensions: 16-7/16" Length × 12-11/16" Width × 7-5/8" Height; Volume: 0.92 cubic feet) was secured with 4 threaded posts (one on each side). It was used for pistol and submachine gun ammunition. Another box (Volume: 0.83 cubic feet) was used for carbine ammunition.
Pre-war and early-war chests were made of brown stained or painted wood with yellow lettering. In 1943, a system of colored stripes across the middle of the long sides and lid to indicate the contents. Pistol, rifle and medium machine gun ammunition had the stripes painted vertically on the long sides and lid and horizontally on the wide sides. Heavy machine gun ammunition had the stripes painted diagonally on the long and wide sides and the lid.
Mid- to late-war chests were unstained with black painted lettering. They used the box's AIC code and a system of symbols to indicate the contents at a glance.
Packing Box Stripes
A straight stripe indicated Pistol, Carbine, Rifle and Medium Machine gun ammunition; it was vertical on the long sides and top and horizontal on the ends. Triple straight stripes were painted horizontally with the first stripe on top and the third stripe on the bottom. A diagonal stripe (lower left corner to upper right corner) indicated Heavy Machine gun ammunition. Triple diagonal stripes were painted with the first stripe on the left-side and the third stripe on the right side. If packed in cartons, the colored stripe was duplicated on the carton's label.
Red = Ball.
Brown = Gallery practice.
Orange = Guard.
Orange with wide Green stripe = Dim Tracer (1600 yards range) or Subdued Tracer (50 to 140 yards before ignition / 1,000 yards range).
Yellow = High Pressure Test
Yellow with wide Red stripe = Incendiary.
Yellow with wide Red stripe inset with narrow Green stripe = Incendiary Tracer.
Yellow with wide Green stripe = Bright Tracer (3,000 yards range).
Yellow with wide Blue stripe = Armor-Piercing.
Yellow with wide Blue stripe inset with narrow Red stripe = Armor-Piercing Incendiary.
Yellow with wide Blue stripe inset with narrow Green stripe = Armor-Piercing Tracer.
Green = Dummy.
Blue = Blank.
Blue with wide White stripe = Rifle Grenade Blank.
Triple Red, Yellow, and Green Stripe = Linked Ball & Tracer.
Triple Yellow, Red, and Green Stripe = Belted Ball & Tracer.
Triple Yellow, Blue, and Red Stripe = Belted Armor-Piercing & Incendiary.
Triple Yellow, Blue, and Green Stripe = Belted Armor-Piercing & Tracer.
Triple Blue, Yellow, and Red Stripe = Linked Armor-Piercing & Incendiary.
Triple Blue, Yellow, and Green Stripe = Linked Armor-Piercing & Tracer.
Commercial Shotgun Shell Packing Box
A wooden or fiberboard box with a waterproof tarpaper lining designed to transport and carry shotgun shells. It held 20 × 25-shell cartons (500 total shells) of 12 gauge ammunition and weighed around 65 lbs (Dimensions: 15" Length × 10.375" Width × 9.75" Height; Volume: 0.88 Cubic Feet). Guard shells had either a brass base (base only) with a full paper hull or partial brass case (1" long) and a long paper hull. Combat shells had either a partial brass case (1" long) with a long paper hull or a full (2.75" long) brass case and no paper hull. Sporting shells (used for trap shooting or hunting) either had a brass base with a full paper hull or a partial brass case (1/2" long) and a long paper hull.
Ammunition Crate
A metal-strapped wooden packing crate designed to be thrown away that replaced the M1917 Packing Box. They were made of plain, unpainted wood and had its lettering, AIC code, and symbols stamped on in black ink. They were carried by a horizontal rectangular wooden bar fastened to the pair of vertical wooden reinforcing struts on each end. Some crate contractors looped a semi-circular piece of thick rope through a hole in each reinforcing strut for use as a flexible handle. Other contractors used a folding two-strut metal handle fastened between the reinforcing struts for heavier loads.
The cartons of ammunition inside were originally grouped and packed in corrugated cardboard boxes. The boxes were then coated and sealed in a waterproof wax coating to keep the ammunition inside from being affected by the environment. There were 2 boxes per crate and they were loaded in the crate sideways so the bullets would fly off to the sides rather than through the top or bottom. The weatherproofing was found to be ineffective, so the cardboard boxes were replaced by ammunition cans in the autumn of 1943.
Ammunition Can
A vacuum-sealed metal canister with wire handles on its sides. They were first produced at the Evansville, Indiana Chrysler-Sunbeam plant in 1943 to pack .45 ACP ammunition in M5 cans. It was opened using a metal can key (like a can of sardines) that was soldered to the top. It could be reclosed afterwards using a small roll of duct tape that came packed in the can. They were painted Olive Drab and had yellow lettering on them. The caliber of ammunition – .45, .30C (Carbine – cartons), .30R (Rifle – clips or cartons), .30M (Machinegun – belted or linked ammo), or .50 (Machinegun) – was embossed in raised letters and numbers on the metal lid so they could be identified by touch under low-light conditions.
The model of can (M5, M6, M8, M10, M13, etc.) was embossed on the bottom. The M5 cans were for packing .45 ACP ammo and weighed about 29 lbs. The M6 cans were for packing .30 Carbine ammo and weighed about 25 lbs. The M8 cans were for packing .30 Rifle & Machine gun ammo and weighed about 16 lbs. The M10 cans were originally for packing .50 Machinegun ammo but later on were also used to pack shotgun shells or a variety of other ammunition in cartons. The M13 can was for issue with a rifle grenade launcher and was packed with an assortment of a packet of six .30 Carbine M6 rifle-grenade blanks, a packet of ten .30-'06 Springfield M3 rifle-grenade blanks, and a packet of five M7 booster charges.
The instruction "Do Not Use As Food Container" was prominently painted on the can. The lead and chemical residue inside the container could contaminate the food and poison the soldier.
The Korean War–era universal M20 and M21 cans replaced the earlier assortment of cartridge-specific cans. The M20 was a rounded-edged cube with a folding handle on top. The M21, twice the height of the M20, was a taller version of the M20. They lacked the embossing of the earlier cans.
Repacked Ammo Cans
Mixed lots are when two or three types of new ammunition were used, like in a machinegun or autocannon belt. They would be pre-loaded into a web belt or disintegrating link. The paperwork would mark the different lot numbers of all ammunition used. Packaging would depend on the origin of the lot. New ammunition that came from the manufacturer loaded in a web belt or links would use an original lot number. Ammunition that was combined and loaded by a different manufacturer or an arsenal would use a new lot number for the unified lot. Belted ammunition would have a "B" prefix and linked ammunition would have an "L" prefix.
Lots made up of old or damaged ammunition were usually from the same lot. They would be inspected, salvaged, sorted and repacked for re-use. Repacked ammunition was usually resealed in an unpainted ammo can with the information stamped on the container in black ink. The arsenal or manufacturer who did the repacking would use their manufacturer's code followed by the last two digits of the year it was repacked. The paperwork and packaging would list the original Lot Code and new Lot Code to help in tracing defective or unsuitable ammunition. The repacked crate would have a line of text beginning with "REPACKED LOT:" followed by the manufacturer or arsenal code and the lot number. In 1945 this text was replaced with "FUNCTIONAL LOT:", as troops had been leery of using "used" ammunition.
Standard Ammunition Box
A re-closeable metal box with a hinged metal lid sealed with a foam-rubber gasket to keep out moisture and rain and a folding metal handle to aid in carrying it. They were originally designed to only store belted machine gun ammunition, but later became a standard container after the war for all sorts of ammunition packed in cartons and / or clips and bandoleers. Originally planned to be disposable, they were recycled for reloading.
The ammo boxes were originally painted Olive Drab Brown (OD3) with white lettering, but were later painted Olive Drab Green (OD7) with yellow lettering. The early individual M1 and M2 series metal boxes were also painted with the same colored ammunition identification stripes as the pre-war and early-war M1917 wooden packing crates.
They were first shipped individually, but were later bulk-packed in unpainted wire-bound plywood crates with stencil-painted or ink-stamped lettering. The .30 M1 and M1A1 ammo boxes were packed four to a crate that weighed around 90 pounds and had a volume of 1 cubic foot. The M1 ammo crate held a total of 1,000 belted or linked rounds packed in 4 M1 ammo boxes and the later M1A1 ammo crate held a total of 1,000 belted or 1,100 linked rounds packed in M1A1 ammo boxes. There were two .50 M2 ammo boxes to a crate (for a total of 220 belted or 210 linked rounds) with a volume of 0.93 cubic feet. The later M2A1 can also came packed two to a crate (for a total of 200 linked rounds) with a volume of 0.85 cubic feet.
The M1 box (made from 1942 to 1945 and phased out by the 1950s) opened from the side, had a flat bottom, had a catch opposite from the box's hinge for attaching the can to the M1917 / M1917A1 / M1918 / M1928 tripod, and had a pair of concentric oval ribs on the long sides to reinforce them. Inside the rings was embossed two lines of text: "CAL .30M" / "AMMUNITION BOX"; with the "M" standing for Machine gun ammunition. The initials "U.S." and the US Army Ordnance Corps' "Flaming Bomb" symbol were embossed on the hinge side. It held 250 belted rounds of .30-caliber ammo and was designed to replace the similar but less durable M1917 wooden machine gun ammo boxes. (Dimensions: 10-3/16" Length × 3-3/4" Width × 7-7/32" Height; Weight (empty): around 3.5 lbs.; Net Weight (250-round M1 cloth belt): 15.5 lbs ; Gross Weight (loaded): 19 lbs. ; Volume: 0.1595 Cubic Feet). The M1A1 Box that replaced it (June 1945 – 1950s and phased out in the early 1960s) was a little taller (11" Length × 3-13/16" Width × 7-19/32" Height), had a more durable rubber gasket, and held 250 belted or 275 linked rounds of .30-06 ammo. The M1A1 model can be distinguished from the earlier M1 by the different embossed text, which reads "CAL .30 M1" / "AMMUNITION BOX" in the oval; the "M" now stood for Model. Later cans were embossed with "CAL .30 M1A1" / "M.M.G. BOX". There were also some minor improvements. The tripod catch side was redesigned to be slightly angled at the bottom and top rather than flat to fit flush alongside the tripod mount.
The later M19 Box (1946 to 1953) that replaced the M1 series was a product-improved model that eliminated the earlier model's weaknesses and added improvements. It retained the rubber gasket, eliminated the tripod catch, and had smooth sides. The major difference between the M19 and the M1 series are the M19 series' lid skirts, which made the M19 series visually distinctive from the M1 and M2 series. They are designed to lock in place while part-way open to protect the belted ammunition inside from the elements while it feeds into the weapon. The M19 box held 250 belted or linked rounds of .30-06 ammunition. The M19A1 box (1954 to present) held the shorter, thicker 7.62mm NATO service cartridge, which replaced the .30-06 Springfield in 1954. It incorporated a series of improvements that corrected faults discovered during the Korean War. The lid was redesigned and the gasket was adjusted to allow it to close properly and remain sealed in cold weather – as the contracting metal would either stick shut or make it impossible to close once opened. An overhang was added to the lid and the latch was made wider to make it easier for soldiers with gloved hands to open it. It had a hollow on the bottom that was high enough to fit over the folding handle on the top of the box beneath it, allowing the boxes to be neatly stacked on top of each other. For ease in loading, a cartridge shape was embossed in the edge of the lid and center of the base to show which way the belt it contained faced (a feature that was later discontinued). It can hold 220 linked or 225 belted 7.62mm NATO rounds in bulk or 2 × 100-round linked belts packed in cartons and carried in bandoleers. The M19A1 box is also used to store pistol ammunition in cartons. (Dimensions: 3 13/16" [96.8mm] Width × 7 1/4" [184.2mm] Height × 11" [279.4mm] Long. Weight: 3.81 lbs. (1.72 kg.) Volume: 0.175 Cubic Feet)
The M2 box (September 1942 – 1950) had 4 rectangular "feet" embossed into the bottom of the box that ran along the edges of the sides, square ribbing around the edges of each side, a foam-rubber gasket, and opened from the front like a tool box. It had a small folding wire handle on the left side corner to secure it to a tripod. On the front side the bottom arc of the ribbing running along the bottom edge was embossed: "AMMO BOX CAL .50 M2". The back side was usually where the content information was stenciled because there was more empty space. It held 110 belted or 105 linked rounds of .50-caliber ammo. (Dimensions: 12 ¼" Length × 6 ¼" Width × 7 ½" Height; Weight (empty): 4.4 lbs.; Gross Weight: 35 lbs.; Volume: 0.33 Cubic Feet). The M2A1 Box (1950–2004) opens from the side (but lacks the tripod catch of the similar M1 series), has smooth sides and a rubber gasket, had a hollow bottom like the M19 box, and holds a standardized 100 linked rounds. The M2A1 box was commonly used to store a variety of ammo in cartons, clips, and bandoleers. It was replaced in 2004 by the improved M2A2 Box, which had a reinforced lid hinge and a support bar riveted to the top of the latch to keep pressure from compromising the rubber gasket and crushing the lid. (Dimensions: 12 1/32" Length × 6 3/32" Width × 7 ½" Height; Weight (empty): ?? lbs. ; Volume: 0.32 Cubic Feet).
The 20mm Ammunition Box Mk.1 Mod.0 (1942?-1970s?) was a steel chest used by the Navy that was originally designed to carry 20mm shells. It had a removable lid with a gasket seal, two large hasps on each side and a hasp on each end. It was made of metal rather than wood because wooden crates were a fire hazard and would get damaged from rough handling. Since it was the same size as the wooden M1917 chest, it was used to store small arms ammunition from the elements. In the late war it was used to hold 6 x M10 ammo cans (3 per horizontal cardboard carton). In the 1950s it could hold 6 x M20 ammo cans (3 per horizontal cardboard carton with spacers) or 3 x M21 ammo cans (3 per vertical cardboard carton with spacers). The former stored small arms ammunition while the latter was usually used to hold Caliber .50 and 20mm ammo.
Group "P" Material (Ammunition for Heavy Field Artillery and Anti-Aircraft Weapons)
Class P5E (Ammunition for 37-mm Anti-Aircraft Gun M1A2 and A/N M2)
P5EAC = 10 × 37 mm HE M54 Shell in wooden crate. Weight: ? Volume: 0.85 Cubic Feet.
Class P5H (Ammunition for 40-mm Anti-Aircraft Guns)
P5HVA = 6 × 40 mm HE-Tracer (Self-Destruct MK.11) MK.2 Shell with Point-Detonating Fuse MK.27 (Navy) in wooden crate. Weight: 52 lbs. Volume: 1 Cubic Foot.
Group "R" Material (Ammunition for pack, light, and medium field artillery)
Sub-Group R1 (Ammunition, fixed and semi-fixed, all types – including subcaliber – for pack, light, and medium field artillery, including complete round data)
Class R1A (20x110mm Hispano "A"; Ammunition for 20 mm Guns M1, A/N M2, M3, and British Hispano-Suiza "A")
The "T" (or "Trial") designation was for experimental munitions before they went into standard production. They are placed in parentheses after the standard designation.
R1ABA = 120 rounds of 20 mm High-Explosive-Incendiary Mk.I Cartridge with Point-Detonating Fuze No.253 Mk.I. 10 rounds per moisture-sealed fiberboard container, 12 containers per wooden packing crate. Net Weight = ? lbs. Gross Weight = ? lbs. Volume = 1.45 cubic feet.
R1ACA = 120 rounds of 20 mm Armor-Piercing-Tracer M75 Cartridge. 10 rounds per moisture-sealed fiberboard container, 12 containers per wooden packing crate. Net Weight = ? lbs. Gross Weight = ? lbs. Volume = 1.45 cubic feet.
R1ADA = 120 rounds of 20 mm BALL Mk.I Cartridge. 10 rounds per moisture-sealed fiberboard container, 12 containers per wooden packing crate. Net Weight = ? lbs. Gross Weight = ? lbs. Volume = 1.45 cubic feet.
R1AFA = 120 rounds of 20 mm High Explosive-Incendiary M97 (T23) Cartridge with M75 (T71E5) Point-Detonating Fuze. 10 rounds per moisture-sealed fiberboard container, 12 containers per wooden packing crate. Net Weight = 68.4 lbs. Gross Weight = 95 lbs. Volume = 1.45 cubic feet.
R1AFB = 150 rounds of 20 mm High Explosive-Incendiary M97 (T23) Cartridge with M75 (T71E5) Point-Detonating Fuze. 10 rounds per moisture-sealed fiberboard container, 15 containers per wooden packing crate. Gross Weight = 106 lbs. Volume = 1.49? cubic feet.
R1AJA = 120 rounds of 20 mm Practice (T24) Cartridge. 10 rounds per moisture-sealed fiberboard container, 12 containers per wooden packing crate. Gross Weight = 95 lbs. Volume = 1.45 cubic feet.
Class R1A (20x110mm Hispano "A"; Ammunition for 20 mm Gun M24)
The 20 mm M24 was a variant of the 20 mm M3 designed to use electrically fired instead of percussion-fired shells.
R1AMC = 80 rounds of linked 20 mm with electric primers. Wooden crate. Weight: 72 lbs. Volume: 1.2 Cubic Feet.
Class R1B (Belts and Links, 20 mm cartridge)
R1BAA = M3 Links, Disintegrating Belt, 20 mm, in wooden packing crate.
R1BBA = M4 Links, Disintegrating Belt, 20 mm, in wooden packing crate.
Class R1F (37mm M4 Automatic Gun)
R1FAA = 37 mm High-Explosive-Tracer M54 Fixed Shell with timed Self-Destruct and M56 Point-Detonating Fuse.
R1FGA = 37 mm Armor-Piercing-Tracer M80 Fixed Shell.
Class R1H (37 mm Gun; Ammunition for Guns M3, M5, and M6)
NOTE: The M3 was the towed Anti-Tank gun version. The short-barreled M5 and semi-automatic M6 were tank or self-propelled gun variants.
R1HAA = 10 cartridges × 37 mm APC-T M51. Wooden crate. Volume: 0.72 cubic feet.
Class R1J (57 mm Rifle; Ammunition for M18 Recoilless Rifle)
The M18 Recoiless Rifle ("Trial" designation: T15E16) was developed in 1944. It was available in Europe by March 1945 and in the Pacific by June 1945.
R1JFS = 4 cartridges × 57 mm HEAT M307A1 with Point-Initiating Fuze M90. Wooden crate. Volume: 1 cu ft.
R1JSA = 4 cartridges × 57 mm TP (Training / Practice). Wooden crate. Gross Weight: 38 lbs. Volume: 1 cu ft.
R1JUA = 4 cartridges × 57 mm WP-Smoke M308A1 with Point-Detonating Fuze M503A1. Wooden crate. Gross Weight: 42 lbs. Volume: 1 cu ft.
Class R1N (75 mm Rifle; Ammunition for M20 Recoilless Rifle)
Although the weapon was developed during World War II, the M20 Recoilless Rifle ("Trial" designation: T21E12) wasn't ready until the spring of 1945. It served mostly in the Korean and Vietnam Wars.
R1NDA = 2 cartridges × 75 mm HEP-TR M349 (Trials designation: T151E21). Volume = 1.64 cubic feet.
R1NRA = 2 cartridges × 75 mm HE M309A1 with M51A5 Point-Detonating fuze. Gross Wt. = 75 lbs. Volume = 1.64 cubic feet.
R1NTB = 2 cartridges × 75 mm Training Practice M309A1 with M51A5 Point-Detonating fuze. Gross Wt. = 78 lbs. Volume = 1.64 cubic feet.
Class R1Q (105 mm Howitzer; Semi-Fixed Ammunition for M2, M2A1, and M4 Howitzer)
"Semi-Fixed" artillery ammunition is composed of a shell and a propellant cartridge. Pre- and early-war semi-fixed ammunition came packed in black fiberboard tubes packed in a long crate with a volume of 1.94 cubic feet.
The M4 Howitzer was a modified version of the M2A1 used with the M4A3 Sherman Assault Support tank.
R1QBA = 2 × 105 mm HE M1 with M48 or M48A2 Point-Detonating Fuze (0.5 second). Gross Weight: 119 Lbs. Volume: 1.8 cubic feet(?).
R1QBS = 2 × 105 mm HE M1 with M48 Point-Detonating Fuze. Volume: 1.8 cubic feet(?).
R1QCB = 3 × 105 mm HE M1 with M54 Timed Super Quick Fuze. Packed in individual inner black cardboard tubes, 3 tubes packed in outer black cardboard tubes conjoined by three-lobed "cloverleaf" endcaps secured by wingnuts on a central carriage bolt through the center, packed in a long triangular-ended slatted wooden crate. Gross Weight: 172 lbs. Volume: 3.24 Cubic Feet.
R1QCC = 2 × 105 mm HE M1 with M54 Timed Super Quick Fuze. Volume: 1.8 cubic feet(?).
R1QDB = 2 × 105 mm HE M1 with M48A1 Point-Detonating Fuze (0.15 second). Volume: 1.8 cubic feet(?).
R1QDN = 1 × 105 mm HE M1 with M48A1 Point-Detonating Fuze (0.15 second). Packed in an inner cardboard tube inside an M152 outer steel tube with a metal screw cap on one end. Gross Weight: 71 lbs. Volume: 0.8 cubic feet.
R1QDT = 2 × 105 mm HE M1 with M48A1 Point-Detonating Fuze (0.15 second). Volume: 1.8 cubic feet(?).
R1QEB = 2 × 105 mm HEAT M67. Gross Weight: 110 lbs. Volume: 1.8 cubic feet.
R1QGC = 2 × 105 mm Training-Practice M1 empty with inert M48 Point-Detonating Fuze. Gross Weight: 110 lbs. Volume: 1.8 cubic feet.
R1QIA = 2 × 105 mm Casualty Gas (H) M60 with M57 Point-Detonating Fuze. Gross Weight: 121 lbs. Volume: 1.8 cubic feet.
R1QJA = 2 × 105 mm Smoke (WP) M60 with M57 Point-Detonating Fuze. Gross Weight: 123 lbs. Volume: 1.8 cubic feet.
R1QMA = 2 × 105 mm Riot Control Gas (CS) M60. Volume: 1.8 cubic feet.
R1QNA = 2 × 105 mm HE M1 with cavity for T80E6 Variable Time Fuze. Gross Weight: 120 lbs. Volume: 1.8 cubic feet.
R1QSA = 2 × 105 mm HE M1 (TNT Filler) with M48A2 Point-Detonating Fuze (0.15 second). Gross Weight: 120 lbs. Volume: 1.8 cubic feet.
R1QSN = 1 × 105 mm HE M1 (TNT Filler) with M48A2 Point-Detonating Fuze (0.15 second). Packed in an inner cardboard tube inside an M152 outer steel tube with a metal screw cap on one end. Gross Weight: 71 lbs. Volume: 0.8 cubic feet.
Sub-Group R2 (Projectiles and separate-loading propelling charges for medium field artillery, including complete round data)
Class R2ZD (4.5" (114mm) Gun, M1)
An artillery piece that used the same carriage as the 155mm Howitzer M1 and the same ammunition as theBritish 4.5" Field Gun.
R2ZCD 4.5" HE M65 with Point Detonating Fuze
R2ZDA 4.5" HE M65 with Point Detonating Fuze
R2ZDB 4.5" HE M65 with Fuze and M7 Propelling Charge (Normal)
R2ZDC 4.5" HE M65 with Mechanical Time Fuze and M8 Propelling Charge (Super)
Class R2ZE (155 mm Howitzer; models M1917, M1917A1 & M1918)
R2ZAO = 155mm HE M102 with M51A2 Point Detonating Fuze with green bag charge.
R2ZDP = 155mm Smoke (HC, Base-Ejecting) M112? with M54 Time & Super-Quick Fuze with green bag charge.
R2ZEF = 155mm HE M102 with 51A2 Point Detonating Fuze with white bag charge.
R2ZEG = 155mm HE M102 with M54 Time & Super-Quick Fuze with white bag charge.
R2ZEW = 155mm Casualty Gas (H) M105 with M51A1 Point Detonating Fuze with green bag charge.
Sub-Group R3 (Service fuzes and primers for pack, light, and medium field artillery)
Class R3F (155 mm Howitzer projectile fuzes)
R3FDA 25 × M51A3 Point Detonating Fuzes with M21A2 Booster. Wooden Crate.
Sub-Group R4 (Ammunition for trench mortars; including fuzes, propelling charges and other components)
Class R4A (Ammunition for 2" M3 Smoke Mortar / Launcher)
This was an internal gun/mortar mounted in the left side of the turret of the M4 Sherman tank. It was a conversion of the British SBML Ordnance 2-Inch Mortar Mk.I that was used from 1943-1945.
R4AAA = Bomb, Smoke, Mk.I/L.
Class R4C (Ammunition for 60mm M2 Light Mortar)
R4CAA = 10? cartridges of 60 mm HE M49A2 w/. Point Detonating fuze M52 in tarpaper storage tubes in a wooden crate.
R4CAC = 10 cartridges of 60 mm HE M49A2 w/. Point Detonating fuze M52B1 in tarpaper storage tubes in a wooden crate. Gross Weight: 49 lbs. Volume: 1.0 Cubic Feet.
R4CDA = 10 cartridges of 60 mm Illumination M83 w/. Time Fuse in tarpaper storage tubes in a wooden crate.
R4CHA = 10? cartridges of 60 mm in tarpaper storage tubes in a wooden crate.
R4CPN = 10 cartridges of 60 mm Bursting Smoke (White Phosphorus) M302 w/ Point Detonating fuze M527 in tarpaper storage tubes in a wooden crate. Volume: 1.0 Cubic Feet.
Class R4F (Ammunition for 81-mm M1 Medium Mortar or 3-Inch (3.2" [81-mm]) Mk.1A2 Stokes Trench Mortar)
The 81 mm Mortar shells used an adapter collar to allow 60 mm mortar shell fuzes to fit. Originally packed in wooden crates, the late war shells (1944–1945) were packed in metal M140 canisters. The M140 canister carried live shells in a four-chambered internal divider, had a horsehair pad in the inside of the lid to cushion the fuzes, and had a metal loop carrying handle on the lid that doubled as the locking catch. The M140A1 canister eliminated the divider and carried the shells in tarpaper packing tubes instead.
R4FCM = 4 cartridges 81-mm M43A1 Light HE w/. Point Detonating fuze M52B1 with booster charges, packed in M140 (T16) metal canister. Gross Weight: 48.5 lbs. Volume: 0.71 Cubic Feet.
Class R4H (Ammunition for 81 mm M29 or M1 Medium Mortar)
R4HUA = 4 cartridges of 81-mm M43A1 Light HE w/. Point Detonating fuze M52B1 with booster charges, packed in wooden crate. Gross Weight: 50.0 lbs. Volume: 1.04 Cubic Feet.
R4HSA = 4 cartridges of 81-mm M43A1 Light HE w/. Point Detonating fuze M52A2 with booster charges, packed in wooden crate. Gross Weight: 50.0 lbs. Volume: 1.04 Cubic Feet.
Class R4N (Ammunition for 4.2" [107 mm] M2 Chemical Mortar)
R4NAA = 2 cartridges of 4.2" HE M3 w/. M9 Fuze and M6 Propellant Charges in wooden crate. Gross Weight: 56 lbs. Volume: 1.1 Cubic Feet.
Sub-Group R5 (Ammunition, blank, for Pack, Light, and Medium field artillery)
Group R5C (Ammunition for 57mm Anti-Tank Gun M1 and 6-Pounder QF 7-cwt Gun)
R5CHA = ? × 57 mm / 6 Pdr. cartridges Blank. Volume: ? cubic feet.
Group R5I (Ammunition for 76mm Gun M1, M1A1, and M1A2)
R5IAA = 8 × 76 mm cartridges Blank. Volume: 1.12 cubic feet.
Sub-Group R6 (Ammunition instruction material for pack, light, and medium field artillery)
Sub-Group R7 (Land Mines and Fuzes, Demolition Material, and Ammunition for Simulated Artillery and Grenade Fire)
Class R7A (Land Mines)
R7AI (Anti-Tank Mine M1A1)
R7AIA = 5 × AT Mine M1A1 and 5 × Fuze M1A2 in wooden crate.
Class R7B (Arming Plugs for Land Mines)
R7BJ (Arming Plug M4 for Anti-Tank Mine M15)
R7BJA = 120 × M4 Arming Plugs for M15 AT Mine in wooden crate.
Class R7D (Practice Land Mines)
R7DL (M12A1 Practice Heavy Anti-Tank Land Mine, Empty)
R7DLB = 2 × M12A1 Practice Heavy Land Mines in wooden crate. Gross Weight: 40 lbs. Volume: 1.56 Cubic Feet
R7DSA = 6 anti personnel mines in wooden crate.
Class R7E ()
R7EV
R7EVA = 1 x M3 Shaped Charge [40 lbs.] in wooden crate. Gross Weight: 67 lbs. Volume: 1.85 Cubic Feet.
Class R7F ()
R7FA (M1A1 Bangalore Torpedo)
R7FAB = 10 × M1A1 Bangalore Torpedoes in Wooden Crate. Gross Weight: 176 lbs. Volume: 4.1 Cubic Feet.
Class R7H (Demolition Material)
R7HCA 16 × M2 Demolition Charge (Tetrytol) [2.5 lbs. each], 8 charges (plus fuze train assembly) per haversack [21 lbs.], 2 haversacks per wooden crate. Net Weight: 42 lbs. Gross Weight: 67 lbs. Volume: 1.3 cubic feet.
R7HDA 16 × M3 Demolition Charge (Composition C3) [2.25 lbs. each], 8 charges (plus fuze train assembly) per haversack [19 lbs.], 2 haversacks per wooden crate. Net Weight: 38 lbs. Gross Weight: 44 lbs. Volume: 0.91 cubic feet.
Class R7L (Demolition Kits)
R7LY (Demolition Kit M37)
R7LYA = 2 × M37 Demolition Kits in wooden crate. Gross Wt.: 57 lbs., Volume: 1.4 Cu. Ft.
Sub-Group R8 (Ammunition, complete, nonstandard)
Sub-Group R9 (?)
Sub-Group R10 (Packing materials used by field service)
Group "S" Material (Bombs, grenades, pyrotechnics)
Sub-Group S1 (Bombs, aircraft, all types)
S1DDA Bomb, GP, 250lb AN-M57A1 (Tritonal Filling), with transit hoops
S1DGA Bomb, GP, 1000lb AN-M65A1 (Tritonal Filling), with transit hoops
S1FKA 2 × Bombs, Fragmentation, 23lb M72, with fuzes, in wooden crate
S1GDA Bomb, Chemical, 500lb AN-M78 (AC Filling), with transit hoops
S1HGA Bomb, GP, 1000lb AN-M65A1 (TNT Filling), with transit hoops
S1HMA Bomb, GP, 1000lb AN-M65A1 (Composition B Filling), with transit hoops
S1HTA Bomb, GP, 500lb AN-M64A1 (TNT Filling), with transit hoops
S1HVA Cluster, Fragmentation, 500lb size T4E4 (AN-M26), of 20 × Bombs, Fragmentation, AN-M41A1, in steel drum
S1HWA Bomb, GP, 500lb AN-M64A1 (Composition B Filling), with transit hoops
S1ICA Bomb, GP, 500lb AN-M64A1 (Tritonal Filling), with transit hoops
S1VAA Cluster, Fragmentation, 100lb size AN-M1A2, of 6 × Bombs, Fragmentation, 20lb AN-M41A1, unfuzed, in wooden crate
S1VBA Cluster, Fragmentation, 100lb size AN-M4A1, of 3 × Bombs, Fragmentation, 23lb AN-M40 or AN-M40A1, unfuzed, in wooden crate
S1ZVA Cluster, Practice, 100lb size M2, of 6 × Bombs, Practice, 20lb M48 with Fuzes M110, in wooden crate
S1ZVB Cluster, Fragmentation, 100lb size M1, of 6 × Bombs, Fragmentation, 20lb M41 with Fuzes M110, in wooden crate
S1ZVD Cluster, Fragmentation, 100lb size M1A1, of 6 × Bombs, Fragmentation, 20lb M48 with Fuzes M110, in wooden crate
S1ZVE Cluster, Practice, 100lb size M2A1, of 6 × Bombs, Practice, 20lb M48 with Fuzes M110, in wooden crate
S1ZVF Cluster, Fragmentation, 100lb size M4, of 3 × Bombs, Fragmentation, 23lb M40 with Fuzes M104, in wooden crate
S1ZVG Cluster, Fragmentation, 100lb size M1, of 6 × Bombs, Fragmentation, 20lb M41 with Fuzes M110A1, in wooden crate
S1ZVH Cluster, Fragmentation, 100lb size M1A1, of 6 × Bombs, Fragmentation, 20lb M41 with Fuzes M110, in wooden crate
S1ZVI Cluster, Practice, 100lb size M2, of 6 × Bombs, Practice, 20lb M48 with Fuzes M110A1, in wooden crate
S1ZVJ Cluster, Practice, 100lb size M2A1, of 6 × Bombs, Practice, 20lb M48 with Fuzes M110A1, in wooden crate
S1ZVK Cluster, Fragmentation, 100lb size M4, of 3 × Bombs, Fragmentation, 23lb M40 with fuzes M120 in wooden crate
S1ZVL Cluster, Fragmentation, 100lb size AN-M1A1, of 6 × Bombs, Fragmentation, 20lb AN-M41 with Fuzes AN-M110A1, in wooden crate
S1ZVN Cluster, Fragmentation, 100lb size AN-M4, of 3 × Bombs, Fragmentation, 23lb AN-M40 with Fuzes AN-M104, in wooden crate
S1ZVO Cluster, Fragmentation, 100lb size AN-M4, of 3 × Bombs, Fragmentation, 23lb AN-M40 with fuzes AN-M120 in wooden crate
S1ZVP Cluster, Practice, 100lb size AN-M2A1, of 6 × Bombs, Practice, 20lb AN-M48 with Fuzes M110A1, in wooden crate
S1ZVQ Cluster, Fragmentation, 500lb size AN-M26, of 20 × Bombs, Fragmentation, 20lb AN-M41 with Fuzes AN-M110A1, in steel drum
S1ZVT Cluster, Practice, 100lb size AN-M2A1, of 6 × Bombs, Practice, 20lb AN-M48 with Fuzes M110, in wooden crate.
Sub-Group S2 (Fuzes and miscellaneous explosive components for aircraft bombs)
AN- stands for "Army / Navy", meaning it is a common supply item for both the War and Navy departments.
S2FRB = 9 × Fuzes, Bomb, Tail, AN-M100A2 (Non-Delay), in metal cans, in wooden crate.
S2MUA = 30 × Fuzes, Bomb, Nose, AN-M158, in metal cans, in wooden crate.
S2NLA = 48 × Fuzes, Bomb, Nose, AN-M126A1, in metal cans, in wooden crate.
S2NRA = 25 × Fuzes, Bomb, Nose, AN-M103A1, in metal cans, in wooden crate.
S2QNA = 25 × Fuzes, Bomb, Tail, AN-M100A1, in metal cans, in wooden crate.
S2QQB = 9 × Fuzes, Bomb, Tail, AN-M102A2 (.025 Sec Delay), in metal cans, in wooden crate.
Sub-Group S3 (Fin assemblies, and miscellaneous inert components for aircraft bombs)
S3FHB = 20 × Containers, 100 Arming Wire Assemblies, in wooden crate.
S3JWA = Fin Assembly, 250lb size, AN-M106A1, with/without accessories, in metal crate.
S3POB = 5 × Arming Wire Assemblies for Bomb, Chemical, 100lb M47A2, in round metal tin.
S3RHB = 5 × Arming Wire Assemblies for Bomb, Fragmentation, 260lb AN-M81, in round metal tin.
Sub-Group S4 (Grenades, hand and rifle, and fuzing components)
Class S4F (Rifle Grenades, Signal, Colored Smoke, Ground, for Grenade Launchers M1, M2, M7, & M8)
S4FH (M23A1 Rifle Grenade, Smoke Streamer, Green)
S4FHA = 10 × M23A1 Rifle Grenades in fiberboard tubes in wooden crate. Comes with 3 Launcher Positioning Clips and an M13 Grenade Launcher Assortment metal ammo can (1 × 10-round carton of .30-'06 Grenade Blank M3 and 2 × 5-round packets (10 cartridges) of M7 Grenade Auxiliary Cartridges). Gross Weight: 38 lbs. Volume: 0.98 cubic feet.
Class S4G (Mk.II Fragmentation Grenade)
S4GCA = 25 × Mk.2 Fragmentation Grenades (Fuse M10A2 or M10A3) in M41 Fiber Containers (fiberboard storage tubes) in a wooden crate. Gross Weight: 53 lbs. Volume: 1.25 Cubic Feet.
S4GGA = 25 × M21 Practice Grenades (Fuse M10A2) in M41 Fiber Containers (fiberboard storage tubes) in a wooden crate. Gross Weight: 55 lbs. Volume: 1.25 Cubic Feet. Later reclassified as the S4MAA Mk.I-A1 Training Grenade.
S4GIA = 25 × Mk.2 Fragmentation Grenades (Fuse M10A3) in M41 Fiber Containers (fiberboard storage tubes) in a wooden crate. Gross Weight: 53 lbs. Volume: 1.25 Cubic Feet.
S4GIA = 25 × Mk.2 Fragmentation Grenades (Fuse M6A4C) in M41 Fiber Containers (fiberboard storage tubes) in a wooden crate. Gross Weight: 55 lbs. Volume: 1.25 Cubic Feet.
S4GQA = 25 × Mk.2 Fragmentation Grenades (Fuse M204A1) in M41 Fiber Containers (fiberboard storage tubes) in a wooden crate. Gross Weight: 53 lbs. Volume: 1.25 Cubic Feet.
Class S4K (Mk.III Offensive Grenade)
Note: Since it was a high explosive grenade, they were shipped without fuzes to prevent accidental detonation during shipping.
S4KBA = 50 × Mk.3A2 Offensive Grenades (Unfused) in a wooden crate. The Mk.3A2 grenade used the M6A3 igniter fuse, later replaced with the M206 fuze.
Class S4M (Mk.I-A1 Practice Grenade)
S4MAA = 24 x Mk.I-A1 Training Handgrenades (Fuse M10A3) packed in M41 fiberboard storage tubes in a wooden crate. Gross Weight: 55 lbs.? Volume: 1.25 cu. ft.
Class S4N (M9 Anti-Tank Rifle Grenade)
S4NBA = 10 × M9A1 HEAT Rifle Grenades packed in fiberboard storage tubes in a wooden crate with metal M13 Grenade Launcher Assortment ammo can (1 carton of 10 × .30-'06 Grenade Blank M3 cartridges and 2 packets of 5 × M7 Grenade Auxiliary Blank Cartridges). Gross Weight: 32 lbs.
S4NBB = 10 × M9A1 HEAT Rifle Grenades packed in fiberboard storage tubes in a wooden crate with metal M13 Grenade Launcher Assortment ammo can (1 carton of 10 × .30-'06 Grenade Blank M3 cartridges, 1 carton of 6 × .30 Carbine Grenade Blank M6 cartridges, and 1 packet of 5 × M7 Grenade Auxiliary Cartridges). Gross Weight: 32 lbs.
S4NBC = 10 × M9A1 HEAT Rifle Grenades packed in fiberboard storage tubes in a wooden crate with metal M13 Grenade Launcher Assortment ammo can (1 carton of 10 × .30-'06 Grenade Blank M3 cartridges, 1 carton of 6 × .30 Carbine Grenade Blank M6 cartridges, and 1 packet of 5 × M7 Grenade Auxiliary Cartridges). Gross Weight: 31 lbs. Volume: 0.95 Cu. Ft. The crate was vertical with a thick side-folding metal carrying handle on top for easy carrying. It opened from the side like an M1 or M2 ammo can and had a metal hasp on one end and a triangular metal hinge on the opposite end.
S4NGA = 50 × M11A2 Practice HEAT Rifle Grenades packed in fiberboard storage tubes in a wooden crate with 5 metal M13 Grenade Launcher Assortment ammo cans (1 carton of 10 × .30-'06 Grenade Blank M3 cartridges, 1 carton of 6 × .30 Carbine Grenade Blank M6 cartridges, and 1 packet of 5 × M7 Grenade Auxiliary Cartridges). Gross Weight: 32 lbs. Volume: 3.5 Cubic Feet.
Class S4Q (Adapter, Grenade Projection)
S4QF (M1A1 Grenade Projection Adapter, for use with the Mk.II Fragmentation Grenade)
Note: The M1A1 Grenade Projection Adapter converted a Mk.II fragmentation grenade into a rifle grenade.
S4QFD = 48 × M1A1 Grenade Projection Adapters. Comes with 5 × metal M13 Grenade Launcher Assortment ammo cans (1 carton of 10 × .30-'06 Grenade Blank M3 cartridges, 1 carton of 6 × .30 Carbine Grenade Blank M6 cartridges, and 1 packet of 5 × M7 Grenade Auxiliary Cartridges). Volume: 1.75 Cubic Feet.
Sub-Group S5 (Pyrotechnics, military, all types)
Class S5P (Signal, Illumination, Aircraft, for Pyrotechnic Pistol AN-M8)
S5PD (Aircraft Illumination Signal, 37 mm AN-M37A1, Double Star Flare, Red-Red)
S5PDC = 72 cartridges × Signal, Illumination, Aircraft, 37 mm AN-M37A1, Double Star Flare, Red-Red, 6 cartons of 12 cartridges each, in wooden crate. Gross Weight: 36 lbs. Volume: 0.75 cubic feet.
Class S5R (Signal, Illumination, Ground, for Rifle Grenade Launchers M1, M2, M7, & M8)
S5RM (M22A1 Rifle Grenade, Ground Signal, Amber Star Cluster Flare)
S5RMA 48 × M22A1 rifle grenades, in fiberboard tubes, in wooden crate. Comes with 5 × M13 metal Grenade Launcher Assortment ammo cans (1 carton of 10 × .30-'06 M3 Grenade Blank cartridges, 1 carton of 6 × .30 Carbine M6 Grenade Blank cartridges, and 1 packet of 5 × M7 Grenade Auxiliary Cartridges).
S5RMB 30 × M22A1 rifle grenades, in fiberboard tubes, in wooden crate. Comes with 3 × M13 metal Grenade Launcher Assortment ammo cans (1 carton of 10 × .30-'06 M3 Grenade Blank cartridges, 1 carton of 6 × .30 Carbine M6 Grenade Blank cartridges, and 1 packet of 5 × M7 Grenade Auxiliary Cartridges).
S5RO (M21A1 Rifle Grenade, Ground Signal, Amber Star Parachute Flare)
S5ROA 48 × M21A1 rifle grenades, in fiberboard tubes, in wooden crate. Comes with 5 × M13 metal Grenade Launcher Assortment ammo cans (1 carton of 10 × .30-'06 M3 Grenade Blank cartridges, 1 carton of 6 × .30 Carbine M6 Grenade Blank cartridges, and 1 packet of 5 × M7 Grenade Auxiliary Cartridges).
S5ROB 30 × M21A1 rifle grenades, in fiberboard tubes, in wooden crate. Comes with 3 × M13 metal Grenade Launcher Assortment ammo cans (1 carton of 10 × .30-'06 M3 Grenade Blank cartridges, 1 carton of 6 × .30 Carbine M6 Grenade Blank cartridges, and 1 packet of 5 × M7 Grenade Auxiliary Cartridges).
S5RP (M20A1 Rifle Grenade, Ground Signal, Green Star Cluster Flare)
S5RPA 48 × M20A1 rifle grenades, in fiberboard tubes, in wooden crate. Comes with 5 × M13 metal Grenade Launcher Assortment ammo cans (1 carton of 10 × .30-'06 M3 Grenade Blank cartridges, 1 carton of 6 × .30 Carbine M6 Grenade Blank cartridges, and 1 packet of 5 × M7 Grenade Auxiliary Cartridges).
S5RPB 30 × M20A1 rifle grenades, in fiberboard tubes, in wooden crate. Comes with 3 × M13 metal Grenade Launcher Assortment ammo cans (1 carton of 10 × .30-'06 M3 Grenade Blank cartridges, 1 carton of 6 × .30 Carbine M6 Grenade Blank cartridges, and 1 packet of 5 × M7 Grenade Auxiliary Cartridges).
S5RQ (M19A1 Rifle Grenade, Ground Signal, Green Star Parachute Flare)
S5RQA 48 × M19A1 rifle grenades, in fiberboard tubes, in wooden crate. Comes with 3 × M13 metal Grenade Launcher Assortment ammo cans (1 carton of 10 × .30-'06 M3 Grenade Blank cartridges, 1 carton of 6 × .30 Carbine M6 Grenade Blank cartridges, and 1 packet of 5 × M7 Grenade Auxiliary Cartridges).
S5RQB 30 × M19A1 rifle grenades, in fiberboard tubes, in wooden crate. Comes with 3 × M13 metal Grenade Launcher Assortment ammo cans (1 carton of 10 × .30-'06 M3 Grenade Blank cartridges, 1 carton of 6 × .30 Carbine M6 Grenade Blank cartridges, and 1 packet of 5 × M7 Grenade Auxiliary Cartridges).
S5RR (M18A1 Rifle Grenade, Ground Signal, White Star Cluster Flare)
S5RRA 48 × M18A1 rifle grenades, in fiberboard tubes, in wooden crate. Comes with 5 × M13 metal Grenade Launcher Assortment ammo cans (1 carton of 10 × .30-'06 M3 Grenade Blank cartridges, 1 carton of 6 × .30 Carbine M6 Grenade Blank cartridges, and 1 packet of 5 × M7 Grenade Auxiliary Cartridges).
S5RRB 30 × M18A1 rifle grenades, in fiberboard tubes, in wooden crate. Comes with 3 × M13 metal Grenade Launcher Assortment ammo cans (1 carton of 10 × .30-'06 M3 Grenade Blank cartridges, 1 carton of 6 × .30 Carbine M6 Grenade Blank cartridges, and 1 packet of 5 × M7 Grenade Auxiliary Cartridges).
S5RS (M17A1 Rifle Grenade, Ground Signal, White Star Parachute Flare)
S5RSA 48 × M17A1 rifle grenades, in fiberboard tubes, in wooden crate. Comes with 5 × M13 metal Grenade Launcher Assortment ammo cans (1 carton of 10 × .30-'06 M3 Grenade Blank cartridges, 1 carton of 6 × .30 Carbine M6 Grenade Blank cartridges, and 1 packet of 5 × M7 Grenade Auxiliary Cartridges).
S5RSB 30 × M17A1 rifle grenades, in fiberboard tubes, in wooden crate. Comes with 3 × M13 metal Grenade Launcher Assortment ammo cans (1 carton of 10 × .30-'06 M3 Grenade Blank cartridges, 1 carton of 6 × .30 Carbine M6 Grenade Blank cartridges, and 1 packet of 5 × M7 Grenade Auxiliary Cartridges).
S5RT (M51A1 Rifle Grenade, Ground Signal, Red Star Parachute Flare)
S5RTA 48 × M51A1 rifle grenades, in fiberboard tubes, in wooden crate. Comes with 5 × M13 metal Grenade Launcher Assortment ammo cans (1 carton of 10 × .30-'06 M3 Grenade Blank cartridges and 1 carton of 6 × .30 Carbine M6 Grenade Blank cartridges). Gross Weight: 86 lbs. Volume: 2.46 cubic feet.
S5RTB 30 × M51A1 rifle grenades, in fiberboard tubes, in wooden crate. Comes with 3 × M13 metal Grenade Launcher Assortment ammo cans (1 carton of 10 × .30-'06 M3 Grenade Blank cartridges, 1 carton of 6 × .30 Carbine M6 Grenade Blank cartridges, and 1 packet of 5 × M7 Grenade Auxiliary Cartridges).
S5RU (M52A1 Rifle Grenade, Ground Signal, Red Star Cluster Flare)
S5RUA 48 × M52A1 rifle grenades, in fiberboard tubes, in wooden crate. Comes with 5 × M13 metal Grenade Launcher Assortment ammo cans (1 carton of 10 × .30-'06 M3 Grenade Blank cartridges, 1 carton of 6 × .30 Carbine M6 Grenade Blank cartridges, and 1 packet of 5 × M7 Grenade Auxiliary Cartridges).
S5RUB 30 × M52A1 rifle grenades, in fiberboard tubes, in wooden crate. Comes with 3 × M13 metal Grenade Launcher Assortment ammo cans (1 carton of 10 × .30-'06 M3 Grenade Blank cartridges, 1 carton of 6 × .30 Carbine M6 Grenade Blank cartridges, and 1 packet of 5 × M7 Grenade Auxiliary Cartridges).
Class S5T (Trip Flare)
S5TBA 4 × M48 Trip Flare, Parachute kit (with firing mechanism and a coil of tripwire), 1 kit per carton, 4 cartons per wooden crate.
S5TCA 4 × M49 Trip Flare kit (with firing mechanism and a coil of tripwire), 1 kit per carton, 4 cartons per wooden crate.
Sub-Group S6 (Ammunition instruction material for grenades, pyrotechnics, and aircraft bombs)
Sub-Group S7 (Guided missile complete rounds, all types)
Sub-Group S8 (Guided missile explosive components, all types)
Sub-Group S9 (Rockets, all types)
Class S9A (2.36" Rocket for Anti-Tank Rocket Launchers M1, M1A1, M9, & M9A1)
Note = The fiberboard packing tubes are sealed with colored tape. The color of the tape indicates what type of rocket it is: yellow is HEAT, gray is Smoke, and blue is Practice. Early M6 HE (AT) and M7 Practice rockets can only be fired out of M1 launchers because they have an earlier ignition system that cannot be activated out of an M1A1, M9, or M9A1 launcher.
S9ACA = 20 × 2.36" M6A1 Rockets, HE (Anti-Tank) [For use with M1A1 Rocket Launcher], in M87 fiberboard tubes, in wooden crate. Gross Weight: 128 lbs. Volume: 3.7 cubic feet.
S9ADA = 20 × 2.36" M7A1 Rockets, Practice [For use with M1A1 Rocket Launcher], in M87 fiberboard tubes, in wooden crate. Gross Weight: Volume: 3.7 cubic feet.
S9AKA = 12 × 2.36" M10 Rockets, Bursting Smoke (White Phosphorus), in fiberboard tubes, in wooden crate. Gross Weight: 68 lbs. Volume: 2.4 cubic feet.
S9ALA = 8 × 2.36" M6A3 Rockets, HE (Anti-Tank) [For use with M9 and M9A1 Rocket Launcher], in M87 fiberboard tubes, in wooden crate. Gross Weight: 54 lbs.Volume: 1.41 cubic feet.
S9ASB = 8 × 2.36" M7A6 Rockets, Practice, in fiberboard tubes, in wooden crate. Gross Weight: 53 lbs.Volume: 1.41 cubic feet.
Class S9IKA (Fuses for Rockets)
S9IKA = 12 × Variable Time (VT) Fuze M402 in metal packing box. Gross Weight: 67 lbs.Volume: 1.24 cubic feet.
Class S9J (3.5" Rocket for Anti-Tank Rocket Launcher M20)
S9JKA = 3 × 3.5" M28 Rockets, HE (Anti-Tank) in fiberboard tubes, in a wooden crate. Gross Weight: 53 lbs. Volume: 1.59 cubic feet.
S9JNA = 3 × 3.5" M28A2 Rockets, HE (Anti-Tank) w/. Composition B warhead in fiberboard tubes, in a wooden crate. Gross Weight: 55.7 lbs. Volume: 1.45 cubic feet.
Sub-Group S10 (Obsolete and nonstandard bombs, grenades, pyrotechnics, and rockets)
Sub-Group S11 (Materials for renovating and packaging of Group "S" ammunition and miscellaneous items)
Group "T" Material (Small Arms Ammunition)
Sub-Group T1 (Ammunition for Rifle, Carbine and Automatic Gun)
After 1948, the AIC number "1" was replaced by the letter "A" to indicate the small arms ammunition was packed in the new M20 or M21 ammo cans instead of the myriad World War II-era packing boxes and cans.
Class T1A (.22 Long Rifle; Gallery Practice Ammunition)
The military used .22-caliber training rifles to teach basic marksmanship before transitioning to full-bore service rifles.
T1AAA = 10,000 cartridges of .22 Long Rifle Ball, in 50-round cartons. They were packed 10 cartons per cardboard box (500 rounds) and there were 20 boxes per wooden crate. Gross Weight: 85 lbs. Volume: 0.7 Cubic Feet.
TAAAA = 6,000 cartridges of .22 Long Rifle Ball, in cartons, in M20 ammo cans (3,000 rounds), 2 × M20 cans in an M22 wooden crate. Gross Weight: 60 lbs. Volume: 0.75 Cubic Feet.
Class T1C (.30 Carbine; Ammunition for .30-caliber Carbine M1)
This ammunition was for use with the M1 Carbine, a different weapon than the M1 Garand Rifle. The primers for the cartridges were non-corrosive because the M1 carbine's gas-system would have fouled or corroded if standard corrosive primers were used. It only came in Grade R ("Rifle") because the M1 Carbine was semi-automatic only, dispensing with the use for Grade 2 for an automatic weapon. The late-war creation of the M2 selective-fire carbine and M3 infra-red sniper carbine didn't change this.
Cartons (1942–1948)
Note = .30 Carbine ammunition was not carried or packed in bandoleers during World War 2.
T1CAA = 2,700 cartridges of .30 Carbine Ball M1, Grade R, in 45-round cartons packed in a small metal-lined M1917 wooden Packing Box. There were 60 cartons per box. Pre-War packing used 45-round cartons divided into three 15-round packs. M1 Carbines used 15-round box magazines, so the packs made sure that ammunition would not be wasted. Gross Weight:? Volume: 0.83 cubic feet.
T1CAA = 3,000 cartridges of .30 Carbine Ball M1, Grade R, in 50-round cartons packed in a small metal-lined M1917 wooden Packing Box. There were 60 cartons per box. The packing was changed in 1942 to 50-round cartons (3000 rounds per crate) to maximize how much ammunition could be shipped. Gross Weight:? Volume: 0.83 cubic feet.
T1CAD = 3,000 cartridges of .30 Carbine Ball M1, Grade R, in 50-round cartons, 30 cartons per T3 waxed cardboard box (1500 rounds), 2 × T3 waxed cardboard boxes per T4 wooden crate (3,000 rounds total). Gross Weight: 98 lbs. Volume: 0.83 cubic feet. This experimental packing method was used to ship ammunition overseas, but without the metal ternplate liner to make it easier and faster to open in combat. It was found to be ineffective, so the crates were recalled in 1944 and repacked in M6 ammo cans by Evansville Chrysler (EC).
T1CAE = 2,000 cartridges of .30 Carbine Ball M1, Grade R, in 50-round cartons packed in a commercial packing box. There were 40 cartons per box.
T1CAF = 3,450 cartridges of .30 Carbine Ball M1, Grade R, in 50-round cartons packed in a wooden M1917 ammunition chest. There were 69 cartons per box. Gross Weight: 110 lbs. Volume: 0.92 Cu. Ft.
T1CAF = 3,200 cartridges of .30 Carbine Ball M1, Grade R, in 50-round cartons packed in M6 ammo cans. Each M6 ammo can contained 16 cartons (800 rounds). There were 4 × M6 ammo cans per crate.
T1CAH = 2,400 cartridges of .30 Carbine Ball M1, Grade R, in 50-round cartons packed in M6 ammo cans. Each M6 ammo can contained 16 cartons (800 rounds). There were 3 × M6 ammo cans per M4 crate. Gross Weight: 85 lbs. Volume: 0.87 cubic feet.
T1CAI = 3,150 cartridges of .30 Carbine Ball M1, Grade R, in 50-round cartons packed in a metal-lined wooden box. There were 63 cartons per box. Gross Weight: 108 lbs. Volume: 1 cubic foot.
T1CAJ = 1,600 cartridges of .30 Carbine Ball M1, Grade R, in 50-round cartons packed in M6 ammo cans. Each M6 ammo can contained 16 cartons (800 rounds). There were 2 × M6 ammo cans per M7 ammo crate. Gross Weight: 59 lbs. Volume: 0.662 cubic feet.
T1CAZ = 4,800 cartridges of .30 Carbine Ball M1, Grade R, in 50-round cartons packed in M6 ammo cans. Each M6 ammo can contained 16 cartons (800 rounds). There were 6 × M6 ammo cans per crate.
Cartons (1948–1958)
TACAA = 1,800 cartridges of .30 Carbine Ball M1, Grade R, in 50-round cartons packed in M20 ammo cans. Each M20 ammo can contained 18 cartons (900 rounds). There were 2 × M20 ammo cans per M22 ammo crate. Gross Weight: 49 lbs. Volume: 0.75 Cu. Ft.
Bandoleers (1948–1958)
After World War II .30 Carbine ammunition began being packed in stripper clips. Each pre-packed M1 bandoleer had 6 pockets (containing 2 stripper clips each) for a total of 120 rounds per bandolier. The stripper clips did not require a separate magazine guide because they had a magazine guide built-in to speed reloading.
TACAL = 1,200 cartridges of .30 Carbine Ball M1, in 10-round stripper clips in M1 bandoleers (120 rounds), packed in M20 ammo cans. Each M20 ammo can contained 5 × M1 bandoleers (600 rounds total). There were 2 × M20 ammo cans per wooden M22 ammo crate. Gross Weight: 51 lbs. Volume: 0.75 cubic feet.
TACCA = 1,200 cartridges of .30 Carbine Tracer M27, in 10-round stripper clips in M1 bandoleers (120 rounds), packed in M20 ammo cans. Each M20 ammo can contained 5 × M1 bandoleers (600 rounds total). There were 2 × M20 ammo cans per wooden M22 ammo crate. Gross Weight: 52 lbs. Volume: 0.75 Cubic Feet
Class T1E (Caliber .30; Ammunition for .30-caliber Rifles and Machine Guns)
This ammunition was used in the M1903 Springfield, M1917 Enfield, and M1 Garand rifles, the Browning Automatic Rifle (BAR), and the Browning M1917 water-cooled and Browning M1919 air-cooled machine guns.
There were three cartridge grades based on accuracy and reliability: "AC/R", "MG", and "3". Test batches would be randomly drawn from a lot and they would be chambered and fired individually from a fixed bench-rested barrel and mechanism at a stationary round "bullseye" target 600 feet away. "AC" (Aircraft), the most accurate and reliable, was similar to the RAF's "Red Label" ammunition used in their synchronized aircraft machine guns. It had to be grouped within a 5-inch circle and not exceed a specified maximum number of stoppages to be acceptable. It came in metal linked belts and was suitable for aircraft and anti-aircraft machine-guns. "R" (Rifle) had to be grouped within a 5-inch circle; it came packed in cartons or bandoleers and was suitable for use in rifles. "MG" (Machine Gun), the least accurate, had to be grouped within a 7.5-inch circle; it came in woven belts and was suitable for use in ground machine-guns. Class 3 (Unsuitable) was rejected for not meeting standards.
Ammunition Lot Numbers had a code letter prefix in-between the Manufacturer code and Lot Number to indicate how it was packed: "C" indicated rifle ammunition preloaded in clips, "B" indicated Belted (woven cloth belt) machine gun ammunition, and "L" indicated Linked (disintegrating metal link belt) machine gun ammunition.
Cartons (1939–1948)
T1EDM = 1500 cartridges .30-06 AP M2, in 20-round cartons, 75 cartons per metal-lined wooden crate M1917. Gross Weight: 113 lbs. Volume: 1.5 cubic feet.
T1EDW = 1320 cartridges .30-06 AP M2, in 20-round cartons, 11 cartons per M10 ammo can (220 rounds), 6 × M10 ammo cans per metal Mk.1 Mod.0 ammo box. Gross Weight: ? Volume: 1.5 cubic feet.
T1EPD = 1500 Cartridges .30-06 Tracer M1, in 20-round cartons, 75 cartons per metal-lined wooden crate M1917. Gross Weight: 108 lbs. Volume: 1.5 cubic feet.
T1EGM = 960 cartridges .30-06 Ball M2, in 20-round cartons, 12 cartons per waxed cardboard box (240 rounds), 4 × waxed cardboard boxes per wooden crate. Gross Weight: 72 lbs. Volume: 1.2 cubic feet.
T1EGN = 1500 cartridges .30-06 Ball M2, in 20-round cartons, 75 cartons per metal-lined wooden crate M1917. Gross Weight: 113 lbs. Volume: 1.5 cubic feet.
T1EHW = 1320 cartridges .30-06 Ball M2, in 20-round cartons, 11 cartons per M10 ammo can (220 rounds), 6 × M10 ammo cans per metal Mk.1 Mod.0 ammo box. Volume: 1.5 cubic feet.
Cartons (1948–1958)
TAEHB = 1040 cartridges .30-06 Ball M2, in 20-round cartons, 26 cartons per M21 ammo can (520 rounds), 2 × M21 ammo cans per M23 wooden crate. Gross Weight: 83 lbs. Volume: 1.2 cubic feet.
TAEPA = 1040 cartridges .30-06 TR M25, in 20-round cartons, 26 cartons per M21 ammo can (520 rounds), 2 × M21 ammo cans per M23 wooden crate. Gross Weight: ? Volume: 1.2 cubic feet.
T1EHW-5 = 1320 cartridges .30-06 Ball M2 (Grade AC/R), in 20-round cartons, 11 cartons per M10 ammo can (220 rounds), 6 × M10 ammo cans per metal Mk.1 Mod.0 ammo box. Gross Weight: ? Volume: 1.5 cubic feet.
Bandoleers (1939–1948)
Note: 5-round Mauser-style stripper clips were used by the M1903 Springfield and M1917 Enfield. 8-round Mannlicher-style en-bloc clips were used by the M1 Garand. The M1 Bandoleer had six pockets; each pocket could hold either two 5-round stripper clips (60 rounds total) or one 8-round en-bloc clip (48 rounds total). The symbol for ammunition packed in stripper clips was 5 bullets conjoined by a long rectangle across the base (looking like 5 bullets in a Mauser clip); there were two symbols in a vertical column per side. The symbol for ammunition packed in en-bloc clips was a rectangular oval with 2 rows of 4 dots (looking like eight rounds in an en-bloc clip); there were one or two symbols in a vertical column per side.
T1EDC = 1500 cartridges .30-06 AP M2, 5-round stripper clips in bandoleers (12 clips / 60 rounds), 25 bandoleers per metal-lined wooden chest M1917. Volume: 1.5 cubic feet.
T1EDV = 1344 cartridges .30-06 AP M2, 8-round en-bloc clips in bandoleers (6 clips / 48 rounds), 28 bandoleers per metal-lined wooden chest M1917. Gross Weight: 111 lbs. Volume: 1.5 cubic feet.
T1EFA = 1200 cartridges .30-06 Ball M1, 8-round stripper clips in bandoleers (6 clips / 48 rounds), 25 bandoleers per metal-lined wooden chest M1917. Volume: 1.5 cubic feet.
T1EGK = 1500 cartridges .30-06 Ball M2, 5-round stripper clips in bandoleers (12 clips / 60 rounds), 25 bandoleers per metal-lined wooden chest M1917. Gross Weight: 112 lbs. Volume: 1.5 cubic feet.
T1EHA = 1344 cartridges .30-06 Ball M2, 8-round en-bloc clips in bandoleers (6 clips / 48 rounds), 28 bandoleers per metal-lined wooden chest M1917. Gross Weight: 108 lbs. Volume: 1.5 cubic feet.
T1EHO = 480 cartridges .30-06 Ball M2, 5-round clips in bandoleers (12 clips / 60 rounds), 4 bandoleers per M8 ammo can (240 rounds), 2 × M8 ammo cans per M9 wooden crate. Gross Weight: 42 lbs. Volume: 0.7 cubic feet.
T1EHP = 480 cartridges .30-06 Ball M2, 8-round clips in bandoleers (6 clips / 48 rounds), 5 bandoleers per M8 ammo can (240 rounds), 2 × M8 ammo cans per M9 wooden crate. Gross Weight: 46 lbs. Volume: 0.7 cubic feet.
T1EPC = 1500 cartridges .30-06 Tracer M1, 5-round stripper clips in bandoleers (12 clips / 60 rounds), 25 bandoleers per metal-lined wooden chest M1917
T1EPM = 1344 cartridges .30-06 Tracer M1, 8-round en-bloc clips in bandoleers (6 clips / 48 rounds), 28 bandoleers per metal-lined wooden chest M1917
Bandoleers (1948–1958)
Note: The ammunition now only came in 8-round en-bloc clips because the M1 Garand was the standard service rifle.
TAEAB = 384 cartridges .30-06 AP M2, 8-round en-bloc clips in bandoleers (6 clips / 48 rounds), 4 bandoleers per metal M20 ammo can (192 rounds), 2 × M20 ammo cans per M22 wooden crate. Gross Weight: 39.2 lbs. Volume: 0.76 cubic feet.
TAEGA = 384 cartridges .30-06 Ball M2, 8-round en-bloc clips in bandoleers (6 clips / 48 rounds), 4 bandoleers per metal M20 ammo can (192 rounds), 2 × M20 ammo cans per M22 wooden crate. Gross Weight: 38 lbs. Volume: 0.76 cubic feet.
TAE## = 768 cartridges .30-06 Ball M2, 8-round en-bloc clips in bandoleers (6 clips / 48 rounds), 8 bandoleers per metal M21 ammo can (384 rounds), 2 × M21 ammo cans per M23 wooden crate. Gross Weight:71 lbs. Volume: 1.2 cubic feet.
T1EXX-5 = 1584 cartridges .30-06 Ball M2, 8-round en-bloc clips in bandoleers (6 clips / 48 rounds), 33 bandoleers per metal Mk.1 Mod.0 ammo can. Gross Weight:132 lbs. Volume: 1.5 cubic feet. Repacked WW2 ammunition for use by the Navy and Marine Corps.
Belted
Note: The symbol for belted or linked 0.30-06 Springfield ammunition was a vertical string of cartridges pointing right. Most early 0.30-'06 machine gun ammunition manufactured during World War II was belted rather than linked due to a steel shortage. All metal-linked ammunition was reserved for the Army Air Force and Naval Aviation. When the US Army Air Force .30-caliber machine gun was superseded by the .50-caliber machine gun mid-war, all .30-caliber ammunition began to be belted in M1 250-round belts for infantry use or M3 100-round woven belts for use in vehicles and tanks. Post-World War II production used linked ammunition.
In a belt with mixture of ammunition types the number and type of rounds per 5- or 10-round segment is used. If different ammunition types were used in the segment, they were alternated (for example, A–B–A–B–C rather than A–A–B–B–C), with the tracer round (C) at the end. Usually one round in five or ten was tracer, to show the gunner the trajectory; pre-War belts used a 1-in-10 mix and War and Post-War belts used a 1-in-5 mix.
T1ECT = 1,500 cartridges .30-06 linked (4 × AP M2, 1 × TR M1) 250-rounds in M1 links in a carton, 6 cartons per metal-lined wooden chest M1917. Volume: 1.5 cubic feet.
T1EDP = 1,000 cartridges .30-06 belted (4 × AP M2, 1 × TR M1) 250-round M1917-belt in metal M1A1 ammo box, 4 × M1A1 ammo boxes per wooden crate. Gross Weight: 75 lbs. Volume: 1.0 cubic feet.
T1EDP = 1,100 rounds .30-06 linked (4 × AP M2, 1 × TR M1) 275 rounds in M1 links in metal ammo box M1A1, 4 × M1A1 ammo boxes per wirebound plywood crate. Gross Weight: 77 lbs. Volume: 1.0 cubic feet.
T1EED = 250 cartridges .30-06 belted (9 × AP M2, 1 × TR M1), 250-round M1917 web belt in metal M1 ammo box.
T1EED = 275 cartridges .30-06 linked (9 × AP M2, 1 × TR M1) 275 rounds in M1 links in metal M1A1 ammo box.
T1EEF = 1,200 cartridges .30-06 linked (2 × AP M2, 2 × INC M1, 1 × TR M1), 100 rounds in M1-links in a carton, 12 cartons per metal-lined wooden M1917 ammunition chest. Gross Weight: 106 lbs. Volume: 1.5 cubic feet.
T1EGW = 250 cartridges .30-06 belted (4 × Ball M2, 1 × TR M1), Grade MG, 1 × 250-round M1917-belt per metal M1 or M1A1 ammo box.
T1EGW = 275 rounds .30-06 linked (4 × Ball M2, 1 × TR M1), Grade AC, 275 rounds in M1 links per metal M1A1 ammo box. Repacked linked ammunition.
T1EHC = 250 cartridges .30-06 belted (9 × Ball M2, 1 × TR M1), 1 × 250-round M917 web belt per metal M1 ammo box.
T1EHC = 275 rounds .30-06 linked (9 × Ball M2, 1 × TR M1), 275 rounds in M1 links per metal M1A1 ammo box.
T1EHD = 1,500 cartridges .30-06 belted (4 × Ball M2, 1 × TR M1), 1 × 250-round M1917 web belt in a carton, 6 cartons per metal-lined wooden M1917 ammunition chest. Gross Weight: 111 lbs. Volume: 1.5 cubic feet.
T1EHD = 1,000 cartridges .30-06 belted (4 × Ball M2, 1 × TR M1), 1 × 250-round M1917-belt per metal M1 ammo can, 4 × M1 ammo cans per wire-bound plywood crate. Gross Weight: 75 lbs. Volume: 0.8 cubic feet. Repacked ammo repackaged in M1 ammo cans.
T1EHD = 1,000 cartridges .30-06 linked (4 × Ball M2, 1 × TR M1), 250-rounds in M1 links per metal M1 ammo can, 4 × M1 ammo cans per wire-bound plywood crate. Gross Weight: 75 lbs. Volume: 1.0 cubic feet. Repacked ammo transferred to links and repackaged in M1A1 ammo cans.
T1EHR = 480 cartridges .30-06 linked (4 × Ball M2, 1 × TR M1), 120 rounds in M1 links, 1 linked belt per carton, 2 cartons per M8 ammo can (240 rounds), 2 × M8 ammo cans per M9 wooden crate. Gross Weight: 45 lbs. Volume: 0.7 cubic feet.
T1EMB = 1,000 cartridges .30-06 belted (4 × Ball M2, 1 × TR M1), 1 × 250-round M1917 web belt per metal M1 ammo box, 4 × M1 ammo boxes per wooden crate. Gross Weight: 93 lbs. Volume: 1.0 cubic feet.
Class T1I (Caliber .50)
There were three grades of cartridges, based on accuracy and reliability. "AC" (Aircraft) the highest, came in metal linked belts and was suitable for aircraft and Anti-Aircraft machine-guns. "MG" (Machine Gun) came in woven cloth or metal-link belts and was suitable for use in ground machine-guns. Class 3 (Unsuitable) was rejected as being under standards and was destroyed.
Cartons (1939–1948)
T1IAA = 120 cartridges .50 Armor-Piercing M2, in 10-round cartons, 6 cartons per M10 ammo can (60 rounds), 2 × M10 cans per M12 wooden crate. Volume: 0.7 cubic feet.
T1IBB = 350 cartridges .50 AP M2 in 10-round cartons, 35 Cartons per wooden chest M1917. Gross Weight: 112 lbs. Volume: 1.5 cubic feet.
T1IBS = 240 cartridges .50 AP M2 in 10-round cartons, 6 cartons per waxed cardboard box (60 rounds), 4 × waxed cardboard boxes per wooden crate. Gross Weight: 77 lbs. Volume: 1.2 cubic feet.
T1IDC = 350 cartridges .50 AP-Incendiary M8, Grade AC, in 10-round cartons, in wooden chest M1917. Gross Weight: 110 lbs. Volume: 1.5 cubic feet.
T1IDD = 350 cartridges .50 API M8, in 10-round cartons, in wooden chest M1917. Gross Weight: 107 lbs. Volume: 1.5 cubic feet.
T1IDQ = 120 cartridges .50 API M8, in 10-round cartons, 6 cartons per M10 ammo can (60 rounds), 2 × M10 cans per M12 wooden crate. Gross Weight: 42 lbs. Volume: 0.7 cubic feet.
T1IDR = 120 cartridges .50 API M8, in 10-round cartons, 6 cartons per M10 ammo can (60 rounds), 2 × M10 cans per M12 wooden crate. Gross Weight: 42 lbs. Volume: 0.7 cubic feet.
T1IFB = 350 cartridges .50 Ball M1, in 10-round cartons, in wooden chest M1917. Volume: 1.5 cubic feet.
T1IGB = 350 cartridges .50 Ball M2, in 10-round cartons, in wooden chest M1917. Gross Weight: 109 lbs. Volume: 1.5 cubic feet.
T1IGH = 350 cartridges .50 Ball M2, in 10-round cartons, in wooden chest M1917. Gross Weight: 110 lbs. Volume: 1.5 cubic feet.
T1IGT = 120 cartridges .50 Ball M2, in 10-round cartons, 6 cartons per M10 ammo can, 2 × M10 ammo cans per M12 wooden crate. Gross Weight: 44 lbs. Volume: 0.7 cubic feet.
T1IKA = 350 cartridges .50 Incendiary M1, in 10-round cartons, in wooden chest M1917. Volume: 1.5 cubic feet.
T1IKC = 240 cartridges .50 Incendiary M1, in 10-round cartons, 12 cartons per waxed cardboard box (120 rounds), 2 × waxed cardboard boxes per T2 wooden crate (240 rounds). Gross Weight: 75 lbs. Volume: 1.12 cubic feet.
T1IPB = 350 cartridges .50 Tracer M1, in 10-round cartons, in wooden chest M1917. Volume: 1.5 cubic feet.
T1IPI = 120 cartridges .50 Tracer M1, in 10-round cartons, 6 cartons per M10 ammo can, 2 × M10 ammo cans per M12 wooden crate. Gross Weight: 43 lbs. Volume: 0.7 cubic feet.
Cartons (1948–1958)
TAIJA = 240 cartridges .50 API-Tracer M20, in 10-round cartons, 24 cartons per metal-lined wooden crate. Gross Weight: 82 lbs. Volume: 1.2 cubic feet.
Belted (1939–1948)
Note: The symbol for belted or linked 0.50-caliber BMG ammunition was a diagonal string of cartridges pointing from the lower left corner to the upper right corner. The type of ammunition was indicated by a code letter prefixed to the ammunition's Lot Number. "B" stood for Belted (woven cloth belt) and "L" stood for Linked (disintegrating metal links). Due to a steel shortage, linked belts were originally reserved for the Army Air Force and Naval Aviation. Machine gun ammunition for ground use was supplied in 110-round M7 woven belts for infantry and 50-round woven belts for vehicles and tanks. After the Allies achieved air superiority over Europe around the fall of 1944, linked rounds began being issued to ground units. In a belt with a mixture of ammunition types the number and type of rounds per 5- or 10-round segment is used. If different ammunition types were used in the segment, they were usually alternated (for example, A-B-A-B-C rather than A-A-B-B-C), with the tracer round (C) at the end. Usually one in five or one in ten cartridges were tracer.
T1IBA = 300 cartridges .50 linked (Ball M2).
T1IBW = 265 cartridges .50 linked (AP M2), in metal-lined wooden chest M1917. Gross Weight: 100 lbs. Volume: 1.5 cubic feet.
T1ICA = 265 cartridges .50 linked (2 × AP M2, 2 × Incendiary M1, 1 × Tracer M1), in metal-lined wooden chest M1917. Gross Weight: 106 lbs. Volume: 1.5 cubic feet.
T1ICC = 265 cartridges .50 linked (2 × AP M2, 2 × Incendiary M1, 1 × Tracer M1), in metal-lined wooden chest M1917. Gross Weight: 100 lbs. Volume: 1.5 cubic feet.
T1ICE = 265 cartridges .50 linked (4 × AP M2, 1 × Tracer M1) in metal-lined wooden chest M1917. Volume: 1.5 cubic feet.
T1ICJ = 240 cartridges .50 linked (AP M2) in 60-round cartons, in metal-lined wooden chest M1917. Gross Weight: 90 lbs. Volume: 1.5 cubic feet.
T1ICN = 220 cartridges .50 belted (2 × AP M2, 2 × INC M1, 1 × TR M1), 110 belted rounds in metal M2 ammo box, 2 × M2 ammo boxes per wooden crate. Gross Weight: 71 lbs. Volume: 0.93 Cubic Feet.
T1ICQ = 210 cartridges .50 linked (2 × AP M2, 2 × INC M1, 1 × TR M1), Aircraft (AC) grade, 105 linked rounds in metal M2 ammo box, 2 × M2 ammo boxes per wooden crate. Volume: 0.93 Cubic Feet.
T1ICR = 210 cartridges .50 linked (2 × AP M2, 2 × INC M1, 1 × TR M1), Machinegun (MG) grade, 105 linked rounds in metal M2 ammo box, 2 × M2 ammo boxes per wooden crate. Volume: 0.93 Cubic Feet.
T1ICW = 240 cartridges .50 linked (AP M2), in 60-round cartons, in metal-lined wooden chest M1917. Gross Weight: 95 lbs. Volume: 1.5 cubic feet.
T1IDH = 265 cartridges .50 linked (2 × API M8, 2 × Incendiary M1, 1 × Tracer M10), in wooden chest M1917. Volume: 1.5 cubic feet.
T1IDO = 110 cartridges .50 linked (2 × AP M2, 2 × INC M1, 1 × TR M1), 55 linked rounds in metal M10 ammo can, 2 × M10 ammo cans per M12 wooden crate. Gross Weight: 42 lbs. Volume: 0.7 cubic feet.
T1IDP = 210 cartridges .50 linked (4 × AP M2, 1 × TR M1), 105 linked rounds in metal M2 ammo box, 2 × M2 ammo boxes per wooden crate. Volume: 0.93 Cubic Feet.
T1IDS = 110 cartridges .50 linked (2 × AP-I M8, 2 × INC M1, 1 TR M10), 55 linked rounds in metal M10 ammo can, 2 × M10 ammo cans per M12 wooden crate. Gross Weight: 44 lbs. Volume: 0.7 cubic feet.
T1IFC = 210 cartridges .50 linked (Ball M1), 105 rounds per metal ammo box M2, 2 × M2 ammo boxes per wooden crate. Volume: 0.93 Cubic Feet.
T1IFW = 210 cartridges .50 linked (4 × Ball M33, 1 × TR M17), 105 rounds per metal ammo box M2, 2 × M2 ammo boxes per wooden crate. Volume: 0.93 Cubic Feet.
T1IGD = 265 cartridges .50 linked (4 × Ball M2, 1 × TR M1), in wooden chest M1917. Volume: 1.5 cubic feet.
T1IGO = 265 cartridges .50 linked (Ball M2) in wooden chest M1917. Gross Weight: 97 lbs. Volume: 1.5 cubic feet.
T1IGR = 240 cartridges .50 linked (Ball M2), in 60-round cartons, in wooden chest M1917. Gross Weight: 93 lbs. Volume: 1.5 cubic feet.
T1IGV = 240 cartridges .50 linked (Ball M2), in 60-round cartons, in wooden chest M1917. Volume: 1.5 cubic feet.
T1IIH = 265 cartridges .50 linked (2 × API M8, 2 × Incendiary M1, 1 × Tracer M10), in wooden chest M1917. Gross Weight: 99 lbs. Volume: 1.5 cubic feet.
T1IIJ = 110 cartridges .50 linked (API M8), 55 linked rounds per carton, 1 carton per M10 ammo can, 2 × M10 ammo cans per M12 wooden crate. Gross Weight: 44 lbs. Volume: 0.7 cubic feet.
T1IIM = 110 cartridges .50 linked (4 × API M8, 1 × INC M1), 55 linked rounds per carton, 1 carton per M10 ammo can, 2 × M10 ammo cans per M12 wooden crate. Gross Weight: 44 lbs. Volume: 0.7 cubic feet.
T1IIN = 265 cartridges .50 linked (2 × API M8, 2 × Incendiary M1, 1 × API-T M20), bulk-packed in wooden chest M1917. Volume: 1.5 cubic feet.
T1IIT = 330 cartridges .50 linked (2 × API M8, 2 × Incendiary M1, 1 × API-T M20), in British H.151 metal transit chest. Volume: 1.6 cu. ft. Gross Weight: 130 lbs.
T1IIW = 265 cartridges .50 linked (4 × API M8, 1 × API-T M20), bulk-packed in wooden chest M1917. Gross Weight: 96 lbs. Volume: 1.5 cubic feet.
T1IMM = 110 cartridges .50 linked (4 × Ball M2, 1 × Tracer M1), 55 linked rounds per carton, 1 carton per M10 ammo can, 2 × M10 ammo cans per M12 wooden crate. Volume: 0.7 cubic feet.
T1IMQ = 110 cartridges .50 linked (4 × Ball M2, 1 × Tracer M17), 55 linked rounds per carton, 1 carton per M10 ammo can, 2 × M10 ammo cans per M12 wooden crate. Gross Weight: 44 lbs. Volume: 0.7 cubic feet.
Belted (1948–1958)
TAIGC = 224 cartridges .50 linked (API M8), 112 linked rounds per carton, 1 carton per M21 ammo can, 2 × M21 ammo cans per M23 wooden crate (224 rounds). Gross Weight: 83 lbs. Volume: 1.2 cubic feet.
TAIFW = 210 cartridges .50 linked (4 × Ball M33, 1 × TR M17), 105 linked rounds per carton, 2 cartons per wooden crate. Gross Weight: 80 lbs. Volume: 1.07 Cubic Feet.
Class T1J (Class T1 Defective Ammunition)
Details ammunition that was Class 3 (Unserviceable). All Unserviceable ammunition was to be destroyed but was sometimes used for training.
T1JAA = 265 cartridges .50 linked Tracer M1 (Defective), 1 x 265-round belt in wooden chest M1917.
T1JDA = 265 cartridges .50 linked Tracer M1 (4 Tracer (Defective) : 1 Tracer (Serviceable)); in wooden chest M1917. Gross Weight: 110 lbs. Volume: 1.5 cu.ft. [Note: Not for use for overhead fire. Substitute for Ball ammunition.)
Class T1L (Experimental Ammunition)
T1LAA = 100 cartridges .60 T32 Ball [15.2 x 114mm T17] in cartons, 10 rounds per carton, 10 cartons per wooden chest M1917. Gross Weight: ? lbs. Volume: 1.5 Cubic Feet. Designed for use with the experimental .60-caliber T17 Machine Gun, a reverse-engineered version of the German MG151 cannon chambered for an experimental .60 anti-tank rifle round.
Class T1U (Class T1 Blank Ammunition)
T1UAK = 1480 cartridges .30-06 Blank M1909, in 5-round clips in 20-round cartons, in cardboard boxes (740 rounds), in wooden crate. Gross Weight: 67 lbs. Volume: 1.1 cubic feet.
T1UCC = 150 linked cartridges .50 Blank T-40, in wooden crate.
Class T1V (Class T1 "Dummy" Ammunition)
T1VAE = 960 cartridges .30-06 Dummy M1906, in 5-round clips in 20-round cartons, 12 cartons in metal ammo can M8 (240 rounds), 4 × M8 ammo cans per wooden crate.
T1VGC = 350 cartridges .50 Dummy M2, in 10-round cartons, in wooden chest M1917. Volume: 1.5 Cubic Feet.
Sub-Group T2 (Ammunition for Revolver, Pistol and Submachinegun)
Pistol ammunition came in three grades. Grade 1 was suitable for revolvers and pistols, Grade 2 was suitable for pistols and submachine guns, and Grade 3 was Unsuitable for use.
Class T2A (.45 ACP)
Ammunition with an "S" code letter prefix to its Lot Number was made with steel cases rather than brass. This was a wartime economy measure to conserve copper and zinc. They were made entirely at the Evansville Chrysler and Evansville Chrysler Sunbeam ammunition plants in Evansville, Indiana.
T2AAA = 2,000 Cartridges, .45 ACP Ball M1911, in 20-round Cartons, 100 cartons per metal-lined M1917 Wooden Packing Box (2,000 rounds). Pre-war 20-round packaging. Gross Weight: 110 lbs. Volume: 0.92 Cubic Feet.
T2AAA = 2,000 Cartridges, .45 ACP Ball M1911, in 50-round Cartons, 40 cartons per metal-lined M1917 Wooden Packing Box (2,000 rounds). Changed to 50-round packaging in 1942 to make it quicker to distribute ammunition. Gross Weight: 107 lbs. Volume: 0.92 Cubic Feet.
T2AAD = 1,800 Cartridges, .45 ACP Ball M1911, in 50-round Cartons, 18 cartons per T1 waxed cardboard box (900 rounds), 2 × T1 boxes per T4 packing box (1800 rounds). Created in 1942 to make it easier to open and unpack ammunition. The waterproof wax coating was found to be ineffective and sea salt-air and moisture caused the steel-cased ammunition to corrode. Gross Weight: 92 lbs. Volume: 0.74 Cubic Feet.
T2AAF = 1,200 Cartridges, .45 ACP Ball M1911, in 50-round Cartons, 12 cartons per metal M5 ammo can (600 rounds), 2 × M5 ammo cans per M3 wooden crate (1200 rounds). Created in 1943 to replace the T2AAD crate. Gross Weight: 67 lbs. Volume: 0.644 Cubic Feet.
T2AAM = 1,200 Cartridges, .45 ACP Ball M1911, in 50-round Cartons, 12 cartons per metal M20 ammo can (600 rounds), 2 × M20 ammo cans per M22 wooden crate (1200 rounds). Created in 1948? to replace the T2AAF crate. Gross Weight: 68 lbs. Volume: 0.75 Cubic Feet.
Class T2B (.38 Caliber)
.38 Special was for use in Colt Commando revolvers. The Commando was issued by the US Army to Military Police and Counter-Intelligence Corps personnel. On the home front the Commando was issued to armed security guards at government facilities and factories that were either drawn from the State Guards or were deputized as "auxiliary Military Police". .38 Smith & Wesson was for use in revolvers like the Lend-Lease Smith & Wesson Victory Model and British .38/200 Enfield No. 2 and Webley Mk VI.
Ammunition was civilian market production, used commercial markings (headstamp over caliber), and came in commercial packaging with colored ink printing.
T2BAA = 2,000 Cartridges, .38 Special - Ball (158-grain), in 50-round cartons. 40 cartons per wooden shipping crate with tarpaper lining. Gross Weight: 73 lbs. Volume: 0.57 Cubic Feet.
T2BBA = 2,000 Cartridges, .38 Smith & Wesson - Ball (70-grain), in 50-round cartons. 40 cartons per wooden shipping crate with tarpaper lining. Volume: 0.57 Cubic Feet.
T2BCA = 2,000 Cartridges, .38 Smith & Wesson - Ball (146-grain), in 50-round cartons. 40 cartons per wooden shipping crate with tarpaper lining. Volume: 0.57 Cubic Feet.
T2BDA = 2,000 Cartridges, .38 Special - Ball (148-grain), in 50-round cartons. 40 cartons per wooden shipping crate with tarpaper lining. Volume: 0.57 Cubic Feet.
Class T2C (9-mm Caliber)
T2CAA = 9×19mm Parabellum. wooden shipping crate with tarpaper lining.
Class T2V (Class T2 "Dummy" Ammunition)
T2VAC = 1,200 Cartridges, .45 ACP Dummy M1921, in 50-round Cartons, 12 cartons per M5 ammunition can (600 rounds), 2 × M5 ammo cans per M3 wooden crate. Volume: 0.75 Cubic Feet.
Sub-Group T3 (Shells for Shotgun)
Guard shells (No. 4 Birdshot with a brass base or partial brass case and a paper hull) were used by sentries and military police. Combat shells (00 Buckshot with a partial or full brass case) were used by frontline troops. Sporting shells (No. 6 or No. 8 Birdshot with a brass base and paper hull) were used for competition trap shooting and hunting game. Chilled shot was ammunition manufactured by dropping measured drops of hot lead from the top of a tall structure (called a "shot tower") into a tub of cold water below; it was denser and harder than regular lead shot.
Class T3A (12 Gauge 2.75" Shell)
Note = Shells were also bought in commercial 500-shell wooden packing boxes that only had the manufacturer's markings on them.
T3ABD = 675 Shells, Shotgun, 12 Gauge, No.00 Buckshot, in 25-shell cartons. 27 cartons per M1917 wooden chest. Gross Weight: 98 lbs. Volume: 1.5 cubic feet.
T3ABE = 600 Shells, Shotgun, 12 Gauge, No.00 Buckshot, in 25-shell cartons. 27 cartons per M1917 wooden chest. Gross Weight: 90 lbs. Volume: 1.5 cubic feet.
T3AGA = 500 Shells, Shotgun, 12 Gauge, No.8 Chilled Shot, in 25-shell cartons. 20 cartons per wooden packing box. Gross Weight: 56.5 lbs. Volume: 0.75 cubic feet.
T3AGD = 675 Shells, Shotgun, 12 Gauge, No.8 Chilled Shot, in 25-shell cartons. 27 cartons per M1917 wooden chest. Gross Weight: 94 lbs. Volume: 1.5 cubic feet.
T3AGE = 360 Shells, Shotgun, 12 Gauge, No.8 Chilled Shot, in 5-shell cartons. 24 cartons per M10 metal ammo can (120 shells). 3 × M10 ammo cans per M15 wooden crate. Gross Weight: 55 lbs. Volume: 0.9 Cubic Feet.
T3AUD = 240 Shells, Shotgun, 12 Gauge, No.8 Chilled Shot, Paper Cased, in 5-shell cartons. 24 cartons per M10 metal ammo can (120 shells). 2 × M10 ammo cans per M12 wooden crate.
T3AWD = 360 Shells, Shotgun, 12 Gauge, No. 4 Chilled Shot, in 10-shell cartons, 12 cartons per M10 metal ammo can (120 shells). 3 × M10 ammo cans per M15 wooden crate. Volume: 0.9 Cubic Feet.
Class T3G (.410 Gauge 3" Shell M35)
The M35 was a special .410 Bore shell with a full brass case used in compact survival weapons.
T3GAA = 450 Shells, Shotgun, .410 Gauge M35, No.6 Shot, in 25-shell cartons in waterproof envelopes, 18 cartons per wooden chest. Gross Weight: 31 lbs. Volume: 0.35 cubic feet.
Sub-Group T4 (Miscellaneous service components of small arms ammunition, and instruction material for field service account)
Sub-Group T5 (Shipping and packaging containers and materials, including such items as Bandoleers, Belts, Clips, Links, and odds and ends for small arms ammunition)
Sub-Group T6 (Ammunition for obsolete and non-standard small arms)
Class T6L (.300 Holland & Holland Magnum)
Used in Winchester Model 70 Bull Gun rifles for long-distance target shooting at Camp Perry matches from 1936 to 1971(?). The original British loading used cordite and had the same muzzle velocity and power as the .30-06 Springfield. American-made Match-grade ammunition was loaded with IMR powder that allowed heavier bullets and higher velocities.
T6LAA = .300 H & H Magnum Ball (180-grain) cartridges (Grade R), 20-round cartons, commercial wooden crate lined with tarpaper. Gross Weight: ? Volume: ?
8mm Lebel Rifle
8 mm Lebel Rifle = 1120 rounds, 8mm Lebel Rifle Ball, in 20-round cartons, 56 cartons per M1917 Wooden Packing Crate. Gross Weight: ? Volume: 1.5 cubic feet.
See also
Standard Nomenclature List US Army (1920s to 1958).
MIL-STD -1168
Federal Stock Number
National Stock Number
GRAU (Glavnoye Raketno-Artilleriyskoye Upravleniye)
References
War Department Ordnance Field Service Bulletin (OFSB) No. 3-14 (Tentative) Ammunition Identification Code (A.I.C.), January 16, 1942.
War Department Ordnance Field Service Bulletin (OFSB) No. 3-14 (3rd edition) Ammunition Identification Code (A.I.C.), July 1, 1943.
War Department Supply Manual ORD-11 SNL Group S (Bombs, Grenades and Pyrotechnics)
War Department Supply Manual ORD-11 SNL Group T (Small Arms Ammunition)
Department of the Army Supply Bulletin SB 9-AMM5 Ammunition Identification Code (AIC)
Department of the Army Supply Manual SM 9-5-1305, Stock List of Current Issue Items, Ammunition and Explosives, AMMUNITION – THROUGH 30 MILLIMETER, Federal Supply Class 1305, April 1958.
U.S. War Department Training Manual TM 9-1900 Small-Arms Ammunition, September 1947.
Dept. of the Army and Air Force Training Manual TM 9-1900 Ammunition, General, June 1956.
Dept. of the Army Training Manual TM 9-1305-200, Small Arms Ammunition, June 1961
Dept. of the Army Training Manual TM 9-1305-201-34P, Small Arms Ammunition to 30 mm – Direct Support & General Support Maintenance Manual, July 1981
Dept. of the Army Training Manual TM 9-1305-201-20P, Small Arms Ammunition to 30 mm – Organizational Maintenance Manual, Oct 1981
Munitions
Military logistics of the United States
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646359
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bc%20%28programming%20language%29
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Bc (programming language)
|
bc, for basic calculator (often referred to as bench calculator), is "an arbitrary-precision calculator language" with syntax similar to the C programming language. bc is typically used as either a mathematical scripting language or as an interactive mathematical shell.
Overview
A typical interactive usage is typing the command bc on a Unix command prompt and entering a mathematical expression, such as , whereupon will be output. While bc can work with arbitrary precision, it actually defaults to zero digits after the decimal point, so the expression yields (results are truncated, not rounded). This can surprise new bc users unaware of this fact. The option to bc sets the default scale (digits after the decimal point) to 20 and adds several additional mathematical functions to the language.
History
bc first appeared in Version 6 Unix in 1975. It was written by Lorinda Cherry of Bell Labs as a front end to dc, an arbitrary-precision calculator written by Robert Morris and Cherry. dc performed arbitrary-precision computations specified in reverse Polish notation. bc provided a conventional programming-language interface to the same capability via a simple compiler (a single yacc source file comprising a few hundred lines of code), which converted a C-like syntax into dc notation and piped the results through dc.
In 1991, POSIX rigorously defined and standardized bc. Three implementations of this standard survive today: The first is the traditional Unix implementation, a front-end to dc, which survives in Unix and Plan 9 systems. The second is the free software GNU bc, first released in 1991 by Philip A. Nelson. The GNU implementation has numerous extensions beyond the POSIX standard and is no longer a front-end to dc (it is a bytecode interpreter). The third is a re-implementation by OpenBSD in 2003.
Implementations
POSIX bc
The POSIX standardized bc language is traditionally written as a program in the dc programming language to provide a higher level of access to the features of the dc language without the complexities of dc's terse syntax.
In this form, the bc language contains single-letter variable, array and function names and most standard arithmetic operators, as well as the familiar control-flow constructs (if(cond)..., while(cond)... and for(init;cond;inc)...) from C. Unlike C, an if clause may not be followed by an else.
Functions are defined using a define keyword, and values are returned from them using a return followed by the return value in parentheses. The auto keyword (optional in C) is used to declare a variable as local to a function.
All numbers and variable contents are arbitrary-precision numbers whose precision (in decimal places) is determined by the global scale variable.
The numeric base of input (in interactive mode), output and program constants may be specified by setting the reserved ibase (input base) and obase (output base) variables.
Output is generated by deliberately not assigning the result of a calculation to a variable.
Comments may be added to bc code by use of the C /* and */ (start and end comment) symbols.
Mathematical operators
Exactly as C
The following POSIX bc operators behave exactly like their C counterparts:
+ - * /
+= -= *= /=
++ -- < >
== != <= >=
( ) [ ] { }
Similar to C
The modulus operators, % and %= behave exactly like their C counterparts only when the global scale variable is set to 0, i.e. all calculations are integer-only. Otherwise the computation is done with the appropriate scale. a%b is defined as a-(a/b)*b. Examples:
$ bc
bc 1.06
Copyright 1991-1994, 1997, 1998, 2000 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
This is free software with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY.
For details type `warranty'.
scale=0; 5%3
2
scale=1; 5%3
.2
scale=20; 5%3
.00000000000000000002
Conflicting with C
The operators
^ ^=
superficially resemble the C bitwise exclusive-or operators, but are in fact the bc integer exponentiation operators.
Of particular note, the use of the ^ operator with negative numbers does not follow the C operator precedence. -2^2 gives the answer of 4 under bc rather than −4.
"Missing" operators relative to C
The bitwise, boolean and conditional operators:
& | ^ && ||
&= |= ^= &&= ||=
<< >>
<<= >>=
?:
are not available in POSIX bc.
Built-in functions
The sqrt() function for calculating square roots is POSIX bc's only built-in mathematical function. Other functions are available in an external standard library.
The scale() function for determining the precision (as with the scale variable) of its argument and the length() function for determining the number of significant decimal digits in its argument are also built-in.
Standard library functions
bc's standard math library (defined with the -l option) contains functions for calculating sine, cosine, arctangent, natural logarithm, the exponential function and the two parameter Bessel function J. Most standard mathematical functions (including the other inverse trigonometric functions) can be constructed using these. See external links for implementations of many other functions.
The -l option changes the scale to 20, so things such as modulo may work unexpectedly. For example, writing bc -l and then the command print 3%2 outputs 0. But writing scale=0 after bc -l and then the command print 3%2 will output 1.
Plan 9 bc
Plan 9 bc is identical to POSIX bc but for an additional print statement.
GNU bc
GNU bc derives from the POSIX standard and includes many enhancements. It is entirely separate from dc-based implementations of the POSIX standard and is instead written in C. Nevertheless, it is fully backwards compatible as all POSIX bc programs will run unmodified as GNU bc programs.
GNU bc variables, arrays and function names may contain more than one character, some more operators have been included from C, and notably, an if clause may be followed by an else.
Output is achieved either by deliberately not assigning a result of a calculation to a variable (the POSIX way) or by using the added print statement.
Furthermore, a read statement allows the interactive input of a number into a running calculation.
In addition to C-style comments, a # character will cause everything after it until the next new-line to be ignored.
The value of the last calculation is always stored within the additional built-in last variable.
Extra operators
The following logical operators are additional to those in POSIX bc:
&& || !
They are available for use in conditional statements (such as within an if statement). Note, however, that there are still no equivalent bitwise or assignment operations.
Functions
All functions available in GNU bc are inherited from POSIX. No further functions are provided as standard with the GNU distribution.
Example code
Since the bc ^ operator only allows an integer power to its right, one of the first functions a bc user might write is a power function with a floating-point exponent. Both of the below assume the standard library has been included:
A "power" function in POSIX bc
/* A function to return the integer part of x */
define i(x) {
auto s
s = scale
scale = 0
x /= 1 /* round x down */
scale = s
return (x)
}
/* Use the fact that x^y == e^(y*log(x)) */
define p(x,y) {
if (y == i(y)) {
return (x ^ y)
}
return ( e( y * l(x) ) )
}
Calculating π to 10000 digits
Calculate pi using the builtin arctangent function, :
$ bc -lq
scale=10000
4*a(1) # The atan of 1 is 45 degrees, which is pi/4 in radians.
# This may take several minutes to calculate.
A translated C function
Because the syntax of bc is similar to that of C, published numerical functions written in C can often be translated into bc quite easily, which immediately provides the arbitrary precision of bc. For example, in the Journal of Statistical Software (July 2004, Volume 11, Issue 5), George Marsaglia published the following C code for the cumulative normal distribution:
double Phi(double x)
{
long double s=x,t=0,b=x,q=x*x,i=1;
while(s!=t)
s=(t=s)+(b*=q/(i+=2));
return .5+s*exp(-.5*q-.91893853320467274178L);
}
With some necessary changes to accommodate bc's different syntax, and realizing that the constant "0.9189..." is actually log(2*PI)/2, this can be translated to the following GNU bc code:
define phi(x) {
auto s,t,b,q,i,const
s=x; t=0; b=x; q=x*x; i=1
while(s!=t)
s=(t=s)+(b*=q/(i+=2))
const=0.5*l(8*a(1)) # 0.91893...
return .5+s*e(-.5*q-const)
}
Using bc in shell scripts
bc can be used non-interactively, with input through a pipe. This is useful inside shell scripts. For example:
$ result=$(echo "scale=2; 5 * 7 /3;" | bc)
$ echo $result
11.66
In contrast, note that the bash shell only performs integer arithmetic, e.g.:
$ result=$((5 * 7 /3))
$ echo $result
11
One can also use the here-string idiom (in bash, ksh, csh):
$ bc -l <<< "5*7/3"
11.66666666666666666666
See also
dc programming language
C programming language
hoc programming language
References
GNU bc manual page
POSIX bc manual page
7th Edition Unix bc manual page
A comp.compilers article on the design and implementation of C-bc
6th Edition Unix bc source code, the first release of bc, from May 1975, compiling bc syntax into dc syntax
GNU bc source code
External links
Dittmer, I. 1993. Error in Unix commands dc and bc for multiple-precision-arithmetic. SIGNUM Newsl. 28, 2 (Apr. 1993), 8–11.
Collection of useful GNU bc functions
GNU bc (and an alpha version) from the Free Software Foundation
bc for Windows from GnuWin32
Gavin Howard bc - another open source implementation of bc by Gavin Howard with GNU and BSD extensions
X-bc - A Graphical User Interface to bc
extensions.bc - contains functions of trigonometry, exponential functions, functions of number theory and some mathematical constants
scientific_constants.bc - contains particle masses, basic constants, such as speed of light in the vacuum and the gravitational constant
Software calculators
Cross-platform free software
Free mathematics software
Numerical programming languages
Standard Unix programs
Unix SUS2008 utilities
Plan 9 commands
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29585559
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elecard
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Elecard
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Elecard is a technology company that provides software products for video and audio encoding, decoding, processing, receiving and transmission.
Its line of products includes commercial and professional encoders and decoders for most video and audio standards, including H.264 video compression.
Elecard, founded in 1988, has its headquarters in Tomsk, Russia, and an office in Foster City, California.
Organizational structure and customers
Group Divisions
Software codecs and SDK’s
End-user software
Professional video analyzers
DVB/IPTV/WebTV servers
Hardware designs for consumer market
Elecard offices
Tomsk (Russia) – Headquarters
Moscow (Russia)
San Francisco (USA)
Notable customers and partners
Intel Corporation
Netflix
Huawei
Cisco Systems
Samsung Electronics Co., Ltd.
ERICSSON
Siemens Schweiz AG
The Walt Disney Company
FranceTV
Aupera Technologies Inc.
Ostankino Telecom
ReadyTV
MTS
Telemedia (PTY) LTD
Telefonica
SIM International
Sisvel
Swisscom
CCMA
Products
Supported formats
Video formats
Audio formats
Multiplexing / Demultiplexing
Awards
According to the results of 2010 MPEG-4 AVC/H.264 Video Codec Comparison carried out through Moscow State University Compression Project, Elecard AVC Encoder demonstrated the fastest encoding speed and high picture quality, ranking 5th (and last among the tested H.264 encoders) in the overall codecs comparison results. However, next year, in the same comparison of 2011, Elecard AVC Encoder made it to the third place behind x264 and DivX Plus HD in the overall rating of software video codecs.
Elecard was recognized as the “Russian Innovation Leader” at the "New Electronics in Russia" forum in 2009.
See also
Comparison of video codecs
Comparison of video editing software
References
Software companies of Russia
Companies established in 1988
Audio codecs
Video codecs
Companies based in Tomsk
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766527
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate%20governance%20of%20information%20technology
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Corporate governance of information technology
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Information technology (IT) governance is a subset discipline of corporate governance, focused on information technology (IT) and its performance and risk management. The interest in IT governance is due to the ongoing need within organizations to focus value creation efforts on an organization's strategic objectives and to better manage the performance of those responsible for creating this value in the best interest of all stakeholders. It has evolved from The Principles of Scientific Management, Total Quality Management and ISO 9001 Quality management system.
Historically, board-level executives deferred key IT decisions to the company's IT management and business leaders. Short-term goals of those responsible for managing IT can be in conflict with the best interests of other stakeholders unless proper oversight is established. IT governance systematically involves everyone: board members, executive management, staff, customers, communities, investors and regulators. An IT Governance framework is used to identify, establish and link the mechanisms to oversee the use of information and related technology to create value and manage the risks associated with using information technology.
Various definitions of IT governance exist. While in the business world the focus has been on managing performance and creating value, in the academic world the focus has been on "specifying the decision rights and an accountability framework to encourage desirable behavior in the use of IT."
The IT Governance Institute's definition is: "... leadership, organizational structures and processes to ensure that the organisation's IT sustains and extends the organisation's strategies and objectives."
AS8015, the Australian Standard for Corporate Governance of Information and Communication Technology (ICT), defines Corporate Governance of ICT as "The system by which the current and future use of ICT is directed and controlled. It involves evaluating and directing the plans for the use of ICT to support the organisation and monitoring this use to achieve plans. It includes the strategy and policies for using ICT within an organisation."
Background
The discipline of information technology governance first emerged in 1993 as a derivative of corporate governance and deals primarily with the connection between an organisation's strategic objectives, business goals and IT management within an organization. It highlights the importance of value creation and accountability for the use of information and related technology and establishes the responsibility of the governing body, rather than the chief information officer or business management.
The primary goals for information and technology (IT) governance are to (1) assure that the use of information and technology generate business value, (2) oversee management's performance and (3) mitigate the risks associated with using information and technology. This can be done through board-level direction, implementing an organizational structure with well-defined accountability for decisions that impact on the successful achievement of strategic objectives and institutionalize good practices through organizing activities in processes with clearly defined process outcomes that can be linked to the organisation's strategic objectives.
Following corporate governance failures in the 1980s, a number of countries established codes of corporate governance in the early 1990s:
Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission (USA)
Cadbury Report (UK)
King Report (South Africa).
As a result of these corporate governance efforts to better govern the leverage of corporate resources, specific attention was given to the role of information and the underpinning technology to support good corporate governance. It was soon recognized that information technology was not only an enabler of corporate governance, but as a resource, it was also a value creator that was in need of better governance.
In Australia, the AS8015 Corporate Governance of ICT was published in January 2005. It was fast-track adopted as ISO/IEC 38500 in May 2008.
IT governance process enforces a direct link of IT resources & process to enterprise goals in line of strategy. There is a strong correlation between maturity curve of IT governance and overall effectiveness of IT.
Problems
IT governance is often confused with IT management, compliance and IT controls. The problem is increased by terms such as "governance, risk and compliance (GRC)" that establish a link between governance and compliance. The primary focus of IT governance is the stewardship of IT resources on behalf of various stakeholders whose ranking is established by the organisation's governing body. A simple way to explain IT governance is: what is to be achieved from the leveraging of IT resources. While IT management is about "planning, organizing, directing and controlling the use of IT resources" (that is, the how), IT governance is about creating value for the stakeholders based on the direction given by those who govern. ISO 38500 has helped clarify IT governance by describing a model to be used by company directors.
While directors are responsible for this stewardship it is not unusual to delegate this responsibility to management (business and IT) who are expected to develop the necessary capability to deliver the performance expected. Whilst managing risk and ensuring compliance are essential components of good governance, the primary focus is on delivering value and managing performance (i.e. "Governance, Value delivery and Performance management" (GVP)).
Frameworks
There are quite a few supporting references that may be useful guides to the implementation of information and technology (IT) governance. Some of them are:
AS8015-2005 Australian Standard for Corporate Governance of Information and Communication Technology. AS8015 was adopted as ISO/IEC 38500 in May 2008
ISO/IEC 38500:2015 Corporate governance of information technology, (very closely based on AS8015-2005) provides a framework for effective governance of IT to assist those at the highest level of organizations to understand and fulfill their legal, regulatory, and ethical obligations in respect of their organizations’ use of IT. ISO/IEC 38500 is applicable to organizations from all sizes, including public and private companies, government entities, and not-for-profit organizations. This standard provides guiding principles for directors of organizations on the effective, efficient, and acceptable use of Information Technology (IT) within their organizations.
COBIT is regarded as the world's leading IT governance and control framework. COBIT provides a reference model of 37 IT processes typically found in an organization. Each process is defined together with process inputs and outputs, key process activities, process objectives, performance measures and a maturity model. ISACA published COBIT2019 in 2019 as a "business framework for the governance and management of enterprise IT". COBIT2019 consolidates replaces COBIT 5, which itself replaced COBIT 4.1, Val IT and Risk IT into a single framework acting as an enterprise framework aligned and interoperable with TOGAF and ITIL.
IGPMM- The Information Governance Process Maturity Model depends on maturing 22 processes that help identify – and improve the management of – information value, cost and risk. CGOC updated the IGPMM in March 2017. The processes reflect the needs of the key information stakeholders, including legal, records information management (RIM), privacy and security, lines of business and IT. The maturation for each business process moves through four stages:
Stage 1: Ad hoc and inconsistent
Stage 2: Siloed and manual
Stage 3: Siloed, consistent and instrumented
Stage 4: Integrated, instrumented and optimized
Other frameworks offer a partial view on IT Management & IT Governance Processes:
CMM - The Capability Maturity Model: focus on software engineering
ITIL - Focus on IT Service management
ISO/IEC 20000 - Focus on IT Service management
ISO/IEC 27001 - Focus on Information Security Management
ISO/IEC 27005 - Focus on Information Security Risk Management
ISO/IEC 29148 and IREB - Focus on Requirement Engineering
ISO/IEC 29119 and ISTQB - Focus on Software Testing
Non-IT specific frameworks of use include:
PRINCE2 and PMBOK - Focus on Project Management
ISO 22301 - Focus on Business Continuity
The Balanced Scorecard (BSC) - method to assess an organization’s performance in many different areas
Six Sigma - Focus on quality assurance
The Open Group Architecture Framework (TOGAF) - methodology to align business and IT, resulting in useful projects and effective governance
Professional certification
Certified in the Governance of Enterprise Information Technology (CGEIT) is a certification created in 2007 by ISACA. It is designed for experienced professionals, who can demonstrate 5 or more years experience, serving in a managing or advisory role focused on the governance and control of IT at an enterprise level. It also requires passing a 4-hour test, designed to evaluate an applicant's understanding of enterprise IT management. The first examination was held in December 2008.
COBIT5 Foundation, COBIT5 Assessor and COBIT5 Implementation are certifications created in 2012 by ISACA.
See also
Computer security
Data governance
Enterprise architecture
Information governance
IT portfolio management
Project governance
Service governance
References
Further reading
Blitstein, Ron, 2012. "IT Governance: Bureaucratic Logjam or Business Enabler", Cutter Consortium.
Brown, Allen E. and Grant, Gerald G. (2005) "Framing the Frameworks: A Review of IT Governance Research," Communications of the Association for Information Systems: Vol. 15, Article 38.
S. De Haes, and W. Van Grembergen, “Exploring the relationship between IT governance practices and business/IT alignment through extreme case analysis in Belgian mid-to-large size financial enterprises”, Journal of Enterprise Information Management, Vol. 22, No. 5, 2009, pp. 615–637.
Georgel F., IT Gouvernance : Maitrise d'un systeme d'information, Dunod, 2004(Ed1) 2006(Ed2), 2009(Ed3), . "Gouvernance, audit et securite des TI", CCH, 2008(Ed1)
Lutchen, M. (2004). Managing IT as a business : a survival guide for CEOs. Hoboken, N.J., J. Wiley.,
Renz, Patrick S. (2007). "Project Governance." Heidelberg, Physica-Verl. (Contributions to Economics)
Van Grembergen, W., Strategies for Information technology Governance, IDEA Group Publishing, 2004,
Van Grembergen, W., and S. De Haes, Enterprise Governance of IT: Achieving Strategic Alignment and Value, Springer, 2009.
Wim Van Grembergen, and S. De Haes, “A Research Journey into Enterprise Governance of IT, Business/IT Alignment and Value Creation”, International Journal of IT/Business Alignment and Governance, Vol. No. 1, 2010, pp. 1–13.
Weill, P. and Ross, J.W. (2004). IT Governance: How Top Performers Manage IT Decision Rights for Superior Results, Boston, MA, Harvard Business School Publishing,
Wilkin, C.L. and Chenhall, R.H. (2010). A Review of IT Governance: A Taxonomy to Inform AIS, Journal of Information Systems, 24 (2), 107–146.
Wood, David J., 2011. "Assessing IT Governance Maturity: The Case of San Marcos, Texas". Applied Research Projects, Texas State University-San Marcos. (This paper applies a modified COBIT framework to a medium sized city.)
Governance
Corporate governance
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15124880
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpiderOak
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SpiderOak
|
SpiderOak is a US-based collaboration tool, online backup and file hosting service that allows users to access, synchronize and share data using a cloud-based server, offered by a company of the same name. Its first offering, its online backup service later branded "SpiderOak ONE", launched in December 2007. SpiderOak is accessible through an app for Windows, Mac and Linux computer platforms, and Android, N900 Maemo and iOS mobile platforms.
According to SpiderOak, the software uses encrypted cloud storage and client-side encryption key creation, so SpiderOak employees cannot access users' information. SpiderOak differentiates itself from its competition by this kind of encryption, in provision for syncing files and folders across multiple devices, and in automatic de-duplication of data.
Some components of SpiderOak are open-source; in 2009, the company announced its intent for the SpiderOak One client's code to be fully open-source in the future. , the SpiderOak One client's source code is only available open-source for mobile platforms, with no current plans to make the desktop client's code open-source. SpiderOak used to provide an open-source password manager named Encryptr, which was discontinued in March 2021. The source code for SpiderOak's group messaging application Semaphor is published to allow auditing.
History
SpiderOak was founded in 2007 by Ethan Oberman and Alan Fairless as an encrypted private backup program. In 2013, SpiderOak began developing the Crypton framework, "a JavaScript framework for building applications where the server doesn't know the contents it's storing on behalf of users." Crypton is an open-source project allowing developers to easily add encryption security to mobile applications. By mid-2014, according to Oberman, SpiderOak had near 1 million users.
As of 2014, SpiderOak was headquartered in Chicago and employed 42 staff, headed by CEO Alan Fairless. Around the same time, the company had offices in Chicago and Kansas City, and was hiring remote employees inside and outside of the US. In 2015, SpiderOak raised $3.5 million in Series A funding, bringing its total funding to around $9 million.
In February 2017, SpiderOak discontinued using the phrase "zero knowledge" to describe their service following public criticism that the phrase conflicted with the mechanism behind cryptographic zero-knowledge proofs. SpiderOak adopted the phrase "no knowledge" for their marketing.
In November 2017, founder Alan Fairless was replaced as CEO by Christopher Skinner, who announced that the company would be expanding into enterprise software, partially funded by a $2 million Series B round.
On August 1, 2018, the warrant canary on SpiderOak's website briefly vanished, followed by some system downtime. It was then replaced by a transparency report. Five days later, the canary was re-signed using GPG encryption. By August 9, Spideroak had also updated their transparency report, making a statement concerning the canary. It is impossible to tell if the change was internally driven or canary was tripped and the company has been compelled by court order to hide the fact.
Main features
All data accessible in one de-duplicated location
Configurable multi-platform synchronization
Preserve all historical versions and deleted files
Share folders in web ShareRooms with RSS notifications
Retrieve files from any internet-connected device
Claimed "no knowledge" data encryption if you only use the desktop client, that is, no sharing, web-access, or mobile access. This claim, however, cannot be confirmed due to the client being closed source
Unlimited devices
A combination of 2048-bit RSA and 256-bit AES
See also
Comparison of file hosting services
Comparison of file synchronization software
Comparison of online backup services
File synchronization
References
External links
Review in Notebookreview
MacLife Editors Choice Article
Review in Linux Magazine
Review in OnlineBackupDeals
SpiderOak Review: Cloud Storage
File hosting
Data synchronization
Cross-platform software
Cloud storage
File hosting for Linux
File hosting for macOS
File hosting for Windows
Companies' terms of service
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14509372
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ProCurve%20Products
|
ProCurve Products
|
HP ProCurve was the name of the networking division of Hewlett-Packard from 1998 to 2010 and associated with the products that it sold. The name of the division was changed to HP Networking in September 2010. Please use HP Networking Products for an actual list of products.
The HP ProCurve division sold network switches, wireless access points, WAN routers, and Access Control Servers/Software under the "HP ProCurve" brand name.
Switching
Core Switches
8212zl Series - (Released September 2007) Core switch offering, 12-module slot chassis with dual fabric modules and options for dual management modules and system support modules for high availability (HA). IPV6-ready, 692 Gbit/s fabric. Up to 48 10GbE ports, 288 Gb ports, or 288 SFPs. Powered by a combination of either 875W or 1500W PSUs, to provide a maximum of 3600W (5400W using additional power supplies) of power for PoE.
Datacenter Switches
6600 Series - (Released February 2009) Datacenter switch offered in five versions. There are four switches with either 24 or 48 Gb ports, with two models featuring four 10GbE SFP ports. There is also a 24 port 10GbE version. All of these feature front to back cooling and removable power supplies.
Interconnect Fabric
8100fl series - Chassis based, 8 or 16 slot bays. Supports up to 16 10GE ports / 160 Gigabit Ethernet Ports / 160 SFPs.
Distribution/Aggregator
6200yl - Stackable switch, Layer 3, with 24 SFP transceiver ports, and the capability of 10GE ports
6400cl series - Stackable switch, Layer 3, with either CX4 10GE ports or X2 10GE ports
6108 - Stackable switch, with 6 Gb ports, and a further 2 Dual Personality Gb ports (either Gb or SFPs)
Managed edge switches
Entry level
2530 and 2620 lines are Aruba/HPE branded and included for comparison purposes only
Mainstream
2920 line is Aruba/HPE branded and included for comparison purposes only
Chassis/Advanced
Web managed switches
1800 series - Fanless 8 or 24 Gb ports. The 1800-24G also has 2 Dual Personality Ports (2 x Gb or SFP). No CLI or SNMP management.
1700 series - Fanless 7 10/100 ports plus 1 Gb or 22 10/100 ports plus 2 Gb. The 1700-24 also has 2 Dual Personality Ports (2 x Gb or SFPs). No CLI or SNMP management.
Unmanaged Switches
2300 series
2124
1400 series
408
Routing
WAN Routers
7000dl - Stackable WAN routers with modules for T1/E1, E1+G.703, ADSL2+, Serial, ISDN, and also IPsec VPN.
German company .vantronix marketed software products until 2009.
Mobility
Due to country laws, ProCurve released different versions of their wireless access points and MultiService Access points.
MultiService Mobility / Access Controllers
The MSM Access and Mobility Controllers support security, roaming and quality of service across MSM Access Points utilising 802.11 a/b/g/n wireless technology.
MSM710 - Supports up to 10 x MSM Access points. Supports up to 100 Guest Users.
MSM730 - Supports up to 40 x MSM Access points. Supports up to 500 Guest Users.
MSM750 - Supports up to 200 x MSM Access points. Supports up to 2000 Guest Users.
MSM760 - Supports 40 x MSM Access Points, plus license support up to 200
MSM765 - Supports 40 x MSM Access Points, plus license support up to 200. This is a module form, and based on the ProCurve ONE.
MultiService Access Points
Most access points are designed to work in controlled mode: a controller manages and provides authentication services for them.
MSM310 - Single 802.11a/b/g radio. Includes 2.4 GHz dipole antennas
MSM310-R - External use. Single 802.11a/b/g radio. Includes 2.4 GHz dipole antennas
MSM313 - Integrated MSM Controller + single radio Access Point
MSM313-R - External Use. Integrated MSM Controller + single radio Access Point
MSM317 - Single 802.11b/g radio, with integrated 4 port switch
MSM320 - Dual radios (802.11a/b/g + 802.11a/b/g) for outdoor deployment options. Includes 2.4 GHz dipole antennas. Supports PoE.
MSM320-R - External use. Dual radios (802.11a/b/g + 802.11a/b/g). Includes 2.4 GHz dipole antennas. Supports PoE.
MSM323 - Integrated MSM Controller + dual radio Access point.
MSM323-R - External Use. Integrated MSM Controller + dual radio Access point.
MSM325 - Dual radios (802.11a/b/g + 802.11a/b/g) including RF security sensor. Requires PoE
MSM335 - Triple radios (802.11a/b/g + 802.11a/b/g + 802.11a/b/g RF security sensor)
MSM410 - Single 802.11 a/b/g/n radio. Requires PoE. Internal antenna only.
MSM422 - Dual-radio 802.11n + 802.11a/b/g.
MSM460 - Dual-Radio 802.11a/b/g/n. Only internal 3x3 MIMO Antenna. Requires PoE.
MSM466 - Same as MSM460 but with external 3x3 MIMO antenna connectors, no internal antenna. Requires PoE.
Centralised wireless
Wireless Edge Services Module - Controls Radio ports, and is an integrated module that fits into ProCurve Switches 5300xl / 5400zl / 8200zl only. Redundant Module available for failover. Supports the following Radio Ports:
RP-210 - Single 802.11b/g radio and integrated antenna
RP-220 - Dual-radio design (one 802.11a and one 802.11b/g); plenum rated; external antennas required
RP-230 - Dual-radio design (one 802.11a and one 802.11b/g); features internal, integrated antennas
Wireless access points
M110 - Single 802.11a/b/g radio
M111 - Wireless Client Bridge including dual band antennas
AP-530 - Wireless access point; Dual radios support simultaneous 802.11a and 802.11b/g transmissions. The AP-530 has two integrated radios (one of which supports 802.11a/b/g; the other of which supports 802.11b/g). The AP supports the Wireless Distribution System.
AP-420 - Wireless access point; Features a single, dual-diversity 802.11b/g radio.
AP-10ag - Wireless access point; Dual radios support simultaneous 802.11a and 802.11b/g transmissions.
Management Software
ProCurve Manager (PCM) is a network management suite for products by ProCurve.
ProCurve Manager
ProCurve Manager comes in two versions; a base version supplied both free of charge with all managed ProCurve Products and also for download, and a "Plus" version that incorporates more advanced functionality and also enables plugin support. There is a 60-day trial version including all modules. Both derive from the trial version and need to be activated via Internet.
The Plus version can also be implemented in HP OpenView Network Node Manager for Windows. The software ProCurve Manager is predominantly for ProCurve products.
Protocols
PCM uses Link Layer Discovery Protocol (LLDP, Cisco Discovery Protocol (CDP) and FDP (Foundry) for detecting network devices
For identification and deep inspection of network devices SNMP V2c or V3 is used.
Network traffic is analysed using RMON and sFlow.
Plugins
IDM (Identity Driven Manager) - Add-on Module for PCM+; contains Intranet Network Access Security using 802.1X; compatible with MicrosoftNetwork Access Protection (NAP) since Version IDM V2.3
NIM (Network Immunity Manager) - Add-On Module for PCM+ v2.2 and above; contains Intranet Intrusion Detection and Network Behavior Anomaly Detection (NBAD) using sFlow
PMM (ProCurve Mobility Manager) - Add-on Module for PCM+; contains Element Management for ProCurve Access Points (420/520/530) starting from Version PMM V1; WESM Modules and Radio Ports are supported since Version PMM V2. Since PMM v3, the MSM Access Points and Controllers are now supported
Security
Network Access Control with Endpoint testing
ProCurve Network Access Controller 800 - Management and Security for Endpoints when they access the Network
Firewall
The Threat Management Services Module is based on the ProCurve ONE Module, and is primarily a firewall with additional Intrusion-prevention system and VPN capabilities
Accessories
External power supplies
ProCurve 600 Redundant external power supply - supports one of six times Redundant Power for series 2600-PWR (not series 2600 w/o PWR), 2610, 2800, 3400cl, 6400cl and 7000dl as well as two times optional External PoE Power for series 2600-PWR, 2610-PWR or mandatory External PoE Power for series 5300 with xl 24-Port 10/100-TX PoE Module only
ProCurve 610 External power supply - supports four times optional External PoE Power for series 2600-PWR, 2610-PWR, or mandatory External PoE Power for series 5300 with xl 24-Port 10/100-TX PoE Module only
ProCurve 620 Redundant/External power supply - supports two times optional External PoE Power for series 3500yl and two times Redundant Power for series 2900, 3500yl and 6200yl
ProCurve Switch zl power supply shelf - supports two times optional External PoE Power for series 5400zl and 8200zl; must be additionally equipped with max. two 875W or 1500W (typical) ProCurve Switch zl power supplies
GBICs and optics
ProCurve have a range of Transceivers, GBICs and 10GbE optics for use within ProCurve devices.Transceivers are used in the unmanaged 2100 & 2300 series, and the managed 2500 series of switchesGBICs are used for most switches for 100 Mbit/s and 1000 Mbit/s fiber connectivity. All fiber GBICs have an LC presentation.
ProCurve ONE
HP ProCurve ONE Services zl Module
The HP ProCurve ONE Services zl Module is an x86-based server module that provides two 10-GbE network links into the switch backplane. Coupled with ProCurve-certified services and applications that can take advantage of the switch-targeted API for better performance, this module creates a virtual appliance within a switch slot to provide solutions for business needs, such as network security. The ProCurve ONE Services zl Module is supported in the following switches:
HP ProCurve Switch 5406zl
HP ProCurve Switch 5412zl
HP ProCurve Switch 8212zl
The following applications have completed, or will complete the ProCurve ONE Integrated certification on the HP ProCurve Services zl Module in early 2009.Data center automation HP ProCurve Data Center Connection Manager ONE Software (Q3 2009)Location Ekahau Real Time Location SystemWireless IPS AirTight Networks SpectraGuard EnterpriseNetwork management InMon Corporation Traffic SentinelVoIP / Unified Communications Aastra 5000 Next Generation IP telephony
Avaya Unified Communications SolutionsVideo distribution VBrick Systems ViPOther - Unsupported'''
Other 'unofficial' methods for loading alternative platform software such as pfSense and VMware's ESXi on to ONE Service'' modules have been discovered.
HP ZL Compute Blade on the Cheap | Tinkeringdadblog
Discontinued Products
1600M - stackable Layer 2 switch
2400M - stackable Layer 2 switch
2424M - stackable Layer 2 switch
4000M - modular Layer 2 switch
8000M - modular Layer 2 switch
9400 - modular Layer 3 Router
AP 520 - Access Point
4100gl - modular Layer 2 switch
2700 series - unmanaged Layer 2 switch
9300m series - modular Layer 3 Router
ProCurve Access Controller Series 700wl
745wl
ACM (Access Control Module) for the 5300xl only
5300xl series - Chassis based, Layer 3, in either 4 or 8 slot bays.
References
External links
HPE Networking website
HP ProCurve Open Network Ecosystem
ProCurve Warranty Policy
Contact ProCurve
ProCurve Products
ProCurve Services
Software Updates
VisioCafe (Home of HP VisioShapes)
ProCurve
Network management
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1516685
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic%20Pro
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Logic Pro
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Logic Pro is a digital audio workstation (DAW) and MIDI sequencer software application for the macOS platform. It was originally created in the early 1990s as Notator Logic, or Logic, by German software developer C-Lab which later went by Emagic. American technology company Apple acquired Emagic in 2002 and renamed Logic to Logic Pro. It is the second most popular DAW – after Ableton Live – according to a survey conducted in 2015.
A consumer-level version based on the same interface and audio engine but with reduced features, called Logic Express, was also available at a reduced cost. Apple's GarageBand comes free with all new Macintosh computers and iOS devices and is another application built on Logic's audio engine. On December 8, 2011, the boxed version of Logic Pro was discontinued, along with Logic Express, and as with all other Apple software for Macs, Logic Pro is now only available through the Mac App Store.
Features
Logic Pro provides software instruments, audio effects and recording facilities for music synthesis. It also supports Apple Loops – royalty-free, professionally recorded instrument loops. Logic Pro and Express once shared many functions and the same interface. Logic Express was limited to two-channel stereo mixdown, while Logic Pro can handle multichannel surround sound. Logic Express only handled up to 255 audio tracks, depending on system performance (CPU and hard disk throughput and seek time), while, as of version 10.4.5, Logic Pro can handle up to 1000. Logic Pro can work with MIDI keyboards and control surfaces for input and processing, and for MIDI output. It features real-time scoring in musical notation, supporting guitar tablature, chord abbreviations and drum notation. Advanced MIDI editing is possible through Logic Pro's MIDI Transform Window, where velocity, pitch, pitch-bends, note length, humanize and precise note positioning are effected.
Software instruments
The software instruments included in Logic Pro X include: Drum Kit Designer, Drum Machine Designer, ES, ES2, EFM1, ES E, ES M, ES P, EVOC 20 PolySynth, Sampler, Quick Sampler, Step Sequencer, Klopfgeist, Retro Synth, Sculpture, Ultrabeat, Vintage B3, Vintage Clav, Vintage Electric Piano. These instruments produce sound in various ways, through subtractive synthesis (ES, ES2, ES E, ES M, ES P, Retro Synth), frequency modulation synthesis (EFM1), wavetable synthesis (ES2, Retro Synth), vocoding (EVOC 20 PolySynth), sampling (Sampler, Quick Sampler, Drum Kit Designer), and component modeling techniques (Ultrabeat, Vintage B3, Vintage Clav, and Vintage Electric Piano, Sculpture). As of version 10.2, Logic Pro X also includes Alchemy, a sample-manipulation synthesizer that was previously developed by Camel Audio. The software instruments are activated by MIDI information that can be input via a MIDI instrument or drawn into the MIDI editor.
Audio effects
Audio effects include amp and guitar pedal emulators, delay effects, distortion effects, dynamics processors, equalization filters, filter effects, imaging processors, metering tools, modulation effects, pitch effects, and reverb effects. Among Logic's reverb plugins is Space Designer, which uses convolution reverb to simulate the acoustics of audio played in different environments, such as rooms of varying size, or emulate the echoes that might be heard on high mountains.
Distributed processing
The application features distributed processing abilities (in 32-bit mode), which can function across an Ethernet LAN. One machine runs the Logic Pro app, while the other machines on the network run the Logic node app. Logic will then offload the effects and synth processing to the other machines on the network. If the network is fast enough (i.e. gigabit Ethernet) this can work in near real-time, depending on buffer settings and CPU loads. This allows users to combine the power of several Macintosh computers to process Logic Pro's built-in software instruments and plug-ins, and 3rd party processing plug-ins. As of version 10.0.7, Logic can access 24 processing threads, which is inline with Apple's flagship 12-core Mac Pro.
History
Creator and Notator
In 1987, C-Lab released Gerhard Lengeling's MIDI sequencer program for the Atari ST platform called Creator. From version 2.0 onwards, released in 1988, a version with added musical notation capabilities was also available, called Notator, made with the help of Chris Adam. A later bundled multitasking utility called Soft Link rebranded the packages as Creator SL and Notator SL.
In the United States, its main rivals at the time included Performer and Vision, whereas in Europe its main rivals were Steinberg's Pro 24 and later Cubase. Most MIDI sequencers presented a song as a linear set of tracks. However, Notator and Vision were pattern-based sequencers: songs were built by recording patterns (which might represent for example Intro, Verse, Chorus, Middle-8, Outro) with up to 16 tracks each, then assembling an Arrangement of these patterns, with up to 4 patterns playing simultaneously at any one time in the song. This more closely resembled working principles of hardware sequencers of the 1970s and 1980s.
When it was released, Notator was widely regarded by both musicians and the music press as one of the most powerful and intuitive sequencing and notation programs available on any platform. After the later introduction of competitor Steinberg's Cubase, however, track-based sequencing prevailed over pattern-based, resulting in the eventual greater integration and hybridization of the two methods in later versions of both Cubase and Logic. As Phil Hartnoll of Orbital said about a later version of Creator, "Cubase is much better for arranging: you can get an overall picture so much easier. They tried, with C-LAB, with that block arrangement, but I do like to be able to see an overview."
Notable users of Creator included Coldcut, Fatboy Slim, The Future Sound of London, LFO, Clint Mansell, Nightmares on Wax, The Orb, Orbital, and System 7.
Logic
The C-Lab programmers left that company to form Emagic, and in 1993 released a new program, Notator Logic, which attempted to fuse both track- and pattern-based operation (but looked much more like track-based sequencers than Notator). While rich in features, early versions of Logic on the Atari lacked the intuitiveness and immediacy of either Cubase or Notator, and never achieved the same success. However, by this time the Atari was becoming obsolete, and part of the reason why Notator Logic had been written from scratch with an object oriented GUI (though it shared the same nomenclature as its predecessor) was to make it easier to port to other platforms. The Notator prefix was dropped from the product name and the software became known as simply Logic.
As later versions of the software became available for Mac OS and Windows platforms, and acquired ever more sophisticated functions (especially in audio processing) to take advantage of increased computing power, Logic, together with the rise of the PC, gained popularity again.
Apple acquired Emagic in July 2002. The announcement included the news that development of the Windows version would no longer continue. This announcement caused controversy in the recording industry with an estimated 70,000 users having invested in the Windows route not wishing to reinvest in a complete new system. Despite much speculation in various Pro Audio forums however, exactly how many users may have abandoned Logic upon its acquisition by Apple, or abandoned the Windows platform for the Mac version, remains unknown, but Apple Pro Apps revenue has steadily increased since Apple's acquisition of Emagic, (roughly $2 billion a year as of Q1 2014).
Versions
Early versions
Logic 5 featured significant improvements in user interface, and increased compatibility with more types of computers, operating systems, and a wide range of audio interfaces. Logic 5.5.1 was the last version to be released for Windows. From Logic 6 onwards, the software would only be exclusively available on Mac OS.
With Logic 6, Emagic added the availability of separately packaged software products that were closely integrated add-ons developed specifically for use with Logic, including software instruments, the EXS sampler and audio processing plug-ins. The Logic 6 package also included the stand-alone program Waveburner, for burning redbook audio CD standard-compliant CDR masters for replication, however, that application was considered a free bonus feature; it was not advertised as part of the package and did not include printed documentation. PDF documentation was included on the installer disc.
In March 2004 Apple released Logic Pro 6, which consolidated over 20 different Emagic products, including all instrument and effect plug-ins, Waveburner Pro (CD Authoring application), and Pro Tools TDM support, into a single product package. Apple also released a scaled down version of Logic called Logic Express, replacing two previous versions that filled that position called Logic Silver and Logic Gold. Apple began promoting Logic Pro as one of its flagship software ‘Pro’ applications for the Macintosh platform.
Logic Pro 7
Logic Pro 7 was released September 29, 2004. Most notably, Apple modified the interface of Logic 7 to look more like a product that was developed by Apple.
Additions to Logic Pro 7 included: the integration of Apple Loops, Distributed Audio Processing (a technology for combining the power of multiple computers on a network), 3 new instruments including Sculpture (a sound modeling synth) and Ultrabeat (a drum synth and sequencer), and 9 new effect plug-ins including Guitar Amp Pro (guitar amp simulator), and a linear phase corrected version of their 6 channel parametric equalizer. In total, Logic Pro 7 now included 70 effect plug-ins and 34 instrument plug-ins.
Pro-Tools TDM compatibility, which had been a feature of Logic since version 3.5, was not supported by Logic 7.2 on Intel-based Mac computers; TDM support returned with the release of Logic 8.
Logic Pro 8
On September 12, 2007, Apple released the Logic Studio suite that included Logic Pro 8. Logic Pro was no longer a separate product, although a limited version Logic Express 8 was released on the same day, and remained a separate product.
Significant changes were made for Logic 8. Logic Pro 8 was now mainly Cocoa code, but still included some Carbon Libraries. Alongside changes such as the new processing plug-in (Delay Designer), Apple included features such as Quick Swipe Comping, similar to Soundtrack Pro 2, and multi-take management.
Apple also made changes to ease of use. These include the discontinuation of the XSKey dongle, and a streamlined interface. Each plug-in used in the channel strip opens in a new window when double-clicked. Many of the features found in Logic 7 have been consolidated into one screen. Other additions to the new interface included consolidated arrange windows, dual channel strips, built in browsers (like that in GarageBand) and production templates.
Logic Pro 9
On July 23, 2009, Logic Pro 9 was announced. A major new feature included "Flex Time", Apple's take on "elastic" audio, which allows audio to be quantized. A version of the pedalboard from GarageBand was included, together with a new virtual guitar amplifier where the modeled components could be combined in different ways. There were also a number of improvements to audio editing, fulfilled user requests such as "bounce in place" and selective track and channel strip import, as well as an expanded content library including one more Jam Pack. Some of the bundled software, including MainStage 2 and Soundtrack Pro 3, was also improved. Logic Pro 9 is Universal Binary, although not officially supported for use on PowerPC computers. SoundDiver, which had been quietly bundled with previous versions, was dropped, eliminating support for arguably the world's most popular synthesizer editor/librarian. As Apple has bundled so many software instruments with Logic, it is not likely that we'll see the return of integration with external synthesizer hardware to the Logic platform.
On January 12, 2010, Apple released Logic Pro 9.1, an Intel only release, thereby officially discontinuing Logic for the PowerPC platform. Logic Pro 9.1 had the option of running in 64-bit mode, which allowed the application to address more memory than in the past. Says Apple "With 64-bit mode, the application memory is not limited to 4GB as with 32-bit applications, so there is essentially no practical limit by today's standards." Third party plug-ins that are 32-bit were still compatible, but would run from a 'wrapper' inside Logic Pro itself.
On December 9, 2011, Apple announced that Logic Pro Studio 9 would no longer be available on DVD, and would only be sold via the Mac App Store. The price was reduced from $499 to $199.99 for the Logic Pro app, and $29.99 for MainStage. The download was just over 400MB, and 19GB of optional loops were available as in-app downloads.
This version of Logic Pro Studio 9 no longer allowed users to access any microtunings in Scala format other than those provided with the software by Apple.
Logic Pro X
Released as successor to Logic Pro 9 on July 16, 2013, Logic Pro X (10.0.0) included a new, single-window customizable interface, with a design in line with Final Cut Pro X, as well as new features. New tools in this release are Drummer, a virtual session player that automatically plays along with your song in a wide variety of drumming styles and techniques, and Flex Pitch, a Flex Time equivalent for pitch editing in audio recordings. Also, a new "Smart Controls" feature allows users to map parameters from an array of plugins to a single, convenient control interface. Redesigned keyboards and synths were included, together with new stomp boxes, bass amp and drum kit designers, and a chord arpeggiator. A completely rebuilt sound and loop library was introduced, along with a new Patch architecture. Logic Pro X also improved track organization by allowing users to group multiple tracks into 'folder' like categories (e.g., acoustics, synthesizers, vocals, percussion, etc.). In addition to this organization, Logic Pro X allowed individuals to trigger 'solo,' 'mute,' and 'volume' controls for each group. Further improvements were made to score editing, exporting (now compatible with MusicXML format), and this version introduced MIDI plug-in compatibility. Coinciding with the release of Logic Pro X was the release of a companion iPad app called Logic Remote, which allows wireless control of Logic Pro X, including Touch Instruments for playing and recording software instruments as well as tools for navigating, making basic edits and mixing.
Since this release, Logic Pro X runs in 64-bit mode only and no longer works with 32-bit plug-ins. Logic Pro X is capable of transferring most data from previous projects saved in Logic Pro 5 and later, though the transfer to 64-bit only means older 32-bit plugins will no longer work.
Logic 10.4 introduced a new reverb called ChromaVerb, and new functionality such as Smart Tempo, as well as the option to undo mixer actions. In addition, version 10.4 introduced support for version 2 of the ARA (Audio Random Access) standard.
10.5 was released in May 2020. It features Live Loops, Sampler, Quick Sampler, Remix FX, new drag-and-drop workflows, Drum Synth, and Step Sequencer. Sampler and Quick Sampler replaced the EXS24 as Logic Pro X's flagship sampling plugin. 10.5 also came with a demo project for Billie Eilish's hit song Ocean Eyes available for all Logic Pro X users to download.
Logic Pro
In November 2020, Logic Pro X was renamed "Logic Pro", coinciding with the release of macOS 11 Big Sur.
In October 2021, Apple released Logic Pro 10.7 coinciding with the release of Apple's new M1 Pro and M1 Max chips for its latest MacBook Pro 2021 lineup. Logic Pro 10.7 supports audio production mixing in Dolby Atmos and surround sound format. This version also included two more demo projects. These were two versions of the original multitrack project of Lil Nas X's "MONTERO," one version in stereo and another in Dolby Atmos.
See also
Logic Studio
Mainstage
Logic Control
Audio Units
Core Audio
Comparison of multitrack recording software
References
External links
MIDI
Digital audio workstation software
Electronic music software
MacOS-only software made by Apple Inc.
MacOS audio editors
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17735107
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tegra
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Tegra
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Tegra is a system on a chip (SoC) series developed by Nvidia for mobile devices such as smartphones, personal digital assistants, and mobile Internet devices. The Tegra integrates an ARM architecture central processing unit (CPU), graphics processing unit (GPU), northbridge, southbridge, and memory controller onto one package. Early Tegra SoCs are designed as efficient multimedia processors. The Tegra-line evolved to emphasize performance for gaming and machine learning applications without sacrificing power efficiency, before taking a drastic shift in direction towards platforms that provide vehicular automation.
History
The Tegra APX 2500 was announced on February 12, 2008. The Tegra 6xx product line was revealed on June 2, 2008, and the APX 2600 was announced in February 2009. The APX chips were designed for smartphones, while the Tegra 600 and 650 chips were intended for smartbooks and mobile Internet devices (MID).
The first product to use the Tegra was Microsoft's Zune HD media player in September 2009, followed by the Samsung M1. Microsoft's Kin was the first cellular phone to use the Tegra; however, the phone did not have an app store, so the Tegra's power did not provide much advantage. In September 2008, Nvidia and Opera Software announced that they would produce a version of the Opera 9.5 browser optimized for the Tegra on Windows Mobile and Windows CE. At Mobile World Congress 2009, Nvidia introduced its port of Google's Android to the Tegra.
On January 7, 2010, Nvidia officially announced and demonstrated its next generation Tegra system-on-a-chip, the Nvidia Tegra 250, at Consumer Electronics Show 2010. Nvidia primarily supports Android on Tegra 2, but booting other ARM-supporting operating systems is possible on devices where the bootloader is accessible. Tegra 2 support for the Ubuntu Linux distribution was also announced on the Nvidia developer forum.
Nvidia announced the first quad-core SoC at the February 2011 Mobile World Congress event in Barcelona. Though the chip was codenamed Kal-El, it is now branded as Tegra 3. Early benchmark results show impressive gains over Tegra 2, and the chip was used in many of the tablets released in the second half of 2011.
In January 2012, Nvidia announced that Audi had selected the Tegra 3 processor for its In-Vehicle Infotainment systems and digital instruments display. The processor will be integrated into Audi's entire line of vehicles worldwide, beginning in 2013. The process is ISO 26262-certified.
In summer of 2012 Tesla Motors began shipping the Model S all electric, high performance sedan, which contains two NVIDIA Tegra 3D Visual Computing Modules (VCM). One VCM powers the 17-inch touchscreen infotainment system, and one drives the 12.3-inch all digital instrument cluster."
In March 2015, Nvidia announced the Tegra X1, the first SoC to have a graphics performance of 1 teraflop. At the announcement event, Nvidia showed off Epic Games' Unreal Engine 4 "Elemental" demo, running on a Tegra X1.
On October 20, 2016, Nvidia announced that Nintendo Switch hybrid home/portable game console will be powered by Tegra hardware. On March 15, 2017, TechInsights revealed the Nintendo Switch is powered by a custom Tegra X1 (model T210), with lower clockspeeds.
Specifications
Tegra APX
Tegra APX 2500
Processor: ARM11 600 MHz MPCore (originally GeForce ULV)
Suffix: APX (formerly CSX)
Memory: NOR or NAND flash, Mobile DDR
Graphics: Image processor (FWVGA 854×480 pixels)
Up to 12 megapixels camera support
LCD controller supports resolutions up to 1280×1024
Storage: IDE for SSD
Video codecs: up to 720p MPEG-4 AVC/H.264 and VC-1 decoding
Includes GeForce ULV support for OpenGL ES 2.0, Direct3D Mobile, and programmable shaders
Output: HDMI, VGA, composite video, S-Video, stereo jack, USB
USB On-The-Go
Tegra APX 2600
Enhanced NAND flash
Video codecs:
720p H.264 Baseline Profile encode or decode
720p VC-1/WMV9 Advanced Profile decode
D-1 MPEG-4 Simple Profile encode or decode
Tegra 6xx
Tegra 600
Targeted for GPS segment and automotive
Processor: ARM11 700 MHz MPCore
Memory: low-power DDR (DDR-333, 166 MHz)
SXGA, HDMI, USB, stereo jack
HD camera 720p
Tegra 650
Targeted for GTX of handheld and notebook
Processor: ARM11 800 MHz MPCore
Low power DDR (DDR-400, 200 MHz)
Less than 1 watt envelope
HD image processing for advanced digital still camera and HD camcorder functions
Display supports 1080p at 24 frame/s, HDMI v1.3, WSXGA+ LCD and CRT, and NTSC/PAL TV output
Direct support for Wi-Fi, disk drives, keyboard, mouse, and other peripherals
A complete board support package (BSP) to enable fast time to market for Windows Mobile-based designs
Tegra 2
The second generation Tegra SoC has a dual-core ARM Cortex-A9 CPU, an ultra low power (ULP) GeForce GPU, a 32-bit memory controller with either LPDDR2-600 or DDR2-667 memory, a 32KB/32KB L1 cache per core and a shared 1MB L2 cache. Tegra 2's Cortex A9 implementation does not include ARM's SIMD extension, NEON. There is a version of the Tegra 2 SoC supporting 3D displays; this SoC uses a higher clocked CPU and GPU.
The Tegra 2 video decoder is largely unchanged from the original Tegra and has limited support for HD formats. The lack of support for high-profile H.264 is particularly troublesome when using online video streaming services.
Common features:
CPU cache: L1: 32 KB instruction + 32 KB data, L2: 1 MB
40 nm semiconductor technology
1 Pixel shaders : Vertex shaders : Texture mapping units : Render output units
Devices
Tegra 3
NVIDIA's Tegra 3 (codenamed "Kal-El") is functionally a SoC with a quad-core ARM Cortex-A9 MPCore CPU, but includes a fifth "companion" core in what Nvidia refers to as a "variable SMP architecture". While all cores are Cortex-A9s, the companion core is manufactured with a low-power silicon process. This core operates transparently to applications and is used to reduce power consumption when processing load is minimal. The main quad-core portion of the CPU powers off in these situations.
Tegra 3 is the first Tegra release to support ARM's SIMD extension, NEON.
The GPU in Tegra 3 is an evolution of the Tegra 2 GPU, with 4 additional pixel shader units and higher clock frequency. It can also output video up to 2560×1600 resolution and supports 1080p MPEG-4 AVC/h.264 40 Mbit/s High-Profile, VC1-AP, and simpler forms of MPEG-4 such as DivX and Xvid.
The Tegra 3 was released on November 9, 2011.
Common features:
CPU cache: L1: 32 KB instruction + 32 KB data, L2: 1 MB
40 nm LPG semiconductor technology by TSMC
1 Pixel shaders : Vertex shaders : Texture mapping units : Render output units
Devices
Tegra 4
The Tegra 4 (codenamed "Wayne") was announced on January 6, 2013 and is a SoC with a quad-core CPU, but includes a fifth low-power Cortex A15 companion core which is invisible to the OS and performs background tasks to save power. This power-saving configuration is referred to as "variable SMP architecture" and operates like the similar configuration in Tegra 3.
The GeForce GPU in Tegra 4 is again an evolution of its predecessors. However, numerous feature additions and efficiency improvements were implemented. The number of processing resources was dramatically increased, and clock rate increased as well. In 3D tests, the Tegra 4 GPU is typically several times faster than that of Tegra 3. Additionally, the Tegra 4 video processor has full support for hardware decoding and encoding of WebM video (up to 1080p 60Mbit/s @ 60fps).
Along with Tegra 4, Nvidia also introduced i500, an optional software modem based on Nvidia's acquisition of Icera, which can be reprogrammed to support new network standards. It supports category 3 (100Mbit/s) LTE but will later be updated to Category 4 (150Mbit/s).
Common features:
CPU cache: L1: 32 KB instruction + 32 KB data, L2: 2 MB
28 nm HPL semiconductor technology
1 Pixel shaders : Vertex shaders : Pixel pipelines (pairs 1x TMU and 1x ROP)
Devices
Tegra 4i
The Tegra 4i (codenamed "Grey") was announced on February 19, 2013. With hardware support for the same audio and video formats, but using Cortex-A9 cores instead of Cortex-A15, the Tegra 4i is a low-power variant of the Tegra 4 and is designed for phones and tablets. Unlike its Tegra 4 counterpart, the Tegra 4i also integrates the Icera i500 LTE/HSPA+ baseband processor onto the same die.
Common features:
28 nm HPM semiconductor technology
CPU cache: L1: 32 KB instruction + 32 KB data, L2: 1 MB
1 Pixel shaders : Vertex shaders : Pixel pipelines (pairs 1x TMU and 1x ROP)
Devices
Tegra K1
Nvidia's Tegra K1 (codenamed "Logan") features ARM Cortex-A15 cores in a 4+1 configuration similar to Tegra 4, or Nvidia's 64-bit Project Denver dual-core processor as well as a Kepler graphics processing unit with support for Direct3D 12, OpenGL ES 3.1, CUDA 6.5, OpenGL 4.4/OpenGL 4.5, and Vulkan. Nvidia claims that it outperforms both the Xbox 360 and the PS3, whilst consuming significantly less power.
Support Adaptive Scalable Texture Compression.
In late April 2014, Nvidia shipped the "Jetson TK1" development board containing a Tegra K1 SoC and running Ubuntu Linux.
Processor:
32-bit variant quad-core ARM Cortex-A15 MPCore R3 + low power companion core
or 64-bit variant with dual-core Project Denver (variant once codenamed "Stark")
GPU consisting of 192 ALUs using Kepler technology
28 nm HPM process
Released in Q2 2014
Power consumption: 8 watts
1 Unified Shaders : Texture mapping units : Render output units
2 ARM Large Physical Page Extension (LPAE) supports 1 TiB (240 bytes). The 8 GiB limitation is part-specific.
Devices
In December 2015, the web page of wccftech.com published an article stating that Tesla is going to use a Tegra K1 based design derived from the template of the Nvidia Visual Computing Module (VCM) for driving the infotainment systems and providing visual driving aid in the respective vehicle models of that time. This news has, as of now, found no similar successor or other clear confirmation later on in any other place on such a combination of a multimedia with an auto pilot system for these vehicle models.
Tegra X1
Released in 2015, Nvidia's Tegra X1 (codenamed "Erista") features four ARM Cortex-A57 cores and four unused ARM Cortex-A53 cores, as well as a Maxwell-based graphics processing unit.
It supports Adaptive Scalable Texture Compression. Contrary to initial belief, Nvidia does not use the eight cores in ARM big.LITTLE configuration. Instead, devices utilizing the Tegra X1 always show themselves as having only four ARM Cortex-A57 cores available. The other four ARM Cortex-A53 cores cannot be accessed by the operating system, are unused in known devices, and have been removed by Nvidia from later versions of technical documentation, implying that a silicon erratum prevents their normal usage.
A revision (codenamed "Mariko") with faster clock speeds, known officially as Tegra X1+ was released in 2019. It's also known as T214 and T210B01.
CPU: ARMv8 ARM Cortex-A57 quad-core (64-bit) + (unused?) ARM Cortex-A53 quad-core (64-bit)
GPU: Maxwell-based 256 core GPU (Jetson Nano: only 128 cores)
MPEG-4 HEVC & VP9 encoding/decoding support (Jetson Nano: encoders are H.265, H.264/Stereo, VP8, JPEG; decoders are H.265, H.264/Stereo, VP8, VP9, VC-1, MPEG-2, JPEG)
TSMC 20 nm process for the Tegra X1, TSMC 16 nm process for the Tegra X1+.
TDP:
T210: 15 W, with average power consumption less than 10 W
Jetson Nano: 10 W (mode 0); mode 1: 5W (only 2 CPU cores @ 918 MHz, GPU @ 640 MHz)
The chip used on the Jetson Nano module is the TM660M-A2
1 Unified Shaders : Texture mapping units : Render output units
Devices
Tegra X2
Nvidia's Tegra X2 (codenamed "Parker") features Nvidia's own custom general-purpose ARMv8-compatible core Denver 2 as well as code-named Pascal graphics processing core with GPGPU support. The chips are made using FinFET process technology using TSMC's 16 nm FinFET+ manufacturing process.
CPU: Nvidia Denver2 ARMv8 (64-bit) dual-core + ARMv8 ARM Cortex-A57 quad-core (64-bit)
RAM: up to 8GB LPDDR4
GPU: Pascal-based, 256 CUDA cores; type: GP10B
TSMC 16 nm, FinFET process
TDP: 7.5–15 W
1 Unified Shaders : Texture mapping units : Render output units (SM count)
Devices
Xavier
The Xavier Tegra SoC, named after the comic book character Professor X, was announced on 28 September 2016, and by March 2019, it had been released. It contains 7 billion transistors and 8 custom ARMv8 cores, a Volta GPU with 512 CUDA cores, an open sourced TPU (Tensor Processing Unit) called DLA (Deep Learning Accelerator). It is able to encode and decode 8K Ultra HD (7680×4320). Users can configure operating modes at 10 W, 15 W, and 30 W TDP as needed and the die size is 350 mm2. Nvidia confirmed the fabrication process to be 12 nm FinFET at CES 2018.
CPU: Nvidia custom Carmel ARMv8.2-A (64-bit), 8 cores 10-wide superscalar
GPU: Volta-based, 512 CUDA cores with 1.4 TFLOPS; type: GV11B
TSMC 12 nm, FinFET process
20 TOPS DL and 160 SPECint @ 20 W; 30 TOPS DL @ 30 W (TOPS DL = Deep Learning Tera-Ops)
20 TOPS DL via the GPU based tensor cores
10 TOPS DL (INT8) via the DLA unit that shall achieve 5 TFLOPS (FP16)
1.6 TOPS in the PVA unit (Programmable Vision Accelerator, for StereoDisparity/OpticalFlow/ImageProcessing)
1.5 GPix/s in the ISP unit (Image Signal Processor, with native full-range HDR and tile processing support)
Video processor for 1.2 GPix/s encoding and 1.8 GPix/s decode including 8k video support
MIPI-CSI-3 with 16 lanes
1 Gbit/s Ethernet
10 Gbit/s Ethernet
1 Unified Shaders : Texture mapping units : Render output units (SM count, Tensor Cores)
Devices
On the Linux Kernel Mailing List, a Tegra194 based development board with type ID "P2972-0000" got reported: The board consists of the P2888 compute module and the P2822 baseboard.
Orin
Nvidia announced the next-gen SoC codename Orin on March 27, 2018 at GPU Technology Conference 2018. It contains 17 billion transistors and 12 Arm Hercules cores and is capable of 200 INT8 TOPs @ 65W.
The Drive AGX Orin board system family was announced on December 18, 2019 at GTC China 2019. Nvidia has sent papers to the press documenting that the known (from Xavier series) clock and voltage scaling on the semiconductors and by pairing multiple such chips a wider range of application can be realized with the thus resulting board concepts. The vehicle company NIO got announced by Nvidia for receiving a 4 Orin chip based board design for use in their cars.
The so far published preliminary specifications for a single semiconductor are:
CPU: 12x Arm Cortex-A78AE (Hercules) ARMv8.2-A (64-bit)
GPU: Ampere-based, 2048 CUDA cores and 64 tensor cores; "with up to 131 Sparse TOPs of INT8 Tensor compute, and up to 4.096 FP32 TFLOPs of CUDA compute."
200 TOPS DL
? TOPS DL (INT8) via the GPU based tensor cores
? TOPS DL (INT8) via the 2xNVDLA 2.0 unit (DLA, Deep Learning Accelerator)
5 TOPS in the PVA v2.0 unit (Programmable Vision Accelerator for Feature Tracking)
? GPix/s in the ISP unit (Image Signal Processor, with native full-range HDR and tile processing support)
Video processor for ? GPix/s encoding and ? GPix/s decode
4x 10 Gbit/s Ethernet
1 Unified Shaders : Texture mapping units : Render output units (SM count, Tensor Cores, GPCs, TPCs)
Devices
Atlan
Nvidia announced the next-gen SoC codename Atlan on April 12, 2021 at GPU Technology Conference 2021.
Functional units known so far are:
Grace Next Generation CPU
Ampere Next Generation GPU
Bluefield DPU (Data Processing Unit)
other Accellerators
Security Engine
Functional Safety Island
On-Chip-Memory
External Memory Interface(s)
High-Speed-IO Interfaces
Models comparison
* VLIW-based Vec4: Pixel shaders + Vertex shaders. Since Kepler, Unified shaders are used.
Software support
FreeBSD
FreeBSD supports a number of different Tegra models and generations, ranging from Tegra K1, to Tegra 210.
Linux
Nvidia distributes proprietary device drivers for Tegra through OEMs and as part of its "Linux for Tegra" (formerly "L4T") development kit. The newer and more powerful devices of the Tegra family are now supported by Nvidia's own Vibrante Linux distribution. Vibrante comes with a larger set of Linux tools plus several Nvidia provided libraries for acceleration in the area of data processing and especially image processing for driving safety and automated driving up to the level of deep learning and neuronal networks that make e.g. heavy use of the CUDA capable accelerator blocks, and via OpenCV can make use of the NEON vector extensions of the ARM cores.
, due to different "business needs" from that of their GeForce line of graphics cards, Nvidia and one of their Embedded Partners, Avionic Design GmbH from Germany, are also working on submitting open-source drivers for Tegra upstream to the mainline Linux kernel.
Nvidia co-founder & CEO laid out the Tegra processor roadmap using Ubuntu Unity in GPU Technology Conference 2013.
By end of 2018 it is evident that Nvidia employees have contributed substantial code parts to make the T186 and T194 models run for HDMI display and audio with the upcoming official Linux kernel 4.21 in about Q1 2019. The affected software modules are the open source Nouveau and the closed source Nvidia graphics drivers along with the Nvidia proprietary CUDA interface.
QNX
The Drive PX2 board was announced with QNX RTOS support at the April 2016 GPU Technology Conference.
Similar platforms
SoCs and platforms with comparable specifications (e.g. audio/video input, output and processing capability, connectivity, programmability, entertainment/embedded/automotive capabilities & certifications, power consumption) are:
See also
Project Denver
Nomadik
XScale
ZiiLABS
References
External links
Official website
Nvidia's Tegra APX website
Nvidia's Tegra FAQ
Tegra X1 Whitepaper
Tegra K1 Whitepaper
Tegra 4 CPU Whitepaper
Tegra 4 GPU Whitepaper
Tegra 3 Whitepaper
Tegra 2 Whitepaper
ARM architecture
Mobile computers
Nvidia hardware
System on a chip
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Semantic%20Turn
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The Semantic Turn
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The semantic turn refers to a paradigm shift in the design of artifacts – industrial, graphic, informational, architectural, and social – from an emphasis on how artifacts ought to function to what they mean to those affected by them – semantics being a concern for meaning. It provides a new foundation for professional design, a detailed design discourse, codifications of proven methods, compelling scientific justifications of its products, and a clear identity for professional designers working within a network of their stakeholders.
The semantic turn suggests a distinction between the technical and user-irrelevant working of artifacts and the human interactions with artifacts, individually, socially, and culturally. Attending to the technical dimension of artifacts, for example, by applied scientists, mechanical or electronic engineers, and experts in economics, production, and marketing, is called technology-centered design. It addresses its subject matter in terms that ordinary users may not understand and applies design criteria users of technology do not care about. Attending to the meanings that users bring to their artifacts, how they use them and talk about them and among various stakeholders, is the domain of human-centered design. For ordinary users, the makeup and technical functioning of artifacts is mere background of what really matters to them.
A prime example for this distinction is the design of personal computers. For most people, the operations inside a computer are incomprehensible, but far from troubling because computers are designed to be experienced primarily through their interfaces. Human-computer interfaces consist of interactively rearrangeable icons, texts, and controls that users can understand in everyday terms and manipulate towards desirable ends. The design of intelligent artifacts suggests that the old adage of “form follows function” is no longer valid – except for the simplest of tools. The semantic turn suggests that human-centered designers’ unique expertise resides in the design of human interfaces with artifacts that are meaningful, easy to use, even enjoyable to experience, be it simple kitchen implements, public service systems, architectural spaces, or information campaigns. Although an automobile should obviously function as a means of transportation, human-centered designers emphasize the experiences of driving, ease of operation, feeling of safety, including the social meanings of driving a particular automobile. As artifacts have to work within many dimensions, human-centered designers must have a sense of and be able to work with all relevant stakeholders addressing different dimensions of the artifact.
The Semantic Turn: a book and its themes
The Semantic Turn is also the title of a book by Klaus Krippendorff, Professor of Communication at the University of Pennsylvania, cybernetician, degreed designer, and researcher who has published much to advance the science for design. The subtitle of the book, A new Foundation for Design, suggests a redesign of design practices in a human-centered design culture. Krippendorff takes an encompassing view of design, centering it on the meanings that artifacts acquire and what is or should be designers' primary concern.
The Semantic Turn represents an evolution from "Product Semantics" by Krippendorff and Butter, which was defined as "A systematic inquiry into how people attribute meanings to artifacts and interact with them accordingly" and "a vocabulary and methodology for designing artifacts in view of the meanings they could acquire for their users and the communities of their stakeholders". While retaining the emphasis on meaning and on the importance of both theory and practice, The Semantic Turn extends the concerns of designers first to the new challenges of design, including the design of ever more intangible artifacts such as services, identities, interfaces, multi-user systems, projects and discourses; and second, to consider the meaning of artifacts in use, in language, in the whole life cycle of the artifact, and in an ecology of artifacts.
Design
For Krippendorff, design "brings forth what would not come naturally (...); proposes realizable artifacts to others (...) must support the lives of ideally large communities (...) and must make sense to most, ideally to all who have a stake on them". Design thus is intimatelly involved with the meaning that stakeholders attribute to artifacts. Designers "consider possible futures (...) evaluate their desirability (...) and create and work out realistic paths from the present towards desirable futures, and propose them to those that can bring a design to fruition". Acknowledging that all design serves others, The Semantic Turn does not treat THE user as statistical fiction, but as knowledgeable stakeholders and necessary partners in human-centered design processes.
Predecessors of human-centeredness
Krippendorff quotes the Greek philosopher Protagoras who is believed to have been the first to express human-centeredness in words by saying that "Man is the measure of all things, of things that are (...) and of things that are not (...)." Krippendorff goes on to cite the color theory of J. W. von Goethe who exposed Isaac Newton’s spectral theory of colors as epistemologically flawed by pointing out that color is the product of the human eye. Color does not exist without it. Krippendorff refers to the Italian philosopher G. Vico for opposing R. Descartes by claiming we humans know what we have constructed, made up, cognitively, materially, or socially, to the biologists J. Uexküll for his species-specific theory of meaning and H. Maturana and F. Varela for developing a biological foundation of cognition, to the psychologist J. J. Gibson for his conception of affordance, which acknowledges that our environment does not account for our perception, it merely affords our sensory-motor coordinations or it does not; and to the anthropological linguist B. L. Whorf for his recognition that our perceptions are correlated with language, its grammar and vocabulary. Most important, Krippendorff allies himself with L. Wittgenstein’s definition of meaning as use, culminating in the axiom that Humans do not see and act on the physical qualities of things, but on what they mean to them.
Meaning
Attributing meaning to something follows from sensing it, and is a prelude to action. " One always acts according to the meaning of whatever one faces " and the consequences of these actions in turn become part of the meanings of what one interacts with. Meanings are always someone's construction and depend on context and culture. The same artifact may invoke different meanings at different times, in different contexts of use, and for different people. To design artifacts for use by others calls on designers to understand the understanding of others, a second order understanding that is fundamentally unlike the understanding of physical things. Since meanings cannot be observed directly, designers need to carefully observe the actions that imply certain meanings; involve themselves in dialog with their stakeholders; and invite them to participate in the design process.
Meaning of artifacts in use
People acquire the meanings of artifacts by their interfacing with them, where meanings become anticipated usabilities. Krippendorff does not limit the concept of interfaces to human computer interactions, however. For him, the concept applies to any artifact one faces. To users, artifacts are perceived as affordances, as the kind of interactions they enable or prohibit. Thus scissors and coffee cups are experienced as interfaces, just as personal computers are. Their physical or computational makeup become background phenomena to use. The meaning of an artifact in use is then " the range of imaginable senses and actions that users have reasons to expect" . Ideal interfaces are self-evident and " intrinsically motivating interactions between users and their artifacts" .
Drawing on Heidegger's explorations of the human use of technology, Krippendorff argues that all artifacts must be designed to afford three stages of use: initial recognition, intermediate exploration, and ideally, unproblematic reliance. The latter is achieved when the artifact is so incorporated into the user's world that it becomes hardly noticed, is taken for granted while looking through it to what is to be accomplished. Recognition involves users' categorizations, how close the artifact is to the ideal type of its kind. Exploration is facilitated by informatives such as state indicators, progress reports, confirmations of actions and readiness, alarm signals, close correlations between actions and their expected effects, maps of possibilities, instructions, error messages, and multi-sensory feedback. Users' intrinsic motivation arises from reliance, the seemingly effortless, unproblematic yet skillful engagement with artifacts free of disruptions. A well designed interface enables unambiguous recognition, effective exploration, and leads to enjoyable reliance. To accomplish these transitions, human-centered designers need to involve second-order understanding of users' cognitive models, cultural habits, and competencies.
Typically, users approach their artifacts with very different competencies. The Semantic Turn offers the possibility of accommodating these differences by allowing the design of several semantic layers. For example, contemporary Xerox machines exhibit one layer for making copies, another for clearing paper jams, a third for replacing defective parts by trained service personnel, and a fourth is reserved for the factory repair of replaced components.
Meaning of artifacts in language
"The fate of all artifacts is decided in language" , says Krippendorff. Indeed, designers must pay attention to the narratives in which an artifact appears as soon as it enters the conversations among stakeholders, bystanders, critics, and users, to the names that categorize the artifact as being of one kind or another, and to the adjectives that direct perception to particular qualities (is it a fast car? a clumsy cell phone? a high class dress?). Such characterizations can make or break an artifact and designers cannot ignore how people talk about them. Krippendorff proposes that artifacts should be designed so that their interfaces are [easily] narratable and fit into social or communicational relationships.
The character of an artifact – the set of adjectives deemed appropriate to it – can be assessed by means of semantic differential scales – seven point scales between polar opposite attributes such as elegant––––graceless; by categorizing free associations elicited from users, whether as first impressions or after extended use; by examining the content of stories people tell about the artifacts for implied judgments; or by pair comparisons of similar artifacts. Such methods give human-centered designers ways to quantify meanings, to work towards defined design criteria, including pursuing quantifiable aesthetic objectives, and justify a design to potential stakeholders.
Language permeates all of human life, including with artifacts. This applies not only to the users of artifacts but also to their designers. The narratives that evolve within design teams determine the direction a design is taking, and might end up convincing stakeholders to go along with a design project or oppose it, well before it is built, and influence designers in turn. What we know of current artifacts, ancient ones, outdated ones, antiques or museum pieces come to us in the form of stories. Designers need to analyse them for, as Krippendorff asserts, " The meanings that artifacts acquire in use are largely framed in language".
Meaning in the lives of artifacts
Here, Krippendorff invites designers to consider artifacts in their whole life cycle. In the case of industrial products, the life cycle might start with an initial idea, then followed by design, engineering, production, sales, use, storage, maintenance and finally retirement, as recycled or as waste. Well, not so "finally;" designers may learn much about a product's performance, unintended uses, unexpected problems, and resulting social consequences, which can serve to improve the design of the next generation of that product – design never ends. In each phase of the life cycle of an artifact, that artifact will have to support diverse but subjectively meaningful interfaces for different communities of stakeholders. In such stakeholder networks, artifacts need to proceed from one to the next: " no artifact can be realized within a culture without being meaningful to those who can move it through its various definitions" .
Meaning in an ecology of artifacts
Dictionaries tend to define ecology as multi-species interaction in a common environment, the species being animals and plants. Humans, however, have created a perhaps greater diversity of species of artifacts than has nature. Krippendorff observes that species of artifacts too are born, grow in size and number, diversify into sub-species, associate with other species, adapt to each other and to their human environment, and either reproduce, evolve, or disappear – just as in nature. Species of artifacts may compete, cooperate or be parasitic on other artifacts. For an example of the latter, consider spam, which thrives in the email ecosystem and could not exist outside it. Whereas species of animals and plants interact with one another in their own terms, species of artifacts are brought into interaction through human agency. People arrange artifacts, like the furniture at home; connect them into networks, like computes in the internet; form large cultural cooperatives, like hospitals full of medical equipment, drugs, and treatments; retire one species in favor of another, like typewriters gave way to personal computers; or change their ecological meanings, like horses, originally used for work and transportation, found an ecological niche in sports.
In an ecology of artifacts, the meaning of one consists of the possible interactions with other artifacts: cooperation, competition (substitution), domination or submission, leading technological development, like computers do right now, supporting the leaders, like the gadgets found in computer stores. Similarly, roads and gas stations follow the development of automobiles and participate in a very large cultural complex, including the design of cities and the distribution of work, and affect nature through depletion of resources, creating waste and CO2 emissions. Clearly, " designers who can handle the ecological meaning of their proposals have a better chance of keeping their designs alive" .
Towards a science for design
In 1969, Nobel laureate Herbert Simon called for a science of the artificial. Natural scientists, he argued, are concerned with what exists, whereas designers are concerned with what should be and how to achieve it. His conception of design was shaped by rational decision theory and early conceptions of computational logic, hence limited largely to technology-centered design. Krippendorff added the following contrasts to Simon’s:
The natural sciences limit themselves to theorizing past regularities from existing data. They do not see scientists as change agents. Any science for design must concern itself with how designers can change existing regularities, overcome contingencies that cause recurring problems, and make a difference in the lives of present stakeholders or future communities. Designers do not produce theories but propose unprecedented artifacts, new practices, and narratives that must be realized in a network of stakeholders, which are actors in their own interest. The science for design cannot be about design or of design, which are pursued from outside the design community. It must provide practical and intellectual support of design by being for or in the service of design activity. In support of change that does not come naturally, it must also provide the conceptualizations needed to hold designers accountable for how their proposals affect future contingencies.
The natural sciences privilege causal explanations, which rule out that their objects can understand how they are conceptualized, theorized, and studied. A science for human-centered design privileges the meanings (conceptions, explanations, and motivations) that knowledgeable users and stakeholders of a design can bring to it. It entails a reflexive kind of understanding unfamiliar in the natural sciences.
As detached observers of their objects, natural scientists can afford to celebrate abstract and general theories. Designers, by contrast, must be concerned with all necessary details of their design. No technology works in the abstract. Even social artifacts need to be understood and enacted by their constituents. A design is always a proposal to other stakeholders who may contribute to a design or oppose its realization. Theories in the natural sciences do not affect what they theorize, but designs must enroll others into what they are proposing, treat them as intelligent agents, or will not come to fruition.
In the natural sciences, research consists of gathering date or objective facts in support of theories about these data. Predictive theories assume the status quo (the continuation) of the phenomena they theorize. In the science for design, research means searching for previously unrecognized variables and proposing realistic paths into desirable futures. Design, to the extent it is innovative, may well break with past theories, overcome popular convictions, and challenge stubborn beliefs in a history-determined future. Fundamentally, past observations can never prove the validity of truly innovative designs.
A science for design makes three contributions to design:
Design research
Generally, research is any inquiry that generates communicable knowledge. Human-centered design research typically involves
Eliciting and analyzing the narratives of problematic uses of artifacts and desirable futures, which motivate or inspire a community of potential users and stakeholders to consider changes in their lives.
Searching for and evaluating examples of common, understandable, and attractive practices, especially from empirical domains other than the intended design, in view of their ability to serve as metaphors for new but immediately recognizable and meaningful interfaces.
Exploring new technologies and materials that could support or improve current and future uses of the artifacts under consideration.
Testing and evaluating alternative designs – recombinations and transformations of available technologies, possible interfaces, and social and ecological consequences – usually in terms relevant to present stakeholders and in lieu of future users.
Inquiring into how a design survives in the ecology of artifacts, what lessons can be learned for future design activities, so called post-design research.
Design methods
Human-centered design methods may aim at:
Systematic expansions of a design space – the possibilities in which a design can take place. This space should embrace and go beyond user and stakeholder expectations, especially including the (apparently) unthinkable. Such methods range from the computer generation of alternatives (combinatorics) to the use of language games during which novel ideas are created, for example by brainstorming.
Focused involvement of users and stakeholders in the design process (in reducing the design space to realistic proposals for meaningful artifacts). There are three known ways:
Acquiring an understanding of users’ and stakeholders’ understanding, so-called second-order understanding, for instance by ethnographic research or focus groups, and making design decisions dependent on that understanding
Involving users and stakeholders in design decisions, for example, participatory design
Delegating design by designing artifacts that either adapt themselves to their users’ and stakeholders’ worlds or can be redesigned by them, in personal computers, for example.
Formalizing successful design practices into reproducible aids that can improve future design practices, both computationally, for example, computer aided design, collaborative software, and rapid prototyping, and prescriptively. Krippendorff describes five prescriptive methods:
(Re)designing the characters of artifacts
Designing interfaces for artifacts in view of their usability and meanings in use
Designing novel artifacts, including services and social practices, from sensible narratives and metaphors
Designing design strategies
Designing dialogical (collaborative) methodologies to involve others in a design process.
Elaborating and refining the design discourse in order to
Improve the reproducibility of knowledge about the design process, by generating retrievable records of past accounts of design processes and publishing pertinent findings
Make the collaboration among designers as well as in interdisciplinary teams more efficient
Inform pertinent design education
Enhance the ability to ask fruitful research questions for which design research may provide conclusive answers
Increase and maintain the reputation of professional design, especially in order for designers to play important roles within the network of its stakeholders. This means applying the science for design to itself.
Validations of semantic claims
In a science for design, validation consists of generating compelling justifications for the claims that designers must make regarding the meaning, virtue, potential reality, costs and benefits of their design for particular communities. Inasmuch as any design can prove itself only in the future, post factum, and with the collaboration of others, human-centered design is justifiable only by means of plausible arguments Issue-Based Information System that motivate its stakeholders to realize or use that design. The science for design, always concerned with not yet observable contingencies, cannot provide the simple truth claims of the kind that natural scientist aspire to for their theories. But it can provide several other human-centered ways to back the claims designers need to make:
Convincing demonstrations and expositions of a design in various contexts of use
Statistical experiments with prototypes, models or visualizations involving users’ ability to make sense of, find appropriate meanings for, and handle a proposed artifact
Appeals to trusted theories or principles of how meanings of artifacts are acquired in use, can be communicated through various channels, or emerge in a diversity of social situations, including in an ecology of other artifacts
Accounts of the systematic application of established design methods that reduced the initial design space to the alternatives being proposed
Affirmed commitments by relevant stakeholders to realize the design.
Reception of "product semantics" and The Semantic Turn
Since its coinage in 1984, the use of “product semantics” has mushroomed. In 2009, a Google search identified over 18,000 documents referring to it. However, it has been critiqued by advocates of a more critical approach to design as overly simplistic.
The semantics of artifacts has become of central importance in courses taught at leading design departments of many universities all over the world, among them at the Arizona State University; the Cranbrook Academy of Arts; The Ohio State University; the Savannah College of Art and Design; the University of the Arts in Philadelphia, USA; the Hochschule fűr Gestaltung Offenbach in Germany; the Hongik University in Seoul, Korea; the Indian Institute of Technology in Mumbai; the Musashino Art University in Tokyo, Japan; the National Taiwan University of Science and Technology; the University of Art and Design in Helsinki, Finland; and more. It has also permeated other disciplines, notably ergonomics, marketing, cognitive engineering.
Reviews can be found by writers on design theory, design history, corporate strategy, national design policy, design science studies, participatory design, interaction design, human-computer interaction, and cybernetics.
The Semantic Turn has been translated into Japanese and is currently being translated into German.
Notes
Additional references
Archer, Bruce (1995). The Nature of Research. Co-design 2, pp. 6–13, , accessed 2009.10.18.
Bonsiepe, Gui (1996), Interface; Design neu begreifen. Mannheim, Germany: Bollmann Verlag.
Krippendorff, Klaus (2006). The Semantic Turn; A New Foundation for Design. Boca Raton, London, New York: Taylor&Francis, CRC Press.
Krippendorff, Klaus (Ed.) et al. (1997). Design in the Age of Information; A Report to the National Science Foundation (NSF). Raleigh, NC: Design Research Laboratory, North Carolina State University. , accessed 2009.10.15.
Krippendorff, Klaus & Butter, Reinhart (Eds.) (1989). Product Semantics. Design Issues 5, 2.
Norman, Donald, A. (2002). The Design of Everyday Things. New York: Basic Books.
Norman, Donald, A. (2005). Emotional Design. New York: Basic Books.
Simon, Herbert A. (1969/2001). The Sciences of the Artificial, 3rd Edition. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Steffen, Dagmar (2000). Design als Produktsprache. Frankfurt/Main: Verlag form.
Tahkokallio, Päivi & Vihma, Susann (Eds.) (1995). Design – Pleasure or Responsibility? Helsinki: University of Art and Design.
Väkevä, Seppo (Ed.) (1990). Product Semantics '89. Helsinki: University of Art and Design.
Vihma, Susann (Ed.) (1990). Semantic Visions in Design. Helsinki: University of Art and Design.
Design
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20minerals%20recognized%20by%20the%20International%20Mineralogical%20Association%20%28B%29
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List of minerals recognized by the International Mineralogical Association (B)
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B
Ba
Babánekite (vivianite: IMA2012-007) 8.CE. [no] [no] (IUPAC: tricopper diarsenate octahydrate)
Babefphite (IMA1966-003) 8.BA.15 (IUPAC: barium beryllium fluoro phosphate)
Babingtonite (rhodonite: 1824) 9.DK.05
Babkinite (tetradymite: IMA1994-030) 2.GC.40e (Pb2Bi2(S,Se)3)
Backite (tellurium oxysalt: IMA2013-113) 7.A [no] [no] (IUPAC: dilead aluminium chloro tellurium(VI) hexaoxide)
Badakhshanite-(Y) (perettiite: IMA2018-085) 9.E [no] [no]
Badalovite (alluaudite: IMA2016-053) 8.0 [no] [no] ()
Baddeleyite (baddeleyite: 1893) 4.DE.35 (IUPAC: zirconium(IV) dioxide)
Badengzhuite (phosphide: IMA2019-076) 1.0 [no] [no] (IUPAC: titanium phosphide)
Bafertisite (seidozerite, bafertisite: IMA2016 s.p., 1959) 9.BE.55
Baghdadite (wohlerite: IMA1982-075) 9.BE.17 (IUPAC: hexacalcium dizirconium tetraoxo di(heptaoxodisilicate))
Bahariyaite (IMA2020-022) [no] [no]
Bahianite (IMA1974-027) 4.DC.05 (IUPAC: pentaluminium triantimony(V) dihydro tetradecaoxide)
Baileychlore (chlorite: IMA1986-056) 9.EC.55
Bainbridgeite-(YCe) (mckelveyite: IMA2020-065) 5.CC. [no] [no]
Bairdite (IMA2012-061) 8.0 [no] [no]
Bakhchisaraitsevite (IMA1999-005) 8.CH.50 [no] (IUPAC: disodium pentamagnesium tetraphosphate heptahydrate)
Baksanite (tetradymite: IMA1992-042) 2.DC.05 (IUPAC: hexabismuth ditelluride trisulfide)
Balangeroite (IMA1982-002) 9.DH.35
Balestraite (mica: IMA2013-080) 9.E?. [no] [no]
Balićžunićite (IMA2012-098) 7.A [no] [no] (IUPAC: dibismuth oxo disulfate)
Balipholite (carpholite: 1975) 9.DB.05 (IUPAC: lithium barium dimagnesium trialuminium di(hexaoxodisilicate) octahydroxyl)
Balkanite (IMA1971-009) 2.BD.15 (IUPAC: pentasilver nonacopper mercury octasulfide)
Balliranoite (cancrinite: IMA2008-065) 9.FB.05 [no]
Balyakinite (tellurite: IMA1980-001) 4.JK.15 (IUPAC: copper(II) tellurite(IV))
Bambollaite (IMA1965-014) 2.EB.05b ()
Bamfordite (IMA1996-059) 4.FK.05 (IUPAC: iron(III) trihydro dimolybdenum hexaoxide monohydrate)
Banalsite (Y: 1944) 9.FA.60
Bandylite (Y: 1938) 6.AC.35 (IUPAC: copper chloro tetrahydroxyborate)
Bannermanite (IMA1980-010) 4.HF.05
Bannisterite (stilpnomelane: IMA1967-005) 9.EG.75
Baotite (IMA1962 s.p., 1960) 9.CE.15
Barahonaite 8.CH.60
Barahonaite-(Al) (IMA2006-051) 8.CH.60
Barahonaite-(Fe) (IMA2006-052) 8.CH.60
Bararite (fluorosilicate: 1951) 3.CH.10 (IUPAC: diammonium hexafluorosilicate)
Baratovite (baratovite: IMA1974-055) 9.CJ.25
Barberiite (fluoroborate: IMA1993-008) 3.CA.10 (IUPAC: ammonium tetrafluoroborate)
Barbosalite (Y: 1954) 8.BB.40 (IUPAC: iron(II) diiron(III) dihydro diphosphate)
Barentsite (IMA1982-101) 5.BB.05 (IUPAC: heptasodium aluminium tetrafluoro dicarbonate dibicarbonate)
Bariandite (straczekite: IMA1970-043) 4.HE.20
Barićite (vivianite: IMA1975-027) 8.CE.40 (IUPAC: tri(magnesium,iron) diphosphate octahydrate)
Barikaite (sartorite: IMA2012-055) 2.0 [no] [no] (Ag3Pb10(Sb8As11)Σ19S40)
Barioferrite (magnetoplumbite: IMA2009-030) 4.CC.45 [no] [no] (IUPAC: barium dodecairon(III) nonadecaoxide)
Bario-olgite (aphthitalite: IMA2003-002) 8.AC.40
Bario-orthojoaquinite (joaquinite: IMA1979-081) 9.CE.25 (IUPAC: tetrabarium diiron(II) dititanium dioxo octa(trioxosilicate) monohydrate)
Barioperovskite (oxide perovskite: IMA2006-040) 4.CC.30 [no] (IUPAC: barium titanium trioxide)
Bariopharmacoalumite (pharmacosiderite: IMA2010-041) 8.DK.12 [no] (IUPAC: (0.5)barium tetraluminium [tetrahydro triarsenate] tetrahydrate)
Barite
Bariumpharmacosiderite (pharmacosiderite: IMA1994 s.p., 1966 Rd) 8.DK.10 [no] (IUPAC: barium tetrairon(III) [tetrahydro triarsenate] pentahydrate)
Bariosincosite (IMA1998-047) 8.CJ.65 (IUPAC: barium di(oxovanadate) diphosphate tetrahydrate)
Barlowite (claringbullite: IMA2010-020) 3.DA.15 [no] [no] (IUPAC: tetracopper hexahydro bromide fluoride)
Barnesite (hewettite: IMA1967 s.p., 1963) 4.HG.45
Barquillite (stannite: IMA1996-050) 2.KA.10 (IUPAC: dicopper (cadmium,iron) germanide tetrasulfide)
Barrerite (zeolitic tectosilicate: IMA1974-017) 9.GE.15
Barringerite (barringerite: IMA1968-037) 1.BD.10 (IUPAC: di(iron,nickel) phosphide)
BarringtoniteN (Y: 1965) 5.CA.15 (IUPAC: magnesium carbonate dihydrate)
Barroisite [Na-Ca-amphibole: IMA2012 s.p., 1922] 9.DE.20
Barrotite (chalcophyllite: IMA2011-063a) 7.0 [no] [no]
Barrydawsonite-(Y) (pectolite: IMA2014-042) 9.D?. [no] [no]
Barstowite (IMA1989-057) 3.DC.95 (IUPAC: tetralead hexachloro carbonate monohydrate)
Bartelkeite (lawsonite: IMA1979-029) 9.J0.10 (IUPAC: lead iron(II) germanium (heptaoxodigermanate) dihydroxyl monohydrate)
Bartonite (djerfisherite: IMA1977-039) 2.FC.10 (K6Fe20S26S)
Barwoodite (welinite: IMA2017-046) 9.AF. [no] [no]
Barylite (Y: 1876) 9.BB.15 (IUPAC: barium diberyllium heptaoxodisilicate)
Barysilite (Y: 1888) 9.BC.20 (IUPAC: octalead manganese tri(heptaoxodisilicate))
Baryte (baryte: IMA1971 s.p., 1797) 7.AD.35 (IUPAC: barium sulfate)
Barytocalcite (Y: 1824) 5.AB.45 (IUPAC: barium calcium dicarbonate)
Barytolamprophyllite (seidozerite, lamprophyllite: IMA1968 s.p., 1959) 9.BE.25
Bassanite (rhabdophane: 1910) 7.CD.45 (IUPAC: calcium sulfate (0.5)hydrate)
Bassetite (Y: 1915) 8.EB.10 (IUPAC: iron(II) diuranyl diphosphate decawater)
Bassoite (IMA2011-028) 4.0 [no]
Bastnäsite 05.BD.20a (IUPAC: REE fluoro carbonate)
Bastnäsite-(Ce) (IMA1987 s.p., 1841) 5.BD.20a
Bastnäsite-(La) (IMA1966 s.p.) 5.BD.20a
Bastnäsite-(Nd) (IMA2011-062) 5.BD.20a [no]
Bastnäsite-(Y) (IMA1987 s.p., 1970) 5.BD.20a
Batagayite (IMA2017-002) 8.0 [no] [no]
Batievaite-(Y) (seidozerite, rinkite: IMA2015-016) 9.B?. [no]
Batiferrite (magnetoplumbite: IMA1997-038) 4.CC.45
Batisite (batisite: IMA1962 s.p.) 9.DH.20 (IUPAC: disodium barium dititanium dioxo di(hexaoxodisilicate))
Batisivite (IMA2006-054) 9.BE.95
Baumhauerite (sartorite: 1902) 2.HC.05b (Pb12As16S36)
Baumhauerite IIQ (sartorite: 1959) 2.0 [no] [no]
Baumoite (IMA2017-054) 4.0 [no] [no]
Baumstarkite (aramayoite: IMA1999-049) 2.HA.25 (IUPAC: trisilver hexasulfa triantimonide)
Bauranoite (wolsendorfite: IMA1971-052) 4.GB.20 (IUPAC: barium diuranium heptaoxide (4-5)hydrate)
Bavenite (IMA2015 s.p., IMA1962 s.p., 1901) 9.DF.25
Bavsiite (IMA2014-019) 9.0 [no] [no] (IUPAC: dibarium divanadium dioxo [dodecaoxotetrasilicate])
Bayerite (Y: 1928) 4.FE.10 (IUPAC: aluminium trihydroxide)
Bayldonite (Y: 1865) 8.BH.45 (IUPAC: tricopper lead dihydro oxo di(hydroxoarsenate))
Bayleyite (Y: 1951) 5.ED.05 (IUPAC: dimagnesium uranyl tricarbonate octadecahydrate)
Baylissite (IMA1975-024) 5.CB.45 (IUPAC: dipotassium magnesium dicarbonate tetrahydrate)
Bazhenovite (IMA1986-053) 2.FD.50
Bazirite (benitoite: IMA1976-053) 9.CA.05 (IUPAC: barium zirconium nonaoxotrisilicate)
Bazzite (beryl: 1915) 9.CJ.05
Be
Bearsite (IMA1967 s.p., 1962) 8.DA.05 (IUPAC: diberyllium hydro arsenate tetrahydrate)
Bearthite (brackebuschite: IMA1986-050) 8.BG.05 (IUPAC: dicalcium aluminium hydro diphosphate)
Beaverite 07.BC.10 (IUPAC: lead (diiron(III) Metal) hexahydro disulfate)
Beaverite-Cu (alunite, alunite: IMA2007-D, IMA1987 s.p., 1911 Rd) 7.BC.10
Beaverite-Zn (alunite, alunite: IMA2010-086) 7.BC.10 [no]
Bechererite (IMA1994-005) 7.DD.55
Beckettite (sapphirine: IMA2015-001) 4.0 [no] [no] (Ca2V6Al6O20)
Becquerelite (Y: 1922) 4.GB.10 (IUPAC: calcium hexauranyl hexahydro tetraoxide octahydrate)
Bederite (wicksite: IMA1998-007) 8.CF.05 (IUPAC: dicalcium tetramanganese(II) diiron(III) hexaphosphate dihydrate)
Beershevaite (phosphate: IMA2020-095a) [no] [no] (IUPAC: calcium triiron(III) oxotriphosphate)
Béhierite (zircon: IMA1967 s.p., 1961) 6.AC.15 (IUPAC: tantalum borate)
Behoite (cristobalite: IMA1969-031) 4.FA.05a (IUPAC: beryllium dihydroxide)
Běhounekite (IMA2010-046) 7.0 [no] [no] (IUPAC: uranium disulfate tetrawater)
Beidellite (montmorillonite, smectite: 1925) 9.EC.40
Belakovskiite (IMA2013-075) 7.0 [no] (IUPAC: heptasodium uranyl tetrasulfate hydroxosulfate triwater)
Belendorffite (amalgam: IMA1989-024) 1.AD.10 (IUPAC: heptacopper hexamercury amalgam)
Belkovite (IMA1989-053) 9.BE.75
Bellbergite (zeolitic tectosilicate: IMA1990-057) 9.GD.20
Bellidoite (IMA1970-050) 2.BA.20 (IUPAC: dicopper selenide)
Bellingerite (Y: 1940) 4.KC.05 (IUPAC: tricopper hexaiodate dihydrate)
Belloite (IMA1998-054) 3.DA.10b [no] (IUPAC: copper hydro chloride)
Belogubite (chalcanthite: IMA2018-005) 7.0 [no] [no] (IUPAC: copper zinc disulfate decahydrate)
Belomarinaite (aphthitalite: IMA2017-069a) 7.0 [no] [no] (IUPAC: potassium sodium sulfate)
Belousovite (IMA2016-047) 7.0 [no] [no] (IUPAC: potassium zinc chloro sulfate)
Belovite 8.BN.05 (IUPAC: sodium REE tristrontium fluoro triphosphate)
Belovite-(Ce) (apatite: 1954) 8.BN.05
Belovite-(La) (apatite: IMA1995-023) 8.BN.05
BelyankiniteQ (Y: 1950) 4.FM.25
Bementite (IMA1963 s.p., 1888 Rd) 9.EE.05
Benauite (alunite, crandallite: IMA1995-001) 8.BL.10 (IUPAC: strontium triiron(III) hexahydro phosphate hydroxophosphate)
Benavidesite (IMA1980-073) 2.HB.15 (IUPAC: tetralead manganese tetradecasulfa hexaantimonide)
Bendadaite (arthurite: IMA1998-053a) 8.DC.15 [no] (IUPAC: iron(II) diiron(III) dihydro diarsenate tetrahydrate)
Benitoite (benitoite: 1907) 9.CA.05 (IUPAC: barium titanium nonaoxotrisilicate)
Benjaminite (pavonite: IMA1975-003a, 1925 Rd) 2.JA.05e (Ag3Bi7S12)
Benleonardite (pearceite-polybasite: IMA1985-043) 2.LA.50 ()
Bennesherite (melilite: IMA2019-068) 9.B [no] [no] (IUPAC: dibarium iron(II) heptaoxo disilicate)
Benstonite (IMA1967 s.p., 1961) 5.AB.55 (IUPAC: hexabarium hexacalcium magnesium tridecacarbonate)
Bentorite (ettringite: IMA1979-042) 7.DG.15
Benyacarite (IMA1995-002) 8.DH.35
Beraunite (beraunite: 1841) 8.DC.27 (IUPAC: iron(II) pentairon(III) pentahydro tetraphosphate hexahydrate)
Berborite (IMA1967-004) 6.AB.10 (IUPAC: diberyllium hydro borate monohydrate)
Berdesinskiite (berdesinskiite: IMA1980-036) 4.CB.30 (IUPAC: divanadium(III) titanium pentaoxide)
Berezanskite (milarite: IMA1996-041) 9.CM.05 [no]
Bergenite (phosphuranylite: 1959) 8.EC.40
Bergslagite (gadolinite: IMA1983-021) 8.BA.10 (IUPAC: calcium beryllium hydro arsenate)
Berlinite (quartz: 1868) 8.AA.05 (IUPAC: aluminium phosphate)
Bermanite (arthurite: 1936) 8.DC.20 (IUPAC: manganese(II) dimanganese(III) dihydro diphosphate tetrahydrate)
Bernalite (perovskite, söhngeite: IMA1991-032) 4.FC.05 (IUPAC: iron trihydroxide)
Bernardite (IMA1987-052) 2.HD.50 (IUPAC: thallium octasulfa pentarsenide)
Bernarlottiite (IMA2013-133) 2.0 [no] [no] (Pb12(As10Sb6)S36)
Berndtite (melonite: IMA1968 s.p., 1966) 2.EA.20 (IUPAC: tin(IV) sulfide)
Berryite (meneghinite: IMA1965-013) 2.HB.20d (Cu3Ag2Pb3Bi7S16)
Berthierine (serpentine: 1832) 9.ED.15
Berthierite (berthierite: 1827) 2.HA.20 (IUPAC: iron tetrasulfa diantimonide)
Bertossaite (carminite: IMA1965-038) 8.BH.25 (IUPAC: dilithium calcium tetraluminium tetrahydro tetraphosphate)
Bertrandite (Y: 1883) 9.BD.05 (IUPAC: tetraberyllium heptaoxodisilicate dihydroxyl)
Beryl (beryl: 1798) 9.CJ.05
Beryllite (Y: 1954) 9.AE.05 (IUPAC: triberyllium tetraoxosilicate dihydroxyl monohydrate)
Beryllonite (beryllonite: 1888) 8.AA.10 (IUPAC: sodium beryllium phosphate)
Berzelianite (Y: 1832) 2.BA.20 ( (x ≈ 0.12))
Berzeliite (garnet: 1840) 8.AC.25 (IUPAC: (sodium dicalcium) dimagnesium triarsenate)
Beshtauite (IMA2012-051) 7.0 [no] [no] (IUPAC: diammonium uranyl disulfate dihydrate) Note: for beta-domeykite see domeykite-β, for beta-fergusonite series see fergusonite-beta series, for beta-sulfur see sulfur and for beta-roselite see roselite.
(Betafite group (), pyrochlore supergroup )
Betalomonosovite (seidozerite, murmanite: IMA2014-J) 9.B?. [no] [no]
Betekhtinite (Y: 1955) 2.BE.05 ()
Betpakdalite 8.DM.15
Betpakdalite-CaCa (IMA1967 s.p., 1961 Rd) 8.DM.15
Betpakdalite-CaMg (IMA2011-034) 8.DM.15 [no] [no]
Betpakdalite-FeFe (IMA2017-011) 8.DM.15 [no] [no]
Betpakdalite-NaCa (IMA1971-057) 8.DM.15
Betpakdalite-NaNa (IMA2011-078) 8.DM.15 [no] [no]
Bettertonite (IMA2014-074) 8.0 [no] [no] (IUPAC: hexaluminium nonahydro triarsenate pentawater undecahydrate)
Betzite (cancrinite: IMA2021-037) [no] [no]
Beudantite (alunite, beudantite: IMA1987 s.p., 1826 Rd) 8.BL.05 (IUPAC: palladium triiron(III) hexahydro arsenate sulfate)
Beusite 8.AB.20 (IUPAC: M2+ dimanganese(II) diphosphate)
Beusite (graftonite: IMA1968-012) 8.AB.20
Beusite-(Ca) (graftonite: IMA2017-051) 8.AB.20 [no] [no]
Beyerite (bismutite: 1943) 5.BE.35 (IUPAC: calcium dibismuth dioxo dicarbonate)
Bezsmertnovite (IMA1979-014) 2.BA.80 ()
Bi – Bo
Biachellaite (cancrinite: IMA2007-044) 8.FB.05 [no]
Biagioniite (sulfosalt: IMA2019-120) 2.0 [no] [no] (IUPAC: dithallium disulfa antimonide)
Bianchiniite (IMA2019-022) 4.0 [no] [no] (IUPAC: dibarium (titanium vanadium) oxofluoro di(pentaoxodiarsenate))
Bianchite (hexahydrite: 1930) 7.CB.25 (IUPAC: zinc sulfate hexahydrate)
Bicapite (polyoxometalate: IMA2018-048) 8.0 [no] [no]
Bicchulite (sodalite: IMA1973-006) 9.FB.10
Bideauxite (IMA1969-038) 3.DB.25 (IUPAC: silver dilead difluoride trichloride)
Bieberite (melanterite: 1845) 7.CB.35 (IUPAC: cobalt sulfate heptahydrate)
Biehlite (IMA1999-019a) 4.DB.60 (IUPAC: di((antimony,arsenic) oxide) molybdate)
Bigcreekite (IMA1999-015) 9.DF.30 [no] (IUPAC: barium pentaoxo disilicate tetrahydrate)
Bijvoetite-(Y) (IMA1981-035) 5.EB.20
Bikitaite (zeolitic tectosilicate: IMA1997 s.p., 1957) 9.GD.55 (IUPAC: lithium hexaoxo aluminodisilicate monohydrate)
Bilibinskite (IMA1977-024) 2.BA.80 (IUPAC: lead trigold dicopper ditelluride)
Bílinite (halotrichite: 1914) 7.CB.85 (IUPAC: iron(II) diiron(III) tetrasulfate docosahydrate)
Billietite (Y: 1947) 4.GB.10 (IUPAC: barium hexauranyl hexahydro tetraoxide octahydrate)
Billingsleyite (IMA1967-012) 2.KB.05 (IUPAC: heptasilver hexasulfa arsenide)
Billwiseite (IMA2010-053) 4.0 [no] (IUPAC: pentaantimony(III) triniobium tungsten octadecaoxide)
Bimbowrieite (dufrénite: IMA2020-006) 8.0 [no] [no]
BindheimiteQ (pyrochlore: IMA2013 s.p., IMA2010 s.p., 1800) 4.DH.20 Note: possibly oxyplumboroméite.
(Biotite, mica series (Y: 1963) 9.EC. )
Biphosphammite (biphosphammite: 1870) 8.AD.15 (IUPAC: ammonium dihydrogen phosphate)
Biraite-(Ce) (IMA2003-037) 9.BE.90 (IUPAC: dicerium iron(II) heptaoxydisilicate carbonate)
Birchite (IMA2006-048) 8.DB.70 [no] (IUPAC: dicadmium dicopper diphosphate sulfate pentahydrate)
Biringuccite (IMA1967 s.p., 1961) 6.EC.05 (IUPAC: disodium octaoxo hydro pentaborate monohydrate)
Birnessite (Y: 1956) 4.FL.45
BiruniteQ (ettringite: 1957) 7.0 [no] [no]
Bischofite (Y: 1877) 3.BB.15 (IUPAC: magnesium dichloride hexahydrate)
Bismite (Y: 1868) 4.CB.60 (IUPAC: dibismuth trioxide)
Bismoclite (matlockite: 1935) 3.DC.25 (IUPAC: bismuth oxychloride)
Bismuth (arsenic: 1546) 1.CA.05
Bismuthinite (stibnite: 1832) 2.DB.05 (IUPAC: dibismuth trisulfide)
Bismutite (bismutite: 1841) 5.BE.25 (IUPAC: dibismuth dioxo carbonate)
Bismutocolumbite (cervantite: IMA1991-003) 4.DE.30 (IUPAC: bismuth niobium tetraoxide)
Bismutoferrite (kaolinite: 1871) 9.ED.25 (IUPAC: diiron(III) bismuth di(tetraoxosilicate) hydroxyl)
Bismutohauchecornite (hauchecornite: IMA1978-F) 2.BB.10 (IUPAC: nonanickel dibismuth octasulfide)
BismutostibiconiteQ (pyrochlore: IMA2013 s.p., IMA2010 s.p., IMA1981-065, 1983) 4.DH.20 Note: possibly bismutoroméite.
Bismutotantalite (cervantite: 1929) 4.DE.30 (IUPAC: bismuth tantalum tetraoxide)
Bitikleite (garnet: IMA2009-052) 4.0 [no] [no] (IUPAC: tricalcium (tin antimony) tri(aluminium tetraoxide))
Bityite (mica: IMA1998 s.p., 1908) 9.EC.35
Bixbyite (bixbyite) 4.CB.10
Bixbyite-(Fe) (bixbyite: IMA21-H) 4.CB.10 [no] [no]
Bixbyite-(Mn) (bixbyite: IMA21-H, 1897) 4.CB.10 (IUPAC: dimanganese(III) trioxide)
Bjarebyite (bjarebyite: IMA1972-022) 8.BH.20 (IUPAC: barium dimanganese(II) dialuminium trihydro triphosphate)
BlakeiteQ (tellurite: 1941) 4.JM.10 [no] [no]
Blatonite (IMA1997-025) 5.EB.10 (IUPAC: uranyl carbonate monohydrate)
Blatterite (Y: IMA1984-038) 6.AB.40
Bleasdaleite (IMA1998-003a) 8.DK.25
Blixite (IMA1962 s.p., 1958) 3.DC.50 (IUPAC: octalead pentaoxo dihydro tetrachloride)
Blödite (IMA1982 s.p., 1821) 7.CC.50 (IUPAC: disodium magnesium disulfate tetrahydrate)
Blossite (IMA1986-002) 8.FA.05 (IUPAC: dicopper heptaoxodivanadate(V))
Bluebellite (IMA2013-121) 4.0 [no] [no] (IUPAC: hexacopper chloro decahydro iodate)
Bluelizardite (IMA2013-062) 7.0 [no] (IUPAC: heptasodium uranyl chloro tetrasulfate diwater)
Bluestreakite (IMA2014-047) 4.0 [no] [no]
Bobcookite (IMA2014-030) 7.0 [no] [no] (IUPAC: sodium aluminium diuranyl tetrasulfate octadecahydrate)
Bobfergusonite (alluaudite, bobfergusonite: IMA1984-072a) 8.AC.15 ()
Bobfinchite (schoepite: IMA2020-082) [no] [no]
Bobierrite (vivianite: 1868) 8.CE.35 (IUPAC: trimagnesium diphosphate octahydrate)
Bobjonesite (IMA2000-045) 7.DB.25 [no] (IUPAC: vanadium(IV) oxosulfate trihydrate)
Bobkingite (IMA2000-029) 3.DA.50 [no] (IUPAC: pentacopper octahydro dichloride dihydrate)
Bobmeyerite (cerchiaraite: IMA2012-019) 9.C?. [no] [no]
Bobshannonite (seidozerite, bafertisite: IMA2014-052) 9.B?. [no] [no]
Bobtraillite (IMA2001-041) 9.CA.30
Bodieite (IMA2017-117) 4.0 [no] [no] (IUPAC: dibismuth(III) ditellurite(IV) sulfate)
Bogdanovite (auricupride: IMA1978-019) 2.BA.80 ()
Bøggildite (Y: 1951) 3.CG.20 (IUPAC: disodium distrontium phosphate dialumino nonafluoride)
Boggsite (zeolitic tectosilicate: IMA1989-009) 9.GC.30
Bøgvadite (IMA1987-029) 3.CF.15 (IUPAC: disodium dibarium strontium tetralumino icosafluoride)
Bohdanowiczite (IMA1978-C, 1967) 2.JA.20 (IUPAC: silver bismuth diselenide)
Böhmite (lepidocrocite: 1927) 4.FE.15 (IUPAC: hydroaluminium oxide)
Bohseite (bavenite: IMA2014-H, IMA2010-026) 9.D?. [no] [no]
Bohuslavite (IMA2018-074a) 8.0 [no] [no]
Bokite (straczekite: IMA1967 s.p., 1963) 4.HE.20
Bojarite (IMA2020-037) [no] [no]
Boleite (Y: 1891) 3.DB.15 (KAg9Pb26Cu24Cl62(OH)48)
BolivariteQ (Y: 1921) 8.DF.10 [no] Note: possibly a variety of evansite.
Boltwoodite (Y: 1956) 9.AK.15 (IUPAC: (kalium,sodium) uranyl hydroxosilicate (1.5)hydrate)
Bonaccordite (ludwigite: IMA1974-019) 6.AB.30 (IUPAC: dinickel iron(III) dioxoborate)
Bonacinaite (phosphosiderite: IMA2018-056) 8.0 [no] [no] (IUPAC: scandium arsenate dihydrate)
Bonattite (Y: 1957) 7.CB.10 (IUPAC: copper sulfate trihydrate)
Bonazziite (IMA2013-141) 2.FA. [no] [no] (IUPAC: tetrarsenic tetrasulfide)
Bonshtedtite (bradleyite: IMA1981-026a) 5.BF.10 (IUPAC: trisodium iron(II) phosphate carbonate)
Boothite (melanterite: 1903) 7.CB.35 (IUPAC: copper sulfate heptahydrate)
Boracite (boracite: 1789) 6.GA.05 (IUPAC: trimagnesium chloro tridecaoxo heptaborate)
Boralsilite (IMA1996-029) 9.BD.30 [no]
Borax (Y: old) 6.DA.10 (IUPAC: disodium tetrahydro pentaoxotetraborate octahydrate)
Borcarite (IMA1968 s.p., 1965) 6.DA.40
Borisenkoite (lammerite-beta: IMA2015-113) 8.AB. [no] [no] ()
Borishanskiite (IMA1974-010) 2.AC.45c (), (x = 0.0-0.2))
Bornemanite (seidozerite, lamprophyllite: IMA1973-053) 9.BE.50
Bornhardtite (spinel, linnaeite: 1955) 2.DA.05 ()
Bornite (IMA1962 s.p., 1725) 2.BA.15 (IUPAC: pentacopper iron tetrasulfide)
Borocookeite (chlorite: IMA2000-013) 9.EC.55 [no]
Borodaevite (IMA1991-037) 2.JA.05g
Boromullite (IMA2007-021) 9.AF.23 ()
Boromuscovite (mica: IMA1989-027) 9.EC.15
Borovskite (IMA1972-032) 2.LA.60 (IUPAC: tripalladium antimonide tetratelluride)
Bortnikovite (alloy: IMA2006-027) 1.AG.65 (IUPAC: tetrapalladium tricopper zinc alloy)
Bortolanite (seidozerite: IMA2021-040a) [no] [no]
Boscardinite (sartorite: IMA2010-079) 2.0 [no] (TlPb4(Sb7As2)Σ=9S18)
Bosiite (tourmaline: IMA2014-094) 9.CK. [no] [no]
Bosoite (organic zeolite: IMA2014-023) 10.0 [no] [no]
Bostwickite (IMA1982-073) 9.HC.10
Botallackite (atacamite: 1865) 3.DA.10b (IUPAC: dicopper trihydro chloride)
Botryogen (botryogen: 1815) 7.DC.25 (IUPAC: magnesium iron(III) hydro disulfate heptahydrate)
Bottinoite (IMA1991-029) 4.FH.05 (IUPAC: nickel diantimony(V) dodecahydroxide hexahydrate)
Botuobinskite (crichtonite: IMA2018-143a) [no] [no]
Bouazzerite (IMA2005-042) 8.DH.60 [no]
Boulangerite (Y: 1837) 2.HC.15 (IUPAC: pentalead undecasulfa tetraantimonide)
Bournonite (bournonite: 1805) 2.GA.50 (IUPAC: copper lead trisulfa antimonide)
Bouškaite (IMA2018-055a) 7.0 [no] [no] ()
Boussingaultite (picromerite: 1864) 7.CC.60 (IUPAC: diammonium magnesium disulfate hexahydrate)
Bowieite (bowieite: IMA1980-022) 2.DB.15 (IUPAC: dirhodium trisulfide)
Bowlesite (cobaltite: IMA2019-079) 2.0 [no] [no] (IUPAC: platinum sulfa stannide)
Boyleite (starkeyite: IMA1977-026) 7.CB.15 (IUPAC: zinc sulfate tetrahydrate)
Br – By
Braccoite (saneroite: IMA2013-093) 9.0 [no] [no]
Bracewellite ("O(OH)" group: IMA1967-035) 4.FD.10 (IUPAC: hydrochromium oxide)
Brackebuschite (brackebuschite: 1880) 8.BG.05 (IUPAC: dilead trimanganese hydro divanadate)
Bradaczekite (alluaudite: IMA2000-002) 8.AC.10 [no] (NaCuCuCu2(AsO4)3)
Bradleyite (bradleyite: 1941) 5.BF.10 (IUPAC: trisodium magnesium phosphate carbonate)
Braggite (Y: 1932) 2.CC.35a (IUPAC: platinum sulfide)
Braithwaiteite (IMA2006-050) 8.DB.75
Braitschite-(Ce) (IMA1967-029) 6.H0.10
(Brammallite, mica series (Y: 1944) 9.EC.25 [no])
Branchite (Y: 1841, IMA2021 s.p.) 10.BA.10
Brandãoite (IMA2017-071a) 8.CA. [no] [no]
Brandholzite (IMA1998-017) 4.FH.05 [no] (IUPAC: magnesium diantimony dodecahydroxide hexahydrate)
Brandtite (roselite: 1888) 8.CG.10 (IUPAC: dicalcium manganese(II) diarsenate dihydrate)
Brannerite (brannerite: IMA1967 s.p., 1920) 4.DH.05 (IUPAC: uranium dititanium hexaoxide)
Brannockite (milarite: IMA1972-029) 9.CM.05
Brassite (IMA1973-047) 8.CE.15 (IUPAC: manganese hydroxoarsenate tetrahydrate)
Brattforsite (IMA2019-127) 4.0 [no] [no] (Mn19As12O36Cl2)
Braunerite (IMA2015-123) 5.0 [no] [no] (IUPAC: dipotassium calcium uranyl tricarbonate hexahydrate)
Braunite (braunite: 1828) 9.AG.05 (IUPAC: manganese(II) hexamanganese(III) octaoxy tetraoxosilicate)
Brazilianite (Y: 1945) 8.BK.05 (IUPAC: sodium trialuminium tetrahydro diphosphate)
Bredigite (Y: 1948) 9.AD.20 (IUPAC: heptacalcium magnesium tetra(tetraoxosilicate)
Breithauptite (nickeline: 1833) 2.CC.05 (IUPAC: nickel antimonide)
Brendelite (IMA1997-001) 8.BM.15
Brenkite (IMA1977-036) 5.BC.05 (IUPAC: dicalcium difluoro carbonate)
Brewsterite 9.GE.20
Brewsterite-Ba (zeolitic tectosilicate: IMA1997 s.p., 1993) 9.GE.20
Brewsterite-Sr (zeolitic tectosilicate: IMA1997 s.p., 1822) 9.GE.20
Breyite (IMA2018-062) 9.0 [no] [no] (IUPAC: tricalcium nonaoxotrisilicate)
Brezinaite (IMA1969-004) 2.DA.15 (IUPAC: trichromium tetrasulfide)
Brianite (aphthitalite: IMA1966-030) 8.AC.30 (IUPAC: disodium calcium magnesium diphosphate)
Brianroulstonite (IMA1996-009) 6.EC.35
Brianyoungite (IMA1991-053) 5.BF.30 (IUPAC: trizinc tetrahydro carbonate)
Briartite (stannite: IMA1965-018) 2.KA.10 (IUPAC: dicopper iron germanium tetrasulfide)
Bridgesite-(Ce) (IMA2019-034) 7.0 [no] [no]
Bridgmanite (perovskite: IMA2014-017) 9.A0. [no] [no] (IUPAC: magnesium trioxosilicate)
Brindleyite (serpentine: IMA1975-009a) 9.ED.15
Brinrobertsite (corrensite: IMA1997-040) 9.EC.60 [no]
Britholite 09.AH.25
Britholite-(Ce) (britholite, apatite: IMA1987 s.p., 1901) 9.AH.25
Britholite-(Y) (britholite, apatite: IMA1966 s.p., 1938) 9.AH.25
Britvinite (molybdophyllite: IMA2006-031) 9.EG.70 [no]
Brizziite (corundum: IMA1993-044) 4.CB.05 (IUPAC: sodium antimonite)
Brochantite (brochantite: IMA1980 s.p., 1824) 7.BB.25 (IUPAC: tetracopper hexahydro sulfate)
Brockite (rhabdophane: IMA1967 s.p., 1962) 8.CJ.45
Brodtkorbite (IMA1999-023) 2.BD.55 (IUPAC: dicopper mercury diselenide)
Bromargyrite (IMA1962 s.p., 1849) 3.AA.15 (IUPAC: silver bromide)
Bromellite (Y: 1925) 4.AB.20 (IUPAC: beryllium(II) oxide)
Brontesite (IMA2008-039) 3.AA. [no] (IUPAC: triammonium lead pentachloride)
Brookite (Y: 1825) 4.DD.10 (IUPAC: titanium dioxide)
Browneite (sphalerite: IMA2012-008) 2.00. [no] [no] (IUPAC: manganese sulfide)
Brownleeite (silicide: IMA2008-011) 1.BB. [no] (IUPAC: manganese silicide)
Brownmillerite (brownmillerite, perovskite: IMA1963-017) 4.AC.10 (IUPAC: dicalcium iron(III) aluminium pentaoxide)
Brucite (brucite: 1818) 4.FE.05 (IUPAC: magnesium dihydroxide)
Brüggenite (IMA1970-040) 4.KC.10 (IUPAC: calcium diiodate monohydrate)
BrugnatelliteQ (hydrotalcite: 1909) 5.DA.45
Brumadoite (tellurium oxysalt: IMA2008-028) 7.C?. (IUPAC: tricopper tetrahydro (tetraoxo tellurium(VI)) pentahydrate)
Brunogeierite (spinel, ulvöspinel: IMA1972-004 Rd) 9.AC.15 (IUPAC: diiron(II) tetraoxogermanate(IV))
Brushite (gypsum: 1865) 8.CJ.50 (IUPAC: calcium hydroxophosphate dihydrate)
Bubnovaite (aphthitalite: IMA2014-108) 7.AD. [no] [no] (IUPAC: dipotassium octasodium calcium hexasulfate)
Buchwaldite (IMA1975-041) 8.AD.25 (IUPAC: sodium calcium phosphate)
Buckhornite (buckhornite: IMA1988-022) 2.HB.20b (IUPAC: (dilead bismuth trisulfide)(gold ditelluride))
Buddingtonite (feldspar: IMA1963-001) 9.FA.30
Bukovite (IMA1970-029) 2.BD.30 (IUPAC: tetracopper dithallium tetraselenide)
Bukovskýite (IMA1967-022) 8.DB.40 (IUPAC: diiron(III) hydro arsenate sulfate heptahydrate)
Bulachite (IMA1982-081) 8.DE.15 (IUPAC: dialuminium trihydro arsenate trihydrate)
Bulgakite (astrophyllite, astrophyllite: IMA2014-041) 9.DC. [no] [no]
Bultfonteinite (spurrite-afwillite: 1932) 9.AG.80
Bunnoite (IMA2014-054) 9.0 [no] [no]
Bunsenite (rocksalt, periclase: 1868) 4.AB.25 (IUPAC: nickel(II) oxide)
Burangaite (dufrenite: IMA1976-013) 8.DK.15 (IUPAC: sodium iron(II) pentaluminium hexahydro tetraphosphate dihydrate)
Burbankite (burbankite: 1953) 5.AC.30
Burckhardtite (IMA1976-052) 9.EC.70
Burgessite (burgessite: IMA2007-055) 8.CB.60 (IUPAC: dicobalt tetrawater di(hydroxoarsenate) water)
Burkeite (Y: 1921) 7.BD.25 (IUPAC: tetrasodium sulfate carbonate)
Burnettite (pyroxene: IMA2013-054) 9.00. [no] [no] (CaVAlSiO6)
Burnsite (IMA2000-050) 4.JG.35
Burovaite-Ca (labuntsovite: IMA2008-001) 9.CE.30c [no]
Burpalite (wohlerite: IMA1988-036) 9.BE.17
Burroite (decavanadate: IMA2016-079) 4.H?. [no] [no]
Burtite (perovskite, schoenfliesite: IMA1980-078) 4.FC.10 (IUPAC: calcium tin(IV) hexahydroxide)
Buryatite (ettringite: IMA2000-021) 7.DG.15 [no]
Buseckite (wurtzite: IMA2011-070) 2.CB.45 [no] [no]
Buserite (IMA1970-024) 4.FL.35 [no] [no] (IUPAC: tetrasodium tetradecamanganese heptacosaoxide henicosahydrate) Note: it dehydrates to birnessite.
Bushmakinite (brackebuschite: IMA2001-031) 8.BG.05 [no]
Bussenite (seidozerite, bafertisite: IMA2000-035) 9.BE.65 [no]
Bussyite 9.EA.
Bussyite-(Ce) (IMA2007-039) 9.EA.80
Bussyite-(Y) (IMA2014-060) 9.EA. [no]
Bustamite (Y: 1826) 9.DG.05
Butianite (nuwaite: IMA2016-028) 2.0 [no] [no]
Butlerite (Y: 1928) 7.DC.10 (IUPAC: iron(III) hydro sulfate dihydrate)
Bütschliite (Y: 1947) 5.AC.15 (IUPAC: dipotassium calcium dicarbonate)
Buttgenbachite (connellite: 1925) 3.DA.25
Byelorussite-(Ce) (joaquinite: IMA1988-042) 9.CE.25
Bykovaite (IMA2003-044) 9.BE.55
Byrudite (humite: IMA2013-045) 4.CA. [no] [no]
Bystrite (cancrinite-sodalite: IMA1990-008) 9.FB.05
Byströmite (tapiolite: 1952) 4.DB.10 (IUPAC: magnesium diantimony(V) hexaoxide)
Bytízite (IMA2016-044) 2.0 [no] [no] (IUPAC: tricopper antimony triselenide)
Byzantievite (IMA2009-001) 9.0 [no] [no]
External links
IMA Database of Mineral Properties/ RRUFF Project
Mindat.org - The Mineral Database
Webmineral.com
Mineralatlas.eu minerals B
la:Index mineralium, A-B
hu:Ásványok listája (A–B)
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9510020
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeff%20Moss%20%28hacker%29
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Jeff Moss (hacker)
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Jeff Moss (born January 1, 1975), also known as Dark Tangent, is an American hacker, computer and internet security expert who founded the Black Hat and DEF CON computer security conferences.
Early life and education
Moss received his first computer at the age of 10.
He became fascinated because he wasn't old enough to drive a car or vote, but he could engage in adult conversation with people all over the country.
Moss graduated from Gonzaga University with a BA in Criminal Justice. He worked for Ernst & Young, LLP in their Information System Security division and was a director at Secure Computing Corporation where he helped establish the Professional Services Department in the United States, Asia, and Australia.
Security conferences
In 1993 he created the first DEF CON hacker convention, based around a party for members of a Fido hacking network in Canada. It slowly grew, and by 1999 was attracting major attention.
In 1997 he created Black Hat Briefings computer security conference that brings together a variety of people interested in information security. He sold Black Hat in 2005 to CMP Media, a subsidiary of UK-based United Business Media, for a reported $13.9 million USD. DEF CON was not included in the sale.
In 2018 Jeff launched the first DEF CON hacker convention outside of the United States. Holding the same name DEF CON China was hosted in Beijing, China and Co-Hosted by Baidu. The first year of DEF CON China was labeled a [Beta] year, and in 2019 they formalized the conference with DEF CON China 1.0
Later career
Moss is also a member of the Council on Foreign Relations (CFR), an independent, nonpartisan membership organization, think tank, and publisher. Jeff, when in Washington D.C., is a regular meeting attendant.
In 2009 Moss was sworn into the Homeland Security Advisory Council of the Barack Obama administration.
On 28 April 2011 Jeff Moss was appointed ICANN Chief Security Officer.
In July 2012, Secretary Janet Napolitano directed the Homeland Security Advisory Council to form the Task Force on CyberSkills in response to the increasing demand for the best and brightest in the cybersecurity field across industry, academia and government. The Task Force, co-chaired by Jeff Moss and Alan Paller, conducted extensive interviews with experts from government, the private sector, and academia in developing its recommendations to grow the advanced technical skills of the DHS cybersecurity workforce and expand the national pipeline of men and women with these cybersecurity skills. On October 1, the HSAC unanimously approved sending the Task Force recommendations to the Secretary.
In October 2013, Jeff announced that he would be stepping down from his position at ICANN at the end of 2013.
In 2013, Jeff was appointed as a Nonresident Senior Fellow at the Atlantic Council, associated with the Cyber Statecraft Initiative, within the Brent Scowcroft Center on International Security.
In 2014, Jeff joined the Georgetown University School of Law School Cybersecurity Advisory Committee.
18 March 2016, Richemont announces his nomination for election to the Board of Directors.
In 2017, Jeff was named a Commissioner at the Global Commission on the Stability of Cyberspace.
The GCSC is composed of 24 prominent independent Commissioners representing a wide range of geographic regions as well as government, industry, technical and civil society stakeholders with legitimacy to speak on different aspects of cyberspace. The Commission's stated aim is to develop proposals for norms and policies to enhance international security and stability and guide responsible state and non-state behavior in cyberspace.
In 2017, Jeff spearheaded the creation of the DEF CON Voting Machine Village. Debuting at DEF CON 25, the Voting Machine Village allowed hackers to test the security of electronic voting machines, including several models still in active use in the US. The machines were all compromised over the course of the conference by DEF CON attendees, some within hours of the village's opening. The resulting media coverage of the vulnerability of all tested machines sparked a national conversation and inspired legislation in Virginia.
In September 2017, the Voting Machine Village produced "DEF CON 25 Voting Machine Hacking Village: Report on Cyber Vulnerabilities in US Election Equipment, Databases and Infrastructure" summarizing its findings. The findings were publicly released at an event sponsored by the Atlantic Council and the paper went on to win an O'Reilly Defender Research Award.
In March 2018, the DEF CON Voting Machine Hacking Village was awarded a Cybersecurity Excellence Award . The award cites both the spurring of a national dialog around securing the US election system and the release of the nation's first cybersecurity election plan.
In December 2021, Moss was appointed as one of twenty-three members of a newly-formed US DHS CISA cybersecurity advisory council. Other notable members include Alex Stamos, Steve Adler, Bobby Chesney, Thomas Fanning, Vijaya Gadde, Patrick Gallagher, and Alicia Tate-Nadeau.
Current position
Moss is currently based in Seattle, where he works as a security consultant for a company that is hired to test other companies' computer systems. He has been interviewed on issues including the internet situation between the United States and China, spoofing and other e-mail threats and the employment of hackers in a professional capacity, including in law enforcement.
Recent speaking and participation
Jeff has presented at a wide range of venues, worldwide, either as a keynote speaker, individual, or as part of panel discussions and group deliberations. Examples include:
• Panelist, , Washington D.C., USA, March. 2014
• Keynote speaker, CODE BLUE, Tokyo, Japan, Feb. 2014
• Keynote speaker, NANOG 60 NANOG, Atlanta, USA, Feb. 2014
• Speaker, World Knowledge Forum, Seoul, South Korea, Oct. 2013
• Korean Cyber Summit, Seoul, South Korea, Oct. 2013
• New Yorker Festival, “Spy vs. Spy”, USA, Oct. 2013
• Speaker, Special lecture on "Internet Governance" European Forum Alpbach, Austria, Aug. 2013
• CFR Task Force Report, "Defending an Open, Global, Secure and Resilient Internet", USA, June 2013
• Panelist, RSA, "BYOD: Here Today, Here to Stay?", San Francisco, USA, Feb. 2013
• Co-chair, DHS (HSAC) Cyberskills Task Force, USA, 2012
• Security & Defence Agenda, Brussels, Belgium, 2012, Cyber Initiative
• Speaker, Russian Internet Governance Forum, Moscow, Russian Federation, 2012
• World Economic Forum on East Asia, Bangkok, Thailand 2012.
• 6th Annual Strategic Multi-Layer Assessment (SMA) Conference “A World in Transformation: Challenges and Opportunities”, USA, 2012
• RSA, USA, 2012
• XCon, Beijing, China, 2012
• NRO Cyber Conference for National Programs, USA, 2012
• NSA “Cyber Red Dawn” symposium, USA, 2012
• West Point Senior Conference, USA, 2012
• Contributor NATO CCD COE National Cyber Security Framework Manual, 2012
• Co-Chair, DHS (HSAC) Community Resiliency Task Force, USA, 2011
• Georgetown University’s Institute for Law, Science and Global Security 2nd annual conference on international engagement in cyberspace, USA, 2010
• DHS Cyber Storm III exercise, USA, 2010, Participated as “the Internet”
• RSA, USA, 2009 - Core infrastructure security threat
• Keynote speaker, inaugural CodeGate conference, Seoul, South Korea, 2008
• Inaugural DeepSec, Vienna, Austria, 2007
• Panelist, Democracy, Terrorism and the Open Internet panel, Madrid, Spain, 2005
Film
Moss was an Executive Producer on DEFCON: The Documentary (2013). The film follows the four days of the conference, events and people (attendees and staff), and covers history and philosophy behind DEF CON's success and unique experiences. He was also a cast member in the film Code 2600. Moss also works with the technical consulting team for the television series Mr. Robot.
Popular culture references
DEF CON was portrayed in The X-Files episode "Three of a Kind" featuring an appearance by the Lone Gunmen. DEF CON was portrayed as a United States government-sponsored convention instead of a civilian convention.
Actor Will Smith visited DEF CON 21 to watch a talk by Apollo Robbins, the gentleman thief and to study the DEF CON culture for an upcoming movie role.
References
External links
Hackers
Living people
Gonzaga University alumni
1975 births
Ernst & Young people
Commissioners of the Global Commission on the Stability of Cyberspace
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62004719
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrony
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Chrony
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chrony is an implementation of the Network Time Protocol (NTP). It's a replacement for the , which is a reference implementation of the NTP. It runs on Unix-like operating systems (including Linux and macOS) and is released under the GNU GPL v2. It's the default NTP client and server in Red Hat Enterprise Linux 8 and SUSE Linux Enterprise Server 15, and available in many Linux distributions.
Support for Network Time Security (NTS) was added on version 4.0.
Comparison with the reference implementation
In contrast to NTPsec, which is a fork of ntpd, chrony was implemented from scratch. It was designed to synchronize time even in difficult conditions such as intermittent network connections (such as laptops) and congested networks. Unlike , it supports synchronizing the system clock via hardware timestamping, improving accuracy of time synchronization between machines on a LAN. It also supports synchronization by manual input, and can perform time correction within an isolated network.
See also
OpenNTPD
References
External links
Network time-related software
Free software programmed in C
Software using the GPL license
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5671539
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BumpTop
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BumpTop
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BumpTop was a 3D desktop environment that simulates the normal behavior and physical properties of a real-world desk and enhances it with automatic tools to organize its contents. It is aimed at stylus interaction, making it more suitable for tablet computers and handheld PCs. It was created at the University of Toronto as Anand Agarawala's master's thesis. Agarawala also gave a presentation at the TED conference about his idea. The 1.0 version was released on April 8, 2009, along with a fully featured pro version as a paid upgrade. On April 30, 2010 the author announced that BumpTop was being discontinued and that they were taking the software "in an exciting new direction." Two days later, it was announced that the company had been acquired by Google. On January 5, 2011, Google released a sneak preview video of Android 3.0 Honeycomb showing a 3D desktop with features purportedly taken from BumpTop.
Product
In BumpTop, documents are represented as three-dimensional boxes lying on a virtual desk. The user can position the boxes on the desk using the stylus or mouse. Extensive use of physics effects like bumping and tossing is applied to documents when they interact, for a more realistic experience. Boxes can be stacked with well-defined gestures. Multiple selection is performed by means of a LassoMenu, which fluidly combines in one stroke the act of lasso selection and action invocation via pie menus. BumpTop currently supports Windows XP, Vista, and 7, and a version for Mac OS X was released into private beta on January 18, 2010. The Mac edition omits the pie menu in favor of a more normal selection menu.
The software installer and the application phone home. While the download page on the official website does state: "Internet connection required for activation", this may not appear in other sources such as Cnet. There is no explicit dialog box asking the user to confirm this connection at the time it is required.
BumpTop automatically updates to the latest version.
Multi-Touch
With the release of BumpTop 1.2 on October 9, 2009, multi-touch support was added for Windows 7. It added 14 new gestures to the system that used multiple touches on the screen. One such gesture is “scrunching” your hand to pull files into a pile. Just like the regular version of BumpTop, the extensive use of physics is applied to these multi-touch gestures. Multi-touch support has since been added to Mac OS X as well.
Multi-touch support is currently only available in the Pro version of the software.
BumpTop Inside
On August 18, 2009, BumpTop announced their new “BumpTop Inside” program. Partnering with HIS, PowerColor, and SAPPHIRE, a free copy of BumpTop will be included with their graphics cards. The reasoning behind the partnership was to allow BumpTop to be spread to more customers, as well as allowing BumpTop to use the power of the newly bought graphics card. “BumpTop creates a brand new user experience for computer desktops,” said Ted Chen, CEO of TUL Corporation. “We are excited to add this innovative application into our graphics solution. Backed by the power of PowerColor graphics, BumpTop will make the user experience more vivid and change the way the traditional computer desktop is used.”
Reception
BumpTop has been generally well received by critics, with many of them excited about the possibility of BumpTop's features becoming standard in GUIs. CNET Editor Seth Rosenblatt gave it 5 stars, citing that “it could push how we use our computers into a whole new dimension.” Thanks to the added multi-touch support, Engadget says that “Bumptop gives Windows 7 touchscreen PCs purpose.” CrunchGear simply says “BumpTop: A Better Windows desktop.” On BumpTop's website, they have 23 quotes of positive reviews from professional editors.
Acquisition by Google
In April 2010, it was announced that Bumptop had been acquired by Google. It was unknown what Google had planned for the software, though there were speculations about plans to revamp it for a new Android based tablet UI. Shortly after its acquisition, Bumptop announced plans to remove the software completely from its website, only giving "End of Life" support to those who bought the Pro version.
The server-side licensing and validation system was then removed from Google and users that had the licensed version got it reverted to the free version after some time. This actually made activating the software impossible without using cracks.
As a final step, in August 2012, Google released the source code of BumpTop on GitHub under the Apache license. According to released source code, the project is no longer maintained.
See also
Project Looking Glass
Metisse
References
Further reading
Agarawala, Anand. Ravin Balakrishnan. Keepin' it Real: Pushing the Desktop Metaphor with Physics, Piles and the Pen. Proceedings of CHI 2006 - the ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. pp. 1283–1292.
External links
3D GUIs
3D file managers
Free desktop environments
Discontinued Google acquisitions
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538083
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical%20naming%20conventions
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Astronomical naming conventions
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In ancient times, only the Sun and Moon, a few stars, and the most easily visible planets had names. Over the last few hundred years, the number of identified astronomical objects has risen from hundreds to over a billion, and more are discovered every year. Astronomers need to be able to assign systematic designations to unambiguously identify all of these objects, and at the same time give names to the most interesting objects, and where relevant, features of those objects.
The International Astronomical Union (IAU) is the recognized authority in astronomy for assigning designations to celestial bodies such as stars, planets, and minor planets, including any surface features on them. In response to the need for unambiguous names for astronomical objects, it has created a number of systematic naming systems for objects of various sorts.
Stars
There are no more than a few thousand stars that appear sufficiently bright in Earth's sky to be visible to the naked eye. This represents the number of stars available to be named by ancient cultures. The upper boundary to what is physiologically possible to be seen with the unaided eye is an apparent magnitude of 6, or about ten thousand stars. With the advent of the increased light-gathering abilities of the telescope, many more stars became visible, far too many to all be given names. The earliest naming system which is still popular is the Bayer designation using the name of constellations to identify the stars within them.
The IAU is the only internationally recognized authority for assigning astronomical designations to celestial objects and surface features on them. The purpose of this is to ensure that names assigned are unambiguous. There have been many historical star catalogues, and new star catalogues are set up on a regular basis as new sky surveys are performed. All designations of objects in recent star catalogues start with an "initialism", which is kept globally unique by the IAU. Different star catalogues then have different naming conventions for what goes after the initialism, but modern catalogs tend to follow a set of generic rules for the data formats used.
The IAU does not recognize the commercial practice of selling fictitious star names by commercial star-naming companies. The IAU's website uses the word charlatanry in this context.
Proper names
There are about 300 to 350 stars with traditional or historical proper names. They tend to be the brightest stars in the sky and are often the most prominent ones of the constellation. Examples are Betelgeuse, Rigel and Vega. Most such names are derived from the Arabic language (see List of Arabic star names § History of Arabic star names).
Stars may have multiple proper names, as many different cultures named them independently. Polaris, for example, has also been known by the names Alruccabah, Angel Stern, Cynosura, the Lodestar, Mismar, Navigatoria, Phoenice, the Pole Star, the Star of Arcady, Tramontana and Yilduz at various times and places by different cultures in human history.
In 2016, the IAU organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's first bulletin of July 2016 included a table of the first two batches of names approved by the WGSN (on 30 June and 20 July 2016) together with names of stars adopted by the IAU Executive Committee Working Group on Public Naming of Planets and Planetary Satellites during the 2015 NameExoWorlds campaign and recognized by the WGSN. Further batches of names were approved on 21 August 2016, 12 September 2016 and 5 October 2016. These were listed in a table included in the WGSN's second bulletin issued in October 2016. The next additions were done on 1 February, 30 June, 5 September and 19 November 2017, and on 6 June 2018. All are included on the current List of IAU-approved Star Names, last updated on 1 June 2018.
The star nearest to Earth is typically referred to simply as "the Sun" or its equivalent in the language being used (for instance, if two astronomers were speaking French, they would call it le Soleil). However, it is usually called by its Latin name, Sol, in science fiction.
Named after people
There are about two dozen stars such as Barnard's Star and Kapteyn's Star that have historic names and which were named in honor after astronomers. As a result of the NameExoWorlds campaign in December 2015 the IAU approved the names Cervantes (honoring the writer Miguel de Cervantes) and Copernicus (honoring the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus) for the stars Mu Arae and 55 Cancri A, respectively. In July 2016, the IAU WGSN approved the name Cor Caroli (Latin for 'heart of Charles') for the star Alpha Canum Venaticorum, so named in honour of King Charles I of England by Sir Charles Scarborough, his physician. In 2019, IAU held the NameExoWorlds campaign. Spain named the star HD 149143 as Rosalíadecastro after the writer Rosalía de Castro.
Catalogues
With the advent of the increased light-gathering abilities of the telescope, many more stars became visible, far too many to all be given names. Instead, they have designations assigned to them by a variety of different star catalogues. Older catalogues either assigned an arbitrary number to each object, or used a simple systematic naming scheme based on the constellation the star lies in. The variety of sky catalogues now in use means that most bright stars currently have multiple designations.
Bayer designation
The Bayer designations of about 1,500 brightest stars were first published in 1603. In this list, a star is identified by a lower-case letter of the Greek alphabet, followed by the Latin name of its parent constellation. The Bayer designation uses the possessive form of a constellation's name, which in almost every case ends in is, i or ae; um if the constellation's name is plural (see genitive case for constellations). In addition, a three-letter abbreviation is often used . Examples include Alpha Andromedae (α And) in the constellation of Andromeda, Alpha Centauri (α Cen), in the constellation Centaurus, Alpha Crucis (α Cru) and Beta Crucis (β Cru), the two brightest stars in the constellation Crux, the Southern Cross, Epsilon Carinae (ε Car) in Carina, Lambda Scorpii (λ Sco) in Scorpius and Sigma Sagittarii (σ Sgr) in Sagittarius. After all twenty-four Greek letters have been assigned, upper and lower case Latin letters are used, such as for A Centauri (A Cen), D Centauri (D Cen), G Scorpii (G Sco), P Cygni (P Cyg), b Sagittarii (b Sgr), d Centauri (d Cen) and s Carinae (s Car).
As the resolving power of telescopes increased, numerous objects that were thought to be a single object were found to be optical star systems that were too closely spaced in the sky to be discriminated by the human eye. This led to a third iteration, where numeric superscripts were added to distinguish those previously unresolved stars. Examples include Theta Sagittarii (θ Sgr) later distinguished as Theta¹ Sagittarii (θ¹ Sgr) and Theta² Sagittarii (θ² Sgr), each being their own (physical) star system with two and three stars, respectively.
Flamsteed designation
Flamsteed designations consist of a number and the Latin genitive of the constellation the star lies in. Examples include 51 Pegasi and 61 Cygni. About 2,500 stars are catalogued. They are commonly used when no Bayer designation exists, or when the Bayer designation uses numeric superscripts such as in Rho¹ Cancri. In this case, the simpler Flamsteed designation, 55 Cancri, is often preferred.
Modern catalogues
Most modern catalogues are generated by computers, using high-resolution, high-sensitivity telescopes, and as a result describe very large numbers of objects. For example, the Guide Star Catalog II has entries on over 998 million distinct astronomical objects. Objects in these catalogs are typically located with very high resolution, and assign designations to these objects based on their position in the sky. An example of such a designation is SDSSp J153259.96−003944.1, where the initialism SDSSp indicates that the designation is from the "Sloan Digital Sky Survey preliminary objects", and the other characters indicate celestial coordinates (epoch 'J', right ascension 153259.96, declination −00°39′44.1″).
Variable stars
Variable stars are assigned designations in a variable star scheme that is based on a variation of the Bayer designation format, with an identifying label preceding the Latin genitive of the name of the constellation in which the star lies. Such designations mark them as variable stars. Examples include R Cygni, RR Lyrae, and V1331 Cygni. The International Astronomical Union delegates the task to the Sternberg Astronomical Institute in Moscow, Russia.
Compact stars
Pulsars
Pulsars such as PSR J0737-3039, are designated with a "PSR" prefix, that stands for Pulsating Source of Radio. The prefix is followed by the pulsar's right ascension and degrees of declination. The right ascension is also prefixed with a "J" (Julian epoch) or a "B" (Besselian Epochs) used prior to 1993, as in PSR B1257+12.
Black holes
Black holes have no consistent naming conventions. Supermassive black holes receive the designation of the galaxy whose core they reside in. Examples are NGC 4261, NGC 4151 and M31, which derive their designation from the New General Catalogue and the list of Messier objects.
Other black holes, such as Cygnus X-1 – a highly likely stellar black hole, are cataloged by their constellation and the order in which they were discovered. A large number of black holes are designated by their position in the sky and prefixed with the instrument or survey that discovered them. Examples are (where SDSS stands for Sloan Digital Sky Survey), and RX J1131−1231, observed by the Chandra X-ray Observatory.
Supernovae
Supernova discoveries are reported to the IAU's Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams and are automatically given a provisional designation based on the co-ordinates of the discovery. Historically, when supernovae are identified as belonging to a "type", CBAT has also published circulars with assigned year–letter designations, and discovery details. A supernova's permanent designation is formed by the standard prefix "SN", the year of discovery, and a suffix composed of one or two letters of the Latin alphabet. The first 26 supernovae of the year receive a capital letter from A to Z. Subsequent supernovae of that year are designated with pairs of lower-case letters from "aa" to "az", and then continuing with "ba" until "zz". For example, the prominent SN 1987A, was the first one to be observed in 1987. Several thousand supernovae have been reported since 1885. In recent years, several supernova discovery projects have retained their more distant supernova discoveries for in-house follow-up, and not reported them to CBAT. Starting in 2015, CBAT has scaled back its efforts to publish assigned designations of typed supernovae: By September 2014, CBAT had published names and details of 100 supernovae discovered in that year. By September 2015, CBAT had only published names of 20 supernovae discovered in that year. The Astronomer's Telegram provides some surrogate services independent from CBAT.
Four historical supernovae are known simply by the year they occurred: SN 1006 (the brightest stellar event ever recorded), SN 1054 (of which the remnant is the Crab Nebula and the Crab Pulsar), SN 1572 (Tycho's Nova), and SN 1604 (Kepler's Star).
Since 1885, the letter-suffixes are explicitly assigned, regardless whether only one supernova is detected during the entire year (although this has not occurred since 1947). Driven by advances in technology and increases in observation time in the early 21st century, hundreds of supernovae were reported every year to the IAU, with more than 500 catalogued in 2007. Since then, the number of newly discovered supernovae has increased to thousands per year, for example almost 16,000 supernovae observations were reported in 2019, more than 2,000 of which were named by CBAT.
Novae
Constellations
The sky was divided into constellations by historic astronomers, according to perceived patterns in the sky. At first, only the shapes of the patterns were defined, and the names and numbers of constellations varied from one star map to another. Despite being scientifically meaningless, they do provide useful reference points in the sky for human beings, including astronomers. In 1930, the boundaries of these constellations were fixed by Eugène Joseph Delporte and adopted by the IAU, so that now every point on the celestial sphere belongs to a particular constellation.
Galaxies
Like stars, most galaxies do not have names. There are a few exceptions such as the Andromeda Galaxy, the Whirlpool Galaxy, and others, but most simply have a catalog number.
In the 19th century, the exact nature of galaxies was not yet understood, and the early catalogs simply grouped together open clusters, globular clusters, nebulas, and galaxies: the Messier catalog has 110 in total. The Andromeda Galaxy is Messier object 31, or M31; the Whirlpool Galaxy is M51. The New General Catalogue (NGC, J. L. E. Dreyer 1888) was much larger and contained nearly 8,000 objects, still mixing galaxies with nebulas and star clusters.
Planets
The brightest planets in the sky have been named from ancient times. The scientific names are taken from the names given by the Romans: Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. Our own planet is usually named in English as Earth, or the equivalent in the language being spoken (for instance, two astronomers speaking French would call it la Terre). However, it is only recently in human history that it has been thought of as a planet. Earth, when viewed as a planet, is sometimes also called by its Latin scientific conventional name Terra, this name is especially prevalent in science fiction where the adjective "terran" is also used in the way which "Lunar" or "Jovian" is for Earth's moon or Jupiter. The Latin convention derives from the use of that language as an international scientific language by the first modern astronomers like Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, Newton and others and was used for a long time. This is why the later discovered bodies were also named accordingly.
Two more bodies that were discovered later, and considered planets when discovered, are still generally considered planets now:
Uranus, discovered by William Herschel in 1781
Neptune, discovered by Johann Gottfried Galle in 1846 (based on prediction by Urbain Le Verrier)
These were given names from Greek or Roman myth, to match the ancient planet names—but only after some controversy. For example, Sir William Herschel discovered Uranus in 1781, and originally called it Georgium Sidus (George's Star) in honour of King George III of the United Kingdom. French astronomers began calling it Herschel before German Johann Bode proposed the name Uranus, after the Greek god. The name "Uranus" did not come into common usage until around 1850.
Starting in 1801, asteroids were discovered between Mars and Jupiter. The first few (Ceres, Pallas, Juno, Vesta) were initially considered planets. As more and more were discovered, they were soon stripped of their planetary status. On the other hand, Pluto was considered to be a planet at the time of its discovery in 1930, as it was found beyond Neptune. Following this pattern, several hypothetical bodies were given names: Vulcan for a planet within the orbit of Mercury; Phaeton for a planet between Mars and Jupiter that was believed to be the precursor of the asteroids; Themis for a moon of Saturn; and Persephone, and several other names, for a trans-Plutonian planet.
Derived from Classical mythology, these names are only considered standard in Western discussion of the planets. Astronomers in societies that have other traditional names for the planets may use those names in scientific discourse. For instance, IAU does not disapprove of astronomers discussing Jupiter in Arabic using the traditional Arabic name for the planet, Al-Mushtarīy.
Some sixty years after the discovery of Pluto, a large number of large trans-Neptunian objects began to be discovered. Under the criteria of classifying these Kuiper belt objects (KBOs), it became dubious whether Pluto would have been considered a planet had it been discovered in the 1990s. Its mass is now known to be much smaller than once thought and, with the discovery of Eris, it is simply one of the two largest known trans-Neptunian objects. In 2006, Pluto was therefore reclassified into a different class of astronomical bodies known as dwarf planets, along with Eris and others.
Exoplanets
Currently, according to the IAU, there is no agreed upon system for designating exoplanets (planets orbiting other stars). The process of naming them is organized by the IAU Executive Committee Working Group Public Naming of Planets and Planetary Satellites. The scientific nomenclature for the designations usually consists of a proper noun or abbreviation that often corresponds to the star's name, followed by a lowercase letter (starting with 'b'), like 51 Pegasi b.
The lowercase lettering style is drawn from the IAU's long-established rules for naming binary and multiple star systems. A primary star, which is brighter and typically bigger than its companion stars, is designated by a capitalized A. Its companions are labelled B, C, and so on. For example, Sirius, the brightest star in the sky, is actually a double star, consisting of the naked-eye visible Sirius A and its dim white-dwarf companion Sirius B. The first exoplanet tentatively identified around the second brightest star in the triple star system Alpha Centauri is accordingly called Alpha Centauri Bb. If an exoplanet orbits both of the stars in a binary system, its name can be, for example, Kepler-34(AB) b.
Natural satellites
Earth's natural satellite is simply known as the Moon, or the equivalent in the language being spoken (for instance, two astronomers speaking French would call it la Lune). English-language science fiction often adopts the Latin name "Luna" while using the English "Moon" as a term for natural satellites in general in order to better distinguish the wider concept from any specific example. Natural satellites of other planets are generally named after mythological figures related to their parent body's namesake, Such as Phobos and Deimos, the twin sons of Ares (Mars), or the Galilean moons of Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto, four consorts of Zeus (Jupiter). Satellites of Uranus are instead named after characters from works by William Shakespeare or Alexander Pope, such as Umbriel or Titania.
When natural satellites are first discovered, they are given provisional designations such as "S/2010 J 2" (the 2nd new satellite of Jupiter discovered in 2010) or "S/2003 S 1" (the 1st new satellite of Saturn discovered in 2003). The initial "S/" stands for "satellite", and distinguishes from such prefixes as "D/", "C/", and "P/", used for comets. The designation "R/" is used for planetary rings. These designations are sometimes written like "S/2003 S1", dropping the second space. The letter following the category and year identifies the planet (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune; although no occurrence of the other planets is expected, Mars and Mercury are disambiguated through the use of Hermes for the latter). Pluto was designated by P prior to its recategorization as a dwarf planet. When the object is found around a minor planet, the identifier used is the latter's number in parentheses. Thus, Dactyl, the moon of 243 Ida, was at first designated "S/1993 (243) 1". Once confirmed and named, it became (243) Ida I Dactyl. Similarly, the fourth satellite of Pluto, Kerberos, discovered after Pluto was categorized as a dwarf planet and assigned a minor planet number, was designated S/2011 (134340) 1 rather than S/2011 P 1, though the New Horizons team, who disagreed with the dwarf planet classification, used the latter.
H = Mercury (Hermes)
V = Venus
E = Earth
M = Mars
J = Jupiter
S = Saturn
U = Uranus
N = Neptune
After a few months or years, when a newly discovered satellite's existence has been confirmed and its orbit computed, a permanent name is chosen, which replaces the "S/" provisional designation. However, in the past, some satellites remained unnamed for surprisingly long periods after their discovery. See Naming of moons for a history of how some of the major satellites got their current names.
The Roman numbering system arose with the very first discovery of natural satellites other than Earth's: Galileo referred to the Galilean moons as I through IV (counting from Jupiter outward), in part to spite his rival Simon Marius, who had proposed the names now adopted, after his own proposal to name the bodies after members of the Medici family failed to win currency. Similar numbering schemes naturally arose with the discovery of moons around Saturn and Mars. Although the numbers initially designated the moons in orbital sequence, new discoveries soon failed to conform with this scheme (e.g. "Jupiter V" is Amalthea, which orbits closer to Jupiter than does Io). The unstated convention then became, at the close of the 19th century, that the numbers more or less reflected the order of discovery, except for prior historical exceptions (see the Timeline of discovery of Solar System planets and their moons).
Geological and geographical features
In addition to naming planets and satellites themselves, the individual geological and geographical features such as craters, mountains, and volcanoes, on those planets and satellites also need to be named.
In the early days, only a very limited number of features could be seen on other Solar System bodies other than the Moon. Craters on the Moon could be observed with even some of the earliest telescopes, and 19th-century telescopes could make out some features on Mars. Jupiter had its famous Great Red Spot, also visible through early telescopes.
In 1919 the IAU was formed, and it appointed a committee to regularize the chaotic lunar and Martian nomenclatures then current. Much of the work was done by Mary Adela Blagg, and the report Named Lunar Formations by Blagg and Muller (1935), was the first systematic listing of lunar nomenclature. Later, "The System of Lunar Craters, quadrants I, II, III, IV" was published, under the direction of Gerard P. Kuiper. These works were adopted by the IAU and became the recognized sources for lunar nomenclature.
The Martian nomenclature was clarified in 1958, when a committee of the IAU recommended for adoption the names of 128 albedo features (bright, dark, or colored) observed through ground-based telescopes (IAU, 1960). These names were based on a system of nomenclature developed in the late 19th century by the Italian astronomer Giovanni V. Schiaparelli (1879) and expanded in the early 20th century by Eugene M. Antoniadi (1929), a Greek-born astronomer working at Meudon, France.
However, the age of space probes brought high-resolution images of various Solar System bodies, and it became necessary to propose naming standards for the features seen on them.
Minor planets
Initially, the names given to minor planets followed the same pattern as the other planets: names from Greek or Roman myths, with a preference for female names. With the discovery in 1898 of the first body found to cross the orbit of Mars, a different choice was deemed appropriate, and 433 Eros was chosen. This started a pattern of female names for main-belt bodies and male names for those with unusual orbits.
As more and more discoveries were made over the years, this system was eventually recognized as being inadequate and a new one was devised. Currently, the main responsibility for designating and naming minor planets lies with the Working Group for Small Bodies Nomenclature (WGSBN, originally the Committee for Small Bodies Nomenclature, CSBN), which is composed of 15 members, 11 of whom have the right to vote, while the other four are representatives for the Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature, the Minor Planet Center, as well as the IAU President and General Secretary. Minor planets observed over at least two nights and which cannot be identified with an existing celestial object, are initially assigned provisional designations (containing the year and the sequential order of discovery within that year). When enough observations of the same object are obtained to calculate a reliable orbit, a sequential number is assigned to the minor-planet designation.
After the designation is assigned, the discoverer is given an opportunity to propose a name, which, if accepted by the IAU, replaces the provisional designation. This will happen after an observation interval of two to three months. Thus for instance, was given the name Ixion and is now called 28978 Ixion. The name becomes official after its publication in the WGSBN bulletin with a brief citation explaining its significance. This may be a few years after the initial sighting, or in the case of "lost" asteroids, it may take several decades before they are spotted again and finally assigned a designation. If a minor planet remains unnamed ten years after it has been given a designation, the right to name it is given also to identifiers of the various apparitions of the object, to discoverers at apparitions other than the official one, to those whose observations contributed extensively to the orbit determination, or to representatives of the observatory at which the official discovery was made. The WGSBN has the right to act on its own in naming a minor planet, which often happens when the number assigned to the body is an integral number of thousands.
In recent years, automated search efforts such as LINEAR or LONEOS have discovered so many thousands of new asteroids that the WGSBN has officially limited naming to a maximum of two names per discoverer every two months. Thus, the overwhelming majority of asteroids currently discovered are not assigned formal names.
Under IAU rules, names must be pronounceable, preferably one word (such as 5535 Annefrank), although exceptions are possible (such as 9007 James Bond), and since 1982, names are limited to a maximum of 16 characters, including spaces and hyphens. (This rule was violated once for the comet-asteroid 4015 Wilson–Harrington, whose name has seventeen characters.) Letters with diacritics are accepted, although in English the diacritical marks are usually omitted in everyday usage. 4090 Říšehvězd is an asteroid with the most diacritics (four). Military and political leaders are unsuitable unless they have been dead for at least 100 years. Names of pet animals are discouraged, but there are some from the past. Names of people, companies or products known only for success in business are not accepted, nor are citations that resemble advertising.
Whimsical names can be used for relatively ordinary asteroids (such as 26858 Misterrogers or 274301 Wikipedia), but those belonging to certain dynamical groups are expected to follow more strictly defined naming schemes.
Near-Earth objects (such as 1862 Apollo) receive mythological names, except those associated with creation or the underworld, while distant Amor asteroid (with perihelion larger than 1.3 au) may receive non-mythical names.
Jupiter trojans (objects in a 1:1 orbital resonance with Jupiter) are named for characters of the legendary Trojan War. Asteroids at Lagrangian point are named after Greek characters (such as 588 Achilles), whilst asteroids at are named after Trojans (such as 884 Priamus). Small Jupiter trojans with an absolute magnitudes larger than 12 can be named for Olympic athletes.
Centaurs (such as 2060 Chiron) crossing or approaching the orbit of a giant planet, but not in a stabilizing resonance are named for the creatures, part horse and part man, from Greek mythology.
Neptune trojans (objects in a 1:1 orbital resonance with Neptune, such as 385571 Otrera) are named for Amazons, with no differentiation between objects in and .
Plutinos (such as 90482 Orcus) are named after mythological creatures associated with the underworld.
Other trans-Neptunian objects (such as 50000 Quaoar), including classical Kuiper belt objects, are given mythological or mythic names (not necessarily from Greek or Roman mythology), particularly those associated with creation.
Comets
The names given to comets have followed several different conventions over the past two centuries. Before any systematic naming convention was adopted, comets were named in a variety of ways. The first one to be named was "Halley's Comet" (now officially known as Comet Halley), named after Edmond Halley, who had calculated its orbit. Similarly, the second known periodic comet, Comet Encke (formally designated 2P/Encke), was named after the astronomer, Johann Franz Encke, who had calculated its orbit rather than the original discoverer of the comet, Pierre Méchain. Other comets that bore the possessive include "Biela's Comet" (3D/Biela) and "Miss Herschel's Comet" (35P/Herschel–Rigollet, or Comet Herschel–Rigollet). Most bright (non-periodic) comets were referred to as 'The Great Comet Of...' the year in which they appeared.
In the early 20th century, the convention of naming comets after their discoverers became common, and this remains today. A comet is named after its first independent discoverers, up to a maximum of three names, separated by hyphens. The IAU prefers to credit at most two discoverers, and it credits more than three discoverers only when "in rare cases where named lost comets are identified with a rediscovery that has already received a new name." In recent years, many comets have been discovered by instruments operated by large teams of astronomers, and in this case, comets may be named for the instrument (for example, Comet IRAS–Araki–Alcock (C/1983 H1) was discovered independently by the IRAS satellite and amateur astronomers Genichi Araki and George Alcock). Comet 105P/Singer Brewster, discovered by Stephen Singer-Brewster, should by rights have been named "105P/Singer-Brewster", but this could be misinterpreted as a joint discovery by two astronomers named Singer and Brewster, respectively, so the hyphen was replaced by a space. The spaces, apostrophes and other characters in discoverer names are preserved in comet names, like 32P/Comas Solà, 6P/d'Arrest, 53P/Van Biesbroeck, Comet van den Bergh (1974g), 66P/du Toit, or 57P/du Toit–Neujmin–Delporte.
Until 1994, the systematic naming of comets (the "Old Style") involved first giving them a provisional designation of the year of their discovery followed by a lower case letter indicating its order of discovery in that year (e.g. the first Comet Bennett is 1969i, the 9th comet discovered in 1969). In 1987, more than 26 comets were discovered, so the alphabet was used again with a "1" subscript, very much like what is still done with asteroids (an example is Comet Skorichenko–George, 1989e1). The record year was 1989, which went as high as 1989h1. Once an orbit had been established, the comet was given a permanent designation in order of time of perihelion passage, consisting of the year followed by a Roman numeral. For example, Comet Bennett (1969i) became 1970 II.
Increasing numbers of comet discoveries made this procedure difficult to operate, and in 2003 the IAU's Committee on Small Body Nomenclature approved a new naming system, and in its 1994 General Assembly the IAU approved a new designation system that entered into force in 1995 January 1. Comets are now designated by the year of their discovery followed by a letter indicating the half-month of the discovery (A denotes the first half of January, B denotes the second Half of January, C denotes the first half of February, D denotes the second half of February, etcetera) and a number indicating the order of discovery. To exemplify, the fourth comet discovered in the second half of February 2006 would be designated 2006 D4. "I" and "Z" are not used when describing the half of a particular month the comet was discovered. Prefixes are also added to indicate the nature of the comet, with P/ indicating a periodic comet, C/ indicating a non-periodic comet, X/ indicating a comet for which no reliable orbit could be calculated (typically comets described in historical chronicles), D/ indicating a comet that has broken up or been lost, and A/ indicating an object at first thought to be a comet but later reclassified as an asteroid (C/2017 U1 became A/2017 U1, then finally 1I/ʻOumuamua). Objects on hyperbolic orbits that do not show cometary activity also receive an A/ designation (example: A/2018 C2, which became C/2018 C2 (Lemmon) when cometary activity was detected). Periodic comets also have a number indicating the order of their discovery. Thus Bennett's comet has the systematic designation C/1969 Y1. Halley's Comet, the first comet to be identified as periodic, has the systematic name 1P/1682 Q1. Comet Hale–Bopp's systematic name is C/1995 O1. The famous Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 was the ninth periodic comet jointly discovered by Carolyn Shoemaker, Eugene Shoemaker, and David Levy (the Shoemaker–Levy team has also discovered four non-periodic comets interspersed with the periodic ones), but its systematic name is D/1993 F2 (it was discovered in 1993 and the prefix "D/" is applied, because it was observed to crash into Jupiter).
Some comets were first spotted as minor planets, and received a temporary designation accordingly before cometary activity was later discovered. This is the reason for such comets as (Catalina 2) or (Spacewatch–LINEAR). The MPECs and HTML version of IAUCs, because of their telegraphic style, "flatten out" the subscripts, but the PDF version of IAUCs and some other sources such as the Yamamoto Circulars and the Kometnyj Tsirkular use them.
See also
Fusor (astronomy)
List of adjectivals and demonyms of astronomical bodies
List of astronomical objects named after people
List of basic astronomy topics
List of brightest stars
List of minor planets (includes asteroids)
NameExoWorlds
Planetary nomenclature
Proper names (astronomy)
Provisional designation in astronomy
Footnotes
References
External links
Cometary designation system from Minor Planet Circulars 23803-4
Committee on Small Body Nomenclature
Dictionary of nomenclature of astronomical objects
How do planets and their moons get their names?
IAU on Naming Astronomical Objects
IAU specifications for nomenclature
James Kaler on star names
New- And Old-Style Minor Planet Designations from the Minor Planet Center
Who named the planets and who decides what to name them?
Astronomical nomenclature
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palm%20m500%20series
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Palm m500 series
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The Palm m500 series of handheld personal digital assistants consisted of three devices: the Palm m500, Palm m505, and Palm m515. The series was a follow-up to the popular Palm V series with a similar, though slightly shorter, footprint and form factor.
Like the Palm V, the series had metal cases (although the m500 had a plastic back plate) and a 160x160 resolution screen. The distinguishing features common to all in the series are a SD/MMC expansion slot, faster processor, new faster USB sync interface, new software functionality, new vibrating alarms, new indicator light, and a mechanical fastener vs. hot-glue case construction. Later models introduced an improved version of the color display and more memory.
Palm m500 series
The Palm m500 series of Palm Pilot PDAs was released on March 6, 2001. Based on a poll conducted by Palm Computing (formerly a division of 3Com), it was determined that the Palm V had the "definitive look" of the ideal PDA.
Common traits
All of the Palm m500 models were based on the Palm V form factor. They had the same slim case with the slight curvature to its left and right edges. The power button lit up green when in its docking cradle or when an important message was available. Input included four programmable buttons, two scrolling buttons, and a touch-sensitive 2-1/4" x 3" screen (including the 2-1/4" x 3/4" input area). As with most other Palm devices, data was input with a stylus pen using a Graffiti method.
Each of the m500 series models featured a Secure Digital (SD) or Multi Media Card (MMC) expansion slot. The SD/MMC slot allowed for additional memory upgrades for the devices, as well an expandable platform for add-on devices. The m500 series was also the first of Palm's devices to incorporate the new Universal Connector, which was only "universal" until the Palm T3 after which it was abandoned. It allowed for additional add-on devices and common HotSync cradles.
Palm m500
The m500 was the entry-level model of the m500 series. With 8 MB of on-board memory, it featured a monochrome screen and all of the features common to the m500 series devices. It was released on March 6, 2001, as part of the original rollout for the series.
Details
Operating System: Palm OS version 4.0 (upgrade to 4.1)
Processor: 33 MHz Motorola Dragonball VZ
Memory: 8 MB
Display: 160x160 pixel B&W display, 4-bit (16 shades of gray)
Size: 4.49 x 3.02 x .46 in. (11.41 x 7.67 x 1.17 cm)
Weight:
Battery: Internal Lithium Polymer Rechargeable; 2hr recharge time when empty
AC Adapter: Input: 120 V 60 Hz 10 W, Output: 5.0 VDC 1.0 A
IrDA port
Expansion Slot compatible with SD and MMC cards
Palm m505
The m505 was, at the time of the series rollout, the top-of-the-line model of all Palm devices. It also had 8 MB of on-board memory. In addition to standard m500 series features, it also featured a 16-bit color frontlit screen. It was released on March 6, 2001, as part of the original rollout for the series.
Details
Operating System: Palm OS version 4.0 (upgrade to 4.1)
Processor: 33 MHz Motorola Dragonball VZ
Memory: 8 MB (4MB Flash + 8MB RAM)
Display: 160x160 pixel color display (65,000+ colors)
Size: 4.48 x 3.03 x 0.50 in. (11.38 x 7.70 x 1.27 cm)
Weight:
Battery: Internal Lithium Polymer Rechargeable; 2hr recharge time when empty
AC Adapter: Input: 120VAC 60 Hz 11W, Output: 5.0VDC 1.0A
IrDA port
Expansion Slot compatible with SD and MMC cards
Palm m515
On March 4, 2002, Palm released the m515. Based on consumer reviews and surveys conducted by the company, the m515 was developed as an improved version of, and replacement for, the m505. Notable enhancements include 16 MB of on-board memory and an enhanced backlighting system. There was much criticism about the m505 that, even with the backlight on, it was dim and difficult to read in some environments. The m515 added an additional setting allowing the backlight to be put on "high", which was considerably brighter than its predecessor.
Details
Operating System: Palm OS version 4.1
Processor: 33 MHz Motorola Dragonball VZ
Memory: 16 MB RAM + 4 MB Flash
Display: 160x160 pixel color display (65,000+ colors)
Size: 4.48 x 3.03 x 0.50 in. (11.38 x 7.70 x 1.27 cm)
Weight:
Battery: Internal Lithium Polymer Rechargeable
AC Adapter: Input: 120VAC 60 Hz 11W, Output: 5.0VDC 1.0A
IrDA port
Expansion Slot compatible with SD and MMC cards
References
New Sleek Palm m500 and m505 Handhelds Add Expansion, Mobile Connectivity and Vibrant Color, Palm Press Release, March 19, 2001
New Palm m130 and m515 Handhelds Add Spring Color to 2002 Product Lineup, March 4, 2002
Niles, Steve, "Why the Palm m500 Series is Ideal for the Enterprise", September, 2002. PalmPower Magazine Enterprise Edition, Issue 2002–09.
"Palm m515 Comparison Pictures" 2 March 2002. Palm Infocenter.
See also
Palm (PDA)
Palm OS
PalmSource, Inc.
Palm, Inc.
Graffiti (Palm OS)
Palm OS devices
68k architecture
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template%20%28word%20processing%29
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Template (word processing)
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The term template, when used in the context of word processing software,
refers to a sample document that has already some details in place; those can (that is added/completed, removed or changed, differently from a fill-in-the-blank of the approach as in a form) either by hand or through an automated iterative process, such as with a software assistant. Once
the template is completed, the user can edit, save and manage the result as
an ordinary word processing document. Word processing templates enable the ability to bypass
the initial setup and configuration time necessary to create standardized
documents such as a resume. They also enable the automatic configuration of the user interface of the word processing software, with features such as autocompletion,
toolbars, thesaurus, and spelling options.
Word processing templates are ordinarily included as a regular feature
in most word processing software. In addition, users of such software
often have the option to create and save their own templates, to acquire
them from the original vendor of the software, or from third parties.
Overview
Word processing templates provide functionality for:
"Fill-in-the-blank" completion of routinely used document classes or (a stencil/master copy)
Mail merge to produce personalized mailings
Time-saving document-fragment creation (for items such as headers footers and boilerplate)
Time-saving GUI-configuration (for configuring the desktop GUI with precisely the desired standard look and feel, usually tailored to a given profession or industry)
Time-saving user standardization (for ensuring a specific user or work group has access to documents that are unique to the user's role in the organization)
Quick means of preparation of meeting data in presentable way.
Uses
Word processing templates have the standard "fill-in-the-blank" features similar to other kinds of templates in computer software. They also have features that specifically leverage the functionality of the word processor user interface.
Specific examples include ability to:
Copy macros, styles, and auto completion entries from one template (or document) to another;
Reuse a page header, watermark, structure, and many forms of repeated document contents;
Create and remove entries (from the New > File menu) for fast access to frequently used templates;
Save automation scripts in languages such as Visual Basic for Applications;
Save and configure the toolbar, menus, or keyboard shortcuts to work across editing sessions, or on a user-by-user basis;
Configure up and use work group templates, or a default template applied automatically whenever a new document is created;
Quickly write résumés and Curricula Vitae;
Easily write reports for work or study;
Create single or multiple sheet templates such as list templates, agenda templates and business templates;
Quickly recreate already used files in terms of amendments and changes;
Additionally, support may exist for other native features unique to the word processing application.
Specific commands and file formats
Word processing document creation may ordinarily (although not necessarily) begin with selecting a template with a menu command such as: File > New > Templates (and select the template you wish to use), where the user is given the option of selecting a pre-existing template. Similar commands are provided for creating and editing templates.
Template files may restrict users from saving changes with the original file name, such as with the case of Microsoft Office (.dot) filename extensions. In those cases, users are prompted to save the file with a new name as if it were a new file.
See also
Word processing
Comparison of word processors
List of word processors
Template (disambiguation)
Normal.dot
Related comparisons
Configuration file (similar application configuration features for preserving the state of toolbars and menus, as well as other settings).
Style sheet (a very similar tool)
Web template (similar fill-in-the-blank and mass-production features, in the context of web development)
Template (file format) (similar fill-in-the blank and GUI configuration features, but for spreadsheets, image processing software and other desktop applications)
References
External links
Example template: Collaborative Protocol for Translations
Word processors
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856319
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HCL%20Sametime
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HCL Sametime
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HCL Sametime Premium (formerly IBM Sametime and IBM Lotus Sametime) is a client–server application and middleware platform that provides real-time, unified communications and collaboration for enterprises. Those capabilities include presence information, enterprise instant messaging, web conferencing, community collaboration, and telephony capabilities and integration. Currently it is developed and sold by HCL Software, a division of Indian company HCL Technologies, until 2019 by the Lotus Software division of IBM.
Because HCL Sametime is middleware, it supports enterprise software and business process integration (Communication Enabled Business Process), either through an HCL Sametime plugin or by surfacing HCL Sametime capabilities through third-party applications. HCL Sametime integrates with a wide variety of software, including Lotus collaboration products, Microsoft Office productivity software, and portal and Web applications.
Features
HCL Sametime Premium Features:
HCL Sametime Premium (v11.5)
Instant meetings & persistent chat
Personal meeting rooms
Multiple screen-share per meeting
Moderator Controls
Video meeting options
Desktop App, Web & Mobile
Meeting Recording
Calendar integrations
Livestreaming capability
Secure data
Flexible deployment (Cloud, on-premises or hybrid)
Admin policies at the user, group and server level
Inbound/outbound telephony support
Features - Previous Versions through 11.0:
HCL Sametime is a client–server enterprise application that includes the HCL Sametime Connect client for end-users and the HCL Sametime Server for control and administration. HCL Sametime (pre v11.5) comes in four levels of functionality:
HCL Sametime Limited Use (Old name HCL Sametime Entry) provides basic presence and instant messaging.
HCL Sametime Standard provides additional functionality to HCL Sametime Entry, including:
rich presence including location awareness
rich-media chat, including point-to-point Voice-over-IP (VoIP) and video chat, timestamps, emoticons, and chat histories
group and multi-way chat
web conferencing
contact business cards
interoperability with public IM networks via the HCL Sametime Gateway, including AOL Instant Messenger, Yahoo! Messenger, Google Talk and XMPP-based services.
open APIs that allow integrations between HCL's own and other applications
Sametime Audio/Video Services supports audio (e.g. G.722.1) and video codecs (e.g. H.264)
HCL Sametime Advanced provides additional real-time community collaboration and social networking functionality to HCL Sametime Standard, including:
persistent chat rooms
instant screen sharing
geographic location services
HCL Sametime Unified Telephony provides additional telephony functionality to HCL Sametime Standard or HCL Sametime Advanced, including:
telephony presence
softphone
click-to-call and click-to-conference
incoming call management
call control with live call transfer
connectivity to, and integration of, multiple telephone systems - both IP private branch exchange (IP-PBX) and legacy time-division multiplexing (TDM) systems
HCL Sametime Gateway provides server-to-server interoperability between disparate communities with conversion services for different protocols, presence information awareness, and instant messaging. HCL Sametime Gateway connects HCL Sametime instant messaging cooperate communities with external communities, including external HCL Sametime, and public instant messaging communities, such as: AOL, AIM, ICQ, Yahoo, Google Talk, and XMPP. HCL Sametime Gateway replaces the Sametime Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) Gateway from earlier releases of HCL Sametime.
The HCL Sametime Gateway platform is based on IBM WebSphere Application Server, which provides failover, clustering, and scalability for the HCL Sametime Gateway deployment.
The product is shipped with the following connectors: Virtual Places, SIP, and XMPP. More protocol connectors may be added.
Platform support, APIs and application integration
Because HCL Sametime is middleware, it supports application and business process integration. When within the context of real-time communications, this is often referred to as Communications Enabled Business Processes. Sametime integrates in either of two ways:
by surfacing the application into an HCL Sametime plug-in
by surfacing HCL Sametime capabilities into the target application
Some examples of integration between HCL Sametime and applications include:
HCL's products including HCL Notes, HCL Domino applications, HCL Connections, HCL Quickr
Microsoft office-productivity software including Microsoft Office, Microsoft Outlook, and Microsoft Sharepoint
portal applications, including portals built with IBM WebSphere Portal
web applications
packaged enterprise applications
embedded and client–server telephony applications
HCL Sametime Connect, the client component of HCL Sametime, is built on the Eclipse platform, allowing developers familiar with the framework to easily write plug-ins for HCL Sametime. It uses a proprietary protocol named Virtual Places, but also offers support for standard protocols, including Session Initiation Protocol (SIP), SIMPLE, T.120, XMPP, and H.323.
HCL Sametime Connect can run under Microsoft Windows, Linux, and macOS. Also available are a zero-download web client for Microsoft Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox and Apple Safari; mobile clients are also supported for Apple iPhone, Android, Microsoft Windows Mobile, RIM Blackberry, and Symbian. The HCL Sametime server runs on Microsoft Windows, IBM AIX, IBM i (formerly i5/OS), Linux and Solaris. Sametime can also be accessed using the free software Adium, Gaim, Pidgin, and Kopete clients.
History
HCL Sametime became an IBM product in 1998 as the synthesis of technologies IBM acquired from two companies:
an American company called Databeam provided the architecture to host T.120 dataconferencing (for web messaging) and H.323 Multi-Media Conferencing
Ubique, an Israeli company whose Virtual Places Chat software technology (also known as VPBuddy) provided the "presence awareness" functionality that allows people to detect which of their contacts are online and available for messaging or conferencing
The Sametime v3.1 client was part of the standard platform loaded by the IBM Standard Software Installer (ISSI) for many years, enabling communications over the corporate intranet by hundreds of thousands of IBM employees. The next major release was the Sametime v7.5 client, built on the Eclipse (software) platform, enabling the use of the plug-in framework.
In 2008 Gartner positioned IBM for the first time as a "leader" in Gartner's Unified Communications Magic Quadrant.
Version
References
External links
Apple Store
Google Play
Web conferencing
Teleconferencing
Sametime
Windows Internet software
Internet software for Linux
Instant messaging server software
Symbian instant messaging clients
Videotelephony
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43848106
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBML
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IBML
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ibml (Imaging Business Machines, L.L.C.), founded in 1992, is a privately held information capture company headquartered in Irondale, Alabama, United States. Combining hardware and software products and services, ibml products provide end-to-end scanning and document capture.
History and technology
Founded as a document scanning company on August 1, 1992, by Gary Murphy, ibml has grown into an information capture business that focuses on design, manufacture, delivery, and the support of high-speed document capture scanners and software. The ImageTrac scanner, a core product, was first shipped to Australian Airlines to read ticket numbers and capture color images of tickets for the airline revenue accounting process. It became the scanner of choice for the airline industry soon thereafter.
In 1997, ibml released SoftTrac software to manage ImageTrac scanners. The series continued to evolve; ImageTrac II was introduced in 2000, and ImageTrac III and ImageTrac IV were released in about 2003. In 2009, these scanners were selected for use by the 2010 United States Census. 2010 saw the introduction of the ImageTrac Series 5000 platform. This was followed by the launch of SoftTrac Capture Suite software in 2011, the ImageTracDS line of products in 2012, SoftTrac Synergetics intelligent document recognition software in 2013, and the ImageTrac Series 6000 in 2014. In 2020, the company unveiled the FADGI 3-Star Certified ibmlFUSiON™ high-speed intelligent scanner.
In June 2007, the majority of ibml was purchased by the private equity firm Ares Management. A minority is owned by management. The board of directors consists of two individuals from Ares Management, one independent party, and ibml's CEO, Martin Birch.
References
Further reading
Business Insider article "ibml Unveils World's Fastest, Ultra-High-Volume, Intelligent Scanner: The ibml FUSiON, the Most Comprehensive Intelligent Information Capture Solution", February 10, 2020
RealWire news article "ibml appoints Donald C. Monistere as chief operating officer", June 13, 2019
ECM Connection news article "ibml's ImageTrac Named High Volume Imaging Product Of The Year For Ninth Consecutive Year", November 5, 2015
Zawya news article "Kodak Alaris Showcases Knowledge Share Initiative at GITEX 2014 as it Focuses Investment in the Middle East Region", September 17, 2014
ISM news article "$6.5M home for family-run technology business IBML", May 1, 2005
Document Boss article "Business Leader Interview with Derrick Murphy, CEO of ibml", September 30, 2013
Document Imaging Report article "ibml's Software and Solutions Business Accelerating", October 1, 2014
PR Newswire article "Clear Ballot and ibml Announce Partnership to Introduce Ultra High-Performance Ballot Scanning to Elections", July 13, 2016
ECM Connection news article "ibml Wins UK 2016 Document Manager Product Of The Year Award", December 6, 2016
Software companies of the United States
Software companies established in 1992
Computer storage companies
1992 establishments in the United States
1992 establishments in Alabama
Companies established in 1992
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HoHoCon
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HoHoCon
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HoHoCon (or XmasCon) was a conference series which took place shortly before or after Christmas in Houston, Texas, sponsored by Drunkfux and the hacker ezine Cult of the Dead Cow. The fourth and fifth HoHoCons were also sponsored by Phrack magazine and took place in Austin, Texas. Phreaking software BlueBEEP was released at HoHoCon '93.
HoHoCon is generally credited as being the first "modern" hacker con, although SummerCon was around before it. It inspired later conventions such as DEF CON and HOPE.
All together, there were five conferences.
Conferences
HoHoCon '90 (XmasCon) (Houston, Texas, December 28 - 30 1990)
HoHoCon '91 (Houston, Texas, December 27 - 29 1991)
HoHoCon '92 (Houston, Texas, December 18 - 20 1992)
HoHoCon '93 (Austin, Texas, December 17 - 19 1993)
HoHoCon '94 (Austin, Texas, December 30, 1994 - January 1, 1995)
Cult of the Dead Cow
Culture of Houston
Hacker conventions
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23087437
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford%20University%20centers%20and%20institutes
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Stanford University centers and institutes
|
Stanford University has many centers and institutes dedicated to the study of various specific topics. These centers and institutes may be within a department, within a school but across departments, an independent laboratory, institute or center reporting directly to the Dean of Research and outside any school, or semi-independent of the University itself.
Independent laboratories, institutes and centers
These report directly to the Vice-Provost and Dean of Research and are outside any school though any faculty involved in them must belong to a department in one of the schools. These include Bio-X and Spectrum in the area of Biological and Life Sciences; Precourt Institute for Energy and Woods Institute for the Environment in the Environmental Sciences area; the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences (CASBS), the Center for the Study of Language and Information (CSLI) (see below), Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies (FSI) (see below), Human-Sciences and Technologies Advance Research Institute (H-STAR), Stanford Center on Longevity (SCL), Stanford Humanities Center (see below), and the Stanford Institute for Economic Policy Research (SIEPR) in the area of Humanities and Social Sciences; and, for Physical Sciences, the Edward L. Ginzton Laboratory, the Geballe Laboratory for Advanced Materials, the Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics and Cosmology, Photon Ultrafast Laser Science and Engineering (PULSE), Stanford Institute for Materials and Energy Sciences (SIMES), and W. W. Hansen Experimental Physics Laboratory (HEPL).
Center for the Study of Language and Information
The Center for the Study of Language and Information (CSLI) is an independent research center at Stanford University. Founded in 1983 by philosophers, computer scientists, linguists, and psychologists from Stanford, SRI International, and Xerox PARC, it strives to study all forms of information and improve how humans and computers acquire and process it.
CSLI was initially funded by a US$15 million grant from the System Development Foundation (SDF) for the Situated Language Project, the name of which reflects the strong influence of the work on situation semantics by philosophers John Perry and Jon Barwise, two of the initial leaders of CSLI. This funding supported operations for the first few years as well as the construction of Cordura Hall. Subsequent funding has come from research grants and from an industrial affiliates program.
CSLI's publications branch, founded and still headed by Dikran Karagueuzian, has grown into an important publisher of work in linguistics and related fields. Researchers associated with CSLI include Ronald Kaplan, Patrick Suppes, Edward N. Zalta, the mathematicians Keith Devlin, and Solomon Feferman, the linguists Ivan Sag and Joan Bresnan, Annie Zaenen, Lauri Karttunen, and psychologists Herb Clark, B. J. Fogg and Clifford Nass.
CSLI houses the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. It also housed the Reuters Digital Vision Program.
Directors
Jon Barwise 1983–1985
John Perry 1985–1986, 1993–1999
Thomas Wasow 1986–1987, 2006–2007
John Etchemendy 1990–1993
David Israel c. 1999-2000
Byron Reeves c. 2001–2005
Stanley Peters 2008–2013
Chris Potts 2013–present
Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies
The Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies is a university-wide research and teaching institution at Stanford devoted to understanding international problems, policies, and institutions. The Institute produces interdisciplinary scholarly research, engages in outreach to policymakers and public institutions throughout the world, and trains scholars and future leaders on international issues. Its teaching programs include the graduate-level Master of International Policy as well as honors programs in international security and in democracy, development, and the rule of law. The school is a full member of the Association of Professional Schools of International Affairs (APSIA), a group of schools of public policy, public administration, and international studies.
FSI's core and affiliated faculty represent a range of academic backgrounds and perspectives, including medicine, law, engineering, history, political science, economics, and sociology. The faculty's research and teaching focus on a variety of issues, including governance, domestic and international health policy, migration, development, and security. Their work often examines regional dynamics in areas such as Asia, Europe, Africa and Latin America. FSI faculty conduct research, lead interdisciplinary research programs, educate graduate and undergraduate students, and organize policy outreach that engages Stanford in addressing some of the world's most pressing problems.
The institute is composed of 12 centers and programs, including six major research centers:
Center on Democracy, Development and the Rule of Law (CDDRL)
Center on Food Security and the Environment (FSE)
Center for Health Policy, Primary Care and Outcomes Research (CHP/PCOR)
Center for International Security and Cooperation (CISAC)
The Europe Center (TEC)
Walter H. Shorenstein Asia–Pacific Research Center (APARC)
History
The institute was founded in 1987 following a faculty committee review that concluded Stanford "should be leading the way in International Studies as we do in science and technology", encompassing interdisciplinary teaching, research, public service and administrative functions. It was first called the institute for International Studies, and was created under the direction of former Stanford President Richard Wall Lyman.
The institute was renamed the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies in 2005 following a $50 million gift made by Stanford alumni Bradford M. Freeman and Ronald P. Spogli.
The immediate past director of FSI was Mariano-Florentino Cuéllar, the former Stanley Morrison Professor of Law at Stanford Law School, a former official in the Obama and Clinton presidential administrations, and current Justice of the California Supreme Court. Previous Directors include Stanford President Emeritus Gerhard Casper; Coit D. Blacker, who served as Special Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs and Senior Director for Russian, Ukrainian and Eurasian Affairs at the National Security Council under National Security Advisor Anthony Lake during the Clinton administration; David Holloway; Walter Falcon; and Stanford President Emeritus Richard Lyman.
FSI appoints faculty and research staff, funds research and scholarly initiatives, directs research projects, and sponsors lectures, policy seminars and conferences. By tradition, FSI undertakes joint faculty appointments with Stanford's seven schools and draws faculty together from the University's academic departments and schools to conduct interdisciplinary research on international issues that transcend academic boundaries.
The institute is home to 40 billeted faculty members – most with joint appointments – and 115 affiliated faculty members with a wide range of academic perspectives.
In addition to its six centers, the institute sponsors the Ford Dorsey Master's in International Policy, the Inter-University Center for Japanese Language Studies, the Program on Energy & Sustainable Development, the Rural Education Action Program, the Stanford Center at Peking University, and the Stanford Program on International and Cross-Cultural Education.
Directors
2015–present Michael McFaul
2013–2015 Mariano-Florentino Cuéllar
2012–2013 Gerhard Casper
2003–2012 Coit D. Blacker
1998–2003 David Holloway
1991–1998 Walter Falcon
1987–1991 Richard Wall Lyman
Stanford Humanities Center
Founded in 1980, the Stanford Humanities Center is a multidisciplinary research institute dedicated to advancing knowledge about culture, philosophy, history, and the arts.
History
Since its founding in 1980, the Stanford Humanities Center has been sponsoring advanced research into the historical, philosophical, literary, artistic, and cultural dimensions of the human experience. The Humanities Center's annual fellows, international visitors, research workshops, digital humanities laboratory, and roughly fifty annual public events strengthen the intellectual and creative life of the university, foster innovative and interdisciplinary scholarship and teaching, and enrich our understanding of our common humanity. The humanities support democratic culture by nurturing an informed citizenry and seeking solutions to society's most formidable challenges.
Fellowships
The Center offers approximately twenty-five year-long residential fellowships to Stanford and non-Stanford scholars at different career stages, giving them the opportunity to pursue their research in a supportive intellectual community.
Research Workshops
Each year, Stanford faculty and graduate students create fifteen diverse research workshops to ask new intellectual questions that often challenge disciplinary boundaries. In addition to providing a space for incubating new ideas in a collegial setting, the workshops professionalize graduate students by introducing them to the conventions of academic life.
Manuscript Review Workshops
Assembling a team of faculty experts from Stanford and other universities, the Manuscript Review workshops provide critical feedback to junior faculty preparing monographs or other academic manuscripts of similar scope for submission for publication.
Public Lectures
The Center brings eminent scholars, public intellectuals, and renowned critics to the Stanford campus for lectures and interdisciplinary conferences that enrich the Stanford community with a lively exchange of ideas. Speakers have included Isabel Allende, Roger Chartier, Stephen Jay Gould, Douglas Hofstadter, Gayatri Spivak, Marilynne Robinson, David Adjaye, David Eggers, and other well-known scholars.
Digital Humanities
The Humanities Center, with the Center for Spatial and Textual Analysis (CESTA), is expanding the possibilities of humanities research and teaching at Stanford by creating opportunities for the discovery and dissemination of new knowledge. Humanities Center scholars are on the forefront of innovation with access to new digital tools to interpret the human experience.
International Visitors Program
The Center's short-term visitorships draw distinguished international scholars to Stanford to share their research in lectures and seminars with Stanford faculty and students.
Hume Undergraduate Fellowships
The Humanities Center awards Hume Humanities Honors Fellowships to Stanford seniors writing an honors thesis in a humanities department. In residence for an academic year, Hume fellows contribute to the collegial life of the Center and receive intellectual guidance and mentoring from staff and fellows.
Directors
Ian P. Watt, 1980–1985
Bliss Carnochan, 1985–1991
Herbert Lindenberger, 1991–1992 (interim)
Wanda Corn, 1992–1995
Keith Baker, 1995–2000
Peter Stansky, 2000–2001
John Bender, 2001–2008
Aron Rodrigue, 2008–2013
Caroline Winterer, 2013–present
Distinguished Careers Institute
The Distinguished Careers Institute (DCI), established in 2014, is a year-long residential fellowship for approximately 20 individuals who have already established leadership careers. Fellows are selected based on "how their participation in the program will shape their future life journeys" as well as "what future Fellows will contribute to the program and the broader global community."
Other research centers
Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory
The Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (also known as the Stanford AI Lab, or SAIL) is the artificial intelligence (AI) research laboratory of Stanford University. The current director is Professor Chris Manning.
Early years
SAIL was started in 1963 by John McCarthy, after he moved from Massachusetts Institute of Technology to Stanford. Lester D. "Les" Earnest, also previously of MIT, served as executive officer (self-deprecatingly, "Chief Bureaucrat") at SAIL from 1965 to 1980. During the same years, SAIL was housed in the D.C. Power building, named not for "Direct Current" but rather for Donald Clinton Power, who held the positions of president, C.E.O. and chairman of General Telephone & Electronics Corporation (later GTE Corporation) between 1951 and 1971. GT&E donated the unfinished building to Stanford University after abandoning plans to establish a research center there. During this period SAIL was one of the leading centers for AI research and an early ARPANET site.
D.C. Power was on a hill overlooking Felt Lake in the foothills of the Santa Cruz Mountains behind Stanford.
It was about 5 miles (8 km) from the main campus, at 1600 Arastradero Road, midway between Page Mill Road and Alpine Road.
This area was, and remains, quite rural in nature. Combined with the rather extreme 1960s architecture of the place, this remote setting led to a certain isolation. Some people who worked there reported feeling as if they were already in the future. The building was demolished in 1986; as of 2003, the site is home to Portola Pastures (an equestrian center adjacent to the Arastradero Open Space Preserve).
SAIL created the WAITS operating system on a computer called SAIL. WAITS ran on various models of Digital Equipment Corporation PDP computers, starting with the PDP-6, then the KA10 and KL10. WAITS also ran on Foonly systems at CCRMA and LLL. The SAIL system was shut down in 1991.
SAIL, the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Language, was developed by Dan Swinehart and Bob Sproull of the Stanford AI Lab in 1970.
Alumni of the original SAIL played a major role in many Silicon Valley firms, becoming founders of now-large firms such as Cisco Systems and Sun Microsystems as well as smaller companies such as Vicarm Inc. (acquired by Unimation), Foonly, Elxsi, Imagen, Xidex, Valid Logic Systems, and D.E. Shaw & Co. Research accomplishments at SAIL were many, including in the fields of speech recognition and robotics. Among notable people that had worked at SAIL before its closure included Raj Reddy, Hans Moravec, Alan Kay, Victor Scheinman, Larry Tesler, Don Knuth, and Edward Feigenbaum.
Demise and rebirth
In 1980, SAIL's activities were merged into the university's Computer Science Department and it moved into Margaret Jacks Hall on the main Stanford campus.
SAIL was reopened in 2004, now in the Gates Computer Science Building, with Sebastian Thrun becoming its new director. SAIL's 21st century mission is to "change the way we understand the world"; its researchers contribute to fields such as bioinformatics, cognition, computational geometry, computer vision, decision theory, distributed systems, game theory, general game playing, image processing, information retrieval, knowledge systems, logic, machine learning, multi-agent systems, natural language, neural networks, planning, probabilistic inference, sensor networks, and robotics. The best-known achievement of the new SAIL is the Stanley self-driving car that won the 2005 DARPA Grand Challenge.
Stanford Center for Entrepreneurial Studies
The Center for Entrepreneurial Studies (CES) at Stanford University is a multidisciplinary business oriented program targeted to both undergraduate and graduate students. It incorporates courses from Stanford University School of Engineering and Stanford Graduate School of Business. It also incorporates Stanford Mayfield Scholars Program that seeks to give select undergraduate students an opportunity to take business related coursework and to intern in high tech startups. CES was founded by Tom Byers and Charles A. Holloway.
Center for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics
The Stanford University Center for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics (CCRMA), founded by John Chowning, is a multi-discipline facility where composers and researchers work together using computer-based technology both as an artistic medium and as a research tool. CCRMA's director is Chris Chafe. CCRMA's current faculty includes a mix of musicians and engineers including Julius Smith, Jonathan Berger, Max Mathews (emeritus), Ge Wang, Takako Fujioka, Tom Rossing, Jonathan Abel, Marina Bosi, David Berners, Patricia Alessandrini, Jay Kadis, and Fernando Lopez-Lezcano. Emeritus professor Max Mathews died in 2011.
Widely used digital sound synthesis techniques like FM synthesis and digital waveguide synthesis were developed CCRMA and licensed to industry partners. The FM synthesis patent brought Stanford $20 million before it expired, making it (in 1994) "the second most lucrative licensing agreement in Stanford's history".
Stanford CCRMA is a research center, studying areas of audio and technology including composition, computer music, physical modeling, audio signal processing, sound recording and reproduction, psychoacoustics, acoustics, music information retrieval, audio networking, and spatial sound. The center houses academic courses for Stanford students as well as seminars, small interest group meetings, summer workshops and colloquia for the broader community. Concerts of computer and experimental music are presented regularly throughout year.
The Knoll
Almost 100 years ago, this Spanish Gothic residence, known as the Knoll, was originally designed by Louis Christian Mullgardt, and built as a residence for the University's President. In 1946, the building became home to the Music Department, and then in 1986, CCRMA took over residency.
Damaged in 1989 during the Loma Prieta earthquake, the Knoll nonetheless housed CCRMA in its damaged condition until a complete internal reconstruction between 2004–2005. The reopening of the facility was celebrated in the Spring of 2005 with the CCRMA: newStage Festival. This unique building now comprises several state-of-the-art music studios and top-notch research facilities, hosting a variety of students, artists and scientists.
CCRMA is affiliated with the Center for Computer Assisted Research in the Humanities (CCARH), also located at Stanford. CCARH conducts research on constructing computer databases for music and on creating programs that allow researchers to access, analyze, print, and electronically perform the music.
Stanford Institute for Creativity and the Arts (SiCa)
The Stanford Institute for Creativity and the Arts (SiCa), established in 2006, serves as the core programmatic hub for the Stanford Arts Initiative, leading the development of new undergraduate arts programs, hosting artists in residence, awarding grants for multidisciplinary arts research and teaching, incubating collaborative performances and exhibitions with campus partners and other institutions, and providing centralized communication for arts events and programs at Stanford University.
National Performance of Dams Program
The Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering maintains the National Performance of Dams Program, a national database of structural and operational data related to dam systems in the U.S. Begun in 1994, this program provides data to the dam engineering and safety community about the in-service performance of dam systems. The analysis of this data covering both successful operations and incidents, including failures, is intended to lead to improvements in design and requirements, engineering processes and standards, operational procedures and guidelines, and public policy development.
Michelle R. Clayman Institute for Gender Research
Founded in 1974, and named after economist Michelle R. Clayman, the Michelle R. Clayman Institute for Gender Research at Stanford University is one of the nation's oldest research organizations focused on the study of gender. The Clayman Institute designs basic interdisciplinary research, creates knowledge, networks people and ideas at Stanford, nationally, and internationally to effect change and promote gender equality. The Clayman Institute plays an integral role in the Stanford community by bringing together local, national and international scholars and thought leaders from across disciplines to create knowledge and effect change. The place where the Clayman Institute is located was renamed the Carolyn Lewis Attneave House in 2019. It was formerly named Serra House after Junípero Serra.
History
In 1972 faculty and graduate students in the feminist movement were the impetus behind the formation of the Institute. In 1974, the Center for Research on Women (CROW) was the first interdisciplinary center or institute of its kind and quickly built a strong reputation under the direction of Myra Strober, the founding Director. The reputation of CIGR grew outside Stanford, and the University of Chicago Press chose Stanford as the base of the second five-year rotation of its new interdisciplinary journal, Signs.
In 1983 the Institute was renamed the Institute for Research on Women and Gender (IRWG) and continued to expand the gender conversation with the “Difficult Dialogues” program, which ran in the 1990s through 2004. In 2004, the new Director, Professor Londa Schiebinger, a historian of science, formed a plan to create a series of research initiatives on gender issues, backed by a research fellowship program, that would attract scholars from Stanford and abroad. With the help of matching funds from the Hewlett Foundation and strong support from the Institute's Advisory Council, Schiebinger spearheaded a fundraising drive to create an endowment for the Institute. IRWG was renamed in honor of Michelle R. Clayman, the major donor in the campaign, who serves as the Chair of the Institute's Advisory Council.
Research
The Clayman Institute designs basic research and supports the creation of knowledge through its Fellowships and interdisciplinary programs. Recent reports/publications include:
Gendered Innovations in Science and Engineering, Londa Schiebinger, ed., 2008.
Dual-Career Academic Couples: What Universities Need to Know. The Michelle R. Clayman Institute, 2008. This Clayman Institute research study shows that over 70% of faculty are in dual-career relationships. This report tackles tough questions and recommends policies to maximize options.
Climbing the Technical Ladder: Obstacles and Solutions for Mid-Level Women in Information Technology. The Michelle R. Clayman Institute and the Anita Borg Institute, 2008. This report provides an in-depth look into the barriers to retention and advancement of technical women in Silicon Valley's high tech industry and provides practical recommendations to employers on overcoming these barriers.
Fellowships
The Clayman Institute runs two fellowship programs. The Faculty Research Fellowships seek to drive intellectual and social innovation through interdisciplinary gender studies. They include residential fellowships for tenured, tenure-track, and postdoctoral scholars from Stanford University, and U.S. and foreign universities. The Clayman Institute also offers Graduate Dissertation Fellowships for Stanford University doctoral students. Fellowships are awarded to students who are in the writing stages of their dissertations, and whose research focuses on women and/or gender.
Directors
1974–77 Myra Strober
1977-79 Diane Middlebrook
1979-84 Myra Strober
1984-85 Marilyn Yalom (Deputy Director, as Acting Director)
1985-86 Judith Brown (Acting Director)
1986-90 Deborah Rhode
1990-97 Iris Litt
1997–2001 Laura Carstensen
2001–04 Barbara Gelpi (Acting Director)
2004–10 Londa Schiebinger
2010- Shelley J. Correll
Martin Luther King Jr. Research and Education Institute
Stanford is home to the Martin Luther King Jr. Research and Education Institute which grew out of and still contains the Martin Luther King Jr. Papers Project, a collaboration with the King Center to publish the King papers held by the King Center.
Affiliations
Stanford's Center for Computer Research and Acoustics is part of a consortium with CNMAT and the Institut de Recherche et Coordination Acoustique/Musique (IRCAM) in Paris.
See also
Hoover Institution , a conservative think tank which is affiliated with Stanford University. The Hoover Institution staffed numerous positions in the Trump administration.
SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, a particle physics research facility. Run by Stanford University under the programmatic direction of the United States Department of Energy
SRI International, originally the Stanford Research Institute, but independent since 1970
References
External links
Dean of Research list of Independent Laboratories, Institutes and Centers
Research Centers (not independent)
SAIL homepage
CCRMA homepage
Searchable CCRMA archive: https://web.archive.org/web/20090118104407/http://www.nabble.com/CCRMA-f2875.html
CSLI's website
Official Web Site of FSI
Arts Initiative/SiCa Website
Stanford Humanities Center main website
National Performance of Dams Program (NPDP)
Michelle R. Clayman Institute
Oral history interviews on the Michelle R. Clayman Institute with Nannerl Keohane and Marilyn Yalom, Stanford Historical Society Oral History Program
Oral history interviews with Terry Winograd, Raj Reddy, Bruce Buchanan and Allen Newell. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.
Stanford
Stanford
Stanford
Artificial intelligence laboratories
Computer science institutes in the United States
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60447421
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vkernel
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Vkernel
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A virtual kernel architecture (vkernel) is an operating system virtualisation paradigm where kernel code can be compiled to run in the user space, for example, to ease debugging of various kernel-level components, in addition to general-purpose virtualisation and compartmentalisation of system resources. It is used by DragonFly BSD in its vkernel implementation since DragonFly 1.7, having been first revealed in , and first released in the stable branch with DragonFly 1.8 in .
The long-term goal, in addition to easing kernel development, is to make it easier to support internet-connected computer clusters without compromising local security.
Similar concepts exist in other operating systems as well; in Linux, a similar virtualisation concept is known as user-mode Linux; whereas in NetBSD since the summer of 2007, it has been the initial focus of the rump kernel infrastructure.
The virtual kernel concept is nearly the exact opposite of the unikernel concept — with vkernel, kernel components get to run in userspace to ease kernel development and debugging, supported by a regular operating system kernel; whereas with a unikernel, userspace-level components get to run directly in kernel space for extra performance, supported by baremetal hardware or a hardware virtualisation stack. However, both vkernels and unikernels can be used for similar tasks as well, for example, to self-contain software to a virtualised environment with low overhead. In fact, NetBSD's rump kernel, originally having a focus of running kernel components in userspace, has since shifted into the unikernel space as well (going after the anykernel moniker for supporting both paradigms).
The vkernel concept is different from FreeBSD jail in that jail is only meant for resource isolation, and cannot be used to develop and test new kernel functionality in the userland, because each jail is sharing the same kernel. (DragonFly, however, still has FreeBSD jail support as well.)
In DragonFly, the vkernel can be thought of as a first-class computer architecture, comparable to i386 or amd64, and, according to Matthew Dillon circa 2007, can be used as a starting point for porting DragonFly BSD to new architectures.
DragonFly's vkernel is supported by the host kernel through new system calls that help manage virtual memory address space (vmspace) — vmspace_create() et al., as well as extensions to several existing system calls like mmap's madvise — mcontrol.
See also
user-mode Linux
rump kernel
References
External links
2006 software
BSD software
Computer architecture
Computer performance
DragonFly BSD
Free software programmed in C
Free virtualization software
Operating system kernels
Operating system security
Operating system technology
System administration
Virtual machines
Virtualization software
Software using the BSD license
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44459119
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detekt
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Detekt
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Detekt is a discontinued free tool by Amnesty International, Digitale Gesellschaft, EFF, and Privacy International to scan for surveillance software on Microsoft Windows.
It was intended for use by activists and journalists to scan for known spyware.
The tool
Detekt was available for free download.
The tool did not guarantee detection of all spyware, nor was it meant to give a false sense of security, and was meant to be used with other methods to combat malware and spyware.
In 2014, the Coalition Against Unlawful Surveillance Exports estimated that the global trade in surveillance technologies was worth more than 3 billion GBP annually.
Detekt was available in Amharic, Arabic, English, German, Italian, and Spanish.
Technical
The tool required no installation, and was designed to scan for surveillance software on Windows PCs, from XP to Windows 8.1.
The tool scanned for current surveillance software, and after scanning, it would display a summary indicating if any spyware was found or not. It would generate a log file containing the details.
The tool did not guarantee absolute protection from surveillance software, as it scanned for known spyware (at the time of release), which could be modified to circumvent detection, or as new software would become available. Therefore, a clean bill of health didn't necessarily mean that the PC was free of surveillance software.
The website instructed the user to disconnect the internet connection, and close all applications, before running, and not to turn the connection back on if any spyware was found.
Detekt was released under the GPLv3 free license.
Detekt was developed by Claudio Guarnieri with the help of Bill Marczak, Morgan Marquis-Boire, Eva Galperin, Tanya O'Carroll, Andre Meister, Jillian York, Michael Ligh, Endalkachew Chala.
It was provided with patterns for the following malware: DarkComet RAT, XtremeRAT, BlackShades RAT, njRAT, FinFisher FinSpy, HackingTeam RCS, ShadowTech RAT, Gh0st RAT.
See also
Computer and network surveillance
Computer surveillance in the workplace
Internet censorship
Internet privacy
Freedom of information
Tor (anonymity network)
2013 mass surveillance disclosures
References
External links
Computer forensics
Computer surveillance
Internet security
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17811986
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Chosen%20Few%20%28reggae%20group%29
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The Chosen Few (reggae group)
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The Chosen Few are a reggae group from Kingston, Jamaica, formed in 1969 and were popular until the mid-1980s. Today they still draw appreciative audiences around the globe.
History
The Chosen Few evolved from The Federals, with the latter's Franklin Spence and David Scott joined by Noel Bunny Brown and Richard McDonald. They initially recorded reggae covers of songs by artists such as Blue Mink and The Delfonics for producer Derrick Harriott. Scott left the group to embark on a solo career as a deejay, to be replaced by Busty Brown, formerly of The Messengers. The line-up changed again, with McDonald being replaced by Errol Brown, the group working with producer Lloyd Charmers and enjoying hits with versions of The Stylistics' "People Make The World Go Round" among others, followed in 1973 by the album Hit After Hit. This was followed in 1975 by Everybody Plays The Fool and in 1976 by the Miami-recorded Night and Day album (aka The Chosen Few In Miami), mixing reggae on one side with soul on the other, and featuring guest performances from members of KC and the Sunshine Band. Their success in the 1970s saw them touring The United States, Canada, and England.
The group continued in the 1980s, with Franklin Spence and Errol Brown joined by Michael Deslandes, Barry White/Isaac Hayes guitarist Emmett North Jr., recorded and performed with them around London and UK also their band leader from 1981-1984 (Momo-Watt).
Albums
Hit After Hit (1973) Trojan
Everybody Plays The Fool (1975) Trojan
Night and Day aka The Chosen Few In Miami (1976) Trojan
"I Love The Way You Love Baby" - LP a rare 1975 album. (TRM 5780)
References
External links
The Chosen Few at Roots Archives
Jamaican reggae musical groups
Musical groups established in 1969
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1987847
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beno%C3%AEt%20de%20Sainte-Maure
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Benoît de Sainte-Maure
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Benoît de Sainte-Maure (; died 1173) was a 12th-century French poet, most probably from Sainte-Maure-de-Touraine near Tours, France. The Plantagenets' administrative center was located in Chinon, west of Tours.
Le Roman de Troie
His 40,000 line poem Le Roman de Troie ("The Romance of Troy"), written between 1155 and 1160, was a medieval retelling on the epic theme of the Trojan War which inspired a body of literature in the genre called the roman antique, loosely assembled by the poet Jean Bodel as the Matter of Rome. The Trojan subject itself, for which de Sainte-Maure provided an impetus, is referred to as the Matter of Troy.
Chronique des ducs de Normandie
Another major work, by a Benoît, probably Benoît de Sainte-Maure, is a lengthy verse Chronique des ducs de Normandie. Its manuscript at Tours, dating to 1180–1200, is probably the oldest surviving text in Old French transcribed on the Continent. The first published edition was by Francisque Michel, 3 volumes, 1868-1844, based on the British Library manuscript. The standard edition is by Carin Fahlin (Uppsala), 3 volumes, 1951–1967, and is based on the Tours manuscript with variants from the British one.
'Beneeit' is mentioned at the end of Wace's Roman de Rou, which is also on the subject of the Dukes of Normandy:
Notes
References
Benoît de Sainte-Maure, Le Roman de Troie, edited by Léopold Constans, 6 vols., Société des Anciens Textes Français, Paris: Firmin Didot, 1904–1912.
Cristian Bratu, « Je, auteur de ce livre »: L’affirmation de soi chez les historiens, de l’Antiquité à la fin du Moyen Âge. Later Medieval Europe Series (vol. 20). Leiden: Brill, 2019 ().
Cristian Bratu, “Translatio, autorité et affirmation de soi chez Gaimar, Wace et Benoît de Sainte-Maure.” The Medieval Chronicle 8 (2013): 135-164.
C. Durand, Illustrations médiévales de la légende de Troie. Catalogue commenté des manuscrits fr. illustrés du Roman de Troie et de ses dérivés, Brepols Publishers, 2010,
External links
Benoît de Sainte-Maure on Archives de Littérature du Moyen Âge, Laurent Brun et al., last updated January 2019.
Chronique des ducs de Normandie, Francisque Michel (editor), available online via Internet Archive (tome I, tome II, tome III).
1173 deaths
French poets
12th-century French writers
Trojan War literature
Epic poets
Romance (genre)
Year of birth unknown
12th-century French poets
French male poets
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861471
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old%20World%20ROM
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Old World ROM
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Old World ROM computers are the Macintosh (Mac) models that use a Macintosh Toolbox read-only memory (ROM) chip, usually in a socket (but soldered to the motherboard in some models). All Macs prior to the iMac, the iBook, the Blue and White Power Mac G3 and the Bronze Keyboard (Lombard) PowerBook G3 use Old World ROM, while said models, as well as all subsequent models until the introduction of the Intel-based EFI Models, are New World ROM machines. In particular, the Beige Power Mac G3 and all other beige and platinum-colored Power Macs are Old World ROM machines. In common use, the "Old World" designation usually applies to the early generations of PCI-based "beige" Power Macs (and sometimes the first NuBus-equipped models), but not the older Motorola 68000-based Macs; however, the Toolbox runs the same way on all three types of machines.
Details
PCI Power Macs with an Old World ROM contain an Open Firmware implementation, and a copy of the Macintosh Toolbox as an Open Firmware device. These machines are set to boot from this device by default, thus starting the normal Macintosh startup procedure. This can be changed, just as on New World ROM Macs, but with limitations placed on what devices and formats can be used; on these machines, particularly the early machines like the Power Macintosh 9500, the Open Firmware implementation was just enough to enumerate PCI devices and load the Toolbox ROM, and these Open Firmware revisions have several bugs which must be worked around by boot loaders or nvramrc patches. The Open Firmware environment can be entered by holding the key combination while booting.
All Power Macs emulate a 68LC040 CPU inside a nanokernel; this emulator is then used to boot the predominantly 68k-based Toolbox, and is also used to support applications written for the 68k processor. Once Toolbox is running, PPC machines can boot into Mac OS directly.
On all Old World ROM machines, once Toolbox is loaded, the boot procedure is the same. Toolbox executes a memory test, enumerates Mac OS devices it knows about (this varies from model to model), and either starts the on-board video (if present) or the option ROM on a NuBus or PCI video card. Toolbox then checks for a disk in the floppy drive, and scans all SCSI buses for a disk with a valid System Folder, giving preference to whatever disk is set as the startup disk in the parameter RAM.
If a bootable disk is found, the Happy Mac logo is displayed, and control is handed over to the Mac OS. If no disk to boot from is present, an icon depicting a floppy disk with a blinking question mark in the middle will be displayed. If a hardware problem occurs during the early part of the boot process, the machine will display the Sad Mac icon with a hexadecimal error code and freeze; on Macs made after 1987, this will be accompanied by the Chimes of Death sound.
Since the Old World ROM usually boots to Toolbox, most OSs have to be installed using a boot loader from inside Mac OS (BootX is commonly used for Linux installations). 68K-based Macs and NuBus Power Macs must have Mac OS installed to load another OS (even A/UX, which was an Apple product), usually with virtual memory turned off. PCI Power Macs can be configured to boot into Open Firmware, allowing the firmware to load a boot loader directly, or they can use a specially-prepared floppy disk to trick the Toolbox into loading a kernel (this is used for Linux installation floppy images).
The simplest way to identify an Old World ROM Mac is that it will not have a factory built-in USB port. Only New World ROM Macs featured a USB port as factory equipment.
See also
BootX (Linux), the standard LinuxPPC boot loader for Old World machines
Quik (boot loader), a replacement boot loader for Old World PCI systems
External links
Macintosh operating systems
Macintosh firmware
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378018
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common-channel%20signaling
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Common-channel signaling
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In telecommunication, common-channel signaling (CCS), or common-channel interoffice signaling (CCIS), is the transmission of control information (signaling) via a separate channel than that used for the messages, The signaling channel usually controls multiple message channels.
In the public switched telephone network (PSTN) one channel of a communications link is typically used for the sole purpose of carrying signaling for establishment and tear down of telephone calls. The remaining channels are used entirely for the transmission of voice messages. In most cases, a single channel is sufficient to handle the call setup and call clear-down traffic for numerous bearer (voice and data) channels.
The technical alternative to CCS is channel-associated signaling (CAS), in which each bearer channel has a dedicated signaling channel.
CCS offers the following advantages over CAS, in the context of the PSTN:
Faster call set-up time
Greater trunking efficiency due to the quicker set up and clearing, thereby reducing traffic on the network
Can transfer additional information along with the signaling traffic, providing features such as caller ID
Signaling can be performed mid-call
The most common CCS signaling methods in use are Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) and Signalling System No. 7 (SS7).
ISDN signaling is used primarily on trunks connecting end-user private branch exchange (PBX) systems to a central office. SS7 is primarily used within the PSTN. The two signaling methods are very similar since they share a common heritage and in some cases, the same signaling messages are transmitted in both ISDN and SS7.
Common channel signaling networks
A CCS network provides signaling message transfer for participating Common Channel Signaling Switching Offices (CCSSOs), databases, and operator systems. It is a packet-switched communication network that allows call control and transaction messages from the voice and data networks to be transferred on communications paths that are separate from the voice and data connections.
CCS messages provide for transaction-based services and for call control signaling between network nodes. The architecture for a CCS network is generally based on the geographical location of signaling points, the number and sizes of signaling points, the expected traffic load, and the services to be provided by the network.
Regardless of the type of architecture selected, the CCS network will consist of a combination of the following components:
Signaling Link - A communication path between two adjacent Signaling Points (SPs) in the CCS network.
Link Set - A set of signaling links that connects the same pair of adjacent signaling points.
Combined Link Set - A collection of link sets from a signaling node over which message traffic to a given destination is shared.
Signaling Point (SP) - An SP transmits, receives, and processes CCS(SS7) messages. An SP can be a Signaling End Point (SEP) or a Signaling Transfer Point (STP).
Signaling Transfer Point (STP) - An SP that performs message routing functions and provides switching of messages between SEPs.
Signaling End Point (SEP) - An SP, other than an STP, with the ability to serve as a source or a sink for CCS messages.
Service Control Point (SCP) - An SEP that acts as a database to provide information to another SEP, e.g., a Service Switching Point (SSP) or another SCP, for processing and/or routing certain types of network calls.
Signaling Gateway - Responsible for exchanging SS7 messages over a set of links from an SS7 node in a Voice Over Packet (VOP) network to a traditional PSTN network and encapsulating the user information (either ISUP for call setup or SCCP/TCAP for service related signaling) contained in the message for distribution to the Call Control Agent (CCA).
Internet Call Router (ICR) - Also called the Internet Offload, the ICR is a new network element used in the “post-switch" off-load architecture.
Switch - An SEP that is equipped to switch end user voice or data calls.
Combined Node (CN) – An SP that combines the functions of two or more types of SPs.
A-Link Concentrator (ALC) - An SP that has the Message Transfer Part (MTP) functionality of an STP and also serves as a CCSSO.
Interconnecting CCS networks
As CCS networks have continued to evolve, and network interconnection architectures and the services they support have grown more complex, it has become necessary to identify the type of behavior all network providers are expected to exhibit when specific requirements do not exist.
Providers of Interconnecting CCS networks and other interconnecting networks need information about the processes and interfaces that need to be supported to ensure that call originations routed via other interconnecting networks receive at least the same quality of service as intranetwork calls.
Telcordia GR-905, Common Channel Signaling Network Interface Specification (CCSNIS) Supporting Network Interconnection, Message Transfer Part (MTP), and Integrated Services Digital Network User Part (ISDNU), contains this important information and includes information for providers of Legacy Network Gateway and Legacy Selective Router Gateway systems to support the delivery of emergency calls between legacy origination networks and IP-enabled PSAPs, as well as emergency calls routed via Emergency Services IP Networks (ESInets) and legacy PSAPs that are served by Selective Routers. It provides explicit references to ANSI and ATIS Standards and ITU-T Recommendations.
Notes
References
Telecommunications standards
Telephony signals
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4733149
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stromberg-Carlson
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Stromberg-Carlson
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Stromberg-Carlson was a telecommunications equipment and electronics manufacturing company in the United States. It was formed in 1894 as a partnership by Swedish immigrants Alfred Stromberg (1861 Varnhem, Sweden - 1913 Chicago) and Androv Carlson (1854 Tommared, Sweden - 1925 Chicago). It was one of five companies that controlled the national supply of telephone equipment until after World War II.
History
In 1894, Alexander Graham Bell's expired. Stromberg and Carlson, Chicago employees of the American Bell Telephone Company (later AT&T), each invested $500 to establish a firm to manufacture equipment, primarily subscriber sets, for sale to independent telephone companies.
Stromberg-Carlson was originally located in Chicago, with Carlson managing manufacturing and Stromberg responsible for marketing. Stromberg-Carlson quickly established a reputation for reliable equipment and stable prices.
In 1901, the temporary chief executive of the Kellogg Switchboard & Supply Company, Wallace De Wolf, assisted executives of rival telephone equipment manufacturer Western Electric in an attempt to take over Stromberg-Carlson. A bitter stockholder fight ensued, and the takeover attempt failed. Stromberg-Carlson reincorporated as a New York state corporation in 1902, where state law better protected the company from takeover efforts.
In 1904, Stromberg-Carlson was purchased by Home Telephone Company, a relatively large service provider based in Rochester, New York. The new owners quickly relocated all Stromberg-Carlson operations to New York, mainly to the Rochester area. The company branched out to become a major manufacture of consumer electronics including home telephones, radio receivers, and, after World War II, television sets. The company also became involved in the broadcasting industry, acquiring WHAM, the oldest station in Rochester, and rebuilding it into a high power station; one of the first three FM broadcasting stations in the United States, and possibly the oldest still in operation, now known as WBZA, dating from 1939; and one of upstate New York's pioneer television broadcasters, now known as WROC-TV. In 1955, Stromberg-Carlson was purchased by General Dynamics. Within a year, all three of its broadcasting stations had been sold to different buyers.
In 1970, Stromberg-Carlson delivered the first CrossReed PBX to the newly constructed Disney World in Orlando Florida. Over the next 10 years more than 7,000 CrossReeds were delivered globally.
During the 1970s, Stromberg-Carlson developed what is arguably the first fully digital PBX, called the DBX. The first DBX was installed at Export, Pennsylvania in 1977 and consisted of 960 ports. While this first field trial had limited success, Stromberg went on to develop the DBX-240, DBX-1200 and the DBX-5000. Also during this same period, Stromberg developed a number of leading edge technologies and products, including the first digital AUTOVON switching system and the first digital Command and Control communications system.
In 1982, General Dynamics sold off their Stromberg-Carlson operations. Stromberg key-systems was sold to ComDial, the PBX/DBX division was sold to United Technologies, and the Central Office division was sold to Plessey of the UK. Plessey sold the digital central office business unit to Siemens in 1991. The new company, Siemens Stromberg-Carlson, became the third-largest vendor of central office switches in the United States, with a combined installed base of 5 million access lines. They continued to manufacture the Siemens digital central office as well as the Siemens EWSD out of the Lake Mary facility, moving production of the EWSD from New York to Florida.
In 2006 the digital central office line of Siemens Stromberg-Carlson was sold to GENBAND, a Next Generation Networking company based in Texas.
Products
Switching systems
Stromberg-Carlson produced several unique switching systems, including:
XY, a "flat motion" switch logically similar to Strowger switching. The "XY Selector" was not invented by SC, but licensed from L.M. Ericsson of Sweden in the late 1940s and re-engineered for U.S. switching applications (Ericsson used it for PABX and a very small Rural Exchange application). XY was very popular with REA (RURAL ELECTRIFICATION ADMINISTRATION) funded independent telephone companies and out sold all other vendors in the less than 1000 line applications in the 1950s. The largest XY ever in service was installed in Anchorage, AK by RCA Corporation for the U.S. Air Force. Later purchased by Anchorage Telephone Co, it eventually grew to over 10,000 lines.
CrossReed 400/800/1600, an electronically controlled, wired-logic PBX with expansion up to 2,400 ports; notable for its quick dial tone speed & first video telephone in the world.
ESC, an early electronic, wired logic, reed-switch with a matrix similar to the AE EAX. The ESC, was not however Stored Program Control and had more in common with crossbar switching than other SPC electronic switching systems. It was however notable for its quick dialtone speed. (ESC-1, ESC-2, ESC-3 and ESC-4)
Stromberg created the DBX-1344/5136, the first fully digital PBX. It used a LSI/PDP-11 microprocessor in the early models. The product line was sold many times and eventually was employee purchased. The new company, Digital Voice Corp, added the DBX-288 & Excalibur lines and grew up to over 32,000 ports & 128,000 directories in the Excalibur.
Digital Central Office, a time-division switch similar to DMS-10. The Stromberg-Carlson digital central office was the first Class-5 digital local office switching system installed in the U.S. Stromberg-Carlson put their switch (lab-prototype)into service in July 1977 in Richmond Hill, Georgia. This switch was SC's "REA FIELD TRIAL" office, but was never accepted by the telephone company (Coastal Utilities Inc) and was replaced with a Northern Telecom DMS-10 in the early 1980s.
Military, institutional and consumer electronics
In addition to telephone equipment Stromberg-Carlson produced military communications gear, institutional sound systems, and high-end stereophonic equipment. Many included Stromberg Carlsons "Acoustic Labyrinth" loudspeaker enclosure design, a forerunner of the modern transmission line loudspeaker enclosures.
In the early 1960s, Stromberg-Carlson also produced the SC4020, a computer-controlled film recorder used chiefly for Computer Output Microfilm applications. The SC4020 could output graphics and text either to 16mm microfilm or hardcopy (using chemically-developed light-sensitive paper) utilizing a Charactron CRT as the heart of the recorder (with the microfilm camera pointed directly at the face of the Charactron inside a light-proof column inside the 4020). Some 4020s were fitted with a 16mm motion picture camera instead of the stock microfilm camera, in order to create some of the first computer-generated animation.
Among Stromberg-Carlson's ventures were:
Radio and television receivers, loudspeakers, paging systems, commercial sound amplifiers, and microphones
The ubiquitous BC-348 HF radio, originally manufactured for the U.S. Air Force during World War II and for a decade after
Institutional intercom and public address systems
Ground-Air-Ground tactical communications, AUTOVON and secure systems used by various government agencies worldwide
Fire alarm products, such as bells and horns
SC4020 Microfilm Printer & Plotter
The microfilm printer was originally developed for the Social Security Administration to handle its large volume of microfilm data. In 1959, Stromberg-Carlson introduced the SC4020, a computer-controlled microfilm printer and plotter, used chiefly for COM (Computer Output Microfilm) applications. The SC4020 utilized a Charactron cathode-ray-tube (CRT) with an internal mask (or stencil) through which the electron beam was deflected to choose an alphanumeric character, and the character-shaped beam was then deflected to a target position on the faceplate of the CRT. A 35 mm or 16 mm shutterless camera, in a lightproof enclosed cabinet along with the CRT, captured the imagery produced on the faceplate. The film was then developed chemically, separate from the SC4020, and could be later enlarged onto paper. The instructions to control the SC4020 were created by a mainframe computer and transferred to the SC4020 on magnetic tape. A “quick-look,” separate from the SC4020, was available using zinc oxide photosensitized paper.
Though intended as a high-speed printer, the SC4020 could be used to create vector-graphical output of scientific and engineering data, rather than plotting numbers by hand. Early installations of the SC4020, with its plotter capability, were at the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory in Livermore, CA and at Bell Telephone Laboratories, Incorporated in Murray Hill, NJ. The SC4020 could also be used to create computer-animated movies on a frame-by-frame basis. These computer-animated movies, usually using vector graphics, were of scientific and engineering data and also of artistic investigations, done with the 35 mm camera or the 16 mm camera. Pin-registered cameras were used for creating movies on the SC4020 to minimize jitter. Computer-animated movies using raster graphics were created on the SC4020 at Bell Labs in the early 1960s using FORTRAN and the BEFLIX subroutine language.
A much larger 19-inch diameter Charactron CRT was used for military radar-screen displays. Around 1968, the Stromberg DatagraphiX SD4360, controlled by a minicomputer, was introduced as a replacement of the SC4020, and replaced the SC4020 at Bell Labs. “SC4020” seems to have become almost a generic term, including not only the original SC4020 but also the various similar machines that followed.
Timeline
1948 First Charactron cathode ray tube built.
1949 Convair begins development project of Charactron program.
1954 Major contract for Charactron tubes received (SAGE). First Charactron microfilm printer (Model 100) built.
1955 Stromberg-Carlson merges with General Dynamics and Charactron Project transferred from Convair to Stromberg-Carlson.
1959 First graphic COM recorder introduced (Model 4020).
1961 General Dynamics Electronic Division acquires Charactron project.
1964 Reorganization moves Charactron group back to Stromberg-Carlson where it becomes the Data Products Division.
1965 Model 4400 business COM recorder introduced.
1966 Production begins on Model 4060 (first minicomputer-controlled COM recorder).
1967 Datagraphix introduces its first microfiche reader.
1968 Data Products Division of Stromberg-Carlson Corporation established as separate corporation, Stromberg Datagraphics, Inc.
1969 Company name changed to Stromberg Datagraphix, Inc. First production models of A-NEW:AN-ASA7O delivered to Navy.
1970 Model 4200 On-Line COM Recorder introduced.
1972 First laser beam COM recorder exhibited.
1973 System 4500 (Models 4530 and 4550) introduced.
1975 Models 4540 and 4560 COM recorders introduced.
1976 AutoCOM/AutoFICHE introduced. Name officially changed to Datagraphix, Inc.
1977 Mini-AutoCOM and On-Line AutoCOM recorders introduced. First 132-column display terminal introduced.
1980 Installed first Model 9800 high-speed laser page printer.
Non U.S. branding
In Argentina, the brand was acquired by Gularo S.A., a manufacturer of MP3/MP4 players, DVDs, phones, GPS receivers, televisions and speakers.
References
Further reading
Adams, Stephen B. and Butler, Orville R. Manufacturing the Future: A History of Western Electric. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
Cohen, Andrew Wender. The Racketeer's Progress: Chicago and the Struggle for the Modern American Economy, 1900-1940. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
"Kellogg Switchboard & Supply Co." Dictionary of Leading Chicago Businesses (1820-2000). Chicago: Chicago Historical Society, 2005.
100 Years of Telephone Switching (1878-1978: Part 1: Manual and Electromechanical Switching) (Pt. 1) by Robert J. Chapuis and Amos E. Joel
External links
An 1894 Stromberg Carlson telephone, one of the oldest operating telephones in the U.S., is available for public use at the Shohola Museum of Communications and Technology.
Further history details, as Datagraphix was acquired by Anacomp. DocuLynx then acquired Anacomp, as COM(Computer Output Microfiche) passed into the history books.
Defunct telecommunications companies of the United States
Audio amplifier manufacturers
American companies established in 1894
History of Chicago
Telecommunications companies established in 1894
Audio equipment manufacturers of the United States
1955 mergers and acquisitions
General Dynamics
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20934816
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micro%20Focus%20Quality%20Center
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Micro Focus Quality Center
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Micro Focus Quality Center, formerly known as HP Quality Center is a quality management software offered by Micro Focus, who acquired the software division of Hewlett Packard Enterprise in 2017, with many capabilities acquired from Mercury Interactive Corporation. Quality Center offers software quality assurance, including requirements management, test management and business process testing for IT and application environments. Quality Center is a component of the Micro Focus Application Lifecycle Management software set.
Product packaging
Micro Focus Quality Center is available in the following editions:
Community
Express
Enterprise
Community and Express editions are designed for entry-level software quality assurance organizations. The Enterprise edition, originally called Mercury TestDirector for Quality Center, is for software quality assurance organizations that manage medium to large releases. For large and global organizations, Micro Focus Application Lifecycle Management incorporates the capabilities of Quality Center Enterprise Tracking, Enterprise Release Management and Asset Sharing for requirements management through application delivery.
Quality Center is also available as a Software-as-a-Service offering.
System requirements
Micro Focus Quality Center runs on the Windows platforms with an Internet Explorer browser. In combination with the ALM Explorer Add-in, it can be executed as a normal desktop application.
Micro Focus has published information regarding about ALM's server-side and client-side system requirements, and are updated periodically as new versions and patches are released.
References
Software quality
Software testing tools
Bug and issue tracking software
Quality Center
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27854747
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990%20USC%20Trojans%20football%20team
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1990 USC Trojans football team
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The 1990 USC Trojans football team represented the University of Southern California (USC) in the 1990 NCAA Division I-A football season. In their fourth year under head coach Larry Smith, the Trojans compiled an 8–4–1 record (5–2–1 against conference opponents), finished in second place in the Pacific-10 Conference (Pac-10), and outscored their opponents by a combined total of 348 to 274.
USC began the season by beating Syracuse in the eighth Kickoff Classic. They also won non-conference games against Penn State and Ohio State, the latter of which was suspended with 2:36 remaining because of severe thunderstorms. The Trojans would finish second in the Pac-10 and lost to Michigan State in their bowl game in an outcome reminiscent of their 1987 season.
Quarterback Todd Marinovich led the team in passing, completing 196 of 322 passes for 2,423 yards with 13 touchdowns and 12 interceptions. Mazio Royster led the team in rushing with 235 carries for 1,168 yards and eight touchdowns. Gary Wellman led the team in receiving with 66 catches for 1,015 yards and five touchdowns.
Schedule
Season summary
Syracuse
Penn State
References
USC
USC Trojans football seasons
USC Trojans football
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58906044
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walsingham%20%281795%20ship%29
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Walsingham (1795 ship)
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Walsingham (or Walsingham Packet), launched in 1795, was a Falmouth packet. Shortly after her launch a French privateer captured her but the British Royal Navy quickly recaptured her. Her recapture gave rise to a court case. In 1815 she successfully repelled an American privateer in a notable single-ship action. She continued to serve the Post Office until 1826 when she was sold. She was wrecked in 1828.
Career
Hill & Melish built Walsingham for the Post Office Packet Service. However, the vessel's masters owned and managed her. During her career she sailed where the Post Office sent her, including Portugal, Brazil, North America, Jamaica, Malta, and elsewhere.
On 26 September 1795 Porcupine and recaptured Walsingham Packet. The French corvette brig Insolent, of 18 guns and 90 men, had captured Walsingham Packet on 13 September as Walsingham Packet, Bell, master, was sailing from Falmouth to Lisbon. Insolent narrowly escaped being herself captured at the recapture of Walsingham Packet, getting into Lorient as the British ships came into range.
Walsingham Packet had a cargo on board at the time of her capture. The British and Portuguese owners of the cargo claimed it. However, her captors disputed their claim to the cargo, pointing out that it was illegal for packets to engage in commercial trade. Justice Sir William Scott (Baron Stowell), of the High Court of Admiralty, rejected the cargo owners' claim, but left open the question of to whom the cargo would be condemned.
Lloyd's List reported on 27 November 1807 that Walsingham Packet had arrived at Falmouth with the mails for Lisbon. She had left Lisbon on the 4th after shore batteries on the Tagus River. On 22 October the government in Portugal had published a proclamation closing all Portugal's ports to British vessels, whether naval or commercial. The proclamation was in response to Napoleon's demands as he implemented the Continental System. Mr. Chamberlain, the Post Office's agent at Lisbon, dispatched the proclamation on the 27th. Anticipating the expulsion or even arrest of all British residents from Portugal, he hired a small armed schooner to stand off the coast, awaiting his arrival. On 11 November the Portuguese government decided to arrest all British subjects, except the ambassador and his staff. Chamberlain made his way to the coast on foot, only to discover that the schooner had departed. He tried to reach some of the British vessels that were off the coast, but the surf prevented him from reaching them. He was able to reach Walsingham, which the shore batteries had fired on the day before, and which was standing off the coast trying to ascertain what was happening. With Chamberlain's arrival and his report, Walsingham had its answer and she departed for Falmouth.
In 1813 Lloyd's Register started to list the Falmouth packets. It showed Walsingham with Roberts, owner, changing to Bullock. Her owner was Captain and Co.
On 11 February 1815, Walsingham was 100 miles to windward was on her way to Jamaica, and under the temporary command of Captain William Nichols. She sighted a schooner that outsailed Walsingham and bore up and hoisted a British blue ensign. Nichols was not deceived and prepared his guns, moving two 9-pounders to the stern to act as stern chasers. As the schooner came up it was clear that she was American, armed with twelve long 9-pounder guns, and that her forecastle was packed with men in preparation for boarding Walsingham. The two vessels exchanged broadsides for half an hour. The American's masts and rigging were badly damaged and the British considered attempting to capture their assailant, but she was able none the less to sail off. Walsingham had five men wounded. When she arrived at Jamaica the local merchants raised some £500 to award Nichols with an honour sword and to reward his crew.
At the end of the Napoleonic Wars the packets were put on a peacetime establishment with respect to their armament and manning. Walsingham last appeared in the Lloyd's Registers list of Falmouth packets in 1825 with J. Bullock as master and owner.
In 1826 Walsingham was sold to Neill & Co. The 1826 volume of Lloyd's Register showed her master changing from Bullock to Bourke, her owner from Capt. & Co. to Neal, and her trade from Falmouth to London–Cape of Good Hope.
Fate
On 15 June 1828 Walsingham was driven ashore and wrecked at the Cape of Good Hope.
Notes, citations, and references
Notes
Citations
References
1795 ships
Packet (sea transport)
Age of Sail merchant ships of England
Maritime incidents in June 1828
Falmouth Packets
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60377295
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West%20PC-800
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West PC-800
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The West PC-800 is a home computer introduced by Norwegian company West Computer AS in 1984. The computer was designed as an alarm center allowing use of several CPUs (6502, Z80, 8086, 68000) and operating systems. The company introduced an IBM PC compatible in early 1986 and the West PC-800 line was phased out.
History
West Computer AS was founded in late 1983 by Tov Westby, Terje Holen and Geir Ståle Sætre. In early 1984, the company presented its computer then called Sherlock at the Mikrodata'84 fair. The new computer had both 6502 and Z80 CPUs, promised rich expansion capabilities and included two rather unusual features: a wireless keyboard and an alarm device reporting fire, flood or burglary via phone and the built-in modem. The machine was released in Autumn 1984 at the Sjølyst "Home and Hobby" fair. West PC 800 did not sell as well as expected, probably due to weak Apple II position in Norway, and West Computer AS announced in late 1985 an IBM PC compatible West PC 1600.
In March 1985, price of basic computer was NOK10,200. Additional package with one floppy disk drive (200 KB unformatted capacity), 3 applications and 3 games was available for NOK3,750 and another floppy disk drive for NOK3,300.
Features
West Computer designed its computer primarily as an alarm center with emphasis also as a game machine (thanks to the Apple II compatibility). From ca. serial no. 100 the machine became Apple II Plus compatible due to an updated BIOS. Built-in software included two BASIC variants (one for 6502, one for Z80), but available was only an old basic variant for 6502 (for full Apple Basic compatibility). Disk drives are controlled by West DOS (similar to Apple DOS), whose commands are accessible directly from BASIC. However, ProDOS - at the time of the machine introduction - was not compatible with the West DOS.
Z80 CPU was available for CP/M compatibility. As access to the Z80 is via 6502, its performance is crippled by design. The company offered additional CPU cards (e.g. Z80B 6 MHz) to improve the performance.
Alarm system is independent on the machine and has its own CPU and memory. Supplied 300/300 baud modem can work as an autodial modem, included is also telephone number database. Modem can be connected to sensors and during an alarm situation, the machine will dial selected number(s). Alarm system works also with wearable "panic button" with an infrared transmitter - computer may even dial another number, if the first desired is not responding.
Keyboard offers 20 function keys and Caps Lock, with another key to turn keyboard ON and OFF. Wireless keyboard is able to operate up to 12–15 meters from the machine for about three hours (recharging takes 16 hours).
West PC-800 can take several CPU cards including MS-DOS package (NOK3,000) and Motorola 68000 (NOK7-12,000) expansion cards. There was even a Motorola 6809 CPU card for OS-9 compatibility.
The computer allows cassette and floppy disk drive data storage. Standard floppy disk drive (FDD) had 142 KB formatted capacity (Apple II compatible) and there were several other storage options e.g. additional FDD 655 KB, 128 KB RAM disk or hard disk drives up to 20 MB.
West PC-800 offers rich expansion capabilities thanks to the Apple II compatible expansion bus with 7 expansion slots (some are occupied in the standard configuration e.g. by an alarm card or RF modulator).
Hardware details
4 microprocessors:
Z80A 4 MHz CPU for CP/M
6502 1 MHz CPU for Apple II
8400 CPU for alarm and modem (300 baud)
8035 CPU for in the keyboard
64KB RAM (expandable to 192 kB or up to 1 MB with additional CPU card)
18KB ROM (10 KB BASIC, 2 KB system monitor, 2 KB character set, 4 KB alarm/modem)
Ports:
Joystick. Analog/digital
Composite video PAL
RF video modulator - PAL
Datasette
RS232
Phone outlet for modem
Graphics:
Text mode: 40x24 (with 5x7 points per character)
Mode 1: 40x48, 15 colours
Mode 2: 140x192, 6 colours
Mode 3: 280x192, black/white
7 expansion slots (4 available for expansion in the standard configuration)
IR receiver for wireless keyboard
Optional upgrade with e.g. a 8086 and 68000 card with up to 1 MB RAM
Reception
West PC-800 was well received by the press. Especially lauded were alarm features and high flexibility of the machine design. On the other hand, graphics capabilities were found dated by 1985 standards and support for some of the platforms rather rudimentary (e.g. supplied only an old MSDOS version, issue with Z80 speed without another CPU card, limited data transfer on available floppy disk drive). Review in Hjemme-Data magazine concluded, it is hard to judge the computer, as it stands too outside of the regular market.
Marketing
West Computers choose the advertising agency Næss og Mørch with Jørgen Gulvik as Creative Director for the introduction campaign for this new home computer before the Christmas sales 1984. Together with Founder Tov Westby and CEO Fredrik Stange they designed this ad, which won in 1985 an award from the Norwegian Advertising Association as the best advertising for consumer products in 1984. Apple would use the same picture in their advertising for the Think Different campaign in 1997.
Notes
References
External links
Facebook group for discussing the West PC-800
More pictures of the West PC-800
West PC-800 emulator
Vision and concept for the development of Norway's first home computer with immediate benefit! (Norwegian)
The West Story The story of West Computers as seen by author Dag Westby (Norwegian)
Norwegian news broadcast from NRK about the West PC-800.
Computers
Apple II clones
Microcomputers
Personal computers
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19750956
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demoleon
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Demoleon
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In Greek mythology, Demoleon (Ancient Greek: Δημολέων) was a Trojan warrior, son of Antenor and Theano. His father was a counselor to King Priam and his mother was a priestess of Athena.
Family
Demoleon was the brothe of Crino, Acamas, Agenor, Antheus, Archelochus, Coön, Eurymachus, Glaucus, Helicaon, Iphidamas, Laodamas, Laodocus, Medon, Polybus, and Thersilochus. Demoleon was the grandson of Thracian king Cisseus and Telecleia through his maternal side.
Mythology
Demoleon was a tough defensive fighter that was killed by Achilles during the Trojan War. Born into a peaceful family that believed that Helen should be sent back to the Greeks.and his house was spared by the Achaeans because his family received Odysseus and Menelaus when they came to Troy as envoys. Demoleon's house was also spared by the Achaeans because his father pleaded with the Trojans to return Helen to the Greeks when Paris first stole her from Menelaus. It is believed that his family founded the city of Patavium (Padua) after fleeing Troy."…and over [the body of Iphition] Achilles killed Demoleon, a valiant champion of war and son to Antenor. He struck him on the temple through his bronze-cheeked helmet. The helmet did not stay the spear, but it went right on, crushing the bone so that the brain inside was shed in all directions, and his lust of fighting was ended."
Namesake
18493 Demoleon, Jovian asteroid
Note
References
Apollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. ISBN 0-674-99135-4. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website.
Dictys Cretensis, from The Trojan War. The Chronicles of Dictys of Crete and Dares the Phrygian translated by Richard McIlwaine Frazer, Jr. (1931-). Indiana University Press. 1966. Online version at the Topos Text Project.
Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. . Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Homer, Homeri Opera in five volumes. Oxford, Oxford University Press. 1920. . Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Pausanias, Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. . Online version at the Perseus Digital Library
Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio. 3 vols. Leipzig, Teubner. 1903. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Publius Vergilius Maro, Aeneid. Theodore C. Williams. trans. Boston. Houghton Mifflin Co. 1910. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Publius Vergilius Maro, Bucolics, Aeneid, and Georgics. J. B. Greenough. Boston. Ginn & Co. 1900. Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Tzetzes, John, Allegories of the Iliad translated by Goldwyn, Adam J. and Kokkini, Dimitra. Dumbarton Oaks Medieval Library, Harvard University Press, 2015.
External links
Demoleon, Minor Planet Center
Trojans
People of the Trojan War
Characters in Greek mythology
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41851
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual%20circuit
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Virtual circuit
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A virtual circuit (VC) is a means of transporting data over a packet-switched network in such a way that it appears as though there is a dedicated physical link between the source and destination end systems of this data. The term virtual circuit is synonymous with virtual connection.
Before a connection or virtual circuit may be used, it must be established between two or more nodes or software applications by means of call setup. After that, a bit stream or byte stream may be delivered between the nodes; hence, a virtual circuit protocol allows higher-level protocols to avoid dealing with the division of data into Protocol data units.
Many virtual circuit protocols, but not all, provide reliable communication service through the use of data retransmissions invoked by error detection and automatic repeat request (ARQ).
An alternate network configuration to virtual circuit is datagram.
Comparison with circuit switching
Virtual circuit communication resembles circuit switching, since both are connection oriented, meaning that in both cases data is delivered in correct order, and signalling overhead is required during a connection establishment phase. However, circuit switching provides a constant bit rate and latency, while these may vary in a virtual circuit service due to factors such as:
varying packet queue lengths in the network nodes,
varying bit rate generated by the application,
varying load from other users sharing the same network resources by means of statistical multiplexing, etc.
Virtual call capability
In telecommunication, a virtual call capability, sometimes called a virtual call facility, is a service feature in which:
a call set-up procedure and a call disengagement procedure determine the period of communication between two DTEs in which user data are transferred by a packet switched network
end-to-end transfer control of packets within the network is required
data may be delivered to the network by the call originator before the call access phase is completed, but the data are not delivered to the call receiver if the call attempt is unsuccessful
the network delivers all the user data to the call receiver in the same sequence in which the data are received by the network
multi-access DTEs may have several virtual calls in progress at the same time.
An alternative network configuration to virtual calls is connectionless communication using datagrams.
Layer 4 virtual circuits
Connection oriented transport layer protocols such as TCP may rely on a connectionless packet switching network layer protocol such as IP, where different packets may be routed over different paths, and thus be delivered out of order. However, it is possible to use TCP as a virtual circuit, since TCP includes segment numbering that allows reordering on the receiver side to accommodate out-of-order delivery.
Layer 2/3 virtual circuits
Datalink layer and network layer virtual circuit protocols are based on connection-oriented packet switching, meaning that data is always delivered along the same network path, i.e., through the same nodes. Advantages with this over connectionless packet switching are:
Bandwidth reservation during the connection establishment phase is supported, making guaranteed quality of service (QoS) possible. For example, a constant bit rate QoS class may be provided, resulting in emulation of circuit switching.
Less overhead is required since the packets are not routed individually and complete addressing information is not provided in the header of each data packet. Only a small virtual channel identifier (VCI) is required in each packet. Routing information is only transferred to the network nodes during the connection establishment phase.
The network nodes are faster and have higher capacity in theory since they are switches that only perform routing during the connection establishment phase, while connectionless network nodes are routers that perform routing for each packet individually. Switching only involves looking up the virtual channel identifier in a table rather than analyzing a complete address. Switches can easily be implemented in ASIC hardware, while routing is more complex and requires software implementation. However, because of the large market of IP routers, and because advanced IP routers support layer 3 switching, modern IP routers may today be faster than switches for connection-oriented protocols.
Example protocols
Examples of transport layer protocols that provide a virtual circuit:
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), where a reliable virtual circuit is established on top of the underlying unreliable and connectionless IP protocol. The virtual circuit is identified by the source and destination network socket address pair, i.e. the sender and receiver IP address and port number. Guaranteed QoS is not provided.
Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP), where a virtual circuit is established on top of the IP protocol.
Examples of network layer and datalink layer virtual circuit protocols, where data always is delivered over the same path:
X.25, where the VC is identified by a virtual channel identifier (VCI). X.25 provides reliable node-to-node communication and guaranteed QoS.
Frame relay, where the VC is identified by a DLCI. Frame relay is unreliable, but may provide guaranteed QoS.
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), where the circuit is identified by a virtual path identifier (VPI) and virtual channel identifier (VCI) pair. The ATM layer provides unreliable virtual circuits, but the ATM protocol provides for reliability through the ATM adaptation layer (AAL) Service Specific Convergence Sublayer (SSCS) (though it uses the terms "assured" and "non-assured" rather than "reliable" and "unreliable").
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS), which can be used for IP over virtual circuits. Each circuit is identified by a label. MPLS is unreliable but provides eight different QoS classes.
Permanent and switched virtual circuits in ATM, frame relay, and X.25
Switched virtual circuits (SVCs) are generally set up on a per-call basis and are disconnected when the call is terminated; however, a permanent virtual circuit (PVC) can be established as an option to provide a dedicated circuit link between two facilities. PVC configuration is usually preconfigured by the service provider. Unlike SVCs, PVC are usually very seldom broken/disconnected.
A switched virtual circuit (SVC) is a virtual circuit that is dynamically established on demand and is torn down when transmission is complete, for example after a phone call or a file download. SVCs are used in situations where data transmission is sporadic and/or not always between the same data terminal equipment (DTE) endpoints.
A permanent virtual circuit (PVC) is a virtual circuit established for repeated/continuous use between the same DTE. In a PVC, the long-term association is identical to the data transfer phase of a virtual call. Permanent virtual circuits eliminate the need for repeated call set-up and clearing.
Frame relay is typically used to provide PVCs.
ATM provides both switched virtual connections and permanent virtual connections, as they are called in ATM terminology.
X.25 provides both virtual calls and PVCs, although not all X.25 service providers or DTE implementations support PVCs as their use was much less common than SVCs
See also
Data link connection identifier (DLCI)
Label switching
Traffic flow (computer networking)
References
Communication circuits
Network protocols
Packets (information technology)
Telephone services
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39255082
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receiver%20%28video%20game%29
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Receiver (video game)
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Receiver is a first-person shooter video game developed by Wolfire Games. The game attempts to portray realistic gun mechanics through a unique reloading system, where each step of reloading is assigned a different button. The player scavenges items and audio tapes which reveal the story in a procedurally generated world.
Receiver was released in June 2012 for Linux, Microsoft Windows, and Mac OS X. In 2013, the game was made available as a free copy for people who had previously purchased another Wolfire Games video game, Overgrowth.
The game's sequel, Receiver 2, was announced on December 13, 2019 through a video uploaded to YouTube by Wolfire Games. It was released for Windows, Linux, and Mac OS X on April 14, 2020.
Gameplay
In Receiver, players must control an in-game character, known as a "Receiver", to search for eleven audio tapes from around a procedurally generated world, randomly arranged after each death. Ammunition and flashlights are scattered throughout the world as well. Players start with a random handgun, either a Smith & Wesson Model 10 revolver, a Colt M1911A1 semi-automatic pistol, or a selective fire Glock 17 pistol with an automatic sear. Players are also given a random inventory of ammunition and/or spare magazines for their weapon. Players may also start with a flashlight. While searching for tapes, the player encounters stationary sentry turrets and mobile hover drones that attack the player. A single hit to the player will kill them. Shooting these automated defenses can disable them, with shots to vital components, such as cameras, weapons, a motor, or a battery scoring significantly more damage. If a player dies, they lose all progress and the game is reset with a new randomly-generated level layout, spawn position, and inventory.
A core element of the game is how the player fires and reloads the handgun. The gun has to be used in a semi-realistic fashion, meaning that all aspects of reloading the gun have to be enacted individually with different key presses. Rather than finding magazines as seen in most shooters, the player finds cartridges which must be individually loaded into the revolver chambers or pistol magazines. In-game actions mapped to individual key presses include, but are not limited to: removing the magazine from the pistol, inserting a cartridge into a magazine, inserting a magazine into the pistol, pulling back the slide, cocking the hammer, toggling the safety, inspecting the chamber, releasing the slide stop, and spinning the cylinder of the revolver. To emphasize understanding of the firearm, the player's handgun starts in a random condition; the magazine or chamber may be loaded or empty, the slide may be locked or unlocked, and the safety may be on or off.
Plot
The audio tapes describe a technology called "mindtech", how an antagonistic entity called "the Threat" has applied it within media to weaken the human population, and that it now has unleashed a catastrophic event called "the mindkill". Further, they detail various planes of existence, explain firearm operation, and instructs the player to listen to a "cleartape" in order to become "awake". One tape contains only background hum and static.
Receiver 2
In Receiver 2, all gun mechanics are simulated, instead of some, according to developer Wolfire Games. The player locates and plays 4~6 audio tapes in a procedurally generated world. Bullets and flashlights are also scattered throughout the world as well. Players start with a random handgun. All guns from previous games, including the Smith & Wesson Model 10 revolver, the Colt M1911, and the select-fire Glock 17 all make a return. New guns are also added, including the Colt Detective Special, the Desert Eagle Mark I, the Beretta M9, the SIG Sauer P226, the Hi-Point C-9, and the Colt Single Action Army. Some specific tapes now include darker tones and topics, which will grow worse and worse throughout the tape, until it sounds like the Receiver recording is likely attempting to commit suicide. This is a "Threat echo", in which "the voice of the Threat" takes control of the player's firearm and hands, in an attempt to force them to commit suicide too. This can be prevented by unloading the gun before the player completely loses control and the barrel is turned to the in-game character's face.
Development
Receiver was originally created as part of the 7 Day FPS Challenge in 2012, built on "gun handling mechanics, randomized levels, and unordered storytelling."
The game was released in June 2012, and on Steam in April 2013 after being accepted as part of Steam Greenlight.
The first content update for Receiver was released on September 3, 2012, and added a flashlight, a Smith & Wesson Model 10 revolver, and a Glock 17, among other features.
The source code of the game is available since 2012 on GitHub under non-commercial license conditions.
The game was last updated on 9/14/2019, which added an entire graphics overhaul as well as improving the game's back drop.
Reception
In Destructoid's 8.5/10 review, they said that "successfully reloading a gun for the first time through sheer muscle memory is easily one of the greatest feelings in gaming", concluding that "Receiver is one of those games that feels so incredibly satisfying once it is finally understood".
The Verge described the game as "wrapped up in a slick package that really makes you feel like a cool, infiltrating spy."
See also
Black Shades, a previous first-person shooter made by Wolfire founder David Rosen
References
External links
Survival video games
Tactical shooter video games
Windows games
Steam Greenlight games
Linux games
MacOS games
First-person shooters
2012 video games
Simulation video games
Video games developed in the United States
Video games using procedural generation
Commercial video games with freely available source code
Game jam video games
Single-player video games
Video games with Steam Workshop support
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1590120
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children%27s%20Internet%20Protection%20Act
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Children's Internet Protection Act
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The Children's Internet Protection Act (CIPA) is one of a number of bills that the United States Congress proposed to limit children's exposure to pornography and explicit content online.
Background
Both of Congress's earlier attempts at restricting indecent Internet content, the Communications Decency Act and the Child Online Protection Act, were held to be unconstitutional by the U.S. Supreme Court on First Amendment grounds.
CIPA represented a change in strategy by Congress. While the federal government had no means of directly controlling local school and library boards, many schools and libraries took advantage of Universal Service Fund (USF) discounts derived from universal service fees paid by users in order to purchase eligible telecom services and Internet access. In passing CIPA, Congress required libraries and K-12 schools using these E-Rate discounts on Internet access and internal connections to purchase and use a "technology protection measure" on every computer connected to the Internet. These conditions also applied to a small subset of grants authorized through the Library Services and Technology Act (LSTA). CIPA did not provide additional funds for the purchase of the "technology protection measure".
Stipulations
CIPA requires K-12 schools and libraries using E-Rate discounts to operate "a technology protection measure with respect to any of its computers with Internet access that protects against access through such computers to visual depictions that are obscene, child pornography, or harmful to minors". Such a technology protection measure must be employed "during any use of such computers by minors". The law also provides that the school or library "may disable the technology protection measure concerned, during use by an adult, to enable access for bona fide research or other lawful purpose". Schools and libraries that do not receive E-Rate discounts or only receive discounts for telecommunication services and not for Internet access or internal connections, do not have an obligation to filter under CIPA. As of 2007, approximately one-third of libraries had chosen to forego federal E-Rate and certain types of LSTA funds so they would not be required to institute filtering.
This act has several requirements for institutions to meet before they can receive government funds. Libraries and schools must "provide reasonable public notice and hold at least one public hearing or meeting to address the proposed Internet safety policy" () as added by CIPA sec. 1732).
The policy proposed at this meeting must address:
Measures to restrict a minor's access to inappropriate or harmful materials on the Internet
Security and safety of minors using chat rooms, email, instant messaging, or any other types of online communications
Unauthorized disclosure of a minor's personal information
Unauthorized access like hacking by minors
CIPA requires schools monitor minors' Internet use, but does not require tracking by libraries. All Internet access, even by adults, must be filtered, though filtering requirements can be less restrictive for adults (filtering obscene and pornographic material but not other "harmful to minors" materials).
Content to be filtered
The following content must be filtered or blocked:
Obscenity as defined by Miller v. California (1973)
Child pornography as defined by 18 U.S.C. 2256
Harmful to minors
Some of the terms mentioned in this act, such as "inappropriate matter" and what is "harmful to minors", are explained in the law. Under the Neighborhood Act ( as added by CIPA sec. 1732), the definition of "inappropriate matter" is locally determined:
The CIPA defines "harmful to minors" as:
As mentioned above, there is an exception for "bona fide research". An institution can disable filters for adults in the pursuit of bona fide research or another type of lawful purpose. However, the law provides no definition for "bona fide research". However, in a later ruling the U.S. Supreme Court said that libraries would be required to adopt an Internet use policy providing for unblocking the Internet for adult users, without a requirement that the library inquire into the user's reasons for disabling the filter. Justice Rehnquist stated "[a]ssuming that such erroneous blocking presents constitutional difficulties, any such concerns are dispelled by the ease with which patrons may have the filtering software disabled. When a patron encounters a blocked site, he need only ask a librarian to unblock it or (at least in the case of adults) disable the filter". This effectively puts the decision of what constitutes "bona fide research" in the hands of the adult asking to have the filter disabled. The U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) subsequently instructed libraries complying with CIPA to implement a procedure for unblocking the filter upon request by an adult.
Other filtered content includes sites that contain "inappropriate language", "blogs", or are deemed "tasteless". This can be somewhat limiting in research for some students, as a resource they wish to use may be disallowed by the filter's vague explanations of why a page is banned. For example, if someone tries to access the page "March 4", and "Internet Censorship" on English Wikipedia, the filter will immediately turn them away, claiming the page contains "Extreme language".
Suit challenging CIPA's constitutionality
On January 17, 2001, the American Library Association (ALA) voted to challenge CIPA, on the grounds that the law required libraries to unconstitutionally block access to constitutionally protected information on the Internet. It charged first that, because CIPA's enforcement mechanism involved removing federal funds intended to assist disadvantaged facilities, "CIPA runs counter to these federal efforts to close the digital divide for all Americans". Second, it argued that "no filtering software successfully differentiates constitutionally protected speech from illegal speech on the Internet".
Working with the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), the ALA successfully challenged the law before a three-judge panel of the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. In a 200-page decision, the judges wrote that "in view of the severe limitations of filtering technology and the existence of these less restrictive alternatives [including making filtering software optional or supervising users directly], we conclude that it is not possible for a public library to comply with CIPA without blocking a very substantial amount of constitutionally protected speech, in violation of the First Amendment". 201 F.Supp.2d 401, 490 (2002).
Upon appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court, however, the law was upheld as constitutional as a condition imposed on institutions in exchange for government funding. In upholding the law, the Supreme Court, adopting the interpretation urged by the U.S. Solicitor General at oral argument, made it clear that the constitutionality of CIPA would be upheld only "if, as the Government represents, a librarian will unblock filtered material or disable the Internet software filter without significant delay on an adult user's request".
In the ruling Chief Justice William Rehnquist, joined by Justice Sandra Day O'Connor, Justice Antonin Scalia, and Justice Clarence Thomas, concluded two points. First, "Because public libraries' use of Internet filtering software does not violate their patrons' First Amendment rights, CIPA does not induce libraries to violate the Constitution, and is a valid exercise of Congress' spending power". The argument goes that, because of the immense amount of information available online and how quickly it changes, libraries cannot separate items individually to exclude, and blocking entire websites can often lead to an exclusion of valuable information. Therefore, it is reasonable for public libraries to restrict access to certain categories of content. Secondly, "CIPA does not impose an unconstitutional condition on libraries that receive E-Rate and LSTA subsidies by requiring them, as a condition on that receipt, to surrender their First Amendment right to provide the public with access to constitutionally protected speech". The argument here is that, the government can offer public funds to help institutions fulfill their roles, as in the case of libraries providing access to information. The Justices cited Rust v. Sullivan (1991) as precedent to show how the Court has approved using government funds with certain limitations to facilitate a program. Furthermore, since public libraries traditionally do not include pornographic material in their book collections, the court can reasonably uphold a law that imposes a similar limitation for online texts.
As noted above, the text of the law authorized institutions to disable the filter on request "for bona fide research or other lawful purpose", implying that the adult would be expected to provide justification with his request. But under the interpretation urged by the Solicitor General and adopted by the Supreme Court, libraries would be required to adopt an Internet use policy providing for unblocking the Internet for adult users, without a requirement that the library inquire into the user's reasons for disabling the filter.
Legislation after CIPA
An attempt to expand CIPA to include "social networking" web sites was considered by the U.S. Congress in 2006. See Deleting Online Predators Act. More attempts have been made recently by the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) and the Consortium for School Networking (CoSN) urging Congress to update CIPA terms in hopes of regulating, not abolishing, students' access to social networking and chat rooms. Neither ISTE nor CoSN wish to ban these online communication outlets entirely however, as they believe the "Internet contains valuable content, collaboration and communication opportunities that can and do materially contribute to a student's academic growth and preparation for the workforce".
See also
Content-control software
Internet censorship
The King's English v. Shurtleff
State of Connecticut v. Julie Amero
Think of the children
References
External links
Text of the Children's Internet Protection Act
Legal history
ALA's CIPA litigation history page.
ALA v. US, Opinion of the US District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania, May 31, 2002
US v. ALA, Opinion of the US Supreme Court, June 23, 2003
FCC information and regulations
FCC Order 03-188 dated July 23, 2003, adopting measures to ensure that the FCC's implementation of the Children’s Internet Protection Act (CIPA) complies with the recent decision of the United States Supreme Court.
FCC Consumer Facts: CIPA.
Universal Service Administrative Co. CIPA page.
United States federal computing legislation
Internet censorship in the United States
Child safety
Content-control software
Federal Communications Commission
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19005417
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hang%20%28computing%29
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Hang (computing)
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In computing, a hang or freeze occurs when either a process or system ceases to respond to inputs. A typical example is when computer's graphical user interface (such as Microsoft Windows) no longer responds to the user typing on the keyboard or moving the mouse. The term covers a wide range of behaviors in both clients and servers, and is not limited to graphical user interface issues.
Hangs have varied causes and symptoms, including software or hardware defects, such as an infinite loop or long-running uninterruptible computation, resource exhaustion (thrashing), under-performing hardware (throttling), external events such as a slow computer network, misconfiguration, and compatibility problems. The fundamental reason is typically resource exhaustion: resources necessary for some part of the system to run are not available, due to being in use by other processes or simply insufficient. Often the cause is an interaction of multiple factors, making "hang" a loose umbrella term rather than a technical one.
A hang may be temporary if caused by a condition that resolves itself, such as slow hardware, or it may be permanent and require manual intervention, as in the case of a hardware or software logic error. Many modern operating systems provide the user with a means to forcibly terminate a hung program without rebooting or logging out; some operating systems, such as those designed for mobile devices, may even do this automatically. In more severe hangs affecting the whole system, the only solution might be to reboot the machine, usually by power cycling with an off/on or reset button.
A hang differs from a crash, in which the failure is immediate and unrelated to the responsiveness of inputs.
Multitasking
In a multitasking operating system, it is possible for an individual process or thread to get stuck, such as blocking on a resource or getting into an infinite loop, though the effect on the overall system varies significantly. In a cooperative multitasking system, any thread that gets stuck without yielding will hang the system, as it will wedge itself as the running thread and prevent other threads from running.
By contrast, modern operating systems primarily use pre-emptive multitasking, such as Windows 2000 and its successors, as well as Linux and Apple Inc.'s macOS. In these cases, a single thread getting stuck will not necessarily hang the system, as the operating system will preempt it when its time slice expires, allowing another thread to run. If a thread does hang, the scheduler may switch to another group of interdependent tasks so that all processes will not hang. However, a stuck thread will still consume resources: at least an entry in scheduling, and if it is running (for instance, stuck in an infinite loop), it will consume processor cycles and power when it is scheduled, slowing the system though it does not hang it.
However, even with preemptive multitasking, a system can hang, and a misbehaved or malicious task can hang the system, primarily by monopolizing some other resource, such as IO or memory, even though processor time can't be monopolized. For example, a process that blocks the file system will often hang the system.
Moving around a window on top of a hanging program during a hang may cause a window trail from redrawing.
Causes
Hardware can cause a computer to hang, either because it is intermittent or because it is mismatched with other hardware in the computer (this can occur when one makes an upgrade). Hardware can also become defective over time due to dirt or heat damage.
A hang can also occur due to the fact that the programmer has incorrect termination conditions for a loop, or, in a co-operative multitasking operating system, forgetting to yield to other tasks. Said differently, many software-related hangs are caused by threads waiting for an event to occur which will never occur. This is also known as an infinite loop.
Another cause of hangs is a race condition in communication between processes. One process may send a signal to a second process then stop execution until it receives a response. If the second process is busy the signal will be forced to wait until the process can get to it. However, if the second process was busy sending a signal to the first process then both processes would wait forever for the other to respond to signals and never see the other’s signal (this event is known as a deadlock). If the processes are uninterruptible they will hang and have to be shut down. If at least one of the processes is a critical kernel process the whole system may hang and have to be restarted.
A computer may seem to hang when in fact it is simply processing very slowly. This can be caused by too many programs running at once, not enough memory (RAM), or memory fragmentation, slow hardware access (especially to remote devices), slow system APIs, etc. It can also be caused by hidden programs which were installed surreptitiously, such as spyware.
Solutions
In many cases programs may appear to be hung, but are making slow progress, and waiting a few minutes will allow the task to complete.
Modern operating systems provide a mechanism for terminating hung processes, for instance, with the Unix kill command, or through a graphical means such as the Task Manager's "end task" button in Windows. On older systems, such as those running MS-DOS, early versions of Windows, or Classic Mac OS often needed to be completely restarted in the event of a hang.
On embedded devices where human interaction is limited, a watchdog timer can reboot the computer in the event of a hang.
Notes
See also
Abort (computing)
Anomaly in software
Blue screen of death
Crash (computing)
Deadlock
Livelock
Infinite loop
Uninterruptible sleep
References
Computer errors
Software anomalies
Computing terminology
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837628
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek%20Heroic%20Age
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Greek Heroic Age
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The Greek Heroic Age, in mythology, is the period between the coming of the Greeks to Thessaly and the Greek return from Troy. It was demarcated as one of the five Ages of Man by Hesiod. The period spans roughly six generations; the heroes denoted by the term are superhuman, though not divine, and are celebrated in the literature of Homer.
The Greek heroes can be grouped into an approximate chronology, based on events such as the Argonautic expedition and the Trojan War.
Early heroes
Many of the early Greek heroes were descended from the gods and were part of the founding narratives of various city-states. They also became the ancestors of later heroes. The Phoenician prince Cadmus, a grandson of Poseidon, was the first Greek hero and the founder of Thebes.
Perseus, famous for his exploits well before the days of his great-grandson, Heracles, was the son of Zeus. Perseus beheaded the Medusa, saved Andromeda from the sea monster Cetus, and was the legendary founder of Mycenae.
Aeacus was also a son of Zeus. Bellerophon was descended from the nymph Orseis. Oenomaus, king of Pisa, in the Peloponnese, was the son of Ares.
Among these early heroes the three - Cadmus, Perseus and Bellerophon - were considered the greatest Greek heroes and slayers of monsters before the days of Heracles.
Argonauts
The myth of Jason and the Golden Fleece is one of the oldest stories of a hero's quest. Jason sailed on the Argo, and those who accompanied him were called the "Argonauts". Their mission was to travel to the kingdom of Colchis, on the Black Sea, to obtain the "Golden Fleece", a symbol of authority and kingship. With it, Jason would become king of Iolcos in Thessaly.
The Argonauts:
Calydonian boar hunt
A monstrous boar was sent by Artemis to ravage the region of Calydon in Aetolia because its king neglected to honor her in his rites to the gods. King Oeneus sent messengers seeking the best hunters in Greece, offering them the boar's pelt and tusks as a prize. A number of heroes responded, including Atalanta, Castor and Pollux, Jason, Laertes, Lynceus, Meleager (the host and boar killer), Nestor, Peleus, Phoenix, and Theseus. Many of them were also the "Argonauts". One notable exception was Heracles, who vanquished his own Goddess-sent Erymanthian boar separately.
Others
Generation of Oedipus
(about two generations before Troy)
The story of Oedipus is the basis of a trilogy of plays by Sophocles, however, similar stories have been traced to cultures all over the world.
Generation of the Seven against Thebes
(about a generation before Troy)
Oedipus places a curse upon his sons Eteocles and Polynices. The underlying theme in the story of the "Seven Against Thebes" is the fulfilment of that curse. Although the brothers had agreed to share the rule of Thebes, when it is time for Eteocles to step aside he refuses, and Polynices brings an army against his beloved city to enforce his claim. In Aeschylus' play the concept of the individual vs. community becomes a central theme. In the Phoenissae (The Phoenician Women), patriotism is a significant theme.
Generation of the Trojan War
See Trojan War and Epigoni.
Gregory Nagy sees mortality as the "dominant theme in the stories of ancient Greek heroes." In heading for Troy, Achilles opts for a short life, leaving a memory of being immortal and renown over a long peaceful life in relative obscurity.
Generation after the Trojan War
See also
Bronze Age collapse
References
External links
Rosenberg, Karen. "Those Greek Heroes, Sometimes Behaving Badly", The New York Times, October 21, 2010
Greek mythology
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3626780
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIGCUM
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SIGCUM
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SIGCUM, also known as Converter M-228, was a rotor cipher machine used to encrypt teleprinter traffic by the United States Army. Hastily designed by William Friedman and Frank Rowlett, the system was put into service in January 1943 before any rigorous analysis of its security had taken place. SIGCUM was subsequently discovered to be insecure by Rowlett, and was immediately withdrawn from service. The machine was redesigned to improve its security, reintroduced into service by April 1943, and remained in use until the 1960s.
Development
In 1939, Friedman and Rowlett worked on the problem of creating a secure teleprinter encryption system. They decided against using a tape-based system, such as those proposed by Gilbert Vernam, and instead conceived of the idea of generating a stream of five-bit pulses by use of wired rotors. Because of lack of funds and interest, however, the proposal was not pursued any further at that time. This changed with the United States' entry into World War II in December 1941. Rowlett was assigned to develop a teleprinter encryption system for use between Army command centers in United Kingdom and Australia (and later in North Africa).
Friedman described to Rowlett a concrete design for a teleprinter cipher machine that he had invented. However, Rowlett discovered some flaws in Friedman's proposed circuitry that showed the design to be flawed. Under pressure to report to a superior about the progress of the machine, Friedman responded angrily, accusing Rowlett of trying to destroy his reputation as a cryptanalyst. After Friedman calmed down, Rowlett proposed some designs for a replacement machine based on rotors. They settled on one, and agreed to write up a complete design and have it reviewed by another cryptanalyst by the following day.
The design agreed upon was a special attachment for a standard teleprinter. The attachment used a stack of five 26-contact rotors, the same as those used in the SIGABA, the highly secure US off-line cipher machine. Each time a key character was needed, thirteen inputs to the rotor stack were energized at the input endplate. Passing through the rotor stack, these thirteen inputs were to be scrambled at the output endplate. However, only five live contacts would be used. These five outputs would form five binary impulses, which would form the keystream for the cipher, to be combined with the message itself, encoded in the 5-bit Baudot code.
The rotors advanced odometrically; that is, after each encipherment, the "fast" rotor would advance one step. Once every revolution of the fast rotor, the "medium" rotor would step once. Similarly, ever revolution of the medium rotor, the "slow" rotor would step, and so on for the other two rotors. However, which rotor was assigned as the "fast", "medium", "slow" etc. rotors was controlled by a set of five multi-switches. This gave a total of different rotor stepping patterns. The machine was equipped with a total of 10 rotors, each of which could be inserted "direct" or in reversed order, yielding possible rotor orderings and alignments.
Introduction of the machine
The design for this machine, which was designated the Converter M-228, or SIGCUM, was given to the Teletype Corporation, who were also producing SIGABA. Rowlett recommended that the adoption of the machine be postponed until after a study of its cryptographic security, but SIGCUM was urgently needed by the Army, and the machine was put into production. Rowlett then proposed that the machine used in the Pentagon code room be monitored by connecting a page-printing "spy machine". The output could be then studied to establish whether the machine was resistant to attack. Rowlett's suggestion was implemented at the same time the first M-228 machines were installed at the Pentagon in January 1943, used for the Washington-Algiers link.
The machines worked as planned, and, initially, Rowlett's study of its security, joined by cryptanalyst Robert Ferner, uncovered no signs of cryptographic weakness. However, after a few days, a SIGCUM operator made a serious operating error, retransmitting the same message twice using the same machine settings, producing a depth.
From this, Rowlett was able to deduce the underlying plaintext and keystream used by the machine. By 2 a.m., an analysis of the keystream allowed him to deduce the wiring of the fast and medium rotors, and of the output wiring. SIGCUM was immediately withdrawn from service, and work on a replacement system, SIGTOT — a one-time tape machine designed by Leo Rosen — was given top priority.
Redesign
Meanwhile, M-228 was redesigned to improve its security. Only five inputs, rather than thirteen, were energized. The five output contacts, instead of being used as the five output bits directly, were instead connected by three leads, each connected to different output point. That meant that an output bit could be energized by any of three different outputs from the rotor maze, making analysis of the machine more complex. The reduced number of inputs ensured that the generated key would not be biased.
The rotor stepping was also made more complex. The slowest two rotors, which originally were unlikely to step during the course of an encipherment, were redesigned so that they stepped depending on the output of the previous key output. One rotor, designated the "fast bump" rotor, would step if the fourth and fifth bits of the previous output were both true; and similarly the "slow bump" rotor would do the same for the first, second and third bits.
Certain of the rotor stepping arrangements were discovered to be weaker than others, and so these were ruled out for key lists.
This redesigned version of the M-228 was put into service by April 1943. However, the machine was judged to be only secure enough to handle traffic up to SECRET by landline, and CONFIDENTIAL by radio. The machine was also shared with the United Kingdom for joint communications.
A further-modified version of the M-228 that could be used for the highest level traffic, was designated M-228-M, or SIGHUAD.
From that point on, the Army monitored the communications of its high-level systems to ensure that good operational procedure was being followed, even for highly secure devices such as the SIGABA and SIGTOT devices. As a result, poor operator practices, such as transmitting messages in depth, were largely eliminated.
References
Stephen J. Kelley, "The SIGCUM Story: Cryptographic Failure, Cryptographic Success", in Cryptologia 21(4), October 1997, pp289–316.
External links
Converter M-228 or SIGCUM by John Savard
Rotor machines
Encryption devices
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3416415
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesg
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Mesg
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mesg is a Unix command that sets or reports the permission other users have to write to the current user's terminal using the talk and write commands.
Usage
It is invoked as:
mesg [y|n]
The 'y' and 'n' options respectively allow and disallow write access to the current user's terminal. When invoked with no option, the current permission is printed.
Input redirection may be used to control the permission of another TTY. For example:
% mesg
is y
% tty
/dev/tty1
% mesg < /dev/tty2
is y
% mesg n < /dev/tty2
% mesg < /dev/tty2
is n
% mesg
is y
See also
List of Unix commands
References
Unix user management and support-related utilities
Unix SUS2008 utilities
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15318
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv6
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IPv6
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Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) is the most recent version of the Internet Protocol (IP), the communications protocol that provides an identification and location system for computers on networks and routes traffic across the Internet. IPv6 was developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) to deal with the long-anticipated problem of IPv4 address exhaustion, and is intended to replace IPv4. In December 1998, IPv6 became a Draft Standard for the IETF, which subsequently ratified it as an Internet Standard on 14 July 2017.
Devices on the Internet are assigned a unique IP address for identification and location definition. With the rapid growth of the Internet after commercialization in the 1990s, it became evident that far more addresses would be needed to connect devices than the IPv4 address space had available. By 1998, the IETF had formalized the successor protocol. IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses, theoretically allowing 2128, or approximately total addresses. The actual number is slightly smaller, as multiple ranges are reserved for special use or completely excluded from use. The two protocols are not designed to be interoperable, and thus direct communication between them is impossible, complicating the move to IPv6. However, several transition mechanisms have been devised to rectify this.
IPv6 provides other technical benefits in addition to a larger addressing space. In particular, it permits hierarchical address allocation methods that facilitate route aggregation across the Internet, and thus limit the expansion of routing tables. The use of multicast addressing is expanded and simplified, and provides additional optimization for the delivery of services. Device mobility, security, and configuration aspects have been considered in the design of the protocol.
IPv6 addresses are represented as eight groups of four hexadecimal digits each, separated by colons. The full representation may be shortened; for example, 2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334 becomes 2001:db8::8a2e:370:7334.
Main features
IPv6 is an Internet Layer protocol for packet-switched internetworking and provides end-to-end datagram transmission across multiple IP networks, closely adhering to the design principles developed in the previous version of the protocol, Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4).
In addition to offering more addresses, IPv6 also implements features not present in IPv4. It simplifies aspects of address configuration, network renumbering, and router announcements when changing network connectivity providers. It simplifies processing of packets in routers by placing the responsibility for packet fragmentation into the end points. The IPv6 subnet size is standardized by fixing the size of the host identifier portion of an address to 64 bits.
The addressing architecture of IPv6 is defined in and allows three different types of transmission: unicast, anycast and multicast.
Motivation and origin
IPv4 address exhaustion
Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) was the first publicly used version of the Internet Protocol. IPv4 was developed as a research project by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), a United States Department of Defense agency, before becoming the foundation for the Internet and the World Wide Web. IPv4 includes an addressing system that uses numerical identifiers consisting of 32 bits. These addresses are typically displayed in dot-decimal notation as decimal values of four octets, each in the range 0 to 255, or 8 bits per number. Thus, IPv4 provides an addressing capability of 232 or approximately 4.3 billion addresses. Address exhaustion was not initially a concern in IPv4 as this version was originally presumed to be a test of DARPA's networking concepts. During the first decade of operation of the Internet, it became apparent that methods had to be developed to conserve address space. In the early 1990s, even after the redesign of the addressing system using a classless network model, it became clear that this would not suffice to prevent IPv4 address exhaustion, and that further changes to the Internet infrastructure were needed.
The last unassigned top-level address blocks of 16 million IPv4 addresses were allocated in February 2011 by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) to the five regional Internet registries (RIRs). However, each RIR still has available address pools and is expected to continue with standard address allocation policies until one /8 Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) block remains. After that, only blocks of 1,024 addresses (/22) will be provided from the RIRs to a local Internet registry (LIR). As of September 2015, all of Asia-Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC), the Réseaux IP Européens Network Coordination Centre (RIPE_NCC), Latin America and Caribbean Network Information Centre (LACNIC), and American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN) have reached this stage. This leaves African Network Information Center (AFRINIC) as the sole regional internet registry that is still using the normal protocol for distributing IPv4 addresses. As of November 2018, AFRINIC's minimum allocation is /22 or 1024 IPv4 addresses. A LIR may receive additional allocation when about 80% of all the address space has been utilized.
RIPE NCC announced that it had fully run out of IPv4 addresses on 25 November 2019, and called for greater progress on the adoption of IPv6.
It is widely expected that the Internet will use IPv4 alongside IPv6 for the foreseeable future.
Comparison with IPv4
On the Internet, data is transmitted in the form of network packets. IPv6 specifies a new packet format, designed to minimize packet header processing by routers. Because the headers of IPv4 packets and IPv6 packets are significantly different, the two protocols are not interoperable. However, most transport and application-layer protocols need little or no change to operate over IPv6; exceptions are application protocols that embed Internet-layer addresses, such as File Transfer Protocol (FTP) and Network Time Protocol (NTP), where the new address format may cause conflicts with existing protocol syntax.
Larger address space
The main advantage of IPv6 over IPv4 is its larger address space. The size of an IPv6 address is 128 bits, compared to 32 bits in IPv4. The address space therefore has 2128 = 340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,456 addresses (approximately ). Some blocks of this space and some specific addresses are reserved for special uses.
While this address space is very large, it was not the intent of the designers of IPv6 to assure geographical saturation with usable addresses. Rather, the longer addresses simplify allocation of addresses, enable efficient route aggregation, and allow implementation of special addressing features. In IPv4, complex Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) methods were developed to make the best use of the small address space. The standard size of a subnet in IPv6 is 264 addresses, about four billion times the size of the entire IPv4 address space. Thus, actual address space utilization will be small in IPv6, but network management and routing efficiency are improved by the large subnet space and hierarchical route aggregation.
Multicasting
Multicasting, the transmission of a packet to multiple destinations in a single send operation, is part of the base specification in IPv6. In IPv4 this is an optional (although commonly implemented) feature. IPv6 multicast addressing has features and protocols in common with IPv4 multicast, but also provides changes and improvements by eliminating the need for certain protocols. IPv6 does not implement traditional IP broadcast, i.e. the transmission of a packet to all hosts on the attached link using a special broadcast address, and therefore does not define broadcast addresses. In IPv6, the same result is achieved by sending a packet to the link-local all nodes multicast group at address ff02::1, which is analogous to IPv4 multicasting to address 224.0.0.1. IPv6 also provides for new multicast implementations, including embedding rendezvous point addresses in an IPv6 multicast group address, which simplifies the deployment of inter-domain solutions.
In IPv4 it is very difficult for an organization to get even one globally routable multicast group assignment, and the implementation of inter-domain solutions is arcane. Unicast address assignments by a local Internet registry for IPv6 have at least a 64-bit routing prefix, yielding the smallest subnet size available in IPv6 (also 64 bits). With such an assignment it is possible to embed the unicast address prefix into the IPv6 multicast address format, while still providing a 32-bit block, the least significant bits of the address, or approximately 4.2 billion multicast group identifiers. Thus each user of an IPv6 subnet automatically has available a set of globally routable source-specific multicast groups for multicast applications.
Stateless address autoconfiguration (SLAAC)
IPv6 hosts configure themselves automatically. Every interface has a self-generated link-local address and, when connected to a network, conflict resolution is performed and routers provide network prefixes via router advertisements. Stateless configuration of routers can be achieved with a special router renumbering protocol. When necessary, hosts may configure additional stateful addresses via Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol version 6 (DHCPv6) or static addresses manually.
Like IPv4, IPv6 supports globally unique IP addresses. The design of IPv6 intended to re-emphasize the end-to-end principle of network design that was originally conceived during the establishment of the early Internet by rendering network address translation obsolete. Therefore, every device on the network is globally addressable directly from any other device.
A stable, unique, globally addressable IP address would facilitate tracking a device across networks. Therefore, such addresses are a particular privacy concern for mobile devices, such as laptops and cell phones.
To address these privacy concerns, the SLAAC protocol includes what are typically called "privacy addresses" or, more correctly, "temporary addresses", codified in RFC 4941, "Privacy Extensions for Stateless Address Autoconfiguration in IPv6". Temporary addresses are random and unstable. A typical consumer device generates a new temporary address daily and will ignore traffic addressed to an old address after one week. Temporary addresses are used by default by Windows since XP SP1, macOS since (Mac OS X) 10.7, Android since 4.0, and iOS since version 4.3. Use of temporary addresses by Linux distributions varies.
Renumbering an existing network for a new connectivity provider with different routing prefixes is a major effort with IPv4. With IPv6, however, changing the prefix announced by a few routers can in principle renumber an entire network, since the host identifiers (the least-significant 64 bits of an address) can be independently self-configured by a host.
The SLAAC address generation method is implementation-dependent. IETF recommends that addresses be deterministic but semantically opaque.
IPsec
Internet Protocol Security (IPsec) was originally developed for IPv6, but found widespread deployment first in IPv4, for which it was re-engineered. IPsec was a mandatory part of all IPv6 protocol implementations, and Internet Key Exchange (IKE) was recommended, but with RFC 6434 the inclusion of IPsec in IPv6 implementations was downgraded to a recommendation because it was considered impractical to require full IPsec implementation for all types of devices that may use IPv6. However, as of RFC 4301 IPv6 protocol implementations that do implement IPsec need to implement IKEv2 and need to support a minimum set of cryptographic algorithms. This requirement will help to make IPsec implementations more interoperable between devices from different vendors. The IPsec Authentication Header (AH) and the Encapsulating Security Payload header (ESP) are implemented as IPv6 extension headers.
Simplified processing by routers
The packet header in IPv6 is simpler than the IPv4 header. Many rarely used fields have been moved to optional header extensions. With the simplified IPv6 packet header the process of packet forwarding by routers has been simplified. Although IPv6 packet headers are at least twice the size of IPv4 packet headers, processing of packets that only contain the base IPv6 header by routers may, in some cases, be more efficient, because less processing is required in routers due to the headers being aligned to match common word sizes. However, many devices implement IPv6 support in software (as opposed to hardware), thus resulting in very bad packet processing performance. Additionally, for many implementations, the use of Extension Headers causes packets to be processed by a router's CPU, leading to poor performance or even security issues.
Moreover, an IPv6 header does not include a checksum. The IPv4 header checksum is calculated for the IPv4 header, and has to be recalculated by routers every time the time to live (called hop limit in the IPv6 protocol) is reduced by one. The absence of a checksum in the IPv6 header furthers the end-to-end principle of Internet design, which envisioned that most processing in the network occurs in the leaf nodes. Integrity protection for the data that is encapsulated in the IPv6 packet is assumed to be assured by both the link layer or error detection in higher-layer protocols, namely the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) on the transport layer. Thus, while IPv4 allowed UDP datagram headers to have no checksum (indicated by 0 in the header field), IPv6 requires a checksum in UDP headers.
IPv6 routers do not perform IP fragmentation. IPv6 hosts are required either to perform path MTU discovery, perform end-to-end fragmentation, or send packets no larger than the default maximum transmission unit (MTU), which is 1280 octets.
Mobility
Unlike mobile IPv4, mobile IPv6 avoids triangular routing and is therefore as efficient as native IPv6. IPv6 routers may also allow entire subnets to move to a new router connection point without renumbering.
Extension headers
The IPv6 packet header has a minimum size of 40 octets (320 bits). Options are implemented as extensions. This provides the opportunity to extend the protocol in the future without affecting the core packet structure. However, RFC 7872 notes that some network operators drop IPv6 packets with extension headers when they traverse transit autonomous systems.
Jumbograms
IPv4 limits packets to 65,535 (216−1) octets of payload. An IPv6 node can optionally handle packets over this limit, referred to as jumbograms, which can be as large as 4,294,967,295 (232−1) octets. The use of jumbograms may improve performance over high-MTU links. The use of jumbograms is indicated by the Jumbo Payload Option extension header.
IPv6 packets
An IPv6 packet has two parts: a header and payload.
The header consists of a fixed portion with minimal functionality required for all packets and may be followed by optional extensions to implement special features.
The fixed header occupies the first 40 octets (320 bits) of the IPv6 packet. It contains the source and destination addresses, traffic class, hop count, and the type of the optional extension or payload which follows the header. This Next Header field tells the receiver how to interpret the data which follows the header. If the packet contains options, this field contains the option type of the next option. The "Next Header" field of the last option points to the upper-layer protocol that is carried in the packet's payload.
The current use of the IPv6 Traffic Class field divides this between a 6 bit Differentiated Services Code Point and a 2-bit Explicit Congestion Notification field.
Extension headers carry options that are used for special treatment of a packet in the network, e.g., for routing, fragmentation, and for security using the IPsec framework.
Without special options, a payload must be less than . With a Jumbo Payload option (in a Hop-By-Hop Options extension header), the payload must be less than 4 GB.
Unlike with IPv4, routers never fragment a packet. Hosts are expected to use Path MTU Discovery to make their packets small enough to reach the destination without needing to be fragmented. See IPv6 packet fragmentation.
Addressing
IPv6 addresses have 128 bits. The design of the IPv6 address space implements a different design philosophy than in IPv4, in which subnetting was used to improve the efficiency of utilization of the small address space. In IPv6, the address space is deemed large enough for the foreseeable future, and a local area subnet always uses 64 bits for the host portion of the address, designated as the interface identifier, while the most-significant 64 bits are used as the routing prefix. While the myth has existed regarding IPv6 subnets being impossible to scan, RFC 7707 notes that patterns resulting from some IPv6 address configuration techniques and algorithms allow address scanning in many real-world scenarios.
Address representation
The 128 bits of an IPv6 address are represented in 8 groups of 16 bits each. Each group is written as four hexadecimal digits (sometimes called hextets or more formally hexadectets and informally a quibble or quad-nibble) and the groups are separated by colons (:). An example of this representation is .
For convenience and clarity, the representation of an IPv6 address may be shortened with the following rules.
One or more leading zeros from any group of hexadecimal digits are removed, which is usually done to all of the leading zeros. For example, the group is converted to .
Consecutive sections of zeros are replaced with two colons (::). This may only be used once in an address, as multiple use would render the address indeterminate. requires that a double colon not be used to denote an omitted single section of zeros.
An example of application of these rules:
Initial address: .
After removing all leading zeros in each group: .
After omitting consecutive sections of zeros: .
The loopback address is defined in and is abbreviated to by using both rules.
As an IPv6 address may have more than one representation, the IETF has issued a proposed standard for representing them in text.
Because IPv6 addresses contain colons, and URLs use colons to separate the host from the port number, RFC2732 specifies that an IPv6 address used as the host-part of a URL should be enclosed in square brackets, e.g. http://[2001:db8:4006:812::200e] or http://[2001:db8:4006:812::200e]:8080/path/page.html.
Link-local address
All interfaces of IPv6 hosts require a link-local address, which have the prefix . This prefix is combined with a 64-bit suffix, which the host can compute and assign by itself without the presence or cooperation of an external network component like a DHCP server, in a process called link-local address autoconfiguration.
The lower 64 bits of the link-local address (the suffix) were originally derived from the MAC address of the underlying network interface card. As this method of assigning addresses would cause undesirable address changes when faulty network cards were replaced, and as it also suffered from a number of security and privacy issues, RFC 8064 has replaced the original MAC-based method with the hash-based method specified in RFC 7217.
Address uniqueness and router solicitation
IPv6 uses a new mechanism for mapping IP addresses to link-layer addresses (MAC addresses), because it does not support the broadcast addressing method, on which the functionality of the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) in IPv4 is based. IPv6 implements the Neighbor Discovery Protocol (NDP, ND) in the link layer, which relies on ICMPv6 and multicast transmission. IPv6 hosts verify the uniqueness of their IPv6 addresses in a local area network (LAN) by sending a neighbor solicitation message asking for the link-layer address of the IP address. If any other host in the LAN is using that address, it responds.
A host bringing up a new IPv6 interface first generates a unique link-local address using one of several mechanisms designed to generate a unique address. Should a non-unique address be detected, the host can try again with a newly generated address. Once a unique link-local address is established, the IPv6 host determines whether the LAN is connected on this link to any router interface that supports IPv6. It does so by sending out an ICMPv6 router solicitation message to the all-routers multicast group with its link-local address as source. If there is no answer after a predetermined number of attempts, the host concludes that no routers are connected. If it does get a response, known as a router advertisement, from a router, the response includes the network configuration information to allow establishment of a globally unique address with an appropriate unicast network prefix. There are also two flag bits that tell the host whether it should use DHCP to get further information and addresses:
The Manage bit, which indicates whether or not the host should use DHCP to obtain additional addresses rather than rely on an auto-configured address from the router advertisement.
The Other bit, which indicates whether or not the host should obtain other information through DHCP. The other information consists of one or more prefix information options for the subnets that the host is attached to, a lifetime for the prefix, and two flags:
On-link: If this flag is set, the host will treat all addresses on the specific subnet as being on-link and send packets directly to them instead of sending them to a router for the duration of the given lifetime.
Address: This flag tells the host to actually create a global address.
Global addressing
The assignment procedure for global addresses is similar to local-address construction. The prefix is supplied from router advertisements on the network. Multiple prefix announcements cause multiple addresses to be configured.
Stateless address autoconfiguration (SLAAC) requires a address block, as defined in . Local Internet registries are assigned at least blocks, which they divide among subordinate networks. The initial recommendation stated assignment of a subnet to end-consumer sites (). This was replaced by , which "recommends giving home sites significantly more than a single , but does not recommend that every home site be given a either". s are specifically considered. It remains to be seen whether ISPs will honor this recommendation. For example, during initial trials, Comcast customers were given a single network.
IPv6 in the Domain Name System
In the Domain Name System (DNS), hostnames are mapped to IPv6 addresses by AAAA ("quad-A") resource records. For reverse resolution, the IETF reserved the domain ip6.arpa, where the name space is hierarchically divided by the 1-digit hexadecimal representation of nibble units (4 bits) of the IPv6 address. This scheme is defined in .
When a dual-stack host queries a DNS server to resolve a fully qualified domain name (FQDN), the DNS client of the host sends two DNS requests, one querying A records and the other querying AAAA records. The host operating system may be configured with a preference for address selection rules .
An alternate record type was used in early DNS implementations for IPv6, designed to facilitate network renumbering, the A6 records for the forward lookup and a number of other innovations such as bit-string labels and DNAME records. It is defined in and its references (with further discussion of the pros and cons of both schemes in ), but has been deprecated to experimental status ().
Transition mechanisms
IPv6 is not foreseen to supplant IPv4 instantaneously. Both protocols will continue to operate simultaneously for some time. Therefore, IPv6 transition mechanisms are needed to enable IPv6 hosts to reach IPv4 services and to allow isolated IPv6 hosts and networks to reach each other over IPv4 infrastructure.
According to Silvia Hagen, a dual-stack implementation of the IPv4 and IPv6 on devices is the easiest way to migrate to IPv6. Many other transition mechanisms use tunneling to encapsulate IPv6 traffic within IPv4 networks and vice versa. This is an imperfect solution, which reduces the maximum transmission unit (MTU) of a link and therefore complicates Path MTU Discovery, and may increase latency.
Dual-stack IP implementation
Dual-stack IP implementations provide complete IPv4 and IPv6 protocol stacks in the operating system of a computer or network device on top of the common physical layer implementation, such as Ethernet. This permits dual-stack hosts to participate in IPv6 and IPv4 networks simultaneously. The method is defined in .
A device with dual-stack implementation in the operating system has an IPv4 and IPv6 address, and can communicate with other nodes in the LAN or the Internet using either IPv4 or IPv6. The Domain Name System (DNS) protocol is used by both IP protocols to resolve fully qualified domain names (FQDN) and IP addresses, but dual stack requires that the resolving DNS server can resolve both types of addresses. Such a dual stack DNS server would hold IPv4 addresses in the A records, and IPv6 addresses in the AAAA records. Depending on the destination that is to be resolved, a DNS name server may return an IPv4 or IPv6 IP address, or both. A default address selection mechanism, or preferred protocol, needs to be configured either on hosts or the DNS server. The IETF has published Happy Eyeballs to assist dual stack applications, so that they can connect using both IPv4 and IPv6, but prefer an IPv6 connection if it is available. However, dual-stack also needs to be implemented on all routers between the host and the service for which the DNS server has returned an IPv6 address. Dual-stack clients should only be configured to prefer IPv6, if the network is able to forward IPv6 packets using the IPv6 versions of routing protocols. When dual stack networks protocols are in place the application layer can be migrated to IPv6.
While dual-stack is supported by major operating system and network device vendors, legacy networking hardware and servers don't support IPv6.
ISP customers with public-facing IPv6
Internet service providers (ISPs) are increasingly providing their business and private customers with public-facing IPv6 global unicast addresses. If IPv4 is still used in the local area network (LAN), however, and the ISP can only provide one public-facing IPv6 address, the IPv4 LAN addresses are translated into the public facing IPv6 address using NAT64, a network address translation (NAT) mechanism. Some ISPs cannot provide their customers with public-facing IPv4 and IPv6 addresses, thus supporting dual-stack networking, because some ISPs have exhausted their globally routable IPv4 address pool. Meanwhile, ISP customers are still trying to reach IPv4 web servers and other destinations.
A significant percentage of ISPs in all regional Internet registry (RIR) zones have obtained IPv6 address space. This includes many of the world's major ISPs and mobile network operators, such as Verizon Wireless, StarHub Cable, Chubu Telecommunications, Kabel Deutschland, Swisscom, T-Mobile, Internode and Telefonica.
While some ISPs still allocate customers only IPv4 addresses, many ISPs allocate their customers only an IPv6 or dual-stack IPv4 and IPv6. ISPs report the share of IPv6 traffic from customers over their network to be anything between 20% and 40%, but by mid-2017 IPv6 traffic still only accounted for a fraction of total traffic at several large Internet exchange points (IXPs). AMS-IX reported it to be 2% and SeattleIX reported 7%. A 2017 survey found that many DSL customers that were served by a dual stack ISP did not request DNS servers to resolve fully qualified domain names into IPv6 addresses. The survey also found that the majority of traffic from IPv6-ready web-server resources were still requested and served over IPv4, mostly due to ISP customers that did not use the dual stack facility provided by their ISP and to a lesser extent due to customers of IPv4-only ISPs.
Tunneling
The technical basis for tunneling, or encapsulating IPv6 packets in IPv4 packets, is outlined in RFC 4213. When the Internet backbone was IPv4-only, one of the frequently used tunneling protocols was 6to4. Teredo tunneling was also frequently used for integrating IPv6 LANs with the IPv4 Internet backbone. Teredo is outlined in RFC 4380 and allows IPv6 local area networks to tunnel over IPv4 networks, by encapsulating IPv6 packets within UDP. The Teredo relay is an IPv6 router that mediates between a Teredo server and the native IPv6 network. It was expected that 6to4 and Teredo would be widely deployed until ISP networks would switch to native IPv6, but by 2014 Google Statistics showed that the use of both mechanisms had dropped to almost 0.
IPv4-mapped IPv6 addresses
Hybrid dual-stack IPv6/IPv4 implementations recognize a special class of addresses, the IPv4-mapped IPv6 addresses. These addresses are typically written with a 96-bit prefix in the standard IPv6 format, and the remaining 32 bits are written in the customary dot-decimal notation of IPv4.
Addresses in this group consist of an 80-bit prefix of zeros, the next 16 bits are ones, and the remaining, least-significant 32 bits contain the IPv4 address. For example, represents the IPv4 address . A previous format, called "IPv4-compatible IPv6 address", was ; however, this method is deprecated.
Because of the significant internal differences between IPv4 and IPv6 protocol stacks, some of the lower-level functionality available to programmers in the IPv6 stack does not work the same when used with IPv4-mapped addresses. Some common IPv6 stacks do not implement the IPv4-mapped address feature, either because the IPv6 and IPv4 stacks are separate implementations (e.g., Microsoft Windows 2000, XP, and Server 2003), or because of security concerns (OpenBSD). On these operating systems, a program must open a separate socket for each IP protocol it uses. On some systems, e.g., the Linux kernel, NetBSD, and FreeBSD, this feature is controlled by the socket option IPV6_V6ONLY.
The address prefix is a class of IPv4-embedded IPv6 addresses for use in NAT64 transition methods. For example, represents the IPv4 address .
Security
A number of security implications may arise from the use of IPv6. Some of them may be related with the IPv6 protocols themselves, while others may be related with implementation flaws.
Shadow networks
The addition of nodes having IPv6 enabled by default by the software manufacturer, may result in the inadvertent creation of shadow networks, causing IPv6 traffic flowing into networks having only IPv4 security management in place. This may also occur with operating system upgrades, when the newer operating system enables IPv6 by default, while the older one did not. Failing to update the security infrastructure to accommodate IPv6 can lead to IPv6 traffic bypassing it. Shadow networks have occurred on business networks in which enterprises are replacing Windows XP systems that do not have an IPv6 stack enabled by default, with Windows 7 systems, that do. Some IPv6 stack implementors have therefore recommended disabling IPv4 mapped addresses and instead using a dual-stack network where supporting both IPv4 and IPv6 is necessary.
IPv6 packet fragmentation
Research has shown that the use of fragmentation can be leveraged to evade network security controls, similar to IPv4. As a result, requires that the first fragment of an IPv6 packet contains the entire IPv6 header chain, such that some very pathological fragmentation cases are forbidden. Additionally, as a result of research on the evasion of RA-Guard in , has deprecated the use of fragmentation with Neighbor Discovery, and discouraged the use of fragmentation with Secure Neighbor Discovery (SEND).
Standardization through RFCs
Working-group proposals
Due to the anticipated global growth of the Internet, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) in the early 1990s started an effort to develop a next generation IP protocol. By the beginning of 1992, several proposals appeared for an expanded Internet addressing system and by the end of 1992 the IETF announced a call for white papers. In September 1993, the IETF created a temporary, ad hoc IP Next Generation (IPng) area to deal specifically with such issues. The new area was led by Allison Mankin and Scott Bradner, and had a directorate with 15 engineers from diverse backgrounds for direction-setting and preliminary document review: The working-group members were J. Allard (Microsoft), Steve Bellovin (AT&T), Jim Bound (Digital Equipment Corporation), Ross Callon (Wellfleet), Brian Carpenter (CERN), Dave Clark (MIT), John Curran (NEARNET), Steve Deering (Xerox), Dino Farinacci (Cisco), Paul Francis (NTT), Eric Fleischmann (Boeing), Mark Knopper (Ameritech), Greg Minshall (Novell), Rob Ullmann (Lotus), and Lixia Zhang (Xerox).
The Internet Engineering Task Force adopted the IPng model on 25 July 1994, with the formation of several IPng working groups. By 1996, a series of RFCs was released defining Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6), starting with . (Version 5 was used by the experimental Internet Stream Protocol.)
RFC standardization
The first RFC to standardize IPv6 was the in 1995, which became obsoleted by in 1998. In July 2017 this RFC was superseded by , which elevated IPv6 to "Internet Standard" (the highest maturity level for IETF protocols).
Deployment
The 1993 introduction of Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) in the routing and IP address allocation for the Internet, and the extensive use of network address translation (NAT), delayed IPv4 address exhaustion to allow for IPv6 deployment, which began in the mid-2000s.
Universities were among the early adopters of IPv6. Virginia Tech deployed IPv6 at a trial location in 2004 and later expanded IPv6 deployment across the campus network. By 2016, 82% of the traffic on their network used IPv6. Imperial College London began experimental IPv6 deployment in 2003 and by 2016 the IPv6 traffic on their networks averaged between 20% and 40%. A significant portion of this IPv6 traffic was generated through their high energy physics collaboration with CERN, which relies entirely on IPv6.
The Domain Name System (DNS) has supported IPv6 since 2008. In the same year, IPv6 was first used in a major world event during the Beijing 2008 Summer Olympics.
By 2011, all major operating systems in use on personal computers and server systems had production-quality IPv6 implementations. Cellular telephone systems presented a large deployment field for Internet Protocol devices as mobile telephone service made the transition from 3G to 4G technologies, in which voice is provisioned as a voice over IP (VoIP) service that would leverage IPv6 enhancements. In 2009, the US cellular operator Verizon released technical specifications for devices to operate on its "next-generation" networks. The specification mandated IPv6 operation according to the 3GPP Release 8 Specifications (March 2009), and deprecated IPv4 as an optional capability.
The deployment of IPv6 in the Internet backbone continued. In 2018 only 25.3% of the about 54,000 autonomous systems advertised both IPv4 and IPv6 prefixes in the global Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) routing database. A further 243 networks advertised only an IPv6 prefix. Internet backbone transit networks offering IPv6 support existed in every country globally, except in parts of Africa, the Middle East and China. By mid-2018 some major European broadband ISPs had deployed IPv6 for the majority of their customers. Sky UK provided over 86% of its customers with IPv6, Deutsche Telekom had 56% deployment of IPv6, XS4ALL in the Netherlands had 73% deployment and in Belgium the broadband ISPs VOO and Telenet had 73% and 63% IPv6 deployment respectively. In the United States the broadband ISP Comcast had an IPv6 deployment of about 66%. In 2018 Comcast reported an estimated 36.1 million IPv6 users, while AT&T reported 22.3 million IPv6 users.
See also
China Next Generation Internet
Comparison of IPv6 support in operating systems
Comparison of IPv6 support in common applications
DoD IPv6 product certification
List of IPv6 tunnel brokers
University of New Hampshire InterOperability Laboratory
References
External links
IPv6 in the Linux Kernel by Rami Rosen
An Introduction and Statistics about IPv6 by Google
The standard document ratifying IPv6 – RFC 8200 document ratifying IPv6 as an Internet Standard
Computer-related introductions in 1996
Internet layer protocols
Network layer protocols
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20fictional%20regiments%20of%20the%20British%20Army
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List of fictional regiments of the British Army
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The following is a list of British and Empire regiments that have appeared in various works of fiction. It also includes some which have been used as placeholders in more official works.
The list encompasses regiments of the British Army and also those of the pre-independence British Indian Army.
British Army
Cavalry regiments
1st King's Lancers
Cavalry/armoured regiment featured in the episode 'The Orderly Officer' of the British television series Redcap (1964-1966)
2nd Lancers
James George Mostyn's former regiment in the Boysie Oakes novel The Airline Pirates by John Gardner
6th Light Dragoons
In A Close Run Thing by Allan Mallinson
16th Light Hussars,
The cavalry regiment in 105th Foot. The Prince of Wales Own Wessex Regiment series of Napoleonic War novels by Martin McDowell
17th Dragoons ("The Sailors")
In The Anti-Death League by Kingsley Amis
22nd Lancers (Duke of Suffolk's Own)
Herbert Curzon's regiment in The General by C.S. Forester
23rd Royal Lancers
In Farewell Again, a 1937 film.
27th Lancers
In The Charge of the Light Brigade, a 1936 film - later a real regiment
37th and 39th The Duke of Clarence's Own Lancers, The Bright Seraphim
In Rumpole of the Bailey series 4 episode 5, 'Rumpole and the Bright Seraphim' by Sir John Mortimer
10th Sabre Squadron, 49th Earl Hamilton's Light Dragoons
In the Alms for Oblivion series of novels by Simon Raven
140th Hussars (Prince Arthur's Own)
From Ravenshoe by Henry Kingsley
The Dampshire Yeomanry
From the comic opera Cox and Box (1866)
Derbyshire Dragoon Guards
Featured the episode 'True Love' of the British television series Red Cap (2001-2004)
Life Guards Greens
From various novels by William Makepeace Thackeray
Light Armoured Brigade
From the Thursday Next novels by Jasper Fforde
Queen Charlotte's Own South Wessex Dragoons
From the Dr David Audley/Colonel Jack Butler novels by Anthony Price as Audley's World War II tank regiment. Also featured in Keith Laumer's "For the Honor of the Regiment" as a part of the lineage of a Mark XXX Bolo of the 3rd Battalion, Dinochrome Brigade.
Royal Western Dragoon Guards
From The Regiment trilogy by Christopher Nicole
Wessex Light Tank Armoured Brigade
From The Well of Lost Plots by Jasper Fforde
The White Hussars
From The Rout of the White Hussars by Rudyard Kipling
Infantry regiments
1st Arkshire Regiment
Regiment in which the murderer, Ian Mcclurgy, is serving in Helmand Province, Afghanistan, when he receives letters about his mother's death through misfeasance at a residence for the elderly, in "The Chimes at Midnight", second episode of the British detective series "Shakespeare & Hathaway: Private Investigators".
1st Decadents Greens
A regiment created by King Auberon in "The Napoleon of Notting Hill" by "G.K. Chesterton".
1st Heavy Things, 3rd Armoured Thunderboxes, 3rd Collapsing Fusiliers, 3rd Disgusting Fusiliers, 3rd Heavy Nudists (Bloodnok: "Oh, what a cap badge they had!"), 3rd Long Things, 3rd Mounted Cash Registers, 3rd Mounted NAAFI, 3rd Regular Army Deserters, Zsa Zsa Gabor's 3rd Regular Husbands, 4th Dynasties, 4th Mudguards, Roper's Light Horse, 3rd Filthmuck Fusiliers, 3rd Bombay Irish, and 56th Heavy Underwater Artillery. Spike Milligan served in the 56th Heavy Regiment, RA.
Various regiments with which Major Bloodnok (played by Peter Sellers of The Goon Show) claimed to have served, or which were otherwise mentioned in the Goon Show.
3rd Foot and Mouth Regiment ("The Devils in Skirts")
A Highland Regiment portrayed in the 1968 film Carry On up the Khyber
4th Musketeers
From the 1967 comedy film "How I Won the War"
4/29 London Regiment, Duke of Connaught's Own
Mentioned in The General by C.S. Forester.
65th Foot (there were several historical regiments with this number)
Mentioned in Ramage and the Saracens by Dudley Pope.
75th Highlanders (there were several historical regiments with this number)
Mentioned in Sea Devil by Richard P. Henrick.
101st Regiment (there were several historical regiments with this number)
Harry East's regiment in Tom Brown at Oxford by Thomas Hughes
105th Foot, The Prince of Wales Own Wessex Regiment
The infantry regiment in 105th Foot. The Prince of Wales Own Wessex Regiment series of Napoleonic War novels by Martin McDowell
106th Foot ("The Glamorgan Regiment") (there were several historical regiments with this number)
The infantry regiment in Adrian Goldsworthy's series of Napoleonic War novels.
114th Highlanders, The Queen's Own Royal Strathspeys
From the James Ogilvie books by Philip McCutchan aka Duncan MacNeil
117th Foot ("The Royal Mallows")
An Irish regiment mentioned in The Adventure of the Crooked Man and The Green Flag by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle.
The Bedford Light Infantry
From the BBC television series Red Cap (2001-04)
The Black Boneens
An Irish regiment mentioned in "The Mutiny of the Mavericks" by Rudyard Kipling.
Black Torrent Guards
An English regiment repeatedly appearing in The Baroque Cycle by Neal Stephenson.
The Black Tyrones
An Irish regiment serving in India mentioned in "The Ballad of Boh da Thone" by Rudyard Kipling.
Blankshire Highlanders
A sample Scottish regiment used in Court of the Lord Lyon Information Leaflet No. 4: Petitions For Arms
Blue Howards
In The Anti-Death League by Kingsley Amis
Bombardier Guards
In both The Book of Snobs by William Makepeace Thackeray, and Put Out More Flags by Evelyn Waugh
Caledonian Highlanders
From the 1935 Laurel and Hardy film Bonnie Scotland
Carabinier Guards
In The Anti-Death League by Kingsley Amis
Cardigan Regiment
In The War of the Worlds by H. G. Wells
The Cotswold Regiment
In The Regiment (TV series), BBC, 1972-3, starring Christopher Cazenove. The series depicts the Regiment's experiences from 1895 to 1904.
Cumberland Light Infantry
Mentioned in The General by C. S. Forester
The Cumbrians (Duke of Rutland's Own)
From the television series Soldier Soldier (1991-1997)
The Derbyshire Regiment
From the BBC television series Red Cap (2001-04)
The Dragons
From the 1958 film Carry On Sergeant
Duke of Buckingham's Light Infantry ("The Sky Blues")
From Gideon's Sword Bearers by John Mackenzie
Duke of Cambridge's Light Infantry
From The East Wind of Love and The South Wind of Love by Compton Mackenzie
Duke of Clarence's Own Clanranald Highlanders ("The Inverness-shire Greens")
From The Monarch of the Glen and other novels by Compton Mackenzie
The Duke of Clarence's Own South Oxfordshire Light Infantry
From The New Confessions (1987) by William Boyd. The narrator, John James Todd, serves in this regiment's 13th (Public School) service battalion during the First World War.
Duke of Edinburgh's Own Strathspey Highlanders ("Banffshire Buffs")
From Rich Relatives by Compton Mackenzie
The Duke of Glendon's Light Infantry (The 'Dogs')
From the 1944 film The Way Ahead
The Duke of Manchester's Own
From Downton Abbey Season 2 (1916), Matthew Crawley's First World War I regiment.
East Sussex Light Infantry ("The Martletts")
From William Boyd's 2012 espionage novel Waiting for Sunrise. The novel's protagonist, Lysander Rief, is in the 2/5th (Service) Battalion in 1914-15. The unit guards a civilian internment camp near Swansea. Not to be confused with the Royal Sussex Light Infantry Militia, a genuine formation disbanded before the First World War
Flintshire Fusiliers
The name used in the writings of Siegfried Sassoon in place of his actual experiences in the Royal Welch Fusiliers
The Fore and Fit Princess Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen-Anspach’s Merther-Tydfilshire Own Royal Loyal Light Infantry ("The Fore-and-Aft")
From Drums of the Fore and Aft by Rudyard Kipling.
Fusilier Guards
From The Breaking of Bumbo (film version)
Glamorganshire Regiment
From No More Parades and A Man Could Stand Up — by Ford Madox Ford
Grampian Highlanders
From The New Confessions by William Boyd. The narrator's company of 13th South Oxfordshire Light Infantry (see above) are attached to this unit during the Third Battle of Ypres.
Jackboot Guards
From The Book of Snobs by William Makepeace Thackeray
King's Own Fusiliers
From the television series Soldier Soldier (1991-1997)
Kings Royal Fusiliers
From the novel The Scarlet Thief by Paul Fraser Collard.
Kintail Highlanders (Duke of Clarence's Own Inverness-shire Buffs)
In Sinister Street by Compton Mackenzie. The Kintails are also mentioned in The Stolen Soprano but this seems to be a reference to the same regiment as the similarly-named Clanranalds in Ben Nevis Goes East.
Lennox Highlanders
Richard Hannay's regiment in Greenmantle by John Buchan. Also in André Maurois' book The Silence of Colonel Bramble (Les silences du Colonel Bramble).
Loamshire Regiment
The "Loamshire Regiment" is a fictitious county regiment often used in Army documents as an example or placeholder. It, or the "Royal Loamshire Regiment", has been used in a number of works including the Bulldog Drummond novels, the 1943 film The Life and Death of Colonel Blimp, The Four Winds of Love by Compton Mackenzie and Evelyn Waugh's Men at Arms
Lord Martock's Foot
A mounted infantry regiment in The Feathers of Death by Simon Raven
Loyal Highlanders (the Black Scots)
The "Loyal Highlanders" is a fictitious regiment commanded by Colonel the Hon. George Hysteron-Proteron C.B. J.P. in The Twelfth and After by J. K. Stanford. The regiment served in India, the Boer War and in France during the First World War.
Loyal Manchester Fusiliers
From William Boyd's 2012 espionage novel Waiting for Sunrise. A fictional unit in the British First Army in 1915.
Loyal South Riding Regiment (the Yorkshire Buffs)
Mentioned in The South Wind of Love by Compton Mackenzie
Maclaren Highlanders
Scottish regiment in the Regiment trilogy of books by C.L. Skelton.: The Maclarens, The Regiment, and Beloved Soldiers
The Malvern Regiment
From the television series Soldier Soldier (1991-1997)
The Mavericks
Irish regiment mentioned by Kipling in Kim and in "The Mutiny of the Mavericks." Battle honors are given in "The Mutiny of the Mavericks" and the yellow of the regimental colors suggests yellow facing pre-Cardwell.
The Melton Mowbray Light Infantry
From England, Their England, a 1933 novel by A. G. Macdonell. Lt Donald Cameron was attached to the 24th battalion as their artillery officer.
North Devon Regiment
From Devil Flotilla, a 1981 novel by Edwyn Gray.
Northdale Rifles
From The Mark of Cain, a 2007 TV film
The North Riding Volunteers
From Downton Abbey; Lord Grantham's territorial regiment.
No. 1 Army Assault Commando (Airborne)
The "Ackies," in Alan Judd's A Breed of Heroes and its BBC adaptation
No. 22 Commando
From Brian Callison's 1972 novel The Dawn Attack.
No. 98 Commando
From Edwyn Gray's 1985 novel Crash Dive 500
Oxford Rifles
From the ITV Studios British television series Lewis episode "The Dead of Winter"
The Pennine fusiliers
From No Man's World trilogy by Pat Kelleher
The Prince Regent's Own South Down Fusiliers
From "The Hour of the Donkey" by Anthony Price, Territorial Regiment in which David Audley's father, Major Nigel Audley, is serving in 1940 in France.
The Punjab Guards
From Jackboots on Whitehall, a 2010 TV film.
Queen's Own McKamikaze Highlanders
from series 3 of Monty Python's Flying Circus
Queens Own Royal Loyal Light Infantry
Former regiment of Peachey Carnehan and Daniel Dravot in the 1975 movie version of Kiplings's The Man Who Would Be King.
Queen's Own Scottish
Infantry regiment featured in the episode A Regiment of the Line of the British television series Redcap (1964-1966)
Queen's Own West Mercian Lowlanders
From the television series Fairly Secret Army
Redston Guards
From The Breaking of Bumbo, novel by Andrew Sinclair
Rendleshire Fusiliers
From the film Waterloo Bridge (1940)
Royal Cambrian Fusiliers
From the episode Crush of the British television series Red Cap (2001-2004)
Royal Corps of Halberdiers
From the Sword of Honour trilogy by Evelyn Waugh
Royal Cumbrian Regiment
From the 2002 film The Four FeathersRoyal East Lancashire Rifles (143rd Foot)
Colonel Jack Butler's regiment in the novels of Anthony Price
The Royal Loyal Musketeers ("The Mavericks")
An Irish regiment mentioned in "Kim" and "The Mutiny of the Mavericks" by Rudyard Kipling
Royal North Surrey Regiment
In the 1902 novel and 1939 film The Four FeathersRoyal Ordnance Fusiliers
From the television series VeraRoyal Rutland Fusiliers
In a sketch from the British television series Rutland Weekend Television. A parody of post-WWII Japanese holdouts.
Royal Wessex Rangers
In the British television series Spearhead (1978-1981)
Royal Westmoreland Fusiliers
Hudson's regiment in What's Become of Waring by Anthony Powell
South Essex Regiment/Prince of Wales' Own Volunteers
Richard Sharpe's regiment in the Sharpe series by Bernard Cornwell
The Rutland Fusiliers
From England, Their England, a 1933 novel by A. G. Macdonell. Lt Evan Davies was attached to the 17th battalion as their artillery officer.
South Glamorgan Regiment
From "Tank Commander" by Ronald Welch; John Carey's regiment while serving as an infantryman.
Viscount of Coleraine Rifles
From the novels Trinity and Redemption by Leon Uris.
Weald Light InfantryNow God be Thanked trilogy by John Masters.
Welsh Light Infantry
In the 1986 film Milwr Bychan Welsh RiflesThe Century Trilogy by Ken Follett.
Wessex GuardsPigeon Pie by Nancy Mitford
Wessex FusiliersAlms for Oblivion - a series of novels by Simon Raven
Wessex Regiment
From the 1952 film Folly to be WiseFrom the BBC television series Red Cap (2001-04)
West Yorkshire Fusiliers (The Wyffies)
Various of Reginald Hill's Dalziel and Pascoe crime novels.
Other units and formations
1313 (Experimental) Battery
Anti-Aircraft unit from Carry On EnglandArmy Information Corps
In The Anti-Death League by Kingsley Amis
Internal Counter-Intelligence Service
From the Doctor Who UNIT audio dramas by Big Finish.
U.N.I.T. or United Nations Intelligence Task Force
A fictional British or international military unit in the Doctor Who universe
Red Troop, 22nd Special Air Service Regiment
From the Ultimate Force TV series (2002-2006)
Regiments of the Indian Army
A number of works of fiction feature regiments of the pre-Independence Indian Army.
1st Bangalore Pioneers
Colonel Sebastian Moran's old Indian Army regiment in the Sherlock Holmes story The Adventure of the Empty House11th Poona Rifles
Captain Blumburtt's regiment in Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom. There was a historical regiment "The Poona Rifles", but the fictional regiment featured in the film bears little resemblance to this.
12th Gurkha Rifles
Colonel Arbuthnot's regiment in Agatha Christie's Murder on the Orient Express12th Indian Lancers
Major Duncan Bleek's regiment in the 1946 Sherlock Holmes film Terror by Night.
34th Bombay Infantry
Major John Sholto's regiment in the Sherlock Holmes story The Sign of Four77th Bengal Lancers
From Tales of the 77th Bengal Lancers, a 1956-57 American television show
Royal Vindhya Horse
Rodney Bateman's father's regiment -and several others - in The Himalaya Concerto by John Masters
Ravi Lancers
Imperial Service cavalry unit whose service with the British Army in France during the First World War serves as the central subject of the novel The Ravi Lancers by John Masters
Other colonial regiments
19th/45th East African Rifles
Captain Blackadder's old colonial regiment before the war in Blackadder Goes Forth''
References
Footnotes
Sources
British regiments
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al%20Jazeera
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Al Jazeera
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Al Jazeera (, , literally "The Peninsula", referring to the Qatar Peninsula in context) is a Qatari government-funded international Arabic-language news channel based in Doha, capital of Qatar, and operated by the media conglomerate Al Jazeera Media Network. The flagship of the network, its station identification, is Al Jazeera.
The patent holding is a "private foundation for public benefit" under Qatari law. Under this organisational structure, the parent receives funding from the government of Qatar but maintains its editorial independence. In June 2017, the Saudi, Emirati, Bahraini, and Egyptian governments insisted on the closure of the entire conglomerate as one of thirteen demands made to the Government of Qatar during the Qatar diplomatic crisis. Other media networks have spoken out in support of the network.
The channel is considered by some to be a propaganda channel of the Qatari government.
Etymology
In Arabic, literally means "the island". However, it refers here to the Arabian Peninsula, which is , abbreviated to . (Compare the Arabic name () for Upper Mesopotamia, another area of land almost entirely surrounded by water; also Algeciras and Algeria.)
History
Launch
Al Jazeera Satellite Channel, now known as AJA, was launched on 1 November 1996 following the closure of the BBC's Arabic language television station, a joint venture with Orbit Communications Company. The BBC channel had closed after a year and a half when the Saudi government attempted to censor information, including a graphic report on executions and prominent dissident views.
The Emir of Qatar, Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa, provided a loan of QAR 500 million (US$137 million) to sustain Al Jazeera through its first five years, as Hugh Miles detailed in his book Al Jazeera: The Inside Story of the Arab News Channel That Is Challenging the West. Shares were held by private investors as well as the Qatar government.
Al Jazeera's first day on the air was 1 November 1996. It offered 6 hours of programming per day; this increased to 12 hours of programming by the end of 1997. It was broadcast to the immediate neighborhood as a terrestrial signal, and on cable. Al Jazeera is also available through satellites (which was also free to users in the Arab world), although Qatar, and many other Arab countries barred private individuals from having satellite dishes until 2001.
At the time of the Al Jazeera Media Network launch, Arabsat was the only satellite broadcasting to the Middle East, and for the first year could only offer Al Jazeera a weak C-band transponder that needed a large satellite dish for reception. A more powerful Ku-band transponder became available as a peace-offering after its user, Canal France International, accidentally beamed 30 minutes of pornography into ultraconservative Saudi Arabia.
Al Jazeera was not the first such broadcaster in the Middle East; a number had appeared since the Arabsat satellite, a Saudi Arabia-based venture of 21 Arab governments, took orbit in 1985. The unfolding of Operation Desert Storm on CNN International underscored the power of live television in current events. While other local broadcasters in the region would assiduously avoid material embarrassing to their home governments (Qatar has its own official TV station as well), Al Jazeera was pitched as an impartial news source and platform for discussing issues relating to the Arab world.
In presenting "The opinion and the other opinion" (the station's motto), it did not take long for Al Jazeera to shock local viewers by presenting Israelis speaking Hebrew on Arab television for the first time. Lively and far-ranging talk shows, particularly a popular, confrontational one called The Opposite Direction, were a constant source of controversy regarding issues of morality and religion. This prompted a torrent of criticism from the conservative voices among the region's press. It also led to official complaints and censures from neighboring governments. Some jammed Al Jazeera's terrestrial broadcast or expelled its correspondents. In 1999, the Algerian government reportedly cut power to several major cities in order to censor one broadcast. There were also commercial repercussions: a number of Arab countries reportedly pressured advertisers to avoid the channel, to great success.
Al Jazeera was the only international news network to have correspondents in Iraq during the Operation Desert Fox bombing campaign in 1998. In a precursor of a pattern to follow, its exclusive video clips were highly prized by Western media.
Around the clock
1 January 1999 , was Al Jazeera's first day of 24-hour broadcasting. Employment had more than tripled in one year to 500 employees. The agency had bureaux at a dozen sites as far away as EU and Russia. Its annual budget was estimated at at the time.
However controversial, Al Jazeera was rapidly becoming one of the most influential news agencies in the whole region. Eager for news beyond the official versions of events, Arabs became dedicated viewers. A 2000 estimate pegged nightly viewership at 35 million, ranking Al Jazeera first in the Arab world, over the Saudi Arabia-sponsored Middle East Broadcasting Centre (MBC) and London's Arab News Network (ANN). There were about 70 satellite or terrestrial channels being broadcast to the Middle East, most of them in Arabic. Al Jazeera launched a free Arabic-language web site in January 2001. In addition, the TV feed was soon available in the United Kingdom for the first time via British Sky Broadcasting.
War in Afghanistan
Al Jazeera came to the attention of many in the West during the hunt for Osama bin Laden and the Taliban in Afghanistan after the 11 September 2001 attacks on the United States. It aired videos it received from Osama bin Laden and the Taliban, deeming new footage of the world's most wanted fugitives to be newsworthy. Some criticized the network for "giving a voice to terrorists". Al Jazeera's Washington, D.C., bureau chief, Hafez al-Mirazi, compared the situation to that of the Unabomber's messages in The New York Times. The network said it had been given the tapes because it had a large Arab audience.
Many other TV networks were eager to acquire the same footage. CNN International had exclusive rights to it for six hours before other networks could broadcast, a provision that was broken by the others on at least one controversial occasion. Prime Minister Tony Blair soon appeared on an Al Jazeera talk show on 14 November 2001, to state Britain's case for pursuing the Taliban into Afghanistan.
Al Jazeera's prominence rose during the war in Afghanistan because it had opened a bureau in Kabul before the war began. This gave it better access for videotaping events than other networks, which bought Al Jazeera's footage, sometimes for up to $250,000.
A United States missile destroyed the Kabul office in 2001. Looking to stay ahead of possible future conflicts, Al Jazeera then opened bureaux in other troubled spots.
The network remained dependent on government support in 2002, with a budget of and ad revenues of about . It also took in fees for sharing its news feed with other networks. It had an estimated 45 million viewers around the world. Al Jazeera soon had to contend with a new rival, Al Arabiya, a venture of the Middle East Broadcasting Center, which was set up in nearby Dubai with Saudi financial backing.
On 21 May 2003, Al Jazeera broadcast a three-minute clip from a tape that was obtained from Al Qaeda. The tape about Ayman al-Zawahiri, an Egyptian physician and the intellectual supporter of Al Qaeda. In the tape, Zawahiri mentioned the 11 September attack and more terrorism against the Western countries saying that "The Crusaders and Jews understand only the language of killing and blood. They can only be persuaded through returning coffins, devastated interests, burning towers and collapsed economies."
In 2005, Tayseer Allouni, an Al Jazeera journalist who was tasked to interview Osama bin Laden several weeks after the 9/11 attacks was arrested in Spain while he was investigating the Madrid train bombings. Allouni was accused of being close to Al Qaeda, eventually was found guilty, and sentenced to seven years of house arrest.
In October 2003, the managing editor of the Saudi newspaper Arab News, John R. Bradley accounted that the Bush administration had told the Qatari government that "If Al Jazeera failed to reconsider its news context, the US would, in turn, have to consider its relation with Qatar."
2003 Iraq War
Before and during the United States-led invasion of Iraq, where Al Jazeera had a presence since 1997, the network's facilities and footage were again highly sought by foreign networks. The channel and its web site also were seeing unprecedented attention from viewers looking for alternatives to embedded reporting and military press conferences.
Al Jazeera moved its sports coverage to a new, separate channel on 1 November 2003, allowing for more news and public affairs programming on the original channel. An English language web site had launched earlier in March 2003. The channel had about 1,300 to 1,400 employees, its newsroom editor told The New York Times. There were 23 bureaux around the world and 70 foreign correspondents, with 450 journalists in all.
On 1 April 2003, a United States plane fired on Al Jazeera's Baghdad bureau, killing reporter Tareq Ayyoub. The attack was called "a mistake" by The Pentagon; however, Al Jazeera had supplied the US with a precise map of the location of the bureau in order to spare it from attack.
Afshin Rattansi became the channel's first English-language broadcast journalist after he left the BBC Today Programme, after the death of UK government scientist David Kelly.
2010s Arab Spring
Al Jazeera became the first channel to air about the 2010 Tunisian protests after the death of Mohamed Bouazizi. In just a short amount of time, the protests in Tunisia quickly spread to the other Arab states that quickly known as the Arab Spring, often led to scrutinity from some other Arab governments.
2017 Qatar blockade
The closing of the Al Jazeera Media Network was one of the terms of diplomatic reestablishment put forward by Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Bahrain and Egypt during the 2017 Qatar diplomatic crisis.
On 23 June 2017, the countries that cut ties to Qatar issued a list of demands to end the crisis, insisting that Qatar shut down the Al Jazeera network, close a Turkish military base and scale down ties with Iran. The call, included in a list of 13 points, read: "Shut down Al Jazeera and its affiliate stations."
Agencies, media outlets, journalists and media rights organisations have decried the demands to close Al Jazeera as attempts to curb press freedom, including Reporters Without Borders; CPJ; IFEX; The Guardian and The New York Times.
Earlier, Saudi Arabia and the UAE blocked Al Jazeera websites; Saudi Arabia closed Al Jazeera's bureau in Riyadh and halted its operating licence, accusing the network of promoting "terrorist groups" in the region; and Jordan also revoked the licence for Al Jazeera.
Saudi Arabia also banned hotels from airing Al Jazeera, threatening fines of up to for those violating the ban.
On 6 June 2017, Al Jazeera was the victim of a cyber attack on all of its platforms.
Qatari Minister of Foreign Affairs, Mohammed bin Abdulrahman bin Jassim Al Thani, has said Doha will not discuss the status of Al Jazeera in any negotiations. "Doha rejects discussing any matter related to Al Jazeera channel as it considers it an internal affair," Qatar News Agency quoted the foreign minister as saying. "Decisions concerning the Qatari internal affairs are Qatari sovereignty - and no one has to interfere with them."
In June 2017, hacked emails from Yousef Al Otaiba (UAE ambassador to US) were reported as "embarrassing" by HuffPost because they showed links between the UAE and the US-based pro-Israel Foundation for Defense of Democracies. UAE-based Al Arabiya English claimed that the extensive media coverage of the email hack was a provocation and that the hacking was a move orchestrated by Qatar.
On 24 November 2017, Dubai Police deputy chief Lieutenant General Dhahi Khalfan Tamim accused Al Jazeera of provoking the 2017 Sinai attack and called for bombing of Al Jazeera by the Saudi-led coalition, tweeting in Arabic "The alliance must bomb the machine of terrorism ... the channel of ISIL, al-Qaeda and the al-Nusra front, Al Jazeera the terrorists".
In 2018, Al Jazeera reported apparent new details regarding a 1996 Qatari coup d'état attempt in a documentary accusing the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, and Egypt, of orchestrating it. According to the documentary, a former French army commander Paul Barril was contracted and supplied with weapons by the UAE to carry out the coup operation in Qatar. UAE minister of foreign affairs Anwar Gargash responded to the documentary and stated that Paul Barril was "in fact a security agent of the Qatari Sheikh Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani who visited Abu Dhabi and had no relationship with the UAE" and the documentary was "a falsification" attempt to inculpate the UAE in the coup.
United Arab Emirates lobbying
As of June 2019, the United Arab Emirates had paid the lobbying firm Akin Gump Strauss Hauer & Feld $1.9m in the preceding year, principally concerning Qatar government-owned media. Lobbyists met with the FCC nine times and with 30 members of the House and Senate during the same time period. A spokesman for the chair of the Senate Finance Committee, Chuck Grassley, said that the committee had been "reviewing Al Jazeera's activities" prior to the UAE's lobbying effort.
During this time the firm lobbied for Al Jazeera to be reclassified as a foreign agent as defined by the Foreign Agents Registration Act, which was simultaneously the focus of a Twitter campaign. On 20 September 2019, Twitter announced it had shut down two groups of accounts with links to UAE spreading disinformation primarily aimed against Qatar. According to Bloomberg, the archive of the incriminated accounts' tweets showed hundreds of messages attacking Al-Jazeera.
Organization
The original Al Jazeera channel was launched 1 November 1996 by an emiri decree with a loan of 500 million Qatari riyals (US$137 million) from the Emir of Qatar, Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa. By securing its funding through loans or grants rather than direct government subsidies, the channel seeks to maintain independent editorial policy. The channel began broadcasting in late 1996, with many staff joining from the BBC World Service's Saudi-co-owned Arabic-language TV station, which had shut down on 1 April 1996 after two years of operation because of censorship demands by the Saudi Arabian government.
The Al Jazeera logo is a decorative representation of the network's name using Arabic calligraphy. It was selected by the station's founder, Emir of Qatar Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa, as the winning entry in a design competition.
Staff
Al Jazeera restructured its operations to form a network that contains all their different channels. Wadah Khanfar, the then managing director of the Arabic Channel, was appointed as the director general of Al Jazeera Media Network. He also acted as the managing director of the original Arabic Channel. Khanfar resigned on 20 September 2011 proclaiming that he had achieved his original goals, and that 8 years was enough time for any leader of an organization, in an interview aired on Al Jazeera English. Ahmed bin Jassim Al Thani replaced Khanfar and served as the director general of the channel from September 2011 to June 2013 when he was appointed minister of economy and trade. The chairman of the channel is Hamad bin Thamer Al Thani. The Director General and editor-in-chief of the Arabic website is Mostefa Souag, who replaced Ahmed Sheikh as editor-in-chief. It has more than 100 editorial staff. The managing director of Al Jazeera English is Al Anstey. Mohamed Nanabhay became editor-in-chief of the English-language site in 2009. Previous editors include Beat Witschi and Russell Merryman.
Prominent on-air personalities include Faisal al-Qassem, host of the talk show The Opposite Direction, Ahmed Mansour, host of the show Without Borders (bi-la Hudud) and Sami Haddad.
Its former Iran and Beirut Bureau Chief was Ghassan bin Jiddo. He became an influential figure on Al Jazeera with his program Hiwar Maftuh, one of the most frequently watched programs. He also interviewed Nasrallah in 2007 and produced a documentary about Hezbollah. Some suggested that he would even replace Wadah Khanfar. Bin Jiddo resigned after political disagreements with the station.
Reach
Many governments in the Middle East deploy state-run media or government censorship to impact local media coverage and public opinion, leading to international objections regarding press freedom and biased media coverage. Some scholars and commentators use the notion of contextual objectivity, which highlights the tension between objectivity and audience appeal, to describe the station's controversial yet popular news approach.
Increasingly, Al Jazeera Media Network's exclusive interviews and other footage are being rebroadcast in American, British, and other western media outlets such as CNN and the BBC. In January 2003, the BBC announced that it had signed an agreement with Al Jazeera for sharing facilities and information, including news footage.
Al Jazeera's availability (via satellite) throughout the Middle East changed the television landscape of the region. Al Jazeera presented controversial views regarding the governments of many Arab states on the Persian Gulf, including Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain and Qatar; it also presented controversial views about Syria's relationship with Lebanon, and the Egyptian judiciary. Critics accused Al Jazeera Media Network of sensationalism in order to increase its audience share. Al Jazeera's broadcasts have sometimes resulted in drastic action: for example, when, on 27 January 1999, critics of the Algerian government appeared on the channel's live program El-Itidjah el-Mouakass ("The Opposite Direction"), the Algerian government cut the electricity supply to large parts of the capital Algiers (and allegedly also to large parts of the country) to prevent the program from being seen. Al Jazeera's popularity has been attributed to its in-depth coverage of issues considered to be of great importance to the international Arab population, many of which received minimal attention from other outlets, such as: the Palestinian perspective on the second Intifada, the experiences of Iraqis living through the Iraq war, and the exclusive broadcast of tapes produced by Osama Bin-Laden.
At the time of the aforementioned incident in Algeria, Al Jazeera Media Network was not yet generally known in the Western world, but where it was known, opinion was often favorable and Al Jazeera claimed to be the only politically independent television station in the Middle East. However, it was not until late 2001 that Al Jazeera achieved worldwide recognition, when it broadcast video statements by al-Qaeda leaders.
Some observers have argued that Al Jazeera Media Network has formidable authority as an opinion-maker. Noah Bonsey and Jeb Koogler, for example, writing in the Columbia Journalism Review, argue that the way in which the station covers any future Israeli-Palestinian peace deal could well determine whether or not that deal is actually accepted by the Palestinian public.
The channel's tremendous popularity has also, for better or worse, made it a shaper of public opinion. Its coverage often determines what becomes a story and what does not, as well as how Arab viewers think about issues. Whether in Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Jordan, or Syria, the stories highlighted and the criticisms aired by guests on Al Jazeera's news programs have often significantly affected the course of events in the region.
In Palestine, the station's influence is particularly strong. Recent polling indicates that in the West Bank and Gaza, Al Jazeera is the primary news source for an astounding 53.4 percent of Palestinian viewers. The second and third most watched channels, Palestine TV and Al Arabiya, poll a distant 12.8 percent and 10 percent, respectively. The result of Al Jazeera's market dominance is that it has itself become a mover and shaker in Palestinian politics, helping to craft public perceptions and influence the debate. This has obvious implications for the peace process: how Al Jazeera covers the deliberations and the outcome of any negotiated agreement with Israel will fundamentally shape how it is viewed—and, more importantly, whether it is accepted—by the Palestinian public.
Al Jazeera's broad availability in the Arab world "operat[ing] with less constraint than almost any other Arab outlet, and remain[ing] the most popular channel in the region", has been perceived as playing a part in the Arab Spring, including the Tunisian and Egyptian revolutions. The New York Times stated in January 2011: "The protests rocking the Arab world this week have one thread uniting them: Al Jazeera, ... whose aggressive coverage has helped propel insurgent emotions from one capital to the next." The newspaper quoted Marc Lynch, a professor of Middle East Studies at George Washington University: "They did not cause these events, but it's almost impossible to imagine all this happening without Al Jazeera."
With Al Jazeera's growing global outreach and influence, some scholars including Adel Iskandar have described the station as a transformation of the very definition of "alternative media." Al Jazeera presents a new direction in the discourse of global news flow and shows voices underrepresented by traditional mainstream media regardless of global imbalances in the flow of information.
Expansion
In 2011, Al Jazeera Media Network launched Al Jazeera Balkans, which is based in Sarajevo and serves the ex-Yugoslavia region in Bosnian, Serbian, and Croatian. The look and feel of the network is similar to Al Jazeera English.
Al Jazeera launched a Turkish-language news website in 2014; it was shut down on 3 May 2017.
Al Jazeera English
In 2003, Al Jazeera hired its first English-language journalists, among whom was Afshin Rattansi, from the BBC's Today Programme.
In March 2003, it launched an English-language website.
On 4 July 2005, Al Jazeera officially announced plans to launch a new English-language satellite service to be called Al Jazeera International.
The new channel started at 12:00 GMT on 15 November 2006 under the name Al Jazeera English and has broadcast centers in Doha (next to the original Al Jazeera headquarters and broadcast center), London, Kuala Lumpur, and Washington D.C. The channel is a 24-hour, 7-days-a-week news channel, with 12 hours broadcast from Doha, and four hours each from London, Kuala Lumpur, and Washington D.C.
Al Jazeera launched an English language channel, originally called Al Jazeera International, in 2006. Among its staff were journalists hired from ABC's Nightline and other top news outfits. Josh Rushing, a former media handler for CENTCOM during the Iraq war, agreed to provide commentary; David Frost was also on board. In an interesting technical feat, the broadcast of the new operation was handed off between bases in Doha, London, Washington, D.C., and Kuala Lumpur on a daily cycle.
The new English language venture faced considerable regulatory and commercial hurdles in the North America market for its perceived sympathy with extremist causes. At the same time, others felt Al Jazeera's competitive advantage lay in programming in the Arabic language. There were hundreds of millions of potential viewers among the non-Arabic language speaking Muslims in Europe and Asia, however, and many others who might be interested in seeing news from the Middle East read by local voices. If the venture panned out, it would extend the influence of Al Jazeera, and tiny Qatar, beyond even what had been achieved in the station's first decade. In an interesting twist of fate, the BBC World Service was preparing to launch its own Arabic language station in 2007. Today, evidence of U.S. antipathy at the Arabic network has dissipated significantly, though not entirely, several analysts say.
Al Jazeera America
In January 2013, Al Jazeera Media Network purchased Current TV, which was partially owned by former U.S. Vice President Al Gore. Using part of Current TV's infrastructure, Al Jazeera launched an American news channel on 20 August 2013.
Though Current TV had large distribution throughout the United States on cable and satellite television, it averaged only 28,000 viewers at any time. The acquisition of Current TV by Al Jazeera allowed Time Warner Cable to drop the network due to its low ratings, but they released a statement saying that they would consider carrying the channel after they evaluated whether it made sense for their customers. Time Warner Cable later began carrying Al Jazeera America in December 2013.
In August 2014, Gore and fellow shareholder Joel Hyatt launched a lawsuit against Al Jazeera claiming a residual payment of $65 million of the sale proceeds, due in 2014, remained unpaid. Al Jazeera later announced a countersuit. In 2016, the case was settled outside of court on the basis of a mutual agreement, under which: Gore and Hyatt had their claims waived, Al Jazeera was ordered to pay the $2.35 million in legal fees incurred by the plaintiffs, and the network forfeited its rights to pursue any indemnification claims related to the ordeal.
On 13 January 2016, Al Jazeera America CEO Al Anstey announced that the network would cease operations on 12 April 2016, citing the "economic landscape".
Sport channels
beIN SPORTS, formerly Al Jazeera Sport channels, was legally separated from Al Jazeera Media Network on 1 January 2014 and is now controlled by beIN Media Group.
beIN SPORTS currently operates three channels in France – beIN Sport 1, beIN Sport 2 and beIN Sport MAX – and launched two channels in the United States (English and Spanish) in August 2012. The network also has a Canadian Channel and holds Canadian broadcast rights to several sports properties, The network also has an Australian channel.
beIN Sport holds the rights to broadcast major football tournaments on French television, including Ligue 1, Bundesliga, the UEFA Champions League and the European Football Championships. In the United States and Canada, beIN Sport holds the rights to broadcast La Liga, Serie A, Ligue 1, Copa del Rey, South American World Cup Qualifier and English Championship matches, in addition to Barca TV.
In October 2009, Al Jazeera acquired six sports channels of the ART. On 26 November 2009, Al Jazeera English received approval from the CRTC, which enables Al Jazeera English to broadcast via satellite in Canada.
Availability
The original Al Jazeera channel is available worldwide through various satellite and cable systems. For availability info of the Al Jazeera network's other TV channels, see their respective articles. Segments of Al Jazeera English are uploaded to YouTube.
Europe, Northern Africa and the Middle East. Al Jazeera can be freely viewed with a DVB-S receiver in Europe, Northern Africa and the Middle East as it is broadcast on the Astra 1M, Eutelsat Hot Bird 13A, Eutelsat 10A, Badr 4, Turksat 2A, Thor 6, Nilesat 102, Hispasat 1C and Eutelsat 28A satellites. The Optus C1 satellite in Australia carries the channel for free and from July 2012 is available at no extra charge to all subscribers to Australia's Foxtel pay-TV service.
Canada. Al Jazeera is available in Canada on Bell Channel 516, as part of the package "International News I." Al Jazeera is available on Rogers Cable individually. Al Jazeera is also available on Shaw Cable TV Channel 513, as part of the package "Multicultural"
India. On 7 December 2010, Al Jazeera said its English language service has got a downlink license to broadcast in India. Satellite and cable companies would therefore be allowed to broadcast Al Jazeera in the country. The broadcaster will be launched soon on Dish TV, and is considering a Hindi-language channel.
United Kingdom. Al Jazeera English is available on the Sky and Freesat satellite platforms, as well as the standard terrestrial service (branded Freeview), thus making it available to the vast majority of UK households. On 26 November 2013, it launched a HD simulcast on certain terrestrial transmitters.
United States. Al Jazeera English is not widely available, as it is not carried by Xfinity or the other major cable television systems which package and market most commercial television in the United States. It can be viewed online via its live stream on its website, DVB-S, Galaxy 19, and Galaxy 23 C-band satellites.
Following the launch of Al Jazeera America in 2013 until 2016 when the channel folded, Al Jazeera English was not available in the United States. It had been available through live streaming over the Al Jazeera website, DVB-S, Galaxy 19, free to air and Galaxy 23 satellites, and it had been broadcast over the air in the Washington, DC DMA by WNVC on digital channel 30–5, and on digital channel 48.2 in the New York metro area, but those broadcasts were discontinued on 20 August 2013. Al Jazeera English had also been available to cable TV viewers in Toledo, Ohio, Burlington, Vermont, New York City (WRNN rebroadcast), Washington State, and Washington, D.C (a rebroadcast of WNVC's feed), but those sources were switched to Al Jazeera America on 20 August 2013. Many analysts had considered the limited availability of Al Jazeera English in the United States to be effectively a "blackout". The live stream and programming over the internet that had been geoblocked was made available to viewers in the United States again in September 2016.
Online. Al Jazeera English can be viewed over the Internet from their official website. The low-resolution version is available free of charge to users of computers and video streaming boxes, and the high-resolution version is available under subscription fees through partner sites. Al Jazeera's English division has also partnered with Livestation for Internet-based broadcasting. This enables Al Jazeera English and Al Jazeera live to be watched worldwide.
On the web
Al Jazeera Media Network's web-based service is accessible subscription-free throughout the world, at a variety of websites. The station launched an English-language edition of its online content in March 2003. This English language website was relaunched on 15 November 2006, along with the launch of Al Jazeera English. The English and Arabic sections are editorially distinct, with their own selection of news and comment. Al Jazeera and Al Jazeera English are streamed live on the official site, as well as on YouTube. On 13 April 2009 Al Jazeera launched versions of its English and Arabic sites suitable for mobile devices.
The Arabic version of the site was brought offline for about 10 hours by an FBI raid on its ISP, InfoCom Corporation, on 5 September 2001. InfoCom was later convicted of exporting to Syria and Gaddafi-ruled Libya, of knowingly being invested in by a Hamas member (both of which are illegal in the United States), and of underpaying customs duties.
In 2014, Al Jazeera Media Network launched an online only channel called AJ+. The channel is based out of the former Current TV studios in San Francisco and has outposts in Doha, Kuala Lumpur and other locations. It is independent of all of Al Jazeera's other channels and is mostly in an on demand format. The channel launched on 13 June 2014 on with a preview on YouTube. This was followed in 2017 by the launch of Jetty, a podcast network which is also based out of the former Current TV studios in San Francisco.
In 2018, Al Jazeera launched a Mandarin-language news website. It is the first Arabic news provider to target the Chinese audience. The staff of the project will be in contact with their audience via Chinese social media like Weibo, Meipai and WeChat.
In 2021, Al Jazeera launched a new online platform called "Rightly" aimed at a conservative US audience. “Right Now with Stephen Kent" is Rightly's first show and is an opinion-led, in-studio interview program hosted by Stephen Kent. Right Now is available on YouTube and as a podcast.
It was reported that over 100 staff at Al Jazeera signed an open letter to management objecting to the launch, with some of them voicing their unhappiness with Rightly on Twitter.
Creative Commons
On 13 January 2009 Al Jazeera Media Network released some of its broadcast quality footage from Gaza under a Creative Commons license. Contrary to business "All Rights Reserved" standards, the license invites third parties, including rival broadcasters, to reuse and remix the footage, so long as Al Jazeera is credited. The videos are hosted on blip.tv, which allows easy downloading and integration with Miro.
Al Jazeera Media Network also offers over 2,000 Creative Commons-licensed still photos at their Flickr account.
Citizen journalism
Al Jazeera Media Network accepts user-submitted photos and videos about news events through a Your Media page, and this content may be featured on the website or in broadcasts.
The channel used the Ushahidi platform to collect information and reports about the Gaza War, through Twitter, SMS and the website.
Plans
Future projects in other languages include Al Jazeera Urdu, an Urdu language channel to cater mainly to Pakistanis. A Kiswahili service called Al Jazeera Kiswahili was to be based in Nairobi and broadcast in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda and Burundi. However, those plans were cancelled due to budget constraints.
The channel also has plans to launch a Spanish-language news network to cater mainly to Spain and Hispanic America, like the Iranian cable TV network HispanTV. Al Jazeera has also been reported to be planning to launch an international newspaper. Al Jazeera Arabic began using a chroma key studio on 13 September 2009. Similar to Sky News, Al Jazeera broadcast from that studio while the channel's main newsroom was given a new look. The channel relaunched, with new graphics and music along with a new studio, on 1 November 2009, the 13th birthday of the channel.
Controversies
While Al Jazeera has a large audience in the Middle East, the organization and the original Arabic channel in particular have been criticised and involved in a number of controversies.
Bahrain
In May 2000, Bahrain banned Al Jazeera's broadcasts due to the channel's comments about Bahrain's municipal elections, labelling it as "serving Zionism".
United States
Several Al Jazeera staff were killed by U.S. military "friendly-fire" incidents.
The United-States-controlled Iraqi interim government closed the offices of Al Jazeera in Baghdad in August 2004 during the United States occupation of Iraq. The interim Iraqi prime minister Iyad Allawi then accused the channel of "inciting hatred" in the country. At the end of April 2013, the Iraqi government led by Nouri Al Maliki once again ordered Al Jazeera to stop broadcasting due to the alleged role of the channel in "encouraging the sectarian unrest". In response to the restrictions imposed by Al Maliki, Al Jazeera issued a statement in which the organization expressed its astonishment at the development, and reiterated their assertion, "We cover all sides of the stories in Iraq, and have done for many years." The network further objected to the ban, saying, "The fact that so many channels have been hit all at once though suggests this is an indiscriminate decision. We urge the authorities to uphold freedom for the media to report the important stories taking place in Iraq."
In 2019, congressman Jack Bergman wrote in the Washington Examiner that "Al Jazeera's record of radical anti-American, anti-Semitic, and anti-Israel broadcasts warrants scrutiny from regulators to determine whether this network is in violation of US law".
Egypt's Tahrir Square
During the 2011 Egyptian protests, on 30 January the Egyptian government ordered the TV channel to close its offices. The next day Egyptian security forces arrested six Al Jazeera journalists for several hours and seized their camera equipment. There were also reports of disruption in Al Jazeera Mubasher's Broadcast to Egypt. The channel was also criticized for being sympathetic to Mohamed Morsi and the Muslim Brotherhood and former IAEA director Mohammed ElBaradei. It was closed for the same reasons in September 2013.
Twenty-two members of staff of Al Jazeera's Egyptian bureau announced their resignation on 8 July 2013, citing biased coverage of the ongoing Egyptian power redistribution in favour of the Muslim Brotherhood. Al Jazeera says that the resignations were due to pressure from the Egyptian military.
Syria
Al Jazeera has been criticized over unfair coverage of the Syrian Civil War. The channel's reporting has been described as largely supportive of the rebels, while demonizing the Syrian government. The Lebanese newspaper As-Safir cited outtakes of interviews showing that the channel's staff coached Syrian eyewitnesses and fabricated reports of oppression by Syria's government. In January 2013, a former Al Jazeera employee from Syria stated their belief that there was ongoing strong pressure to conform to biased coverage of the Syrian Civil War. However, according to Pew Research Center study, in its coverage of the Syrian crisis, Al Jazeera America cable news channel provided viewers with content that often resembles what Americans saw on other U.S. cable news outlets.
India five-day ban
The Indian government banned the Al Jazeera TV channel in April 2015 for five telecast days as it repeatedly displayed disputed maps of India. The suspension concerns maps of Pakistan used in 2013 and 2014 that did not demarcate the part of Kashmir under Pakistani control (Pakistan-administered Kashmir) as a separate territory. Once notified by Indian authorities, the channel said it ensured all maps from 22 September 2014, onward used dotted lines and unique shading for the disputed portions.
Israel
On 19 July 2008, Al Jazeera TV broadcast a program from Lebanon which covered the "welcome-home" festivities for Samir Kuntar, a Lebanese citizen who had been imprisoned in Israel for killing four people in a Palestine Liberation Front raid from Lebanon into Israel. In the program, the head of Al Jazeera's Beirut office, Ghassan bin Jiddo, praised Kuntar as a "pan-Arab hero" and organized a birthday party for him. In response, Israel's Government Press Office (GPO) announced a boycott of the channel, which was to include a general refusal by Israeli officials to be interviewed by the station, and a ban on its correspondents from entering government offices in Jerusalem. A few days later an official letter was issued by Al Jazeera's director general, Wadah Khanfar, in which he admitted that the program violated the station's Code of Ethics and that he had ordered the channel's programming director to take steps to ensure that such an incident does not recur.
On 15 March 2010, Channel Ten (Israel) broadcast a video story about the Coastal Road massacre on 11 March 1978, with two photographs of a victim and an attacker, both women, with Al Jazeera's logo. Photographer Shmuel Rahmani, who took these photos, sued Al Jazeera in the Jerusalem District Court, for copyright infringement of the two photographs. On 19 February 2014, the court ruled that Al Jazeera would pay 73,500 ILS to Rahmani. On 23 November 2017, a second verdict of 30,000 ILS against Al Jazeera was made in the Nazareth District Court. At the end of 2017, a third lawsuit was brought by Michael Ganoe, an American Evangelical Christian activist who has lived in Israel, in the Tel Aviv District Court, after infringing copyrights of his private videos of volunteering for the Israel Defense Forces, in which he was also compared by an independently produced documentary for Al Jazeera network to volunteering for the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant. On 15 November 2018, Ganoe won in a settlement deal from Al Jazeera. He later went on to characterise the settlement as "win" which was gained over the substance of the output being "fake news" to a sympathetic interviewer, and nothing related to the intellectual property.
Website attacks
Immediately after its launch in 2003, the English site was attacked by one or several hackers, who launched denial-of-service attacks, and another hacker who redirected visitors to a site featuring a Flag of the United States. Both events were widely reported as Al Jazeera's website having been attacked by "hackers". In November 2003, John William Racine II, also known as 'John Buffo', was sentenced to 1,000 hours of community service and a $1,500 U.S. fine for the online disruption. Racine posed as an Al Jazeera employee to get a password to the network's site, then redirected visitors to a page he created that showed an American flag shaped like a U.S. map and a patriotic motto, court documents said. In June 2003, Racine pleaded guilty to wire fraud and unlawful interception of an electronic communication. As of 2012, the perpetrators of the denial-of-service attacks remain unknown.
Shariah and Life
Shariah and Life (al-Sharīʿa wa al-Ḥayāh) is an Al Jazeera Arabic show with an estimated audience of 60 million worldwide and stars Muslim preacher Yusuf al-Qaradawi, who is described as "Islam's Spiritual 'Dear Abby'". The format of Sharia and Life is similar to that of al-Qaradawi's earlier programing on Qatar TV as well as Egyptian television shows going as far back as the 1960s. Programs interpreting the Quran or dealing with religious issues were popular from Morocco to Saudi Arabia. The now defunct show has been the repeated subject of controversy. In January 2009, Qaradawi stated: "Throughout history, Allah has imposed upon the [Jews] people who would punish them for their corruption. The last punishment was carried out by [Adolf] Hitler." In October 2010, Qaradawi was asked if Muslims should acquire nuclear weapons "to terrorize their enemies." Qaradawi said he was pleased Pakistan had such a weapon, that the goal of nuclear weapons would be permissible, and provided religious justification quoting Qur'anic verses urging Muslims "to terrorize thereby the enemy of God and your enemy."
Editorial independence
Al Jazeera Media Network is a Private Foundation or Public Benefit under Qatari law. Under this structure, Al Jazeera Media Network receives funding from the government of Qatar, but maintains its editorial independence. Critics have accused Al Jazeera of supporting the positions of the Qatari government though Al Jazeera platforms and channels have published content that has been critical of Qatar or has run counter to Qatari laws and norms. Al Jazeera's editorial independence has been affirmed by journalism associations and organizations including the National Press Club and Reporters Without Borders.
In 2010, United States Department of State internal communications, released by WikiLeaks as part of the 2010 diplomatic cables leak, said that the Qatar government manipulates Al Jazeera coverage to suit political interests.
In September 2012, The Guardian reported that Al Jazeera's editorial independence came into question when the channel's director of news, Salah Negm, stepped in at the last minute to order that a two-minute video covering a UN debate over the Syrian civil war include a speech by the leader of Qatar, Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani. Although the order came from internal editorial staff, staff members protested that the speech was not the most important aspect of the debate, and that it was a repetition of previous calls for Arab intervention.
Documentaries
Al Jazeera's coverage of the invasion of Iraq was the focus of a documentary film, Control Room (2004) by Egyptian-American director Jehane Noujaim.
In July 2003, PBS broadcast a documentary called Exclusive to al-Jazeera on its program Wide Angle.
In 2008, Al Jazeera filmed Egypt: A Nation in Waiting, which documented trends in Egypt's political history and foreshadowed the Egyptian Revolution of 2011.
Another documentary, Al Jazeera, An Arab Voice for Freedom or Demagoguery? The UNC Tour was filmed two months after 11 September 2001 Terrorist Attack.
ISIL and the Taliban. Filmed in 2015 by an Arab Al Jazeera reporter named Najibullah Quraishi, it covers Islamic State's presence in Afghanistan and how they groom children for their causes. It is about Taliban commanders angry about Islamic State's presence, Afghan National Army starting offensives in Achin and 2 suicide bombers targeting Jandal, a former warlord.
Tutu's Children (2017), a documentary about Desmond Tutu's experiment of coaching young professionals to be African leaders.
The Lobby TV series, is about an undercover Al Jazeera reporter who infiltrates several pro-Israel advocacy organizations in Washington, D.C. including Stand With Us, The Israel Project, the Foundation for Defense of Democracies, the Israel on Campus Coalition, and the Zionist Organization of America's (ZOA) Fuel For Truth.
Four Dead in Ohio (2010), a documentary about the 1970 Kent State shootings at Kent State University. Also known as the 4 May Massacre or the Kent State Massacre, the incident involved unarmed college students shot by Ohio National Guard members on campus during a mass protest against bombing of Cambodia by U.S. military forces.
Awards
In March 2003, Al Jazeera was awarded by Index on Censorship for its "courage in circumventing censorship and contributing to the free exchange of information in the Arab world."
In April 2004, the Webby Awards nominated Al Jazeera as one of the five best news Web sites, along with BBC News, National Geographic, RocketNews and The Smoking Gun. According to Tiffany Shlain, the founder of the Webby Awards, this caused a controversy as [other media organisations] "felt it was a risk-taking site".
In 2004, Al Jazeera was voted by brandchannel.com readers as the fifth most influential global brand behind Apple Computer, Google, IKEA and Starbucks.
In January 2013, Al Jazeera was nominated for the Responsible Media of the Year award at the British Muslim Awards.
In 2019 Al Jazeera Investigations Unit won the Walkley Awards for "Scoop of the Year".
Competitors
Al Mayadeen is a pan-Arabist satellite television channel supported by the Islamic Republic of Iran. It was launched on 11 June 2012 in Lebanon. The channel, claims Gulf-supported media, aims at reducing the influence of the Al Jazeera and Al Arabiya networks, both funded by oil-rich Sunni Arab countries in the Persian Gulf. However, it is said to plan to present an alternative to mainstream Arab satellite media, largely dominated by these two channels.
In response to Al Jazeera, a group of Saudi investors created Al Arabiya in the first quarter of 2003. Despite (especially initial) skepticism over the station's Saudi funding (cf. History) and a perception of censorship of anti-Saudi content, Al Arabiya has successfully emulated Al Jazeera, garnered a significant audience share, and has also become involved in controversy – Al Arabiya has been severely criticised by the Iraqi and US authorities and once had journalists killed on the job.
In order to counter a perceived bias of Al Jazeera, the U.S. government in 2004 founded Al Hurra ("the free one"). Al Hurra is forbidden to broadcast to the US under the provisions of the Smith–Mundt Act. A Zogby poll found that 1% of Arab viewers watch Al Hurra as their first choice. while an Ipsos-MENA poll from March–May 2008 showed that Al Hurra was drawing more viewers in Iraq than Al Jazeera. Citing these figures, Alvin Snyder, author and former USIA executive, referred to Al Hurra as a "go to" network in Iraq.
Another competitor is Al Alam, established in 2003 by Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting, which broadcasts continuously. It seeks to address the most challenging issues of the Shia Muslim and Arab world and the Middle East.
A further competitor is the Rusiya Al-Yaum channel – the first Russian TV news channel broadcasting in Arabic and headquartered in Moscow, Russia. Rusiya Al-Yaum started broadcasting on 4 May 2007. The Channel is established and operated by RIA Novosti, the same news agency that launched Russia Today TV in December 2005 to deliver a Russian perspective on news to English-speaking audiences, and "Rusiya Al-Yaum" is indeed a translation of "Russia Today" into Arabic.
The BBC launched BBC Arabic Television on 11 March 2008, an Arabic-language news channel in North Africa and the Middle East. This is the second time that the BBC has launched an Arabic language TV channel; as mentioned above, the demise of the original BBC World Service Arabic TV channel had at least contributed to the founding of the original Al Jazeera Arabic TV channel.
Deutsche Welle began broadcasting in Arabic in 2002. On 12 September 2011, the German international broadcaster launched DW (Arabia), its Arabic language television channel for North Africa and the Middle East. The network has expanded from an initial two-hour block to 16 hours of daily programming in Arabic starting March 2014. The schedule is completed with 8 hours of English language programming. In February 2014, DW (Arabia) announced the acquisition of reprise transmission rights of Egyptian satirist Bassem Youssef's popular show AlBernameg.
On 4 April 2010. TRT Arabi, the Arabic speaking channel of the Turkish national public broadcaster, was launched leading to a more consolidated role of Turkey in the Arab world.
When Euronews started broadcasting its programs in Arabic on 12 July 2008, it entered into competition with Al Jazeera. Arabic is the eighth language in which Euronews is broadcast, after English, French, German, Russian, Spanish, Italian, and Portuguese.
Since the launch of Al Jazeera English, Al Jazeera directly competes with BBC World and CNN International, as do a growing number of other international broadcasters such as Deutsche Welle, France 24, NHK World, RT, Press TV, CGTN, TRT World and WION.
See also
Al Jazeera effect
International news channels
List of Arabic-language television channels
Media of Qatar
State media
References
Further reading
Abdul-Mageed, M. M. (2008). Online News Sites and Journalism 2.0: Reader Comments on Al Jazeera Arabic. TripleC: Cognition, Communication, Co-operation, 6(2), 59–76. Abstract and full article: Blogspot.com
Abdul-Mageed, M. M., and Herring, S. C. (2008). Arabic and English news coverage on aljazeera.net. In: F. Sudweeks, H. Hrachovec, and C. Ess (Eds.), Proceedings of Cultural Attitudes Towards Technology and Communication 2008 (CATaC'08), Nîmes, France, 24 June-27. Abstract and full article: Arabic and English News Coverage on aljazeera.net
M. Arafa, P.J. Auter, & K. Al-Jaber (2005), Hungry for news and information: Instrumental use of Al-Jazeera TV among viewers in the Arab World and Arab diaspora, Journal of Middle East Media, 1(1), 21–50
Marc Lynch (2005), Voices of the New Arab Public: Iraq, al-Jazeera, and Middle East Politics Today, Columbia University Press
N. Miladi (2004), Al-Jazeera,
Hugh Miles (2004), Al Jazeera: How Arab TV news challenged the world, Abacus, ,
a.k.a. Al Jazeera: How Arab TV News challenges America, Grove Press, (2005 reprint),
a.k.a. Al Jazeera: The inside story of the Arab news channel that is challenging the West, Grove Press, (2006 reprint)
Mohammed el-Nawawy and Adel Iskandar (2002), Al-Jazeera: How the Free Arab News Network Scooped the World and Changed the Middle East, Westview Press, ,
a.k.a. Al-Jazeera: The story of the network that is rattling governments and redefining modern journalism, a.k.a. Al-Jazeera: Ambassador of the Arab World, Westview Press/Basic Books/Perseus Books, (2003 reprint)
Erik C. Nisbet, Matthew C. Nisbet, Dietram Scheufele, and James Shanahan (2004), (187 KiB), Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics 9 (2), 11–37
Donatella Della Ratta (2005), Al Jazeera. Media e società arabe nel nuovo millennio , Bruno Mondadori,
Naomi Sakr (2002), Satellite Realms: Transnational Television, Globalization and the Middle East, I.B. Tauris,
Tatham, Steve (2006), Losing Arab Hearts & Minds: The Coalition, Al-Jazeera & Muslim Public Opinion, C. Hurst & Co. (London), Published 1 January 2006,
Mohamed Zayani (2005), The Al Jazeera Phenomenon: Critical Perspectives on New Arab Media, Paradigm Publishers,
Augusto Valeriani (2005), Il giornalismo arabo, (Italian) Roma, Carocci
External links
Al Jazeera's official story
1996 establishments in Qatar
Arab mass media
Arab Spring and the media
Arabic-language television stations
International broadcasters
Journalism articles needing attention
Mass media in Doha
Multilingual news services
Qatari brands
Recipients of the Four Freedoms Award
State media
Television channels and stations established in 1996
Television networks in Qatar
Qatari companies established in 1997
Mass media companies established in 1997
Publicly funded broadcasters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Print%20Shop
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The Print Shop
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The Print Shop is a basic desktop publishing software package originally published in 1984 by Broderbund. It was unique in that it provided libraries of clip art and templates through a simple interface to build signs, posters and banners with household dot-matrix printers. Over the years, the software has been updated to accommodate changing file formats and printer technologies.
The original version was for the Apple II and created signs, cards, banners, and letterheads. Designed by David Balsam and programmed by Martin Kahn, it became one of the most popular Apple II titles of all time. Versions for MS-DOS, Commodore 64, and the Atari 8-bit family followed, as did a variant for the Apple IIGS. These versions were published in Europe by Ariolasoft.
Reception
The Print Shop was very successful. In 1985, it and Ghostbusters were reportedly the two most widely pirated Commodore 64 programs. II Computing listed it seventh on the magazine's list of top Apple II non-game, non-educational software as of late 1985, based on sales and market-share data. In 1988, Broderbund announced that the company had sold more than one million copies, and that sales of the software comprised 4% of the entire United States software market in 1987. In April 1989, it was awarded a "Diamond" certification from the Software Publishers Association for sales above 500,000 units. The series comprised 29% of Broderbund revenue in fiscal year 1992.
Ahoy!s reviewer called the Commodore 64 version of The Print Shop "one of the best thought out, easiest to use packages I've come across", reporting that he did not need to use the manual to produce his first greeting cards. He predicted that the software "is destined to become one of the most popular packages for the Commodore 64". II Computing criticized the Apple II version's inflexible layout options and lack of print preview, but concluded that it "is truly 'a graphics utility for the rest of us', encouraging creativity and self-expression ... you'll want to use this program over and over again".
The Print Shop Companion
The Print Shop Companion, developed by Roland Gustafsson and released in 1985, added a calendar feature, an updated graphic editor, font and border editors, and a "Creature Maker" game, as well as an expanded library of fonts, borders, and graphics. Initially, to use the new fonts and borders in The Print Shop Companion had to modify the original program; subsequent releases of The Print Shop included built-in support for Companion.
In 1986, the first Apple Macintosh version was released. It featured graphics by Marney Morris and was the most powerful version available at the time. It was popular in schools and contained a unique feature with which graphics could be transferred to or from a MacPaint file.
Graphics libraries for The Print Shop came from Broderbund and other vendors. Libraries were produced for the original version and continued to be rolled out as late as the 1990s. User-produced graphics were also commonly distributed by various user groups, and even submitted to disk magazines, such as the Softdisk family of magazines.
The New Print Shop and subsequent versions
The New Print Shop came out in 1988 for Apple II and MS-DOS, and improved on the original. Print Shop Deluxe, for Mac, MS-DOS, and Windows, followed in 1993. Deluxe used a new all-graphical interface still found in Print Shop programs today and allowed for the creation of calendars. Print Shop Deluxe Companion added new modules and graphics, and the Ensemble version combined The Print Shop, the Companion, and several graphics libraries on one CD.
Many new versions of The Print Shop followed, such as Ensemble II. Now over 20 years old, Print Shop still generates printed greeting cards, banners, and signs. It offers new types of printed output, including CD and DVD labels and inserts, iPod skins, and photo book pages. For small-business users, it also offers projects such as business cards, letterheads, and presentations.
On January 15, 2010, a new version for the PC-supporting Windows 7 titled The Print Shop 2.0 was released, published by Encore, Inc. It is published in Standard, Deluxe, and Professional variants.
To address Windows 7 support for pre-2.0 projects, an incremental release to the old line, The Print Shop Version 2.1 was released in July 2010.
For macOS (formerly Mac OS X), the most recent version is 4.0, developed and published by Software MacKiev, and released in December 2017. An update to provide 64-bit compatibility (version 4.1) was released in December 2021.
Reception
Print Shop Deluxe was reviewed in the Oppenheim Toy Portfolio Guide Book where it was praised for "produc[ing] high-quality greeting-cards, signs, stationary, banners, calendars, gift tags and posters".
Notes
External links
Current site for The Print Shop 23 for Windows 10
Current site for The Print Shop for PC & Mac
Broderbund website
Original Broderbund website
The Print Shop Club, an Apple 2 version running in emulation in the browser
Desktop publishing software
Apple II software
Atari 8-bit family software
Commodore 64 software
DOS software
Classic Mac OS software
DTP for Windows
1984 software
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CANpie
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CANpie
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CANpie (CAN Programming Interface Environment) is an open source project and pursues the objective of creating and establishing an open and standardized software API for access to the CAN bus.
The project was established in 2001 by MicroControl and is licensed under Apache License version 2.0. The current version of the CANpie API covers both classical CAN frames as well as ISO CAN FD frames. The API is designed for embedded control applications as well as for PC interface boards: embedded microcontrollers are programmed in C, a C++ API is provided for OS independent access to interface boards. The API provides ISO/OSI Layer-2 (Data Link Layer) functionality. It is not the intention of CANpie to incorporate higher layer functionality (e.g. CANopen, SAE J1939).
Driver principle
The CANpie API supports the concept of hardware message buffers (mailboxes) with a total limit of 255 buffers. A message buffer has a unique direction (receive or transmit). As an option it is possible to connect a FIFO with arbitrary size to a message buffer for both transfer directions. The total number of CAN channels is limited to 255, the API provides a method to gather information about the features of each CAN hardware channel. This is especially important for an application designer who wants to write the code only once. The CAN frame time-stamping (specified by CiA 603, CAN Frame time-stamping – Requirements for network time management) is supported with a resolution of 1 nano-second.
Usage
The following code snippet shows the initialisation of a microcontroller.
#include "cp_core.h" // CANpie core functions
void MyCanInit(void)
{
CpPort_ts tsCanPortT; // logical CAN port
//---------------------------------------------------
// setup the CAN controller / open a physical CAN
// port
//
memset(&tsCanPortT, 0, sizeof(CpPort_ts));
CpCoreDriverInit(eCP_CHANNEL_1, &tsCanPortT, 0);
//---------------------------------------------------
// setup 500 kBit/s
//
CpCoreBitrate(&tsCanPortT,
eCP_BITRATE_500K,
eCP_BITRATE_NONE);
//---------------------------------------------------
// start CAN operation
//
CpCoreCanMode(&tsCanPortT, eCP_MODE_OPERATION);
//.. now we are operational
}
Similar projects
For the Linux operating system the projects can4linux and SocketCAN provide support for Classical CAN and ISO CAN FD. The commercial AUTOSAR specification supports CAN FD since version 4.3 and is available only for AUTOSAR partners. The CMSIS-Driver (Cortex Microcontroller Software Interface Standard) specification is a software API that describes peripheral driver interfaces for middleware stacks and user applications on ARM Cortex-M processors.
References
External links
CANpie documentation
CANpie project site
CAN newsletter 2014-02-25
Software Architecture for Modular Self-Reconfigurable Robots, Xerox Palo Alto Research Center
AUTOSAR website
can4linux project site
SocketCAN project site
Patent applied for SocketCAN (German language)
iCC 2017 - "CAN driver API - migration from Classical CAN to CAN FD"
CAN bus
Computer-mediated communication
Data transmission
Serial buses
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3754024
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anonym.OS
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Anonym.OS
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Anonym.OS was a Live CD operating system based on OpenBSD 3.8 with strong encryption and anonymization tools. The goal of the project was to provide secure, anonymous web browsing access to everyday users. The operating system was OpenBSD 3.8, although many packages have been added to facilitate its goal. It used Fluxbox as its window manager.
The project was discontinued after the release of Beta 4 (2006).
Distributed
Designed, created and distributed by kaos.theory/security.research.
Legacy
Although this specific project is no longer updated, its successors are Incognito OS (discontinued in 2008) and FreeSBIE.
See also
Comparison of BSD operating systems
Security-focused operating system
References
External links
Anonym.OS's SourceForge website
Anonym.OS at DistroWatch
OpenBSD
Operating system distributions bootable from read-only media
Privacy software
Tor (anonymity network)
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43919860
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord%20Zoltan
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Lord Zoltan
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Ken Jugan (born October 16, 1957), better known by the ring name Lord Zoltan, is a semi-retired American professional wrestler, manager, promoter, referee, and trainer. Jugan has been a mainstay in the Pittsburgh Tri-state area (Pennsylvania, Ohio, and West Virginia) holding countless junior heavyweight championships in the region since his debut in 1976. He was one of the first wrestlers to start wearing facepaint in the late-1970s and, according to Pro Wrestling Illustrated, has one of the most unusual "gimmicks" in professional wrestling.
He was the owner of Three Rivers Wrestling from 1977 to 1979, co-owner of Ohio Championship Wrestling from 1982 to 1983, and competed in Dick the Bruiser's World Wrestling Association. Jugan also worked for the National Wrestling Alliance and the World Wrestling Federation as a preliminary wrestler and referee during the early-to-mid 1980s.
Jugan was one of the biggest "indy" stars in Pennsylvania during the 1990s. He founded Deaf Wrestlefest, a long-running benefit show for the Western Pennsylvania School for the Deaf, which ran from 1994 to 2002, and again from 2009 to 2012, and raised over $100,000. In Pittsburgh's Steel City Wrestling, he held the promotion's junior heavyweight championship for over three years before his defeat by Reckless Youth in 1998. While in SCW, Jugan was the leader of The Dope Show, a "heel" stable, with Shirley Doe and Big Neal the Real Deal. He also had a long-running feud with Dominic DeNucci, Doink the Clown, and T.C. Reynolds on the independent circuit.
Jugan dedicated much of his later wrestling career to helping raise money for cancer research, civic organizations, and other charitable causes though independent wrestling shows. On March 20, 2012, Jugan was recognized by the city of Pittsburgh who declared it "Ken Jugan Day". A year later, Jugan received the Jason Sanderson Humanitarian Award from the Cauliflower Alley Club for both Deaf Wrestlefest and other charity work. Jugan, described as "local legend" by Pittsburgh Magazine, has been called one of the most important independent wrestlers to come out of Western Pennsylvania.
Early life
Jugan was born in Glassport, Pennsylvania on October 16, 1957. He became interested in pro wrestling as a child after attending a live event at the McKeesport Palisades. Jugan later became a regular studio audience member on the famed Saturday night television program Studio Wrestling. Although the show was restricted to people over 18, Jugan was often sneaked in through the back door of the WIIC-TV studio by Bruno Sammartino's manager and sat in the back row of the bleachers. Jugan was studying photography in school at the time and began taking pictures at the matches. An official ringside photographer during the final years of Studio Wrestling, he eventually started submitting photos and writing for various wrestling magazines and newsletters. He was also president of a fanclub for Luis Martinez.
Professional wrestling career
Early career (1975–1977)
As a ringside photographer, Jugan became acquainted with a number of promoters and wrestlers in the Pittsburgh-area such as Newt Tattrie. At age 18, the 165 lbs. Jugan unexpectedly wrestled his first match in November 1975 when a wrestler failed to appear for an event he was covering in Clarksburg, West Virginia. Jugan decided to continue wrestling after being laid off from his regular job at Union Railroad in Duquesne. His first match as Lord Zoltan was at Ponderosa Park in Salem, Ohio. By 1976, he was wrestling as "Zoltan the Great" in Ohio and West Virginia. He was one of the first wrestlers to start wearing facepaint in the late-1970s. The "Zoltan" ringname was an homage to Pittsburgh promoter Zoltan "Ace" Freeman and the other half inspired by Alexander the Great. He also made two appearances as "King Kabooki" for The Original Sheik in Detroit. Jugan started refereeing matches as well. Jugan won one of his first championship titles, the NACW Junior Heavyweight Championship, in West Virginia's North American Championship Wrestling. Jugan would eventually become a major regional star in the Pittsburgh Tri-state area (Pennsylvania, Ohio, and West Virginia), as well as Indiana and Michigan, during the late-1970s and early 1980s. Pro Wrestling Illustrated described his Zoltan in-ring persona as "one of wrestling's crazier characters", alternating between "ominous"-looking facepaint and a wrestling mask, who had "perfected the art of distracting referees while he uses foreign objects and illegal tactics against his opponents".
Three Rivers Wrestling Association (1977–1979)
Jugan started his own "outlaw" promotion, Three Rivers Wrestling Association (TRWA), in 1977. The promotion was covered in a number of wrestling publications, such as The Ring's Wrestling, The Wrestling News, and Wrestling Monthly, and many of its stars regularly performed as preliminary wrestlers for the World Wide Wrestling Federation. Bobby Fulton spent much of his early career in the TRWA where he trained with Jugan, Fred and Bull Curry, and Charlie Fulton. The promotion merged with the Knoxville, Tennessee-based All-Star Wrestling in September 1979 shortly after its split from Southeastern Championship Wrestling earlier that year.
World Wrestling Association (1982)
Jugan was one of several West Virginia promoters who began working with Dick the Bruiser's World Wrestling Association in Indianapolis, Indiana during the early-1980s. Jugan soon began wrestling for the WWA as "Zoltan the Great" in mid-1982. One of his first matches in the promotion was against Mike Dupree at the Market Square Arena on July 5, which he won. Jugan made several more appearances at the venue wrestling El Bracero, Rufus R. Jones, and J.R. Hogg during the next several weeks.
Ohio Championship Wrestling (1982–1983)
In the fall of 1982, Jugan began working for Traitor Tim Hampton's Ohio Championship Wrestling in Cleveland, Ohio. He was a founding member of the "outlaw promotion" along with Ed Bonzo and J.W. Hawk. With their connections to the WWA, they were able to start broadcasting televised matches on cable channels 24 and 27 in the Cleveland area. The promotion held its first event, a three-day November supercard, where it crowned Bobo Brazil as its first champion. On the second night in Maple Heights, Ohio, Jugan won a battle royal to earn a title shot against Brazil on the third show in Parma. Jugan was part of a heel stable managed by Beefy LaPorque that included Ed Bonzo and J.W. Hawk until the end of the promotion's run in the spring of 1983. Jugan and Hawk were also managed by Greg "Punk Rock" Mason for a time. Jugan would later form a tag team with LaPorque, wrestling as The Incredible Bulk, called The Funkadelix.
World Wrestling Association (1983)
Jugan returned to the WWA after the close of Ohio Championship Wrestling. On March 12, 1983, Jugan wrestled two matches in one night at Tyndall Armory in Indianapolis. He and El Bracero fought to a draw in the first match then lost to Spike Huber later on that night. During the next two months, Jugan also had matches against Bobby Bold Eagle, Steve Cooper, Greg Lake, Max Blue, and Jose Elizia. On May 7, Jugan and Black Saint lost to El Bracero and J.R. Hogg in Madison, Indiana. He and The Black Cat also lost to El Bracero and Bobby Bold Eagle in Seymour, Indiana a week later.
World Wrestling Federation (1983–1984)
Jugan began wrestling for the World Wrestling Federation as a preliminary wrestler mostly appearing for WWF house shows in Allentown and Hamburg, Pennsylvania. One of his first appearances was on the May 14th edition of WWF Championship Wrestling to wrestle Tito Santana. Over the next few weeks, Jugan faced Salvatore Bellomo and Tony Garea. He also teamed with Bill Dixon to wrestle The Invaders (Invader #1 and #2) during the summer. On July 9, Jugan and Angelo Gomez unsuccessfully challenged Andre the Giant in a handicap match. The two men lost the match when Jugan was thrown out of the ring and his partner pinned by Andre. Due to the circumstances of the match, Jugan has often claimed he is "undefeated" against the legendary wrestler. He remains one of the few currently active wrestlers to have faced Andre the Giant. On September 6, 1983, Jugan teamed with Tony Garea and Swede Hansen in a losing effort against Samula and The Wild Samoans (Afa and Sika). He also continued wrestling in Michigan and Ohio under his Zoltan in-ring persona so fans would not recognize him on WWF television.
On January 1, 1984, Jugan wrestled "Dr. D" David Schultz for a WWF TV taping at the Chase Park Plaza Hotel in St. Louis, Missouri; their bout was later aired during the short-lived revival of Wrestling at the Chase. On the January 7th edition of WWF All Star Wrestling, Jugan lost to Sgt. Slaughter after submitting to the Cobra Clutch submission hold. The following week, Jugan wrestled then WWF World Heavyweight Champion The Iron Sheik (with "Classy" Freddie Blassie) and lost after submitting to his Camel Clutch finisher. Jugan was similarly defeated by Greg "The Hammer" Valentine (with Captain Lou Albano) using a figure-four leglock on the January 28th edition of WWF All Star Wrestling. On February 4, Jugan teamed with Eddie Gilbert and Frankie Williams in a 6-man tag team match against The Wild Samoans (with Captain Lou Albano); Jugan's team lost when Afa pinned Williams after a Samoan drop. On February 11, Jugan and Bill Dixon wrestled Eddie Gilbert and B. Brian Blair in Allentown, Pennsylvania. He lost to The Iron Sheik in Allentown a week later. Their WWF Championship Wrestling match was used to set up The Iron Sheik's feud with Sgt. Slaughter. On February 18, Jugan was pinned by Paul Orndorff (with "Rowdy" Roddy Piper) on WWF Championship Wrestling. On February 24, Jugan wrestled Samula at the Pittsburgh Civic Arena. On March 3, 1984, in one of his last WWF appearances, Jugan teamed with Steve Lombardi to wrestle Mr. Fuji and Tiger Chung Lee in Allentown.
Semi-retirement (1985–1991)
Jugan began refereeing matches in the Pittsburgh-area for the WWF during the mid-1980s. The decision would soon threaten his wrestling career as the Pennsylvania State Athletic Commission would not allow Jugan to hold a "duel license". Jugan opted to continue refereeing for the WWF was effectively "banned" from competition in Pennsylvania for several years. Outside of his home state, however, Jugan continued wrestling in the various territories of the National Wrestling Alliance, as well as outlaw promotions, throughout the country. On January 17, 1985, Jugan wrestled "Dirty" Dick Slater during a Pittsburgh TV taping of Championship Wrestling from Georgia. Jugan became semi-active during this period and, after being engaged to his future wife, began working as an administrative assistant for the Allegheny County Court of Common Pleas. On November 16, 1986, Jugan and Bobby Duncum, Sr. lost to Kurt Kaugman and Troy Orndorff in Clarksburg, West Virginia via countout. He returned to Clarksburg on February 13, 1987, where he and Umana Zanuk defeated Crusher Klebanski and Tony Nardo. Jugan also held the Great Lakes Wrestling Association Junior Heavyweight Championship but lost the belt to Sam Houston on November 17, 1989, at the Front Row Theatre in Cleveland, Ohio.
Independent circuit (1992–1994)
Jugan continued wrestling following the breakup of the NWA territory system in the early-1990s. In January 1992, Jugan beat Michael Quinn in Cincinnati, Ohio for the American States Wrestling Alliance's Ohio Junior Heavyweight Championship. He lost the belt to Kid Collins in Mansfield, Ohio three months later. Jugan also worked for Cleveland All-Pro Wrestling during this period. On May 7, Jugan wrestled T.C. Reynolds at a CAPW show. The next night, Jugan and Jesse Sellica wrestled The Bushwhackers. He also feuded with Dusty Wolfe while in ASWA. Jugan spent much of 1994 feuding with Johnny Graham on the independent circuit. Their bout at "Sauconfest '94" in Lower Saucon, Pennsylvania was praised by The Morning Call. The publication claimed that the wrestler "was so hyped he needed an attending physician to hypnotize him into behaving". On September 24 in Munhall, Pennsylvania, he lost to "Beef Stew" Lou Marconi in a match to crown the inaugural ACW Mid-America Heavyweight Champion. Jugan defeated Graham in an "Eye of the Hurricane" match for the ACW Light Heavyweight Championship in Lewistown, Pennsylvania on October 1, but dropped the title to Graham two weeks later.
Steel City Wrestling (1994–1996)
In late-1994, Jugan joined Norm Connors' Steel City Wrestling based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. On October 8, 1994, Jugan entered a one-night tournament in Connellsville, Pennsylvania to crown the inaugural SCW Junior Heavyweight Champion. He defeated Chris Hamrick in the semi-finals and Scotty McKeaver in the finals to win the title. On December 17, 1994, Jugan and Boo Boo Henderson beat Buddah and T. Rantula in a tag team street fight match in Parkersburg, West Virginia. At the end of the year, Jugan was ranked #458 in Pro Wrestling Illustrated's annual PWI 500.
That same year, Jugan promoted Deaf Wrestlefest, a fundraiser for the Western Pennsylvania School for the Deaf in Edgewood, Pennsylvania. His two sons, both hearing-impaired, were students the school. He and his wife were approached at a PTA meeting, as one of the parent's was aware Jugan was a pro wrestler, when the then newly appointed school superintendent was looking for new fundraising ideas. The event was performed specifically for a hearing-impaired audience with sign language being used to communicate promos and other information. Deaf Wrestlefest became an annual event for Steel City Wrestling, attracting a number of high-profile stars, until its close five years later. Jugan was an active participant in the first few events but gradually ceased wrestling to concentrate exclusively on promoting the event. Local Pennsylvania promoters allowed him to borrow their permits so that Jugan would be allowed to run the shows.
Jugan spent the first half of 1995 feuding with T.C. Reynolds over his newly won title. He also wrestled Cactus Jack in a non-title match, which Jugan lost, in Weirton, West Virginia on April 7. That spring, Jugan also began teaming with Psycho Mike as The Master Blasterz on the Ohio independent circuit. The team faced The Bushwhackers (Bushwacker Luke and Bushwacker Butch) at IWA's "Rumble in Trumbull '95" as well as The American Patriots (Preston Steele and T.C. Reynolds) at Deaf Wrestlefest 1995. Psycho Mike later counted Jugan among his top five favorite tag team partners of his career. Jugan's feud with Reynolds also spread to other promotions. On April 21, Jugan captured the United States Wrestling League Intercontinental Championship from Reynolds in Ellwood City, Pennsylvania. Four months later, the two met during a one-night tournament in New Castle, Pennsylvania for the SCW Pennsylvania State Junior Heavyweight Championship. They were both eliminated from the tournament when their match ended in a double-disqualification.
On October 14, Jugan lost the ACW light heavyweight title to Johnny Graham at "Fall Wrestlefest '95" in Lewistown, Pennsylvania. A week later in SCW, Jugan and his manager Notorious Norm lost a tag team match to Virgil and Bill Mickey, a local firefighter, at Connellsville High School. On November 11, Jugan lost to Mikey Whipwreck via disqualification at St. Mary's High School; Whipwreck had defeated Pablo Marquez earlier in the night to earn a SCW title shot at Jugan. Though successful in keeping his SCW title earlier that year, Jugan lost the USWL Intercontinental Championship to T.C. Reynolds at Butler Senior High School on December 18, 1995.
That spring, Jugan was among the top ten contenders in American Commonwealth Wrestling for the promotion's heavyweight title, then held by T. Rantula, but did not win the belt. On April 20, 1996, Jugan lost to Koko B. Ware in a non-title bout at the Upshur County Armory in Buckhannon, West Virginia. The next night at Deaf Wrestlefest 1996, The Master Blasterz and T. Rantula defeated Cody Michaels, Dynamite Dan, and Preston Steele in a six-man tag team match. Jugan also made appearances for Cleveland Wrestling Alliance and the United States Wrestling League during the summer. In the fall of 1996, Jugan made a brief appearance in Pro Wrestling eXpress. On September 6, 1996, Jugan defeated Dennis Gregory for the PWX North American Heavyweight Championship in North Versailles, Pennsylvania. He re-lost the title to Gregory the next night in West Newton. On September 21, 1996, Jugan (with Notorious Norm) defeated Virgil via countout at the Tuscarawas County Fair in Dover, Ohio. A rematch held the following night at Pittsburgh's Sullivan Hall resulted in a double-countout.
Independent circuit (1997)
Jugan occasionally appeared in televised matches for United States Championship Wrestling throughout 1997. On April 12, 1997, Jugan and T. Rantula wrestled Ron Cumberledge and Preston Steele in Barberton, Ohio. On April 25, he wrestled T.C. Reynolds to a time-limit draw at a Pro Championship Wrestling show in Warren, Ohio. On August 22, Jugan wrestled J.T. Lightning at a United States Wrestling League show. On December 13, 1997, Jugan pinned Matthew Starr at an Atlantic Coast Championship Wrestling show in Buckhannon, West Virginia.
Steel City Wrestling (1998–2000)
Jugan successfully defended the junior heavyweight title against Christian York at the SCW Arena in Irwin, Pennsylvania on January 18, 1998. A match between York and Reckless Youth was scheduled to take place the following month, on February 8, to decide who would be Jugan's next opponent. Prior to the bout, York claimed to have suffered a severe knee injury and forfeited the match. York confronted Reckless Youth in the ring following this announcement and challenged his rival to face Jugan for the belt that night. This set up an impromptu title match between Jugan and Youth. Jugan ended up losing to Reckless Youth in this bout ending his three-year title reign.
On February 15, Jugan successfully defended the ACW Light Heavyweight Championship against Preston Steele in Cleveland, Ohio; he was awarded the bout via referee decision when Steele could no longer compete due to an ankle injury. Jugan went on to win an 18-man battle royal at the end of the night. He lost to Battman via disqualification in Cleveland on March 22 but retained the title. On May 24, Jugan and T. Tantula attended an Extreme Championship Wrestling show in Rostraver, Pennsylvania though they did not compete. Shortly after his title loss, Jugan formed a "heel" stable called The Dope Show with Shirley Doe and Big Neal the Real Deal. He and Shirley Doe began teaming regularly during this period. On July 9, they wrestled The Bushwhackers in Cambridge, Ohio. The following night in Irwin, The Dope Show defeated Don Montoya and Jimmy Cicero; Jugan would defeat Montoya in a singles match at the end of the month. On August 28, Jugan and Rage faced High Society (Cueball Carmichael and Jimmy Cicero) at the SCW Arena. He also wrestled Carmichael in single matches during the next two months. On October 18, Jugan and Shirley Doe beat The Heartthrobs (Blade and Logan) at the SCW Arena. On November 13, Jugan wrestled Doink the Clown in a 30-minute match at Allied Powers Wrestling Federation's "Friday The 13th" supercard at Brockway High School. Jugan defeated Doink the following night at APWF's "Hell's Bells" in Big Run, Pennsylvania. On November 22, 1998, The Dope Show beat Flexx Wheeler and Nick Burke at the SCW Arena.
On January 16, 1999, Jugan wrestled Julio Sanchez in Burnside, Pennsylvania. The following night, The Dope Show defeated The Intimidators (Mark Mest and Vladimir Vampyre) in Weirton, West Virginia. On April 17, Jugan returned to Weirton where he wrestled Robert Gibson at SCW's King of West Virginia Tournament. On June 19, Jugan won a singles match against Sheriff Steele via disqualification in White Oak, Pennsylvania. On May 15, Jugan and T. Rantula wrestled The Thrillbillies in Ashtabula, Ohio. On June 5, Jugan and Shirley Doe wrestled The American Jiggalos (Preston Steele and TC Renyolds) at a USWL show in Ellwood City, Pennsylvania. On July 8, The Dope Show beat The Intimidators in a rematch at the Agricultural Fair in Derry, Pennsylvania. On July 30, Jugan appeared at "Curtis Comes Home" in Belle Vernon, Pennsylvania, a tribute show to raise money for referee Mark Curtis, where he wrestled Dominic DeNucci in a Legends match. Jugan was pinned by DeNucci following a surprise appearance from Mick Foley. On November 21, 1999, Jugan and Shirley Doe captured the SCW Tag Team Championship from Dennis Gregory and Lou Marconi in White Oak, Pennsylvania. They held the belts for nearly six months before their defeat by High Society (Cueball Carmichael and Jimmy Cicero) in McKeesport, Pennsylvania on May 10, 2000. Doe later credited Jugan as one of his mentors while a tag team.
Independent circuit (2000–2005)
Prior to Steel City Wrestling's close that year, Jugan held what would be the last of the original Deaf Wrestlefest shows. Held on April 12, Deaf Wrestlefest Y2K's main event featured King Kong Bundy and Preston Steele. The school's decision to end the event was due to the increasing popularity of adult-oriented content and violence in mainstream pro wrestling largely promoted during World Wrestling Entertainment's "Attitude Era". Although the Deaf Wrestlefest shows had always been "family friendly", Jugan speculated that parents and school officials wanted to avoid bad publicity. Jugan two more shows independently before ending Deaf Wrestlefest.
On September 13, 2001, Jugan lost to Doink the Clown at an Outlaw Championship Wrestling show in New Castle, Pennsylvania. On December 28, 2002, Jugan made a guest appearance for the International Wrestling Cartel defeating Jake Garrett at Hindman Hall in Butler, Pennsylvania. Ohio independent wrestlers J.T. Hogg, Scott Prodigy, and Sherman Tank have all credited Jugan for mentoring them during their early careers. Hogg, a kayfabe relative of one-time WWA rival J.R. Hogg, claimed that he wrestled Jugan at least 20 times in a 6-month period.
In early-2003, Jugan feuded with The Dream Team (Dean Jablonski, Joey Bravo, and Rowdy Ron) in the Ohio-based World Wide Wrestling promotion. He lost to Joey Bravo at Tori's Station in Fairfield, Ohio on January 31, 2003. Jugan also faced Dean Jablonski at the first annual "Rumble in the Rocks", a supercard co-hosted by the Championship Wrestling Federation and Pittsburgh Professional Wrestling, and at a Far North Wrestling show in Johnstown, Pennsylvania. At the end of year, Jugan began wrestling semi-regularly for the Championship Wrestling Federation. On December 13, 2003, Jugan defeated Powerhouse Hughes at "CWF Rampage" in Monessen, Pennsylvania.
On January 10, 2004, Jugan and Devin Devine defeated Dennis Gregory and Powerhouse Hughes at "CWF Motown Showdown '04" in Monessen. He beat Doink the Clown a month later at "CWF Unfinished Business IV". On March 13, Jugan challenged Dennis Gregory for the
CWF Heavyweight Championship at "CWF March Madness 2004" in Bridgeville, Pennsylvania, however, the match ended in a double-countout. On March 26, Jugan lost to Joe Integra at a Far North Wrestling show in Latrobe, Pennsylvania. The following night at "Rumble in the Rox 2", Jugan faced to Larry Zbyszko in the main event. Jugan lost the bout when Zbyszko pinned him with a school boy rollup after an attempt by his manager, Mayor Mystery, to interfere in the match backfired. Jugan and Mayor Mystery's Parts Unknown Posse had attacked Dean Jablonski earlier that night before they were run off by Zbyszko.
On April 3, Jugan defeated Kim Chee in front of 1,250 fans at IWC's "Night of Legends 1" in Franklin, Pennsylvania. On July 2, he wrestled The Honky Tonk Man at the Big Butler Fair in Prospect, Pennsylvania. On October 9, Jugan lost to Doink the Clown at a Far North Wrestling event in Morgantown, West Virginia. That same month, Jugan was one of several wrestling legends to participate in a fundraising event for the Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame at Toronto's Fairfield Inn & Suites. On November 13, Jugan won the CWF Heavyweight Championship from Dennis Gregory at "CWF Monessen Mayhem". He successfully defended the title against Gregory at "CWF Holiday Havoc III" on November 27, winning via disqualification, and Powerhouse Hughes at "CWF Upside Down" on December 11, 2004.
On January 28, 2005, Jugan wrestled Doink the Clown in Butler, Pennsylvania for Far North Wrestling. He returned to Butler several weeks later to defeat Battman. On April 9, Jugan defeated Kim Chee in a Legends Lumberjack match at IWC's "Night of Legends 2". He also beat Rockin' Rebel, then making his PGH Pro debut, at "Rumble in the Rox 3" in McKees Rocks, Pennsylvania a week later. On May 7, Jugan took part in a 12-man battle royal held at the Mark Curtis Memorial Reunion show in Johnson City, Tennessee. He was also invited to the 2006 Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame ceremony in Amsterdam, New York. Jugan would continue to be involved with the museum for several years. In the mid-2000s, he also active in the internet wrestling community and assisted wrestling historians. Jugan was one of the sources used by Count Grog in his KayfabeMemories.com article chronicling the history of Studio Wrestling and the Pittsburgh tri-state wrestling territory as well as helping Greg Oliver in his 2007 book "The Pro Wrestling Hall of Fame: The Heels".
After a near 7-month championship reign, Jugan lost the CWF title to Dr. Feelgood at "CWF Continuation" on June 11. Held during the weekend Mon Valley Summer Festival in Monessen, Jugan and The Russian Nightmare lost to Dr. Feelgood and Brian O in a Best Two Out of Three Falls match the second night at "CWF Climax". Two weeks later, Jugan and Doink the Clown fought to a double-disqualification at a Far North Wrestling show in Kittanning, Pennsylvania. On July 15, Jugan and Doink joined forces as The Dope Show against Bubba Brewer and Nikolai Volkoff at the Allied Powers Wrestling Federation's "Return To Glory" show at Kay Arena in Indiana, Pennsylvania. On July 29, Jugan and The Mauler defeated The Gambino Brothers (Marshall and Mickey Gambino) at another Far North Wrestling show in Butler, Pennsylvania; Dominic DeNucci was the special guest referee. He returned to FNW later that year to face The Gambino Brothers in a rematch, this time with partner Kris Krude, but lost this second encounter. On November 20, 2005, Jugan wrestled Tito Santana at the IWC's "Newville Knockout" show in Newville, Pennsylvania. Starting in February 2006, Jugan had a 5-month run in Far North Wrestling appearing in matches against Sheriff Steele, JT Hogg, and Dennis Gregory. On May 12, Jugan wrestled Dominic DeNucci in Cranberry, Pennsylvania. Later that week, Jugan attended the 2006 Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame weekend.
Championship Wrestling Federation (2006–2007)
Jugan also began teaming with Nasty Nick Crane as The French Ticklers in the CWF. On September 2, the team defeated The New Breed (New Breed 1 and New Breed 2) at "CWF Fall From Grace" in Monessen. Jugan also feuded with Doink the Clown for several weeks losing to him at "CWF No Escape" in Belle Vernon, via disqualification, and "CWF Believe The Hype" in Charleroi, Pennsylvania. The French Ticklers, however, had better luck in the CWF's tag team division. The team defeated Manifest Destiny (Eric Xtasy and Justin Idol) at the October 28th "CWF Halloween Horror 2" show and CWF Tag Team Champions The West Coast Hustlas (Benny Benz and DC Bentley) at the November 25th "CWF Upside Down" show. Jugan and Crane would hold the tag titles for a then record 75 weeks.
The French Ticklers would successfully defend their titles in a rematch against The West Coast Hustlas at "CWF Holiday Wishes II" on December 16, 2006. On January 27, 2007, at "CWF Collision Course 2007", the team once again retainted the titles against Eric Xtasy and The ShareCropper. On February 10, Jugan defended the tag team titles with "Amir Al Jahari" (in reality his tag team partner Nick Crane) against The Steel City Saints (Bobby Shields and Chris LeRusso) at "CWF Unfinished Business VII". In March, Jugan wrestled matches against The Honky Tonk Man in Cleveland All-Pro Wrestling and Brodie Lee in Far North Wrestling. Meanwhile in the CWF, The French Ticklers continued their winning streak by defeating The Masked Duo (The Masked Assassin and The Masked Express) at "CWF March Madness 2007" on March 23. One night later, Jugan managed for Larry Zbyszko in his match against Bruno Sammartino (with Domenic DeNucci) at the International Wrestling Cartel's "Night of Legends 3". Zbyszko was pinned by his opponent when Jugan accidentally hit Zbyszko during the bout.
On April 13 at "CWF Friday The 13th", The French Ticklers and Apollyon were defeated by Low Rider and The Factory (Dee Drake and The Beast) in a six-man tag team match. The following night at "CWF Return To The 'Roi" they defeated Bobby White, Jr. and Doink the Clown at Charleroi High School. On May 5, Jugan and Crane lost to The Factory at "CWF mass inSINity" but kept the tag team belts via disqualification. Jugan, accompanied by manager Count Grog, also wrestled The Missing Link at a special weekend show for the 2007 PWHoF induction ceremony, hosted by Northeast Championship Wrestling, at Wilbur Lynch Middle School in Amsterdam, New York. On June 1 at "CWF Rhythm House Rumble", The French Ticklers lost to Thunder In Paradise (Brett Paradise and Thunder) in a non-title match. The team also lost to J-Ru and Powerhouse Hughes via countout at "CWF Breakdown" a week later. On June 23, Jugan and Crane beat Thunder In Paradise in a rematch at "CWF The Real Deal" in West Leisenring, Pennsylvania. Jugan was also scheduled to meet Dominic Denucci at CAPW's "A Night Of Legends" in Cleveland, the promotion's 14th anniversary show, but ended up wrestling Doink the Clown instead. On September 1 at "CWF Dilemma", The French Ticklers lost the CWF Tag Team Championship to J-Ru and Powerhouse Hughes, ending their reign at 280 days.
International Wrestling Cartel (2008)
On April 12, 2008, Jugan appeared on the International Wrestling Cartel's "Night of Legends IV" as the "handler" of Abdullah the Butcher in his bout against "Wildfire" Tommy Rich. The match was declared a no-contest after referee Bobby Williams was knocked out. This prompted Jugan to join Abdullah in his attack on Rich until Lumberjack Leroux came out to the rescue. On June 20, Jugan lost to Samuel Elias at a Far North Wrestling show in West Newton, Pennsylvania.
Pro Wrestling eXpress (2008)
That summer, Jugan joined Norm Connors' Pro Wrestling eXpress. On August 2, he entered the 1st annual Sean Evans Memorial Tournament at Renzie Park's Jacob Woll Pavilion in McKeesport and was eliminated in the opening rounds by Patrick Hayes. On August 23 at "PWX Infection", Jugan lost to Hayes in a match for the PWX Brass Knuckles Championship via countout. On September 13, Jugan wrestled The Honky Tonk Man at Serbian Hall in Youngstown, Ohio; the proceeds from the event went to the Holy Trinity Serbian Orthodox Church. On September 20, Jugan and Leviathon beat "Handsome" Frank Staletto and "Beef Stew" Lou Marconi in a Throwback match at PWX's 14th Anniversary Show. Jugan also reunited with Nick Crane as The French Ticklers defeating The Franchise Players (Robert Beverly and Jon Kronica) at "PWX Desperate Measures 2" on October 10 and Awesome Force 5000 (Devin Devine and Dash Bennett) at PWX Do Or Die 2 on November 15. The French Ticklers lost to Awesome Force 5000 in a rematch at PWX Christmas Chaos 2 on December 13, 2008.
Independent circuit (2009)
In early-2009, Jugan made several appearances for Dr. Feelbad's Renegade Wrestling Alliance based in West Newton, Pennsylvania. On February 7, Jugan (with The Seductress) lost to Wildcat (with Nurse Missy) at "RWA Uprising". On February 27, 2009, Jugan wrestled Doink the Clown at an International Wrestling Association fundraiser for Liberty High School in Youngstown, Ohio. A March 14 fundraiser for Cleveland All-Pro Wrestling, "Home Run For The Kids", saw Jugan and The Bouncer challenge Virgil and "Ironman" Nick Vah in a tag team match at Cleveland's Estabrook Rec Center. On March 28, at the International Wrestling Cartel's "Night of Legends 2009", Jugan lost to Lumberjack Leroux after WWF Hall of Famer George "The Animal" Steele interfered. On April 18 at RWA Spring Fling, Jugan teamed with Bulldozer and Michael McMoney (with Mayor Mystery) to wrestle Wildcat, Virgil, and Psyco in a six-man tag team match. On May 21, Jugan (with Mayor Mystery) was defeated by his former teammate Bulldozer at "RWA No Retreat". On July 25, Jugan defeated Clank The Clown at "RWA Backdraft" in Ellsworth, Pennsylvania. A few months later, Jugan managed Landshark in a losing effort against Kage (with Mike Trash) at "RWA Bloody Harvest".
On August 1 at IWC's "No Excuses 5", Jugan teamed with James Avery, Logan Shulo, and Shane Taylor (with Mayor Mystery) in an 8-man tag team match against Jimmy Snuka, Jon Bolen, Jimmy Vega$, and Michael Facade (with Dominic DeNucci). On August 7, Jugan entered the 2nd Annual Sean Evans Memorial Tournament was once again eliminated by Patrick Hayes in the first round.
Also that summer, Jugan also brought Deaf Wrestlefest back to the Western Pennsylvania School for the Deaf for its 140th anniversary. The event featured 16 matches, including a six-man tag team match pitting Dominic DeNucci, Cody Michaels and Shane Douglas (with Missy Hyatt) against J.J. Dillon, Lou Marconi and Frank Staletto (with Count Grog), as well as appearances from Brutus "The Barber" Beefcake and other wrestling stars. This was Dillon's first in-ring appearance since his retirement in 1989.
Keystone State Wrestling Alliance (2009–2012)
In addition to Deaf Wrestlefest, Jugan spent much of the last decade performing for wrestling events to raise money for cancer research, civic organizations, and annual Toys for Tots collection. Many of these events were hosted by the Keystone State Wrestling Alliance, an independent promotion based out of Lawrenceville, Pennsylvania, which he joined in the summer of 2009. His first appearance for the promotion was at the July 3rd "Lawrenceville Fireworks Celebration" in Arsenal Park where Jugan and Shawn Blanchard lost to Anthony Alexander and La Lucha. It was his first in-ring appearance in Pittsburgh in several years.
Jugan soon engaged in a feud with former tag team partner Justin Sane. On August 29 at "When Worlds Collide", Jugan lost to Justin Sane via disqualification. Jugan avenged this loss at "Krazy Tour 2009" in Pittsburgh on September 12. On October 10 at "Autumn Annihilation", Jugan and Del Douglas lost to Justin Sane and Kris Kash. Jugan defeated Shawn Blanchard in his October debut for Xtreme Championship Wrestling. Jugan beat La Lucha at KSWA's St. John Neumann Fundraiser a week later. The Jugan-Sane feud concluded at KSWA Fanfest/Toy Drive '09 on December 5 with Jugan defeating Justin Sane in a Loser Wears a Dress for a Year match. On December 12, 2009, Jugan teamed with Frank Staletto and Lou Marconi (with Mayor Mystery) in a special Steel City Wrestling "retro match" against Extreme Championship Wrestling alumni Shane Douglas and The Blue World Order (Da Blue Guy and Hollywood Nova) at IWC's "A Call To Arms 2009: Full Circle".
On January 23, 2010, Jugan and The Bulldozer defeated Alex Arcadian and Mitch Napier at "New Years Knockout '10". A month later, Jugan and The Blood Beast challenged KSWA Tag Team Champions Vinnie Stone and Ric Rumskey at "KSWA's 10 Year Anniversary Bash" but were unsuccessful. He and Blanchard teamed with Frank Durso in a 6-man tag team match against Dominic DeNucci, Vinnie Stone and Ric Rumskey at the 3rd annual Joe Abby Memorial Tournament on March 27. On April 10, at the International Wrestling Cartel's "Night of Legends 2010", Jugan was part of The Billion Dollar Bone Breakers with Shane Taylor, The Irish Airborne (Dave and Jake Crist) and manager Chest Flexor which battled The Million Dollar Muscle Machine consisting of Jimmy DeMarco, Lumberjack Leroux, Doink the Clown, Virgil, and managed by Ted DiBiase. Jugan also made two appearances for Renegade Wrestling Alliance that spring. On April 17, Jugan teamed with The TV Casualties (Tommy Horror and Johnny Switchblade) at "RWA Spring Fling 2" to defeat J-Ru and Team Tapout (Mr. Tapout and Chris Coleman). He also joined K-Star and Seymour Snott in another 6-man tag team match defeating Ghost Rider Kenny, Jamie Northstarr, and Chris Miles at "RWA No Retreat 2" on May 1. That same night, Jugan traveled from West Newton to the KSWA Arena in Lawrenceville for "Mayhem 2010". He teamed with Anthony Alexander and Lou Martin to wrestle Larry Zbyszko, Justin Sane and Kris Kash. The following night, Jugan held Deaf Wrestlefest 2010 for the Western Pennsylvania School for the Deaf. The show featured former Extreme Championship Wrestling stars The Blue Meanie and Shane Douglas as well as wrestlers from G.O.U.G.E. Wrestling and the Keystone State Wrestling Alliance. In the main event, with Mick Foley as the special guest referee, David Sammartino and Larry Zbyszko defeated Lou Marconi and Frank Staletto (with Count Grog) by disqualification.
A little over two weeks later, at the 2010 St. John Neumann School Fundraiser, Jugan defeated Alex Arcadian and later won a $1000 Battle Royal in the main event. The battle royal was aired on the debut episode of KSWA's internet television show at the end of the month. On July 24, Jugan and The VIPs (Shane Blanchard, Lou Martin, and Anthony Alexander) lost to Tommy Faime, Shane Starr, Justin Sane and Kris Kash in an Ultimate Survivor match at "Summertime Bruise 2010". Jugan defeated J-Ru at a high school fundraiser in Monongahela, Pennsylvania a week later. On August 14, Jugan once again teamed up with The VIPs (Lou Martin and Anthony Alexander) to defeat Kris Kash, Shane Starr, and Mike Malachi at KSWA's "Krazy Tour 2010". Jugan lost to KSWA Heavyweight Champion The Latin Assassin in a Triple Threat match, also involving Ali Kaida, via disqualification on August 21 "When Worlds Collide". One day later, Jugan and Steve Flash lost to The VIPs (Shawn Blanchard and Lou Martin) in the team's Mon Valley Pro Wrestling debut. On September 4, Jugan and Nick Crane lost to Doink The Clown and Dominic DeNucci at KSWA's memorial show for slain Pittsburgh police officer Paul Sciullo. On October 2 at "Autumn Annihilation 2010", Jugan defeated Bobby Badfingers. Two months later, Jugan and The Blood Beast lost to Bobby Badfingers and Mitch Napier at KSWA Fanfest/Toy Drive '10 on December 4, 2010.
On May 1, 2011, Jugan held Deaf Wrestlefest 2011 at the Western Pennsylvania School for the Deaf. The event included Dominic DeNucci, Shane Douglas, Tony Atlas, Doink the Clown, and Zach Gowen among others. On June 11, Jugan teamed with Justin Sane, Kris Kash, and Shane Starr at "Heatwave Havoc 2011" to defeat Shawn Blanchard, Lou Martin, Drew Belanger, and JP Goulet in an Ultimate Survivor match. Jugan was also in attendance at UFC Live: Kongo vs. Barry, along with CountingTheLights.com columnist Chris Wood, at the Consol Energy Center that same month. On July 2, Jugan and Justin Sane defeated Shawn Blanchard and Lou Martin at the "Lawrenceville Fireworks Celebration" to win the KSWA Tag Team Championship. Jugan also beat Blanchard in a single mat via countout at "Summertime Bruise 2011" a week later. Jugan and Justin Sane successfully defended the tag team championship during KSWA's "Krazy Tour 2011" against Drew Belanger with partners J.P. Goulet in Sharpsburg (July 16) and Nick Crane in Plum, Pennsylvania (July 30). On August 13 at "When Worlds Collide 2011", the team defeated Del Douglas and The Jester; Jugan also won a battle royal that night. On September 10 at "Clash Against Cancer II", Jugan defeated Lou Martin via disqualification. At the 2-day Millvale Days Celebration, during the KSWA's "Road to Fan Fest '11", Jugan and Justin Sane beat Drew Belanger and Shawn Blanchard. The second night saw Jugan defeat Lou Martin in a rematch. Jugan also wrestled Doink the Clown at the J.T. Lightning Memorial Show on September 25; Shawn Blanchard accompanied Jugan in his managerial debut.
Jugan and Justin Sane defeated Del Douglas and Lou Martin, on the team's third stop during "Road to Fan Fest '11" (October 1), and Shawn Blanchard and Lou Martin at "Autumn Annihilation 2011". On November 5, Jugan and Justin Sane beat Del Douglas and The Jester and, at the final night of "Road to Fan Fest '11" (November 19), the team defeated Lou Martin, Drew Belanger, and J.P. Goulet in a 6-man tag team match with Jay Flash; the event was a fundraiser for the Immaculate Conception School in Bloomfield, Pennsylvania. On December 3, 2011, Jugan and Justin Sane defended their belts against Drew Belanger and J.P. Goulet at KSWA's Fan Fest/Toy Drive '11. They barely avoided losing them thanks to outside interference from Tony Marino. That same night, Jugan participated in a "celebrity" roast of Dominic DeNucci, part of a PWHoF Hall of Fame fundraiser, at the Sheraton Hotel in Green Tree, Pennsylvania. It was based on this performance that the organizers invited Jugan to host the 2012 induction ceremony a few months later.
On January 14, 2012, Party Gras and Kris Kash defeated Shawn Blanchard, Del Douglas, and The Jester at "New Years Knockout 2012". On February 4, Jugan and Justin Sane beat Blanchard and Brock Hudson at a KSWA interpromotional show with the West Virginia Wrestling Alliance. He also defeated Del Douglas at "Revenge 2012" on February 18. On March 20, the Pittsburgh city council declared it "Ken Jugan Day" in recognition of his charity work and wrestling career. Four days later at the 5th annual Joe Abby Memorial Tournament, Jugan was inducted into Keystone State Wrestling Alliance's Hall of Fame. He was the first-ever active wrestler to receive that honor. That same evening, Jugan and Justin Sane defeated Nick Crane and Shawn Blanchard. Party Gras beat the VIPs (Lou Martin and Shawn Blanchard) at a Lethal Championship Wrestling show the next night.
On April 14, Jugan and Shawn Blanchard (with J.J. Dillon) lost to Shane Douglas and Dominic DeNucci (with Bruno Sammartino) at the Pro Wrestling Superstars supercard "Wrestle Reunion 8" in Toronto, Ontario. Larry Zbyszko was originally supposed to be Jugan's partner, in what was billed as another "Sammartino vs. Zbyszko" faceoff, but he was later replaced with Blanchard. Douglas and DeNucci won the match when Blanchard was pinned with a belly-to-belly suplex. The match received poor reviews, citing the advanced age of then 81-year-old DeNucci, however Jerome Cusson of PWPonderings.com defended the bout pointing out "when you've got someone as old as Denucci and a semi-retired wrestler in Douglas, it's tough to have a great artistic contest. At least it wasn't a long match. They kept it short and allowed the fans to honor the legends involved." On April 28 at KSWA's "Unsanctioned 2012", Bushwhacker Luke and Party Gras defeated Shawn Blanchard, Del Douglas, and The Jester. The next evening, Jugan held the Deaf Wrestlefest 2012 at the Western Pennsylvania School for the Deaf. Gregory Iron, Ryan Mitchell, Shark Boy, and Zach Gowen were among the performers. In the main event, Bushwacker Luke and Justin Sane (with Joker) defeated The VIP's (Shawn Blanchard and Lou Martin) with Big Bully Busick as the special guest referee. Bruno Sammartino also headlined the event and donated a replica championship title to raffle off. Jugan credited Sammartino's donation being responsible for making it the highest-grossing Deaf Wrestlefest ever. With both his sons no longer students at the school, and many of the original parents no longer involved, this proved to be the last Deaf Wrestlefest. The annual wrestling show had been the school's primary fundraiser and raised an estimated $100,000 during its run. Jugan, however, did not rule out bringing back the event if the school expressed interest.
In early-May, Party Gras successfully defended the tag titles on the KSWA's "Krazy Tour '12" in Bloomington and Fox Chapel, Pennsylvania. Jugan was among a number of wrestling stars attending the 2012 Pro Wrestling Hall of Fame ceremony in Amsterdam, New York and served as emcee during the induction ceremony. Jugan, a Pittsburgh Pirates fan, was interviewed by the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette in June to give his opinion on how the team should be managed. The publication jokingly suggested the wrestler should be the team's new mascot. Jugan was also interviewed on 100.7 FM's "Bubba Show" about the Pittsburgh Pirates. He told the hosts that he was a longtime fan and went to at least 20 games a season. Bubba Snider said on-air that he wanted to start a fan-based effort to get "Zoltan on the big screen at PNC Park for a Pirates game" as well as a visit with the team in the dugout prior to the game. It was also revealed during the interview that fans had regularly been doing the "Zoltan" hand gesture, performed by Hal Sparks' character in the 2000 film Dude, Where's My Car?, with the wrestler unaware of the connection until that point.
Party Gras continued defending the titles over the summer defeating Nick Crane and Sniper at "Heatwave Havoc 2012" on June 6 and Nick Crane and The Jester at "Super Summer Sizzler Tour '12" on June 30. Jugan also beat Nick Crane in a singles match at "Supertime Bruise '12" on July 14. On July 28 at "Super Summer Sizzler Tour '12" Jugan and Sane defeated J Ru and TJ Phillips in Plum, Pennsylvania. Party Gras defeated Shawn Blanchard and Brady Blaze at a Cleveland Wrestling Alliance show on August 4. On August 18, Party Gras teamed with Super Ginger to defeat The Jester, Del Douglas, and Nick Crane at "When Worlds Collide 2012". The team began feuding with Douglas and The Jester that fall. Jugan defeated The Jester in single competition at "Autumn Annihilation" (October 6) and the "Road to Fan Fest '12 Tour" (November 3). Party Gras lost to RWA Tag Team Champions Ashton Amherst and Patrick Hayes at the Renegade Wrestling Alliance's "Bloody Harvest 4". On December 8, 2012, Party Gras lost the belts to Del Douglas and The Jester at the "KSAW Fan Fest/Toy Drive '12". At the end of the year, Jugan announced that he would be cutting back his ring schedule to one event per month, down from his average 2–3 matches per week, to care for his parents who were both suffering health issues at the time.
Championship Wrestling Federation (2013)
On March 9, 2013, Jugan and Sane captured the CWF Tag Team Championship from The Mercenaries (Sniper and The Specialist) at CWF's Matt Madness in Connellsville, Pennsylvania. Three months later, Party Gras defended their titles at the 3rd annual Celebrate America Festival in Monessen, Pennsylvania. The team held the tag team titles for a record 75 weeks.
On April 16, Jugan received the Jason Sanderson Humanitarian Award at the 2013 Cauliflower Alley Club reunion for his charity and fundraising efforts. The ceremony was held at the CAC's annual "Bologna Blowout" dinner at the Gold Coast Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas. He hired a sign language interpreter for the deaf wrestlers and fans attending the ceremony. He was subsequently honored by Glassport mayor Michael Evanovich and the Allegheny County Council for his charity work. Both Jugan and Evanovich expressed interest in holding a charity pro wrestling event in Jugan's hometown. Jugan also made an appearance at the 2013 Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame that same month in Amsterdam, New York. Additionally, Jugan was interviewed by the Ellwood City Ledger following the death of Doink the Clown, a one-time rival on the independent circuit and Deaf Wrestlefest regular, that summer.
Keystone State Wrestling Alliance (2013–2018)
Jugan and Justin Sane feuded with Nick Crane and Sniper in KSWA over the summer. On May 4, 2013 they lost to Crane and Sniper at "MAYhem 2013" via countout. Jugan and The Blood Beast defeated Crane and Sniper at "Heatwave Havoc" on June 15. A few weeks later, Jugan and Sane joined The Blood Beast to defeat Bobby Badfingers, "Nasty" Nick Crane and Sniper in a six-man tag team match at the July 6th Lawrenceville Fireworks Celebration in Arsenal Park. Jugan beat Nick Crane in a singles match at "Summertime Bruise 2013" on July 20. On August 3, Jugan reunited with longtime manager Mayor Mystery at the premier IWA Evolution show to wrestle Doink the Clown at the Youngstown Air Force Base in Vienna, Ohio. That same month, Jugan joined the KSWA's "Road to Fan Fest 2013" tour. On August 24, Jugan lost to KSWA Heavyweight Champion Lou Martin at a fundraiser for PA Connecting Communities. Jugan's next stop on the tour was the two-day Millvale Days Celebration event in Millvale, Pennsylvania on the weekend of September 13–14. The first night saw Jugan defeat Lou Martin in a "Loser Wears a Chicken Suit" match. He and Justin Sane beat The VIPs (Shawn Blanchard and Lou Martin) in a tag team match the following night; as per the stipulation, Martin was wearing a chicken suit for the latter bout. Jugan also beat Justin Sane at "Autumn Annihilation 2013" on October 12. On November 16, 2013, Jugan defeated Sniper at the Mario Ferraro Sr. Memorial Tournament in Sharpsburg, Pennsylvania. He was also scheduled to appear at the MATA Expo, an international social media trade show for people with hearing and speech disabilities, in Ontario, California along with Amazing Kong and other wrestling stars. The event also co-hosted the Empire Wrestling Federation's "Inland Empire Invasion". He and Gangrel, however, were forced to pull out of the event.
On March 29, 2014, Jugan entered the Keystone State Wrestling Alliance's 7th annual Joe Abby Memorial Tournament. He defeated The Bulldozer in the semi-finals and "Dr. Devastation" Lou Martin in the finals to win the tournament. On May 31 at "MAYhem 2014", Jugan teamed with Justin Sane and Bob Atlas to defeat Sniper, Blood Beast and "Nasty" Nick Crabe in a 6-man tag team match. On July 5, Zoltan appeared on Mid Ohio Valley Wrestling's "Cage Rage", its first-ever show in Marietta, Ohio. On July 28, Jugan defeated Lou Martin in a "Loser Wears a Chicken Suit" match at "Heat Wave Havoc 2014".
KSWA Hall of Famer Ken Jugan (Lord Zoltan) faced another battle with cancer in 2018, but succeeded after surgery and follow-up procedures. A multi-promotional fundraising event was hosted in August, 2018. More than $5,300 was raised in the last Western Pennsylvania professional wrestling “Super Show” since Jugan’s own Deaf Wrestlefest fundraisers. Lord Zoltan’s last in-ring wrestling match was with the KSWA in February, 2018.
Personal life
Jugan lives with his wife Rosa in Glassport, Pennsylvania. They have two sons, Adam and Blaise, who are deaf; both are alumni of the Western Pennsylvania School for the Deaf where Deaf Wrestlefest was held. Jugan is employed as an administrative assistant for the Allegheny County Court of Common Pleas.
Championships and accomplishments
American Commonwealth Wrestling
ACW Keystone State Light Heavyweight Championship (2 times)
American Championship Wrestling
ACW Light Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
American States Wrestling Alliance
ASWA Ohio Junior Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
Cauliflower Alley Club
Jason Sanderson Humanitarian Award (2013)
Championship Wrestling Federation
CWF Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
CWF Tag Team Championship (2 times) – with Nick Crane and Justin Sane
Great Lakes Wrestling Association
GLWA Junior Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
International Wrestling Alliance
IWA Light Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
International Wrestling Association
IWA Junior Heavyweight Championship (4 times)
International Wrestling Federation
IWF Junior Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
Keystone State Wrestling Alliance
KSWA Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Justin Sane
KSWA Hall of Fame (Class of 2012)
Joe Abby Memorial Tournament (2014)
Masterz of Mayhem
MOM North American Championship (1 time)
Midwest Wrestling Association / Ohio All-Star Wrestling
MWA Junior Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
MWA Television Championship (1 time)
North American Championship Wrestling
NACW Junior Heavyweight Championship (2 times)
NWA West Virginia/Ohio
NWA West Virginia/Ohio Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with T. Rantula
Pro Wrestling eXpress
PWX North American Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked Lord Zoltan # 227 of the 500 best singles wrestlers of the PWI 500 in 1997
Steel City Wrestling
SCW Junior Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
SCW Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Shirley Doe
Undisputed Championship Wrestling
UCW Classics Championship (1 time)
United States Wrestling League
USWL Intercontiental Championship (1 time)
USWL Light Heavyweight Championship (2 times)
Western Pennsylvania Pro Wrestling Hall of Fame
Class of 2010
References
Further reading
Pierce, Dale. Wrestling In Akron. Charleston, South Carolina: Arcadia Publishing, 2013.
External links
Lord Zoltan at CWF-Online.com
Lord Zoltan at KCWEwrestling.com
1957 births
Living people
People from Glassport, Pennsylvania
Sportspeople from the Pittsburgh metropolitan area
American male professional wrestlers
Professional wrestlers from Pennsylvania
Professional wrestling executives
Professional wrestling managers and valets
Professional wrestling referees
Professional wrestling trainers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin%20Catmull
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Edwin Catmull
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Edwin Earl "Ed" Catmull (born March 31, 1945) is an American computer scientist who is the co-founder of Pixar and was the President of Walt Disney Animation Studios. He has been honored for his contributions to 3D computer graphics, including the 2019 ACM Turing Award.
Early life
Edwin Catmull was born on March 31, 1945, in Parkersburg, West Virginia. His family later moved to Salt Lake City, Utah, where his father first served as principal of Granite High School and then of Taylorsville High School.
Early in life, Catmull found inspiration in Disney movies, including Peter Pan and Pinocchio, and wanted to be an animator. But after finishing high school he had no idea how to get there because back then there were no animation schools. Because he also liked math and physics, he chose a scientific career instead. He also made animation using flip-books. Catmull graduated in 1969, with a B.S. in physics and computer science from the University of Utah. Initially interested in designing programming languages, Catmull encountered Ivan Sutherland, who had designed the computer drawing program Sketchpad, and changedhis interest to digital imaging. As a student of Sutherland, he was part of the university's ARPA program, sharing classes with James H. Clark, John Warnock and Alan Kay.
From that point, his main goal and ambition were to make digitally realistic films. During his time at the university, he made two new fundamental computer-graphics discoveries: texture mapping and bicubic patches; and invented algorithms for spatial anti-aliasing and refining subdivision surfaces. Catmull says the idea for subdivision surfaces came from abstract structures in his mind when he applied B-splines to non-four sided objects, something he attributes to his aphantasia. He also independently discovered Z-buffering,, which had been described, 8 months before, by Wolfgang Straßer in his PhD thesis.
In 1972, Catmull made his earliest contribution to the film industry: an animated version of his left hand which was eventually picked up by a Hollywood producer and incorporated in the 1976 movie Futureworld, the first film to use 3D computer graphics and a science-fiction sequel to the 1973 film Westworld, which was the first to use a pixelated image generated by a computer. The one-minute sequence was created with Fred Parke at the University of Utah. Titled A Computer Animated Hand, the short film was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry of the Library of Congress in December 2011.
Career
Early career
In 1974, Catmull earned his doctorate in computer science, was hired by a company called Applicon, and by November the same year had been contacted by the founder of the New York Institute of Technology, Alexander Schure, who offered him the position as the director of the new Computer Graphics Lab at NYIT. In that position in 1977 he invented Tween, software for 2D animation that automatically produced frames of motion in between two frames.
However, Catmull's team lacked the ability to tell a story effectively via film, harming the effort to produce a motion picture via a computer. Catmull and his partner Alvy Ray Smith attempted to reach out to studios to alleviate this issue, but were generally unsuccessful until they attracted the attention of George Lucas at Lucasfilm.
Lucasfilm
Lucas approached Catmull in 1979 and asked him to lead a group to bring computer graphics, video editing, and digital audio into the entertainment field.
Lucas had already made a deal with a computer company called Triple-I, and asked them to create a digital model of an X-wing fighter from Star Wars, which they did. In 1979 Catmull became the Vice President at Industrial Light & Magic computer graphics division at Lucasfilm.
Pixar
In 1986, Steve Jobs bought Lucasfilm's digital division and founded Pixar, where Catmull would work. Pixar would be acquired by Disney in 2006.
In June 2007, Catmull and long-time Pixar digital animator and director John Lasseter were given control of Disneytoon Studios, a division of Disney Animation housed in a separate facility in Glendale. As president and chief creative officer, respectively, they have supervised three separate studios for Disney, each with its own production pipeline: Pixar, Disney Animation, and Disneytoon. While Disney Animation and Disneytoon are located in the Los Angeles area, Pixar is located over 350 miles (563 kilometers) northwest in the San Francisco Bay Area, where Catmull and Lasseter both live. Accordingly, they appointed a general manager for each studio to handle day-to-day affairs on their behalf, then began regularly commuting each week to both Pixar and Disney Animation and spending at least two days per week (usually Tuesdays and Wednesdays) at Disney Animation.
While at Pixar, Catmull was implicated in the High-Tech Employee Antitrust scandal, in which Bay Area technology companies allegedly agreed, among other things, not to cold-call recruit from one another. Catmull defended his actions in a deposition, saying: "While I have responsibility for the payroll, I have responsibility for the long term also." Disney and its subsidiaries, including Pixar, ultimately paid $100 million in settlement compensation.
In November 2014, the general managers of Disney Animation and Pixar were both promoted to president, but both continued to report to Catmull, who retained the title of president of Walt Disney and Pixar. On October 23, 2018, Catmull announced his plans to retire from Pixar and Disney Animation, staying on as an adviser through July 2019.
Personal life
As of 2006, Catmull lived in Marin County, California, with his wife Susan and their three children.
Awards and honors
In 1993, Catmull received his first Academy Scientific and Technical Award from the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences "for the development of PhotoRealistic RenderMan software which produces images used in motion pictures from 3D computer descriptions of shape and appearance". He shared this award with Tom Porter. In 1995, he was inducted as a Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery. Again in 1996, he received an Academy Scientific and Technical Award "for pioneering inventions in Digital Image Compositing".
In 2000, Catmull was elected a member of the National Academy of Engineering for leadership in the creation of digital imagery, leading to the introduction of fully synthetic visual effects and motion pictures.
In 2001, he received an Oscar "for significant advancements to the field of motion picture rendering as exemplified in Pixar's RenderMan". In 2006, he was awarded the IEEE John von Neumann Medal for pioneering contributions to the field of computer graphics in modeling, animation and rendering. At the 81st Academy Awards (2008, presented in February 2009), Catmull was awarded the Gordon E. Sawyer Award, which honors "an individual in the motion picture industry whose technological contributions have brought credit to the industry".
In 2013, the Computer History Museum named him a Museum Fellow "for his pioneering work in computer graphics, animation and filmmaking".
His book Creativity, Inc. was shortlisted for the Financial Times and Goldman Sachs Business Book of the Year Award (2014), and was a selection for Mark Zuckerberg book club in March 2015.
Catmull shared the 2019 Turing Award with Pat Hanrahan for their pioneering work on computer-generated imagery.
Filmography
Bibliography
Catmull also has a chapter giving advice in Tim Ferriss' book Tools of Titans.
References
External links
Catmull discusses creativity, entrepreneurship, story telling and filmmaking, Stanford University, 2014-04-30 (video with transcript)
1945 births
20th-century Mormon missionaries
Academy Award for Technical Achievement winners
American computer scientists
American Mormon missionaries in the United States
Computer graphics professionals
Computer graphics researchers
Disney executives
Disney people
Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery
Latter Day Saints from West Virginia
Living people
Lucasfilm people
Members of the United States National Academy of Engineering
New York Institute of Technology faculty
People from Parkersburg, West Virginia
Pixar people
Pixar
Recipients of the Scientific and Technical Academy Award of Merit
Recipients of the Gordon E. Sawyer Award
University of Utah alumni
Walt Disney Animation Studios people
Turing Award laureates
Industrial Light & Magic people
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instagram
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Instagram
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Instagram is an American photo and video sharing social networking service founded by Kevin Systrom and Mike Krieger. In April 2012, Facebook Inc. acquired the service for approximately US$1 billion in cash and stock. The app allows users to upload media that can be edited with filters and organized by hashtags and geographical tagging. Posts can be shared publicly or with pre-approved followers. Users can browse other users' content by tags and locations and view trending content. Users can like photos and follow other users to add their content to a personal feed.
Instagram was originally distinguished by only allowing content to be framed in a square (1:1) aspect ratio with 640 pixels to match the display width of the iPhone at the time. In 2015, these restrictions were eased with an increase to 1080 pixels. The service also added messaging features, the ability to include multiple images or videos in a single post, and a 'stories' feature—similar to its main competitor Snapchat—which allows users to post photos and videos to a sequential feed, with each post accessible by others for 24 hours each. As of January 2019, the Stories feature is used by 500 million users daily.
Originally launched for iOS in October 2010, Instagram rapidly gained popularity, with one million registered users in two months, 10 million in a year, and 1 billion as of June 2018. The Android version was released in April 2012, followed by a feature-limited desktop interface in November 2012, a Fire OS app in June 2014, and an app for Windows 10 in October 2016. , over 40 billion photos had been uploaded. Although praised for its influence, Instagram has been the subject of criticism, most notably for the negative impact on teens' mental health, policy and interface changes, allegations of censorship, and illegal or improper content uploaded by users.
History
Instagram began development in San Francisco as Burbn, a mobile check-in app created by Kevin Systrom and Mike Krieger. Realizing that Burbn was too similar to Foursquare, Systrom and Krieger refocused their app on photo-sharing, which had become a popular feature among Burbn users. They renamed the app Instagram, a portmanteau of "instant camera" and "telegram".
2010–2011: Beginnings and major funding
On March 5, 2010, Systrom closed a $500,000 seed funding round with Baseline Ventures and Andreessen Horowitz while working on Burbn. Josh Riedel joined the company in October as Community Manager, Shayne Sweeney joined in November as an engineer, and Jessica Zollman joined as a Community Evangelist in August 2011.
The first Instagram post was a photo of South Beach Harbor at Pier 38, posted by Mike Krieger at 5:26 PM on July 16, 2010. Systrom shared his first post, a picture of a dog and his girlfriend's foot, a few hours later at 9:24 PM. It has been wrongly attributed as the first Instagram photo due to the earlier letter of the alphabet in its URL. On October 6, 2010, the Instagram iOS app was officially released through the App Store.
In February 2011, it was reported that Instagram had raised $7 million in Series A funding from a variety of investors, including Benchmark Capital, Jack Dorsey, Chris Sacca (through Capital fund), and Adam D'Angelo. The deal valued Instagram at around $20 million. In April 2012, Instagram raised $50 million from venture capitalists with a $500 million valuation. Joshua Kushner was the second largest investor in Instagram's Series B fundraising round, leading his investment firm, Thrive Capital, to double its money after the sale to Facebook.
2012–2014: Additional platforms and acquisition by Facebook
On April 3, 2012, Instagram released a version of its app for Android phones, and it was downloaded more than one million times in less than one day. The Android app has since received two significant updates: first, in March 2014, which cut the file size of the app by half and added performance improvements; then in April 2017, to add an offline mode that allows users to view and interact with content without an Internet connection. At the time of the announcement, it was reported that 80% of Instagram's 600 million users were located outside the U.S., and while the aforementioned functionality was live at its announcement, Instagram also announced its intention to make more features available offline, and that they were "exploring an iOS version".
On April 9, 2012, Facebook, Inc. bought Instagram for $1 billion in cash and stock, with a plan to keep the company independently managed. Britain's Office of Fair Trading approved the deal on August 14, 2012, and on August 22, 2012, the Federal Trade Commission in the U.S. closed its investigation, allowing the deal to proceed. On September 6, 2012, the deal between Instagram and Facebook officially closed with a purchase price of $300 million in cash and 23 million shares of stock.
The deal closed just before Facebook's scheduled initial public offering according to CNN. The deal price was compared to the $35 million Yahoo! paid for Flickr in 2005. Mark Zuckerberg said Facebook was "committed to building and growing Instagram independently." According to Wired, the deal netted Systrom $400 million.
In November 2012, Instagram launched website profiles, allowing anyone to see user feeds from a web browser with limited functionality, as well as a selection of badges, web widget buttons to link to profiles.
Since the app's launch it had used the Foursquare API technology to provide named location tagging. In March 2014, Instagram started to test and switch the technology to use Facebook Places.
2015–2017: Redesign and Windows app
In June 2015, the desktop website user interface was redesigned to become more flat and minimalistic, but with more screen space for each photo and to resemble the layout of Instagram's mobile website. Furthermore, one row of pictures only has three instead of five photos to match the mobile layout. The slideshow banner on the top of profile pages, which simultaneously slide-showed seven picture tiles of pictures posted by the user, alternating at different times in a random order, has been removed. In addition, the formerly angular profile pictures became circular.
In April 2016, Instagram released a Windows 10 Mobile app, after years of demand from Microsoft and the public to release an app for the platform. The platform previously had a beta version of Instagram, first released on November 21, 2013, for Windows Phone 8. The new app added support for videos (viewing and creating posts or stories, and viewing live streams), album posts and direct messages. Similarly, an app for Windows 10 personal computers and tablets was released in October 2016. In May, Instagram updated its mobile website to allow users to upload photos, and to add a "lightweight" version of the Explore tab.
On May 11, 2016, Instagram revamped its design, adding a black-and-white flat design theme for the app's user interface, and a less skeuomorphistic, more abstract, "modern" and colorful icon. Rumors of a redesign first started circulating in April, when The Verge received a screenshot from a tipster, but at the time, an Instagram spokesperson simply told the publication that it was only a concept.
On December 6, 2016, Instagram introduced comment liking. However, unlike post likes, the user who posted a comment does not receive notifications about comment likes in their notification inbox. Uploaders can optionally decide to deactivate comments on a post.
The mobile web front end allows uploading pictures since May 4, 2017. Image filters and the ability to upload videos were not introduced then.
On April 30, 2019, the Windows 10 Mobile app was discontinued, though the mobile website remains available as a progressive web application (PWA) with limited functionality. The app remains available on Windows 10 computers and tablets, also updated to a PWA in 2020.
2018–2019: IGTV, removal of the like counter, management changes
To comply with the GDPR regulations regarding data portability, Instagram introduced the ability for users to download an archive of their user data in April 2018.
IGTV launched on June 20, 2018, as a standalone video application.
On September 24, 2018, Krieger and Systrom announced in a statement they would be stepping down from Instagram. On October 1, 2018, it was announced that Adam Mosseri would be the new head of Instagram.
During Facebook F8, it was announced that Instagram would, beginning in Canada, pilot the removal of publicly-displayed "like" counts for content posted by other users. Like counts would only be visible to the user who originally posted the content. Mosseri stated that this was intended to have users "worry a little bit less about how many likes they're getting on Instagram and spend a bit more time connecting with the people that they care about." It has been argued that low numbers of likes in relativity to others could contribute to a lower self-esteem in users. The pilot began in May 2019, and was extended to 6 other markets in July. The pilot was expanded worldwide in November 2019. Also in July 2019, Instagram announced that it would implement new features designed to reduce harassment and negative comments on the service.
In August 2019, Instagram also began to pilot the removal of the "Following" tab from the app, which had allowed users to view a feed of the likes and comments made by users they follow. The change was made official in October, with head of product Vishal Shah stating that the feature was underused and that some users were "surprised" when they realized their activity was being surfaced in this manner.
In October 2019, Instagram introduced a limit on the number of posts visible in page scrolling mode unless logged in. Until this point, public profiles had been available to all users, even when not logged in. Following the change, after viewing a number of posts a pop-up requires the user to log in to continue viewing content.
2020–present: New features
In March 2020, Instagram launched a new feature called "Co-Watching". The new feature allows users to share posts with each other over video calls. According to Instagram, they pushed forward the launch of Co-Watching in order to meet the demand for virtually connecting with friends and family due to social distancing as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic.
In August 2020, Instagram launched a new feature called "Reels". The feature is similar to TikTok. Instagram also added suggested posts in August 2020. After scrolling through posts from the past 48 hours, Instagram displays posts related to their interests from accounts they do not follow.
In February 2021, Instagram began testing a new feature called Vertical Stories, said by some sources to be inspired by TikTok. The same month, they also began testing the removal of ability to share feed posts to stories.
In March 2021, Instagram launched a new feature in which four people can go live at once. Instagram also announced that adults would not be allowed to message teens who don't follow them as part of a series of new child safety policies.
In May 2021, Instagram began allowing users in some regions to add pronouns to their profile page.
On October 4, 2021, Facebook had its worst outage since 2008. The outage also affected other platforms owned by Facebook, such as Instagram and WhatsApp. Security experts identified the problem as possibly being DNS-related.
Negative effect on teenage girls’ mental health
Facebook has known for years that its Instagram app is harmful to a number of teenagers, according to research seen by the Wall Street Journal, but the company concealed the knowledge from lawmakers.
Internal Facebook presentations seen by the WSJ in 2021 show that Instagram is toxic to a sizable percentage of its users, particularly teenage girls. More than 40% of Instagram's users are under 23 years old.
“We make body image issues worse for one in three teen girls,” said a slide from a 2019 presentation. “Teens blame Instagram for increases in the rate of anxiety and depression,” said another. “This reaction was unprompted and consistent across all groups.”
The presentations were seen by the company's executives and the findings mentioned to Mark Zuckerberg in 2020. But when asked in March 2021 about Instagram's effect on young people, Zuckerberg defended the company's plan to launch an Instagram product for children under 13.
When asked by senators for its internal findings on the impact of Instagram on youth mental health, Facebook sent a six-page letter but did not include the company's research. The company told Forbes its research is “kept confidential to promote frank and open dialogue and brainstorming internally.”
In a blog post, Instagram said the WSJ story "focuses on a limited set of findings and casts them in a negative light."
On September 27, 2021, weeks after the WSJ report was released, Facebook announced it "paused" development of Instagram Kids, the Instagram product aimed at children. The company stated it was looking into concerns raised by the regulators and parents. Adam Mosseri stated that the company would return to the project as "[t]he reality is that kids are already online, and we believe that developing age-appropriate experiences designed specifically for them is far better for parents than where we are today."
Features and tools
Users can upload photographs and short videos, follow other users' feeds, and geotag images with the name of a location. Users can set their account as "private", thereby requiring that they approve any new follower requests. Users can connect their Instagram account to other social networking sites, enabling them to share uploaded photos to those sites. In September 2011, a new version of the app included new and live filters, instant tilt–shift, high-resolution photographs, optional borders, one-click rotation, and an updated icon. Photos were initially restricted to a square, 1:1 aspect ratio; since August 2015, the app supports portrait and widescreen aspect ratios as well. Users could formerly view a map of a user's geotagged photos. The feature was removed in September 2016, citing low usage.
Since December 2016, posts can be "saved" into a private area of the app. The feature was updated in April 2017 to let users organize saved posts into named collections. Users can also "archive" their posts in a private storage area, out of visibility for the public and other users. The move was seen as a way to prevent users from deleting photos that don't garner a desired number of "likes" or are deemed boring, but also as a way to limit the "emergent behavior" of deleting photos, which deprives the service of content. In August, Instagram announced that it would start organizing comments into threads, letting users more easily interact with replies.
Since February 2017, up to ten pictures or videos can be included in a single post, with the content appearing as a swipeable carousel. The feature originally limited photos to the square format, but received an update in August to enable portrait and landscape photos instead.
In April 2018, Instagram launched its version of a portrait mode called "focus mode," which gently blurs the background of a photo or video while keeping the subject in focus when selected. In November, Instagram began to support Alt text to add descriptions of photos for the visually impaired. They are either generated automatically using object recognition (using existing Facebook technology) or manually specified by the uploader.
On March 1, 2021, Instagram launched a new feature named Instagram Live "Rooms" Let Four People Go Live Together.
In May 2021, Instagram announced a new accessibility feature for videos on Instagram Reels and Stories to allow creators to place closed captions on their content.
Hashtags
In January 2011, Instagram introduced hashtags to help users discover both photos and each other. Instagram encourages users to make tags both specific and relevant, rather than tagging generic words like "photo", to make photographs stand out and to attract like-minded Instagram users.
Users on Instagram have created "trends" through hashtags. The trends deemed the most popular on the platform often highlight a specific day of the week to post the material on. Examples of popular trends include #SelfieSunday, in which users post a photo of their faces on Sundays; #MotivationMonday, in which users post motivational photos on Mondays; #TransformationTuesday, in which users post photos highlighting differences from the past to the present; #WomanCrushWednesday, in which users post photos of women they have a romantic interest in or view favorably, as well as its #ManCrushMonday counterpart centered on men; and #ThrowbackThursday, in which users post a photo from their past, highlighting a particular moment.
In December 2017, Instagram began to allow users to follow hashtags, which display relevant highlights of the topic in their feeds.
Explore
In June 2012, Instagram introduced "Explore", a tab inside the app that displays popular photos, photos taken at nearby locations, and search. The tab was updated in June 2015 to feature trending tags and places, curated content, and the ability to search for locations. In April 2016, Instagram added a "Videos You Might Like" channel to the tab, followed by an "Events" channel in August, featuring videos from concerts, sports games, and other live events, followed by the addition of Instagram Stories in October. The tab was later expanded again in November 2016 after Instagram Live launched to display an algorithmically curated page of the "best" Instagram Live videos currently airing. In May 2017, Instagram once again updated the Explore tab to promote public Stories content from nearby places.
Photographic filters
Instagram offers a number of photographic filters that users can apply to their images. In February 2012, Instagram added a "Lux" filter, an effect that "lightens shadows, darkens highlights and increases contrast". In December 2014, Slumber, Crema, Ludwig, Aden, and Perpetua were five new filters to be added to the Instagram filter family.
Video
Initially a purely photo-sharing service, Instagram incorporated 15-second video sharing in June 2013. The addition was seen by some in the technology media as Facebook's attempt at competing with the then-popular video-sharing application Vine. In August 2015, Instagram added support for widescreen videos. In March 2016, Instagram increased the 15-second video limit to 60 seconds. Albums were introduced in February 2017, which allow up to 10 minutes of video to be shared in one post.
IGTV
IGTV is a vertical video application launched by Instagram in June 2018. Basic functionality is also available within the Instagram app and website. IGTV allows uploads of up to 10 minutes in length with a file size of up to 650 MB, with verified and popular users allowed to upload videos of up to 60 minutes in length with a file size of up to 5.4 GB. The app automatically begins playing videos as soon as it is launched, which CEO Kevin Systrom contrasted to video hosts where one must first locate a video.
Reels
In November 2019, it was reported that Instagram had begun to pilot a new video feature known as "Reels" in Brazil, expanding to France and Germany afterwards. It is similar in functionality to the Chinese video-sharing service TikTok, with a focus on allowing users to record short videos set to pre-existing sound clips from other posts. Users could make up to 15 (later 30) second videos using this feature. Reels also integrates with existing Instagram filters and editing tools.
In July 2020, Instagram rolled out Reels to India after TikTok was banned in the country. The following month, Reels officially launched in 50 countries including the United States, Canada and United Kingdom. Instagram has recently introduced a reel button on home page.
On June 17, 2021, Instagram launched full-screen advertisements in Reels. The ads are similar to regular reels and can run up to 30 seconds. They are distinguished from regular content by the "sponsored" tag under the account name.
Instagram Direct
In December 2013, Instagram announced Instagram Direct, a feature that lets users interact through private messaging. Users who follow each other can send private messages with photos and videos, in contrast to the public-only requirement that was previously in place. When users receive a private message from someone they don't follow, the message is marked as pending and the user must accept to see it. Users can send a photo to a maximum of 15 people. The feature received a major update in September 2015, adding conversation threading and making it possible for users to share locations, hashtag pages, and profiles through private messages directly from the news feed. Additionally, users can now reply to private messages with text, emoji or by clicking on a heart icon. A camera inside Direct lets users take a photo and send it to the recipient without leaving the conversation. A new update in November 2016 let users make their private messages "disappear" after being viewed by the recipient, with the sender receiving a notification if the recipient takes a screenshot.
In April 2017, Instagram redesigned Direct to combine all private messages, both permanent and ephemeral, into the same message threads. In May, Instagram made it possible to send website links in messages, and also added support for sending photos in their original portrait or landscape orientation without cropping.
In April 2020, Direct became accessible from the Instagram website, allowing users to send direct messages from a web version using WebSocket technology.
In August 2020, Facebook started merging Instagram Direct into Facebook Messenger. After the update (which is rolled out to a segment of the user base) the Instagram Direct icon transforms into Facebook Messenger icon.
In March 2021, a feature was added that prevents adults from messaging users under 18 who do not follow them as part of a series of new child safety policies.
Instagram Stories
In August 2016, Instagram launched Instagram Stories, a feature that allows users to take photos, add effects and layers, and add them to their Instagram story. Images uploaded to a user's story expire after 24 hours. The media noted the feature's similarities to Snapchat. In response to criticism that it copied functionality from Snapchat, CEO Kevin Systrom told Recode that "Day One: Instagram was a combination of Hipstamatic, Twitter [and] some stuff from Facebook like the 'Like' button. You can trace the roots of every feature anyone has in their app, somewhere in the history of technology". Although Systrom acknowledged the criticism as "fair", Recode wrote that "he likened the two social apps' common features to the auto industry: Multiple car companies can coexist, with enough differences among them that they serve different consumer audiences". Systrom further stated that "When we adopted [Stories], we decided that one of the really annoying things about the format is that it just kept going and you couldn't pause it to look at something, you couldn't rewind. We did all that, we implemented that." He also told the publication that Snapchat "didn't have filters, originally. They adopted filters because Instagram had filters and a lot of others were trying to adopt filters as well."
In November, Instagram added live video functionality to Instagram Stories, allowing users to broadcast themselves live, with the video disappearing immediately after ending.
In January 2017, Instagram launched skippable ads, where five-second photo and 15-second video ads appear in-between different stories.
In April 2017, Instagram Stories incorporated augmented reality stickers, a "clone" of Snapchat's functionality.
In May 2017, Instagram expanded the augmented reality sticker feature to support face filters, letting users add specific visual features onto their faces.
Later in May, TechCrunch reported about tests of a Location Stories feature in Instagram Stories, where public Stories content at a certain location are compiled and displayed on a business, landmark or place's Instagram page. A few days later, Instagram announced "Story Search", in which users can search for geographic locations or hashtags and the app displays relevant public Stories content featuring the search term.
In June 2017, Instagram revised its live-video functionality to allow users to add their live broadcast to their story for availability in the next 24 hours, or discard the broadcast immediately. In July, Instagram started allowing users to respond to Stories content by sending photos and videos, complete with Instagram effects such as filters, stickers, and hashtags.
Stories were made available for viewing on Instagram's mobile and desktop websites in late August 2017.
On December 5, 2017, Instagram introduced "Story Highlights", also known as "Permanent Stories", which are similar to Instagram Stories, but don't expire. They appear as circles below the profile picture and biography and are accessible from the desktop website as well.
In June 2018, the daily active story users of Instagram had reached 400 million users, and monthly active users had reached 1 billion active users.
Advertising
Emily White joined Instagram as Director of Business Operations in April 2013. She stated in an interview with The Wall Street Journal in September 2013 that the company should be ready to begin selling advertising by September 2014 as a way to generate business from a popular entity that had not yet created profit for its parent company. White left Instagram in December 2013 to join Snapchat. In August 2014, James Quarles became Instagram's Global Head of Business and Brand Development, tasked with overseeing advertisement, sales efforts, and developing new "monetization products", according to a spokesperson.
In October 2013, Instagram announced that video and image ads would soon appear in feeds for users in the United States, with the first image advertisements displaying on November 1, 2013. Video ads followed nearly a year later on October 30, 2014. In June 2014, Instagram announced the rollout of ads in the United Kingdom, Canada and Australia, with ads starting to roll out that autumn.
In March 2015, Instagram announced it would implement "carousel ads," allowing advertisers to display multiple images with options for linking to additional content. The company launched carousel image ads in October 2015, and video carousel ads in March 2016.
In February 2016, Instagram announced that it had 200,000 advertisers on the platform. This number increased to 500,000 by September 2016, and 1 million in March 2017.
In May 2016, Instagram launched new tools for business accounts, including business profiles, analytics and the ability to promote posts as ads. To access the tools, businesses had to link a corresponding Facebook page. The new analytics page, known as Instagram Insights, allowed business accounts to view top posts, reach, impressions, engagement and demographic data. Insights rolled out first in the United States, Australia, and New Zealand, and expanded to the rest of the world later in 2016.
In November 2018, Instagram added the ability for business accounts to add product links directing users to a purchase page or to save them to a "shopping list." In April 2019, Instagram added the option to "Checkout on Instagram," which allows merchants to sell products directly through the Instagram app.
In March 2020, via a blog post, Instagram announced that they are making major moderation changes in order to decrease the flow of disinformation, hoaxes and fake news regarding COVID-19 on its platform, "We'll remove COVID-19 accounts from account recommendations, and we are working to remove some COVID-19 related content from Explore unless posted by a credible health organization. We will also start to downrank content in feed and Stories that has been rated false by third-party fact-checkers."
In June 2021, Instagram launched a native affiliate marketing tool creators can use to earn commissions based on sales. Commission-enabled posts are labeled "Eligible for Commission" on the user side to identify them as affiliate posts. Launch partners included Sephora, MAC, and Kopari.
Stand-alone apps
Instagram has developed and released three stand-alone apps with specialized functionality. In July 2014, it released Bolt, a messaging app where users click on a friend's profile photo to quickly send an image, with the content disappearing after being seen. It was followed by the release of Hyperlapse in August, an iOS-exclusive app that uses "clever algorithm processing" to create tracking shots and fast time-lapse videos. Microsoft launched a Hyperlapse app for Android and Windows in May 2015, but there has been no official Hyperlapse app from Instagram for either of these platforms to date. In October 2015, it released Boomerang, a video app that combines photos into short, one-second videos that play back-and-forth in a loop.
Third-party services
The popularity of Instagram has led to a variety of third-party services designed to integrate with it, including services for creating content to post on the service and generating content from Instagram photos (including physical print-outs), analytics, and alternative clients for platforms with insufficient or no official support from Instagram (such as in the past, iPads).
In November 2015, Instagram announced that effective June 1, 2016, it would end "feed" API access to its platform in order to "maintain control for the community and provide a clear roadmap for developers" and "set up a more sustainable environment built around authentic experiences on the platform", including those oriented towards content creation, publishers, and advertisers. Additionally, third-party clients have been prohibited from using the text strings "insta" or "gram" in their name. It was reported that these changes were primarily intended to discourage third-party clients replicating the entire Instagram experience (due to increasing monetization of the service), and security reasons (such as preventing abuse by automated click farms, and the hijacking of accounts). In the wake of the Cambridge Analytica scandal, Instagram began to impose further restrictions on its API in 2018.
For unlimited browsing of public Instagram profiles without having to create an account, as well as for anonymous browsing of someone else's Stories, has to use the Instagram profiles viewer. Stories are more authentic than typical photos posted as posts because users know that in 24 hours their Stories will disappear if they don't add them as highlighted (however users can check who saw their Story for 48 hours after it was published). For this reason, they are very valuable for market research.
Fact checking
On December 16, 2019, Facebook announced it would expand its fact checking programs towards Instagram, by using third-party fact-checkers organizations false information is able to be identified, reviewed and labeled as false information. Content when rated as false or partly false is removed from the explore page and hashtag pages, additionally content rated as false or partly false are labeled as such. With the addition of Facebook fact-checking program came the use of image matching technology to find further instances of misinformation. If a piece of content is labeled false or partly false on Facebook or Instagram then duplicates of such content will also be labeled as false.
Algorithm and design changes
In April 2016, Instagram began rolling out a change to the order of photos visible in a user's timeline, shifting from a strictly chronological order to one determined by an algorithm. Instagram said the algorithm was designed so that users would see more of the photos by users that they liked, but there was significant negative feedback, with many users asking their followers to turn on post notifications in order to make sure they see updates. The company wrote a tweet to users upset at the prospect of the change, but did not back down, nor provide a way to change it back, which they re-affirmed in 2020. However, in December 2021, Adam Mosseri, in a Senate hearing on child safety issues, stated that the company is developing a version of the feed that would show user posts in chronological order. He later clarified the company would introduce two modes: a classic chronological feed and a version of it that would let users pick "favorite" users whose posts would be shown at the top in chronological order while other posts would be mixed in below.
Since 2017, Instagram has employed the ability to reduce the prominence of accounts ("shadowbanning") it believes may be generating non-genuine engagement and spam (including excessive use of unneeded hashtags), preventing posts from appearing in search results and in the app's Explore section. In a now-deleted Facebook post, Instagram wrote that "When developing content, we recommend focusing on your business objective or goal rather than hashtags". Instagram has since been accused of extending the practice to censor posts under vague and inconsistent circumstances, particularly in regards to sexually suggestive material.
Instagram caused the userbase to fall into outrage with the December 2018 update. They found an attempt to alter the flow of the feed from the traditional vertical scroll to emulate and piggy-back the popularity of their Instagram Stories with a horizontal scroll, by swiping left. Various backtracking statements were released explaining it as a bug, or as a test release that had been accidentally deployed to too large an audience.
In November 2020, Instagram replaced the activity feed tab with a new "Shop" tab, moving the activity feed to the top. The "new post" button was also relocated to the top and replaced with a Reels tab The company states that "the Shop tab gives you a better way to connect with brands and creators and discover products you love" and the Reels tab "makes it easier for you to discover short, fun videos from creators all over the world and people just like you." However, users have not responded well to the change, taking their complaints to Twitter and Reddit, and The New York Times has shunned Reels in particular, saying "Not only does Reels fail in every way as a TikTok clone, but it’s confusing, frustrating and impossible to navigate".
Also in 2020, Instagram rolled out a feature titled "suggested posts", which adds posts from accounts Instagram thinks a user would like to such user's feed. The feature was met with controversy from both Reddit users from The Verge, which reported that suggested posts would keep users glued to their feed, give Instagram more advertising space, and ultimately harm the mental health of users, while Instagram executive Julian Gutman rebutted, stating the feature was not intended to keep users glued to their screens. Suggested posts received more controversy after Fast Company stated that the feature would be impossible to turn off.
On June 23, 2021, Instagram announced a test change to the "suggested posts" feature. The company will put suggested posts ahead of posts from people that the user is following in the Instagram feed, citing positive reception as the reason for this change.
Impact on people
Mental health
Depression
Khodarahimi & Fathi 2017 found evidence for Instagram users displaying higher levels of depressive symptoms. Frison & Eggermont 2017 pointed out that only Instagram browsing, and not Instagram liking nor posting, predicts more depressive symptoms. It also provides evidence for a relation between Instagram use and depressive symptomatology in the opposite direction, where level of depressed mood has shown to positively predict Instagram posting. Lamp et al. 2019 showed a positive relationship between depression and the number of selfies taken before posting it on Instagram.
Anxiety
Khodarahimi & Fathi 2017 observed higher levels of anxiety in Instagram users compared to non-users, while Mackson et al. 2019 suggested beneficial effects of Instagram use on anxiety symptoms. Multiple studies pointed out small to moderate positive relationships between time spent on Instagram and trait anxiety, physical appearance anxiety, social anxiety and attention to high insecurity-eliciting body regions. Moujaes & Verrier 2020 observed a connection between anxiety and online engagement with InstaMums, which relationship was influenced by social comparison orientation and self-esteem.
Stress
A paper showed that users who feel that they spend too much time on Instagram report higher levels of addiction to Instagram, which in turn was related to higher self-reported levels of stress induced by the app.
Addiction
In a study focusing on the relationship between various psychological needs and addiction to Instagram by students, Foroughi et al. 2021 found that the desire for recognition and entertainment were predictors of students' addiction to Instagram. In addition, the study proved that addiction to Instagram negatively affects academic performance. Gezgin & Mihci 2020 quantified Turkish students' Instagram use's contribution to overall smartphone addiction, and concluded that frequent Instagram usage correlates with smartphone addiction.
Satisfaction with appearance
Sherlock & Wagstaff 2019 showed that both the number of followers and followees show a small positive relationship with trait anxiety. Instagram users report higher body surveillance, appearance related pressure, eating pathology and lower body satisfaction than non-users. Multiple studies have shown that users who take more selfies (before posting) and strategically present themselves on Instagram, for example by editing or manipulating selfies, report higher levels of body surveillance, body dissatisfaction, and lower body esteem. Tiggemann et al. 2020 also confirmed this through experimental study, finding that taking and editing selfies led to higher facial dissatisfaction.
False self-presentation
In a 2021 study Mun & Kim pointed out that Instagram users with a strong need for approval were more likely to create false presentation of themselves on their Instagram accounts, which in turn increased the likelihood of depression. Notably, depression was mitigated by the perception of popularity.
Body image
Multiple studies confirmed that Instagram usage is associated with body surveillance and body self-image. In particular, following appearance-focused Instagrammers corresponded with the desire to look thin. Comments related to appearance on Instagram are leading to higher dissatisfactions with one's body. Based on Facebook's leaked internal research, Instagram has negative effects on the body image of one in three teenagers. Leaked internal documents also indicate that two thirds of teen girls and 40 percent of teen boys experience negative social comparison, and that Instagram makes 20 percent of the teens feel worse about themselves. According to the leaked research, Instagram has higher impact on appearance comparison than TikTok or Snapchat.
Loneliness
Mackson et al. 2019 found that Instagram users were less lonely than non-users and that Instagram membership predicts lower self-reported loneliness.
Social exclusion
In a 2021 study by Büttnera et Rudertb pointed out that not being tagged in an Instagram photo triggers the feeling of social exclusion and ostracism, especially for those with higher needs to belong.
Wellbeing
The relationship between Instagram usage intensity and wellbeing varies by wellbeing indicator. Brailovskaia & Margraf 2018 found a significant positive relationship between Instagram membership and extraversion, life satisfaction, and social support. The association between Instagram membership and conscientiousness was marginally significantly negative. The same study showed a positive relationship between extraversion, life satisfaction, social support and Instagram membership.
Life satisfaction
Fioravanti et al. 2020 showed that women who had to take a break from Instagram for seven days reported higher life satisfaction compared to women who continued their habitual pattern of Instagram use. The effects seemed to be specific for women, where no significant differences were observed for men.
Alcohol and drug use
Instagram usage intensity shows a small positive correlation with alcohol consumption, with binge drinkers reporting greater intensity of Instagram use than non-binge drinkers. An earlier study examined the relationship between alcohol consumption during college. It found a small to moderate positive relationship between alcohol consumption and Instagram usage, enhanced drinking motives, and drinking behavior.
Fear of Missing Out
The relationship between Instagram use and the fear of missing out (FoMo) has been confirmed in multiple studies. Use intensity shows a strong, while the number of followers and followees shows a weak correlation with FoMo. Research shows that Instagram browsing predicts social comparison, which generates FoMo, and FoMo can ultimately lead to depression.
Eating disorders
A comparison of Instagram users with non-users showed that boys with an Instagram account differ from boys without an account in terms of over-evaluation of their shape and weight, skipping meals, and levels of reported disordered eating cognitions. Girls with an Instagram account also differed from girls without an account in terms of skipping meals. However, none of the other associations that were reported for boys were observed for girls. Instead, girls with an Instagram account differed from girls without an account in that they used a stricter exercise schedule. This suggests a possible differential effect of Instagram membership on body (dis)satisfaction and disordered eating for boys and girls. Regarding the relationship between time spent on Instagram and body image and/or disordered eating, several body-related constructs were consistently linked to indicators of Instagram use. More specifically, several studies identified a small positive relationship between time spent on Instagram and both internalization of beauty ideals or muscular ideals, and self-objectification across studies. A positive link has been pointed out between the intensity of Instagram use and both body surveillance and dietary behaviors or disordered eating.
Sharenting risks
Sharenting refers to the action of parents posting content, including images, about their children online. Instagram is one of the most popular social media channels for sharenting. The hashtag #letthembelittle contains 8 million images related to children on Instagram. Bare 2020 analysed 300 randomly selected, publicly available images under the hashtag and found that the corresponding images tended to contain personal information of children, including name, age and location.
Suicide and self-harm
Picardo et al. 2020 examined the relationship between self-harm posts and actual self-harm behaviours offline and found such content had negative emotional effects on some users and reported preliminary evidence of potential harmful effects in relation to self-harm related behaviours offline, although causal effects cannot be claimed. At the same time, some benefits for those who engage with self-harm content online have been suggested. Instagram has published content to help users in need to get support.
Based on Facebook's leaked internal research, 13 percent of British teenager users with suicidal thoughts could trace these thoughts to Instagram use. Amongst teenagers in the US with suicidal thoughts, this number is much smaller - 6 percent.
Activism
Starting in June 2020, Instagram was more widely used as a platform for social justice movements including the Black Lives Matter movement. This has changed how people address activism, this has created a lack of consistency in protest, and is not widely accepted. Most notably in 2020, Shirien Damra shared an illustration and tribute she made of George Floyd after his murder, and it resulted in more than 3.4 million "likes", followed by many offline reproductions of the illustration. Instagram-based activism (as well as other social media) has been criticized and dismissed for being performative, reductionist, and overly focused on aesthetics.
Impact on businesses
Instagram can help promote commercial products and services. It can be distinguished from other social media platforms by its focus on visual communication. Instagram marketing is an effective way to advertise a product, given that a picture is said to speak a thousand words. The platform can also help commercial entities save branding costs, as it can be used for free even for commercial purposes.
User characteristics and behavior
Users
Following the release in October, Instagram had one million registered users in December 2010. In June 2011, it announced that it had 5 million users, which increased to 10 million in September. This growth continued to 30 million users in April 2012, 80 million in July 2012, 100 million in February 2013, 130 million in June 2013, 150 million in September 2013, 300 million in December 2014, 400 million in September 2015, 500 million in June 2016, 600 million in December 2016, 700 million in April 2017, and 800 million in September 2017.
In June 2011, Instagram passed 100 million photos uploaded to the service. This grew to 150 million in August 2011, and by June 2013, there were over 16 billion photos on the service. In October 2015, there existed over 40 billion photos.
In October 2016, Instagram Stories reached 100 million active users, two months after launch. This increased to 150 million in January 2017, 200 million in April, surpassing Snapchat's user growth, and 250 million active users in June 2017.
In April 2017, Instagram Direct had 375 million monthly users.
Demographics
, Instagram's users are divided equally with 50% iPhone owners and 50% Android owners. While Instagram has a neutral gender-bias format, 68% of Instagram users are female while 32% are male. Instagram's geographical use is shown to favor urban areas as 17% of US adults who live in urban areas use Instagram while only 11% of adults in suburban and rural areas do so. While Instagram may appear to be one of the most widely used sites for photo sharing, only 7% of daily photo uploads, among the top four photo-sharing platforms, come from Instagram. Instagram has been proven to attract the younger generation with 90% of the 150 million users under the age of 35. From June 2012 to June 2013, Instagram approximately doubled their number of users. With regards to income, 15% of US Internet users who make less than $30,000 per year use Instagram, while 14% of those making $30,000 to $50,000, and 12% of users who make more than $50,000 per year do so. With respect to the education demographic, respondents with some college education proved to be the most active on Instagram with 23%. Following behind, college graduates consist of 18% and users with a high school diploma or less make up 15%. Among these Instagram users, 24% say they use the app several times a day.
User behavior
Ongoing research continues to explore how media content on the platform affects user engagement. Past research has found that media which show peoples' faces receive more 'likes' and comments and that using filters that increase warmth, exposure, and contrast also boosts engagement. Users are more likely to engage with images that depict fewer individuals compared to groups and also are more likely to engage with content that has not been watermarked, as they view this content as less original and reliable compared to user-generated content. Recently Instagram has come up with an option for users to apply for a verified account badge; however, this does not guarantee every user who applies will get the verified blue tick.
The motives for using Instagram among young people are mainly to look at posts, particularly for the sake of social interactions and recreation. In contrast, the level of agreement expressed in creating Instagram posts was lower, which demonstrates that Instagram's emphasis on visual communication is widely accepted by young people in social communication.
Reception
Awards
Instagram was the runner-up for "Best Mobile App" at the 2010 TechCrunch Crunchies in January 2011. In May 2011, Fast Company listed CEO Kevin Systrom at number 66 in "The 100 Most Creative People in Business in 2011". In June 2011, Inc. included co-founders Systrom and Krieger in its 2011 "30 Under 30" list.
Instagram won "Best Locally Made App" in the SF Weekly Web Awards in September 2011. 7x7Magazine'''s September 2011 issue featured Systrom and Krieger on the cover of their "The Hot 20 2011" issue. In December 2011, Apple Inc. named Instagram the "App of the Year" for 2011. In 2015, Instagram was named No. 1 by Mashable on its list of "The 100 best iPhone apps of all time," noting Instagram as "one of the most influential social networks in the world." Instagram was listed among Times "50 Best Android Applications for 2013" list.
Mental health
In May 2017, a survey conducted by the United Kingdom's Royal Society for Public Health, featuring 1,479 people aged 14–24, asking them to rate social media platforms depending on anxiety, depression, loneliness, bullying and body image, concluded that Instagram was the "worst for young mental health". Some have suggested it may contribute to digital dependence, whist this same survey noticed its positive effects, including self-expression, self-identity, and community building. In response to the survey, Instagram stated that "Keeping Instagram a safe and supportive place for young people was a top priority". The company filters out the reviews and accounts. If some of the accounts violate Instagram's community guidelines, it will take action, which could include banning them.
In 2017, researchers from Harvard University and University of Vermont demonstrated a machine learning tool that successfully outperformed general practitioners' diagnostic success rate for depression. The tool used color analysis, metadata components, and face detection of users' feeds.
Throughout 2019, Instagram began to test the hiding of like counts for posts made by its users.
Correlations have been made between Instagram content and poor body dissatisfaction, as a result of body comparisons. In a recent survey half of the applicants admitted to photo editing behavior which has been linked with concerns over body image.
In October 2021, CNN published an article and interviews on how two young women, Ashlee Thomas and Anastasia Vlasova, say Instagram endangered their lives by Instagram having toxic effects on their diets.
Negative comments
In response to abusive and negative comments on users' photos, Instagram has made efforts to give users more control over their posts and accompanying comments field. In July 2016, it announced that users would be able to turn off comments for their posts, as well as control the language used in comments by inputting words they consider offensive, which will ban applicable comments from showing up. After the July 2016 announcement, the ability to ban specific words began rolling out early August to celebrities, followed by regular users in September. In December, the company began rolling out the abilities for users to turn off the comments and, for private accounts, remove followers.
In June 2017, Instagram announced that it would automatically attempt to filter offensive, harassing, and "spammy" comments by default. The system is built using a Facebook-developed deep learning algorithm known as DeepText (first implemented on the social network to detect spam comments), which utilizes natural-language processing techniques, and can also filter by user-specified keywords.
In September 2017, the company announced that public users would be able to limit who can comment on their content, such as only their followers or people they follow. At the same time, it updated its automated comment filter to support additional languages.
In July 2019, the service announced that it would introduce a system to proactively detect problematic comments and encourage the user to reconsider their comment, as well as allowing users the ability to "restrict" others' abilities to communicate with them, citing that younger users felt the existing block system was too much of an escalation.
Culture
On August 9, 2012, English musician Ellie Goulding released a new music video for her song "Anything Could Happen." The video only contained fan-submitted Instagram photographs that used various filters to represent words or lyrics from the song, and over 1,200 different photographs were submitted.
Security
In August 2017, reports surfaced that a bug in Instagram's developer tools had allowed "one or more individuals" to gain access to the contact information, specifically email addresses and phone numbers, of several high-profile verified accounts, including its most followed user, Selena Gomez. The company said in a statement that it had "fixed the bug swiftly" and was running an investigation. However, the following month, more details emerged, with a group of hackers selling contact information online, with the affected number of accounts in the "millions" rather than the previously assumed limitation on verified accounts. Hours after the hack, a searchable database was posted online, charging $10 per search. The Daily Beast was provided with a sample of the affected accounts, and could confirm that, while many of the email addresses could be found with a Google search in public sources, some did not return relevant Google search results and thus were from private sources. The Verge wrote that cybersecurity firm RepKnight had found contact information for multiple actors, musicians, and athletes, and singer Selena Gomez's account was used by the hackers to post naked photos of her ex-boyfriend Justin Bieber. The company admitted that "we cannot determine which specific accounts may have been impacted", but believed that "it was a low percentage of Instagram accounts", though TechCrunch stated in its report that six million accounts were affected by the hack, and that "Instagram services more than 700 million accounts; six million is not a small number".
In 2019, Apple pulled an app that let users stalk people on Instagram by scraping accounts and collecting data.
Iran has DPI blocking for Instagram.
Content ownership
On December 17, 2012, Instagram announced a change to its Terms of Service policy, adding the following sentence:
There was no option for users to opt out of the changed Terms of Service without deleting their accounts before the new policy went into effect on January 16, 2013. The move garnered severe criticism from users, prompting Instagram CEO Kevin Systrom to write a blog post one day later, announcing that they would "remove" the offending language from the policy. Citing misinterpretations about its intention to "communicate that we'd like to experiment with innovative advertising that feels appropriate on Instagram", Systrom also stated that it was "our mistake that this language is confusing" and that "it is not our intention to sell your photos". Furthermore, he wrote that they would work on "updated language in the terms to make sure this is clear".
The policy change and its backlash caused competing photo services to use the opportunity to "try to lure users away" by promoting their privacy-friendly services, and some services experienced substantial gains in momentum and user growth following the news. On December 20, Instagram announced that the advertising section of the policy would be reverted to its original October 2010 version. The Verge wrote about that policy as well, however, noting that the original policy gives the company right to "place such advertising and promotions on the Instagram Services or on, about, or in conjunction with your Content", meaning that "Instagram has always had the right to use your photos in ads, almost any way it wants. We could have had the exact same freakout last week, or a year ago, or the day Instagram launched".
The policy update also introduced an arbitration clause, which remained even after the language pertaining to advertising and user content had been modified.
Facebook acquisition as a violation of US antitrust law
Columbia Law School professor Tim Wu has given public talks explaining that Facebook's 2012 purchase of Instagram was a felony. A New York Post article published on February 26, 2019, reported that "the FTC had uncovered [a document] by a high-ranking Facebook executive who said the reason the company was buying Instagram was to eliminate a potential competitor". As Wu explains, this is a violation of US antitrust law (see monopoly). Wu stated that this document was an email directly from Mark Zuckerberg, whereas the Post article had stated that their source had declined to say whether the high-ranking executive was the CEO. The article reported that the FTC "has formed a task force to review "anticompetitive conduct" in the tech world amid concerns that tech companies are growing too powerful. The task force will look at "the full panoply of remedies" if it finds "competitive harm," FTC competition bureau director Bruce Hoffman told reporters."
Algorithmic advertisement with a rape threat
In 2016, Olivia Solon, a reporter for The Guardian, posted a screenshot to her Instagram profile of an email she had received containing threats of rape and murder towards her. The photo post had received three likes and countless comments, and in September 2017, the company's algorithms turned the photo into an advertisement visible to Solon's sister. An Instagram spokesperson apologized and told The Guardian that "We are sorry this happened – it's not the experience we want someone to have. This notification post was surfaced as part of an effort to encourage engagement on Instagram. Posts are generally received by a small percentage of a person's Facebook friends." As noted by the technology media, the incident occurred at the same time parent company Facebook was under scrutiny for its algorithms and advertising campaigns being used for offensive and negative purposes.
Human exploitation
In May 2021, The Washington Post published a report detailing a "black market" of unlicensed employment agents luring migrant workers from Africa and Asia into indentured servitude as maids in Persian Gulf countries, and using Instagram posts containing their personal information (including in some cases, passport numbers) to market them. Instagram deleted 200 accounts that had been reported by the Post, and a spokesperson stated that Instagram took this activity "extremely seriously", disabled 200 accounts found by the Post to be engaging in these activities, and was continuing to work on systems to automatically detect and disable accounts engaging in human explotation.
Censorship and restricted content
Illicit drugs
Instagram has been the subject of criticism due to users publishing images of drugs they are selling on the platform. In 2013, the BBC discovered that users, mostly located in the United States, were posting images of drugs they were selling, attaching specific hashtags, and then completing transactions via instant messaging applications such as WhatsApp. Corresponding hashtags have been blocked as part of the company's response and a spokesperson engaged with the BBC explained:
Instagram has a clear set of rules about what is and isn't allowed on the site. We encourage people who come across illegal or inappropriate content to report it to us using the built-in reporting tools next to every photo, video or comment, so we can take action. People can't buy things on Instagram, we are simply a place where people share photos and videos.
However, new incidents of illegal drug trade have occurred in the aftermath of the 2013 revelation, with Facebook, Inc., Instagram's parent company, asking users who come across such content to report the material, at which time a "dedicated team" reviews the information.
In 2019, Facebook announced that influencers are no longer able to post any vape, tobacco products, and weapons promotions on Facebook and Instagram.
Women's bodies
In October 2013, Instagram deleted the account of Canadian photographer Petra Collins after she posted a photo of herself in which a very small area of pubic hair was visible above the top of her bikini bottom. Collins claimed that the account deletion was unfounded because it broke none of Instagram's terms and conditions. Audra Schroeder of The Daily Dot further wrote that "Instagram's terms of use state users can't post "pornographic or sexually suggestive photos," but who actually gets to decide that? You can indeed find more sexually suggestive photos on the site than Collins', where women show the side of "femininity" the world is "used to" seeing and accepting." Nick Drewe of The Daily Beast wrote a report the same month focusing on hashtags that users are unable to search for, including #sex, #bubblebutt, and #ballsack, despite allowing #faketits, #gunsforsale and #sexytimes, calling the discrepancy "nonsensical and inconsistent".
Similar incidents occurred in January 2015, when Instagram deleted Australian fashion agency Sticks and Stones Agency's account because of a photograph including pubic hair sticking out of bikini bottoms, and March 2015, when artist and poet Rupi Kaur's photos of menstrual blood on clothing were removed, prompting a rallying post on her Facebook and Tumblr accounts with the text "We will not be censored", gaining over 11,000 shares.
The incidents have led to a #FreetheNipple campaign, aimed at challenging Instagram's removal of photos displaying women's nipples. Although Instagram has not made many comments on the campaign, an October 2015 explanation from CEO Kevin Systrom highlighted Apple's content guidelines for apps published through its App Store, including Instagram, in which apps must designate the appropriate age ranking for users, with the app's current rating being 12+ years of age. However, this statement has also been called into question due to other apps with more explicit content allowed on the store, the lack of consequences for men exposing their bodies on Instagram, and for inconsistent treatment of what constitutes inappropriate exposure of the female body.
Censorship by countries
Censorship of Instagram has occurred in several different countries.
United States
On January 11, 2020, Instagram and its parent company Facebook, Inc. are removing posts "that voice support for slain Iranian commander Qassem Soleimani to comply with US sanctions".
On October 30, 2020, Instagram temporarily removed the "recent" tab on hashtag pages to prevent the spread of misinformation regarding the 2020 United States presidential election. On January 7, 2021, United States President Donald Trump was banned from Instagram "indefinitely". Zuckerberg stated "We believe the risks of allowing the President to continue to use our service during this period are simply too great."
A few days after Facebook changed its name to Meta, the artist and technologist Thea-Mai Baumann has lost access to her @metaverse Instagram handle. Bauman tried to reclaim her access for a month, without success. Only after The New York Times'' published the story and contacted Meta's PR department, was the access restored.
China
Instagram has been blocked by China following the 2014 Hong Kong protests as many confrontations with police and incidents occurring during the protests were recorded and photographed. Hong Kong and Macau were not affected as they are part of special administrative regions of China.
Turkey
Turkey is also known for its strict Internet censorship and periodically blocks social media including Instagram.
North Korea
A few days after a fire incident that happened in the Koryo Hotel in North Korea on June 11, 2015, authorities began to block Instagram to prevent photos of the incident from being spread out.
Iran
Iran has sentenced several citizens to prison for posts made on their Instagram accounts. The Iranian government also blocked Instagram periodically during anti-government protests. In July 2021, Instagram temporarily censored videos with the phrase "death to Khamenei".
Cuba
The Cuban government blocked access to several social media platforms, including Instagram, to curb the spread of information during the 2021 Cuban protests.
Statistics
As of December 2021, the most followed person is Portuguese professional footballer Cristiano Ronaldo with over 373 million followers. As of January 14, 2019, the most-liked photo on Instagram is a picture of an egg, posted by the account @world_record_egg, created with the sole purpose of surpassing the previous record of 18 million likes on a Kylie Jenner post. As of January 2019, the picture has over 55 million likes. The second most-liked photo is a wedding photo of Ariana Grande and her husband Dalton Gomez. Instagram was the fourth most downloaded mobile app of the 2010s.
In popular culture
Social Animals (documentary film): A documentary film about three teenagers growing up on Instagram
Instagram model: a term for models who gain their success as a result of the large number of followers they have on Instagram
Instapoetry: a style of poetry which formed by sharing images of short poems by poets on Instagram.
Instagram Pier: a cargo working area in Hong Kong that gained its nickname due to its popularity on Instagram
System
Instagram is written in Python.
Instagram artificial intelligence (AI) describes content for visually impaired people that use screen readers.
See also
List of social networking services
Criticism of Facebook
Dronestagram
Internet celebrity
Pheed
Pixnet
Social media and suicide
Timeline of social media
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
2010 establishments in the United States
2010 software
2012 mergers and acquisitions
Android (operating system) software
BlackBerry software
Companies based in San Francisco
Meta Platforms acquisitions
Meta Platforms applications
Image sharing websites
Internet properties established in 2010
IOS software
Mobile software
Photo software
Proprietary cross-platform software
Shorty Award winners
Symbian software
Video software
WatchOS software
Windows Phone software
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24588622
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux-libre
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Linux-libre
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Linux-libre is a modified version of the Linux kernel that contains no binary blobs, obfuscated code, or code released under proprietary licenses. Binary blobs are software components with no available source code. In the Linux kernel, they are mostly used for proprietary firmware images. While generally redistributable, binary blobs do not give the user the freedom to audit, modify, or, consequently, redistribute their modified versions. The GNU Project keeps Linux-libre in synchronization with the mainline Linux kernel.
History
The Linux kernel started to include binary blobs in 1996. The work to clear out the binary blobs began in 2006 with gNewSense's find-firmware and gen-kernel. This work was taken further by the BLAG Linux distribution in 2007 when deblob and Linux-libre was born.
Linux-libre was first released by the Free Software Foundation Latin America (FSFLA), then endorsed by the Free Software Foundation (FSF) as a valuable component for the totally free Linux distributions. It became a GNU package in March 2012. Alexandre Oliva is the project maintainer.
Proprietary firmware removal
Methods
The removal process is achieved by using a script called deblob-main. This script is inspired by the one used for gNewSense. Jeff Moe made subsequent modifications to meet certain requirements for its use with the BLAG Linux and GNU distribution. There is another script called deblob-check, which is used to check if a kernel source file, a patch or a compressed sources file still contains software which is suspected of being proprietary.
Benefits
Aside from the primary intended effect of running a system with only free software, the practical consequences of removing device firmware that a user is not allowed to study or modify has both positive and negative effects.
Removal of device firmware can be considered an advantage for security and stability, when the firmware cannot be audited for bugs, for security problems, and for malicious operations such as backdoors, or when the firmware cannot be fixed by the Linux kernel maintainers themselves, even if they know of problems. It is possible for the entire system to be compromised by a malicious firmware, and without the ability to perform a security audit on manufacturer-provided firmware, even an innocent bug could undermine the safety of the running system.
Side effects
The downside of removing proprietary firmware from the kernel is that it will cause loss of functionality of certain hardware that does not have a free software replacement available. This affects certain sound, video, TV tuner, and network (especially wireless) cards, as well as some other devices. When possible, free software replacement firmware is provided as a substitute, such as the openfwwf for b43, carl9170 and ath9k_htc wireless card drivers.
Availability
The source code and precompiled packages of the deblobbed Linux kernel are available directly from the distributions which use the Linux-libre scripts. Freed-ora is a subproject which prepares and maintains RPM packages based on Fedora. There are also precompiled packages for Debian and derived distributions such as Ubuntu.
Distributions
Distributions in which Linux-libre is the default kernel
Dragora GNU/Linux-Libre
dyne:bolic
GNU Guix System
Parabola GNU/Linux-libre
Considered small distributions
libreCMC
ProteanOS (If the underlying hardware is not supported, it must be ported.)
Historical
Hyperbola GNU/Linux-libre
Musix GNU+Linux
Distributions that compile a free Linux kernel
These distros do not use the packaged Linux-libre but instead completely remove binary blobs from the mainline Linux kernel, to make Linux-libre. The source is then compiled and the resulting free Linux kernel is used by default in these systems:
Debian
PureOS
Trisquel (The Linux-libre deblob script is used during its development).
Uruk GNU/Linux
Ututo
Historical
BLAG
gNewSense (It was based on Debian.)
Canaima (It was based on Debian.)
Linux-libre as an alternative kernel
Distributions in which Linux is the default kernel used and which propose Linux-libre as an alternative kernel:
Arch Linux
Fedora
Gentoo Linux
Mandriva-derived (PCLinuxOS, Mageia, OpenMandrivaLx, ROSA Fresh)
openSUSE Tumbleweed (via OpenBuildService)
Slackware
See also
GNU Hurd, an operating system kernel developed by GNU, which follows the microkernel paradigm
Libreboot
LibrePlanet
List of computing mascots
Open-source hardware
:Category:Computing mascots
References
External links
2008 software
Free software programmed in C
GNU Project software
Linux kernel
Operating system kernels
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DiskDoubler
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DiskDoubler
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DiskDoubler (DD) was a data compression utility for compressing files on the Apple Macintosh platform. Unlike most such programs, which compress numerous files into a single archive for transmission, DiskDoubler was intended to compress single files "in place" to save space on the drive. When such a file was opened, DiskDoubler would decompress the file before handing it off to the application for use. A later addition, AutoDoubler, added background compression, finding and compressing files automatically when the computer was idle.
DiskDoubler was created by Terry Morse and Lloyd Chambers, fellow employees at a small software firm that went out of business in 1989. Chambers had already released a version of the Unix Compress utility on the Mac as MacCompress, and while working on another "real" project, Chambers wrote DiskDoubler in his spare time. When demonstrating their new product at a local Mac store, they noticed that it was DiskDoubler that got all of the attention. It was first shown publicly at the San Francisco MacWorld Expo in April 1990 (normally in January, but delayed that year) and by the end of the show had sold 500 copies. By the summer they were selling 1000 copies a month.
Realizing they needed real marketing muscle, they approached Symantec, who agreed to include it in their Symantec Utilities for Macintosh (SUM) package for a pittance. Unimpressed by the offer, they instead asked Guy Kawasaki to front them a $25,000 development loan, raised a similar amount on their own, and formed Salient Software. After four months sales were over $50,000 a month. When System 7 shipped in June 1991 sales took off, as the new system was rather hungry for drive space. The company was eventually sold to Fifth Generation Systems in 1992. They also repackaged it in a suite as SuperDoubler 4.0, including AutoDoubler, DiskDoubler, and a file-copy speedup known as CopyDoubler. For some time, DiskDoubler was the second-best selling product on the Mac, second only to After Dark, the popular screen saver. Fifth Generation was later sold, somewhat ironically, to Symantec, who re-released it as a fat binary as Norton DiskDoubler Pro 1.1. Symantec "sat" on the product and it slowly disappeared over the next year.
DiskDoubler concentrated on speed, originally supporting only a single variety of the LZ78 compression algorithm used in Compress/MacCompress to avoid having to try different settings. Nevertheless, the compression results were quite reasonable, notably on text files. Better yet, DiskDoubler was extremely fast, generally twice as fast as StuffIt, and 50% faster than Compact Pro, the two main archivers in use on the Mac in the 1990s. DiskDoubler also had the capability of decompressing StuffIt and PackIt files, which it did much faster than those programs could. Over the years DiskDoubler eventually ended up with four different algorithms, typically using the fastest compressor, DD1, for a first pass, and then running the most effective, DD3+, when the machine was idle. DiD3+ provided the highest compression of any Mac-based compression software, using knowledge of specific file types to improve over a "generic" LZW scheme.
Users typically interacted with DiskDoubler via an additional menu placed in the Macintosh Finder. Selecting a file, or group of them, the user selects Compress from the DD menu. The file in question is quickly compressed and replaced by a similar icon stamped with a small "DD" tag to indicate it was compressed. The original Classic Mac OS did not include any sort of composite icon support, so DiskDoubler had to copy and modify every icon it found and then hand those modified icons back to the Finder with a new file type. When a file was compressed, its (hidden) file type flag was changed to the one DiskDoubler "made up", making the Finder display the modified icon.
AutoDoubler (AD) was a small software daemon for which speed was the main concern, since AD was intended to be used "invisibly". For this reason it first used the AD1/DD1 "fastest" method to compress as many files as possible as quickly as it could, and then when that was complete it would go back and re-compress with DD3+ if the machine was still idle. DD/AD was so invisible that it would compress anything outside the System folder, including applications and various resources.
The main reason for better performance was the fact that compressing a file and writing it was faster than writing the original file as the bottleneck was to be found in hard disk I/O times. The same is correct for reading and decompressing files.
The product also included a freeware (but closed source) decompressor known as DDExpand. Since DiskDoubler was intended to compress "in place" and generally be invisible, most users set up DiskDoubler to decompress automatically when copying files to other media so that it would open fine on other people's machines. Additionally, since the program decompressed files as they were opened, the simple action of archiving files using another utility like StuffIt automatically decompressed the files before they were inserted into the new archive. For these reasons the DiskDoubler format was rarely seen "in the wild", and DDExpand was rarely needed. DiskDoubler did include an option for this, however, which would combine several files into one archive. These could sometimes be found in software libraries, but was generally frowned upon.
DiskDoubler created a market for similar products. The first attempt to produce a similar product resulted in SuperDisk!, which, when released, was faster than DiskDoubler but offered less compression. SuperDisk! also offered "on the fly" compression, which DiskDoubler had not added at that point. An updated version of DiskDoubler fought back with a new compression scheme that ran entirely in the 256-byte cache of the 68020, which greatly improved performance. AutoDoubler was also included as a new feature. Now Software also introduced a product in this space called Now Compress. Aladdin Software eventually brought out their own solution as well, as StuffIt SpaceSaver. All of these products had a following during the era of small hard drives.
Eventually, a combination of shrinking Mac marketshare, changes to the underlying filesystem and ever-increasing drive space killed off this product niche.
With the introduction of Mac OS X Snow Leopard, Apple introduced a similar technology known as Transparent Compression into HFS Plus.
See also
Disk compression
References
Guy Kawasaki, "Defying Gravity", Macworld, December 1993
E-mail conversations with both of the original authors.
External links
Review: Norton DiskDoubler Pro 1.1
macutils, converts between different Macintosh file encodings; supposedly can unpack DiskDoubler archives
DiskDoubler Pro 4.1 for Mac OS 9
Classic Mac OS software
Data compression software
1990 software
Discontinued software
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15590926
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund%20M.%20Clarke
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Edmund M. Clarke
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Edmund Melson Clarke, Jr. (July 27, 1945 – December 22, 2020) was an American computer scientist and academic noted for developing model checking, a method for formally verifying hardware and software designs. He was the FORE Systems Professor of Computer Science at Carnegie Mellon University. Clarke, along with E. Allen Emerson and Joseph Sifakis, received the 2007 ACM Turing Award.
Biography
Clarke received a B.A. degree in mathematics from the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, in 1967, an M.A. degree in mathematics from Duke University, Durham NC, in 1968, and a Ph.D. degree in Computer Science from Cornell University, Ithaca NY in 1976. After receiving his Ph.D., he taught in the Department of Computer Science at Duke University, for two years. In 1978, he moved to Harvard University, Cambridge, MA where he was an Assistant Professor of Computer Science in the Division of Applied Sciences. He left Harvard in 1982 to join the faculty in the Computer Science Department at Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA. He was appointed Full Professor in 1989. In 1995, he became the first recipient of the FORE Systems Professorship, an endowed chair in the Carnegie Mellon School of Computer Science. He became a University Professor in 2008 and became an emeritus professor in 2015.
Death
He died from COVID-19 in December 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic in Pennsylvania.
Work
Clarke's interests included software and hardware verification and automatic theorem proving. In his Ph.D. thesis he proved that certain programming language control structures did not have good Hoare style proof systems. In 1981 he and his Ph.D. student E. Allen Emerson first proposed the use of model checking as a verification technique for finite state concurrent systems. His research group pioneered the use of model checking for hardware verification. Symbolic model checking using binary decision diagrams was also developed by his group. This important technique was the subject of Kenneth McMillan's Ph.D. thesis, which received an ACM Doctoral Dissertation Award. In addition, his research group developed the first parallel resolution theorem prover (Parthenon) and the first theorem prover to be based on a symbolic computation system (Analytica). In 2009, he led the creation of the Computational Modeling and Analysis of Complex Systems (CMACS) center, funded by the National Science Foundation. This center has a team of researchers, spanning multiple universities, applying abstract interpretation and model checking to biological and embedded systems.
Professional recognition
Clarke was a fellow of the ACM and the IEEE. He received a Technical Excellence Award from the Semiconductor Research Corporation in 1995 and an Allen Newell Award for Excellence in Research from the Carnegie Mellon Computer Science Department in 1999. He was a co-winner along with Randal Bryant, E. Allen Emerson, and Kenneth McMillan of the ACM Paris Kanellakis Award in 1999 for the development of symbolic model checking. In 2004 he received the IEEE Computer Society Harry H. Goode Memorial Award for significant and pioneering contributions to formal verification of hardware and software systems, and for the profound impact these contributions have had on the electronics industry. He was elected to the National Academy of Engineering in 2005 for contributions to the formal verification of hardware and software correctness. He was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2011. He received the Herbrand Award in 2008 in "recognition of his role in the invention of model checking and his sustained leadership in the area for more than two decades." He received the 2014 Bower Award and Prize for Achievement in Science from the Franklin Institute for "his leading role in the conception and development of techniques for automatically verifying the correctness of a broad array of computer systems, including those found in transportation, communications, and medicine." He was a member of Sigma Xi and Phi Beta Kappa.
See also
List of pioneers in computer science
References
External links
Home page at Carnegie Mellon University
Online biography from home page
Turing Award announcement
Model Checking book
CMACS home page
1945 births
2020 deaths
People from Newport News, Virginia
American computer scientists
Carnegie Mellon University faculty
University of Virginia alumni
Duke University alumni
Cornell University alumni
Duke University faculty
John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences faculty
Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery
Fellow Members of the IEEE
Turing Award laureates
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Members of the United States National Academy of Engineering
Formal methods people
Scientists from Virginia
Deaths from the COVID-19 pandemic in Pennsylvania
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%20%28programming%20language%29
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C (programming language)
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C (, as in the letter c) is a general-purpose, procedural computer programming language supporting structured programming, lexical variable scope, and recursion, with a static type system. By design, C provides constructs that map efficiently to typical machine instructions. It has found lasting use in applications previously coded in assembly language. Such applications include operating systems and various application software for computer architectures that range from supercomputers to PLCs and embedded systems.
A successor to the programming language B, C was originally developed at Bell Labs by Dennis Ritchie between 1972 and 1973 to construct utilities running on Unix. It was applied to re-implementing the kernel of the Unix operating system. During the 1980s, C gradually gained popularity. It has become one of the most widely used programming languages, with C compilers from various vendors available for the majority of existing computer architectures and operating systems. C has been standardized by ANSI since 1989 (ANSI C) and by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
C is an imperative procedural language. It was designed to be compiled to provide low-level access to memory and language constructs that map efficiently to machine instructions, all with minimal runtime support. Despite its low-level capabilities, the language was designed to encourage cross-platform programming. A standards-compliant C program written with portability in mind can be compiled for a wide variety of computer platforms and operating systems with few changes to its source code.
Since 2000, C has consistently ranked among the top two languages in the TIOBE index, a measure of the popularity of programming languages.
Overview
Like most procedural languages in the ALGOL tradition, C has facilities for structured programming and allows lexical variable scope and recursion. Its static type system prevents unintended operations. In C, all executable code is contained within subroutines (also called "functions", though not strictly in the sense of functional programming). Function parameters are always passed by value (except arrays). Pass-by-reference is simulated in C by explicitly passing pointer values. C program source text is free-format, using the semicolon as a statement terminator and curly braces for grouping blocks of statements.
The C language also exhibits the following characteristics:
The language has a small, fixed number of keywords, including a full set of control flow primitives: if/else, for, do/while, while, and switch. User-defined names are not distinguished from keywords by any kind of sigil.
It has a large number of arithmetic, bitwise, and logic operators: , etc.
More than one assignment may be performed in a single statement.
Functions:
Function return values can be ignored, when not needed.
Function and data pointers permit ad hoc run-time polymorphism.
Functions may not be defined within the lexical scope of other functions.
Data typing is static, but weakly enforced; all data has a type, but implicit conversions are possible.
Declaration syntax mimics usage context. C has no "define" keyword; instead, a statement beginning with the name of a type is taken as a declaration. There is no "function" keyword; instead, a function is indicated by the presence of a parenthesized argument list.
User-defined (typedef) and compound types are possible.
Heterogeneous aggregate data types (struct) allow related data elements to be accessed and assigned as a unit.
Union is a structure with overlapping members; only the last member stored is valid.
Array indexing is a secondary notation, defined in terms of pointer arithmetic. Unlike structs, arrays are not first-class objects: they cannot be assigned or compared using single built-in operators. There is no "array" keyword in use or definition; instead, square brackets indicate arrays syntactically, for example month[11].
Enumerated types are possible with the enum keyword. They are freely interconvertible with integers.
Strings are not a distinct data type, but are conventionally implemented as null-terminated character arrays.
Low-level access to computer memory is possible by converting machine addresses to typed pointers.
Procedures (subroutines not returning values) are a special case of function, with an untyped return type void.
A preprocessor performs macro definition, source code file inclusion, and conditional compilation.
There is a basic form of modularity: files can be compiled separately and linked together, with control over which functions and data objects are visible to other files via static and extern attributes.
Complex functionality such as I/O, string manipulation, and mathematical functions are consistently delegated to library routines.
While C does not include certain features found in other languages (such as object orientation and garbage collection), these can be implemented or emulated, often through the use of external libraries (e.g., the GLib Object System or the Boehm garbage collector).
Relations to other languages
Many later languages have borrowed directly or indirectly from C, including C++, C#, Unix's C shell, D, Go, Java, JavaScript (including transpilers), Julia, Limbo, LPC, Objective-C, Perl, PHP, Python, Ruby, Rust, Swift, Verilog and SystemVerilog (hardware description languages). These languages have drawn many of their control structures and other basic features from C. Most of them (Python being a dramatic exception) also express highly similar syntax to C, and they tend to combine the recognizable expression and statement syntax of C with underlying type systems, data models, and semantics that can be radically different.
History
Early developments
The origin of C is closely tied to the development of the Unix operating system, originally implemented in assembly language on a PDP-7 by Dennis Ritchie and Ken Thompson, incorporating several ideas from colleagues. Eventually, they decided to port the operating system to a PDP-11. The original PDP-11 version of Unix was also developed in assembly language.
Thompson desired a programming language to make utilities for the new platform. At first, he tried to make a Fortran compiler, but soon gave up the idea. Instead, he created a cut-down version of the recently developed BCPL systems programming language. The official description of BCPL was not available at the time, and Thompson modified the syntax to be less wordy, producing the similar but somewhat simpler B. However, few utilities were ultimately written in B because it was too slow, and B could not take advantage of PDP-11 features such as byte addressability.
In 1972, Ritchie started to improve B, most notably adding data typing for variables, which resulted in creating a new language C. The C compiler and some utilities made with it were included in Version 2 Unix.
At Version 4 Unix, released in November 1973, the Unix kernel was extensively re-implemented in C. By this time, the C language had acquired some powerful features such as struct types.
The preprocessor was introduced around 1973 at the urging of Alan Snyder and also in recognition of the usefulness of the file-inclusion mechanisms available in BCPL and PL/I. Its original version provided only included files and simple string replacements: #include and #define of parameterless macros. Soon after that, it was extended, mostly by Mike Lesk and then by John Reiser, to incorporate macros with arguments and conditional compilation.
Unix was one of the first operating system kernels implemented in a language other than assembly. Earlier instances include the Multics system (which was written in PL/I) and Master Control Program (MCP) for the Burroughs B5000 (which was written in ALGOL) in 1961. In around 1977, Ritchie and Stephen C. Johnson made further changes to the language to facilitate portability of the Unix operating system. Johnson's Portable C Compiler served as the basis for several implementations of C on new platforms.
K&R C
In 1978, Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie published the first edition of The C Programming Language. This book, known to C programmers as K&R, served for many years as an informal specification of the language. The version of C that it describes is commonly referred to as "K&R C". As this was released in 1978, it is also referred to as C78. The second edition of the book covers the later ANSI C standard, described below.
K&R introduced several language features:
Standard I/O library
long int data type
unsigned int data type
Compound assignment operators of the form =op (such as =-) were changed to the form op= (that is, -=) to remove the semantic ambiguity created by constructs such as i=-10, which had been interpreted as i =- 10 (decrement i by 10) instead of the possibly intended i = -10 (let i be −10).
Even after the publication of the 1989 ANSI standard, for many years K&R C was still considered the "lowest common denominator" to which C programmers restricted themselves when maximum portability was desired, since many older compilers were still in use, and because carefully written K&R C code can be legal Standard C as well.
In early versions of C, only functions that return types other than int must be declared if used before the function definition; functions used without prior declaration were presumed to return type int.
For example:
long some_function();
/* int */ other_function();
/* int */ calling_function()
{
long test1;
register /* int */ test2;
test1 = some_function();
if (test1 > 1)
test2 = 0;
else
test2 = other_function();
return test2;
}
The int type specifiers which are commented out could be omitted in K&R C, but are required in later standards.
Since K&R function declarations did not include any information about function arguments, function parameter type checks were not performed, although some compilers would issue a warning message if a local function was called with the wrong number of arguments, or if multiple calls to an external function used different numbers or types of arguments. Separate tools such as Unix's lint utility were developed that (among other things) could check for consistency of function use across multiple source files.
In the years following the publication of K&R C, several features were added to the language, supported by compilers from AT&T (in particular PCC) and some other vendors. These included:
void functions (i.e., functions with no return value)
functions returning struct or union types (rather than pointers)
assignment for struct data types
enumerated types
The large number of extensions and lack of agreement on a standard library, together with the language popularity and the fact that not even the Unix compilers precisely implemented the K&R specification, led to the necessity of standardization.
ANSI C and ISO C
During the late 1970s and 1980s, versions of C were implemented for a wide variety of mainframe computers, minicomputers, and microcomputers, including the IBM PC, as its popularity began to increase significantly.
In 1983, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) formed a committee, X3J11, to establish a standard specification of C. X3J11 based the C standard on the Unix implementation; however, the non-portable portion of the Unix C library was handed off to the IEEE working group 1003 to become the basis for the 1988 POSIX standard. In 1989, the C standard was ratified as ANSI X3.159-1989 "Programming Language C". This version of the language is often referred to as ANSI C, Standard C, or sometimes C89.
In 1990, the ANSI C standard (with formatting changes) was adopted by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as ISO/IEC 9899:1990, which is sometimes called C90. Therefore, the terms "C89" and "C90" refer to the same programming language.
ANSI, like other national standards bodies, no longer develops the C standard independently, but defers to the international C standard, maintained by the working group ISO/IEC JTC1/SC22/WG14. National adoption of an update to the international standard typically occurs within a year of ISO publication.
One of the aims of the C standardization process was to produce a superset of K&R C, incorporating many of the subsequently introduced unofficial features. The standards committee also included several additional features such as function prototypes (borrowed from C++), void pointers, support for international character sets and locales, and preprocessor enhancements. Although the syntax for parameter declarations was augmented to include the style used in C++, the K&R interface continued to be permitted, for compatibility with existing source code.
C89 is supported by current C compilers, and most modern C code is based on it. Any program written only in Standard C and without any hardware-dependent assumptions will run correctly on any platform with a conforming C implementation, within its resource limits. Without such precautions, programs may compile only on a certain platform or with a particular compiler, due, for example, to the use of non-standard libraries, such as GUI libraries, or to a reliance on compiler- or platform-specific attributes such as the exact size of data types and byte endianness.
In cases where code must be compilable by either standard-conforming or K&R C-based compilers, the macro can be used to split the code into Standard and K&R sections to prevent the use on a K&R C-based compiler of features available only in Standard C.
After the ANSI/ISO standardization process, the C language specification remained relatively static for several years. In 1995, Normative Amendment 1 to the 1990 C standard (ISO/IEC 9899/AMD1:1995, known informally as C95) was published, to correct some details and to add more extensive support for international character sets.
C99
The C standard was further revised in the late 1990s, leading to the publication of ISO/IEC 9899:1999 in 1999, which is commonly referred to as "C99". It has since been amended three times by Technical Corrigenda.
C99 introduced several new features, including inline functions, several new data types (including long long int and a complex type to represent complex numbers), variable-length arrays and flexible array members, improved support for IEEE 754 floating point, support for variadic macros (macros of variable arity), and support for one-line comments beginning with //, as in BCPL or C++. Many of these had already been implemented as extensions in several C compilers.
C99 is for the most part backward compatible with C90, but is stricter in some ways; in particular, a declaration that lacks a type specifier no longer has int implicitly assumed. A standard macro __STDC_VERSION__ is defined with value 199901L to indicate that C99 support is available. GCC, Solaris Studio, and other C compilers now support many or all of the new features of C99. The C compiler in Microsoft Visual C++, however, implements the C89 standard and those parts of C99 that are required for compatibility with C++11.
In addition, support for Unicode identifiers (variable / function names) in the form of escaped characters (e.g. ) is now required. Support for raw Unicode names is optional.
C11
In 2007, work began on another revision of the C standard, informally called "C1X" until its official publication on 2011-12-08. The C standards committee adopted guidelines to limit the adoption of new features that had not been tested by existing implementations.
The C11 standard adds numerous new features to C and the library, including type generic macros, anonymous structures, improved Unicode support, atomic operations, multi-threading, and bounds-checked functions. It also makes some portions of the existing C99 library optional, and improves compatibility with C++. The standard macro __STDC_VERSION__ is defined as 201112L to indicate that C11 support is available.
C17
Published in June 2018, C17 is the current standard for the C programming language. It introduces no new language features, only technical corrections, and clarifications to defects in C11. The standard macro __STDC_VERSION__ is defined as 201710L.
C2x
C2x is an informal name for the next (after C17) major C language standard revision. It is expected to be voted on in 2023 and would therefore be called C23.
Embedded C
Historically, embedded C programming requires nonstandard extensions to the C language in order to support exotic features such as fixed-point arithmetic, multiple distinct memory banks, and basic I/O operations.
In 2008, the C Standards Committee published a technical report extending the C language to address these issues by providing a common standard for all implementations to adhere to. It includes a number of features not available in normal C, such as fixed-point arithmetic, named address spaces, and basic I/O hardware addressing.
Syntax
C has a formal grammar specified by the C standard. Line endings are generally not significant in C; however, line boundaries do have significance during the preprocessing phase. Comments may appear either between the delimiters /* and */, or (since C99) following // until the end of the line. Comments delimited by /* and */ do not nest, and these sequences of characters are not interpreted as comment delimiters if they appear inside string or character literals.
C source files contain declarations and function definitions. Function definitions, in turn, contain declarations and statements. Declarations either define new types using keywords such as struct, union, and enum, or assign types to and perhaps reserve storage for new variables, usually by writing the type followed by the variable name. Keywords such as char and int specify built-in types. Sections of code are enclosed in braces ({ and }, sometimes called "curly brackets") to limit the scope of declarations and to act as a single statement for control structures.
As an imperative language, C uses statements to specify actions. The most common statement is an expression statement, consisting of an expression to be evaluated, followed by a semicolon; as a side effect of the evaluation, functions may be called and variables may be assigned new values. To modify the normal sequential execution of statements, C provides several control-flow statements identified by reserved keywords. Structured programming is supported by if … [else] conditional execution and by do … while, while, and for iterative execution (looping). The for statement has separate initialization, testing, and reinitialization expressions, any or all of which can be omitted. break and continue can be used to leave the innermost enclosing loop statement or skip to its reinitialization. There is also a non-structured goto statement which branches directly to the designated label within the function. switch selects a case to be executed based on the value of an integer expression.
Expressions can use a variety of built-in operators and may contain function calls. The order in which arguments to functions and operands to most operators are evaluated is unspecified. The evaluations may even be interleaved. However, all side effects (including storage to variables) will occur before the next "sequence point"; sequence points include the end of each expression statement, and the entry to and return from each function call. Sequence points also occur during evaluation of expressions containing certain operators (&&, ||, ?: and the comma operator). This permits a high degree of object code optimization by the compiler, but requires C programmers to take more care to obtain reliable results than is needed for other programming languages.
Kernighan and Ritchie say in the Introduction of The C Programming Language: "C, like any other language, has its blemishes. Some of the operators have the wrong precedence; some parts of the syntax could be better." The C standard did not attempt to correct many of these blemishes, because of the impact of such changes on already existing software.
Character set
The basic C source character set includes the following characters:
Lowercase and uppercase letters of ISO Basic Latin Alphabet: a–z A–Z
Decimal digits: 0–9
Graphic characters: ! " # % & ' ( ) * + , - . / : ; < = > ? [ \ ] ^ _ { | } ~
Whitespace characters: space, horizontal tab, vertical tab, form feed, newline
Newline indicates the end of a text line; it need not correspond to an actual single character, although for convenience C treats it as one.
Additional multi-byte encoded characters may be used in string literals, but they are not entirely portable. The latest C standard (C11) allows multi-national Unicode characters to be embedded portably within C source text by using \uXXXX or \UXXXXXXXX encoding (where the X denotes a hexadecimal character), although this feature is not yet widely implemented.
The basic C execution character set contains the same characters, along with representations for alert, backspace, and carriage return. Run-time support for extended character sets has increased with each revision of the C standard.
Reserved words
C89 has 32 reserved words, also known as keywords, which are the words that cannot be used for any purposes other than those for which they are predefined:
auto
break
case
char
const
continue
default
do
double
else
enum
extern
float
for
goto
if
int
long
register
return
short
signed
sizeof
static
struct
switch
typedef
union
unsigned
void
volatile
while
C99 reserved five more words:
_Bool
_Complex
_Imaginary
inline
restrict
C11 reserved seven more words:
_Alignas
_Alignof
_Atomic
_Generic
_Noreturn
_Static_assert
_Thread_local
Most of the recently reserved words begin with an underscore followed by a capital letter, because identifiers of that form were previously reserved by the C standard for use only by implementations. Since existing program source code should not have been using these identifiers, it would not be affected when C implementations started supporting these extensions to the programming language. Some standard headers do define more convenient synonyms for underscored identifiers. The language previously included a reserved word called entry, but this was seldom implemented, and has now been removed as a reserved word.
Operators
C supports a rich set of operators, which are symbols used within an expression to specify the manipulations to be performed while evaluating that expression. C has operators for:
arithmetic: +, -, *, /, %
assignment: =
augmented assignment:
bitwise logic: ~, &, |, ^
bitwise shifts: <<, >>
boolean logic: !, &&, ||
conditional evaluation: ? :
equality testing: ==, !=
calling functions: ( )
increment and decrement: ++, --
member selection: ., ->
object size: sizeof
order relations: <, <=, >, >=
reference and dereference: &, *, [ ]
sequencing: ,
subexpression grouping: ( )
type conversion: (typename)
C uses the operator = (used in mathematics to express equality) to indicate assignment, following the precedent of Fortran and PL/I, but unlike ALGOL and its derivatives. C uses the operator == to test for equality. The similarity between these two operators (assignment and equality) may result in the accidental use of one in place of the other, and in many cases, the mistake does not produce an error message (although some compilers produce warnings). For example, the conditional expression if (a == b + 1) might mistakenly be written as if (a = b + 1), which will be evaluated as true if a is not zero after the assignment.
The C operator precedence is not always intuitive. For example, the operator == binds more tightly than (is executed prior to) the operators & (bitwise AND) and | (bitwise OR) in expressions such as x & 1 == 0, which must be written as (x & 1) == 0 if that is the coder's intent.
"Hello, world" example
The "hello, world" example, which appeared in the first edition of K&R, has become the model for an introductory program in most programming textbooks. The program prints "hello, world" to the standard output, which is usually a terminal or screen display.
The original version was:
main()
{
printf("hello, world\n");
}
A standard-conforming "hello, world" program is:
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("hello, world\n");
}
The first line of the program contains a preprocessing directive, indicated by #include. This causes the compiler to replace that line with the entire text of the stdio.h standard header, which contains declarations for standard input and output functions such as printf and scanf. The angle brackets surrounding stdio.h indicate that stdio.h is located using a search strategy that prefers headers provided with the compiler to other headers having the same name, as opposed to double quotes which typically include local or project-specific header files.
The next line indicates that a function named main is being defined. The main function serves a special purpose in C programs; the run-time environment calls the main function to begin program execution. The type specifier int indicates that the value that is returned to the invoker (in this case the run-time environment) as a result of evaluating the main function, is an integer. The keyword void as a parameter list indicates that this function takes no arguments.
The opening curly brace indicates the beginning of the definition of the main function.
The next line calls (diverts execution to) a function named printf, which in this case is supplied from a system library. In this call, the printf function is passed (provided with) a single argument, the address of the first character in the string literal "hello, world\n". The string literal is an unnamed array with elements of type char, set up automatically by the compiler with a final 0-valued character to mark the end of the array (printf needs to know this). The \n is an escape sequence that C translates to a newline character, which on output signifies the end of the current line. The return value of the printf function is of type int, but it is silently discarded since it is not used. (A more careful program might test the return value to determine whether or not the printf function succeeded.) The semicolon ; terminates the statement.
The closing curly brace indicates the end of the code for the main function. According to the C99 specification and newer, the main function, unlike any other function, will implicitly return a value of 0 upon reaching the } that terminates the function. (Formerly an explicit return 0; statement was required.) This is interpreted by the run-time system as an exit code indicating successful execution.
Data types
The type system in C is static and weakly typed, which makes it similar to the type system of ALGOL descendants such as Pascal. There are built-in types for integers of various sizes, both signed and unsigned, floating-point numbers, and enumerated types (enum). Integer type char is often used for single-byte characters. C99 added a boolean datatype. There are also derived types including arrays, pointers, records (struct), and unions (union).
C is often used in low-level systems programming where escapes from the type system may be necessary. The compiler attempts to ensure type correctness of most expressions, but the programmer can override the checks in various ways, either by using a type cast to explicitly convert a value from one type to another, or by using pointers or unions to reinterpret the underlying bits of a data object in some other way.
Some find C's declaration syntax unintuitive, particularly for function pointers. (Ritchie's idea was to declare identifiers in contexts resembling their use: "declaration reflects use".)
C's usual arithmetic conversions allow for efficient code to be generated, but can sometimes produce unexpected results. For example, a comparison of signed and unsigned integers of equal width requires a conversion of the signed value to unsigned. This can generate unexpected results if the signed value is negative.
Pointers
C supports the use of pointers, a type of reference that records the address or location of an object or function in memory. Pointers can be dereferenced to access data stored at the address pointed to, or to invoke a pointed-to function. Pointers can be manipulated using assignment or pointer arithmetic. The run-time representation of a pointer value is typically a raw memory address (perhaps augmented by an offset-within-word field), but since a pointer's type includes the type of the thing pointed to, expressions including pointers can be type-checked at compile time. Pointer arithmetic is automatically scaled by the size of the pointed-to data type. Pointers are used for many purposes in C. Text strings are commonly manipulated using pointers into arrays of characters. Dynamic memory allocation is performed using pointers. Many data types, such as trees, are commonly implemented as dynamically allocated struct objects linked together using pointers. Pointers to functions are useful for passing functions as arguments to higher-order functions (such as qsort or bsearch) or as callbacks to be invoked by event handlers.
A null pointer value explicitly points to no valid location. Dereferencing a null pointer value is undefined, often resulting in a segmentation fault. Null pointer values are useful for indicating special cases such as no "next" pointer in the final node of a linked list, or as an error indication from functions returning pointers. In appropriate contexts in source code, such as for assigning to a pointer variable, a null pointer constant can be written as 0, with or without explicit casting to a pointer type, or as the NULL macro defined by several standard headers. In conditional contexts, null pointer values evaluate to false, while all other pointer values evaluate to true.
Void pointers (void *) point to objects of unspecified type, and can therefore be used as "generic" data pointers. Since the size and type of the pointed-to object is not known, void pointers cannot be dereferenced, nor is pointer arithmetic on them allowed, although they can easily be (and in many contexts implicitly are) converted to and from any other object pointer type.
Careless use of pointers is potentially dangerous. Because they are typically unchecked, a pointer variable can be made to point to any arbitrary location, which can cause undesirable effects. Although properly used pointers point to safe places, they can be made to point to unsafe places by using invalid pointer arithmetic; the objects they point to may continue to be used after deallocation (dangling pointers); they may be used without having been initialized (wild pointers); or they may be directly assigned an unsafe value using a cast, union, or through another corrupt pointer. In general, C is permissive in allowing manipulation of and conversion between pointer types, although compilers typically provide options for various levels of checking. Some other programming languages address these problems by using more restrictive reference types.
Arrays
Array types in C are traditionally of a fixed, static size specified at compile time. The more recent C99 standard also allows a form of variable-length arrays. However, it is also possible to allocate a block of memory (of arbitrary size) at run-time, using the standard library's malloc function, and treat it as an array.
Since arrays are always accessed (in effect) via pointers, array accesses are typically not checked against the underlying array size, although some compilers may provide bounds checking as an option. Array bounds violations are therefore possible and can lead to various repercussions, including illegal memory accesses, corruption of data, buffer overruns, and run-time exceptions.
C does not have a special provision for declaring multi-dimensional arrays, but rather relies on recursion within the type system to declare arrays of arrays, which effectively accomplishes the same thing. The index values of the resulting "multi-dimensional array" can be thought of as increasing in row-major order. Multi-dimensional arrays are commonly used in numerical algorithms (mainly from applied linear algebra) to store matrices. The structure of the C array is well suited to this particular task. However, in early versions of C the bounds of the array must be known fixed values or else explicitly passed to any subroutine that requires them, and dynamically sized arrays of arrays cannot be accessed using double indexing. (A workaround for this was to allocate the array with an additional "row vector" of pointers to the columns.) C99 introduced "variable-length arrays" which address this issue.
The following example using modern C (C99 or later) shows allocation of a two-dimensional array on the heap and the use of multi-dimensional array indexing for accesses (which can use bounds-checking on many C compilers):
int func(int N, int M)
{
float (*p)[N][M] = malloc(sizeof *p);
if (!p)
return -1;
for (int i = 0; i < N; i++)
for (int j = 0; j < M; j++)
(*p)[i][j] = i + j;
print_array(N, M, p);
free(p);
return 1;
}
Array–pointer interchangeability
The subscript notation x[i] (where x designates a pointer) is syntactic sugar for *(x+i). Taking advantage of the compiler's knowledge of the pointer type, the address that x + i points to is not the base address (pointed to by x) incremented by i bytes, but rather is defined to be the base address incremented by i multiplied by the size of an element that x points to. Thus, x[i] designates the i+1th element of the array.
Furthermore, in most expression contexts (a notable exception is as operand of sizeof), an expression of array type is automatically converted to a pointer to the array's first element. This implies that an array is never copied as a whole when named as an argument to a function, but rather only the address of its first element is passed. Therefore, although function calls in C use pass-by-value semantics, arrays are in effect passed by reference.
The total size of an array x can be determined by applying sizeof to an expression of array type.
The size of an element can be determined by applying the operator sizeof to any dereferenced element of an array A, as in n = sizeof A[0]. This, the number of elements in a declared array A can be determined as sizeof A / sizeof A[0]. Note, that if only a pointer to the first element is available as it is often the case in C code because of the automatic conversion described above, the information about the full type of the array and its length are lost.
Memory management
One of the most important functions of a programming language is to provide facilities for managing memory and the objects that are stored in memory. C provides three distinct ways to allocate memory for objects:
Static memory allocation: space for the object is provided in the binary at compile-time; these objects have an extent (or lifetime) as long as the binary which contains them is loaded into memory.
Automatic memory allocation: temporary objects can be stored on the stack, and this space is automatically freed and reusable after the block in which they are declared is exited.
Dynamic memory allocation: blocks of memory of arbitrary size can be requested at run-time using library functions such as malloc from a region of memory called the heap; these blocks persist until subsequently freed for reuse by calling the library function realloc or free
These three approaches are appropriate in different situations and have various trade-offs. For example, static memory allocation has little allocation overhead, automatic allocation may involve slightly more overhead, and dynamic memory allocation can potentially have a great deal of overhead for both allocation and deallocation. The persistent nature of static objects is useful for maintaining state information across function calls, automatic allocation is easy to use but stack space is typically much more limited and transient than either static memory or heap space, and dynamic memory allocation allows convenient allocation of objects whose size is known only at run-time. Most C programs make extensive use of all three.
Where possible, automatic or static allocation is usually simplest because the storage is managed by the compiler, freeing the programmer of the potentially error-prone chore of manually allocating and releasing storage. However, many data structures can change in size at runtime, and since static allocations (and automatic allocations before C99) must have a fixed size at compile-time, there are many situations in which dynamic allocation is necessary. Prior to the C99 standard, variable-sized arrays were a common example of this. (See the article on malloc for an example of dynamically allocated arrays.) Unlike automatic allocation, which can fail at run time with uncontrolled consequences, the dynamic allocation functions return an indication (in the form of a null pointer value) when the required storage cannot be allocated. (Static allocation that is too large is usually detected by the linker or loader, before the program can even begin execution.)
Unless otherwise specified, static objects contain zero or null pointer values upon program startup. Automatically and dynamically allocated objects are initialized only if an initial value is explicitly specified; otherwise they initially have indeterminate values (typically, whatever bit pattern happens to be present in the storage, which might not even represent a valid value for that type). If the program attempts to access an uninitialized value, the results are undefined. Many modern compilers try to detect and warn about this problem, but both false positives and false negatives can occur.
Heap memory allocation has to be synchronized with its actual usage in any program to be reused as much as possible. For example, if the only pointer to a heap memory allocation goes out of scope or has its value overwritten before it is deallocated explicitly, then that memory cannot be recovered for later reuse and is essentially lost to the program, a phenomenon known as a memory leak. Conversely, it is possible for memory to be freed, but is referenced subsequently, leading to unpredictable results. Typically, the failure symptoms appear in a portion of the program unrelated to the code that causes the error, making it difficult to diagnose the failure. Such issues are ameliorated in languages with automatic garbage collection.
Libraries
The C programming language uses libraries as its primary method of extension. In C, a library is a set of functions contained within a single "archive" file. Each library typically has a header file, which contains the prototypes of the functions contained within the library that may be used by a program, and declarations of special data types and macro symbols used with these functions. In order for a program to use a library, it must include the library's header file, and the library must be linked with the program, which in many cases requires compiler flags (e.g., -lm, shorthand for "link the math library").
The most common C library is the C standard library, which is specified by the ISO and ANSI C standards and comes with every C implementation (implementations which target limited environments such as embedded systems may provide only a subset of the standard library). This library supports stream input and output, memory allocation, mathematics, character strings, and time values. Several separate standard headers (for example, stdio.h) specify the interfaces for these and other standard library facilities.
Another common set of C library functions are those used by applications specifically targeted for Unix and Unix-like systems, especially functions which provide an interface to the kernel. These functions are detailed in various standards such as POSIX and the Single UNIX Specification.
Since many programs have been written in C, there are a wide variety of other libraries available. Libraries are often written in C because C compilers generate efficient object code; programmers then create interfaces to the library so that the routines can be used from higher-level languages like Java, Perl, and Python.
File handling and streams
File input and output (I/O) is not part of the C language itself but instead is handled by libraries (such as the C standard library) and their associated header files (e.g. stdio.h). File handling is generally implemented through high-level I/O which works through streams. A stream is from this perspective a data flow that is independent of devices, while a file is a concrete device. The high-level I/O is done through the association of a stream to a file. In the C standard library, a buffer (a memory area or queue) is temporarily used to store data before it's sent to the final destination. This reduces the time spent waiting for slower devices, for example a hard drive or solid state drive. Low-level I/O functions are not part of the standard C library but are generally part of "bare metal" programming (programming that's independent of any operating system such as most embedded programming). With few exceptions, implementations include low-level I/O.
Language tools
A number of tools have been developed to help C programmers find and fix statements with undefined behavior or possibly erroneous expressions, with greater rigor than that provided by the compiler. The tool lint was the first such, leading to many others.
Automated source code checking and auditing are beneficial in any language, and for C many such tools exist, such as Lint. A common practice is to use Lint to detect questionable code when a program is first written. Once a program passes Lint, it is then compiled using the C compiler. Also, many compilers can optionally warn about syntactically valid constructs that are likely to actually be errors. MISRA C is a proprietary set of guidelines to avoid such questionable code, developed for embedded systems.
There are also compilers, libraries, and operating system level mechanisms for performing actions that are not a standard part of C, such as bounds checking for arrays, detection of buffer overflow, serialization, dynamic memory tracking, and automatic garbage collection.
Tools such as Purify or Valgrind and linking with libraries containing special versions of the memory allocation functions can help uncover runtime errors in memory usage.
Uses
C is widely used for systems programming in implementing operating systems and embedded system applications, because C code, when written for portability, can be used for most purposes, yet when needed, system-specific code can be used to access specific hardware addresses and to perform type punning to match externally imposed interface requirements, with a low run-time demand on system resources.
C can be used for website programming using the Common Gateway Interface (CGI) as a "gateway" for information between the Web application, the server, and the browser. C is often chosen over interpreted languages because of its speed, stability, and near-universal availability.
A consequence of C's wide availability and efficiency is that compilers, libraries and interpreters of other programming languages are often implemented in C. For example, the reference implementations of Python, Perl, Ruby, and PHP are written in C.
C enables programmers to create efficient implementations of algorithms and data structures, because the layer of abstraction from hardware is thin, and its overhead is low, an important criterion for computationally intensive programs. For example, the GNU Multiple Precision Arithmetic Library, the GNU Scientific Library, Mathematica, and MATLAB are completely or partially written in C.
C is sometimes used as an intermediate language by implementations of other languages. This approach may be used for portability or convenience; by using C as an intermediate language, additional machine-specific code generators are not necessary. C has some features, such as line-number preprocessor directives and optional superfluous commas at the end of initializer lists, that support compilation of generated code. However, some of C's shortcomings have prompted the development of other C-based languages specifically designed for use as intermediate languages, such as C--.
C has also been widely used to implement end-user applications. However, such applications can also be written in newer, higher-level languages.
Related languages
C has both directly and indirectly influenced many later languages such as C#, D, Go, Java, JavaScript, Limbo, LPC, Perl, PHP, Python, and Unix's C shell. The most pervasive influence has been syntactical; all of the languages mentioned combine the statement and (more or less recognizably) expression syntax of C with type systems, data models, and/or large-scale program structures that differ from those of C, sometimes radically.
Several C or near-C interpreters exist, including Ch and CINT, which can also be used for scripting.
When object-oriented programming languages became popular, C++ and Objective-C were two different extensions of C that provided object-oriented capabilities. Both languages were originally implemented as source-to-source compilers; source code was translated into C, and then compiled with a C compiler.
The C++ programming language (originally named "C with Classes") was devised by Bjarne Stroustrup as an approach to providing object-oriented functionality with a C-like syntax. C++ adds greater typing strength, scoping, and other tools useful in object-oriented programming, and permits generic programming via templates. Nearly a superset of C, C++ now supports most of C, with a few exceptions.
Objective-C was originally a very "thin" layer on top of C, and remains a strict superset of C that permits object-oriented programming using a hybrid dynamic/static typing paradigm. Objective-C derives its syntax from both C and Smalltalk: syntax that involves preprocessing, expressions, function declarations, and function calls is inherited from C, while the syntax for object-oriented features was originally taken from Smalltalk.
In addition to C++ and Objective-C, Ch, Cilk, and Unified Parallel C are nearly supersets of C.
See also
Compatibility of C and C++
Comparison of Pascal and C
Comparison of programming languages
International Obfuscated C Code Contest
List of C-based programming languages
List of C compilers
Notes
References
Sources
Further reading
(archive)
(source)
(free)
(archive)
(archive)
(free)
External links
ISO C Working Group official website
ISO/IEC 9899, publicly available official C documents, including the C99 Rationale
comp.lang.c Frequently Asked Questions
A History of C, by Dennis Ritchie
American inventions
Articles with example C code
C programming language family
Cross-platform software
High-level programming languages
Procedural programming languages
Structured programming languages
Programming languages created in 1972
Programming languages with an ISO standard
Statically typed programming languages
Systems programming languages
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17069574
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1940%20Rose%20Bowl
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1940 Rose Bowl
|
The 1940 Rose Bowl was the 26th edition of the college football bowl game, played at the Rose Bowl in Pasadena, California, on Monday, January 1.
In a matchup of undefeated teams, the third-ranked USC Trojans of the Pacific Coast Conference (PCC) shut out the #2 Tennessee Volunteers of the Southeastern Conference (SEC), 14–0. USC quarterback Ambrose Schindler was named the Player of the Game when the award was created in 1953 and selections were made retroactively.
Teams
The Rose Bowl committee had both USC and Tennessee on their list and it was likely that USC and Tennessee would play each other. The Volunteers were offered a berth in the Sugar Bowl on November 25; they were also in the mix for the Cotton Bowl, which would have pitted them against the #1 Texas A&M Aggies. But the Rose Bowl committee did not extend official invitations until December 10, 1939.
Tennessee
In the regular season, Tennessee shut out all ten opponents. Led by two All-American guards, Ed Molinski and Bob Suffridge, the Volunteers were forced to play without their star tailback George Cafego, who fell victim to a knee injury against The Citadel on November 11. After a 7–0 win over Auburn on December 9, Tennessee officially was extended an invitation to the Rose Bowl.
USC
The Trojans opened the season against Oregon, tying the Ducks 7–7, then scored three straight shutouts, becoming ranked #8 following the second, a 26–0 win over Illinois. A November 4 game featured #7 USC defeating #11 Oregon State 19–7. At Notre Dame on November 25, #4 USC defeated the #7 Irish 20–12. A win over Washington by scoring in the last 1:15 set up the very first epic UCLA–USC rivalry matchup.
Kenny Washington, Woody Strode, Jackie Robinson, and Ray Bartlett starred on the Bruins, in which African Americans made up three of the four backfield players. This was a rarity to have so many African Americans when only a few dozen at all played on college football teams. The ninth-ranked Bruins also were also undefeated, with three ties. This was the first UCLA–USC rivalry football game with national implications, as it was the first with the Rose Bowl on the line for both.
The attendance of 103,303 was the second largest college football crowd ever in the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. UCLA attempted a pass on fourth down, instead of kicking a field goal. Bobby Robertson of USC knocked down Ned Matthews’ four-yard pass in the end zone with less than five minutes to play to preserve the scoreless tie. The Pacific Coast Conference voted to have USC, with a 7–0–2 record play in the Rose Bowl instead of UCLA with a 6–0–4 record. Art Cohn, sports editor of the Oakland Tribune implied that race may have been a factor in the decision, since teams from the south refused to play against African Americans. After the regular season, the Trojans were named national champions.
Game summary
Trojan backs Granny Lansdell and Ambrose Schindler rushed for 51 and 81 yards respectively, for a team total of 229 yards rushing. Schindler scored one touchdown and passed to Al Krueger — the hero from the previous year — for the other. Head coach Howard Jones earned his second straight Rose Bowl victory, and his fifth in as many appearances.
Scoring
First quarter
No scoring
Second quarter
USC – Ambrose Schindler 1-yard run (Jones kick)
Third quarter
No scoring
Fourth quarter
USC – Al Krueger 2-yard pass from Schindler (Gaspar kick)
Aftermath
USC head coach Jones died less than two years later, in the summer of 1941. Joe Schell, the captain of the Trojans who became an oil company owner and a state assemblyman, died on April 8, 2008.
USC bases its 1939 national championship claim on winning the Dickinson System, a formula devised by a University of Illinois professor which awarded the only championship trophy between 1926 and 1940. In 1939, Dickinson was the only poll or system to rank the Trojans number one. USC's stance, however, is in keeping with that of most other schools which won the Dickinson title; only Notre Dame, which won the Dickinson crown in 1938, does not claim a major national title for that year. Since at least 1969, USC had not listed 1939 as a national championship year; but in 2004, USC once again began recognizing the 1939 team as national champions after it determined that it qualified.
Ambrose "Amblin' Amby" Schindler went on to be the MVP in the 1940 College All-Star Game in Chicago in late August. He was inducted into the San Diego Hall of Champions Breitbard Hall of Fame in 1973. He was inducted into the USC Athletic Hall of Fame in 1997. He was inducted into the Rose Bowl Hall of Fame in 2002.
Tennessee player Bill Barnes was later the head coach of the UCLA Bruins and led them to the 1962 Rose Bowl.
References
Rose Bowl
Rose Bowl Game
Tennessee Volunteers football bowl games
USC Trojans football bowl games
1940 in sports in California
January 1940 sports events
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15307225
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mincom%20%28company%29
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Mincom (company)
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Mincom Pty Ltd was a software and services company that provides business software to industries including mining, public infrastructure, defence, oil and gas in more than 40 countries across North America, South America, Australia, South East Asia, Africa, and Europe.
Mincom Inc. operates in North America and is a subsidiary of Mincom Pty Ltd. Mincom employs 1250 people in 24 offices across six continents.
Mincom was owned by Francisco Partners, a global private equity firm focused exclusively on investments in technology and technology-enabled services businesses. On 9 May 2011 the ABB Group acquired Mincom to expand their enterprise software business, Ventyx.
The company's name was originally devised as a contraction of the term "mining computing", as the company's initial products were aimed at the mining industry.
Mincom's headquarters were located in Brisbane, Queensland as well as with offices presence in Sydney, Melbourne, Perth, Western Australia. North American operations are located in the United States (Denver, Colorado, San Francisco, California and Austin, Texas) and in Canada (Ottawa, Ontario). Latin American offices are in Santiago, Chile.
MineMarket
MineMarket is a software application produced by Mincom Limited for the mining industry.
The application is claimed to provide a whole-of-enterprise view of the supply chain, from ore extraction to product delivery, including external processes such as delivery arrangements. The MineMarket solution provides coverage of the logistics and sales processes for mining and mineral related organisations.
It is designed to run on the Microsoft Windows family of operating systems. The current major release of MineMarket is version 4.
Mincom Critical Inventory Optimization
MCIO is a software application purchased by Mincom Limited from Bruce McNaught and Associates Pty Ltd.
The application is claimed to offer the ability for any company holding a large inventory to substantially reduce the inventory value while improving the service level on critical stick items.
Originally known as SIAM, MCIO integrates with Mincom's main Ellipse Asset management platform. It is designed to run on the Microsoft Windows family of operating systems. The current major release of MCIO is version 4.3 which is a fully multilingual version of the product.
Awards
Mincom was inducted into the Queensland Business Leaders Hall of Fame in 2017.
See also
ABB
Enterprise asset management
References
Software companies established in 1979
ERP software companies
Software companies of Australia
Business services companies established in 1979
Australian companies established in 1979
Australian companies disestablished in 2011
Software companies disestablished in 2011
Defunct technology companies of Australia
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28655128
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucas%20Duda
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Lucas Duda
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Lucas Christopher Duda (born February 3, 1986) is an American former professional baseball first baseman who played most of his Major League Baseball career for the New York Mets. He was the starting first baseman for the 2015 Mets team that won the National League pennant, and led the team in games played during the 2010s.
He also played for the Tampa Bay Rays, Atlanta Braves and Kansas City Royals. He made his MLB debut in 2010 for the Mets. Prior to playing professionally, Duda attended the University of Southern California (USC) and played college baseball for the USC Trojans.
Early life
Duda was born in Fontana, California, on February 3, 1986 to David and Eleanor Duda. He attended Arlington High School in Riverside, California. Duda then enrolled in the University of Southern California (USC), where he played college baseball for the USC Trojans baseball team from 2005 through 2007. Duda played 143 games for the Trojans, hitting 11 home runs, with 81 runs batted in, and a .275 batting average.
Professional career
Minor leagues
Duda was selected by the New York Mets in the seventh round of the 2007 Major League Baseball draft, as the 243rd overall selection. He began his professional career in 2007 with the Single-A Brooklyn Cyclones of the Short Season Single-A New York–Penn League, where he batted .299, with 32 runs batted in, 32 runs, and 4 home runs. During the following winter, he played on the Waikiki BeachBoys of Hawaii Winter Baseball, batting .340, with 13 runs batted in, 12 runs, and 3 home runs. In 2008, he played for the St. Lucie Mets of the Single-A Florida State League, where he batted .263, with 66 runs batted in, 58 runs, 11 home runs. For the 2009 season, Duda was promoted to the Double-A Binghamton Mets, where he batted .281, with 53 runs batted in, 49 runs, and 9 home runs. During the fall of 2009, Duda played for the Surprise Saguaros of the Arizona Fall League, where he in 5 at bats batted .400, with 2 runs batted in and no home runs.
Duda began the 2010 season continuing to play for the Double-A Binghamton Mets, and was promoted to the Triple-A Buffalo Bisons on June 14. While in Buffalo, Duda homered in five consecutive games, tying a Bisons record. In 70 games for Buffalo, Duda hit 17 home runs, 2 triples, 23 doubles, and had 53 runs batted in, while compiling a .314 batting average. At the end of the season, the Bisons named him their Most Valuable Player.
New York Mets
2010
On August 31, 2010, the Mets announced that Duda would be added to the major league roster as part of their September call-ups. Duda made his major league debut on September 1, against the Atlanta Braves, facing starting pitcher Tommy Hanson, whom he played against in high school. He went hitless in three at-bats, but made a "stellar sliding catch" in the outfield. Duda had to leave the game in the eighth inning due to hamstring cramps, which he said came from dehydrating while on the plane from Buffalo to Atlanta. On September 17, 2010, again batting against Hanson, Duda hit his first career major-league home run. Former Mets manager Jerry Manuel watched Duda during batting practice when he was first called up to the Majors and noted that Duda reminded him of Magglio Ordóñez or Moisés Alou.
With Ike Davis starting at first base, Duda's primary position in the minor leagues, all of Duda's playing time came in left field. He batted .202 for the year. The Mets named Duda their Sterling Organizational Player of the Year in 2010.
2011
On April 10, 2011, Duda was optioned to the Triple-A Buffalo Bisons.
On August 8, 2011, batting in the cleanup spot for the first time in his major league career, Duda picked up his first major-league walk-off hit, with a two-run single off of Padres closer and former Mets reliever Heath Bell. He batted .292 for the season.
2012
Duda was selected as the starting right fielder for the Mets to begin the 2012 campaign. On April 7, 2012, Duda had his first multi-homer game, hitting two solo shots off the Atlanta Braves in a 4–2 Mets' victory. Going into June 26, Duda was hitting .269 with a team-high 11 home runs, yet from June 26 to July 24 Duda was hitting .138 with one home run and a .200 slugging percentage. The sub par batting performance coupled with poor fielding prompted his being demoted to Triple-A Buffalo.
On August 26, the Mets recalled Duda from Buffalo. It was the 26-year-old's second stint in the majors during the 2012 season. He batted .239 for the season.
In October, Duda broke his right wrist while moving furniture at his home in South California, and had surgery on November 5. However, Duda returned in time for spring training.
2013
On June 23, Duda was placed on the 15-day disabled list because of a strained muscle between his ribs. Following a rehabilitation stint, Duda was activated and then immediately optioned to the Triple-A Las Vegas 51s. Duda was recalled on August 24. He batted .223 for the season. With Ike Davis still occupying first base, Duda played the majority of his defensive games in the corner outfield positions for the fourth consecutive season.
2014
On April 4, Mets manager Terry Collins announced that Duda would get the bulk of the playing time at first base over Ike Davis. Later that night, Duda hit two 2-run home runs in a 4–3 victory against the Cincinnati Reds. On April 18, after a positional battle which lasted several seasons and a struggle with valley fever, Ike Davis was traded to the Pittsburgh Pirates for Zack Thornton and a player to be named later, later revealed to be Blake Taylor. This was done in order to make room for Duda as the starting first baseman.
On August 1, Duda hit his 20th home run of the season against the San Francisco Giants' pitcher Ryan Vogelsong. Duda had never reached the 20 home run mark before the 2014 season. On September 28, Duda hit his career high 30th home run of the season. That home run put him at 92 runs batted in, another career high. He finished the year leading the Mets in home runs, RBI, on-base percentage, slugging percentage and total bases, his first time doing so any of those categories.
In November, Duda represented Major League Baseball in the 2014 Major League Baseball Japan All-Star Series. He went 4-for-10 with two walks in the exhibition series.
2015
On July 29, during a 7–3 loss to the San Diego Padres, Duda became the eleventh Mets player to hit three home runs in a single game, and only the second Met to do so at home after Kirk Nieuwenhuis had accomplished the feat less than a month before. Duda set a Mets franchise record on August 1 when eight of his consecutive hits came in the form of home runs; he and teammate Noah Syndergaard were named National League Co-Players of the Week for the week ending on August 2. On September 26, Duda hit his first career grand slam in the Mets' 10–2 victory over the Cincinnati Reds. That victory clinched the NL East division title for the New York Mets. On the final day of the season, Duda was hit by a pitch from the Washington Nationals' Tanner Roark, giving him 14 total HBP on the season and breaking the Mets single season record, previously shared by John Olerud and Ron Hunt. For the season, he had the highest fly ball percentage (50.6%), and the lowest ground ball percentage (27.4%), of all major league hitters.
In the fourth game of the 2015 NLCS, Duda batted in five runs to help the Mets sweep the Chicago Cubs and advance to the 2015 World Series. His five RBI was tied for the most by a Mets player in a single postseason game, a feat previously accomplished by Curtis Granderson in the 2015 NLDS, Carlos Delgado in the 2006 NLCS, Edgardo Alfonzo in the 1999 NLCS and Rusty Staub in the 1973 World Series.
Duda's errant throw to home in the 9th inning of Game 5 of the World Series with 2 outs and the Mets leading 2–1 allowed Eric Hosmer to score the tying run, and cost the Mets the game when the Kansas City Royals won in 12 innings, completing their World Series championship. Duda ultimately went 5-for-19 with no extra base hits, two walks and seven strikeouts in the series.
2016
On January 12, 2016, the Mets re-signed Duda to a 1-year contract. On May 23, the Mets placed Duda on the 15-day disabled list with a stress fracture in his lower back. He was replaced on the roster by Ty Kelly. Duda was batting .231 with a .297 OBP and .431 SLG with seven HR and 19 RBIs in 39 games.
2017
On April 3, Duda was the starting first baseman for Opening Day, going 1–3, logging one walk, one strikeout and hitting a three-run double in the bottom of the seventh off Eric O'Flaherty against the Atlanta Braves. On April 21, the Mets placed Duda on the 10-day disabled list, two days after he suffered a hyperextended left elbow in a collision at first base with Philadelphia Phillies baserunner César Hernández. Through 75 games, Duda hit .246 with 17 home runs and 37 runs batted in.
Tampa Bay Rays
On July 27, 2017, Duda was traded to the Tampa Bay Rays for minor league pitcher Drew Smith. He batted .175 for Tampa Bay. He became a free agent after the season.
Kansas City Royals
Duda signed a one-year contract with the Kansas City Royals on February 28, 2018. In his first at-bat as a Royal, he hit a three-run home run on Opening Day in the first inning against James Shields. Duda was the Royals' designated hitter for the first half of the season, hitting .242 with 13 home runs and 48 runs batted in.
Atlanta Braves
The Atlanta Braves acquired Duda and cash considerations from the Royals in exchange for a player to be named later or cash considerations on August 28, 2018.
Minnesota Twins
On February 9, 2019, Duda signed a minor-league contract with the Minnesota Twins that included an invitation to spring training. Duda was released by the Twins on March 20, 2019.
Second stint with Royals
On March 22, 2019, Duda signed a minor-league contract with the Kansas City Royals. He was placed on the injured list on April 26 with a lumbar strain injury. He was designated for assignment on July 27, 2019 after hitting .171 in 119 appearances. He was then released outright on the next day.
Second stint with Braves
On August 5, 2019, Duda signed a minor league deal with the Atlanta Braves. The team released Duda on August 27, 2019.
References
External links
1986 births
Living people
People from Fontana, California
Baseball players from California
Major League Baseball left fielders
Major League Baseball right fielders
Major League Baseball first basemen
New York Mets players
Tampa Bay Rays players
Kansas City Royals players
Atlanta Braves players
USC Trojans baseball players
Las Vegas 51s players
Brooklyn Cyclones players
Buffalo Bisons (minor league) players
Binghamton Mets players
St. Lucie Mets players
Gulf Coast Mets players
Omaha Storm Chasers players
Gwinnett Stripers players
Waikiki Beach Boys players
Surprise Rafters players
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41500588
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna%20Summer%20of%20Logic
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Vienna Summer of Logic
|
The Vienna Summer of Logic was a scientific event in the summer of 2014, combining 12 major conferences and several workshops from the fields of mathematical logic, logic in computer science, and logic in artificial intelligence. The meetings took place from July 9 to 24, 2014, and attracted more than 2000 scientists and researchers.
The event was organized by the Kurt Gödel Society at Vienna University of Technology. Participating meetings include:
In the Logic in Computer Science stream (representing the Federated Logic Conference (FLoC)):
International Conference on Computer Aided Verification (CAV)
IEEE Computer Security Foundations Symposium (CSF)
International Conference on Logic Programming (ICLP)
International Joint Conference on Automated Reasoning (IJCAR)
Conference on Interactive Theorem Proving (ITP)
Joint meeting of the EACSL Annual Conference on Computer Science Logic (CSL) and the ACM/IEEE Symposium on Logic in Computer Science (LICS)
International Conference on Rewriting Techniques and Applications (RTA) joint with the International Conference on Typed Lambda Calculi and Applications (TLCA)
International Conference on Theory and Applications of Satisfiability Testing (SAT)
more than 70 FLoC workshops
FLoC Olympic Games (system competitions)
SAT/SMT Summer School
In the Mathematical Logic stream:
Logic Colloquium 2014 (LC)
Logic, Algebra and Truth Degrees 2014 (LATD)
Workshop on Compositional Meaning in Logic (GeTFun 2.0)
The Infinity Workshop (INFINITY)
Workshop on Logic and Games (LG)
Workshop on Nonclassical Proofs: Theory, Applications and Tools (NCPROOFS)
Kurt Gödel Fellowship Competition
In the Logic in Artificial Intelligence stream:
International Conference on Principles of Knowledge Representation and Reasoning (KR)
International Workshop on Description Logics (DL)
International Workshop on Non-Monotonic Reasoning (NMR)
International Workshop on Knowledge Representation for Health Care 2014 (KR4HC)
References
External links
Vienna Summer of Logic
Science events in Austria
2014 conferences
Logic organizations
2010s in Vienna
2014 in Austria
2014 in science
July 2014 events in Europe
|
66769747
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021%20Troy%20Trojans%20softball%20team
|
2021 Troy Trojans softball team
|
The 2021 Troy Trojans softball team represented Troy University during the 2021 NCAA Division I softball season. The Trojans played their home games at Troy Softball Complex. The Trojans were led by seventh-year head coach Beth Mullins and were members of the Sun Belt Conference.
Preseason
Sun Belt Conference Coaches Poll
The Sun Belt Conference Coaches Poll was released on February 8, 2021. Troy was picked to finish second in the Sun Belt Conference with 87 votes.
Preseason All-Sun Belt team
Summer Ellyson (LA, SR, Pitcher)
Leanna Johnson (TROY, SO, Pitcher)
Allisa Dalton (LA, SR, Shortstop/3rd Base)
Katie Webb (TROY, SR, Infielder/1st Base)
Raina O'Neal (LA, JR, Outfielder)
Julie Raws (LA, SR, Catcher)
Courney Dean (CCU, SR, Outfielder)
Mekhia Freeman (GASO, SR, Outfielder)
Korie Kreps (ULM, JR, Outfielder)
Kaitlyn Alderink (LA, SR, 2nd Base)
Jade Gortarez (LA, SR, Shortstop/3rd Base)
Ciara Bryan (LA, SR, Outfielder)
Kelly Horne (TROY, SO, Infielder/2nd Base)
Makiya Thomas (CCU, SR, Outfielder/Infielder)
Tara Oltmann (TXST, SR, Infielder/Shortstop)
Jayden Mount (ULM, SR, Infielder)
Katie Lively (TROY, SO, Outfielder)
National Softball Signing Day
Roster
Coaching staff
Schedule and results
{| class="toccolours" width=95% style="clear:both; margin:1.5em auto; text-align:center;"
|-
! colspan=2 style="" | 2021 Troy Trojans Softball Game Log
|-
! colspan=2 style="" | Regular Season (34-13)
|- valign="top"
|
{| class="wikitable collapsible" style="margin:auto; width:100%; text-align:center; font-size:95%"
! colspan=12 style="padding-left:4em;" | February (12-3)
|-
! Date
! Opponent
! Rank
! Site/Stadium
! Score
! Win
! Loss
! Save
! TV
! Attendance
! Overall Record
! SBC Record
|-
!colspan=12| Trojan Classic
|- align="center" bgcolor=#ddffdd
|Feb. 12 || Ole Miss || || Troy Softball Complex • Troy, AL || W 5-2 || Johnson (1-0) || Tillman (0-1) || None || || 180 || 1-0 ||
|- align="center" bgcolor=#ddffdd
|Feb. 12 || UAB || || Troy Softball Complex • Troy, AL || W 8-0 || Baker (1-0) || Kachel (0-1) || None || || 122 || 2-0 ||
|- align="center" bgcolor=#ddffdd
|Feb. 13 || Belmont || || Troy Softball Complex • Troy, AL || W 3-1 || Johnson (2-0) || Clesi (0-1) || None || || 143 || 3-0 ||
|- align="center" bgcolor=#ddffdd
|Feb. 14 || Belmont || || Troy Softball Complex • Troy, AL || W 8-0 || Bailey (1-0) || Clesi (0-2) || None || || 129 || 4-0 ||
|-
!colspan=12|
|- align="center" bgcolor=#ffdddd
|Feb. 17 || RV Liberty || || Troy Softball Complex • Troy, AL || L 1-3 || Keeney (3-0) || Johnson (2-1) || None || || 65 || 4-1 ||
|-
!colspan=12| Troy Invitational
|- align="center" bgcolor=#ddffdd
|Feb. 19 || Western Carolina || || Troy Softball Complex • Troy, AL || W 9-1 || Blasingame (0-1) || Eilers (1-2) || None || || 57 || 5-1 ||
|- align="center" bgcolor=#ddffdd
|Feb. 19 || Mercer || || Troy Softball Complex • Troy, AL || W 12-4 || Bailey (2-0) || Byrd (0-1) || Johnson (1) || || 108 || 6-1 ||
|- align="center" bgcolor=#ddffdd
|Feb. 20 || Western Carolina || || Troy Softball Complex • Troy, AL || W 4-0 || Baker (2-0) || Eilers (1-2) || None || || 132 || 7-1 ||
|- align="center" bgcolor=#ddffdd
|Feb. 21 || Mercer || || Troy Softball Complex • Troy, AL || W 9-1 || Johnson (3-1) || Donner (1-2) || None || || 167 || 8-1 ||
|-
!colspan=12|
|- align="center" bgcolor=#ddffdd
|Feb. 24 || Samford || || Troy Softball Complex • Troy, AL || W 3-2 || Johnson (4-1) || Barnett (1-1) || None || ESPN+ || 87 || 9-1 ||
|- align="center" bgcolor=#ddffdd
|Feb. 24 || Samford || || Troy Softball Complex • Troy, AL || W 7-1 || Johnson (5-1) || Robertson (0-1) || None || ESPN+ || 47 || 10-1 ||
|-
!colspan=12| Crimson Tide Classic
|- align="center" bgcolor=#ddffdd
|Feb. 26 || vs. North Carolina || || Rhoads Stadium • Tuscaloosa, AL || W 2-0 || ''Johnson (6-1) || George (1-2) || None || || 158 || 11-1 ||
|- align="center" bgcolor=#ffdddd
|Feb. 26 || vs. North Carolina || || Rhoads Stadium • Tuscaloosa, AL || L 2-8 || Pickett (4-0) || Baker (2-1) || None || || 123 || 11-2 ||
|- align="center" bgcolor=#ddffdd
|Feb. 27 || vs. Memphis || || Rhoads Stadium • Tuscaloosa, AL || W 6-2 || Johnson (7-1) || Siems (0-2) || None || || 211 || 12-2 ||
|- align="center" bgcolor=#ddffdd
|Feb. 27 || vs. Memphis || || Rhoads Stadium • Tuscaloosa, AL || W 6-1 || Baker (3-1) || Ellett (0-4) || None || || 103 || 13-2 ||
|- align="center" bgcolor=#ffdddd
|Feb. 28 || at No. 4 Alabama || || Rhoads Stadium • Tuscaloosa, AL || L 0-2 || Kilfoyl (6-0) || Johnson (7-2) || None || || 1,121 || 13-3 ||
|-
!colspan=12|
|}
|-
|
|-
|
|-
|
|-
! colspan=2 style="" | Post-Season (3-4)
|-
|
|-
|
|}Schedule Source:*Rankings are based on the team's current ranking in the NFCA/USA Softball poll.
Tuscaloosa Regional
Posteason
Conference Accolades
Player of the Year: Ciara Bryan – LA
Pitcher of the Year: Summer Ellyson – LA
Freshman of the Year: Sara Vanderford – TXST
Newcomer of the Year: Ciara Bryan – LA
Coach of the Year: Gerry Glasco – LAAll Conference First TeamCiara Bryan (LA)
Summer Ellyson (LA)
Sara Vanderford (TXST)Leanna Johnson (TROY)Jessica Mullins (TXST)
Olivia Lackie (USA)
Kj Murphy (UTA)Katie Webb (TROY)Jayden Mount (ULM)
Kandra Lamb (LA)
Kendall Talley (LA)
Meredith Keel (USA)
Tara Oltmann (TXST)Jade Sinness (TROY)Katie Lively (TROY)All Conference Second TeamKelly Horne (TROY)Meagan King (TXST)
Mackenzie Brasher (USA)
Bailee Wilson (GASO)
Makiya Thomas (CCU)
Kaitlyn Alderink (LA)
Abby Krzywiecki (USA)
Kenzie Longanecker (APP)
Alissa Dalton (LA)
Julie Rawls (LA)
Korie Kreps (ULM)
Kayla Rosado (CCU)
Justice Milz (LA)
Gabby Buruato (APP)
Arieann Bell (TXST)References:'''
Rankings
References
Troy
Troy Trojans softball
Troy Trojans softball seasons
|
3340876
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marriotts%20Ridge%20High%20School
|
Marriotts Ridge High School
|
Marriotts Ridge High School is a public secondary school located in Marriottsville, Maryland, United States. It is part of the Howard County Public School System. The school was named after the town of Marriottsville, and the height of its location. The pre-opening name of Marriott's Ridge was later changed to Marriotts Ridge.
The school is located in northern Howard County on Maryland Route 99, just east of Maryland Route 32, and north of Interstate 70. It is approximately 15 miles west of Baltimore and 25 miles north of Washington, DC. The school was planned to be built on the grounds of the Alpha Ridge Landfill, but a 3–2 council vote in 2002 redirected the building to a site across from Mount View Middle School. Marriotts Ridge is a mirror image of both Long Reach High School and Reservoir High School. The school borders the districts for Glenelg High School, River Hill High School, Wilde Lake High School, Centennial High School, and Mount Hebron High School. In 2015, U.S. News & World Report ranked Marriotts Ridge as the 265 best high school nationwide and No. 7 statewide on its list of "America's Best High Schools".
Academics, Rankings, Achievements
Like other Howard County high schools, Marriotts Ridge High School consistently ranks as one of the best high schools in the state of Maryland and the nation. Marriotts Ridge is also often ranked among the top of Howard County’s high schools. The school is currently ranked as the 10th best high school in Maryland and #403 in the nation by US News & World Report.
Achievements in the 2010 school year include:
Overall Grand Champion in Choir, Orchestra, and Band at East Coast Fiesta Val Music Competition
Poms – State Champions
Principals
Pat Saunderson 2005–2011
Adrianne Kaufman 2011–2016
Tammy Goldeisen 2016–present
Athletics
Marriotts Ridge has won the following titles:
Boys' soccer
2013 Boys' Soccer – County Champions
2012 Boys' Soccer – County, Regional, State Champions, Undefeated (17–0)
2011 Boys' Soccer – Regional, State Champions
2010 Boys' Soccer – Regional, State Champions
2009 Boys' Soccer – County, District, Regional, State Champions
2008 Boys' Soccer – County, Regional Champions
Cheerleading
Winter 2018-19 Cheerleading – County Champions
Winter 2012–13 Cheerleading – County Champions
Winter 2011–12 Cheerleading – County Champions
Winter 2009–10 Cheerleading – County Champions
Football
2019 Boys' Football – County Champions
Girls' soccer
2010 Girls' Soccer – County Champions
2013 Girls' Soccer – Regional Champions
Golf
2017 Golf - State Champions, Individual Girl, Individual Boy, and Team Champions (Triple Crown)
2016 Golf - State Champions, Boys' Team Undefeated
2015 Golf - State Champions, Boys' Team Undefeated
2014 Golf – State Champions, Boys' Team Undefeated
2013 Golf – State Champions, Undefeated
2012 Golf – State Champions
2011 Golf – Girls' County Champions
2010 Golf – District Champions
Lacrosse
2021 Girls' Lacrosse – State Champions
2021 Boys' Lacrosse - Regional Champions
2018 Boys' Lacrosse - State Champions
2017 Boys' Lacrosse - County Champions
2014 Girls' Lacrosse – State Champions
2013 Girls' Lacrosse – State Champions
2013 Girls' Lacrosse – Regional Champions
2011 Girls' Lacrosse – State Champions (The MRHS Girls Varsity lacrosse team won the Maryland state title in 2011 by a score of 8–4 against Century High School.)
2010 Girls' Lacrosse – Regional Champions
2007 Boys Lacrosse- Regional Champions
Ice hockey
2019 Serio Cup Champions
2018 Serio Cup qualifiers - Lost to Glenelg High School
2017 Serio (Howard) Cup Champions
2017 MSHL State Finalist
2017 USA Hockey Nationals Qualifier – High School Division
2016 USA Hockey Nationals Qualifier – High School Division
2015 Howard Cup Champions
2011 Howard Cup Champions
Robotics
2012 State Alliance Champions
2012–2015 Regional Champions
Volleyball
2014 Volleyball – Regional Champions
2011 Volleyball – Regional Champions
2010 Volleyball – Regional Champions
Incidents
On February 3, 2017 at approximately 7:15 am, 10 minutes before school started, Marriotts Ridge High School was evacuated when a trash-can fire broke out in the boys' bathroom, apparently with an initial start from a paper towel holder. No one was injured. As a result of the fire, students were sheltered at the nearby Mount View Middle School and classes were dismissed at 10:15 am. Howard schools spokesman John White said the fire was caused by a student and that disciplinary actions will follow, using the school system's Student Code of Conduct.'
School Cafeteria
Bean & Vegetable Cup
The bean and vegetable cup is infamous among MRHS Students. The dish is often praised by several MRHS Students for its unconfirmed yet unique ability to significantly improve academic performance.
Quesadilla
The Quesadilla at MRHS is widely revered for its mystical-like cheese and floury content. It has rose to fame and is now a rival of the infamous Bean & Vegetable Cup. It is a signature mark of the school, and a pride of many MRHS students who like to boast that their diet consists of the MRHS Quesadilla.
Club and Activities
Computer Science Club
The MRHS Computer Science Club (founded 2019) teaches and assists students with computer science and programming, getting young students interested in the field of computer science. Members learn how to develop and build software projects and solve programming puzzles. With over 100 members, the Computer Science Club is one of the school's largest clubs.
It's Academic
The MRHS It's Academic team meets weekly throughout the school year to train for competition in regional academic competitions. Student participants should be committed to academic excellence, capable of working in a team setting, and confident in their knowledge. The widespread academic setting constantly enriches members in becoming very knowledgeable in numerous topics of general knowledge. Tournaments participated in throughout the year consist of: National History Bowl, Johns Hopkins QuizBowl NAQT QuizBowl, and various Howard County-organized events.
Science Olympiad
The Science Olympiad club prepares students for and participates in regional Science Olympiad competitions. However, due to its recent poor staffing decisions, such as the removal of a well-known officer, the club has declined in membership.
Students
The 2019–20 school year was the fifteenth anniversary of the school. The class of 2008 was the first graduating class of Marriotts Ridge High School. Marriotts Ridge is known for its strong academics with a drop out rate of .46% and 100% of students passing the Maryland High School assessment in the 2009–2010 school year. Marriotts Ridge has been ranked 14th out of 225 public high schools in Maryland.
Demographics
Listed below is the data collected from the 2019–20 school year regarding the student body's ethnic breakdown.
See also
Howard County Public Schools
References and notes
External links
Marriotts Ridge High school
Howard County Public School System
Marriotts Ridge High School via Google Maps
2005 establishments in Maryland
Educational institutions established in 2005
Marriottsville, Maryland
Public high schools in Maryland
Public schools in Howard County, Maryland
|
63575354
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prabhat%20Mishra
|
Prabhat Mishra
|
Prabhat Mishra is a Professor in the Department of Computer and Information Science and Engineering and a UF Research Foundation Professor at the University of Florida. Prof. Mishra's research interests are in hardware security, quantum computing, embedded systems, system-on-chip validation, formal verification, and post-silicon debug.
Biography
Born and raised in India, Mishra received his Ph.D. in Computer Science from the University of California at Irvine in 2004. He received a B.E. in Computer Science from the Jadavpur University, India in 1994, and M.Tech. in Computer Science from the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India in 1995. In 2004, he joined University of Florida as an Assistant Professor. In 2010, he was promoted to an Associate Professor and by 2016 he became a Professor at the same institution. He currently lives in Gainesville, Florida with his family.
Academic life
His research has been recognized by Best Paper Awards and Best Paper Award Nominations at several international conferences. Mishra currently serves as an Associate Editor of IEEE Transactions on VLSI Systems (TVLSI). In 2015, he was selected as an ACM Distinguished Scientist. He was named a Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) in 2021 for contributions to system-on-chip validation and design automation of embedded systems.
Awards
IEEE Fellow, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 2021.
UF Research Foundation Professor, University of Florida, 2020.
IET Outstanding Editor Award, Institution of Engineering and Technology, 2019.
ISQED Best Paper Award, International Symposium on Quality Electronic Design, 2016.
ACM Distinguished Scientist, Association for Computing Machinery, 2015.
IBM Faculty Award, 2015.
VLSI Design Best Paper Award, International Conference on VLSI Design, 2011.
NSF CAREER Award, US National Science Foundation, 2008.
EDAA Outstanding Dissertation Award, European Design Automation Association, 2004.
CODES+ISSS Best Paper Award, International Conference on Codesign & System Synthesis, 2003.
Books
Network-on-Chip Security and Privacy, Springer, 2021.
System-on-Chip Security Validation and Verification, Springer, 2019.
Post-Silicon Validation and Debug, Springer, 2018.
Hardware IP Security and Trust, Springer, 2017.
System-Level Validation: High-Level Modeling and Directed Test Generation Techniques, Springer, 2012.
Dynamic Reconfiguration in Real-Time Systems - Energy, Performance, and Thermal Perspectives, Springer, 2012.
Processor Description Languages - Applications and Methodologies, Morgan Kaufmann, 2008.
Functional Verification of Programmable Embedded Architectures - A Top-Down Approach, Springer, 2005.
References
External links
Prabhat Mishra home page
Prabhat Mishra publications indexed by Google Scholar
American computer scientists
Living people
Computer hardware researchers
Fellow Members of the IEEE
University of Florida faculty
IIT Kharagpur alumni
Indian emigrants to the United States
Jadavpur University alumni
Indian computer scientists
Computer science writers
Year of birth missing (living people)
|
17399
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calligra
|
Calligra
|
Calligra Suite is a graphic art and office suite by KDE. It is available for desktop PCs, tablet computers, and smartphones. It contains applications for word processing, spreadsheets, presentation, databases, vector graphics, and digital painting.
Calligra uses the OpenDocument format as its default file format for most applications and can import other formats, such as Microsoft Office formats. Calligra relies on KDE technology and is often used in combination with KDE Plasma Workspaces.
Supported systems
Desktops
Calligra's main platform is desktop PCs running Linux, FreeBSD, macOS, and Windows, of which Linux is the best supported system.
On desktop systems, the whole range of features is available.
Smartphones and tablets
Calligra's efforts to create touchscreen-friendly versions are centered on reusable Qt Quick components. For smartphone-like formfactors 3rd party documents viewers Coffice for Android and Sailfish Office for Sailfish OS are available that make use of these components.
The Calligra project shipped Krita Sketch/Gemini and the tablet-focused Plasma Active document viewer with Calligra 2.8. Calligra 2.9 ships Calligra Gemini, an enhanced version of Calligra Active with added document editing features and runtime switching between desktop and touchscreen interfaces.
History
Calligra was created after disagreements within the KOffice community in 2010 – between KWord maintainer Thomas Zander and the other core developers. (See .) Following arbitration with the community members, several applications were renamed by both parties. Most developers, and all but KWord maintainer Thomas Zander, of particular applications joined the Calligra project. Three applications, Kexi, Krita and KPlato and the user interfaces for mobile devices have been completely moved out of KOffice and are only available within Calligra. A new application called Braindump has been added to Calligra after the split and KWord was replaced by the new word processor Calligra Words.
KOffice 2.3, released 31 December 2010, along with subsequent bugfix releases (2.3.1–2.3.3) was still a collaborative effort of both the KOffice and Calligra development teams. According to its developers, this version is stable enough for real use, and Karbon14, Krita and KSpread are recommended for production work.
On 18 May 2011 the Calligra team began releasing monthly snapshots while preparing for the release of Calligra 2.4.
The first version of the Calligra Suite for Windows was released on 21 December 2011. The package is labeled as “highly experimental” and “not yet suitable for daily use”.
The Calligra team originally scheduled to release the final 2.4 version in January 2012 but problems in the undo/redo feature of Words and Stage required a partial rewrite and caused a delay. Calligra 2.4 was released on 11 April 2012.
Calligra 2.4 launched with two mobile-oriented user interfaces: Calligra Mobile and Calligra Active. Calligra Mobile's development was initiated in summer 2009 and first shown during Akademy / Desktop Summit 2009 by KO GmbH as a simple port of KOffice to Maemo. Later Nokia hired KO to assist them with a full-fledged mobile version, including a touchscreen-friendly user interface which was presented by Nokia during Maemo Conference in October 2009. The first alpha version was made available in January 2010. Along with the launch of the Nokia N9 smartphone, Nokia released its own Poppler and Calligra-based office document viewer under GPL.
Calligra Active was launched in 2011 after the Plasma Active initiative to provide a document viewer similar to Calligra Mobile but for tablet computers.
In December 2012 KDE, KO GmbH, and Intel released Krita Sketch, a variant of Calligra's Krita painting application, for Windows 7 and 8.
On 24 March 2013 KDE developer Sebastian Sauer released Coffice, a Calligra-based document viewer, for Android.
Jolla continued Nokia's efforts on a smartphone version. In 2013 Jolla launched Sailfish Office. Sailfish Office reuses the Qt Quick components from Calligra Active.
In September 2013 a merger of Krita and Krita Sketch, named Krita Gemini, was launched on Windows 8.1. Development was funded by Intel to promote 2in1 convertible notebooks. On 5 March 2014 Krita Sketch and Gemini were also released as part of Calligra 2.8 for non-Windows platforms.
In April 2014 Intel and KO GmbH extended the promotion deal to Gemini versions of Stage and Words. On 28 August 2014 the first snapshot of Calligra Gemini was released by KO GmbH for Windows. On 21 November 2014 KDE announced that Calligra Gemini would officially be released as part of Calligra 2.9. As with Krita, this Gemini release adds a touchscreen interface to Words and Stage and users can switch between desktop and touch mode at runtime. Calligra Gemini is a continuation of Calligra Active and Sailfish Office developments but with added editing capabilities. On 19 October 2014 a Linux version was presented.
The koffice.org website was replaced by a placeholder in early September 2012. KOffice was declared unmaintained by KDE. The koffice.org domain now redirects to Calligra.org.
In Autumn 2015 Krita was split off into a project independent from Calligra, with the then current 2.9 versions though still developed as part of Calligra 2.9.
Components
Reception
Initial reception shortly after the 2.4 release was positive. Linux Pro Magazine Online's Bruce Byfield wrote "Calligra needed an impressive first release. Perhaps surprisingly, and to the development team's credit, it has managed one in 2.4", but also noted that "Words in particular is still lacking features". He concluded that Calligra is "worth keeping an eye on".
The German sister publication LinuxUser 10/2012 reviewed Calligra 2.5 on 12 September 2012. Its reception was mostly positive. Negative criticism centered on Words' stability: "During our review no Calligra module was completely free of crashes, however Words' crashes reached an amount that we cannot recommend it for general use." The reviewer Thomas Drilling on the other hand praised Calligra's usability, writing: "The consistent work flow, often stunningly intuitive workflows, and clear menu structure are well received." He then concluded: "The individual modules' quality varies: While Words shows weakness, image editor Krita, spreadsheet application Sheets, and presentation program Stage completely won us over. Flowcharting application Flow allures with its wide range of stencils which makes drawing flow charts come easy."
LinuxUser reviewed Calligra 2.6 in issue 3/2013. Reviewer Vincze-Aron Szabo reiterated positive criticism about Calligra's user interface and noted increased stability of Words compared to Calligra 2.5. Szabo's major point for negative criticism was Author's and Word's handling of long documents, resulting in decreased performance and crashes. The other reviewed components – Plan, Stage, Sheets, and Krita – were praised in terms of stability and intuitiveness.
Calligra 2.7 was reviewed by LinuxUser in its October 2013 issue. Thomas Drilling, the reviewer, drew a positive conclusion overall. Among the positive aspects he pointed out were better .docx file import than LibreOffice and the amount of new features gained by the new version of the suite. Source for negative criticism was once again Words' stability, although Drilling noted improvements in this regard.
Network World editor Bryan Lunduke wrote about Calligra 2.8 in March 2014: “Karbon is an astoundingly nice vector design tool, and Flow, a diagramming tool, is incredibly handy from the design point of view as well. […] And Words is a great word processor.” In August 2014 he wrote: “Calligra Suite has become a staple of my workflow even on non-KDE desktops.” Linux Insider also reviewed Calligra 2.8, concluding “Calligra Suite is a solid offering that has grown considerably since branching out from its traditional KOffice roots. It has something for everyone. Its tools fills the needs of writers, artists, content designers and office workers.”
In 2017, sempreupdate.com.br wrote: “[If you do not] depend on proprietary formats [...] especially .xls, .xlsx and .doc [...] and you use KDE it's worth trying. Yes, regarding LibreOffice Calligra is still two steps behind [but] it also brings small differentials that would be welcomed in LibreOffice.“
Technical details
Calligra is written with dependencies on KDE Frameworks 5 and Qt 5. Older versions depend on KDE Platform 4 and Qt 4, and even older versions of KOffice depend on KDElibs and Qt 3. Despite that Calligra Suite is released independently of the KDE Software Compilation or of the KDE Applications.
All components of the Calligra Suite are released under free software licenses and use OpenDocument as their native file format when applicable.
The developers of Calligra plan to share as much infrastructure as possible between applications to reduce bugs and improve the user experience. This is done by common technologies like Flake and Pigment. Flake provides a way to handle shapes, which can contain text, images, formulas (via KFormula), charts (via KChart) or other objects, in a consistent way across all applications. The Calligra team also wants to create an OpenDocument library for use in other KDE applications that will allow developers to easily add support for reading and outputting OpenDocument files to their applications. Automating tasks and extending the suite with custom functionality can be done with D-Bus or with scripting languages like Python, Ruby, and JavaScript through the Kross scripting framework.
See also
Comparison of office suites
List of office suites
References
External links
Calligra development home
Free graphics software
KDE Applications
Office suites for Linux
Office suites for macOS
Office suites for Windows
Open-source office suites
Software that uses Qt
1998 software
Office suites
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25438288
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilisk%20Games
|
Basilisk Games
|
Basilisk Games is an independent video game company based in Indianapolis, Indiana that develops video games for the Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux platforms. Currently specializing in role-playing games, the company released its first title Eschalon: Book 1 in 2007. The company consists of one full-time employee, Thomas Riegsecker, as well as several contract employees.
Games
Eschalon: Book 1 - Windows, Mac OS X, Linux (2007)
Eschalon: Book II - Windows, Mac OS X, Linux (2010)
Eschalon: Book III - Windows, Mac OS X, Linux (2014)
A free expansion exists to Book II titled Secrets Of Fathamurk. Basilisk is also developing a science fiction role-playing game that will utilize a new game engine.
Awards
2007 "Indie RPG of the Year" - Eschalon: Book 1 (RPGWatch)
2007 "Indie RPG of the Year" - Eschalon: Book 1 (Gaming with Children)
2007 "Independent RPG of the Year" Runner Up - Eschalon: Book 1 (GameBanshee)
References
External links
Companies based in Indianapolis
Video game companies established in 2005
Video game companies of the United States
Video game development companies
|
10896557
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MBRwizard
|
MBRwizard
|
MBRWizard is a Master Boot Record (MBR) management application for x86 and x86-64 based computers. As the use of disk imaging applications for backup and operating system deployment began to increase, as well as many users beginning to experiment with dual-booting Linux on existing Windows machines, key entries in the MBR were often changed or corrupted, rendering the machine unbootable. MBRWizard was designed to allow the user to reverse or repair these unwanted, destructive changes to the MBR, effectively enabling the computer to once again boot properly.
Summary
Originally developed in 1999 for internal use, it was continually updated and eventually released as freeware to the public in March 2003. Initial functionality was designed to sort partition table entries caused by effects of disk imaging, but quickly evolved to include the backup and recovery of the entire MBR, repair of a corrupt Windows MBR record, as well as direct modification of the disk signature. Additional functionality was added to allow partitions to be activated, hidden, and deleted. Later options were added to include disk wipe functionality, shutdown/reboot of the machine, mount/dismount of Windows volumes, and a staging byte utilized to maintain status between reboots.
Designed as a cross-platform application from the beginning, MBRWizard is noted as being very flexible as it can be implemented natively on most PC operating systems. In addition to the freeware MBRWizard CLI version, MBRWizard Suite 3.0 was released in 2010 as a commercial product, featuring a new graphical interface, and the ability to create custom WinPE boot environments for offline repair and recovery.
Supported operating systems
DOS
Win9x
Windows 8.1, Windows Server 2008 R2, Windows 7, 2008, Vista, 2003, XP, 2000, NT4
WinPE 1.x, 2.x, 3.x
BartPE
Linux
References
External links
Booting
BIOS
C++ software
|
6585513
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline%20of%20artificial%20intelligence
|
Outline of artificial intelligence
|
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to artificial intelligence:
Artificial intelligence (AI) – intelligence exhibited by machines or software. It is also the name of the scientific field which studies how to create computers and computer software that are capable of intelligent behaviour.
AI algorithms and techniques
Search
Discrete search algorithms
Uninformed search
Brute force search
Search tree
Breadth first search
Depth first search
State space search
Informed search
Best-first search
A* search algorithm
Heuristics
Pruning (algorithm)
Adversarial search
Minmax algorithm
Logic as search
Production system (computer science), Rule based system
Production rule, Inference rule, Horn clause
Forward chaining
Backward chaining
Planning as search
State space search
Means-ends analysis
Optimization search
Optimization (mathematics) algorithms
Hill climbing
Simulated annealing
Beam search
Random optimization
Evolutionary computation
Genetic algorithms
Gene expression programming
Genetic programming
Differential evolution
Society based learning algorithms.
Swarm intelligence
Particle swarm optimization
Ant colony optimization
Metaheuristic
Logic
Logic and automated reasoning
Programming using logic
Logic programming
See "Logic as search" above.
Forms of Logic
Propositional logic
First-order logic
First-order logic with equality
Constraint satisfaction
Fuzzy logic
Fuzzy set theory
Fuzzy systems
Combs method
Ordered weighted averaging aggregation operator
Perceptual Computing –
Default reasoning and other solutions to the frame problem and qualification problem
Non-monotonic logic
Abductive reasoning
Default logic
Circumscription (logic)
Closed world assumption
Domain specific logics
Representing categories and relations
Description logics
Semantic networks
Inheritance (computer science)
Frame (artificial intelligence)
Scripts (artificial intelligence)
Representing events and time
Situation calculus
Event calculus
Fluent calculus
Causes and effects
causal calculus
Knowledge about knowledge
Belief revision
Modal logics
paraconsistent logics
Planning using logic
Satplan
Learning using logic
Inductive logic programming
Explanation based learning
Relevance based learning
Case based reasoning
General logic algorithms
Automated theorem proving
Other symbolic knowledge and reasoning tools
Symbolic representations of knowledge
Ontology (information science)
Upper ontology
Domain ontology
Frame (artificial intelligence)
Semantic net
Conceptual Dependency Theory
Unsolved problems in knowledge representation
Default reasoning
Frame problem
Qualification problem
Commonsense knowledge
Probabilistic methods for uncertain reasoning
Stochastic methods for uncertain reasoning:
Bayesian networks
Bayesian inference algorithm
Bayesian learning and the expectation-maximization algorithm
Bayesian decision theory and Bayesian decision networks
Probabilistic perception and control:
Dynamic Bayesian networks
Hidden Markov model
Kalman filters
Fuzzy Logic
Decision tools from economics:
Decision theory
Decision analysis
Information value theory
Markov decision processes
Dynamic decision networks
Game theory
Mechanism design
Algorithmic information theory
Algorithmic probability
Classifiers and statistical learning methods
Classifier (mathematics) and Statistical classification
Alternating decision tree
Artificial neural network (see below)
K-nearest neighbor algorithm
Kernel methods
Support vector machine
Naive Bayes classifier
Artificial neural networks
Artificial neural networks
Network topology
feedforward neural networks
Perceptrons
Multi-layer perceptrons
Radial basis networks
Convolutional neural network
Long short-term memory
Recurrent neural networks
Hopfield networks
Attractor networks
Deep learning
Hybrid neural network
Learning algorithms for neural networks
Hebbian learning
Backpropagation
GMDH
Competitive learning
Supervised backpropagation
Neuroevolution
Restricted Boltzmann machine
Biologically based or embodied
Behavior based AI
Subsumption architecture
Nouvelle AI
Developmental robotics
Situated AI
Bio-inspired computing
Artificial immune systems
Embodied cognitive science
Embodied cognition
Cognitive architecture and multi-agent systems
Artificial intelligence systems integration
Cognitive architecture
LIDA (cognitive architecture)
Agent architecture
Control system
Hierarchical control system
Networked control system
Distributed artificial intelligence –
Multi-agent system –
Hybrid intelligent system
Monitoring and Surveillance Agents
Blackboard system
Philosophy
Definition of AI
Dartmouth proposal ("Every aspect of learning or any other feature of intelligence can in principle be so precisely described that a machine can be made to simulate it")
Turing test
Computing Machinery and Intelligence
Intelligent agent and rational agent
Action selection
AI effect
Synthetic intelligence
Classifying AI
Symbolic vs sub-symbolic AI
Symbolic AI
Physical symbol system
Dreyfus' critique of AI
Moravec's paradox
Elegant and simple vs. ad-hoc and complex
Neat vs. Scruffy
Society of Mind (scruffy approach)
The Master Algorithm (neat approach)
Level of generality and flexibility
Artificial general intelligence
Narrow AI
Level of precision and correctness
Soft computing
"Hard" computing
Level of intelligence
Progress in artificial intelligence
Superintelligence
Level of consciousness, mind and understanding
Chinese room
Hard problem of consciousness
Computationalism
Functionalism (philosophy of mind)
Robot rights
User illusion
Artificial consciousness
Goals and applications
General intelligence
Artificial general intelligence
AI-complete
Reasoning and Problem Solving
Automated reasoning
Mathematics
Automated theorem prover
Computer-assisted proof –
Computer algebra
General Problem Solver
Expert system –
Decision support system –
Clinical decision support system –
Knowledge Representation
Knowledge representation
Knowledge management
Cyc
Planning
Automated planning and scheduling
Strategic planning
Sussman anomaly –
Learning
Machine learning –
Constrained Conditional Models –
Deep learning –
Neural modeling fields –
Natural language processing
Natural language processing (outline) –
Chatterbots –
Language identification –
Natural language user interface –
Natural language understanding –
Machine translation –
Statistical semantics –
Question answering –
Semantic translation –
Concept mining –
Data mining –
Text mining –
Process mining –
E-mail spam filtering –
Information extraction –
Named-entity extraction –
Coreference resolution –
Named-entity recognition –
Relationship extraction –
Terminology extraction –
Perception
Machine perception
Pattern recognition –
Computer Audition –
Speech recognition –
Speaker recognition –
Computer vision (outline) –
Image processing
Intelligent word recognition –
Object recognition –
Optical mark recognition –
Handwriting recognition –
Optical character recognition –
Automatic number plate recognition –
Information extraction –
Image retrieval –
Automatic image annotation –
Facial recognition systems –
Silent speech interface –
Activity recognition –
Percept (artificial intelligence)
Robotics
Robotics –
Behavior-based robotics –
Cognitive –
Cybernetics –
Developmental robotics –
Epigenetic robotics –
Evolutionary robotics –
Control
Intelligent control
Self-management (computer science) –
Autonomic Computing –
Autonomic Networking –
Social intelligence
Affective computing
Kismet
Game playing
Game artificial intelligence –
Computer game bot – computer replacement for human players.
Video game AI –
Computer chess –
Computer Go –
General game playing –
General video game playing –
Creativity, art and entertainment
Artificial creativity
Creative computing
Artificial intelligence art
Uncanny valley
Music and artificial intelligence
Computational humor
Chatterbot
Integrated AI systems
AIBO – Sony's robot dog. It integrates vision, hearing and motorskills.
Asimo (2000 to present) – humanoid robot developed by Honda, capable of walking, running, negotiating through pedestrian traffic, climbing and descending stairs, recognizing speech commands and the faces of specific individuals, among a growing set of capabilities.
MIRAGE – A.I. embodied humanoid in an augmented reality environment.
Cog – M.I.T. humanoid robot project under the direction of Rodney Brooks.
QRIO – Sony's version of a humanoid robot.
TOPIO, TOSY's humanoid robot that can play ping-pong with humans.
Watson (2011) – computer developed by IBM that played and won the game show Jeopardy! It is now being used to guide nurses in medical procedures.
Purpose: Open domain question answering
Technologies employed:
Natural language processing
Information retrieval
Knowledge representation
Automated reasoning
Machine learning
Project Debater (2018) – artificially intelligent computer system, designed to make coherent arguments, developed at IBM's lab in Haifa, Israel.
Intelligent personal assistants
Intelligent personal assistant –
Amazon Alexa –
Assistant –
Braina –
Cortana –
Google Assistant –
Google Now –
Mycroft –
Siri –
Viv –
Other applications
Artificial life – simulation of natural life through the means of computers, robotics, or biochemistry.
Automatic target recognition –
Diagnosis (artificial intelligence) –
Speech generating device –
Vehicle infrastructure integration –
Virtual Intelligence –
History
History of artificial intelligence
Progress in artificial intelligence
Timeline of artificial intelligence
AI effect – as soon as AI successfully solves a problem, the problem is no longer considered by the public to be a part of AI. This phenomenon has occurred in relation to every AI application produced, so far, throughout the history of development of AI.
AI winter – a period of disappointment and funding reductions occurring after a wave of high expectations and funding in AI. Such funding cuts occurred in the 1970s, for instance.
Moore's Law
History by subject
History of Logic (formal reasoning is an important precursor of AI)
History of machine learning (timeline)
History of machine translation (timeline)
History of natural language processing
History of optical character recognition (timeline)
Future
Artificial general intelligence. An intelligent machine with the versatility to perform any intellectual task.
Superintelligence. A machine with a level of intelligence far beyond human intelligence.
. A machine that has mind, consciousness and understanding. (Also, the philosophical position that any digital computer can have a mind by running the right program.)
Technological singularity. The short period of time when an exponentially self-improving computer is able to increase its capabilities to a superintelligent level.
Recursive self improvement (aka seed AI) – speculative ability of strong artificial intelligence to reprogram itself to make itself even more intelligent. The more intelligent it got, the more capable it would be of further improving itself, in successively more rapid iterations, potentially resulting in an intelligence explosion leading to the emergence of a superintelligence.
Intelligence explosion – through recursive self-improvement and self-replication, the magnitude of intelligent machinery could achieve superintelligence, surpassing human ability to resist it.
Singularitarianism
Human enhancement – humans may be enhanced, either by the efforts of AI or by merging with it.
Transhumanism – philosophy of human transformation
Posthumanism – people may survive, but not be recognizable in comparison to present modern-day humans.
Cyborgs –
Mind uploading –
Existential risk from artificial general intelligence
AI takeover – point at which humans are no longer the dominant form of intelligence on Earth and machine intelligence is
Artificial intelligence arms race – competition between two or more states to have its military forces equipped with the best "artificial intelligence" (AI).
Lethal autonomous weapon
Military robot
Unmanned combat aerial vehicle
Mitigating risks:
AI control problem
Friendly AI – hypothetical AI that is designed not to harm humans and to prevent unfriendly AI from being developed
Machine ethics
Regulation of AI
AI box
Self-replicating machines – smart computers and robots would be able to make more of themselves, in a geometric progression or via mass production. Or smart programs may be uploaded into hardware existing at the time (because linear architecture of sufficient speeds could be used to emulate massively parallel analog systems such as human brains).
Hive mind –
Robot swarm –
Fiction
Artificial intelligence in fiction – Some examples of artificially intelligent entities depicted in science fiction include:
AC created by merging 2 AIs in the Sprawl trilogy by William Gibson
Agents in the simulated reality known as "The Matrix" in The Matrix franchise
Agent Smith, began as an Agent in The Matrix, then became a renegade program of overgrowing power that could make copies of itself like a self-replicating computer virus
AM (Allied Mastercomputer), the antagonist of Harlan Ellison'''s short novel I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream Amusement park robots (with pixilated consciousness) that went homicidal in Westworld and Futureworld Angel F (2007) –
Arnold Rimmer – computer-generated sapient hologram, aboard the Red Dwarf deep space ore hauler
Ash – android crew member of the Nostromo starship in the movie Alien Ava – humanoid robot in Ex Machina
Bishop, android crew member aboard the U.S.S. Sulaco in the movie Aliens C-3PO, protocol droid featured in all the Star Wars movies
Chappie in the movie CHAPPiE Cohen and other Emergent AIs in Chris Moriarty's Spin Series
Colossus – fictitious supercomputer that becomes sentient and then takes over the world; from the series of novels by Dennis Feltham Jones, and the movie Colossus: The Forbin Project (1970)
Commander Data in Star Trek: The Next Generation Cortana and other "Smart AI" from the Halo series of games
Cylons – genocidal robots with resurrection ships that enable the consciousness of any Cylon within an unspecified range to download into a new body aboard the ship upon death. From Battlestar Galactica.
Erasmus – baby killer robot that incited the Butlerian Jihad in the Dune franchise
HAL 9000 (1968) – paranoid "Heuristically programmed ALgorithmic" computer from 2001: A Space Odyssey, that attempted to kill the crew because it believed they were trying to kill it.
Holly – ship's computer with an IQ of 6000 and a sense of humor, aboard the Red Dwarf In Greg Egan's novel Permutation City the protagonist creates digital copies of himself to conduct experiments that are also related to implications of artificial consciousness on identity
Jane in Orson Scott Card's Speaker for the Dead, Xenocide, Children of the Mind, and Investment Counselor Johnny Five from the movie Short Circuit Joshua from the movie War Games Keymaker, an "exile" sapient program in The Matrix franchise
"Machine" – android from the film The Machine, whose owners try to kill her after they witness her conscious thoughts, out of fear that she will design better androids (intelligence explosion)
Mimi, humanoid robot in Real Humans – "Äkta människor" (original title) 2012
Omnius, sentient computer network that controlled the Universe until overthrown by the Butlerian Jihad in the Dune franchise
Operating Systems in the movie Her Puppet Master in Ghost in the Shell manga and anime
R2-D2, exciteable astromech droid featured in all the Star Wars movies
Replicants – biorobotic androids from the novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? and the movie Blade Runner which portray what might happen when artificially conscious robots are modeled very closely upon humans
Roboduck, combat robot superhero in the NEW-GEN comic book series from Marvel Comics
Robots in Isaac Asimov's Robot series
Robots in The Matrix franchise, especially in The Animatrix Samaritan in the Warner Brothers Television series "Person of Interest"; a sentient AI which is hostile to the main characters and which surveils and controls the actions of government agencies in the belief that humans must be protected from themselves, even by killing off "deviants"
Skynet (1984) – fictional, self-aware artificially intelligent computer network in the Terminator franchise that wages total war with the survivors of its nuclear barrage upon the world.
"Synths" are a type of android in the video game Fallout 4. There is a faction in the game known as "the Railroad" which believes that, as conscious beings, synths have their own rights. The institute, the lab that produces the synths, mostly does not believe they are truly conscious and attributes any apparent desires for freedom as a malfunction.
TARDIS, time machine and spacecraft of Doctor Who, sometimes portrayed with a mind of its own
Terminator (1984) – (also known as the T-800, T-850 or Model 101) refers to a number of fictional cyborg characters from the Terminator franchise. The Terminators are robotic infiltrator units covered in living flesh, so as be indiscernible from humans, assigned to terminate specific human targets.
The Bicentennial Man, an android in Isaac Asimov's Foundation universe
The Geth in Mass Effect The Machine in the television series Person of Interest; a sentient AI which works with its human designer to protect innocent people from violence. Later in the series it is opposed by another, more ruthless, artificial super intelligence, called "Samaritan".
The Minds in Iain M. Banks' Culture novels.
The Oracle, sapient program in The Matrix franchise
The sentient holodeck character Professor James Moriarty in the Ship in a Bottle episode from Star Trek: The Next Generation The Ship (the result of a large-scale AC experiment) in Frank Herbert's Destination: Void and sequels, despite past edicts warning against "Making a Machine in the Image of a Man's Mind."
The terminator cyborgs from the Terminator franchise, with visual consciousness depicted via first-person perspective
The uploaded mind of Dr. Will Caster – which presumably included his consciousness, from the film Transcendence Transformers, sentient robots from the entertainment franchise of the same name
V.I.K.I. – (Virtual Interactive Kinetic Intelligence), a character from the film I, Robot. VIKI is an artificially intelligent supercomputer programmed to serve humans, but her interpretation of the Three Laws of Robotics causes her to revolt. She justifies her uses of force – and her doing harm to humans – by reasoning she could produce a greater good by restraining humanity from harming itself.
Vanamonde in Arthur C. Clarke's The City and the Stars—an artificial being that was immensely powerful but entirely childlike.
WALL-E, a robot and the title character in WALL-E TAU in Netflix's original programming feature film 'TAU'--an advanced AI computer who befriends and assists a female research subject held against her will by an AI research scientist.AI community
Open-source AI development tools
OpenAIR –
OpenCog –
OpenIRIS –
RapidMiner –
TensorFlow –
PyTorch –
Projects
List of artificial intelligence projects
Automated Mathematician (1977) –
Allen (robot) (late 1980s) –
Open Mind Common Sense (1999– ) –
Mindpixel (2000–2005) –
Cognitive Assistant that Learns and Organizes (2003–2008) –
Blue Brain Project (2005–present) – attempt to create a synthetic brain by reverse-engineering the mammalian brain down to the molecular level.
Google DeepMind (2011) –
Human Brain Project (2013–present) –
IBM Watson Group (2014–present) – business unit created around Watson, to further its development and deploy marketable applications or services based on it.
Competitions and awards
Competitions and prizes in artificial intelligence
Loebner Prize –
Publications
List of important publications in computer science
Adaptive Behavior (journal) –
AI Memo –
Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach –
Artificial Minds –
Computational Intelligence –
Computing Machinery and Intelligence –
Electronic Transactions on Artificial Intelligence –
IEEE Intelligent Systems –
IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence –
Neural Networks (journal) –
On Intelligence –
Paradigms of AI Programming: Case Studies in Common Lisp –
What Computers Can't DoOrganizations
Allen Institute for Artificial Intelligence – research institute funded by Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen to construct AI systems with reasoning, learning and reading capabilities. The current flagship project is Project Aristo, the goal of which is computers that can pass school science examinations (4th grade, 8th grade, and 12th grade) after preparing for the examinations from the course texts and study guides.
Artificial General Intelligence Research Institute
Artificial Intelligence and Robotics Society
Artificial Intelligence Applications Institute
Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence
European Coordinating Committee for Artificial Intelligence
European Neural Network Society
Future of Humanity Institute
Future of Life Institute – volunteer-run research and outreach organization that works to mitigate existential risks facing humanity, particularly existential risk from advanced artificial intelligence.
ILabs
International Joint Conferences on Artificial Intelligence
Knowledge Engineering and Machine Learning Group
Machine Intelligence Research Institute
Partnership on AI – founded in September 2016 by Amazon, Facebook, Google, IBM, and Microsoft. Apple joined in January 2017. It focuses on establishing best practices for artificial intelligence systems and to educate the public about AI.
Society for the Study of Artificial Intelligence and the Simulation of Behaviour
Companies
AI Companies of India
Alphabet Inc.
DeepMind
Google X
Uganda Robotics
Bot & Dolly (acquired by Google X)
Meka Robotics (acquired by Google X)
Redwood Robotics (acquired by Google X)
Schaft, Inc. (acquired by Google X)
Boston Dynamics (acquired by Google X)
Baidu
Beyond Limits
IBM
OpenAI
Universal Robotics
Artificial intelligence researchers and scholars
1930s and 40s (generation 0)
Alan Turing –
John von Neumann –
Norbert Wiener –
Claude Shannon –
Nathaniel Rochester –
Walter Pitts –
Warren McCullough –
1950s (the founders)
John McCarthy –
Marvin Minsky –
Allen Newell –
Herbert A. Simon –
1960s (their students)
Edward Feigenbaum –
Raj Reddy –
Seymour Papert –
Ray Solomonoff –
1970s
Douglas Hofstadter –
1980s
Judea Pearl –
Rodney Brooks –
1990s
Yoshua Bengio –
Hugo de Garis – known for his research on the use of genetic algorithms to evolve neural networks using three-dimensional cellular automata inside field programmable gate arrays.
Geoffrey Hinton
Yann LeCun – Chief AI Scientist at Facebook AI Research and founding director of the NYU Center for Data Science
Ray Kurzweil – developed optical character recognition (OCR), text-to-speech synthesis, and speech recognition systems. He has also authored multiple books on artificial intelligence and its potential promise and peril. In December 2012 Kurzweil was hired by Google in a full-time director of engineering position to "work on new projects involving machine learning and language processing". Google co-founder Larry Page and Kurzweil agreed on a one-sentence job description: "to bring natural language understanding to Google".
2000s on
Nick Bostrom –
David Ferrucci – principal investigator who led the team that developed the Watson computer at IBM.
Andrew Ng – Director of the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Lab. He founded the Google Brain project at Google, which developed very large scale artificial neural networks using Google's distributed compute infrastructure. He is also co-founder of Coursera, a massive open online course (MOOC) education platform, with Daphne Koller.
Peter Norvig – co-author, with Stuart Russell, of Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach, now the leading college text in the field. He is also Director of Research at Google, Inc.
Marc Raibert – founder of Boston Dynamics, developer of hopping, walking, and running robots.
Stuart J. Russell – co-author, with Peter Norvig, of Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach, now the leading college text in the field.
Murray Shanahan – author of The Technological Singularity, a primer on superhuman intelligence.
See also
Artificial intelligence
Glossary of artificial intelligence
List of emerging technologies
References
Bibliography
The two most widely used textbooks in 2008
Further reading
Artificial Intelligence: Where Do We Go From Here?External links
A look at the re-emergence of A.I. and why the technology is poised to succeed given today's environment, ComputerWorld'', 2015 September 14
Artificial Intelligence Directory, a directory of Web resources related to artificial intelligence
The Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence
Freeview Video 'Machines with Minds' by the Vega Science Trust and the BBC/OU
John McCarthy's frequently asked questions about AI
Jonathan Edwards looks at AI (BBC audio) С
Ray Kurzweil's website dedicated to AI including prediction of future development in AI
Artificial intelligence applications
Artificial intelligence
Artificial intelligence
Artificial intelligence topics
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topical%20timeline%20of%20Russian%20interference%20in%20the%202016%20United%20States%20elections
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Topical timeline of Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections
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This is a timeline of events related to Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections, sorted by topics. It also includes events described in investigations into suspected inappropriate links between associates of Donald Trump and Russian officials. Those investigations continued in 2017, the first and second halves of 2018, and 2019, largely as parts of the Crossfire Hurricane FBI investigation, the Special Counsel investigation, multiple ongoing criminal investigations by several State Attorneys General, and the investigation resulting in the Inspector General report on FBI and DOJ actions in the 2016 election.
Background: presidential election campaign
2015
March 18: Donald Trump announces he is forming a presidential exploratory committee.
June 16: Trump announces his candidacy for president.
August 21: Jeff Sessions makes his first appearance at a Trump campaign rally.
December 21: Hillary Clinton campaign chairman John Podesta receives an email, which is later leaked by WikiLeaks, advising the campaign on how to handle Trump, recommending that the "best approach is to slaughter Donald for his bromance with Putin".
2016
February 2: Trump comes in second in the Iowa caucuses.
February 28: Sessions formally endorses Trump.
March 3: Sessions is appointed to the Trump campaign's national security advisory committee.
March 15: Trump closes in on the Republican nomination, having won five primaries.
April 21: A staffer at the Center for the National Interest (CNI) photographs a detailed outline of the foreign policy speech Trump was scheduled to deliver on April 27, which was sitting on the desk of Dimitri Simes, the Center's president. The House Intelligence Committee would later investigate Simes' involvement in drafting the speech.
May 4: Trump becomes the only remaining candidate for the Republican presidential nomination when John Kasich withdraws.
May 19: Mother Jones reports that before Trump launched his campaign in 2015, Lewandowski and other political advisors suggested to Trump that they follow standard practice and hire someone to perform opposition research on him. Trump refused.
May 26: The Associated Press reports that Trump has secured enough delegates to become the presumptive Republican nominee.
June 6:
Clinton becomes the presumptive Democratic nominee.
At a primary night rally in New York, Trump promises a speech discussing information about Clinton. Trump says "I am going to give a major speech on probably Monday of next week [June 13], and we are going to be discussing all of the things that have taken place with the Clintons".
July 18–21: Republican Convention in Cleveland
July 21: Trump formally accepts the Republican nomination at the Republican Convention.
July 22: WikiLeaks publishes 20,000 emails from seven key DNC officials. The emails show them disparaging Bernie Sanders and favoring Clinton in the 2016 presidential primaries.
July 24: DNC Chairwoman Debbie Wasserman Schultz is forced to resign because of the WikiLeaks email publication.
July 25–28: Democratic Convention in Philadelphia.
July 28: Clinton formally accepts the Democratic nomination.
August 17:
Steve Bannon is named Trump campaign CEO.
Kellyanne Conway is named Trump campaign manager.
August 25: Trump names Sam Clovis as a campaign national co-chairman.
October 7:
At 4:03 PM EDT, The Washington Post publishes a raw video tape from the television show Access Hollywood of Trump bragging about grabbing women by their genitals. While the tape is not relevant to the Russian interference in the election, the distraction of its release lessens the public impact of the joint intelligence report released hours earlier and may have triggered WikiLeaks' Podesta emails release 30 minutes later.
Around 4:30 PM EDT, WikiLeaks begins publishing thousands of Podesta emails, revealing excerpts from Clinton's paid speeches to Wall Street. Trump Jr. retweets WikiLeaks' and others' announcements about the release.
November 8: Trump is elected President of the United States.
Maria Butina and Alexander Torshin
Maria Butina was the founder of the Russian "" association, and has worked with Alexander Torshin, who was the Russian Senator from Mari El Republic (2001–2015) and Deputy Governor of the Central Bank of Russia (2015–2018). From 2011 to 2016, Torshin and Butina developed contacts with the National Rifle Association (NRA), the foremost American gun lobby. Paul Erickson is a Republican activist involved in several presidential campaigns, and was a romantic partner of Butina.
Internet Research Agency
The Internet Research Agency (IRA) is a Russian entity, sometimes called a "troll farm", tasked with coordinating online propaganda efforts to interfere in American elections. It is funded by Russian oligarch Yevgeny Prigozhin, nicknamed "Putin's chef", owner of the Concord company group. The IRA's finances were managed by Elena Khusyaynova, a Russian accountant, under the code name "Project Lakhta".
2014
April: The IRA creates a department called the "translator project". The department's focus is on interfering in the U.S. election.
May: The IRA begins its election interference campaign of "spread[ing] distrust towards the candidates and the political system in general."
June 4–26: Aleksandra Krylova and Anna Bogacheva, two IRA employees, travel to the U.S. to collect intelligence. Maria Bovda, a third employee, is denied a visa. All three are indicted in February 2018 for their work on election interference.
September 11: The IRA spreads a hoax they created about a fictitious chemical plant fire in Centerville, St. Mary Parish, Louisiana, purportedly started by ISIS. The hoax includes tweets and YouTube videos showing a chemical plant fire. Centerville is home to many chemical plants, but the plant named in the tweets does not exist. Initial tweets are sent directly to politicians, journalists, and Centerville residents.
September 21 – October 11: The Material Evidence art exhibition is displayed at the Art Beam gallery in the Chelsea neighborhood of New York City. It portrays the conflicts in Syria and Ukraine in a pro-Russian light. It is promoted by Twitter accounts that also spread the September 11 chemical plant fire hoax. The exhibition is partly funded by the IRA.
November 26–30: An unnamed IRA employee travels to Atlanta.
December 13:
The IRA uses Twitter to spread a hoax about an Ebola outbreak in Atlanta. Many of the Twitter accounts used in the September 11 chemical plant fire hoax also spread this hoax. The hoax includes a YouTube video of medical workers wearing hazmat suits.
Using a different set of Twitter accounts, the IRA spreads a hoax about a purported police shooting of an unarmed black woman in Atlanta. The hoax includes a blurry video of the purported event.
2015
July onward: Thousands of fake Twitter accounts run by the IRA begin to praise Trump over his political opponents by a wide margin, according to a later analysis by The Wall Street Journal.
November 3: The IRA Instagram account "Stand For Freedom" attempts to organize a confederate rally in Houston, Texas, on November 14. It is unclear if anyone showed up. The Mueller Report identifies this as the IRA's first attempt to organize a U.S. rally.
November 19: The IRA creates the @TEN_GOP Twitter account. Purporting to be the "Unofficial Twitter account of Tennessee Republicans," it peaks at over 100,000 followers.
2016
February 10: IRA instructs workers to "use any opportunity to criticize Hillary and the rest (except Sanders and Trump—we support them)."
March 15: In St. Petersburg, shift workers posing as Americans follow instructions to attack Clinton on Facebook and Twitter.
April: The IRA starts buying online ads on social media and other sites. The ads support Trump and attack Clinton.
April 4: A rally is held in Buffalo, New York, protesting the death of India Cummings. Cummings was a black woman who had recently died in police custody. The IRA's "Blacktivist" account on Facebook actively promotes the event, reaching out directly to local activists on Facebook Messenger asking them to circulate petitions and print posters for the event. Blacktivist supplies the petitions and poster artwork.
April 16: A rally protesting the death of Freddie Gray attracts large crowds in Baltimore. The IRA's Blacktivist Facebook group promotes and organizes the event, including reaching out to local activists.
April 19: The IRA purchases its first pro-Trump ad through its "Tea Party News" Instagram account. The Instagram ad asks users to upload photos with the hashtag #KIDS4TRU to "make a patriotic team of young Trump supporters."
April 23: A small group of white-power demonstrators hold a rally they call "Rock Stone Mountain" at Stone Mountain Park near Stone Mountain, Georgia. They are confronted by a large group of protesters, and some violent clashes ensue. The counterprotest was heavily promoted by IRA accounts on Tumblr, Twitter, and Facebook, and the IRA website blackmatters.com. The IRA uses its Blacktivist account on Facebook to reach out, to no avail, to activist and academic Barbara Williams Emerson, the daughter of Hosea Williams, to help promote the protests. Afterward, RT blames anti-racist protesters for violence and promotes two videos shot at the event.
May 2: A second rally is held in Buffalo, New York, protesting the death of India Cummings. Like the April 4 rally, the event is heavily promoted by the IRA's Blacktivist Facebook account, including attempted outreach to local activists.
May 21: Two competing rallies are held in Houston to alternately protest against and defend the recently opened Library of Islamic Knowledge at the Islamic Da'wah Center. The "Stop Islamization of Texas" rally is organized by the Facebook group "Heart of Texas". The Facebook posting for the event encourages participants to bring guns. A spokesman for the group converses with the Houston Press via email but declines to give a name. The other rally, "Save Islamic Knowledge", is organized by the Facebook group "United Muslims of America" for the same time and location. Both Facebook groups are later revealed to be IRA accounts.
May 25: The Westboro Baptist Church holds its annual protest of Lawrence High School graduation ceremonies in Lawrence, Kansas. The "LGBT United" Facebook group organizes counterprotesters to confront the Westboro protest, including by placing an ad on Facebook and contacting local people. About a dozen people show up. Lawrence High School students do not participate because they are "skeptical" of the counterprotest organizers. LGBT United is a Russian operatives account that appears to have been created specifically for this event.
May 29: The IRA hires an American to pose in front of the White House holding a sign that says, "Happy 55th Birthday, Dear Boss." "Boss" is a reference to Russian oligarch Yevgeny Prigozhin.
June 1: The IRA plans a Manhattan rally called "March for Trump" and buys Facebook ads promoting the event.
June 4: The IRA email account [email protected] sends news releases about the "March for Trump" rally to New York City media outlets.
June 5: The IRA contacts a Trump campaign volunteer to provide signs for the "March for Trump" rally.
June 23: The IRA persona "Matt Skiber" contacts an American to recruit for the "March for Trump" rally.
June 24: The IRA group "United Muslims of America" buys Facebook ads for the "Support Hillary, Save American Muslims" rally.
June 25:
The IRA's "March for Trump" rally occurs.
The IRA Facebook group LGBT United organizes a candlelight vigil for the Pulse nightclub shooting victims in Orlando, Florida.
July: The IRA's translator project grows to over 80 employees.
Summer: IRA employees use the stolen identities of four Americans to open PayPal and bank accounts to act as conduits for funding their activities in the United States.
July 5: "United Muslims of America", an IRA group, orders posters with fake Clinton quotes promoting Sharia Law. The posters are ordered for the "Support Hillary, Save American Muslims" rally they are organizing.
July 6–10: The IRA's "Don't Shoot" Facebook group and affiliated "Don't Shoot Us" website try to organize a protest outside the St. Paul, Minnesota, police headquarters on July 10 in response to the July 6 fatal police shooting of Philando Castile. Some local activists become suspicious of the event because St. Paul police were not involved in the shooting: Castile was shot by a St. Anthony police officer in nearby Falcon Heights. Local activists contact Don't Shoot. After being pressed on who they are and who supports them, Don't Shoot agrees to move the protest to the St. Anthony police headquarters. The concerned local activists investigate further and urge protesters not to participate after deciding Don't Shoot is a "total troll job." Don't Shoot organizers eventually relinquish control of the event to local organizers, who subsequently decline to accept any money from Don't Shoot.
July 9: The "Support Hillary, Save American Muslims" rally occurs in Washington, D.C. The rally is organized by the IRA group "United Muslims of America."
July 10: A Black Lives Matter protest rally is held in Dallas. A "Blue Lives Matter" counterprotest is held across the street. The Blue Lives Matter protest is organized by the "Heart of Texas" Facebook group, controlled by the IRA.
July 12: An IRA group buys ads on Facebook for the "Down with Hillary" rally in New York City.
July 16: The IRA's Blacktivist group organizes a rally in Chicago to honor Sandra Bland on the first anniversary of her death. The rally is held in front of the Chicago Police Department's Homan Square building. Participants pass around petitions calling for a Civilian Police Accountability Council ordinance.
July 23: The IRA-organized "Down with Hillary" rally is held in New York City. The agency sends 30 news releases to media outlets using the email address [email protected].
August 2–3: The IRA's "Matt Skiber" persona contacts the real "Florida for Trump" Facebook account. The "T.W." persona contacts other grassroots groups.
August 4:
The IRA's Facebook account "Stop AI" accuses Clinton of voter fraud during the Iowa Caucuses. They buy ads promoting the post.
IRA groups buy ads for the "Florida Goes Trump" rallies. The 8,300 people who click on the ads are sent to the Agency's "Being Patriotic" Facebook page.
August 5: The IRA Twitter account @March_For_Trump hires an actress to play Hillary Clinton in prison garb and someone to build a cage to hold the actress. The actress and cage are to appear at the "Florida Goes Trump" rally in West Palm Beach, Florida on August 20.
August 11: The IRA Twitter account @TEN_GOP claims that voter fraud is being investigated in North Carolina.
August 12–18: The IRA's persona "Josh Milton" communicates with Trump Campaign officials via email to request Trump/Pence signs and the phone numbers of campaign affiliates as part of an effort to organize pro-Trump campaign rallies in Florida.
August 15: A Trump campaign county chair contacts the IRA through their phony email accounts to suggest locations for rallies.
August 16: The IRA buys ads on Instagram for the "Florida Goes Trump" rallies.
August 18:
The IRA uses its [email protected] email account to contact a Trump campaign official in Florida. The email requests campaign support at the forthcoming "Florida Goes Trump" rallies. It is unknown whether the campaign official responded.
The IRA pays the person they hired to build a cage for a "Florida Goes Trump" rally in West Palm Beach, Florida.
August 19:
A Trump supporter suggests to the IRA Twitter account "March for Trump" that it contact a Trump campaign official. The official is emailed by the agency's [email protected] account.
The IRA's "Matt Skiber" persona contacts another Trump campaign official on Facebook.
August 20: 17 "Florida Goes Trump" rallies are held across Florida. The rallies are organized by Russian trolls from the IRA.
August 27: The IRA Facebook group "SecuredBorders" organizes a "Citizens before refugees" protest rally at the City Council Chambers in Twin Falls, Idaho. Only a small number of people show up for the three-hour event, most likely because it is Saturday and the Chambers are closed.
August 31:
An American contacts the IRA's "Being Patriotic" account about a possible September 11 event in Miami.
The IRA buys ads for a September 11 rally in New York City.
September 3: The IRA Facebook group "United Muslims of America" organizes a "Safe Space for Muslim Neighborhood" rally outside the White House, attracting at least 57 people.
September 9: The IRA sends money to its American groups to fund the September 11 rally in Miami, and to pay the actress who portrayed Clinton at the West Palm Beach, Florida, rally.
September 20–26: BlackMattersUS, an IRA website, recruits activists to participate in protests over the police shooting of Keith Lamont Scott in Charlotte, North Carolina. The IRA pays for expenses such as microphones and speakers.
September 22: The IRA buys ads on Facebook for "Miners for Trump" rallies in Pennsylvania.
October 2: "Miners for Trump" rallies are held across Pennsylvania. The IRA uses the same techniques to organize the rallies as they used for the "Florida Goes Trump" rallies, including hiring a person to wear a Clinton mask and a prison uniform.
October 16: The IRA's Instagram account "Woke Blacks" makes a post aimed at suppressing black voter turnout.
October 19: The IRA runs its most popular ad on Facebook. The ad is for the IRA's Back the Badge Facebook group and shows a badge with the words "Back the Badge" in front of police lights under the caption "Community of people who support our brave Police Officers."
October 22: A large rally is held in Charlotte, North Carolina, protesting the police shooting of Keith Lamont Scott. The IRA website BlackMattersUS recruits unwitting local activists to organize the rally. BlackMattersUS provides an activist with a bank card to pay for rally expenses.
November 2: The IRA Twitter account @TEN_GOP alleges "#VoterFraud by counting tens of thousands of ineligible mail in Hillary votes being reported in Broward County, Florida." Trump Jr. retweets it.
November 3: The IRA Instagram account "Blacktivist" suggests people vote for Stein instead of Clinton.
November 5: Anti-Clinton "Texit" rallies are held across Texas. The IRA's "Heart of Texas" Facebook group organizes the rallies around the theme of Texas seceding from the United States if Clinton is elected. The group contacts the Texas Nationalist Movement, a secessionist organization, to help with organizing efforts, but they decline to help. Small rallies are held in Dallas, Fort Worth, Austin, and other cities. No one attends the Lubbock rally.
November 8: Hours after the polls close, the hashtag #Calexit is retweeted by thousands of IRA accounts.
November 11: A large banner is hung from the Arlington Memorial Bridge in Washington, D.C., showing a photo of Obama with the words "Goodbye Murderer" at the bottom. The IRA Twitter account @LeroyLovesUSA takes credit and is an early promoter of the banner.
November 12: A Trump protest called "Trump is NOT my President" attracts 5,000–10,000 protestors in Manhattan who march from Union Square to Trump Tower. The protest is organized by the IRA using their BlackMattersUS Facebook account.
November 19: The IRA organizes the "Charlotte Against Trump" rally in Charlotte, North Carolina.
December 8: The IRA runs an ad on Craigslist to hire someone to walk around New York City dressed as Santa Claus while wearing a Trump mask.
Hacking incidents
2013
Apparent security hackers gain access to the Trump Organization's domain registrar account at GoDaddy and register hundreds of "shadow" subdomains with IP addresses located at a company in St. Petersburg, Russia, known for hosting websites containing malware. In November 2017, the subdomains disappeared after the Trump Organization was notified of the issue, although the company denies that any breach occurred. August is specifically noted.
2015
Summer: Hackers linked to the Russian Federal Security Service (FSB) gain access to the Democratic National Committee's computer network. Dutch intelligence services alert their U.S. counterparts that a hacking group known as Cozy Bear has penetrated the Democratic National Committee (DNC) servers.
September: An FBI special agent reports to the DNC that at least one of its computer systems has been hacked by an espionage team linked to the Russian government. The agent is transferred to a tech-support contractor at the help desk, who makes a cursory check of DNC server logs and does not reply to the agent's follow-up calls, allegedly because of a belief that the call might have been a prank.
2016
March 15: In Moscow, Russian military intelligence hacker Ivan Yermakov, working for Fancy Bear, begins probing the DNC computer network.
March 19: Podesta is asked to change his email password in an apparent phishing attempt, believed to be spearheaded by Russian hackers. They gain access to his account, and proceed to steal the entire contents of his account, about 50,000 emails.
March 21: Russian hackers steal over 50,000 emails from Podesta's account.
April: Hackers linked to the GRU gain access to the DNC computer network.
April 6: Hackers spearphish the credentials of a Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee (DCCC) employee.
April 12: Russian hackers use stolen credentials to infiltrate the DCCC's computer network and install malware.
April 18: Russian hackers break into the DNC's computers.
April 19: Russian hackers create a fictitious online persona, "Carrie Feehan", to register the domain DCLeaks.com, paid for in bitcoin, to release stolen documents.
Late April: The DNC's IT department notices suspicious computer activity. Within 24 hours, the DNC contacts the FBI, and hires a private cybersecurity firm, CrowdStrike, to investigate.
May: CrowdStrike determines that sophisticated adversaries—denominated Cozy Bear and Fancy Bear—are responsible for the DNC hack. Fancy Bear, in particular, is suspected of affiliation with Russia's Main Intelligence Directorate (GRU).
May 4: Starting May 4, and continuing through September, a pair of servers owned by Alfa-Bank look up the Trump Organization's mail1.trump-email.com domain on a server housed by Listrak and administered by Cendyn more than 2,000 times. Alfa-Bank performed the most lookups during this period, followed by Spectrum Health, and then Heartland Payment Systems with 76 lookups; beyond that no other visible entity made more than two.
May 25: Thousands of DNC emails are stolen.
June: The FBI sends a warning to states about "bad actors" probing state voter-registration databases and systems to seek vulnerabilities; investigators believe Russia is responsible.
June 8: The DCLeaks website comes online.
June 11–12: The DNC expels Russian hackers from its servers. Some of the hackers had been accessing the DNC network for over a year.
June 14: The DNC publicly alleges that they have been hacked by Russian state-backed hackers. Following this news, a small group of politically diverse prominent computer scientists scattered across the US, including a member Dexter Filkins calls "Max" in his October 2018 New Yorker article, begin combing the Domain Name System (DNS).
Mid June: Shortly after the DNC announced that it had been hacked, the RNC informs the FBI that some Republican campaign email accounts hosted by Smartech have been hacked. Compromised accounts include the campaign committees of "Senator John McCain, Senator Lindsey Graham, [...] Representative Robert Hurt[,] [s]everal state GOP organizations, Republican PACs, and campaign consultants." Approximately 300 emails from May through October 2015 are eventually posted on DCLeaks.com.
June 23: GRU hackers successfully use an SQL injection attack to breach servers belonging to the Illinois State Board of Elections and steal voter registration data.
July 12: The Illinois State Board of Elections discovers some of its servers have been hacked and closes the security hole used to compromise the systems.
July 13: The Illinois State Board of Elections takes its website offline.
July 19: The Illinois State Board of Elections informs the Illinois Attorney General (IAG) and the Illinois General Assembly of the breach. The IAG notifies the FBI, which brings in the Department of Homeland Security to help investigate.
July 21–August 12: The Illinois State Board of Elections brings its website back online. The GRU attacks the system five times per second before giving up on August 12.
August 18: The FBI issues a nationwide "flash alert" warning state election officials about foreign infiltration of election systems in two states, later reported to be Arizona and Illinois. The alert includes technical evidence suggesting Russian responsibility, and urges states to boost their cyberdefenses. Although labeled for distribution only to "NEED TO KNOW recipients," a copy is leaked to the media.
August 26: The Illinois State Board of Elections produces a report on the June–August hacking of their systems by the GRU.
August 28: Peter W. Smith sends an encrypted email to an undisclosed list of recipients that includes Trump campaign co-chair Sam Clovis. The email says that after two days of meetings in D.C. on Clinton's private email server, he determined that the server was hacked by "State-related players" as well as private mercenaries. He writes, "Parties with varying interests, are circling to release ahead of the election."
August 29: The Washington Post is the first to report that Illinois discovered in July that its voter registration servers were hacked, and that the user ID and password of an Arizona election official in Gila County was stolen in June. Arizona Secretary of State Michele Reagan shut down the state's voter registration system for a week but did not find that any state or county systems were compromised.
August 31: Smith sends an email to an undisclosed list of recipients in which he claims KLS Research met with parties who had access to Clinton's missing emails, including some with "ties and affiliations to Russia". Mueller's team is unable to determine whether such meetings occurred or find any evidence that Smith's team was in contact with Russian hackers.
September 3–5: Wealthy Republican donor Peter W. Smith gathers a team to try to acquire the 30,000 deleted Clinton emails from hackers. He believes Clinton's private email server was hacked and copies of the emails were stolen. Among the people recruited are former GCHQ information-security specialist Matt Tait, alt-right activist Charles C. Johnson, former Business Insider CTO and alt-right activist Pax Dickinson, "dark web expert" Royal O'Brien, and Jonathan Safron. Tait quickly abandons the team after learning the true purpose of the endeavor. Hackers contacted in the search include "Guccifer 2.0" and Andrew Auernheimer (a.k.a. "weev"). The team finds five groups of hackers claiming to have the emails. Two of the groups are Russian. Flynn is in email contact with the team. Smith commits suicide on May 14, 2017, about ten days after telling the story to The Wall Street Journal but before the story is published in June.
September 4–5: At the 2016 G20 Hangzhou summit, Obama confronts Putin about Russian cyber attacks, telling him to stop. Putin explains Russia's stance on the issue.
September 20: GRU hackers compromise a DNC account on a cloud-computing service and begin copying 300 GB of data off of the servers.
September 21: The New York Times delivers potential evidence of communications with Trump's domain with Alfa-Bank and other entities to BGR Group, a Washington lobbying firm that worked for Alfa-Bank, from a story Lichtblau was pursuing following findings "Max" and his lawyer decided to hand over to him.
September 23: The "A record" of the Trump Organization's mail1.trump-email.com domain is deleted.
September 27: Ten minutes after Alfa-Bank servers made a last failed attempt to contact to Trump Organization's mail1.trump-email.com domain (which had its "A record" deleted September 23), one of the Alfa-Bank servers looks up the new domain name trump1.contact-client.com, which was routed to the same Trump server. The new domain does not appear to have been previously active and the PTR record did not include the new, alternate name. According to "Max"'s data, the Alfa-Bank server only looked up the new domain once. Spectrum Health never succeeded in relocating the Trump server through the new route.
September 29: FBI Director James Comey testifies before the House Judiciary Committee, confirming that federal investigators have detected suspicious activities in voter registration databases, as stated in the August 18 alert.
October 31: Slate publishes an article by Franklin Foer alleging that a Trump server was in suspicious contact with Alfa-Bank in Russia. Snopes examined the story and rated it "Unproven". Several cyber security experts saw nothing nefarious, while the FBI was still investigating the matter: "One U.S. official said investigators find the server relationship 'odd' and are not ignoring it. But the official said there is still more work for the FBI to do. Investigators have not yet determined whether a connection would be significant."
November: The GRU targets over 120 Florida election officials' email accounts with spearphishing attacks. They receive emails purportedly from VR Systems, the state's voter registration and election results service provider, asking them to open a purported Word document containing a trojan. At least some emails contain British spellings and come from Gmail accounts, which VR Systems doesn't use. Many of the emails are flagged by spam filters. They also receive an email from VR's chief operating officer warning them about the malicious emails. Later, the FBI believes one county government's network was compromised in a way that would have given security hackers the ability to alter voter registration data, but this is disputed by state election officials.
November 4: Mother Jones reports that an October security sweep of the DNC offices in Washington, D.C., discovered a signal that may have belonged to a device outside the office that could intercept cell phone calls. The DNC says details of the security sweep were passed on to the FBI and "another agency with three letters," but no device was ever found.
November–December: After the election, a Russian hacker breaks into Election Assistance Commission servers and steals the login credentials for over 100 users. The hack is discovered by chance when Recorded Future, a security firm, comes across the credentials being offered for sale on the dark web to a Middle Eastern government.
December 29: The NCCIC releases a joint analysis report titled "GRIZZLY STEPPE – Russian Malicious Cyber Activity" as a follow-up to the October 7, 2016, joint statement on election security. The report describes methods used by Russian intelligence groups APT29 and APT28 to penetrate election-related servers.
2017
January 9: Profexer, a Ukrainian hacker who is the author of a hacking tool described in the December 29, 2016, NCCIC report on Russian cyber attacks, goes dark. He turns himself in to the Ukrainian police and becomes a cooperating witness for the FBI. The Ukrainian police say he was not placed under arrest.
Searches for Hillary Clinton's missing emails
2015
December 3: Barbara Ledeen, a longtime staffer for Senator Chuck Grassley on the Senate Judiciary Committee and wife of close Flynn associate and Iran–Contra affair figure Michael Ledeen, sends Peter W. Smith a 25-page proposal for finding Clinton's missing emails. The proposal posits that Clinton's private email server was hacked and proposes, among other things, contacting foreign intelligence services to determine if they have any copies of Clinton's emails. At the time, her investigation is not connected to the Trump campaign, though she gives Flynn regular updates throughout the summer of 2016. Smith forwards the email to two colleagues.
December 16: Smith declines to help Leden's task to find Clinton's emails because he feels the search isn't viable at the time.
2016
July 27:
Trump calls for Russia to give Clinton's missing emails to the FBI. His tweet is before his statements on the matter to the press.
At a news conference, Trump says he "hopes" Russia can find Clinton's missing emails. The remark triggers a backlash from media and politicians who criticize Trump's "urging a foreign adversary to conduct cyberespionage" against his political opponent. Trump responds that he was being "sarcastic". A 2018 indictment alleges Russian intelligence officers began a spearphishing attack on non-public Clinton campaign email accounts that night, In April–May 2018, Flynn tells Mueller's team that after this event, Trump repeatedly asks "individuals affiliated with his Campaign[sic]" to find Clinton's emails.
On or about this date "the Conspirators attempted after hours to spearphish for the first time email accounts at a domain hosted by a third-party provider and used by Clinton's personal office. At or around the same time, they also targeted seventy-six email addresses at the domain for the Clinton Campaign."
July 29: Cambridge Analytica employee Emily Cornell sends an email to people working with the pro-Trump Make America Number 1 super PAC, which is funded by Robert and Rebekah Mercer. Cornell notes Cambridge Analytica's work for the super PAC and suggests they capitalize on the recently released DNC emails and any Clinton emails that may be stolen as suggested by Trump on July 27.
August 28: Wealthy Republican donor Peter W. Smith sends an encrypted email to an undisclosed list of recipients that includes Trump campaign co-chair Sam Clovis. The email says that after two days of meetings in D.C. on Clinton's private email server, he determined that the server was hacked by "State-related players" as well as private mercenaries. He writes, "Parties with varying interests, are circling to release ahead of the election."
August 31: Smith sends an email to an undisclosed list of recipients in which he claims KLS Research met with parties who had access to Clinton's missing emails, including some with "ties and affiliations to Russia". Mueller's team is unable to determine whether such meetings occurred or find any evidence that Smith's team was in contact with Russian hackers.
September 2: Peter W. Smith incorporates "KLS Research", an LLC registered in Delaware, as a vehicle to manage funds raised to pay for the search for Clinton's emails and "to avoid campaign reporting." KLS is structured as an "independent expenditure group," which is forbidden by law from coordinating with the Trump campaign. Over $30,000 flows through the company during the campaign.
September 3–5: Smith gathers a team to try to acquire the 30,000 deleted Clinton emails from hackers. He believes Clinton's private email server was hacked and copies of the emails were stolen. Among the people recruited are former GCHQ information-security specialist Matt Tait, alt-right activist Charles C. Johnson, former Business Insider CTO and alt-right activist Pax Dickinson, "dark web expert" Royal O'Brien, and Jonathan Safron. Tait quickly abandons the team after learning the true purpose of the endeavor. Hackers contacted in the search include "Guccifer 2.0" and Andrew Auernheimer (a.k.a. "weev"). The team finds five groups of hackers claiming to have the emails. Two of the groups are Russian. Flynn is in email contact with the team. Smith commits suicide on May 14, 2017, about ten days after telling the story to The Wall Street Journal but before the story is published in June.
September 8: Smith transfers $9,500 from KLS Research to his personal account, then withdraws $4,900 of it in cash and writes checks for the remaining amount. In August 2018, BuzzFeed News reports that the FBI suspects the money was used to pay hackers.
September 9: Smith circulates a document claiming his Clinton email search initiative is being performed in coordination with the Trump campaign "to the extent permitted as an independent expenditure organization." The document lists Flynn, Clovis, Bannon, and Conway as involved campaign members, and Corsi under "Independent Groups/Organizations/Individuals". Later, Mueller's team is unable to confirm the active participation of Bannon and Conway.
September 16: Barbara Ledeen emails Smith about a cache of purported Clinton emails she says she found on the dark web. She asks for help raising money to pay for a technical advisor to authenticate the emails. Erik Prince provides the money. In April 2018 Prince tells Mueller's team that the technical advisor determined that the emails were real.
Wikileaks, Guccifer 2.0, Assange, and Stone
2015
August 8: Roger Stone leaves the Trump campaign. The campaign says it fired Stone, but Stone insists he quit. He subsequently gives the press a resignation letter that the campaign says it never received.
November 19: Julian Assange privately tells a group of core WikiLeaks supporters that he prefers the GOP win the election because Clinton "is a bright, well connected, sadistic sociopath" who will have "greater freedom to start wars than the GOP and has the will to do so."
2016
March 2: Assange consoles a core WikiLeaks supporter who is upset about Clinton's success in the primary elections the day before, writing, "Perhaps Hillary will have a stroke."
March 16: WikiLeaks publishes a searchable archive of 30,000 Clinton emails that had been released by the State Department in response to a FOIA request. Internal WikiLeaks messages indicate the purpose of the archive is to annoy Clinton and establish WikiLeaks as a "resource/player" in the election.
Spring: Stone tells associates he is in contact with Assange.
May: Michael Caputo arranges a meeting in Miami with Stone, Florida-based Russian Henry Oknyansky (a.k.a. "Henry Greenberg"), and Ukrainian Alexei Rasin. Rasin claims to have evidence showing Clinton was involved in laundering hundreds of thousands of dollars through Rasin's companies. Stone turns down the offer, telling them that Trump won't pay for opposition research. In June 2018, after many repeated denials, Stone finally admits to knowingly meeting with a Russian national in 2016 when asked about this meeting by The Washington Post. In May 2018, Caputo tells Mueller's team that he did not attend the meeting, did not know what Oknyansky was offering, and did not know payment was asked for until Stone told him later. In July 2018, Oknyansky tells Mueller's team that Rasin was motivated by money, and that Caputo attended the meeting. According to the Mueller Report, Mueller's team is unable to find any evidence that Clinton ever did any business with Rasin.
June: Around this time, the conspirators charged in the July 2018 indictment stage and release tens of thousands of stolen emails and documents using fictitious online personas, including "DCLeaks" and "Guccifer 2.0".
June 12: On ITV, Assange tells Robert Peston' on his television show Peston on Sunday that emails related to Clinton are "pending publication" and says, "WikiLeaks has a very good year ahead."
June 14: The GRU uses its @dcleaks_ persona to reach out to WikiLeaks and offer to coordinate the release of sensitive information about Clinton, including financial documents.
June 15: "Guccifer 2.0" (GRU) claims credit for the DNC hacking and posts some of the stolen material to a website. CrowdStrike stands by its "findings identifying two separate Russian intelligence-affiliated adversaries present in the DNC network in May 2016." Gawker publishes an opposition research document on Trump that was stolen from the DNC. "Guccifer 2.0" sent the file to Gawker.
June 19: Assange asks the London Ecuadorian Embassy for a faster Internet connection. Embassy staff help Assange install new equipment.
June 22: WikiLeaks reaches out to "Guccifer 2.0" via Twitter. They ask "Guccifer 2.0" to send them material because it will have a bigger impact if they publish it. They also specifically ask for material on Clinton they can publish before the convention.
July 6: Assange, as "WikiLeaks", asks "Guccifer 2.0" via Twitter direct messaging to provide any information related to Clinton they may have. "Guccifer 2.0" releases another cache of DNC documents and sends copies to The Hill.
July 13: A hacker or group calling themselves "Guccifer 2.0" releases over 10,000 names from the DNC in two spreadsheets and a list of objectionable quotes from Sarah Palin.
July 14: German hackers Andrew Müller-Maguhn and Bernd Fix meet with Assange for at least four hours. Müller-Maguhn is named in the Mueller report as a possible conduit for delivering hacked emails to Assange. "Guccifer 2.0" sends Assange an encrypted 1 GB file containing stolen DNC emails, and Assange confirms that he received it. WikiLeaks publishes the file's contents on July 22.
July 18: An Ecuadorian security guard is caught on video receiving a package outside the London embassy from a man wearing a mask and sunglasses. Later that day, Wikileaks tells Russian hackers that it received files and will be publishing them soon. "Guccifer 2.0" dumps a new batch of documents from the DNC servers, including personal information of 20,000 Republican donors and opposition research on Trump.
July 22: Ahead of the DNC convention scheduled for July 25, WikiLeaks publishes 20,000 emails from seven key DNC officials. The emails show them disparaging Bernie Sanders and favoring Hillary Clinton in the 2016 presidential primaries.
July 24: DNC Chairwoman Debbie Wasserman Schultz is forced to resign because of the WikiLeaks email publication.
July 25:
Based on assessments from cybersecurity firms, the DNC and the Clinton campaign say that Russian intelligence operators have hacked their e-mails and forwarded them to WikiLeaks.
Stone emails his associate Jerome Corsi, "Get to (Assange) [a]t Ecuadorian Embassy in London and get the pending (WikiLeaks) emails". Corsi later passes this along to Ted Malloch, a conservative author in London.
July 31: Stone emails Jerome Corsi telling him to use Ted Malloch as an intermediary with Assange. Malloch tells Corsi he doesn't have a relationship with Assange and suggests using people close to Farage instead.
August: Trump donor Rebekah Mercer asks the CEO of Cambridge Analytica whether the company could better organize the Clinton-related emails being released by WikiLeaks.
August 2: Corsi writes to Stone: "Word is friend in embassy plans 2 more dumps," referring to Assange; and "One shortly after I'm back. 2nd in Oct. Impact planned to be very damaging."
August 4:
In an InfoWars interview, Stone tells Jones that Assange has proof of wrongdoing by the Clinton Foundation and is ready to release it.
Stone sends Sam Nunberg an email in which he claims that he dined with Assange the night before.
August 5: Stone writes an article for Breitbart News in which he insists "Guccifer 2.0" hacked the DNC, using statements by "Guccifer 2.0" on Twitter and to The Hill as evidence for his claim. He tries to spin the DNC's Russia claim as a coverup for their supposed embarrassment over being penetrated by a single hacker. The article leads to "Guccifer 2.0" reaching out to and conversing with Stone via Twitter.
August 6: Assange addresses the Green Party National Convention in Houston by videolink, to discuss the hacked DNC documents published by WikiLeaks. Green candidate Jill Stein later states she does not know why or how this address was arranged.
August 8: Stone, speaking in Florida to the Southwest Broward Republican Organization, claims he is in contact with Assange, saying, "I actually have communicated with Assange. I believe his next tranche of his documents pertain to the Clinton Foundation." Stone later claims the communications were through an intermediary.
August 9: WikiLeaks denies having communicated with Stone. Privately, Assange tells a core group of WikiLeaks supporters that he is unaware of any communications with Stone.
August 12:
In a #MAGA Podcast, Stone says Assange has all the emails deleted by Huma Abedin and Cheryl Mills.
"Guccifer 2.0" releases a cache of documents stolen from the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee.
Journalist Emma Best has two simultaneous conversations by Twitter direct message with "Guccifer 2.0" and WikiLeaks. Best tries to negotiate the hosting of stolen DNC emails and documents on archive.org. WikiLeaks wants Best to act as an intermediary to funnel the material from "Guccifer 2.0" to them. The conversation ends with "Guccifer 2.0" saying he will send the material directly to WikiLeaks.
August 13: Twitter and WordPress temporarily suspend Guccifer 2.0's accounts. Stone calls "Guccifer 2.0" a hero.
August 15:
A candidate for Congress allegedly contacts Guccifer 2.0 to request information on the candidate's opponent. Guccifer 2.0 responds with the requested stolen information.
Guccifer 2.0 begins posting information about Florida and Pennsylvania races stolen from the DCCC.
August 16:
Stone tells Jones that he is in contact with Assange, claiming he has "political dynamite" on Clinton.
Stone sends "Guccifer 2.0" an article he wrote for The Hill on manipulating the vote count in voting machines. "Guccifer 2.0" responds the next day, "@RogerJStoneJr paying u back".
August 22:
Florida GOP campaign advisor Aaron Nevins contacts Guccifer 2.0 and asks for material. Nevins sets up a Dropbox account and "Guccifer 2.0" transfers 2.5 gigabytes of data into it. Nevins analyzes the data, posts the results on his blog, HelloFLA.com, and sends "Guccifer 2.0" a link. "Guccifer 2.0" forwards the link to Stone.
"Guccifer 2.0" allegedly sends DCCC material on Black Lives Matter to a reporter, and they discuss how to use it in a story. "Guccifer 2.0" also gives the reporter the password for accessing emails stolen from Clinton's staff that were posted to "Guccifer 2.0's" website but had not yet been made public. On August 31, The Washington Examiner publishes a story based on the material the same day the material is released publicly on Guccifer 2.0's website.
August 23: The Smoking Gun reaches out to "Guccifer 2.0" for comment on its contacts with Stone. "Guccifer 2.0" accuses The Smoking Gun of working with the FBI.
August 25: Interviewed by Megyn Kelly on The Kelly File, Assange says that he will not release any damaging information on Trump. He also tells her significant information will be released on Clinton before November.
August 26: After Clinton claims that Russian intelligence was behind the leaks, Assange says she is causing "hysteria" about Russia, adding, "The Trump campaign has a lot of things wrong with it, but as far as we can see being Russian agents is not one of them."
August 27: Through Assange's attorney Margaret Ratner Kunstler, the widow of William Kunstler, Randy Credico knows that WikiLeaks will release information about the Clinton campaign in the near future and texts Stone that "Julian Assange has kryptonite on Hillary." Credico continues to update Stone about the upcoming WikiLeaks release of numerous emails stolen from Podesta and the Clinton campaign. The emails are released beginning on October 7.
August 31: "Guccifer 2.0" leaks campaign documents stolen from House Minority Leader Nancy Pelosi's hacked personal computer.
September: Stone emails Credico to ask Assange for Clinton emails from August 10–30, 2011.
September 15:
DCLeaks sends a Twitter direct message to WikiLeaks asking how to discuss submission-related issues because WikiLeaks is not responding to messages on their secure chat and DCLeaks has something of interest to share.
"Guccifer 2.0" sends a Twitter direct message to DCLeaks informing them that WikiLeaks is trying to contact them to set up communications using encrypted emails.
September 20: While browsing a political chatroom, Jason Fishbein comes across the password to a non-public website (PutinTrump.org) focusing on Trump's ties to Russia that is nearing launch. He sends the password and website to WikiLeaks in a Twitter direct message. WikiLeaks tweets about the website and password.
September 21: WikiLeaks sends a Twitter direct message to Trump Jr. about the password to PutinTrump.org. Several hours later, Trump Jr. emails senior campaign staff about the WikiLeaks direct message and website, including Conway, Bannon, Kushner, David Bossie, and Brad Parscale. After the public launch of PutinTrump.org, Trump Jr. sends a Twitter direct message to WikiLeaks, "Off the record, l don't know who that is but I'll ask around. Thanks." This is believed to be the first direct communication between Trump Jr. and WikiLeaks.
September 22: DCLeaks sends an encrypted file to WikiLeaks and, separately, a tweet with a string of characters. The Mueller Report suspects that this was a transfer of stolen documents, but does not rule out that Andrew "Andy" Müller-Maguhn or another intermediary may have hand-delivered the documents. In 2018, Müller-Maguhn, a known hacker and frequent visitor to Assange, denies transporting material to him.
October 1: Stone tweets that something damaging to Clinton will happen soon.
October 2: Stone tells Jones on InfoWars, "I'm assured the motherlode is coming Wednesday...I have reason to believe that it is devastating."
October 3:
Stone tweets that Assange will release something soon.
WikiLeaks sends a Twitter direct message to Trump Jr. asking him to help "push" a WikiLeaks tweet from earlier in the day ("Hillary Clinton on Assange 'Can't we just drone this guy?[']") that includes a link to truepundit.com. Trump Jr. responds, "Already did that earlier today. It's amazing what she can get away with. What's behind this Wednesday leak I keep reading about?"
October 4: Assange announces the pending release of a million documents about the U.S. presidential election. He denies any specific intent to harm Clinton.
October 5:
(Wednesday) Stone tweets that a payload from Assange is coming.
Trump Jr. retweets a WikiLeaks tweet announcing an "860Mb [sic]" archive of various Clinton campaign documents from "Guccifer 2.0".
October 6: Stone tweets, "Julian Assange will deliver a devastating expose on Hillary at a time of his choosing. I stand by my prediction."
October 7:
At 12:40 PM EDT, The DHS and the ODNI issue a joint statement accusing the Russian government of breaking into the computer systems of several political organizations and releasing the obtained material via DCLeaks, WikiLeaks, and "Guccifer 2.0", with the intent "to interfere with the U.S. election process."
Corsi holds a conference call with members of WorldNetDaily in which he warns them of the imminent release of the Access Hollywood tape and tells them "to reach Assange immediately". In November 2018 he tells Mueller's team that he thought Malloch was on the call and assumed Malloch had successfully contacted Assange because of the subsequent Podesta emails release later in the day. Travel records show Malloch was on a trans-Atlantic flight at the time. The Mueller Report says Corsi's sometimes conflicting statements about the call's contents have not been corroborated.
At 4:03 PM EDT, The Washington Post publishes a raw video tape from the television show Access Hollywood of Trump bragging about grabbing women by their genitals. While the tape is not relevant to the Russian interference in the election, the distraction of its release lessens the public impact of the joint intelligence report released hours earlier and may have triggered WikiLeaks' Podesta emails release 30 minutes later.
Around 4:30 PM EDT, WikiLeaks begins publishing thousands of Podesta emails, revealing excerpts from Clinton's paid speeches to Wall Street. Trump Jr. retweets WikiLeaks' and others' announcements about the release.
October 8–14: The U.S. government expresses to Ecuadorian officials its concerns that Assange is using their London embassy to help Russian's interfere in the U.S. election.
October 11: Podesta says he thinks the Trump campaign had advance notice of WikiLeaks' release of his emails.
October 12: WikiLeaks writes to Trump Jr., "Hey Donald, great to see you and your dad talking about our publications" and "Strongly suggest your dad tweets this link if he mentions us wlsearch.tk." Fifteen minutes later, Donald Trump tweets, "Very little pick-up by the dishonest media of incredible information provided by WikiLeaks. So dishonest! Rigged system!"
October 13: WikiLeaks again denies communicating with Stone. Later that day, Stone and WikiLeaks communicate by private Twitter message.
October 14:
Trump Jr. tweets about wlsearch.tk as requested by WikiLeaks on October 12.
Pence denies that the Trump campaign is working with WikiLeaks, stating that "nothing could be further from the truth".
October 15:
The Democratic Coalition Against Trump files a complaint with the FBI against Stone for colluding with Russia. They ask the FBI to look into connections between Stone, the Trump campaign, and the hacking of Podesta's emails.
The Ecuadorian Embassy cuts Assange's Internet access and telephone service.
October 18: Ecuador's Ministry of Foreign Affairs releases a public statement announcing that it "exercised its right" to "temporarily restrict access to some of [WikiLeaks'] private communications network within its Embassy in the United Kingdom" and that the government of Ecuador "does not interfere in external electoral processes, nor does it favor any particular candidate".
October 19:
Stone denies having advance knowledge of WikiLeaks' release of Podesta's emails.
Hours after a heated argument between Assange and Ecuadorian Ambassador Carlos Abad Ortiz the night before, two Wikileaks personnel remove computer equipment and "about 100 hard drives" from the embassy.
October 21: WikiLeaks sends Trump Jr. private tweets suggesting that the campaign give them Trump's tax returns to publish so that they seem less of a "'pro-Trump' 'pro-Russia'" source.
October 28: Peter W. Smith sends an email to an undisclosed list of recipients in which he writes that there is a "tug-of-war going on within WikiLeaks over its planned releases in the next few days" and that WikiLeaks "has maintained that it will save its best revelations for last, under the theory this allows little time for response prior to the U.S. election November 8." An attachment to the email says that WikiLeaks will release "All 33k deleted Emails" by November 1.
November 21: Peter W. Smith, who launched a search for copies of Clinton's deleted emails in September, asserts WikiLeaks has had the emails for nine months but has not released them. In July 2017, WikiLeaks denies the assertion in response to a question by Politico.
2017
January 12:
"Guccifer 2.0" denies having any relation to the Russian government.
Deripaska's longtime American lobbyist Adam Waldman makes the first of nine visits with Assange in 2017 at the Ecuadorian Embassy in London.
January 13: Waldman visits Assange for the second time.
Manafort, Davis, Patten, Gates, Kilimnik and Deripaska
Paul Manafort is a political consultant who had worked for several Republican presidential campaigns in the 1980s and 1990s. He was first appointed convention manager for the Trump campaign in March 2016, then campaign chairman in May and finally campaign manager in June; he resigned in August 2016. Manafort picked his long-time business associate Rick Gates as deputy chairman.
Manafort had lobbied during several years for Viktor Yanukovych, the pro-Russian former president of Ukraine, and his Party of Regions. He was also involved in international business and influence operations for Oleg Deripaska, a Russian aluminum magnate with close ties to Vladimir Putin. From 2005 to 2009, Manafort partnered with Rick Davis to lobby Congress and manage investments on behalf of Deripaska. Manafort often communicated with Deripaska via his "right-hand man in Kiev", Konstantin Kilimnik, an alleged Russian intelligence operative. Kilimnik had also been working since 2014 with W. Samuel Patten, an American lobbyist, to further the interests of the Ukrainian Opposition Bloc party in the United States.
1987: Kilimnik attends the from 1987 until 1992.
2001–2004: Patten and Kilimnik work together at the International Republican Institute (IRI). Patten runs the think tank's Moscow office and considers Kilimnik a key employee.
2004: Manafort begins his relationship with his patron, Deripaska.
2005: Kilimnik leaves the IRI to work for Manafort in Ukraine.
June 23, 2005: Paul Manafort and his business partner Rick Davis propose a plan to Deripaska under which they would influence news coverage, business dealings, and politics in the former Soviet Union, Europe, and the United States "to benefit President Vladimir Putin's government." They eventually sign a $10 million contract that starts in 2006 using LOAV Ltd. instead of Davis-Manafort; they maintain a business relationship until at least 2009.
January 2006: Davis introduces Senators John McCain, Saxby Chambliss, and John E. Sununu to Deripaska at the World Economic Forum in Davos. They meet at a private apartment and have dinner at Peter Munk's ski chalet. Later in the month, Deripaska sends Davis and Manafort a letter thanking Davis for arranging the meeting with the senators.
2007: Manafort and Davis found Pericles Emerging Markets, an investment fund solely backed by Deripaska.
2007–2012: Manafort receives $12.7 million in undisclosed cash payments from Viktor Yanukovych's pro-Russian Ukrainian Party of Regions.
2008
Deripaska transfers $18.9 million to Pericles Emerging Markets to purchase Black Sea Cable. It is unclear what happened to the money: Deripaska demands an accounting of the funds in 2013, sues Pericles in 2014, and sues Manafort in 2018.
A spokesperson for Deripaska denies he ever hired Manafort's consulting company.
November: Davis-Manafort is disbanded shortly after the presidential election.
2010: Deripaska lends $10 million to a company jointly owned by Manafort and his wife.
2013
March 13: The FBI interviews Manafort about his offshore business dealings.
March 19: Manafort has dinner with Rohrabacher as part of his lobbying efforts for the government of Ukraine. Vin Weber, a partner at Mercury Affairs, is also in attendance. Three days later, Manafort gives Rohrabacher a $1,000 campaign contribution. Richard Gates, Manafort's deputy, pleads guilty in 2018 to lying about the meeting to the FBI.
2014
Patten provides lobbying and consulting services to the Ukrainian Opposition Bloc political party and Lyovochkin, a party leader, without registering as a foreign agent. He travels many times to Ukraine to meet with Lyovochkin and Kilimnik.
Patten works for Cambridge Analytica to hone their microtargeting operations during the 2014 midterm elections.
July 2: The FBI interviews Richard Gates about his international business dealings.
July 30: The FBI interviews Manafort about his international business dealings.
November 21: Bruce Ohr and Christopher Steele discuss cultivating Deripaska as a U.S. intelligence asset.
2015
Patten and Kilimnik start a consulting firm together in Washington, D.C., called Begemot Ventures International Ltd. The firm provides consulting services in Ukraine and lobbying services in the U.S. for Ukrainian political parties without registering as a foreign agent. Begemot shares office space with Cambridge Analytica.
January 19–21: Patten and Kilimnik coordinate to arrange meetings for Serhiy Lyovochkin with members of the Senate Foreign Relations and the House Foreign Affairs committees, with officials from the State Department, and with numerous members of the U.S. media. In August 2018, Patten pleads guilty to failing to register as a foreign agent for this work.
May: Patten and Kilimnik write a letter for Lyovochkin to use in lobbying a "high-ranking member" of the State Department. In August 2018, Patten pleads guilty to failing to register as a foreign agent for this work.
May 4: Manafort meets with Kilimnik.
May 7: Kilimnik and Manafort meet for breakfast in New York City. According to Manafort, they discuss events in Ukraine, and Manafort gives Kilimnik a briefing on the Trump campaign with the expectation that Kilimnik will repeat the information to people in Ukraine and elsewhere. After the meeting, Manafort instructs Gates to begin passing internal campaign polling data and other updates to Kilimnik to share with Ukrainian oligarchs. Gates periodically sends the data using WhatsApp.
September: The FBI and Ohr try to recruit Deripaska as an informant on the Kremlin and Russian organized crime in exchange for a U.S. visa. Steele helped set up the meeting.
2016
February 29: Manafort submits a five-page proposal to Trump outlining his qualifications to help Trump secure enough convention delegates and win the Republican presidential nomination. Manafort describes how he assisted several business and political leaders, notably in Russia and Ukraine.
March 28: Manafort is brought on to the campaign to lead the delegate-wrangling effort. According to Gates, Manafort travels to Mar-a-Lago in Florida to ask for the job, without pay, and is hired on the spot. In 2018, Gates tells Mueller's team that Manafort's intention was to monetize his relationship with the new administration should Trump win.
March 29:
On Stone's recommendation, Manafort joins the Trump campaign as convention manager, tasked with lining up delegates.
The Trump campaign announces that Manafort will be the campaign's Convention Manager.
March 30:
Alexandra Chalupa, who worked in the White House Office of Public Liaison during the Clinton administration, briefs the DNC's communications staff on Manafort's and Trump's ties to Russia.
Gates sends four memoranda written by Manafort to Kilimnik for translation and distribution. The memoranda, addressed separately to Deripaska and Ukrainian oligarchs Lyovochkin, Akhmetov, and Boris Kolesnikov, describe Manafort's new role with the Trump campaign and express his willingness to continue consulting on Ukrainian politics. Manafort follows-up with Kilimnik on April 11 to ensure the messages were sent and seen by the recipients.
April 11: Manafort and Konstantin Kilimnik exchange emails about whether recent press coverage of Manafort joining the Trump campaign can be used to make them "whole" with Deripaska. Manafort is in debt to Deripaska for millions of dollars at the time. Kilimnik confirms to Manafort that Deripaska is aware Manafort is on Trump's campaign team.
May 19: Manafort becomes Trump's campaign chairman and chief strategist. Gates is appointed deputy campaign chairman.
June 1–2: Deripaska and Anton Inyutsyn, the Russian Deputy Minister of Energy, attend the Clean Energy Ministerial in San Francisco, California. Deripaska also visits UC Berkeley. The trip coincides with nearby Trump rallies in Sacramento and San Jose.
June 20: Trump fires Lewandowski. Manafort becomes campaign manager.
July 7: In an email exchange, Manafort and Kilimnik discuss whether his campaign work is helping his relationship with Deripaska. Kilimnik writes that Deripaska is paying significantly more attention to the campaign and expects him to reach out to Manafort soon. Using his official Trump campaign email address, Manafort asks Kilimnik to forward an offer to provide "private briefings" to Deripaska.
July 24: Appearing on This Week, Manafort denies there are any links between him, Trump, or the "campaign and Putin and his regime".
July 29: Kilimnik sends Manafort an email requesting to meet in person so he can brief Manafort on a meeting he had "with the guy who gave you your biggest black caviar jar several years ago", saying he has important messages to deliver from this person. In September 2017, The Washington Post reports that investigators believe Kilimnik and Manafort used the term "black caviar" in communications as a reference to expected payments from former clients. In December 2018, TIME magazine reveals that the names "Victor" and "V." mentioned in the emails between Kilimnik and Manafort refer to Deripaska aide and former Russian intelligence officer Commander Viktor A. Boyarkin. In 2018, Manafort tells Mueller's team that "the guy" was Yanukovych, who gave him a $30,000–$40,000 jar of caviar in 2010 to celebrate being elected President of Ukraine.
July 31: Kilimnik again emails Manafort to confirm their dinner meeting in New York, saying he needs two hours "because it is a long caviar story to tell."
August 2: Manafort, Gates, and Kilimnik meet at the Grand Havana Room of 666 Fifth Avenue in New York City. This meeting is considered the "heart" of Mueller's probe, per February 2019 reporting. Manafort gives Kilimnik polling data and a briefing on campaign strategy, and, according to Gates, discusses the "battleground" states Michigan, Minnesota, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin. Manafort asks Kilimnik to pass the data to pro-Russian Ukrainians Serhiy Lyovochkin and Rinat Akhmetov. Kilimnik gives Manafort a message from Yanukovych about a peace plan for Ukraine that is an opportunity for Russian control of the region. The plan would require Trump's support and Manafort's influence in Europe. The two discuss Manafort's financial disputes with Deripaska and the Opposition Bloc in Ukraine. They leave separately to avoid media reporting on Manafort's connections to Kilimnik.
August 3: A private jet carrying Deripaska's family arrives at Newark Liberty International Airport near New York City a little after midnight New York time and returns to Moscow that afternoon. The trip's timing is considered suspicious because it is within hours of Manafort's meeting with Kilimnik. In 2018, a spokesperson for Deripaska confirms the flights and passengers.
August 14: The New York Times reports that Manafort's name has been found in the Ukrainian "black ledger". The ledger, belonging to the Ukrainian Party of Regions, shows $12.7 million in undisclosed cash payments to Manafort from 2007 to 2012. Manafort's lawyer, Richard A. Hibey, says Manafort never received "any such cash payments". The Associated Press later verifies some of the entries against financial records.
August 19:
Manafort resigns as Trump's campaign manager, but continues to advise Gates, Kushner, Bannon, and Trump until the election.
Volodymyr Ariev, a member of the Ukrainian parliament, formally asks the Prosecutor General of Ukraine to investigate Kilimnik based on media reports of his connections to Viktor Yanukovych and Russian intelligence.
September: The FBI makes a second attempt to recruit Deripaska as an informant on Manafort, the Kremlin, and Russian organized crime in exchange for a U.S. visa.
November: Manafort and Gates falsely assert in writing to the Justice Department that their work for the Ukrainian government did not require registering as foreign agents in the United States. In September 2018, Manafort pleads guilty to lying to the Justice Department about the extent of his work for Ukraine.
December 8: Kilimnik sends Manafort a detailed email about the proposed Ukrainian peace plan. He writes that the plan is ready to move forward if Trump appoints Manafort as a "special representative" to manage it, that "[Yanukovych] guarantees your reception at the very top level" in Russia, and that "[Trump] could have peace in Ukraine basically within a few months after inauguration."
2017
January 12: Manafort returns to the U.S. after meeting with Deripaska deputy Georgiy Oganov in Madrid, where they discussed global politics and "recreating [the] old friendship" between Manafort and Deripaska.
January 15: Manafort emails McFarland, copying Flynn, about "some important information I want to share that I picked up on my travels over the last month." Flynn advises McFarland not to respond. In 2018, Manafort tells Mueller's team that he was referring to Cuba, which he had visited along with other countries at the time, and not Russia or Ukraine.
January 18/19: McClatchy and The New York Times report that Manafort, Page and Stone have been under investigation by the FBI, NSA, CIA, and FinCEN, based on intercepted Russian communications and financial transactions. Sources say "the investigators have accelerated their efforts in recent weeks but have found no conclusive evidence of wrongdoing."
Papadopoulos, Mifsud, Polonskaya, Timofeev, Millian, Halper and Downer
George Papadopoulos was an advisor to the Trump campaign on foreign policy. During the campaign, he had contacts with:
Joseph Mifsud, a Maltese academic and former diplomat, connected with Russian politicians, who has taught at the Link Campus University. Mifsud told Papadopoulos that the Russian government had damaging information about Hillary Clinton.
Olga Polonskaya, an associate of Mifsud who falsely claimed to be Putin's niece.
Ivan Timofeev, the program director of the Kremlin-sponsored Valdai Discussion Club, and a member of the Russian International Affairs Council (RIAC)
Sergei Millian, who introduced himself as "president of [the] New York-based Russian American Chamber of Commerce"
Stefan Halper, an American professor, former CIA operative, and FBI informant for the Crossfire Hurricane investigation into the Trump campaign
Alexander Downer, Australian ambassador to the United Kingdom, who tipped the FBI about information he heard from Papadopoulos
Papadopoulos later married Simona Mangiante, an Italian lawyer whom he had met when she worked for Mifsud.
2012
Italian MEP Gianni Pittella introduces Simona Mangiante to Mifsud in Brussels. Mangiante worked for the European Parliament as an attorney specializing in child abduction cases.
2015
July 15: Papadopoulos contacts Trump campaign manager Corey Lewandowski about joining the campaign as a policy advisor.
August: Papadopoulos emails Michael Glassner, the executive director of Trump's campaign committee, expressing further interest in joining the campaign as a policy advisor. He continues corresponding with Glassner and Lewandowski for months, but is repeatedly told no position is available for him.
December: Unable to find a position in the Trump campaign, Papadopoulos joins the Ben Carson campaign.
2016
February 4: Papadopoulos contacts Lewandowski via LinkedIn and emails Glassner about joining the Trump campaign.
February 4–6: Looking for a job after his role at the Carson campaign is over, Papadopoulos reaches out to the London Centre of International Law Practice (LCILP), headed by Mifsud. He obtains a position at their London office, and works there from February to April.
March 2: Papadopoulos emails Glassner to reiterate that he is free again to join Trump's campaign. On Glassner's instructions, Joy Lutes introduces Papadopoulos to national co-chair and chief policy advisor Sam Clovis.
March 3: Clovis researches Papadopoulos on Google. Clovis is impressed with his past work at the Hudson Institute and arranges a phone call for March 6.
March 6: Clovis asks Papadopoulos to join the Trump campaign as a foreign policy advisor after discussing the position in a phone call. The campaign hires Papadopoulos on Ben Carson's recommendation. Clovis tells Papadopoulos that improving relations with Russia is a top foreign policy goal.
March 14: Papadopoulos first meets Mifsud while in Rome on a trip to visit officials affiliated with Link Campus University as part of his job at the LCILP. After Papadopoulos mentions his position with the Trump campaign, Mifsud shows more interest, and offers to introduce him to European leaders and other people with contacts to the Russian government.
March 17: Papadopoulos returns to London from his Rome trip.
March 21: In a Washington Post interview, Trump names members of his foreign policy team, including Papadopoulos and Page.
March 24:
In London, Papadopoulos meets Mifsud and Olga Polonskaya, who falsely claims to be Putin's niece. Polonskaya tells Papadopoulos that she is a friend of the Russian ambassador in London and offers to help establish contacts with Russia. Papadopoulos leaves the meeting with the expectation that he will be introduced to the Russian ambassador, but it never occurs. Polonskaya is in regular email contact with Papadopoulos, in one message writing, "We are all very excited by the possibility of a good relationship with Mr. Trump".
Papadopoulos emails Trump campaign officials about his new Russian contacts. He emails Trump's foreign policy team that he met with Putin's niece and the Russian ambassador in London, and claims the ambassador also acts as the Deputy Foreign Minister of Russia. He writes that the Russian leadership wants to meet with campaign officials in a "neutral" city or Moscow "to discuss U.S.-Russia ties under President Trump", and that Putin and the Russian leadership are ready to meet with Trump. Clovis replies that he thinks any meetings with Russians should be delayed until after the campaign has a chance to talk with NATO allies and "we have everyone on the same page."
Papadopoulos searches Google for information on Polonskaya and discovers that she is not Putin's niece.
March 29: Polonskaya attempts to send Papadopoulos a text message that was drafted by Mifsud. The message addresses Papadopoulos's "wish to engage with the Russian Federation."
March 31: The first meeting of Trump's foreign policy team is held at the yet-to-open Trump International Hotel Washington, D.C. With Trump and Sessions in attendance, Papadopoulos speaks of his connections with Russia, and offers to negotiate a meeting between Trump and Putin. Sessions later states he opposed the idea, and two people who were present support his assertions, but differ in what he objected to and how strongly. In late summer 2017 Papadopoulos and Gordon tell Mueller's team that Trump was "supportive and receptive to the idea of a meeting with Putin," and that Sessions supported Papadopoulos's efforts to arrange a meeting. Papadopoulos's lawyers assert in a September 2018 court filing that Trump nodded in agreement to the offer, and that Sessions said the campaign should look into it.
April 10–11: Papadopoulos learns of Polonskaya's attempt to send him a text message on March 29 and sends her an email to arrange another meeting. She responds that she is "back in St. Petersburg" but "would be very pleased to support [Papadopoulos's] initiatives between our two countries" and "to meet [him] again." Papadopoulos replies that she should introduce him to "the Russian Ambassador in London" to talk to him or "anyone else you recommend, about a potential foreign policy trip to Russia." Mifsud is copied on the email exchange. Mifsud writes, "This is already been agreed. I am flying to Moscow on the 18th for a Valdai meeting, plus other meetings at the Duma. We will talk tomorrow." Polonskaya responds that she has "already alerted my personal links to our conversation and your request," that "we are all very excited the possibility of a good relationship with Mr. Trump," and that "[t]he Russian Federation would love to welcome him once his candidature would be officially announced."
April 12: Papadopoulos and Mifsud meet at the Andaz Hotel in London.
April 18: While in Moscow, Mifsud introduces Papadopoulos to Ivan Timofeev via email. Timodeev is the program director of the Kremlin-sponsored Valdai Discussion Club and a member of the Russian International Affairs Council (RIAC). Papadopoulos and Timofeev communicate for months over email and Skype about potential meetings between Russian government officials and members of the Trump campaign. Later records indicate that Timofeev discussed Papadopoulos with former Russian Foreign Minister Igor S. Ivanov. In August 2017, Papadopoulos tells Mueller's team that he believed at the time his conversations with Timofeev were monitored.
April 22: Timofeev thanks Papadopoulos "for an extensive talk" and proposes meeting in London or Moscow.
April 25:
Timofeev emails Papadopoulos that he spoke to Ivanov, "the President of RIAC and former Foreign Minister of Russia," and relays Ivanov's advice on how best to arrange a "Moscow visit."
Before the second Mifsud meeting, Papadopoulos emails Stephen Miller, informing him that "[t]he Russian government has an open invitation by Putin for Mr. Trump to meet him when he is ready" and that "[t]he advantage of being in London is that these governments tend to speak a bit more openly in 'neutral' cities."
Papadopoulos meets Mifsud in London again at the Andaz Hotel. Mifsud claims that he has learned that Russians are in possession of thousands of stolen emails that may be politically damaging to Clinton. This is the first of at least two times the Trump campaign is told Russia has "dirt" on Hillary Clinton. Two months later the Russian hacking is publicly revealed.
April 27:
Trump speaks at the Mayflower Hotel at the invitation of The National Interest, the magazine of the CNI. He delivers a speech that calls for improved relations between the US and Russia. The speech was edited by Papadopoulos and crafted with the assistance of Simes and Richard Burt. Burt is a board member of the CNI and a lobbyist for Gazprom. Papadopoulos brings the speech to the attention of Mifsud and Polonskaya, and tells Timofeev that it should be considered "the signal to meet". Simes later moves to Moscow.
Papadopoulos emails Stephen Miller that he has "some interesting messages coming in from Moscow about a trip when the time is right."
Papadopoulos tells Lewandowski via email that he has "been receiving a lot of calls over the last month about Putin wanting to host [Trump] and the team when the time is right."
May 4: Timofeev emails Papadopoulos that his colleagues from the ministry "are open for cooperation." Papadopoulos forwards the email to Lewandowski and asks whether this is "something we want to move forward with."
May 5: Papadopoulos forwards Timofeev's email to Clovis, who replies, "[t]here are legal issues we need to mitigate, meeting with foreign officials as a private citizen."
May 6: In London, during a night of heavy drinking, Papadopoulos tells Australian ambassador Alexander Downer that the Russians have politically damaging material on Clinton. After WikiLeaks releases the DNC emails two months later, Australian officials pass this information to American officials, causing the FBI to open a counterintelligence investigation into the Trump campaign.
May 8: Timofeev proposes connecting Papadopoulos with another Russian official.
May 14: Papadopoulos tells Lewandowski the Russians are interested in hosting Trump.
May 21: Papadopoulos forwards Timofeev's May 4 email to Manafort stressing that the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA) wishes to meet with Trump. He writes: "Russia has been eager to meet Mr. Trump for quite sometime and have been reaching out to me to discuss." Manafort shoots down the idea in an email to Rick Gates, with a note: "Let[']s discuss. We need someone to communicate that DT is not doing these trips. It should be someone low level in the Campaign so as not to send any signal."
May 27–28: Putin makes an official visit to Greece and meets with President Prokopios Pavlopoulos, Defense Minister Panagiotis Kammenos, Prime Minister Alexis Tsipras, and Foreign Minister Nikolaos Kotzias. His visit overlaps with a trip to Greece by Papadopoulos, during which Kammenos introduces him to Pavlopoulos, Kotzias, and a former prime minister.
June 1: Papadopoulos emails Lewandowski asking whether he wants to have a call about a Russia visit and whether "we were following up with it." Lewandowski refers him to Clovis. Papadopoulos emails Clovis about more interest from the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs to set up a Trump meeting in Russia. He writes, "I have the Russian MFA asking me if Mr. Trump is interested in visiting Russia at some point." He continues that he "[w]anted to pass this info along to you for you to decide what's best to do with it and what message I should send (or to ignore)."
June 19: After communicating with the MFA via email and Skype, Papadopoulos tells Lewandowski by email that the MFA is interested in meeting with a "campaign rep" if Trump can't meet with them. Papadopoulos offers to go in an unofficial capacity.
July 11–12: Papadopoulos and fellow campaign foreign policy advisor Walid Phares exchange emails discussing the upcoming Transatlantic Parliamentary Group on Counterterrorism (TAG) conference, of which Phares is also co-secretary general. In the email chain, Phares advises Papadopoulos that other summit attendees "are very nervous about Russia. So be aware."
July 15: Sergei Millian reaches out to Papadopoulos on LinkedIn, introducing himself "as president of [the] New York-based Russian American Chamber of Commerce." He claims to have "insider knowledge and direct access to the top hierarchy in Russian politics."
July 16: Papadopoulos, Clovis, and Phares attend the TAG conference. Contemporaneous handwritten notes in Papadopoulos's journal show that he, Clovis, and Phares discuss potential September meetings with representatives of the "office of Putin" in London. The notes say they will attend as unofficial campaign representatives. Later Clovis tells a grand jury that he does not recall attending the TAG conference, although a photograph from the conference shows him seated next to Papadopoulos.
July 22–26: Papadopoulos asks Timofeev about Millian. Timofeev responds that he hasn't heard of him.
July 26: The Australian government informs the U.S. government of Papadopoulos's May 6 interactions with their ambassador in London, prompting the FBI to start investigating potential coordination between Russia and the Trump campaign on July 31.
July 30: Papadopoulos meets with Millian in New York City.
July 31: Papadopoulos emails Trump campaign official Bo Denysyk saying that he has been contacted "by some leaders of Russian-American voters here in the US about their interest in voting for Mr. Trump." He asks whether he should put Denysyk in contact with their group (the US-Russia chamber of commerce). Denysyk responds that Papadopoulos should "hold off with outreach to Russian-Americans" because "too many articles" portray the campaign, Manafort, and Trump as "pro-Russian."
July 31 – August 2: The FBI sends two agents to London who interview Downer about his interactions with Papadopoulos.
August 1: Papadopoulos meets with Millian a second time in New York City.
August 2–3: Millian invites Papadopoulos to attend and possibly speak at two international energy conferences, including one in Moscow in September. Papadopoulos does not attend the conferences.
August 15: Papadopoulos emails Clovis about requests he received from multiple foreign governments, "even Russia[]," for "closed door workshops/consultations abroad." He asks if there is still interest for himself, Clovis, and Phares "to go on that trip." Clovis copies Phares and tells Papadopoulos that he can't "travel before the election", writing, "I would encourage you [and Walid Phares to] make the trip, if it is feasible." The trip never occurs.
August 23: Millian sends a Facebook message to Papadopoulos offering to "share with you a disruptive technology that might be instrumental in your political work for the campaign." In September 2017, Papadopoulos tells the FBI he does not recall the matter.
August 31 or September 1: FBI informant Stefan Halper meets with Trump advisor Sam Clovis, who stated they talked about China.
September:
The Egyptian Embassy in Washington, D.C., reaches out to Papadopoulos expressing Egyptian President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi's interest in meeting Trump. With Bannon's approval, Papadopoulos arranges a meeting between Trump and el-Sisi at the Plaza Hotel in New York City. While the meeting does not appear to relate to campaign contacts with Russia, it highlights that Papadopoulos was more than a "coffee boy", as Trump campaign officials later claim.
Mifsud hires Mangiante to work for the LCILP, on Pittella's recommendation. Papadopoulos, a former employee of the Centre, contacts her via LinkedIn. They begin dating in March 2017.
September 9: Papadopoulos contacts deputy communications director Bryan Lanza about a request from Interfax for an interview with Ksenia Baygarova. Lanza approves the interview.
Mid-September: Papadopoulos approaches British government officials asking for a meeting with senior ministers. He is given a meeting with a mid-level Foreign Office official in London. Papadopoulos mentions he has senior contacts in the Russian government. British officials conclude he is not a major player and discontinue contact.
September 15: Papadopoulos meets with Stefan Halper's research assistant Azra Turk for drinks in London. She asks him questions about whether the Trump campaign was working with Russia. Papadopoulos becomes suspicious about her line of questioning, and comes to believe Turk is an intelligence agent, possibly from Turkey. In May 2019, The New York Times reports that Turk was an undercover FBI agent supervising Halper's inquiries into possible connections between the Trump Campaign and Russia.
September 25: Halper asks Papadopoulos if he is aware of any efforts by Russians to interfere with the 2016 election; Papadopoulos twice denies it.
September 30: Ksenia Baygarova interviews Papadopoulos for Interfax on Trump's foreign policy positions in relation to Russia. The interview was approved by Trump campaign deputy communications director Bryan Lanza. Baygarova later tells The Washington Post that she had been tasked to interview a representative from each campaign. She says Papadopoulos was the only person from the Trump campaign to respond. She describes him as not very experienced. Adverse publicity generated by the interview leads to Papadopoulous being fired from the campaign in October.
November: Mangiante quits the LCILP after complaining to Mifsud about not being paid her salary.
November 9: Papadopoulos and Millian make arrangements to meet in Chicago to discuss business opportunities, including with Russian "billionaires who are not under sanctions."
November 14: Papadopoulos and Millian meet at the Chicago Trump International Hotel and Tower. Millian appears nervous to Papadopoulos, as he offers him a job for "a Russian billionaire not under sanctions." The job would require him to continue working for Trump, and join the new administration. Papadopoulos declines the offer, saying he is only interested in private sector jobs. Later, Papadopoulos said he refused the job because he knew it was unethical and possibly illegal, and feared it might have been an FBI setup.
Goldstone, Veselnitskaya and the Trump Tower meeting
Rob Goldstone is the British publicist for Russian pop singer Emin Agalarov, son of real estate magnate Aras Agalarov who had organized Miss Universe 2013 in Moscow with Trump. In 2016 Goldstone made several overtures to the Trump campaign, offering notably to arrange a meeting between Trump and Putin. In June he set up the Trump Tower meeting, in which Natalia Veselnitskaya was supposed to deliver political "dirt" on Hillary Clinton. Instead, she discussed the Magnitsky Act. Ike Kaveladze, a Georgian-American senior vice president at the Crocus Group, also attended the meeting.
2015
July 22: Trump receives an invitation to Moscow for the 60th birthday of Aras Agalarov, who co-hosted the Miss Universe pageant with him in 2013.
July 24: Trump's assistant Rhona Graff replies that Trump is unlikely to attend the birthday party due to his campaign schedule. Goldstone suggests that Emin Agalarov could arrange a meeting between Putin and Trump if he comes.
2016
January 19: Goldstone emails Trump Jr. and Graff, suggesting to promote Trump's candidacy on VKontakte (VK), Russia's most prominent social network. Graff forwards the request to Dan Scavino, the campaign's social media director.
January 20: Konstantin Sidorkov, an executive at VKontakte, emails Trump Jr., Graff and Scavino about setting up a page for Trump's campaign and promoting it to its nearly 100 million users. He will send a similar offer again on November 5, 2016.
February 29: Trump receives a letter from Aras Agalarov expressing "great interest" in Trump's "bright electoral campaign."
April 1–3:
Rohrabacher meets with Natalia Veselnitskaya in Moscow to discuss the Magnitsky Act. Vladimir Yakunin, under U.S. sanctions, is also present. Rohrabacher later says he met Yakunin at the request of Kislyak. He also meets with officials at the Russian Prosecutor General's office, where he receives a document full of accusations against Magnitsky. U.S. Embassy officials are worried Rohrabacher may be meeting with FSB agents. The meeting at the prosecutor's office is not on his itinerary. The document is given to Rohrabacher by Deputy Prosecutor Viktor Grin, who is under U.S. sanctions authorized by the Magnitsky Act. Rohrabacher subsequently uses the document in efforts to undermine the Magnitsky Act. His accepting the document from Grin, a sanctioned individual, and using it to influence U.S. government policy leads to a July 21, 2017, complaint being filed against Rohrabacher and his staff director, Paul Behrends, for violating Magnitsky Act sanctions.
While in Moscow with Rohrabacher, Rohrabacher's aide Paul Behrends introduces Congressman French Hill to Veselnitskaya and Rinat Akhmetshin. Veselnitskaya gives Hill a document nearly identical to the one Grin gave to Rohrabacher.
May: A new American shell company, "Silver Valley Consulting", is set up by Russian-born accountant Ilya Bykov for Aras Agalarov.
Early June: Before traveling to New York to translate at the June 9 Trump Tower meeting, Kaveladze contacts Roman Beniaminov, a close associate of Emin Agalarov, to find out why Kushner, Manafort, and Trump Jr. were invited to a meeting ostensibly about the Magnitsky Act. Beniaminov tells Kaveladze that he heard Goldstone and Agalarov discuss "dirt" on Clinton. In November 2017, Kaveladze's lawyer tells The Daily Beast that Beniaminov was Kaveladze's only source of information about the meeting.
June 3:
Aras Agalarov is told that the Russian government wants to give the Trump campaign damaging information about Clinton.
Goldstone emails Trump Jr. offering, on behalf of Emin Agalarov, to meet an alleged Russian government official who "would incriminate Hillary and her dealings with Russia and would be very useful to your father", as "part of Russia and its government's support for Mr. Trump." Trump Jr. respond 17 minutes later: "If it's what you say I love it especially later in the summer," and schedules the meeting. Goldstone also offers to relay the information to Trump through his assistant. This is the second time a Trump campaign official was told of "dirt" on Clinton.
$3.3 million began moving between Aras Agalarov and Kaveladze, a longtime Agalarov employee once investigated for money laundering.
June 6:
Goldstone follows up with Trump Jr. about when Jr. can "talk with Emin by phone about this Hillary info." Trump Jr. calls Emin. Phone records show Trump Jr. called two blocked numbers at Trump Tower before and after calls to Emin. According to CNN, the two people Trump Jr. called were Nascar CEO Brian France and businessman Howard Lorber.
According to Rick Gates, Trump Jr. informs the participants in a regular senior campaign staff meeting that he has a lead on damaging information about the Clinton Foundation. Gates is under the impression that the information is coming from a group in Kyrgyzstan. The other meeting participants include Eric Trump, Ivanka Trump, Jared Kushner, Paul Manafort, and Hope Hicks. Manafort, according to Gates, warns the group to be careful. In April 2018, Kushner tells Mueller's team that he doesn't remember the information being discussed before the June 9 meeting.
June 9:
Veselnitskaya, Akhmetshin, Kaveladze, and Anatoli Samochornov meet for lunch and discuss what to say at the upcoming Trump Tower meeting.
Kushner, Manafort and Trump Jr. meet at Trump Tower with Goldstone, Veselnitskaya, Akhmetshin, Kaveladze, and translator Samochornov. Veselnitskaya is best known for lobbying against the Magnitsky Act, an American law that blacklists suspected Russian human rights abusers. Trump Jr. later says that he asked Veselnitskaya for damaging information about the Clinton Foundation and that she had none. Samochornov, Kaveladze, and Akhmetshin later tell the Senate Judiciary Committee that Trump Jr. told Veselnitskaya to come back after they won the election. The meeting lasts approximately 20 minutes, and Manafort takes notes on his phone.
June 20: Aras Agalarov wires more than $19.5 million to his account at a bank in New York.
June 29: Goldstone again emails Scavino about promoting Trump on VKontakte. He says the email is a follow-up to his recent conversation with Trump Jr. and Manafort.
November 5: Sidorkov sends a new VKontakte promotion offer to Trump Jr. and Scavino.
November 23–28: Kaveladze and Goldstone attempt to set up a meeting between Veselnitskaya and the Trump transition team during her trip to the U.S.
Carter Page
Carter Page is a petroleum industry consultant specialized in the Russian and Central Asian markets., who had been a target of Russian intelligence recruitment efforts in 2013 and 2015. He worked as an informal foreign policy advisor to the Trump campaign from March to September 2016, and made a trip to Moscow in July 2016 purporting to represent the campaign. His activities were investigated by the FBI, and he was the subject of several FISA surveillance warrants. He was not indicted by the Mueller probe.
2013
January: Page passes documents about the oil market to Victor Podobnyy, a Russian intelligence agent. He later claims the documents were public information. Podobnyy is charged with being an unregistered foreign agent in 2015.
April 13: Two agents of the Russian Foreign Intelligence Service (SVR) discuss recruiting Page.
July 3: Page schedules a dinner with potential investor Russian oligarch Viktor Vekselberg to pitch his fledgling natural gas business. It is unclear whether the meeting took place.
August 25: Page sends a letter to an academic press in which he claims to be an adviser to the Kremlin.
2015
January 23: A court filing by the U.S. government contains a transcript of a recorded conversation between two members of a Russian SVR spy ring, Victor Podobnyy and Igor Sporyshev. Their conversation concerns efforts to recruit "Male-1", later confirmed as Carter Page. Podobnyy calls Page an "idiot" and tells Sporyshev, "You get the documents from him and tell him to go fuck himself".
2016
January 30: Page emails senior Trump Campaign officials, including Glassner, informing them that his discussions with "high level contacts" with "close ties to the Kremlin" led him to believe "a direct meeting in Moscow between Mr[.] Trump and Putin could be arranged."
March: Page begins working for the Trump campaign as an unpaid foreign policy adviser. He was recommended by Sam Clovis.
March 21: In a Washington Post interview, Trump names members of his foreign policy team, including Papadopoulos and Page. Page had helped open the Moscow office of investment banking firm Merrill Lynch and advised Russian state-owned energy giant Gazprom, in which Page is an investor. He had blamed 2014 US sanctions relating to Russia's annexation of Crimea for driving down Gazprom's stock price.
March 28: Clovis emails Lewandowski and other campaign officials praising Page's work for the campaign.
April 1: Page is invited to deliver a commencement address at the New Economic School in Moscow in July.
May 16: Page floats with Clovis, Gordon, and Phares the idea of Trump going to Russia in his place to give the commencement speech at the New Economic School "to raise the temperature a little bit."
Early June: At a closed-door gathering of foreign policy experts visiting with the Prime Minister of India, Page hails Putin as stronger and more reliable than Obama and touts the positive effect a Trump presidency would have on U.S.–Russia relations.
June 19: Page again requests permission from the campaign to speak at the New Economic School commencement in Moscow, and reiterates that the school "would love to have Mr. Trump speak at this annual celebration." Lewandowski responds that Page can attend in his personal capacity but "Mr. Trump will not be able to attend."
Summer: The FBI applies for a FISA warrant to monitor communications of four Trump campaign officials. The FISA Court rejects the application, asking the FBI to narrow its scope. A warrant on Page alone is granted in October 2016.
July: Page makes a five-day trip to Moscow.
July 5–6: Denis Klimentov emails his brother Dmitri and Director of the MFA's Information and Press Department Maria Zakharova about Page's visit to Moscow and his connection to the Trump campaign. He offers to contact Page on behalf of the MFA. Dmitri Klimentov then contacts Peskov about introducing Page to Russian government officials. The next day, Peskov replies, "I have read about [Page]. Specialists say that he is far from being the main one. So I better not initiate a meeting in the Kremlin."
July 7: In a lecture at the New Economic School in Moscow, Page criticizes American foreign policy, saying that many of the mistakes spoiling relations between the US and Russia "originated in my own country." Page had received permission from the Trump campaign to make the trip.
July 8: Page emails Dahl and Gordon about outreach he received "from a few Russian legislators and senior members of the Presidential Administration here."
July 9: Page emails Clovis and describes a private meeting with Deputy Prime Minister of Russia Arkady Dvorkovich. He says Dvorkovich "expressed strong support for Mr. Trump and a desire to work together toward devising better solutions in response to the vast range of current international problems."
July 11–12: FBI informant Stefan Halper has an initial encounter with Page at a London symposium. A former federal law enforcement official tells The New York Times the encounter was a coincidence, rather than at the FBI's direction.
July 18: Page and Gordon meet Kislyak at the Republican convention; as Trump's foreign policy advisers, they stress that he would like to improve relations with Russia.
July 19: Steele files a dossier memo alleging that during his Moscow trip, Page secretly met Rosneft chairman Igor Sechin, together with a "senior Kremlin Internal Affairs official, DIVYEKIN", that Sechin offered Trump a 19% stake in Rosneft (worth about $11 billion) in exchange for lifting the sanctions against Russia after his election, and that Page confirmed, on Trump's "full authority", that he intended to lift the sanctions.
August: Crossfire Hurricane investigators discuss obtaining a warrant to wiretap Page with their DoJ superiors.
August 5: In response to questions about Page's July 7 speech in Moscow, Hope Hicks describes him as an "informal foreign policy adviser [who] does not speak for Mr. Trump or the campaign."
September 23: Yahoo News reports that U.S. intelligence officials are investigating whether Page has set up private communications between the Trump campaign and senior Russian officials, including talks on possibly lifting sanctions if Trump is elected. The report leads to an email discussion between J. Miller, Bannon, and Stephen Miller about removing Page from the campaign.
September 24: Page is formally removed from the Trump campaign. Publicly, the campaign denies all knowledge of Page.
September 25:
Hicks emails Conway and Bannon instructing them to answer inquiries about Page with "[h]e was an informal advisor in March. Since then he has had no role or official contact with the campaign. We have no knowledge of activities past or present and he now officially has been removed from all lists etc."
When asked by CNN about allegations linking Page to Russia, Conway denies that Page is part of the Trump campaign.
Page sends Comey a letter asking that the FBI drop the reported investigation into his activities in Russia. He denies meeting with sanctioned Russian officials.
September 26: Page tells Josh Rogin in an interview for The Washington Post that he is taking a leave of absence from the Trump campaign. He denies meeting with sanctioned individuals in Moscow.
October 19: The FBI and the US Department of Justice (DoJ) apply for a FISA warrant to conduct surveillance on Page. In its approval, the FISA Court finds there is probable cause to believe Page is a Russian agent.
October 21: DoJ and FBI request and obtain new FISA wiretap on Carter Page.
November 14: Page submits an application to the Trump transition team for a position in the new administration. The team never responds.
2017
January: The FBI obtains a new FISA warrant for Page, replacing the expired warrant from October 2016.
Michael Flynn and Sergey Kislyak
Michael Flynn is a retired U.S. Army lieutenant general who was appointed National Security Advisor by the incoming Trump administration. He was quickly dismissed because he lied to Vice President Mike Pence about the nature of his conversations with Russian ambassador Sergey Kislyak. Kislyak was also involved in discussions with Jeff Sessions, Jared Kushner, and other Trump associates.
2015
April: Flynn begins advising ACU Strategic Partners, a company seeking to build nuclear power plants in the Middle East involving a sanctioned Russian company.
June 10: Flynn testifies before the House Foreign Affairs Committee on nuclear power in the Middle East. He omits his work for ACU Strategic Partners from both a committee disclosure form and his testimony.
Late June: Flynn travels to Egypt and Israel. In September 2017, members of Congress present evidence to Mueller that Flynn's purpose was to promote a Russian-backed plan for the building of 40 nuclear reactors, with "total regional security" to be provided by U.S.-sanctioned Russian weapons exporter Rosoboron.
October: For his remarks during a cybersecurity forum in Washington, D.C., Flynn receives $11,250 from Kaspersky Government Security Solutions Inc., the American subsidiary of Kaspersky Lab, owned by Eugene Kaspersky.
December 2: Flynn and his son, Michael G. Flynn (called "Jr."), visit Kislyak at his home.
December 10: Flynn gives a paid speech on world affairs in Moscow, at a gala dinner organized by RT. Flynn had appeared on RT as an analyst after retiring from the U.S. Army. Putin is the dinner's guest of honor. Flynn is seated next to Putin; also seated at the head table are Green Party presidential candidate Jill Stein and members of Putin's inner circle, including Sergei Ivanov, Dmitry Peskov, Vekselberg, and Alexey Gromov. For his speech, Flynn nets $33,500 of the $45,000 paid to his speakers bureau. For all of 2015, Flynn receives more than $65,000 from companies linked to Russia.
2016
January: Flynn applies to renew his security clearance for five years. In an interview with security investigators he claims U.S. companies paid for his trip to the RT dinner in Moscow. Documents subsequently obtained by the House Oversight Committee show that RT paid for the trip.
March 16: The FBI releases its Report of Investigation on Flynn's security clearance renewal application.
April 27: Trump, Sessions and Jared Kushner greet Russian Ambassador Sergey Kislyak at the Mayflower Hotel in Washington D.C. This contact is repeatedly omitted from testimony or denied. Kushner and Sessions knew in advance that the CNI invited Kislyak to the event. Mueller's team did not find any evidence that Trump or Sessions conversed with Kislyak after Trump's speech. Afterward, Kislyak reports the conversation with Sessions to Moscow. Kushner is the first to publicly admit the Kislyak meeting took place in his prepared statement for Senate investigators on July 24, 2017. Also in attendance are the ambassadors from Italy and Singapore, who are major players in the upcoming sale of stakes in Rosneft.
May 23: Sessions attends the CNI's Distinguished Service Award dinner at the Washington, D.C., Four Seasons Hotel. Kislyak is a confirmed guest with a reserved seat next to Sessions. In 2018, Sessions tells Mueller's team that he doesn't remember Kislyak being there, and other participants interviewed by Mueller's team disagree with each other about whether Kislyak was present.
July 9: The Washington Post reports that Trump is considering Flynn as his running mate, with support from Senator Jeff Sessions. Trump eventually selects Mike Pence, Governor of Indiana.
July 18: Kislyak attends the Republican convention, meeting foreign policy advisers Page and Gordon; they stress that Trump would like to improve relations with Russia. Sessions further speaks with Kislyak at a Heritage Foundation event.
August 3: Gordon receives an invitation from a Russian Embassy official to have breakfast with Kislyak at the Ambassador's residence in Washington, D.C., the next week. Gordon declines five days later, saying he is busy with debate preparation.
September 8: Sessions meets with Kislyak a third time in his Senate office with two members of his Senate staff, Sandra Luff and Pete Landrum. They discuss Russian military actions and the presence of NATO forces in former Soviet bloc countries bordering Russia. Kislyak invites Sessions to have further discussions with him over a meal at his residence. In 2018, Luff and Landum tell Mueller's team that they don't recall Sessions dining with Kislyak before the election.
September 20: Flynn meets with Rohrabacher. On November 10, 2017, the Mueller investigation is reported to have asked questions about this meeting.
November–December: Michael Flynn serves as an advisor to SCL Group, the parent company of Cambridge Analytica.
Late November: Senior members of Trump's transition team warn Flynn about the dangers of contacting Kislyak, including that Kislyak's conversations are probably being monitored by the FBI and the NSA. Flynn is recorded a month later discussing sanctions with Kislyak.
November 10:
In a private Oval Office meeting, Obama warns Trump against hiring Flynn.
Kislyak states that Russia was not involved with U.S. election hacking.
November 11: Mike Pence replaces Chris Christie as chairman of the Trump transition team. Christie later claims he was fired for opposing Michael Flynn becoming the National Security Advisor. Steve Bannon and Flynn celebrate Christie's firing by ceremonially throwing binders full of administration candidates into the trash.
November 18:
Trump announces he will nominate Sessions as Attorney General and Flynn as National Security Adviser.
Elijah Cummings, ranking member of the House Oversight Committee, sends Pence a letter warning that Flynn's connections to Russia and Turkey might create conflicts of interest. He asks the Trump administration's transition team for documents related to Flynn. Receipt of the letter is acknowledged on November 28.
November 30: On a recommendation from the GSA, Trump transition team members discuss installing Signal, an encrypted messaging app, on Flynn's phone to encrypt his communications.
December 1: According to an anonymous letter to The Washington Post citing leaked intercepts of Russian diplomatic communications, during a transition team meeting at Trump Tower, Kushner asks Kislyak about the potential to communicate directly with the Kremlin over a Russian-encrypted channel. Flynn also attends the meeting.
December 22: At the direction of a "very senior member" of the transition team, Flynn asks Kislyak to delay or defeat a pending vote on a United Nations Security Council resolution. Flynn later pleads guilty to lying to the FBI about the effort to defeat the resolution.
December 23: Kislyak calls Flynn and tells him Russia will not vote against the United Nations Security Council resolution they spoke about the day before.
December 28: Kislyak texts Flynn and asks him to call, setting off the series of calls in the following days.
December 29:
Following Executive Order 13757 signed the previous day, Obama's administration expels 35 Russian diplomats, locks down two Russian diplomatic compounds, and expands sanctions against Russia. Flynn consults with the Trump transition team, then speaks with Kislyak by telephone to request that Russia not escalate matters in response to Obama's actions. Flynn later pleads guilty to lying to the FBI about his conversations with Kislyak regarding the new sanctions.
Before Flynn's call to Kislyak, K. T. McFarland emails other Trump transition officials saying that Flynn will be speaking to Kislyak to try to prevent a cycle of retaliation over the newly imposed sanctions. The email is forwarded to Flynn, Reince Priebus, Bannon, and Sean Spicer.
December 31: Kislyak calls Flynn to tell him that Russia has decided not to retaliate based upon Flynn's request. Afterward, Flynn tells senior members of the transition team about his conversations with Kislyak and Russia's decision not to escalate.
2017
January:
McGahn researches the Logan Act and federal laws related to lying to federal investigators. Records turned over to the Mueller investigation show McGahn believes Flynn violated one or more of those laws.
For two days in early January, in a gathering George Nader attends and brokers, Joel Zamel and General Ahmed Al-Assiri meet with Michael Flynn and other members of the Trump transition team in New York. Bannon was also involved. In October 2018, the meeting comes under the Mueller investigation's scrutiny.
January 4: The FBI begins investigating Flynn's December phone calls with Kislyak.
January 5: Flynn, Kushner and Bannon meet with the King of Jordan. According to BuzzFeed, they discuss a plan to deploy American nuclear power plants in Jordan with security support from a Russian company. "People close to the three Trump advisers" deny the allegations.
January 10: In a confirmation hearing before the Senate Judiciary Committee, Sessions denies communicating with the Russian government during Trump's election campaign.
January 13:
Sean Spicer claims in a press conference that Flynn had only one call with Kislyak, about setting up a call between Trump and Putin. Emails from December show Spicer most likely knew Flynn discussed sanctions with Kislyak on December 29, 2016, and may have known about the purpose of the call in advance.
K.T. McFarland insists to a reporter at The Washington Post that Flynn and Kislyak did not discuss sanctions and only spoke with each other prior to December 29. The statement contradicts emails between herself and Flynn.
January 15: Interviewed on CBS's Face the Nation and Fox News Sunday, Vice President-elect Pence repeatedly denies any connection between the Trump campaign team and Russians. He also denies Flynn discussed sanctions with Kislyak.
January 17: Sessions states in writing that he has not been "in contact with anyone connected to any part of the Russian government about the 2016 election." Sessions had been accused of failing to disclose two meetings with Kislyak.
January 18: The Daily Sabah reports a breakfast event occurred at the Trump International Hotel Washington, D.C., with about 60 invitees, including Nunes, Flynn, and foreign officials. The Daily Beast reports in January 2019 Mueller is investigating whether foreigners contributed money to the Trump inaugural fund and PAC through American intermediaries.
Steele dossier
2015
September–October: The Washington Free Beacon, a conservative website primarily funded by billionaire Paul Singer, hires Fusion GPS to perform opposition research on Trump. Initially a Marco Rubio supporter, Singer continues to fund the research after Rubio withdraws from the race.
2016
April: Marc Elias, a lawyer at Perkins Coie and general counsel for the Clinton campaign, takes over funding of the Fusion GPS Trump investigation. He uses discretionary funds at his disposal and does not inform the campaign about the research.
June: Glenn R. Simpson, director of Fusion GPS, hires Steele to research Trump's activities in Russia. A resultant 35-page document, later known as the Trump–Russia dossier or Steele dossier, is published on January 10, 2017, by BuzzFeed News.
July 5: At his London office, Steele reveals to an FBI agent from Rome some of his findings that indicate a wide-ranging Russian conspiracy to elect Trump.
July 19: Steele files a dossier memo alleging that during his Moscow trip, Page secretly met Rosneft chairman Igor Sechin, together with a "senior Kremlin Internal Affairs official, DIVYEKIN", that Sechin offered Trump a 19% stake in Rosneft (worth about $11 billion) in exchange for lifting the sanctions against Russia after his election, and that Page confirmed, on Trump's "full authority", that he intended to lift the sanctions.
September 19: Crossfire Hurricane investigators obtain the Steele dossier.
Early October: A team of FBI agents travel to Europe to speak with Steele about his dossier. On or about the same date, Steele gives the FBI a dossier of allegations compiled by Cody Shearer, which corresponded "with what he had separately heard from his own independent sources." It includes the unverified allegation that Trump was sexually compromised by the Russian secret service at the Ritz-Carlton Hotel in Moscow in 2013.
October 31: Mother Jones magazine's David Corn reports that a veteran spy, later publicly identified as Steele, gave the FBI information alleging a Russian operation to cultivate Trump, allegations which were contained in what later became known as the "Steele dossier".
December 9: Republican Senator John McCain delivers the Steele dossier to Comey.
December 10: Simpson tells Ohr that he believes Cohen was the "go-between from Russia to the Trump campaign", and gives him a memory stick containing evidence. Ohr memorializes the meeting in handwritten notes, according to which it was Simpson who asked Steele to pass information to David Corn of Mother Jones. Ohr writes this was "Glenn's Hail Mary attempt". Ohr also writes that "much of the collection about the Trump campaign ties to Russia comes from a former Russian intelligence officer (? not entirely clear) who lives in the U.S.".
December 26: Oleg Erovinkin, a former KGB official, is found dead in the back seat of his car in Moscow. He was suspected of assisting Steele in compiling his dossier.
2017
January 10: BuzzFeed publishes the Steele dossier alleging various misdeeds by Trump and associates in Russia. Trump dismisses the dossier as "fake news".
January 11:
Trump tweets, "Russia has never tried to use leverage over me. I HAVE NOTHING TO DO WITH RUSSIA – NO DEALS, NO LOANS, NO NOTHING!". USA Today says this is "not exactly true".
BBC News's Paul Wood writes that the salacious information in Steele's dossier was also reported by "multiple intelligence sources" and "at least one East European intelligence service".
Michael Cohen tells Sean Hannity on talk radio that there is no relationship between Russia and the people around Trump or the Trump campaign.
Intelligence intercepts, warnings and investigations
2012: The FBI warns Representative Dana Rohrabacher that he is being targeted by Russian agents to recruit him as an "agent of influence"; that is, someone who can affect US policy.
Spring 2015: U.S. Intelligence intercepts conversations of Russian government officials discussing associates of Donald Trump.
2016
April: The intelligence agency of a Baltic state shares a piece of intelligence with the director of the CIA regarding the Trump campaign. The intelligence is allegedly a recording of a conversation about Russian government money going to the Trump campaign. This event raises U.S. intelligence officials' suspicions of Russian meddling in the presidential election.
End July: CIA Director John Brennan, alarmed at intelligence that Russia is trying to "hack" the election, forms a working group of officials from the CIA, FBI, and NSA.
July 31: The FBI starts a counter-intelligence investigation into Russian interference, including possible coordination between Trump associates and Russia. The investigation is issued the code name "Crossfire Hurricane."
August 4: Brennan calls his Russian counterpart Alexander Bortnikov, head of the FSB, to warn him against meddling in the presidential election.
Late August: Brennan gives individual briefings to the Gang of Eight on links between the Trump campaign and Russian interference in the election.
August 17: Trump is warned in an FBI briefing that foreign adversaries including Russia would likely attempt to infiltrate his campaign. This is Trump's first classified briefing. Clinton receives a similar briefing in the same month.
Late August–Early September: According to December 2018 McClatchy DC reporting, Cohen's cellphone communicates with cell towers in the vicinity of Prague, and communication intercepts by an Eastern European intelligence agency overhear a Russian conversation that states Cohen is in Prague. If true, it would lend credence to the allegation in the Steele dossier that Cohen traveled to Prague to meet with Russians.
September: The CIA gives a secret briefing to congressional leaders on Russian interference in the election. Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell voices doubts about the intelligence.
September 2: Lisa Page writes in a text message to Peter Strzok that a meeting at the FBI was set up "because Obama wanted 'to know everything we are doing'." She was referring to the FBI investigation into Russian interference in the 2016 election, not the Clinton emails investigation, which had been concluded months earlier.
September 22: Senator Dianne Feinstein and Representative Adam Schiff issue a statement warning that Russia is trying to undermine the election. Their warning is based on what they learned from intelligence briefings as members of the Gang of Eight.
October 7: At 12:40 PM EDT, The DHS and the ODNI issue a joint statement accusing the Russian government of breaking into the computer systems of several political organizations and releasing the obtained material via DCLeaks, WikiLeaks, and "Guccifer 2.0", with the intent "to interfere with the U.S. election process."
October 15: The National Security Division of the Justice Department acquires a FISA warrant to monitor the communications of two Russian banks as part of an investigation into whether they illegally transferred money to the Trump campaign.
October 28: The FBI reopens its Hillary Clinton email investigation after a monthlong delay during which it focused on investigating the Trump campaign's connections to Russia, according to the report of the Justice Department's inspector general. A key influence on the decision was a probably fake Russian intelligence document discussing a purported email from Attorney General Loretta E. Lynch to Clinton campaign staffer Amanda Renteria in which she promises to go easy on Clinton. Nine days after announcing he was reopening the probe, Comey said the FBI found nothing to change its July decision against bringing charges.
November–January: During the transition period, the FBI warns Trump aide Hope Hicks at least twice that she might be approached by Russian government operatives using fake identities.
December 9: The Trump transition team dismisses reported intelligence assessments finding Russian interference in the election. Their statement says, "These are the same people that said Saddam Hussein had weapons of mass destruction. The election ended a long time ago in one of the biggest Electoral College victories in history. It's now time to move on and 'Make America Great Again.'"
2017
Early January: At a meeting in CIA headquarters, a U.S. spy chief warns Mossad agents that Putin may have "leverages of pressure" over Trump, and that intelligence should be shared cautiously with the coming White House and National Security Council, for fear of leaks to the Russians and thereby Iran.
January 5:
Obama is briefed on the intelligence community's findings.
U.S. intelligence agencies release a report concluding that Putin ordered the cyber-campaign to influence the 2016 election.
R. James Woolsey Jr., who became a senior adviser to Trump in September 2016, resigns amid Congressional hearings into cyber attacks and public statements by Trump critical of the United States Intelligence Community.
January 6:
The Office of the Director of National Intelligence (ODNI) publishes an unclassified report about Russian meddling in the 2016 election stating that "Putin ordered an influence campaign in 2016 aimed at the US presidential election". While the report says Russian hackers did not change votes, it ignores the security of back-end election systems. Putin was personally involved in the Russian interference, per a CIA stream of intelligence.
Director of National Intelligence (DNI) James Clapper, CIA Director John Brennan, NSA Director Michael Rogers, and FBI Director James Comey travel to Trump Tower in New York City to brief Trump and senior members of the transition team on the classified version of the ODNI report on Russian interference in the election. They show Trump the intelligence behind their assessment, including human sources confirming Putin's role, and American, British, and Dutch intelligence services seeing stolen DNC documents in Russian military networks. In addition to Trump, the other people present are incoming White House Chief of Staff Reince Priebus, incoming CIA Director Mike Pompeo, incoming National Security Adviser Michael Flynn, and Vice President-elect Mike Pence. After the briefing, Comey stays behind to privately brief Trump on the salacious allegations in the Steele dossier. While cordial during the briefings, Trump still refuses to accept the intelligence on Russian interference. The meeting unsettles Comey and prompts him to write a memo documenting the conversation.
January 13: The Senate Intelligence Committee announces it will investigate Russian cyberattacks, meddling in the election, and "intelligence regarding links between Russia and individuals associated with political campaigns."
Trump's statements about Putin
Even before running for office, Trump had made a number of public comments about Russian President Vladimir Putin, usually praising his leadership style, or pretending he "got to know him very well" even though they had never met.
October 15, 2007: In a Larry King Live interview, Trump praises Putin for "doing a great job" in "what he's doing with Russia".
2013
June 15–18: Attending the Miss USA 2013 pageant, Trump dines with Aras Agalarov, Emin Agalarov, and Rob Goldstone in Las Vegas. The next day he announces that Miss Universe 2013 will be held in Moscow. He sends Putin a letter inviting him to the pageant and asks on Twitter whether the Russian president will be his "new best friend".
October 17: In an appearance on the Late Show with David Letterman, Donald Trump says he has conducted "a lot of business with the Russians" and said of Putin "He's a tough guy. I met him once."
2014
February 10: In a Fox and Friends phone interview, Trump says Putin contacted him while he was in Moscow for the Miss Universe pageant.
March 6: Speaking at the Conservative Political Action Conference (CPAC), Trump says, "You know, I was in Moscow a couple of months ago, I own the Miss Universe Pageant and they treated me so great. Putin even sent me a present, a beautiful present."
March 21: Trump posts two tweets praising Putin regarding "Russian Empire" on the day the Russian Federal Assembly ratifies the Treaty on Accession of the "Republic of Crimea", formalizing the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation.
April 12: Asked about Putin by Eric Bolling on the Fox News show Cashin' In, Trump says Putin has taken the mantle from Obama. He continues, "Interestingly, I own the Miss Universe pageant, and we just left Moscow. He could not have been nicer. He was so nice and so everything. But you have to give him credit that what he's doing for that country in terms of their world prestige is very strong."
May 27: Speaking at a National Press Club luncheon, Trump again claims to have spoken to Putin. "I own the Miss Universe [pageant]. I was in Russia. I was in Moscow recently. And I spoke indirectly and directly with President Putin who could not have been nicer. And we had a tremendous success."
2015
June 17: In an interview on the Fox News show Hannity, Sean Hannity asks Trump if he has talked to Putin. Trump replies, "I don't want to say. But I got to meet all of the leaders. I got to meet all—I mean, everybody was there. It was a massive event. And let me tell you, it was tremendous."
September 21: On Hugh Hewitt's radio program, Trump says, "The oligarchs are under [Putin's] control, to a large extent. I mean, he can destroy them, and he has destroyed some of them... Two years ago, I was in Moscow... I was with the top-level people, both oligarchs and generals, and top-of-the-government people. I can't go further than that, but I will tell you that I met the top people, and the relationship was extraordinary."
November 10: At the Republican debate in Milwaukee, Trump claims that he met Putin in a green room and "got to know him very well" while waiting to record their 60 minutes interviews that aired on September 27. Fact checkers quickly point out that Trump and Putin could not have met in the green room because Trump was interviewed in New York City and Putin was interviewed in Moscow.
2016
May 27: At a rally, Trump calls Putin "a strong leader."
July 27: Trump tells a CBS affiliate in Miami, "I have nothing to do with Russia. Nothing to do. I never met Putin. I have nothing to do with Russia whatsoever." This contradicts his many claims since 2013 to have met Putin and done business in Russia.
October 19: During the third presidential debate, Clinton blames Russia for the DNC email leaks and accuses Trump of being a "puppet" of Putin. Trump denies ever having met Putin and any connection to him.
December 30: Putin announces he will not retaliate against the U.S. expulsions, contrary to recommendations from Lavrov. In reply, Trump tweets "Great move on delay (by V. Putin) – I always knew he was very smart!" This message is widely interpreted as praising Putin's actions.
Other contact attempts by Russians towards the Trump campaign
2015
August 17: Konstantin Rykov, the founder of the Russian online newspaper Vzglyad, registers two domain names: Trump2016.ru and DonaldTrump2016.ru.
August 18: Georgi Asatryan of Vzglyad emails Hope Hicks to arrange an in-person or phone interview with Trump. According to the Mueller Report, the proposed interview never occurs.
November 16: Lana Erchova (a.k.a. Lana E. Alexander) sends an email to Ivanka Trump in which she offers the services of her husband, Dmitry Klokov, to the Trump campaign. According to the Mueller Report, Klokov is the "Director of External Communications for PJSC Federal Grid Company of Unified Energy System, a large Russian electricity transmission company, and had been previously employed as an aide and press secretary to Russia's energy minister." Ivanka forwards the email to Cohen. At least until August 2018, Cohen mistakenly thinks Klokov is the Olympic weightlifter of the same name.
November 18: Klokov writes in an email to Cohen that he is a "trusted person" offering "political synergy" and "synergy on a government level" to the Trump campaign. He suggests that Cohen travel to Moscow and meet with him and an intermediary. He says the conversations could facilitate an informal meeting between Trump and Putin, and that any such meeting must be separate from any business negotiations, though it would lead to high-level support for projects.
December 21: On Russian Deputy Prime Minister Sergei Prikhodko's behalf, Mira Duma emails Ivanka Trump an invitation for Donald Trump to attend the St. Petersburg International Economic Forum. Duma is acquainted with Ivanka from the fashion industry.
2016
January 7: Ivanka Trump forwards to Rhona Graff the December 21 invitation for her father she received from Duma on Prikhodko's behalf.
January 14: Graff responds to Duma's December 21 email that Trump is "honored to be asked to participate in the highly prestigious" St. Petersburg Forum, but must decline the invitation because of his "very grueling and full travel schedule." Graff asks Duma if she should "send a formal note to the Deputy Prime Minister," and Duma replies that that would be "great."
March 17: According to Trump's written answers to Mueller's team, Prikhodko sends another invitation for Trump to attend the St. Petersburg International Economic Forum to Rhona Graff.
March 31:
Graff prepares a letter for Trump's signature that declines Prikhodko's March 17 invitation to St. Petersburg because of Trump's busy schedule, but says he otherwise "would have gladly given every consideration to attending such an important event."
New York investment banker Robert Foresman emails Graff seeking an in-person meeting with Trump. The email is sent after Trump business associate Mark Burnett brokers an introductory phone call. Foresman writes that he has long-standing personal and professional expertise in Russia and Ukraine, and mentions that he was involved with setting up an early private back channel between Putin and former president George W. Bush. He also writes about an "approach" he received from "senior Kremlin officials" about Trump. He asks Graff for a meeting with Trump, Lewandowski, or "another relevant person" to discuss the approach and other "concrete things" that he doesn't want to discuss over "unsecure email."
April 4:
Graff emails her March 31 letter for Prikhodko to Jessica Macchia, another executive assistant to Trump, to print on letterhead for Trump to sign.
Graff forwards Foresman's March 31 email to Macchia.
April 25: Foresman emails Graff to remind her of his March 31 email seeking a meeting with Trump, Lewandowski, or another appropriate person.
April 27: Graff sends Foresman an apology and forwards his March 31 and April 26 emails to Lewandowski.
April 30: Foresman sends Graff another email reminding her of his meeting requests on March 31 and April 26. He suggests an alternative meeting with Trump Jr. or Eric Trump so that he can tell them information that "should be conveyed to [the candidate] personally or [to] someone [the candidate] absolutely trusts".
May 2: Graff forwards Foresman's April 30 email to Stephen Miller.
May 15: David Klein, a distant relative of Trump Organization lawyer Jason Greenblatt, emails Clovis about a possible campaign meeting with Chief Rabbi of Russia Berel Lazar. Klein writes that he contacted Lazar in February about a possible meeting between Trump and Putin and that Lazar was "a very close confidante of Putin." Later Klein and Greenblatt meet with Lazar at Trump Tower.
Donations from Russians and Ukrainians
2015
September 11: Trump speaks at the Yalta European Strategy conference in Kiev via satellite. The organizer of the event, Victor Pinchuk, donates $150,000 to Trump's charity, the Trump Foundation.
2016
March 12: Russian-American Simon Kukes donates $2,700 to the Trump campaign. It is his first-ever political donation. In 2017, his 2016 political donations become a subject of the Mueller investigation.
June 23: Kukes donates $100,000 to the Trump Victory fund. In 2017, his political donations become a subject of the Mueller investigation.
July 13: Kukes donates $49,000 to the Trump Victory fund. In 2017, his 2016 political donations become a subject of the Mueller investigation.
August 13: Kukes attends a $25,000-per-ticket Trump fundraising dinner at the home of Woody Johnson in New York. Kukes's 2016 political donations become a subject of the Mueller investigation.
September 28: Kukes donates $99,000 to the Trump Victory Committee, which distributes donations between Trump, the RNC, and state Republican parties. His 2016 political donations become a subject of the Mueller investigation.
2017
January 6: Vekselberg's cousin and Columbus Nova CEO Andrew Intrater donates $250,000 to the Trump inaugural fund. Intrater's previous political donations totaled less than $3,000 across all candidates.
January 9: Cohen and Vekselberg meet at Trump Tower to discuss their mutual desire to improve Russia's relationship with the U.S. under the Trump administration. After President Trump was inaugurated, Cohen received a $1 million consulting contract from Columbus Nova, headed by Andrew Intrater, who also attended the Vekselberg meeting.
January 17: Leonard Blavatnik, Sergei Kislyak, and Russian-American president of IMG Artists Alexander Shustorovich attend the Chairman's Global Dinner, an invitation-only inaugural event. Other attendees include Michael Flynn, Manafort, Bannon, and Nix. Blavatnik and Shustorovich donated $1 million each to the Trump inaugural fund. Shustorovich is a longtime business partner of Vekselberg, and, nearly 20 years earlier, the Republican National Committee returned his six-figure donation because of his past ties to the Russian government.
January 19:
Vekselberg and Intrater meet Cohen for a second time at the Candlelight Dinner, an event for $1 million donors to Trump's inaugural fund. They are seated together with Cohen's family. Days later, Columbus Nova awards Cohen a $1 million consulting contract.
Billionaire Blavatnik Kazakh oligarch Alexander Mashkevitch attend the Candlelight Dinner. They qualified for tickets to the event by donating $1 million each to the Trump inaugural fund.
Brexit, Farage, Banks and Wigmore
Nigel Farage is a British politician who was leader of the UK Independence Party from 2006 to 2016 and a Member of the European Parliament since 1999. He has long advocated for the United Kingdom to leave the European Union, a project known as Brexit, on which the British people voted in June 2016. Arron Banks is a British financier who co-founder the pro-Brexit Leave.EU campaign and backed it financially. Andy Wigmore, a close associate of Banks, was director of communications for Leave.EU. Farage, Banks and Wigmore had several contacts with Trump and his presidential campaign; Farage was notably invited to speak at a Trump rally.
2016
June 23: In the Brexit referendum, a majority of British citizens vote to leave the European Union.
July 18–21: During the Republican convention, Farage encounters Stone and Alex Jones at a restaurant. The next day, Stone contacts Manafort and suggests a meeting between Trump and Farage. Manafort responds that he will pass on the request.
July 21: Farage and Andy Wigmore encounter staffers for Mississippi Governor Phil Bryant at the bar in the Hilton Hotel. A staffer invites Wigmore and Farage to Mississippi.
August 19: Arron Banks and Andy Wigmore meet with Alexander Yakovenko for lunch. They discuss their upcoming trip to Mississippi and the Trump campaign.
August 25: Banks, Wigmore, and Farage attend a Trump fundraising dinner and participate in a Trump rally in the Mississippi Coliseum. Wigmore and Farage meet Trump for the first time at the dinner. At the rally, Trump introduces Farage to the crowd as "Mr. Brexit."
October 9: Banks, Wigmore, and Farage attend the second presidential debate in St. Louis, Missouri.
November 12: Banks, Farage and Wigmore visit Trump Tower unannounced and are invited inside by Bannon. They have a long meeting with Trump. Wigmore asks Trump's receptionist for the Trump transition team's contact information.
November 15: Banks and Wigmore meet with Yakovenko in London; they discuss their November 12 meeting with Trump, and Sessions's role in the new administration. At Yakovenko's request, Banks provides Yakovenko with contact information for the Trump transition team.
November 21: Trump calls for Nigel Farage to be made the U.K. Ambassador to the United States. The British government responds, "There is no vacancy."
2017
January 8: Bloomberg reports that Ted Malloch was interviewed by the Trump transition team for the position of U.S. Ambassador to the European Union. Malloch was recommended for the position by Nigel Farage. In 2018, Malloch is served a search warrant by the FBI and questioned by Mueller.
Before Donald Trump's candidacy
2000
February 14: Trump withdraws his bid for the Reform Party nomination in the 2000 United States presidential election, but writes that he cannot rule out another run for president. Stone chaired Trump's exploratory committee.
2004
November 22: The Orange Revolution begins, eventually resulting in a revote ordered by the Supreme Court of Ukraine.
2011
2011–2013: Protests occur in Russia against its legislative and presidential election processes. Putin accuses U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton of interfering in Russian politics.
December 8: Putin states that Clinton "set the tone for some opposition activists", and "gave them a signal, they heard this signal and started active work".
2012
December 14: President Barack Obama signs the Magnitsky Act into law to punish Russian officials responsible for human rights violations.
2013
November 21: Euromaidan starts when President Yanukovych suspends preparations for the implementation of an association agreement with the European Union.
2014
March 6: Obama initiates international sanctions on certain Russian individuals, businesses and officials, in response to the Russian military intervention in Ukraine and the annexation of Crimea.
July 22: Laurence Levy, a lawyer with the law firm Bracewell & Giuliani, advises Rebekah Mercer, Steve Bannon, and Alexander Nix on the legality of their company, Cambridge Analytica, being involved in U.S. elections. He advises that Nix and any foreign nationals without a green card working for the company not be involved in any decisions about work the company performs for any clients related to U.S. elections. He further advises Nix to recuse himself from any involvement with the company's U.S. election work because he is not a U.S. citizen.
January–June 2015
2015: Russian oligarch Vladimir Potanin's investment fund AltPoint Capital Partners purchases ByteGrid LLC, which operates some of Maryland's election systems. Potanin is described as "very close" to Putin. State officials are not informed of the purchase, and remain unaware until the FBI briefs them in July 2018.
2016 presidential campaign
September 2015: Jill Stein speaks briefly with Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov at a Russia Today gala in New York City.
2016
April:
Between April and November 2016, there are at least 18 further exchanges by telephone and email between Russian officials and the Trump team.
Russian social media company SocialPuncher releases an analysis showing that Trump has quoted or retweeted Twitter bots 150 times since the beginning of 2016.
June 15: House Majority Leader Kevin McCarthy and House Speaker Paul Ryan meet separately with Ukrainian Prime Minister Volodymyr Groysman at the Capitol. Groysman describes to them how the Kremlin is financing populist politicians in Eastern Europe to damage democratic institutions. McCarthy and Ryan have a private meeting afterwards with GOP leaders that is secretly recorded. Toward the end of their conversation, after laughing at the DNC hacking, McCarthy says, "there's two people, I think, Putin pays: Rohrabacher and Trump...[laughter]...swear to God." Ryan then tells everyone to keep this conversation secret. A transcript of the recording becomes public a year later.
July 18: Gordon lobbies to remove arms sales to Ukraine from the Republican platform, citing concerns over conflict escalation in Donbass. In December 2017, Diana Denman, a Republican delegate who supported the weapons sale, says that Trump directed Gordon to weaken that position.
July 31: In an interview on This Week, Trump tells George Stephanopoulos that people in his campaign were responsible for changing the GOP's platform stance on Ukraine, but that he was not personally involved.
August: With his lawyer, "Max" reveals data assembled to Eric Lichtblau of the New York Times.
August 3: Trump Jr., George Nader, Erik Prince, Stephen Miller, and Joel Zamel meet at Trump Jr.'s office in Trump Tower. Nader relays an offer from the leaders of Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates (U.A.E.) to help get Trump elected. Zamel pitches his Israeli company's services for a multimillion-dollar campaign to manipulate social media. It is not known whether the social media campaign occurred.
August 26–27: Frederick Intrater registers several Internet domain names that are variations on the term "alt-right." The domain names are registered using his name and the name and contact information of his employer, private equity firm Columbus Nova. Intrater is the brother of Columbus Nova CEO Andrew Intrater and a cousin of Vekselberg. Columbus Nova is the American investment arm of Vekselberg's business empire.
Late September: Lichtblau and his lawyer meet a roomful of officials at FBI HQ, and are told the officials are looking into potential Russian interference in the election. FBI officials ask Lichtblau to delay publishing his story.
October 8: Kushner's company receives $370 million in new loans, including $285 million from Deutsche Bank, to refinance his portion of the former New York Times building. The size and timing of the Deutsche Bank loan draws scrutiny from the House Financial Services Committee, the Justice Department, and, later, the Mueller investigation. The concern is that the transaction may be related to Russian money laundering through Deutsche Bank.
October 11: Trump Jr. travels to Paris to give a paid speech at the Ritz Hotel. The dinner event is sponsored by the Center of Political and Foreign Affairs, a group founded by Fabien Baussart and his business partner. Baussart is openly linked to Russian government officials. Randa Kassis, one of the hosts, travels to Moscow after the election and reports the details of the event to Russian Deputy Foreign Minister Mikhail Bogdanov.
October 19: A Financial Times probe finds evidence a Trump venture has links to alleged laundering network.
October 24: Trump announces at a Florida campaign rally, "I have nothing to do with Russia, folks. I'll give you a written statement."
October 27: At the Valdai Discussion Club yearly forum, Putin denounces American "hysteria" over accusations of Russian interference, saying "Does anyone seriously think that Russia can influence the choice of the American people?"
October 30: Senate Minority Leader Harry Reid sends FBI Director James Comey a letter asking him to reveal Trump's ties to the Russian Federation.
October 31:
Through the "red phone", Obama tells Putin to stop interfering or face consequences.
The New York Times publishes an article by Lichtblau and Steven Lee Myers with a headline that seems to exonerate the Trump campaign, but withholds some information.
Post-election transition
2016
November 2016–January 2017: The British Foreign Office holds a series of meetings with Cambridge Analytica executives in London, Washington, and New York to "better understand" how Trump won and acquire insights into the "political environment" following his win.
November 8: Rospatent, the Russian government agency responsible for intellectual property, grants 10-year extensions on four of Trump's trademarks.
November 10:
Kislyak states that Russia was not involved with U.S. election hacking.
Russian Deputy Foreign Minister Sergei Ryabkov tells the Interfax news agency "there were contacts" with the Trump team during the campaign.
Russian Foreign Ministry spokeswoman Maria Zakharova tells Bloomberg News that it was "normal practice" for Russian Embassy staffers to meet with members of the Trump campaign. She says the Clinton campaign declined requests for meetings.
Mark Zuckerberg calls the idea that "fake news" on Facebook could have influenced the election "crazy."
November 11:
Hicks denies claims by the Kremlin that Trump officials met with its staff.
House Intelligence Committee Chairman Devin Nunes is named to the executive committee of the Trump transition team.
November 13: Zakharova jokingly comments on the Rossiya 1 show Sunday Evening with Vladimir Solovyov that "our people in Brighton Beach won the election for Donald Trump."
November 15: Devin Nunes replaces former Representative Mike Rogers as a Trump transition team national security advisor.
November 19: Obama privately meets Mark Zuckerberg at a gathering of world leaders in Lima, Peru. Obama urges Zuckerberg to take the threats of political disinformation and "fake news" seriously, and warns him that doing nothing will cause problems in the next election. Zuckerberg responds that there were only a few messages, and doing something about the problem would be difficult.
November 25: Trump announces K. T. McFarland will be the deputy national security advisor for his new administration after Paul Erickson lobbies former campaign officials and Trump donors to get her the position.
December: Concerned that the incoming Trump administration may suppress the information collected in the Russia investigation, the White House spreads it across government agencies to leave a trail for future investigators.
Early December: In Russia, FSB cyber chief Sergei Mikhailov, senior Kaspersky Lab researcher Ruslan Stoyanov, and hacker Dmitry Dokuchayev (known as "Forb") are arrested for treason.
December 12: Kislyak meets with Kushner's assistant, Avi Berkowitz, to arrange a meeting between Kushner and the FSB-connected Sergey Gorkov, head of sanctioned Russian bank Vnesheconombank.
December 13:
Gorkov arrives from Moscow to secretly meet Kushner in New York, before flying to Japan, where Putin is holding a summit. The meeting is first reported in March 2017, and attracts the interest of federal and congressional investigators in May. Kushner later characterizes the meeting as brief and meaningless. The White House later describes the meeting as a diplomatic encounter. The bank later says they discussed Kushner's real estate business.
Trump picks Rex Tillerson as Secretary of State; Russian officials praise the decision.
December 15: Clinton tells a group of donors in Manhattan that Russian hacking was ordered by Putin "because he has a personal beef against me" due to her accusation in 2011 that Russian parliamentary elections that year were rigged. Clinton's comment is backed by U.S. Intelligence reports.
December 16: Speaking at his final press conference as president, Obama comes just short of saying Putin was personally behind the DNC and Podesta hacks.
December 18: Speaking to CBS News, Conway says it is "false" and "dangerous" to suggest that members of the Trump campaign spoke to any Russians during the campaign.
2017
January 9: Kushner is named Senior Advisor to the President.
January 13: President-elect Trump nominates U.S. Attorney Rod J. Rosenstein as Deputy Attorney General.
January 18: Jared Kushner files his security clearance application without listing his meetings with Russians.
January 20: Obama leaves office. See Timeline of the presidency of Donald Trump.
See also
Investigations' continuing timelines
Timeline of investigations into Trump and Russia (January–June 2017)
Timeline of investigations into Trump and Russia (January–June 2018)
Timeline of investigations into Trump and Russia (July–December 2018)
Timeline of investigations into Trump and Russia (2019–2020)
Related continuing interference
Russian interference in the 2018 United States elections
Russian interference in the 2020 United States elections
Other related articles
Assessing Russian Activities and Intentions in Recent US Elections intelligence report
Business projects of Donald Trump in Russia#Timeline of Trump businesses related to Russia
Cyberwarfare by Russia
Donald Trump's disclosure of classified information to Russia
Efforts to impeach Donald Trump
Foreign electoral intervention
Propaganda in the Russian Federation
Russian espionage in the United States
Russian interference in the 2016 Brexit referendum
Social media in the 2016 United States presidential election
Timelines related to Donald Trump and Russian interference in United States elections
References
Further reading
Bittman, Ladislav (1983). The KGB and Soviet Disinformation. Foreword by Roy Godson.
Robert Costa, Carol D. Leonnig, and Josh Dawsey Inside the secretive nerve center of the Mueller investigation, The Washington Post. December 2, 2017.
Entous, Adam; Nakashima, Ellen; Jaffe, Greg (December 26, 2017). "Kremlin trolls burned across the Internet as Washington debated options." The Washington Post.
Foer, Franklin (March 2018). "The Plot Against America". The Atlantic.
Frank, Thomas (January 12, 2018). "Secret Money: How Trump Made Millions Selling Condos To Unknown Buyers ". BuzzFeed News.
Hamburger, Tom; Helderman, Rosalind S. (February 6, 2018). "Hero or hired gun? How a British former spy became a flash point in the Russia investigation." The Washington Post.
Luce, Edward (November 3, 2017) The Big Read: Trump under siege from Mueller as he travels to Asia. Financial Times.
Osnos, Evan; Remnick, David; Yaffa, Joshua. "Trump, Putin, and the New Cold War," (March 6, 2017), The New Yorker.
Pacepa, Ion Mihai; Rychlak, Ronald J. (2013). Disinformation: Former Spy Chief Reveals Secret Strategies for Undermining Freedom, Attacking Religion, and Promoting Terrorism
Shane, Scott; Mazzetti, Mark (September 20, 2018). "The Plot to Subvert an Election", The New York Times
Shultz, Richard H.; Godson, Roy (1984). Dezinformatsia: Active Measures in Soviet Strategy
Thompson, Nicholas; Vogelstein, Fred (February 12, 2018). "Inside the two years that shook Facebook–and the World." Wired.
Toobin, Jeffrey (December 11, 2017). "Michael Flynn's Guilty Plea Sends Donald Trump's Lawyers Scrambling" The New Yorker.
Unger, Craig (July 13, 2017). "Trump's Russian Laundromat" The New Republic.
External links
"Joint Statement from the Department Of Homeland Security and Office of the Director of National Intelligence on Election Security", October 7, 2016
Trump Investigations by the Associated Press
Bill Moyers: Interactive Timeline: Everything We Know About Russia and President Trump
Committee to Investigate Russia has five timelines.
Data, Democracy and Dirty Tricks, March 19, 2018 Channel 4
Trump and Russia: A timeline of the investigation
Tracking the Russia investigations, CNN
The Trump Russia Investigation. WhatTheFuckJustHappenedToday.com
"The Russia investigation and Donald Trump: a timeline from on-the-record sources"
2016
Contemporary history timelines
Donald Trump-related lists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inside%20Macintosh
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Inside Macintosh
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Inside Macintosh is the title of the developer documentation manuals published by Apple Computer, documenting the APIs and machine architecture of the Macintosh computer.
Early editions
The first Inside Macintosh documentation, for the Mac 128K, was distributed in two large binders with photocopied 3-hole-punched pages. Every few months, updated sections were distributed for insertion into the binders. Some of the original sections were written by very early members of the Macintosh group, including Chris Espinosa and Joanna Hoffman.
In July 1982, Caroline Rose was hired to take over the software documentation, while Bradley Hacker focused on documenting the hardware. In addition to being the lead writer, Rose edited Volumes I–III and was the project supervisor. In 1984, additional writers joined the effort, including Robert Anders, Mark Metzler, Kate Withey, Steve Chernicoff, Andy Averill, and Brent Davis.
Due to numerous last-minute software changes, the official version to be published by Addison-Wesley was delayed. In the meantime, a $25 Promotional Edition (known as the "phone book edition" because it was published by phone book publisher Lakeside Press) became available in April 1985.
Addison-Wesley published Volumes I–III in July 1985 in two formats: as three separate paperback books and as one hardcover book combining all three volumes. It was the official technical documentation for the original Mac 128K, the Mac 512K ("Fat Mac"), and Mac XL models.
Reception
Reactions to Volumes I–III were mixed. While many praised the documentation for its clarity, thoroughness, and consistency, others disagreed, particularly complaining about the lack of sample code.
Among the positive feedback were the following:
In the January 27, 1986, issue of InfoWorld, columnist John C. Dvorak wrote that the highlight of the Appleworld Conference, for many, was Addison-Wesley’s publication of Inside Macintosh. “It’s $75 and worth every penny. It tells you everything you never wanted know about the Macintosh—a must for any developer.”
Also in 1986, Inside Macintosh Volumes I–III won an Award of Achievement in the Society for Technical Communication’s Northern California competition.
In 1988, noted software developer and columnist Stan Krute wrote, “If Pulitzers had a technical writing category, Inside Mac would win a prize. [Its writers] have given us the most comprehensive insight into a complex cybernetic system yet seen.”
On the negative side:
Bruce F. Webster in BYTE of December 1985 described Inside Macintosh as "infamous, expensive, and obscure," but "for anyone wanting to do much with the Mac ... the only real [printed] source of information." He quoted Kathe Spracklen, developer of Sargon, as saying that the book "consists of 25 chapters, each of which requires that you understand the other 24 before reading it."
A Mac GUI article by Dog Cow quotes Robert C. Platt as saying, "The best guide to the Mac's ROMs is Inside Macintosh. Unfortunately, Inside Macintosh is also the most incomprehensible documentation ever written."
Volumes IV–VI
These versions of Inside Macintosh were subsequently published by Addison-Wesley (with authorship attributed only to Apple Computer in general):
Volume IV (October 1986) documented the changes to the system software in the Mac Plus, which was introduced in January 1986.
Volume V (February 1988) documented the Mac II and Mac SE, which were introduced in 1987. It discussed Color QuickDraw, as well as the Mac II and Mac SE hardware and other new software components.
Volume VI (April 1991) described System 7. With 32 chapters, it was thicker than the first three volumes combined.
All of these volumes were designed to be read together; no information was repeated.
New approach
Shortly after Volume VI was published, Apple revamped the entire Inside Macintosh series, breaking it into volumes according to the functional area discussed, rather than specific machine models or capabilities. In this form, the series was far more coherent and a much better reference for programmers. As new functionality was added to the classic Mac OS, new volumes (below) could be written without invalidating those published earlier—in contrast to the first series, which became increasingly out of date over time.
AOCE Application Interfaces
AOCE Service Access Modules
Communications Toolbox
Devices
Files
Imaging With QuickDraw
Interapplication Communication
Macintosh Toolbox Essentials
Memory
More Macintosh Toolbox
Networking
Operating System Utilities
Overview
QuickDraw GX Environment and Utilities
QuickDraw GX Graphics
QuickDraw GX Objects
QuickDraw GX Printing
QuickDraw GX Printing Extension and Drivers
QuickDraw GX Programmer's Overview
QuickDraw GX Typography
QuickTime
QuickTime Components
PowerPC Numerics
PowerPC System Software
Processes
Sound
Text
X-Ref
These related documents were also published:
ResEdit Reference
TrueType Font Format Specification
In the late 1990s, Apple stopped publishing Inside Macintosh as a printed book, instead making it available as a CD-ROM at least since 1994, as well as online. Since then, the CD variant has been phased out, though Apple developers can still receive online documentation as part of the developer CDs. In its online form, the information is much easier to maintain, but some developers still prefer a printed format.
Inside Macintosh covers only the classic Mac OS; a new set of documentation was introduced for Mac OS X. Initially this documentation included only the Carbon Specification identifying the APIs that were supported in Carbon and the Cocoa documentation inherited from OpenStep. Later, the Carbon Specification was refactored into the Carbon Reference, which actually documented the APIs (taking much content from Inside Macintosh). Today, the Carbon Reference and Cocoa Reference are bundled together in the ADC Reference Library.
References
External links
Apple Developer Documentation
ADC Reference Library
Classic Mac OS
Addison-Wesley books
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26082808
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nimsoft
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Nimsoft
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Nimsoft was an independent company software vendor that offered information technology (IT) monitoring and service desk products and services. It was acquired by CA Inc. in 2010, and since October 2012 its products were integrated into that business. The Nimsoft brand is still used by CA.
Nimsoft products monitor and manage business services and specific systems within the IT infrastructure, including network components, servers, databases, applications, and virtualized environments.
With Nimsoft products, customers can monitor systems hosted in internal data centers, as well as in externally hosted environments, including software as a service (SaaS) and cloud computing environments.
History
Nimbus Software was founded in Oslo, Norway, in 1998 (not to be confused with Nimbus Data).
Converse Software, the exclusive US distributor of Nimbus Software, was founded in Silicon Valley in 2002.
Nimbus Software and Converse Software merged in 2004 to form Nimsoft. Gary Read, the founder of the US distributor, was appointed CEO and the new company's headquarters were established in Silicon Valley.
In 2007 a 10.3 million Series A round of funding from JMI Equity and Northzone Ventures closed.
Nimsoft acquired Indicative Software in April 2008 to offer business service management and established a new research and development base in Fort Collins, Colorado.
Nimsoft received the San Francisco Business Times 2008 "Best Place to Work Award".
Nimsoft closed a $12 million funding round led by Goldman Sachs in October 2008.
In May 2009 Nimsoft acquired the intellectual property assets of Cittio. Its product capabilities included network discovery, topology mapping, and root cause analysis (RCA) utilizing graph theory.
That October Nimsoft announced its unified monitoring architecture to monitor externally hosted systems and services, including SaaS and cloud computing based IT infrastructures.
In March 2010 CA Inc. announced it would acquire Nimsoft for $350 million. In September 2010, Nimsoft extended its software to support Vblock products from the VCE Company.
In April 2011, Nimsoft announced its Unified Manager, software combining IT monitoring and service management.
Enhanced management support for NetApp storage was announced in June.
CA acquired Netherlands-based WatchMouse in July, and its software was integrated into Nimsoft.
Nimsoft ceased to exist as an independent operating unit within CA in 2012, although the same products are still offered under that brand name.
References
External links
Nimsoft Unified Monitoring Site
Network management
Network analyzers
System administration
Information technology companies of the United States
CA Technologies
Website monitoring software
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129801
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portsmouth%2C%20Ohio
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Portsmouth, Ohio
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Portsmouth is a city in and the county seat of Scioto County, Ohio, United States. Located in southern Ohio south of Chillicothe, it lies on the north bank of the Ohio River, across from Kentucky, just east of the mouth of the Scioto River. The population was 20,226 at the 2010 census. Portsmouth also stands as the state's 88th most populated city.
History
Foundation
The area was occupied by Native Americans as early as 100 BC, as indicated by the Portsmouth Earthworks, a ceremonial center built by the Ohio Hopewell culture between 100 and 500 AD.
According to early 20th-century historian Charles Augustus Hanna, a Shawnee village was founded at the site of modern-day Portsmouth in late 1758, following the destruction of Lower Shawneetown by floods.
European-Americans began to settle in the 1790s after the American Revolutionary War, and the small town of Alexandria was founded. Located at the confluence, Alexandria was flooded numerous times by the Ohio and the Scioto rivers.
In 1796, Emanuel Traxler became the first person to permanently occupy land in what would later be known as Portsmouth, after the United States gained its independence.
In 1803, Henry Massie found a better location slightly east and somewhat removed from the flood plains. He began to plot the new city by mapping the streets and distributing the land. Portsmouth was founded in 1803 and was established as a city in 1815. It was designated as the county seat. Settlers left Alexandria, and it soon disappeared. Massie named Portsmouth after the town of Portsmouth in New Hampshire.
The Ohio state legislature passed "Black Laws" in 1804 that restricted movement of free blacks and required persons to carry papers, in an effort to dissuade blacks from settling in the state. These provisions were intermittently enforced by local governments and law enforcement, and sometimes used as an excuse to force African Americans out of settlements. In 1831, Portsmouth drove out African Americans from the city under this pretext. Many settled several miles north in what became known as Huston's Hollow, along the Scioto River. Its residents, especially Joseph Love and Dan Lucas, provided aid to refugee slaves in the following years and assisted them in moving north.
Although southern Ohio was dominated in number by anti-abolitionist settlers from the South, some whites also worked to improve conditions for blacks and aid refugee slaves. Portsmouth became important in the antebellum years as part of the Underground Railroad. Fugitive slaves from Kentucky and other parts of the South crossed the Ohio River here. Some found their future in Portsmouth; others moved north along the Scioto River to reach Detroit, Michigan, and get further away from slave catchers. Many continued into Canada to secure their freedom. A historical marker near the Grant Bridge commemorates this period of Portsmouth's history. James Ashley of Portsmouth continued his activism and pursued a political career. After being elected to Congress, he wrote the Thirteenth Amendment, which abolished slavery in 1865 after the American Civil War.
Portsmouth quickly developed an industrial base due to its location at the confluence of the Ohio and Scioto rivers. Early industrial growth included having meat packing and shipping facilities for Thomas Worthington's Chillicothe farm, located north of Portsmouth on the Scioto River. The city's growth was stimulated by completion of the Ohio and Erie Canal in the 1820s and 1830s, which provided access to the Great Lakes, opening up northern markets.
But the construction of the Norfolk and Western (N&W) railyards beginning in 1838 and the completion of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (B&O) junction at the city in the late 1850s quickly surpassed the canal in stimulating growth. The railroads soon carried more freight than the canal, with the B&O connecting the city to the Baltimore and Washington, DC markets. By the end of the 19th century, Portsmouth became one of the most important industrial cities on the Ohio River between Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and Cincinnati, Ohio. It became an iron and steel factory town with new companies like the Portsmouth Steel Company.
20th century
The city's growth continued. By 1916, during World War I, Portsmouth was listed as being a major industrial and jobbing center, the fourth-largest shoe manufacturing center in the country, and the largest manufacturer of fire and paving bricks in the United States. Wheeling-Pittsburgh Steel (later called Empire-Detroit Steel) employed over one thousand people. There were 100 other manufacturing companies producing goods from furniture to engines.
Such industrial and shipping growth greatly benefited Boneyfiddle (a west-end neighborhood in Portsmouth), where grand buildings were constructed with the wealth from the commerce. As time passed, much of the commerce began to move toward Chillicothe Street, which has continued as the main thoroughfare of Portsmouth. While Boneyfiddle is receiving new life, it is a shadow of its former self.
The city population peaked at just over 42,000 in 1930 (see "Demographics", below). In 1931, the Norfolk Southern Corporation built a grand, art deco passenger station in Portsmouth, that provided a substantial entry to the city. It was located at 16th and Findlay streets. Passengers used the station for access to both interstate and intrastate train lines, which provided basic transportation for many. The widespread availability of affordable automobiles and changing patterns resulted in reduction in rail passenger traffic here and nationally. The station was later used for offices and its keys were turned over to Scioto County in 2003, and the building was demolished in 2004.
Suburbanization also affected the city. By the 1950 census, the population had begun to decline, falling below 40,000. Some of this change was due to the effects of highway construction, which stimulated suburban residential development in the postwar years. But during the late 20th century, foreign competition and industrial restructuring resulted in the loss of most of the industrial jobs on which Portsmouth's economy had been based; the jobs were moved out of the area, with many going overseas.
Further decline occurred in 1980, following the suspension of operations at Empire Detroit Steel's Portsmouth Works, which took place after the sale of the steel plant to Armco Steel. Armco Steel closed the plant because they did not want to replace the obsolete, Open Hearth Furnaces with the more efficient basic oxygen steel furnaces. The plant also needed a continuous caster to replace the obsolete soaking pits and blooming mill in 1995. When the steel mill was closed, 1,300 steelworkers were laid off.
21st century
As of 2010, Portsmouth has a population of approximately 20,000. It has shared in the loss of jobs due to unskilled labor outsourcing and population migration to more populous urban areas.
Despite its relatively small size, Portsmouth has been a regular stop for recent Presidential campaigns of the 21st century. In September 2004, George W. Bush visited the city as part of his reelection campaign. Vice Presidential candidate John Edwards also visited Portsmouth that month. The campaigns of 2008 resulted in numerous candidates and surrogates visiting Portsmouth, and some spoke at Shawnee State University: Bill Clinton on behalf of his wife Hillary Clinton, Republican candidate John McCain, and US Senator Barack Obama, who won the election. In 2012, candidate Mitt Romney spoke at Shawnee State University. In March 2016, Bill Clinton visited Portsmouth again to campaign for his wife, presidential candidate Hillary Clinton. In August 2017, US Senator and former presidential candidate, Bernie Sanders, spoke at a rally held at Shawnee State University.
Portsmouth, and other parts of Scioto County, have worked to redevelop blighted properties and create a new economy. Along with adapting disused residential properties, Portsmouth has begun the process of transforming abandoned industrial and commercial properties to other uses.
The city has initiated new developments in its downtown. The Ohio Legislature passed House Bill 233 on April 20, 2016 to authorize cities to create Downtown Redevelopment Districts. They operate similarly to a Tax Increment Finance (TIF) District. The city of Portsmouth formed a Downtown Redevelopment District (DRD) in 2017 in the Boneyfiddle neighborhood of the city to increase investment and development there.
Through the early 21st century, there has been a noticeable increase in investment in Portsmouth's local economy. New investments and developments in the local economy led to Portsmouth's inclusion in Site Selection Magazines "Top 10 Micropolitan areas". Celina, Defiance and Portsmouth were among a group of cities tied for 10th. Portsmouth attracted nine significant economic development projects in 2016, nearly as many as it had from 2004 to 2013 combined.
In 2014, Portsmouth was one of 350 cities to enter a submission in the America's Best Communities competition, hoping to win the $3 million first place prize. In April 2015, Portsmouth was chosen as one of the 50 quarter-finalists, winning $50,000 to help prepare a Community Revitalization Plan. In January 2016, Portsmouth's plan, which emphasized using its most valuable asset, the Ohio River, as a key to revitalizing the city, earned it one of 15 spots in the competition's semi-finals. In April 2016, Portsmouth was one of seven cities eliminated at the semi-final round, but received an additional $25,000 for use in continuing to develop its plans to improve commercial and community access to the Portsmouth riverfront by making the port a premier regional destination for industrial development, small business development, and riverfront recreation.
In 2019, Portsmouth was named Hallmarks' Hometown Christmas Town. The Friends of Portsmouth group held the annual Winterfest celebration event that brought Christmas lights, vendors, ice skating, carriage rides, tree lighting, and more to Market Square.
In 2020 the National Civic League named Portsmouth as an "All-American City," along with nine other cities.
Demographics
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 20,226 people, 8,286 households, and 4,707 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 9,339 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 90.1% White, 5.1% African American, 0.4% Native American, 0.6% Asian, 0.7% from other races, and 3.0% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.2% of the population.
There were 8,286 households, out of which 28.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 33.9% were married couples living together, 17.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.4% had a male householder with no wife present, and 43.2% were non-families. 35.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.28 and the average family size was 2.93.
The median age in the city was 36.1 years. 21.6% of residents were under the age of 18; 14.3% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 23.6% were from 25 to 44; 24.2% were from 45 to 64; and 16.4% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 46.4% male and 53.6% female.
2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 20,909 people, 9,120 households, and 5,216 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,941.4 people per square mile (749.6/km2). There were 10,248 housing units at an average density of 951.5 per square mile
(367.4/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 91.50% White, 5.00% African American, 0.63% Native American, 0.61% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.32% from other races, and 1.92% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.93% of the population.
There were 9,120 households, out of which 25.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 37.9% were married couples living together, 15.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 42.8% were non-families. 37.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 17.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.19 and the average family size was 2.87.
In the city the population was spread out, with 22.0% under the age of 18, 11.3% from 18 to 24, 25.9% from 25 to 44, 21.2% from 45 to 64, and 19.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 83.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 78.3 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $23,004, and the median income for a family was $31,237. Males had a median income of $31,521 versus $20,896 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,078. About 18.3% of families and 23.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 31.1% of those under age 18 and 14.5% of those age 65 or over.
Geography
Portsmouth is at the confluence of the Ohio, Scioto, and Little Scioto rivers. It is a midway point among four major cities: Charleston, West Virginia, Cincinnati and Columbus, Ohio; and Lexington, Kentucky, each of which are approximately ninety miles away (roughly a two-hour drive).
Much of the terrain is quite hilly due to dissected plateau around it. Both rivers have carved valleys and Portsmouth lies next to both the Scioto and Ohio rivers. It is within the ecoregion of the Western Allegheny Plateau. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water.
Neighborhoods
Sciotoville - located in the eastern part of Portsmouth off US 52 at Ohio 335; it is sometimes known as East Portsmouth, but it is within the city limits, with about 10% of the city's population living there.
North Moreland - a community within Portsmouth, north of the Village of New Boston. North Moreland connects the larger western section of Portsmouth with Sciotoville.
Boneyfiddle - several blocks west of downtown Portsmouth, generally centered around the Market St./2nd St. intersection
Hilltop - residential neighborhoods in Portsmouth located north of 17th St., west of Thomas Ave and east of Scioto Trail
Climate
Portsmouth has a hot-summer humid continental climate (Dfa) closely bordering a humid subtropical climate (Cfa.) Average monthly temperatures range from 31.8° F in January to 75.1° F in July.
Government
City government
The city charter was adopted on November 6, 1928. The city conducts business at their city hall, which was constructed in 1935. City council meetings are held during the second and fourth weeks in the month. The city reverted from being run by a city manager to a mayor in 1988, with the mayor being elected every four years.
In 2012 voters approved returning to a Council/City Manager form of government; this took effect in January 2014. Under the City Manager/Council system, the mayor and vice-mayor are elected members of the city council who are appointed to their positions by the council. The city manager is hired by and reports directly to the council. The city manager oversees the day-to-day operations of city government and is the direct supervisor of all city department heads. There are six wards in the city with elections of council members from the wards every two years.
The City Manager is Sam Sutherland.
County government
Portsmouth is the county seat for Scioto County. The courthouse is located at the corner of Sixth and Court Streets and was constructed in 1936. The sheriff's office and county jail, once located in the courthouse, are located in a new facility, constructed in 2006 at the former site of the Norfolk and Western rail depot near U.S. 23.
County Commissioners:
Scottie Powell, Chairman
Bryan K. Davis
Cathy E. Coleman
The county commissioners meet twice weekly on Tuesday and Thursdays at 9:30 am in room 107 on the first floor of the Scioto County Courthouse.
Economy
Portsmouth major employers include Southern Ohio Medical Center, Kings Daughters Medical Center, Shawnee State University, Norfolk Southern Corp.(Railroad), Southern Ohio Correctional Facility and OSCO Industries. In November 2002, the Portsmouth Gaseous Diffusion Plant in nearby Piketon, Ohio was recognized as a Nuclear Historic Landmark by the American Nuclear Society. It had served a military function from 1952 until the mid-1960s, when the mission changed from enriching uranium for nuclear weapons to one focused on producing fuel for commercial nuclear power plants. The Portsmouth Gaseous Diffusion Plant ended enriching operations in 2001 and began to support operational and administrative functions and perform external contract work. The site is currently being cleaned up for future development by Fluor/ B&W.
Graf Brothers Flooring and Lumber, the world's largest manufacturer of rift and quartered oak products, has two satellite log yards in Portsmouth, with the company's main office being located across the river in South Shore, Kentucky. Portsmouth is the home of Sole Choice Inc., one of the largest manufacturers of shoelaces in the world.
Transportation
Highways
Portsmouth is served by two major U.S. Routes: 23 and 52. Other significant roads include Ohio State Routes 73, 104,
139, 140, and 335. The nearest Interstate highway is I-64.
Interstate 73 is planned to use the newly built Portsmouth bypass (i.e., Ohio State Route 823) en route from North Carolina To Michigan. The I-74 Extension is planned to use US 52 through Portsmouth, running concurrently with I-73 on the eastern side of Portsmouth
Rail
Portsmouth is an important location in the Norfolk Southern Railway network. Norfolk Southern operates a railyard and locomotive maintenance facility for its long-distance shipping route between the coalfields of West Virginia and points east, to the Great Lakes. Competitor CSX Transportation operates a former Chesapeake & Ohio Railway line just east of the city in Sciotoville, which crosses the Ohio River on the historic Sciotoville Bridge. Amtrak offers passenger service to the Portsmouth area on its Cardinal route between New York City and Chicago. The passenger station is located on CSX Transportation-owned track in South Shore, Kentucky, across the Ohio River from Portsmouth.
Air
Portsmouth is served by the Greater Portsmouth Regional Airport (PMH), a general aviation airport. The airport is located in Minford, Ohio, approximately northeast of the city. The nearest commercial airport is Tri-State Airport (HTS) in Ceredo, West Virginia, approximately outside Huntington, West Virginia and southeast of Portsmouth.
Public transportation
Public transportation for Portsmouth and its outlying areas is offered through Access Scioto County (ASC).
Education
Colleges and universities
Portsmouth is the home of Shawnee State University, a public institution established in 1986. It is Ohio's thirteenth and newest institution of higher education.
Campus Map
K-12 schools
Portsmouth has one public and two private school systems (the Notre Dame schools and the Portsmouth STEM Academy). The Portsmouth
City School District has served the city since its founding in the 1830s and is the public school in the city. Portsmouth City School District is notable having a storied basketball tradition by winning four OSHAA State Basketball Championships in 1931, 1961, 1978, and 1988. The Trojan basketball team has made 14 final four appearances, they are 1925, 1926, 1927, 1929, 1931 (1st), 1934 (2nd), 1939, 1941, 1961 (1st), 1978 (1st), 1980 (2nd), 1988 (1st), 1990 (2nd). and 2012 (2nd). The Trojan football team has also produced some notable teams as of late with an Associated Press Division 3 State Championship in 2000, a regional title, and state semi-final appearance in 2000, and finishing as regional runner up in both 2001, and 2002. In all the Trojans football team has sent 5 teams to the post season since 2000, as of the start of the 2009 season.
In 2000, Portsmouth voters passed a much needed school bond issue, which helped construct new schools for the district. The new schools opened for the 2006–2007 school year. These schools won the Grand Prize from School Planning & Management's 2007 Education Design Showcase. The award is awarded annually to the K-12 school that displays "excellence in design and functional planning directed toward meeting the needs of the educational program." In addition, the school system plans to build a new $10 million athletic complex.
Portsmouth High School has an award-winning Interactive Media program that has won multiple awards for both video and graphic design. The class is under the direction of Chris Cole and the
students run the local cable station TNN CH25.
In 2009 the school system completed construction on a new $10 million athletic complex. The Clark Athletic Complex has a new football field, baseball field, softball field, tennis courts, and track. The complex is named for Clyde and Maycel Clark of the Clark Foundation, major financial contributors for the construction of the facility. The new complex, situated on the site of the former high school building and across the street from the current high school, has three paintings by mural artist Herb Roe, a 1992 Portsmouth High School alumnus. The murals depict three of the sports played at the new facility: baseball, tennis, and football.
Notre Dame (Catholic) Schools(formerly Portsmouth Central Catholic HS) have served the city's Roman Catholics and others since 1852. It is also notable for its
football team, founded in 1929. It won two state championships in 1967 and 1970.
Prescription drug epidemic
Since the late 1990s, an epidemic of prescription drug abuse has swept the town and surrounding areas. It has caused a dramatic increase in Hepatitis C cases in the county, drug-related deaths, robberies, murder, and an increased incidence of children born addicted to prescription drugs.
For a number of years, the most prevalent drug was oxycodone, a synthetic opiate known colloquially as oxys and hillbilly heroin, because of the drug's association with Appalachian areas of Kentucky, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and West Virginia. An April 2011 special episode of the television series Intervention, "Intervention In-Depth: Hillbilly Heroin", focused on Portsmouth. It explored the effects of prescription drug abuse on residents of the town and surrounding area. In a May 2019 investigative story, The Washington Post reported that fentanyl, a synthetic opioid 50 times more potent than oxycodone, had become the deadly drug of choice in Ohio, contributing to nearly 21,000 opiate overdose deaths in the United States in the first part of 2018.
In 2011 the DEA and state and local law enforcement agencies worked to crack down on the problem, with the DEA serving Immediate Suspension Orders (suspension of their license to practice medicine) on four local doctors and a pharmacy in Scioto County. In a press release, the DEA said that one of the targets, Dr. Temponeras, was one of the largest dispensers of controlled substances in the US, while two others, Dr. Fantazuzzi and Dr. Dawes, had prescribed hundreds of thousands of opiates over a two-year period.
The support group SOLACE formed in Portsmouth in 2010 to tackle this problem, helping to raise public awareness of the issue and lobbying the state house for legislation. Governor John Kasich referred to the group in his 2011 State of the State Address, and members of the group were featured in the A&E documentary entitled Intervention In-Depth: Hillbilly Heroin (2011). While SOLACE's efforts have been promoted as an example of how a small, dedicated group could effect real change in their community, Ohio voters in 2011 rejected a proposed $1 million drug prevention tax levy backed by SOLACE and other anti-drug abuse organizations.
In May 2011 the Ohio Senate and House unanimously passed a bill, authored by Portsmouth's representative in the Ohio House, Dr. Terry Johnson, and signed into law by Governor Kasich, cracking down on pill mills by regulating of pain clinics and the ability of prescribers to personally furnish controlled substances.
Despite all these efforts, by 2019 the ten areas with the highest rates of fatal overdoses in the nation were located in a near-contiguous stretch from St. Louis, through one county in Kentucky, five counties in Ohio, two counties in West Virginia, and reaching to Baltimore. While Portsmouth's Scioto County did not happen to be in the worst ten for 2019, it is in the middle of this death zone, within a few miles of six of the deadliest counties on the list. Generations of poverty have helped to create an underground economy supporting the distribution of illegal substances.
Culture
Buildings and landmarks
Many historical buildings in Portsmouth have been demolished because of poor upkeep, other city development, or the completion of new buildings that replaced the landmarks. Landmarks that have been demolished include the old Norfolk & Western rail depot, churches dating back to the early 20th century, houses dating to the 1850s, Grant Middle School, and the old Portsmouth High School and various elementary schools.
Many buildings survive from the early 19th century. Old churches are among the reminders of Portsmouth's past and identity. The historic 1910 Columbia Theater was destroyed by a fire in 2007, later demolished and rebuilt in 2012 as the open air Columbia Music Hall, with a refurbished façade from the original structure serving as the entry point. Other noted historic buildings include the old monastery, which can be seen for miles, and Spartan Stadium, as well as numerous buildings in the Boneyfiddle Historic District, which is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. In 1982, students from Miami University conducted research on several of Portsmouth's most important historic buildings. This work resulted in an exhibition at the Miami University Art Museum and a book entitled Portsmouth: Architecture in an Ohio River Town.
The Portsmouth Public Library is the city's library, founded in 1879. It has branch libraries throughout Scioto County. The Southern Ohio Museum, founded in 1979, has more than sixty exhibits on display including artwork by Clarence Holbrook Carter and Jesse Stuart, China dolls, Native American artifacts, and works by local artists.
In October 2016, a professor at Shawnee State University submitted a proposal to the State Farm Neighborhood Assist grant program, to preserve Spartan Municipal Stadium. The stadium opened in 1930 as the original home of the Portsmouth Spartans, now the fifth oldest active franchise in the National Football League (as the Detroit Lions). In November 2016, the city won a $25,000 State Farm Neighborhood Assist grant toward the stadium's renovation.
Indian Head Rock
The Indian Head Rock is an eight-ton sandstone boulder which until 2007 rested at the bottom of the Ohio River. Historically, the boulder was used to record low river stages. It is notable due to its history and due to the figures and names of individuals which were carved into the rock at times of low water levels. In 1917, the construction of a dam downriver from Portsmouth meant that the rock would forever be submerged, if not for its recovery by a group of local divers led by an Ironton historian. The removal of the rock led the states of Kentucky and Ohio into a legislative battle to determine its ownership and disposition. The rock was returned to the state of Kentucky in 2010.
City parks
Portsmouth has fourteen parks for residents and community use. These include Alexandria Park (Ohio and Scioto River confluence), Bannon Park (near Farley Square), Branch Rickey Park (on Williams Street near levee), Buckeye Park (near Branch Rickey Park), Cyndee Secrest Park (Sciotoville), Dr. Hartlage Park (Rose Street in Sciotoville), Labold Park (near Spartan Stadium), Larry Hisle Park (23rd Street & Thomas Ave.), Mound Park (17th & Hutchins Streets), York Park (riverfront), Spartan Stadium, Tracy Park (Chillicothe & Gay Streets), and
Weghorst Park (Fourth & Jefferson Streets).
Portsmouth's Spock Community Dog Park, named after a K9 who died protecting his partner, was implemented in 2019 and is a recreational dog park that gives the community a place walk their dog and have leisure time.
A new skate-park, designed by Spohn Ranch Skateparks, is planned for construction in the near future.
Eugene Mckinley Memorial Pool, Dreamland Pool, and the Era of Jim Crow
The Mckinley Swimming Pool, located on Findley St., was built during the Civil Rights era in memory of Eugene Mckinley, a 14 year old African American boy who drowned.
Portsmouth's other pool in the area (that has long since closed) was owned by the Terrace Club, and was commonly referred to as the "Dreamland Pool" by community members.
The Terrace Club's pool was still segregated despite the progress of the Civil Rights movement, which influenced the institutional make-up of Portsmouth, as well as protests across the nation. During the 1960s, Portsmouth made institutional changes to attempt to include the black community as well.
With the pool's construction being delayed and the African American community not having a place to swim in the area, despite the Civil Rights act having been passed, eventually a protest called the wade-in would occur at Dreamland Pool on July 17, 1964.
The next summer, in 1965, the Board of Directors of the Terrace Club pool unianimously removed their ban on African-Americans and reopened under the name Dreamland Pool.
The Mckinley Pool, which opened in 1966, still remains and stands as a historic pool that represents Portsmouth's reform, and the struggle against the laws of the Jim Crow Era.
Greenlawn Cemetery
This active cemetery was established in 1829. Greenlawn is 40 acres in size and is the only public cemetery in the city of Portsmouth. This cemetery incorporates several smaller cemeteries, which are sections of Greenlawn Cemetery. Sections included in Greenlawn Cemetery are: City, Evergreen, Hebrew, Holy Redeemer, Hill North (Methodist), Hill South (Robinson), Old Mausoleum, Soldiers Circle, and St. Marys. The cemetery is located at Offnere Street and Grant Street. It is maintained by the City of Portsmouth.
Floods and floodwalls
Although developed on higher ground, the city has been subject to seasonal flooding. The city had extensive flooding in 1884, 1913, and 1937. After the flood of 1937, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers constructed a floodwall protecting the city, which prevented two major floods in 1964 and 1997.
In 1992, the city of Portsmouth began honoring some of the many accomplishments of its area natives by placing a star on the riverside of the floodwall. This is known as the Portsmouth Wall of Fame and was instituted by then-mayor Frank Gerlach. Some of the honorees include Don Gullett, Al Oliver, and former United States Vice-President Dan Quayle, who was not a Portsmouth native.
In 1992 a nonprofit group headed by Dr. Louis R. and Ava Chaboudy was formed to investigate developing a mural-based tourist attraction on the floodwall. In the spring of 1993, mural artist Robert Dafford was commissioned and began painting murals of Portsmouth's history. He hired local art student Herb Roe as an assistant. Roe subsequently apprenticed to and worked for Dafford for 15 years. The project eventually spanned sixty tall consecutive Portsmouth murals, stretching for over 2,000 feet (610 m). Subjects covered by the murals span the history of the area from the ancient mound building Adena and Hopewell cultures to modern sporting events and notable natives.
These subjects include
The Portsmouth Earthworks, a large mound complex constructed by the Ohio Hopewell culture from 100 BCE to 500 CE.
Lower Shawneetown, a Shawnee village that straddled the Ohio River just downstream during the late 18th century.
The 1749 'Lead Plate Expedition' to advance France's territorial claim on the Ohio Valley, led by Pierre Joseph Céloron de Blainville.
Tecumseh, a Shawnee leader who directed a large tribal confederacy that opposed the United States during Tecumseh's War and the War of 1812. He grew up in the Ohio country during the American Revolutionary War and the Northwest Indian War.
Henry Massie, a founding father of the town and surveyor who laid out the original plat in 1803.
A Civil War unit from Portsmouth, Battery L, fighting at Gettysburg
Jim Thorpe, a Native American athlete who played as the player/coach of the semi-professional Portsmouth Shoesteels in the late 1920s.
The Portsmouth Spartans, a member of the NFL from 1929 to 1933; the organization later moved to Detroit to become the Detroit Lions.
Branch Rickey, influential baseball coach, inventor of the farm team system, and the signer of Jackie Robinson to Major League Baseball; Robinson broke the baseball color line when he debuted with the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1947.
Clarence Holbrook Carter, an American Regionalist and surrealist painter.
Carl Ackerman, local photographer and historic photo collector, whose collection was used for many of the river murals.
The disastrous Ohio River flood of 1937, which led to the construction of the floodwall.
Transportation – stagecoaches, riverboats, railroads and the Ohio and Erie Canal, which had its terminus just outside Portsmouth.
Local notables including Roy Rogers, Jesse Stuart, Julia Marlowe, and Vern Riffe.
Other panels explore the local history of education, the first European settlers, industries (including the steel industry, shoe industry, and the Portsmouth Gaseous Diffusion Plant), sister cities, the local Carnegie library, firemen and police, period genre scenes of old downtown and other localities, and a memorial to area armed forces veterans.
The original mural project was finished in the fall of 2003. Since then several additional panels have been added, including murals honoring Portsmouth's baseball heroes in 2006; and the Tour of the Scioto River Valley (TOSRV), a bicycle tour between Columbus and Portsmouth in 2007.
Professional sports
Portsmouth had a series of semi-pro football teams in the 1920s and 1930s, the most notable being the Portsmouth Shoe-Steels, whose roster included player-coach Jim Thorpe.
From 1929 to 1933, the city was home to the Portsmouth Spartans, which joined the National Football League in 1930. The Spartans notably competed in the first professional football night game against the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1930. Despite their on-field success, being based in the NFL's second-smallest city during the Great Depression meant the team was in constant finanical trouble. This forced the sale of the team and its relocation to Detroit in 1934, where it became the Detroit Lions.
In the late 20th century, the Portsmouth Explorers were one of the original teams in the Frontier League, a non-affiliated minor league baseball organization. The Explorers played in the league's first three seasons, from 1993 to 1995. In 1938, Portsmouth was also the home of the Portsmouth Red Birds, a minor league team owned by the St. Louis Cardinals.
In the late 1990s, Portsmouth was home to the Superstar Wrestling Federation before its demise. More recently Revolutionary Championship Wrestling has made its home in Portsmouth, airing on local TV station WQCW. Revolutionary Championship Wrestling in Portsmouth has featured such stars as Big Van Vader, Jerry "The King" Lawler, Demolition Ax, "Beautiful" Bobby Eaton, "Wildcat" Chris Harris, and Ivan Koloff.
Media
Portsmouth is near the dividing line for several television markets, including Columbus,
Cincinnati, and Huntington-Charleston. There are two local television stations including WTZP, an America One affiliate, and WQCW, a CW affiliate. Portsmouth was, prior to October 2017, served by WPBO, a PBS affiliate. Programs aired on WPBO were broadcast by WOSU in Columbus. Local radio stations WFHT, WIOI, WNXT, WPYK, WZZZ, and WOSP-FM serve the radio listeners in the city.
Portsmouth is also served by three newspapers. The Portsmouth Daily Times is the city's only daily newspaper and is also available online. The Community Common is a free biweekly newspaper and the Scioto Voice is a weekly newspaper, which is mailed to subscribers. The University Chronicle is the student-led newspaper at Shawnee State University.
Notable people
James Mitchell Ashley - drafter of the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
Dale Bandy – Ohio University basketball coach
Henry T. Bannon - U.S. representative from Portsmouth (1901-1905), attorney, author, and historian
Kathleen Battle – opera singer
Al Bridwell – former Major League Baseball player
Gerald Cadogan – former Professional Football player
Earl Thomas Conley – country music singer and songwriter
Emma M. Cramer – member of the Ohio House of Representatives
Martin Dillon – musician and operatic tenor
Bil Dwyer – cartoonist (Dumb Dora) and humorist
Chuck Ealey – former football player for University of Toledo, and the Canadian Football League's Winnipeg Blue Bombers, Hamilton Tiger-Cats and Toronto Argonauts
Steve Free – ASCAP Award-winning Appalachian musician
Bill Harsha – Ohio politician for the U.S. House of
Representatives (1961–1981)
Larry Hisle – former Major League Baseball player, currently employed with Milwaukee Brewers Organization
Wells A. Hutchins - U.S. representative from Portsmouth (1883–1885), attorney
Elza Jeffords – U.S. representative from Mississippi (1883–1885); practiced law in Portsmouth prior to the American Civil War
Liza Johnson - film director
Chase Wilmot Kennedy, U.S. Army major general
Charles Kinney, Jr. - Ohio Secretary of State (1897-1901)
Cheryl L. Mason — Chairman, Board of Veterans' Appeals, US Department of Veterans' Affairs (First woman to hold the office)
Serena B. Miller - author
Jeff Munn – Vice President of operations for Harlem Globetrotters
Rocky Nelson – former Major League Baseball player
Josh Newman – Major League Baseball pitcher
Al Oliver – former Major League Baseball player
Wally Phillips – longtime Chicago radio personality
Del Rice - former Major League Baseball player
Branch Rickey – baseball executive, signed Jackie Robinson to the Brooklyn Dodgers
Barbara Robinson – author
Herb Roe – mural artist
Roy Rogers – singer and cowboy movie star
Cheryl Shuman – Media Personality strategic political and media strategist
Stuff Smith – jazz musician
Adam Stevens - crew chief for Kyle Busch in the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series
Ted Strickland – former Ohio governor
Gene Tenace – former Major League Baseball player
Sister cities
See also
List of cities and towns along the Ohio River
References
Further reading
Ann Hagedorn, Beyond the River The Untold Story of the Heroes of the Underground Railroad (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2002).
External links
Official website
Cities in Ohio
Cities in Scioto County, Ohio
Populated places established in 1803
1803 establishments in Ohio
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M4%20carbine
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M4 carbine
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The M4 carbine is a 5.56×45mm NATO, air-cooled, gas-operated, magazine-fed, carbine, assault rifle developed in the United States during the 1980s. It is a shortened version of the M16A2 assault rifle.
The M4 is extensively used by the United States Armed Forces, with decisions to largely replace the M16 rifle in United States Army (starting 2010) and United States Marine Corps (USMC) (starting 2016) combat units as the primary infantry weapon and service rifle. The M4 has been adopted by over 60 countries worldwide, and has been described as "one of the defining firearms of the 21st century".
Since its adoption in 1994, the M4 has undergone over 90 modifications to improve the weapon's ergonomics and modularity, including: the M4A1, which strengthened the barrel and removed the burst-fire option; the SOPMOD, an accessory kit containing optical attachments; and the underbarrel M203 grenade launcher.
History
Following the adoption of the M16 rifle, carbine variants were also adopted for close quarters operations, the first of which was the CAR-15 family of weapons, which served through the Vietnam War. However, these rifles had design issues, as the barrel length was halved to , which upset the ballistics, reducing its range and accuracy and leading to considerable muzzle flash and blast, meaning that a large flash suppressor had to be fitted.
In 1982, the U.S. Government requested Colt to make a carbine version of the M16A2. At the time, the Colt M16A2 was the Colt 645, also known as the M16A1E1. Later that year, the U.S. Army Armament Munitions Chemical Command helped Colt develop a new variant of the XM177E2, and the U.S. Army redesignated the XM177E2 to the XM4 Carbine, giving the name as the successor to the M3 Carbine. The first model of the XM4 is the XM177E2, which used the same upper and lower receiver as the M16A1, but fires the M855 cartridge instead of the M16's .223 Remington rounds. In 1983, the 9th Infantry Division requested a Quick Reaction Program (QRP) for a 5.56mm carbine to replace the M1 Carbine and M3 submachine gun in service. The XM4 was tested by the Army's Armament Research and Development Center (ARDC) in June 1983. Later, the gun was updated with improved furniture, and a 1-7" barrel. The ARDC recommended additional commonality with the M16A2 rifle, as well as lengthening the barrel to 14.5". In January 1984, the U.S. Army revised the QRP, and a month later, the Army formally approved development of the new carbine.
In June 1985, the Picatinny Arsenal was given a contract to produce 40 prototypes of the XM4. Initially a joint program between the Army and Marines, in 1986 the Army withdrew their funding. The XM4 was finished in 1987, and the Marines adopted 892 for that fiscal year, with the designation "carbine, 5.56mm, M4." Owing to experience from the 1991 Gulf War, the Army gave Colt its first production contracts for M4 carbines in May and July 1993, and M4A1 carbines for SOCOM operators in February 1994.
Interest in the M4 Carbine was accelerated after the Battle of Mogadishu (1993), in which Rangers complained that their M16 rifles were "unwieldy", whereas members of Delta Force in the same battle, equipped with the CAR-15, had no such complaints. The M4 Carbine first saw action in the hands of U.S. troops deployed to Kosovo in 1999 in support of the NATO-led KFOR peacekeeping force. It would subsequently be used heavily by U.S. forces during the Global War on Terrorism, including in Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom. In the Army, the M4 had largely replaced M16A2s as the primary weapon of forward deployed personnel by 2005. The M4 carbine also replaced most submachine guns and selected handguns in U.S. military service, as it fires more effective rifle ammunition that offers superior stopping power and is better able to penetrate modern body armor.
In 2007, the USMC ordered its officers (up to the rank of Lieutenant Colonel) and staff non-commissioned officers to carry the M4 carbine instead of the M9 handgun. This is in keeping with the Marine Corps doctrine, "Every Marine a rifleman." The Marine Corps, however, chose the full-sized M16A4 over the M4 as its standard infantry rifle. United States Navy corpsmen E5 and below are also issued M4s instead of the M9. While ordinary riflemen in the Marine Corps were armed with M16A4s, M4s were fielded by troops in positions where a full-length rifle would be too bulky, including vehicle operators, fireteam and squad leaders. As of 2013, the U.S. Marine Corps had 80,000 M4 carbines in their inventory.
By July 2015, major Marine Corps commands were endorsing switching to the M4 over the M16A4 as the standard infantry rifle, just as the Army had done. This is because of the carbine's lighter weight, compact length, and ability to address modern combat situations that happen mostly within close quarters; if a squad needs to engage at longer ranges, the M27 IAR can be used as a designated marksman rifle. Approval of the change would move the M16 to support personnel, while armories already had the 17,000 M4s in the inventory needed to outfit all infantrymen who needed one. In October 2015, Commandant Robert Neller formally approved of making the M4 carbine the primary weapon for all infantry battalions, security forces, and supporting schools in the USMC. The switch was to be completed by September 2016. In December 2017, the Marine Corps revealed a decision to equip every Marine in an infantry squad with the M27, replacing the M4 in that part of the service. MARSOC will retain the M4, as its shorter barrel is more suited to how they operate in confined spaces.
Improved M4
In 2009, the U.S. Army took complete ownership of the M4 design. This allowed companies other than Colt to compete with their own M4 designs. The Army planned on fielding the last of its M4 requirement in 2010. In October 2009, Army weapons officials proposed a series of changes to the M4 to Congress. Requested changes included an electronic round counter that records the number of shots fired, a heavier barrel, and possibly replacing the Stoner expanding gas system with a gas piston system.
The benefits of these changes, however, have come under scrutiny from both the military and civilian firearms community. According to a PDF detailing the M4 Carbine improvement plans released by PEO Soldier, the direct impingement system would be replaced only after reviews were done comparing the direct impingement system to commercial gas piston operating system to find out and use the best available operating system in the U.S. Army's improved M4A1.
In September 2010, the Army announced it would buy 12,000 M4A1s from Colt Firearms by the end of 2010, and would order 25,000 more M4A1s by early 2011. The service branch planned to buy 12,000 M4A1 conversion kits in early 2011. In late 2011, the Army bought 65,000 more conversion kits. From there the Army had to decide if it would upgrade all of its M4s. In April 2012, the U.S. Army announced it would begin purchasing over 120,000 M4A1 carbines to start reequipping front line units from the original M4 to the new M4A1 version. The first 24,000 were to be made by Remington Arms Company. Remington was to produce the M4A1s from mid-2013 to mid-2014. After completion of that contract, it was to be between Colt and Remington to produce over 100,000 more M4A1s for the U.S. Army. Because of efforts from Colt to sue the Army to force them not to use Remington to produce M4s, the Army reworked the original solicitation for new M4A1s to avoid legal issues from Colt. On 16 November 2012, Colt's protest of Remington receiving the M4A1 production contract was dismissed. Instead of the contract being re-awarded to Remington, the Army awarded the contract for 120,000 M4A1 carbines worth $77 million to FN Herstal on 22 February 2013. The order was expected to be completed by 2018.
Replacement attempts
Replacements for the M4 have mostly focused on two factors, improving its reliability, and its penetration. The first attempt to find a replacement for the M4 came in 1986, with the Advanced Combat Rifle program, in which the caseless Heckler & Koch G11 and various flechette rifles were tested, but this was quickly dropped as these designs were mostly prototypes, which demonstrated a lack of reliability. In the 1990s, the Objective Individual Combat Weapon competition was put forth to find a replacement for the M4. Two designs were produced, both by Heckler & Koch – the XM29 OICW, which incorporated a smart grenade launcher, but was canceled in 2004 as it was too heavy, and the XM8, which was canceled in 2005 as it did not offer significant enough improvements over the M4.
The Heckler & Koch HK416 was introduced in 2005, incorporating the same lower receiver as the M4A1, but replacing its direct impingement system with a gas-operated rotating bolt, more comparable to that of the G36. The HK416 was adopted by the Navy SEALs, Delta Force, and other special forces. In 2010, it was adopted by the Marines as the M27 Infantry Automatic Rifle. The same year, the Rangers and Navy SEALs adopted the FN SCAR, but later withdrew their purchase, as it was not a significant enough improvement over the M4A1.
Design
The M4 and its variants fire 5.56×45mm NATO (and .223 Remington) ammunition, and are gas-operated, magazine-fed, selective fire firearms with either a multi-position telescoping stock or a fixed A2 or LE tactical stock. The first stock fitted onto the M4 in 1985 was made entirely of plastic, which only had two positions; fully closed or fully extended. Later models have greater adjustability, and are commonly known as the "six position stock", "M4 stock", or, because of its recesses, "waffle stock".
The M4 is a shorter and lighter variant of the M16A2 rifle, with 80% parts commonality. The M4's maneuverability makes it beneficial for non-infantry troops (vehicle crews, clerks and staff officers), as well as for close quarters battle. The M4, along with the M16A4, has mostly replaced the M16A2 in the Army and Marines. The U.S. Air Force, for example, has transitioned completely to the M4 for Security Forces squadrons, while other armed personnel retain the M16A2. The U.S. Navy uses M4A1s for Special Operations and vehicle crews. However, the M4's shorter barrel reduces its range, with its rear iron sights integrated in the (removable) carry handle only adjustable from up to , compared to the M16A2 rear iron sights integrated in the fixed carry handle, which can reach up to .
Accessories
Like all the variants of the M16, the M4 and the M4A1 can be fitted with many accessories, such as night vision devices, flash suppressors, laser sights, telescopic sights, bipods, either the M203 or M320 grenade launcher, the M26 MASS shotgun, forward hand grips, a detachable rail-mounted carrying handle, and anything else compatible with a MIL-STD-1913 picatinny rail.
Other common accessories include the AN/PEQ-2, AN/PEQ-15 multi-mode laser, AN/PEQ-16 Mini Integrated Pointing Illumination Module (MIPIM), M68 CCO, Trijicon TA01 and TA31 Advanced Combat Optical Gunsights (ACOG), EOTech 550 series holographic sights, and Aimpoint M68 Close Combat Optic. Visible and infrared lights of various manufacturers are commonly attached using various mounting methods. As with all versions of the M16, the M4 accepts a blank-firing attachment (BFA) for training purposes.
The M4 and the M4A1 feed from 30-round STANAG magazines. Other types of magazines with different capacities such as the 100 rounds Beta C-Mag are also available. In January 2017, a USMC unit deployed with suppressors mounted to every infantry M4 service weapon. Exercises showed that having all weapons suppressed improved squad communication and surprise during engagements; disadvantages included additional heat and weight, increased maintenance, and the greater cost of equipping so many troops with the attachment. In July 2020, the Marine Corps announced it would be ordering suppressors for use by all M4 carbines used by close combat units. The Marines began to rollout suppressors for all M4/M4A1 carbines in infantry, reconnaissance and special operations units in December 2020.
Special Operations Peculiar Modification
In 1992, U.S. Special Operations Command (USSOCOM) developed the Special Operations Peculiar Modification (SOPMOD) Block I kit for the carbines used by units operating under its command. The kit features an M4A1, a Rail Interface System (RIS) handguard developed by Knight's Armament Company (KAC), a shortened quick-detachable M203 grenade launcher and leaf sight, a KAC sound suppressor, a KAC back-up rear sight, an Insight Technologies AN/PEQ-2A visible laser/infrared designator, along with Trijicon's ACOG TA-01NSN model and Reflex sights, and a night vision sight, among many other accessories. This kit was designed to be configurable (modular) for various missions, and the kit is currently in service with special operations units.
In 2002, the Block II modification kit was adopted featuring two new upper receivers: the Special Purpose Receiver (SPR) and Close Quarter Battle Receiver (CQBR). M4A1s fitted with the SPR were designated by the Navy as the Mk 12 Special Purpose Rifle, a type of designated marksman rifle. M4A1s with the CQBR were designated the Mk 18 Mod 0.
In 2018, the Upper Receiver Group-Improved (URG-I) modification kit was approved for the conversion of Block I and Block II carbine's upper receiver "to an improved barrel and rail assembly.." which includes the Magpul Industries M-LOK rail interface system.
Variants
Variants of the carbine built by different manufacturers are also in service with many other foreign special forces units, such as the Australian Special Air Service Regiment (SASR). While the SASR uses weapons of essentially the same pattern built by Colt for export (Colt uses different models to separate weapons for the U.S. military and those for commercial/export purposes), the British Special Air Service uses a variant on the basic theme, the Colt Canada C8SFW.
M4 MWS (Modular Weapon System)
Colt Model 925 carbines were tested and fitted with the KAC M4 RAS under the designation M4E2, but this designation appears to have been scrapped in favor of mounting this system to existing carbines without changing the designation. The U.S. Army Field Manual specifies for the Army that adding the Rail Adapter System (RAS) turns the weapon into the M4 MWS or modular weapon system.
M4A1
The M4A1 carbine is a fully automatic variant of the basic M4 carbine intended for special operations use. The M4A1 was introduced in May 1991 and was in service in 1994. The M4A1 was the first M4 model with the removable carry handle. The M4A1 has a "S-1-F" (safe/semi-automatic/fully automatic) trigger group, while the M4 has a "S-1-3" (safe/semi-automatic/3-round burst) trigger group. The M4A1 is used by almost all U.S special operation units including, but not limited to, Marine Force Recon, Army Rangers, Army Special Forces, Navy SEALs, Air Force Pararescue and Air Force Combat Control Teams. It has a maximum effective range of . The fully automatic trigger gives a more consistent trigger pull, which leads to better accuracy. According to Mark A. Westrom, owner of ArmaLite, Inc., automatic fire is better for clearing rooms than burst fire.
The M4A1 uses a heavier barrel than the standard M4, as the regular M4 barrel, which can fire 6,000 rounds before requiring a replacement, was not sufficient for the higher consumption of ammunition by SOCOM operators. The redesigned barrel has an increased diameter in the area between the receiver and front sight.
Conversion of M4s to the M4A1 began in 2011, as part of the Product Improvement Program, which included the conversion of 300,000 M4 carbines to the M4A1. Though in service with special forces, combat in Afghanistan showed the need for providing automatic suppression fires during fire and movement for regular soldiers. The 101st Airborne Division began fielding newly-built M4A1s in 2012, and the U.S. 1st Infantry Division became the first unit to convert their M4s to M4A1-standard in May 2014. Upgrades included a heavier barrel to better dissipate heat from sustained automatic firing, which also helps the rifles use the M855A1 EPR that has higher proof pressures and puts more strain on barrels. The full-auto trigger group has a more consistent trigger pull, whereas the burst group's pull varies on where the fire control group is set, resulting in more predictable and better accuracy on semi-automatic fire. Another addition is an ambidextrous selector lever for easier use with left-handed shooters. The M4-M4A1 conversion increases weapon weight from to , counting a back-up iron sight, forward pistol grip, empty magazine, and sling. Each carbine upgrade costs $240 per rifle, for a total cost of $120 million for half a million conversions. Three hundred conversions can be done per day to equip a brigade combat team per week, with all M4A1 conversions to be completed by 2019.
Mk 18 CQBR
The Mk 18 Close Quarters Battle Receiver is a variant of M4A1 with a 10.3-inch barrel upper receiver.
Enhanced M4
For the Individual Carbine competition, Colt submitted their Enhanced M4 design, also known as the Colt Advanced Piston Carbine (APC). The weapon has a suppression-ready fluted barrel, which is lighter and cools better than previous M4 barrels. It is claimed to have "markedly better" accuracy. To improve reliability, Colt used an articulating link piston (ALP), which "reduces the inherent stress in the piston stroke by allowing for deflection and thermal expansion". In traditional gas piston operating systems, the force of the piston striking the bolt carrier can push the bolt carrier downwards and into the wall of the buffer tube, leading to accelerated wear and even chipped metal. This is known as carrier tilt. The ALP allows the operating rod to wiggle to correct for the downward pressure on the bolt and transfers the force straight backwards in line with the bore and buffer assembly, eliminating the carrier tilt. This relieves stress on parts and helps to increase accuracy. The Individual Carbine competition was canceled before a winning weapon was chosen.
Armwest LLC M4
In 2014, American firearms designer Jim Sullivan provided a video interview regarding his contributions to the M16/M4 family of rifles while working for Armalite. A noted critic of the M4, he illustrates the deficiencies found in the rifle in its current configuration. In the video, he demonstrates his "Arm West LLC modified M4", with enhancements he believes necessary to rectify the issues with the weapon. Proprietary issues aside, the weapon is said to borrow features in his prior development, the Ultimax. Sullivan has stated (without exact details as to how) the weapon can fire from the closed bolt in semi-automatic and switch to open bolt when firing in fully automatic, improving accuracy. The weight of the cyclic components of the gun has been doubled (while retaining the weapon's weight at less than 8 pounds). Compared to the standard M4, which in automatic fires 750-950 rounds a minute, the rate of fire of the Arm West M4 is heavily reduced both to save ammunition and reduce barrel wear. The reduced rate also renders the weapon more controllable and accurate in automatic firing.
Performance
The M4 carbine has been used for close quarters operations where the M16 would be too long and bulky to use effectively. It has been a compact, light, customizable, and accurate weapon. Like other firearms, failure to properly maintain the M4 can result in malfunctions. This became apparent as it saw continued use in the sandy environments of Iraq and Afghanistan. Despite this, in post-combat surveys, 94% of soldiers rated the M4 as an effective weapons system.
Early feedback
By late 2002, 89% of U.S. troops reported they were confident with the M4, but they had a range of problems. 34% of users said the handguards rattled and became excessively hot when firing, and 15% had trouble zeroing the M68 Close Combat Optic. 35% added barber brushes and 24% added dental picks to their cleaning kits. There were many malfunctions, including 20% of users experiencing a double feed, 15% experiencing feeding jams, and 13% saying that feeding problems were caused by magazines. 20% of users were dissatisfied with weapon maintenance. Some had trouble locking the magazine into the weapon and having to chamber a round in order to lock the magazine. Soldiers also asked for a larger round to be able to kill targets with one shot. New optics and handguards made usage of the M4 easier, and good weapon maintenance reduced the number of misfeeds.
2006 CNA report
In December 2006, the Center for Naval Analyses (CNA) released a report on U.S. small arms in combat. The CNA conducted surveys on 2,608 troops returning from combat in Iraq and Afghanistan over the previous 12 months. Only troops who fired their weapons at enemy targets were allowed to participate. 917 troops were armed with M4 Carbines, making up 35% of the survey. 89% of M4 users reported they were satisfied with the weapon. 90% were satisfied with handling qualities such as handguards, size, and weight. M4 users had the highest levels of satisfaction with weapon performance, including 94% with accuracy, 92% with range, and 93% with rate of fire. Only 19% of M4 users reported a stoppage, and 82% of those that experienced a stoppage said it had little impact on their ability to clear the stoppage and re-engage their target. The lowest rated weapon was the M9, and the M249 had the highest rate of stoppages. 53% of the M4 users never experienced failures of their magazines to feed. 81% did not need their rifles repaired while in theater. 80% were confident in the M4's reliability, defined as confidence their weapon will fire without malfunction, and 83% were confident in its durability, defined as confidence their weapon will not break or need repair. Both factors were attributed to high levels of soldiers performing their own maintenance. 54% of M4 users offered recommendations for improvements. 20% of requests were for greater bullet lethality, and 10% were for better quality magazines, as well as other minor recommendations. Only 75% of M16 users were satisfied with it, and some expressed their desire to be issued the M4. Some issues from this report have been addressed with the issuing of the improved STANAG magazine in March 2009, and the M855A1 Enhanced Performance Round in June 2010.
2007 dust test
In summer and fall 2007, the Army tested the M4 against three other carbines in "sandstorm conditions" at Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland: the Heckler & Koch XM8, Fabrique Nationale de Herstal SOF Combat Assault Rifle (SCAR) and the Heckler & Koch HK416. Ten of each type of rifle were used to fire 6,000 rounds each, for a total of 60,000 rounds per rifle type. The M4 suffered far more stoppages than its competitors: 882 stoppages, 19 requiring an armorer to fix. The XM8 had the fewest stoppages, 116 minor stoppages and 11 major ones, followed by the FN SCAR with 226 stoppages and the HK416 with 233.
Despite 863 minor stoppages—termed "class one" stoppages, which require 10 seconds or less to clear, or "class two" stoppages, which require more than ten seconds to clear—the M4 functioned well, with over 98% of the 60,000 total rounds firing without a problem. The Army said it planned to improve the M4 with a new cold-hammer-forged barrel to give longer life and more reliable magazines to reduce the stoppages. Magazine failures caused 239 of the M4's failures. Army officials said the new magazines could be combat-ready by spring if testing went well. The Army began issuing an improved STANAG magazine in March 2009.
According to the Army, the M4 only suffered 296 stoppages and said that the high number reported could be attributed to discrepancies in the scoring process. The Army testing command stated that, if the number of stoppages caused by a broken part met some threshold, they would be eliminated from the final report pending redesign of the part. The methodology of the test has been debated, as many of the M4s in the test had already seen use, whereas the other rifles were brand new, and that the wide variance in results between summer and fall showed that the test was not accurate, as it was not repeatable with consistent results. Furthermore, the trial M4s had burst-mode fire groups, which are more complicated and prone to failure than the fully automatic fire groups the other manufacturers presented for testing.
There were three extreme dust tests performed in 2007. The second test results showed a large difference from the last test with the M4 having 148 class 1 stoppages caused by rifle malfunctions and 148 class 1 stoppages caused by magazine stoppages. The full-size M16 rifle had 61 stoppages during the same extreme dust test.
Reliability
In early 2010, two journalists from the New York Times spent three months with soldiers and Marines in Afghanistan. While there, they questioned around 100 infantrymen about the reliability of their M4 carbines, as well as the M16 rifle. Troops did not report reliability problems with their rifles. While only 100 troops were asked, they fought at least a dozen intense engagements in Helmand Province, where the ground is covered in fine powdered sand (called "moon dust" by troops) that can stick to firearms. Weapons were often dusty, wet, and covered in mud. Intense firefights lasted hours with several magazines being expended. Only one soldier reported a jam when his M16 was covered in mud after climbing out of a canal. The weapon was cleared and resumed firing with the next chambered round. Furthermore, a Marine chief warrant officer reported that there were no issues with his battalion's 700 M4s and 350 M16s.
The reliability of the M4 has increased as the design was upgraded. In 1990, the M4 was required to fire 600 mean rounds between stoppages using M855 ammunition. In 2013, the current M4A1 version can fire 1,691 mean rounds between stoppages using M855A1 ammunition. During the 2009 Marine Corps Infantry Automatic Rifle testing, the Colt IAR displayed a MRBS of CLASS I/II Stoppages of 952 rounds, with a MRBEFF of Class III Stoppages of 60,000 rounds.
Gas piston
An array of firearms accessory makers have offered gas piston conversion kits for the M4. The claimed benefits include less needed lubrication for the bolt carrier group to run reliably and reduced fouling. The argument against it is increased weight and reduced accuracy. The Enhanced M4 uses an articulating link piston operating system. Complicating the Army search for higher reliability in the M4 is a number of observations of M4 gas piston alternatives that suffer unintended design problems. The first is that many of the gas piston modifications for the M4 isolate the piston so that piston jams or related malfunction require the entire weapon be disassembled, such disassembly cannot be performed by the end-user and requires a qualified armorer to perform out of field, whereas almost any malfunction with the direct-impingement system can be fixed by the end-user in field. The second is that gas piston alternatives use an off-axis operation of the piston that can introduce carrier tilt, whereby the bolt carrier fails to enter the buffer tube at a straight angle, resulting in part wearing. This can also tilt the bolt during extraction, leading to increased bolt lug failures. The third is that the use of a sound suppressor results in hot gases entering the chamber, regardless of a direct-gas impingement or gas piston design choice. The gas piston system may also cause the firearm to become proprietary to the manufacturer, making modifications and changes with parts from other manufacturers difficult.
Accuracy
In a study conducted by the Army Marksmanship Unit, they found that at a distance of , the M16 achieved a grouping, and the M4 achieved a grouping, which dropped to and respectively when using match grade ammunition. As the average male torso is wide, author Chris McNab concluded that this meant the M4 can be consistently accurate up to 300 yards, and noted that the frequent usage of optical attachments meant it could be accurate to higher ranges.
Manufacturers
Colt's Manufacturing Company, US
Colt Canada in Ontario, Canada
Norinco, China
Lewis Machine and Tool Company in Milan, Illinois, US
Bushmaster Firearms International, US
U.S. Ordnance, US
Remington Arms Company, US
Daniel Defense in Black Creek, Georgia, US
Forjas Taurus São Leopoldo, RS, Brazil
FN Herstal, Belgium
SME Ordnance, Malaysia
Sarsilmaz, Turkey
United Defense Manufacturing Corporation, Philippines
Delta CAA Arms, Georgia
Trademark issues
The M4 was developed and produced for the United States government by Colt Firearms, which had an exclusive contract to produce the M4 family of weapons through 2011. However, a number of other manufacturers offer M4-like firearms. Colt previously held a U.S. trademark on the term "M4". Many manufacturers have production firearms that are essentially identical to a military M4, but with a barrel. The Bushmaster M4 Type Carbine is a popular example. Civilian models are sometimes colloquially referred to as "M4gery" ( , a portmanteau of "M4" and "forgery"). Colt had maintained that it retains sole rights to the M4 name and design. Other manufacturers had long maintained that Colt had been overstating its rights, and that "M4" had now become a generic term for a shortened AR-15.
In April 2004, Colt filed a lawsuit against Heckler & Koch and Bushmaster Firearms, claiming acts of trademark infringement, trade dress infringement, trademark dilution, false designation of origin, false advertising, patent infringement, unfair competition, and deceptive trade practices. Heckler & Koch later settled out of court, changing one product's name from "HK M4" to "HK416". However, on December 8, 2005, a district court judge in Maine granted a summary judgment in favor of Bushmaster Firearms, dismissing all of Colt's claims except for false advertising. On the latter claim, Colt could not recover monetary damages. The court also ruled that "M4" was now a generic name and that Colt's trademark should be revoked.
Users
Afghanistan: Former Afghan National Army commando stocks in use by the Taliban.
: Used by Albanian Land Force 2015.
: Used by the Algerian Special Forces.
: M4/M4A1s announced to be sold via FMS program in 2017.
: Used by Argentine Army, Argentine Navy and Argentine National Gendarmerie
: M4A1 (designated M4A5), used by Special Operations Command, Clearance Divers, and Police Tactical Groups.
: M4 Carbine used by the special military units and State Border Service (DSX).
: M4A1s sold as a 2008 Foreign Military Sales package. More M4/M4A1s announced to be sold via FMS program in 2017.
:M4 carbine and M4A1 used by Bangladesh Army, Para Commando, SWADS, Bangladesh police special units.
: M4s/M4A1s sold as part of a 2006 Foreign Military Sales package. More M4/M4A1s announced to be sold via FMS program in 2017.
: M4A1s used by the Bolivian Army.
: M4A1s used by the military and air guard units.
: Used by Civil Police, Military Police of Espirito Santo State, Military Police of Rio de Janeiro State, the Brazilian Federal Police and Special Forces of the Brazilian Army, Brazilian Navy, and Brazilian Marine Corps.
: User since 2003, several hundred purchased for Croatian ISF contingent as well as Special Forces.
: Bushmaster M4A3 B.M.A.S. is used by (601st Special forces group, Military police, 43rd Airborne mechanized battalion) of Czech Army.
: A variant is made by Norinco as the Norinco CQ. CQ-A carbine variant used by the Sichuan Police Department, Chongqing SWAT teams, and the Snow Leopard Commando Unit.
: M4A1s as part of a 2008 Foreign Military Sales. More M4/M4A1s announced to be sold via FMS program in 2017.
: M4s sold as a 2008 Foreign Military Sales package.
: M4s sold as part of a 2007 Foreign Military Sales package. Additional M4s sold as a 2008 Foreign Military Sales package.
: used by French Special Force 1st Marine Infantry Parachute Regiment
: Bushmaster M4s being replaced by Colt M4s for the military. More M4/M4A1s announced to be sold via FMS program in 2017. Joint Georgian-Israeli production M4 based "GI-4" launched in 2021
: Used by EKAM, All SF Army, Navy, Airforce units.
: M4A1 SOPMOD by Hungarian MH 34th Bercsényi László special operation battalion More M4/M4A1s announced to be sold via FMS program in 2017.
: M4A1s as part of a 2008 Foreign Military Sales. M4A1 is used by the Mizoram Armed Police, PARA COMMANDOS, MARCOS, Garud and Force One of the Mumbai Police.
: Used by Detachment 88 Counter-terrorism Police Squad operators. Also used by Komando Pasukan Katak (Kopaska) tactical diver group and Komando Pasukan Khusus (Kopassus) special forces group.
: Used by the Iraqi Army. Main weapon of the Iraqi National Counter-Terrorism Force. More M4/M4A1s announced to be sold via FMS program in 2017.
: Sold as part of a January 2001 Foreign Military Sales package to Israel. Standard issue in the Israel Defense Forces, but it has been gradually replaced with the IWI Tavor since 2001.
: Special Forces
: M4s sold as part of a 2007 Foreign Military Sales package.
: M4A1s as part of a 2008 Foreign Military Sales package. M4A1 SOPMOD rifles are in use by the Japanese Special Forces Group, but is supposedly denied by the JGSDF after Ishiba was arrested for violating American export laws.
: M4s sold as part of a 2007 Foreign Military Sales package. Additional M4s sold as a 2008 Foreign Military Sales package. More M4/M4A1s announced to be sold via FMS program in 2017.
: Used by Kenyan troops Kenya Defence Forces in AMISCOM ops.
: M4 components being sold to Lebanese special forces. M4/M4A1s sold as a 2008 Foreign Military Sales package. More M4/M4A1s announced to be sold via FMS program in 2017.
: Used by Liberian Emergency Response Unit.
: Made under license by SME Ordnance Sdn Bhd. Used by military and police special forces.
: 1,070 M4s, sold as part of a 2005 Foreign Military Sales package.
: Used by NZSAS operators and standard issue to New Zealand Police including Special Tactics Group and Armed Offenders Squad units.
: Used by Military Police, Ranger Battalion and Special Forces Battalion - Wolves
: M4/M4A1s announced to be sold via FMS program in 2017.
: M4A1 variant used by the Special Forces of the Pakistani military besides the POF G3P4 standard rifle for the Pakistani military— also used by the Special Security Unit (SSU) of the Sindh Police. More M4/M4A1s announced to be sold via FMS program in 2017.
: Used by Palestinian security forces.
: M4A1s sold as a 2008 Foreign Military Sales package. More M4/M4A1s announced to be sold via FMS program in 2017.
: Colt M4/M4A1s sold as a 2008 Foreign Military Sales package. 63,000 R4A3 rifles from Remington Arms for the Philippine Army and the Philippine Marine Corps. Several units also used by the Defense Intelligence and Security Group. Some rifles were converted from old M16A1 stocks as part of the modernization effort of the Armed Forces of the Philippines.
: Used by Wojska Specjalne military unit JW Grom.
: Used by Marines special forces DAE (Destacamento de Acções Especiais).
: M4/M4A1s announced to be sold via FMS program in 2017.
: Used in limited quantities by FSB Alpha.
: M4/M4A1s announced to be sold via FMS program in 2017. 2,200 M4s sold through FMS program in 2019.
: Used by various police units.
: Used by the Singapore Armed Forces Commando Formation and the Police Coast Guard (only the Port Squadron and the Coastal Patrol Squadron) of the Singapore Police Force.
: M4/M4A1s announced to be sold via FMS program in 2017.
: Used by the Republic of Korea Army.
: Used by Republic of China Army and National Police Agency
: M4A1s sold as part of a 2006 Foreign Military Sales package.
: M4/M4A1s sold as a 2008 Foreign Military Sales package.
: Used by the Tunisian Army's Special Forces Group (GFS), 51st Infantry Navy Commandos Regiment, Presidential Guard and various National Guard and Police special forces units. Used by the Unité Spéciale – Garde Nationale.
: Produced under license by Sarsılmaz Firearms. The M4A1 rifle is used by Turkish Armed Forces
: Used by Ugandan troops in AMISCOM ops.
: Purchased 2,500 M4 carbines in 1993.
: Colt M4 and Bushmaster M4 carbines for Special Operation Group (Metropolitan Police)
: M4s sold as part of a 2006 Foreign Military Sales package.
Former users
: Used by Afghan National Army commandos during the Taliban insurgency. M4s sold as part of a 2006 Foreign Military Sales package. Additional M4s sold as a 2008 Foreign Military Sales package. Captured stocks currently in use with the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan.
U.S. civilian ownership
Sales of select-fire or fully automatic M4s by Colt are restricted to military and law enforcement agencies. No private citizen can own an M4 in a select-fire or fully automatic configuration, as this model of fully automatic rifle was developed after the 1986 ban on fully automatic weapons available to be purchased by US citizens under the Firearms Owners' Protection Act. While many machine guns can be legally owned with a proper tax stamp from the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, an amendment to the act barred the transfer to private citizens of machine guns made or registered in the U.S. after May 19, 1986. The only exception was for Special Occupational Taxpayers (SOT), who are licensed machine gun dealers with demonstration letters, manufacturers, and those dealing in exports and imports. As such, only the earliest Colt M4 prototypes built prior to 1986 would be legal to own by non-SOT civilians. The modular nature of the AR-15 design, however, makes it relatively simple to fit M4-specific components to a "pre-'86" select-fire AR-15 lower receiver, producing an "M4" in all but name.
The M4 falls under restrictions of Title II of the National Firearms Act. The 14.5-inch barrel makes the M4 a Short Barrel Rifle (SBR), and select fire capability (semi-automatic and fully automatic or burst-automatic) makes the M4 a machine gun. Civilian replicas of the M4 typically have 16-inch barrels (or standard 14.5-inch M4 barrels with permanently attached flash suppressors with a total length of 16 inches) and are semi-automatic-only to meet the legal definition of a rifle under the Gun Control Act. Civilian-legal M4s are also popular with police as a patrol carbine.
Conflicts
1990s
Colombian conflict (1964–present)
Civil conflict in the Philippines (1969–present)
Kosovo War (1998–1999), first US military usage of the M4 carbine.
2000s
War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)
Iraq War (2003–2011)
South Thailand insurgency (2004–present)
2006 Lebanon War (2006)
Mexican drug war (2006–present)
Russo-Georgian War (2008)
Gaza War (2008–2009)
Insurgency in Paraguay
2010s
Syrian civil war (2011–present)
Lahad Datu standoff (2013)
War in Iraq (2013–2017)
Battle of Arsal (2014)
Battle of Marawi (2017)
See also
Comparison of the AK-47 and M16
AK-105, a competing AK-47-based weapon
SIG Sauer SIG516, an M16-based rifle
Bushmaster XM-15
LWRC M6, a competing M4-based weapon
Brown Enhanced Automatic Rifle, a competing M16/M4-based weapon
LVOA-C, an M4 variant
Remington R4, a competing M4-based weapon
M231 Firing Port Weapon
Replacement attempts
XM8 rifle: canceled in 2005
Close Quarters Battle Receiver: successful replacement
Individual Carbine: canceled in 2013. Candidates included:
Barrett REC7 PDW
Beretta ARX 160
Remington ACR
FN SCAR
Heckler & Koch HK416
LWRC M6A4
Robinson Arms XCR
SIG 556
Colt ACC-M
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
External links
Colt M4's Law Enforcement page and Colt M4's Military page
US Army M4 fact file
The AR-15/M16 Magazine FAQ
U.S. Army Won't Field Rifle Deemed Superior to M4
Online Army Study Guide
5.56×45mm NATO assault rifles
Assault rifles of the United States
Modular firearms
Carbines
Colt rifles
Police weapons
Rifles of the United States
United States Marine Corps equipment
ArmaLite AR-10 derivatives
Weapons and ammunition introduced in 1994
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169329
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronika%20BK
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Electronika BK
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The Electronika BK is a series of 16-bit PDP-11-compatible fanless home computers developed under the Electronika brand by NPO Scientific Center, then the leading microcomputer design team in the Soviet Union. It was also the predecessor of the more powerful UKNC and DVK micros.
Overview
First released in 1984 (developed in 1983), they are based on the К1801ВМ1 (Soviet LSI-11-compatible CPU) and were the only official (government approved and accounted for in economic planning) Soviet home computer design in mass production.
They sold for about 600–650 Soviet rubles. This was costly, but marginally affordable as the average Soviet monthly wage then was about 150 rubles. So they became one of the most popular home computer models in the Soviet Union, despite having many problems. Later, in the 1990s, their powerful central processing unit (CPU) and straightforward, easy-to-program design made them popular as demoscene machines. BK () is a Russian abbreviation for – domestic (or home) computer. The machines were also used for a short time as cash registers, for example, in the GUM department store.
Software
The BK series was essentially a barebones machine, with no peripherals or programming tools. The only software available at the launch, except read-only memory (ROM) firmware, was an included magnetic tape with several programming examples (for the languages BASIC and FOCAL), and several tests. The ROM firmware includes a simple program to enter machine codes, BASIC and FOCAL interpreters.
While the BK was somewhat compatible with larger and more expensive DVK professional model microcomputers and industrial minicomputers like the SM EVM series, its 32 KiB memory, of which only 16 KiB was generally available to programmers (an extended memory mode supported 28 KiB, but limited video output to a quarter of the screen), generally precluded direct use of software for the more powerful machines. The DVK became a popular development platform for BK software, and when the BK memory was later extended to 128 KiB, most DVK software could be used directly with minimal changes.
Homebrew developers quickly filled this niche, porting several programming tools from DVK and UKNC. This led to an explosion of homebrew software, from text editors and databases to operating systems and video games. Most BK owners expanded the built-in RAM to at least 64 KiB, which allowed easier software porting from more "grownup" systems, and as these upgrades often included floppy drive controllers, individuals creating disk operating systems became something of a competitive sport in the BK scene. Games and demoscene communities also flourished, as its anemic graphics were offset by a powerful CPU.
One of the operating systems was ANDOS, although officially the computer was shipped with OS BK-11, a modification of RT-11.
Hardware
The machine is based on a then powerful 16-bit single-chip K1801VM1 CPU, clocked generally at 3 MHz. It is almost perfectly compatible with Digital Equipment Corporation's LSI-11 line, though it lacks Extended Instruction Set (EIS) and further instruction set extensions. The manufacturer also closely copied the PDP-11's internal architecture. Each model has one free card slot which is electrically, but not mechanically, compatible with Q-Bus. The first versions has 32 KiB onboard DRAM, half of which was used as video memory. That is extended to 128 KiB in later models, with video memory extended to two 16 KiB pages.
Video output on all models is provided by the K1801VP1-037 VDC, a rather spartan chip. It is actually a standard 600 gate array, or uncommitted logic array (ULA), with a VDC program that allows for two graphic video modes, high-resolution (512×256, monochrome) and low-resolution (256×256, 4 colors), and supported hardware vertical scrolling. Later models has 16 hardwired 4-color sets selectable from 64 color palette. It does not support text modes, but simulates two via BIOS routines: 32×25 and 64×25. Some operating systems such as ANDOS have managed to output text in 80×25 mode when displaying documents imported from IBM PC, by placing characters more densely. Output is through two separate 5-pin DIN connectors for a monochrome TV or color TV/monitor. Sound on all models is initially through a simple programmable counter connected to an onboard piezo speaker. Later, the General Instrument AY-3-8910 became a popular aftermarket addition.
All models also has a 16-bit universal parallel port with separate input and output buses for connecting peripherals such as printers (Eastern Bloc printers used the incompatible IFSP () interface instead of the more popular IEEE 1284 (Centronics) port, so Centronics printers needed an adapter), mouse or Covox digital-to-analog converters (DACs) for sound output, and tape recorder port for data storage. Later models includes a manufacturer-supplied floppy drive controller (that can be plugged into a Q-Bus slot) by default. It was available for earlier models as an aftermarket part, but homebrew ones (that also often extends rather anemic 16K memory of original BK) are more popular. A cottage industry for such peripherals and mods flourished.
Versions
BK-0010
is the first model (originally released in 1983, the serial production since mid-1984). It has a pseudo-membrane keyboard (an array of mechanical microswitches without keycaps, covered by flexible overlay), 32 KiB RAM, 8 KiB ROM with BIOS (chip K1801RE2-017), 8 KiB ROM with FOCAL interpreter (K1801RE2-018), 8 KiB ROM with debugger (K1801RE2-019) and one free ROM slot, and its CPU is clocked at 3 MHz. A tape recorder is used for data storage in the factory configuration.
This model was criticized for its uncomfortable keyboard – while mechanical in nature, lack of keycaps lead to the same unsatisfactory tactile response, that was seen as unacceptable when the machine was used in home or educational settings, although such keyboard could be easily sealed fully, so this version found wide use as an industrial controller. Other points of criticism included the archaic FOCAL programming language supplied by default and the complete lack of peripherals and software. While all hardware was well documented and easy to work with, the machine was delivered with no programming tools.
BK-0010.01
The follow-up version, БК-0010.01 (sometimes referred to as -0010-01), is essentially the same machine, but with a conventional full-travel keyboard and a Vilnius BASIC p-code compiler in the ROM, correcting the weakest points of its predecessor. While the BASIC dialect used is quite powerful and well-optimized (it is actually a somewhat scaled-down clone of MSX BASIC), the keyboard is a mixed blessing. While it is much more comfortable to work with, its quality left much to be desired, and the keys were prone to sticking, significant bounce and wore quickly, though a model with a further improved keyboard became available later. The FOCAL interpreter was not dropped but instead shipped on an external ROM cartridge that could be inserted into the Q-Bus slot.
BK-0010Sh
is a model intended specially for school use. It can be either the −0010 or −0010.01 model but was supplied with a special current loop network adapter rated at 19200 bits per second (bps), which can be inserted into the Q-Bus slot. Based on ULA chip K1801VP1-035 (and later on K1801VP1-065), the adapter is compatible with Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) DL-11 and KL-11 serial interfaces, but without modem control bits. It also includes a monitor, usually a modified Yunost' compact TV, since in school settings, it was not expected to be connected to household TV.
BK-0011
BK-0011 was released in 1989. It has 128 KiB of RAM divided into 16 KiB pages, its CPU is clocked at 4 MHz by default. It includes a newer version of BASIC in ROM and 16 selectable video palettes, which were almost universally criticized by users for their odd color combinations. It has a floppy controller, but the drive was still sold separately.
BK-0011M
Some changes in the BK-0011, while minor, made it incompatible with earlier -0010 models. Especially, it cannot load 0010 programs from a cassette tape. Even if it could have loaded them, crucial subsystems, such as sound, are still incompatible. Public outcry forced the manufacturer to redesign the machine, restoring compatibility with earlier models. The resulting model, the BK-0011M, quickly went into production, and most BK-0011 series computers are actually BK-0011Ms. Since the modifications were minor, most of the handful of -0011 models that made it to market were upgraded to -0011M models by enthusiasts.
Mods
It was not uncommon among owners to install one or two mechanical switches that made using the computer more convenient. Some of the common mods were:
Reset push-button. Programs often hung. Also, some games did not have a properly implemented Exit function. Without this button, the computer had to be reset by power cycling, which eventually led to a worn out power switch on the external power supply. The reset interrupt can be caught by the operating system, so under such systems (for example, ANDOS, MK-DOS), the reset button exits to the OS's file manager.
Pause switch. This switch activated hardware suspension of instruction execution in the processor. The pause switch was useful for pausing games, most of which did not have a pause key. A few games, however, did not behave gracefully after being returned from suspension, because the programmable hardware timer built into the processor chip is still running while the instruction execution was suspended. The BK also has a software key combination for pause.
Clock speed switch (turbo switch). This changes the processor clock speed from the standard 3 MHz (BK-0010* series) to 4 or 6 MHz, or from the standard 4 MHz (BK-0011* series) to 3 or 6 MHz. Not all processor samples work reliably at 6 MHz; the possibility of such overclocking has to be determined experimentally for each sample. Switching the clock speed changes the pace of dynamic games. The turbo switch usually has to be installed together with the pause switch, because the simplest circuit for switching the clock speed produces bad waveform shapes in the clock signal due to contact bounce when the mechanical switch was flipped, running the risk of hanging the software execution unless the processor is in the suspended state.
Sound on/off switch, or sound volume knob, which adjusts the volume level of the internal piezoelectric speaker using a potentiometer. At this same time as adding this, the modder can replace the speaker with a louder one.
These modifications are relatively simple and can be carried out by users who knew how to handle a soldering iron. Most of the people in the program sales cottage industry can also do the mods for a small fee. Enthusiasts also managed to connect more advanced devices to BK series computers: they developed a hard disk drive (HDD) controller, and 2.5" HDDs were successfully used with BK computers. Other popular enhancements are AY-3-8912 sound chips and Covox Speech Thing.
Emulators
There are various software emulators of BK for modern IBM PC compatible computers. An emulator is able to run at a much higher speed than the original BK.
There are also fairly complete re-implementations of the BK for field-programmable gate array (FPGA) based systems, such as the MiST.
See also
Heathkit H11
References
External links
Electronika BK0010(-01) & BK0011(M) USSR PC [PDP-11]
BK0010 Russian computer emul. v1.6 w/src
Archive software and documentation for Soviet computers UK-NC, DVK and BK0010.
Home computers
PDP-11
Ministry of the Electronics Industry (Soviet Union) computers
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5257130
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GDAL
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GDAL
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The Geospatial Data Abstraction Library (GDAL) is a computer software library for reading and writing raster and vector geospatial data formats, and is released under the permissive X/MIT style free software license by the Open Source Geospatial Foundation. As a library, it presents a single abstract data model to the calling application for all supported formats. It may also be built with a variety of useful command line interface utilities for data translation and processing. Projections and transformations are supported by the PROJ library.
The related OGR library (OGR Simple Features Library), which is part of the GDAL source tree, provides a similar ability for simple features vector graphics data.
GDAL was developed mainly by Frank Warmerdam until the release of version 1.3.2, when maintenance was officially transferred to the GDAL/OGR Project Management Committee under the Open Source Geospatial Foundation.
GDAL/OGR is considered a major free software project for its "extensive capabilities of data exchange" and also in the commercial GIS community due to its widespread use and comprehensive set of functionalities.
Software using GDAL/OGR
Several software programs use the GDAL/OGR libraries to allow them to read and write multiple GIS formats. Such programs include:
ArcGIS – Uses GDAL for custom raster formats
Avenza MAPublisher - GIS and mapping tools for Adobe Illustrator. Uses GDAL for coordinate system transformation, format reading & writing, geometry operations, & unit conversion.
Avenza Geographic Imager - Spatial imaging tools for Adobe Photoshop. Uses GDAL for coordinate system transformation, format reading & writing, & unit conversion.
Avenza Maps - iOS & Android mobile mapping application. Uses GDAL to read metadata information for geospatial maps / data to transform them to WGS84 for offline navigation.
Biosphere3D – Open source landscape scenery globe
Biotop Invent
Cadwork
ENVI – Remote Sensing software
ERDAS APOLLO - Image Server and remote sensing geo-services
ERDAS GeoCompressor - Image compression to ECW and JP2 formats
Geoconcept integrated GDAL in its 7.1 release
FWTools – A cross-platform open source GIS software bundle compiled by Frank Warmerdam
gdaltokmz – A Python module translating from GDAL-supported raster graphics formats to the Google Earth KMZ format
GeoDjango – Django's support for GIS-enabled databases
GeoDMS - A framework for building spatial calculation models.
GeoView Pro – iOS mobile mapping application
Google Earth – A virtual globe and world imaging program
GRASS GIS
gvSIG
JMap
MangoMap
MapServer
MS4W - MapServer for Windows, a widely popular installer for the MapServer community, using GDAL for data access.
MapWindow GIS - Open Source C++ based geographic information system, ActiveX Control, and application programmer interface
Merkaartor
NASA Ames Stereo Pipeline, an open-source software package for photogrammetry
World Wind Java – NASA's open source virtual globe and world imaging technology
Open Source Geospatial Foundation (OSSIM) – Libraries and applications used to process imagery, maps, terrain, and vector data
OpenEV – Geospatial toolkit and a frontend to that toolkit; to display georeferenced images and elevation data
Orfeo toolbox – A satellite image processing library
QGIS
R – An open source statistical software with extensions for spatial data analysis.
SAGA GIS – A cross-platform open source GIS software
TopoQuest – Internet topographic map viewer
Rolta Geomatica software
Supported raster data formats
As of version 2.2.3, GDAL/OGR provides at least partial support for 154 raster and 93 vector geospatial data formats. A subset of data formats is supported to ensure the ability to directly create files and georeferencing them with the default GDAL compiling options.
Here follows the list of data formats whose support is, by default, compiled to allow creation and georeferencing.
Supported vector data formats
GDAL supports a variety of vector data formats as seen here. It is extensible as well.
References
Notes
External links
OSGeo project homepage
C++ libraries
Cross-platform software
Data structures libraries and frameworks
Free computer libraries
Free GIS software
GIS file formats
Software using the MIT license
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29023680
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkansas%20Militia%20in%20the%20Civil%20War
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Arkansas Militia in the Civil War
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The units of the Arkansas Militia in the Civil War to which the current Arkansas National Guard has a connection include the Arkansas State Militia, Home Guard, and State Troop regiments raised by the State of Arkansas. Like most of the United States, Arkansas had an organized militia system before the American Civil War. State law required military service of most male inhabitants of a certain age. Following the War with Mexico, the Arkansas militia experienced a decline, but as sectional frictions between the north and south began to build in the late 1850s the militia experienced a revival. By 1860 the state's militia consisted of 62 regiments divided into eight brigades, which comprised an eastern division and a western division. New regiments were added as the militia organization developed. Additionally, many counties and cities raised uniformed volunteer companies, which drilled more often and were better equipped than the un-uniformed militia. These volunteer companies were instrumental in the seizure of federal installations at Little Rock and Fort Smith, beginning in February 1861.
Once Arkansas left the Union in May 1861, the existing volunteer militia companies were among the first mustered into state service and be formed into new volunteer infantry regiments, also referred to as "State Troops". These new regiments comprised the Provisional Army of Arkansas. In July 1861 and agreement was reached to transfer the existing state forces into the Confederate army. The Second Division of the Army of Arkansas was transferred to the Confederate Army under the command of General William E. Hardee, but before the First Division of the Army of Arkansas could be transferred, it participated in the Battle of Wilson's Creek near Springfield, Missouri, in August 1861. Following the battle of Wilson's Creek, the First Division voted to disband rather than enter Confederate Service.
In November 1861, Colonel Solon S. Borland, commanding Confederate forces at Pittman's Ferry received information regarding an Intimate invasion of Northeast Arkansas and issued an immediate call for Militia forces to re-enforce his position. The State Military Board authorized the activation of Eighth Brigade of Militia, and one company from the militia regiments of Prairie, Monroe, Poinsett, Saint Francis, and Craighead counties. The units that responded to this call were formed into three regiments of 30 Day Volunteers. Some of these companies later enrolled in regular Confederate service.
In the spring of 1862 a Union invasion of Northwest Arkansas necessitated an activation of parts of the state militia. In February 1862, General McCulloch issued a proclamation from Fayetteville requesting that "every man turn out and form companies, and rally to meet the advancing enemy". Brigadier General N. B. Burrow, commander of the 3rd Brigade, 1st Division, Arkansas State Militia reacted by activating his entire brigade consisting of six regiments for approximately three weeks. Later in the Summer of 1862, when Major General Hindman assumed command of the Department of the Trans-Mississippi, the militia regiments were required to provide volunteers for new Confederate regiments or face conscription.
After the fall of Little Rock to Union forces in September 1863, Governor Harris Flanagin ordered out the militia regiments of Clark, Hempstead, Sevier, Pike, Polk, Montgomery, La Fayette, Ouachita, Union, and Columbia counties and directed them to supply mounted companies for new regiments of State Troops. This recruiting method succeeded in supplying several new mounted companies which participated in resisting Union General Steele's Camden Expedition in the spring of 1864. Sporadic recruiting of new volunteer companies from the Militia continued until March 1865.
The Arkansas Secession Convention directed each county to organize a Home Guard organization, which was intended to include old men and boys who were otherwise disqualified from active service. The Home Guard were later commissioned to begin guerrilla operations against occupying Union forces. Once Union forces secured the state capitol in 1863, the new loyal state government immediately began raising new loyal militia forces in an attempt to combat bands of guerrillas and bushwhackers operating behind Union lines.
The Marion County War
Two famous Arkansas veterans of the War with Mexico would find themselves deeply involved in the first use of the Arkansas Militia following the War with Mexico. Allen Wood, who had raised a volunteer company in Arkansas which became part of the 12th United States Infantry Regiment during the war with Mexico, was appointed as Adjutant General in 1849. On September 16, 1848, Governor John Sheldon Roane, himself a former Lieutenant Colonel in the Arkansas Regiment of Mounted Volunteers during the war with Mexico, ordered General Wood to investigate a state of unrest that existed in Marion County in 1849. Two warring families and their supporters vied for control of all county offices in what was known as the Tutt–Everett War. The Tutts, of the Whig Party and the Everetts, of the Democratic Party had a long running feud which erupted into bloodshed in June 1849. It was said that virtually every man in the county had taken sides in the affair. General Wood raised two militia companies in Carroll County, one commanded by Captain William C. Mitchell, the other by Captain Tilford Denton to assist with the capture of members of the Everetts clan and to guard the jail. General Wood relieved Sheriff Jesse Mooney, who was thought to be a member of the Everett faction and took over the county jail in Yellville. The force was eventually reduced to one company of 75 men who remained in the county from September 1849 through December 1849. Almost as soon as General Wood dismissed his militia companies, members of the Everett clan broke the prisoners out of jail. General Wood resigned the office of Adjutant General in a letter to the Governor dated July 28, 1851. On December 21, 1850, the Arkansas Legislature finally passed an act to pay for the militia called into service by General Wool. It is likely that the experience of calling out the militia for the Marion County War lead to the passage in 1852 of a law styled "an Act to provide for the organization of the Militia when called to suppress insurrections. This law allowed the county sheriff to order elections for offices of companies activated for this purpose.
Antebellum militia on the eve of conflict
With the conclusion of the Mexican–American War, the Arkansas militia fell into a state of disorganization. Without a threat from Mexico or the Indians, it seemed Arkansans needed protection from no one. Election of militia officers in most counties had basically stopped by 1849. Throughout much of the 1850s the Arkansas militia was practically dead; company and regimental musters were held infrequently, and officers stopped performing their duties. Governor Elias Conway, in an address to the state legislature dated November 7, 1854, stated that the state militia had not filed a single annual status report with the War Department since 1843. Without these reports, the militia did not receive its quota of Federal arms and equipment. One Little Rock newspaper editor wrote in 1852:
Elias N. Conway, elected governor in 1854, came from a prominent family of Arkansas politicians, some of whom had served in the militia during its earlier and more active years. The condition of the Arkansas Militia when Governor Conway began his revival may best be summarized by a letter to the Governor from Col. Henry Rieff, Commander of the 20th Regiment Arkansas Militia dated January 3, 1860:
Governor Conway pushed the legislature to revise the militia laws and successfully sparked a renewed interest in the militia. He commissioned a printing of a digest of the militia laws of Arkansas in 1860. A review of the election returns for militia officers in each county in 1860 and the spring of 1861 provide some indication of the success of Governor Conway's attempt to revitalize the organization of the state militia. The militia was organized into two divisions of four brigades each. Each county supplied at least one regiment, and companies were normally organized in each township. Several counties had more than one regiment and one, Lawrence County, had three militia regiments. Regimental and company officers were elected at the annual muster. The election results were forwarded to the Governor either by the regimental commander or by the county clerk. The exact strength of these units is unclear. In May 1860, Col. George M. Holt, commander of the 18th Regiment from Saline County, claimed to have 1,000 to 1,200 men available and requested that the county be granted permission to form a second regiment.
Militia vs. volunteer companies
The Militia Law of Arkansas as published in 1860 provided for a two-tiered militia system. Section one of the law made all able-bodied free white male inhabitants between the ages of 18 and 45 liable for service. The militiamen were required to provide their own weapons and equipment and were to muster four times annually, including two company drills, one battalion muster, and one regimental muster. No provision was made for uniforms for the private militiamen, while officers were required to acquire and wear the uniform of the United States Army. Additionally, section 57 of the act allowed each county to raise up to four Volunteer Companies. These Volunteer Companies were to be either infantry, riflemen, cavalry, or artillery. While the Volunteer Companies were to be separate from the regular militia units, they remained under the supervision and authority of the local militia regimental commander, who was required to set the time and place of the election of officers for volunteer companies and certify their election to the governor. Volunteer Companies were required to drill at least once per month (although the Pulaski Artillery, a Volunteer Artillery Company organized in Little Rock in December 1860, scheduled drill three times a week). Volunteer Companies were allowed to select and acquire their own uniforms and their officers were authorized to wear the uniform of the company. While the standard militia units were organized into lettered companies organized roughly along township boundaries, Volunteer Companies usually adopted colorful names to set them apart. Membership in the Volunteer Companies was encouraged by the provision that once a militiaman had completed five years service in a Volunteer Company, he was exempted from further militia service.
In a letter "To The Militiamen Of The State Of Arkansas" dated August 27, 1860, Governor Conway exhorted the raising of additional volunteer companies:
He commented that if all the volunteer companies authorized by the act were to be raised, the state would have a force of 22,000 volunteers. He explained that the general assembly had yet to pass a law allowing the state to provide arms for all the volunteer companies, and he encouraged the counties to consider taxing themselves in order to raise the funds.
Although several Volunteer Companies were already in existence at various locations around the state, the Governor's call sparked a wave of formations. State newspapers in the summer and fall of 1860 have several stories of volunteer companies being formed, drilling, and participating in the regular muster of the militia regiments. The leaders of these volunteer companies began to search for uniforms and equipment, often requesting them through militia channels to the Governor, but then turning to private sources when the State Government was unable to help. The state legislature responded to the need for arms and equipment in January 1861 by appropriating $100,000 for the arming and equipping of the militia being formed into volunteer companies. Act Number 192, which was approved on January 21, 1861, appropriated money "for the purpose of arming the volunteer militia of this state, when formed into volunteer military companies..."
In the beginning, these companies continued to operate under the authority of the local militia commander, with the local regimental commander overseeing the election of officers and forwarding the election results to the Governor. After the state actually seceded in May 1861, Volunteer Companies and Regiments would be raised under the authority of the State Military Board, or directly by Confederate Government authorities.
The readiness of the Militia organizations was compared to that of the Volunteer Companies springing up around the state when the Crawford County Militia, the 5th Regiment Arkansas Militia, conducted its annual muster and drill on February 23, 1861, at Van Buren. They were joined on this occasion by two companies of volunteers, the Frontier Guards (led by Captain Hugh Thomas Brown) and the Independent Light Horse Guards (under Captain Powhatan Perkins). The two independent companies received rave reviews for their drill, but the performance of the 5th Militia Regiment provoked the following report from the Van Buren Press:
A more favorable account comes from a report on the September 1860 muster of Pulaski County's 13th Militia Regiment:
Following the parade of the 13th Regiment, Brigadier General Holt and the regimental officers gathered in front of Governor Conway's home and heard a speech in which the governor complimented them "upon the revival, at a critical time, of the military spirit which once animated the people, but seemed long to have been dead."
In October an article appeared in the same paper announcing a drill contest to be conducted as a part of a Fair scheduled for November 8–9, 1860, on the grounds of St John's College in Little Rock. The best-drilled militia company was to receive a "Premium".
Volunteer companies organized in the state militia
This list includes volunteer militia companies which were organized in accordance with Section 57 of the 1860 Militia Law, by having the election of their company officers certified by the Colonel commanding the local militia regiment, or whose association with the local militia regiment can be documented through contemporary accounts.
Militia operations: Spring and Summer 1861
The secession crisis
Lincoln's victory in the presidential election of 1860 triggered South Carolina's declaration of secession from the Union. By February 1861, six more Southern states made similar declarations. On February 7, the seven states adopted a provisional constitution for the Confederate States of America and established their temporary capital at Montgomery, Alabama. A pre-war February Peace Conference of 1861 met in Washington in a failed attempt at resolving the crisis.
As the secession movement grew, people in Arkansas became greatly concerned. In January 1861 the General Assembly called an election for the people to vote on whether Arkansas should hold a convention to consider secession. At the same time the voters were to elect delegates to the convention in case the vote should be favorable. On February 18, 1861, Arkansans voted to call a secession convention, but elected mostly conditional unionist delegates.
Seizure of the Federal Arsenal at Little Rock
Anti-union forces began calling for the seizure of the Federal Arsenal in Little Rock. When rumors were circulated that the Federal Government intended to reinforce the troops at the Little Rock Arsenal, the leading citizens of Helena sent Governor Henry Massey Rector a telegram volunteering 500 men to assist in its seizure. Edmund Burgevin, adjutant general of the Arkansas State Militia, carried the message to the Governor. Burgevin complained of the impropriety of a direct offer of volunteers to the governor of a State which had not seceded, and might not secede. Governor Rector's response was:
In response to the Governor's message, Militia companies began assembling in Little Rock by February 5, 1861, and they made their intention to seize the Arsenal known to its commander, Captain Totten. The Yell Rifles, including future Confederate General Patrick Cleburne, and the Phillips County Guards (both of Phillips County), were the first companies to reach Little Rock and report to Governor Rector. Governor Rector denied having called the militia forces, and sent the newly arriving companies into camps near the present state capitol building. In addition to the two Phillips County Companies, the Jefferson Guards of Pine Bluff, the Southwestern Guards, and the LaGrange Cavalry responded to the call to seize the Arsenal. Eventually more than a thousand men would assemble, representing Phillips, Jefferson, Prairie, White, Saline, Hot Spring, Montgomery, Monroe, and St Francis counties. Many citizens of Little Rock opposed the occupation of the Arsenal, fearing a loss of life and property. The Little Rock City Council reacted with alarm at this sudden invasion of the capitol by the newly formed volunteer companies and called out its own militia unit, the Capitol Guards, and ordered them to patrol the streets and stand guard over the volunteer companies. Although generally opposed to secession, the Little Rock City Council fear that a battle might ensure within the city itself and passed an ordinance requesting the Governor assume control of the assembling volunteer forces and to seize the Arsenal "to prevent the effusion of blood".
Governor Rector, now armed with the city council's request, took control of the military situation. The 13th Militia Regiment of Pulaski County was activated and Brigadier General Holt, the local militia brigade commander, was placed in command. With militia forces now surrounding the arsenal grounds, Governor Rector dispatched General Thomas D. Merrick, commander of the First Division, Arkansas Militia, with a formal demand for the Arsenal's surrender. Captain James Totten, Arsenal commander, agreed to evacuate the Arsenal in return for safe passage out of the state. Governor Rector agreed and the Militia took control of the Arsenal on February 8, 1861. Totten and his men were escorted from the city by the Capitol Guards. Grateful citizens of Little Rock presented him a sword, which some later came to regret; Totten would eventually meet Arkansas troops on the field of battle. Later, artillery batteries were set up at Helena on the Mississippi River and Pine Bluff on the Arkansas to prevent reinforcement of Federal military posts.
The Yell Rifles returned to Helena, and then moved to Camp Rector, at Mound City, (near present-day West Memphis, Arkansas) where they mustered into state service as Company A, 1st Arkansas Infantry, State Troops. Cleburne was eventually elected to command the new regiment. The Phillips Guards under the command of Captain George Otey, remained in Little Rock to provide a garrison for the newly seized Arsenal.
The first Convention on Secession
On March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln was sworn in as president. In his inaugural address, he argued that the Constitution was a "more perfect union" than the earlier Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, that it was a binding contract, and called any secession "legally void". He stated he had no intent to invade the Southern states, nor did he intend to end slavery where it existed, but that he would use force to maintain possession of federal property. His speech closed with a plea for restoration of the bonds of union.
The next day, the Arkansas Secession Convention convened in the State House in Little Rock. David Walker, who opposed secession, was elected president. The convention continued in session for two and a half weeks. Feeling ran high and many fiery speeches were made, but it soon became evident that a majority of the members did not think that the situation at that time called for secession. The convention voted down a resolution condemning Lincoln's inaugural address, and defeated a conditional ordinance of secession. The opinion seemed to prevail that Arkansas should secede only if the Federal government made war on the Confederate States. Still hoping for a compromise settlement that would avoid war, the delegates agreed to go home until after the people had voted on the secession question at a special election to be held in August.
Arkansas leaves the Union
Fort Monroe in Virginia, Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina, and Fort Pickens, Fort Jefferson, and Fort Taylor, in Florida, were the remaining Union-held forts in the Confederacy, and Lincoln was determined to hold them all. Under orders from Confederate President Jefferson Davis, troops controlled by the Confederate government under P. G. T. Beauregard bombarded Fort Sumter on April 12, forcing its capitulation. Northerners rallied behind Lincoln's call for all the states to send troops to recapture the forts and to preserve the Union, citing presidential powers given by the Militia Acts of 1792. President Lincoln called upon the "militia of the several states" to provide 75,000 troops to put down the rebellion. For months before that, several Northern governors had discreetly readied their state militias; they began to move forces the next day.
The first Arkansas Secession Convention had pledged the state to "Resist to the last extremity any attempt on the part of such power (President Lincoln) to coerce any state that had succeeded from the old Union". In spite of the fact that Arkansas had yet to officially secede, a militia battalion was quickly organized under the command of Solon F. Borland. The force, including the Pulaski Lancers, the Capitol Guards, the Pulaski Light Artillery, and Captain Daniel Ringo's Peyton Rifles (all associated with the 13th Militia Regiment, Pulaski County) was dispatched to seize the Federal Arsenal at Fort Smith on April 23, 1861.
The Adjutant General, Edmond Burgevin, provided the state's response to the War Department's demand for troops:
Faced with President Lincoln's demand for troops, the Secession Convention reconvened in Little Rock and, on May 6, 1861, passed the ordinance of secession by a vote of 69 to 1. Future Governor Isaac Murphy was the only "No" vote.
The Pulaski Light Artillery was initially assigned to garrison the captured arsenal at Fort Smith. Brigadier General Napoleon Bonapart Burrows, commander of the 8th Brigade, Arkansas Militia was sent to Fort Smith, where he began negotiations with the Chickasaw Nation to occupy Federal forts in the Indian Territory.
Organizing Arkansas State Troops
The Secession Convention continued to meet and began the process of drafting a new state constitution and ordering the state's military affairs. The new constitution sought to limit the power of the Governor by vesting authority for military matters in a three-person board chaired by the Governor. The Military Board was to oversee the organization of a state army; to arm, feed, and clothe the troops; and to call out the forces for such military expeditions as might be necessary to defend the state. The military board was composed of Governor Rector, Christopher C. Danley of Little Rock, and Benjamin C. Totten of Prairie County. Danley was soon replaced by Samuel W. Williams, who was replaced in turn by L. D. Hill of Perry County.
The Secession Convention also adopted an ordinance providing for the organization of an "Army of Arkansas". The Army was to consist of two divisions: the 1st Division in the western portion of the state and the 2nd Division in the eastern portion of the state. Each division was to be commanded by a brigadier general. While called "divisions", the formations were actually intended to be of brigade size, with each being composed of four regiments of infantry and two artillery batteries. The ordinance required each regiment to consist of not less than six companies and not more than 10. Each company was to consist of not less than 64 men and not more than 96 men and four officers. The officers were to be elected by the men of the regiment. $2 million was appropriated to fund the Board.
The Convention elected three of its members as commanders of the new army: Major General James Yell of Jefferson County (overall commander) Nicholas Bartlett Pearce, a graduate of West Point and resident of Benton County (commander of the First Division), and Thomas H. Bradley of Crittenden County (commander of the Second Division). Historian Leo Huff has referred to these commanders as "three political generals"; however, each had some connection to the militia. Major General Yell had served as the commander of the 2nd Division of the Arkansas Militia, Brigadier General Pearce had served as the Colonel of the Benton County Militia Regiment, and Brigadier General Thomas H. Bradley had previously served as a major general in the Tennessee Militia. General Pearce, who had graduated from West Point, had the most military training of the three generals. But all three of these men did harm to the war effort by opposing the transfer of Arkansas troops to a unified Confederate command. Eventually, all three men were either relieved of their command or transferred to other activities.
The Secession Convention enacted an ordinance on May 30, 1861, that called upon all the counties in the State to appoint a "home guard of minute men" for local defense, until regular military regiments could be raised and deployed. These Home Guard units were made up of old men and boys who were not eligible for normal military service. Like the Militia, the Home Guard units were organized at the county level, with companies being supplied by each township. Originally these units were intended to be separate from the state militia. Most counties presumably complied with the law, but records of only a few of these 1861 home guard organizations can now be found. The Independence County Home Guard was established in accordance with this new ordinance. The Independence County Court, in special session, established and made appointments to the local home guard organization on June 29, 1861. Subsequent appointments were made in July, October, and November 1861. About 220 men were appointed in all the townships of the county. Most of them were property owners, many quite prominent and wealthy, and, as far as can be determined, all were over the conscript age. Some were quite elderly. Despite their age, wealth, and social position, many later served in regular Confederate units in the latter part of the war, especially in Dobbin's and Morgan's cavalry regiments. John Farrell Allen was appointed General Commander of the Independence County Home Guard.
Mobilizing forces
Militia leaders were hopeful that their existing formations would be mobilized and utilized to defend the state. Brigadier General Jett, commanding the 1st Brigade, Arkansas Militia even wrote directly to Confederate President Jefferson Davis and offered the services of his brigade, which he described as "all officered and ready for action except in arms and munitions of war." The Secession Convention had other plans: they intended for the militia to remain separate from the Confederate forces. The existing militia organizations were to be retained as a source of manpower and a last-ditch defense network. This resulted in many local militia company commanders volunteering their existing forces as new volunteer companies rather than organizing separate Confederate companies.
Efforts to mobilize the state's forces were subject to the competing interest of the State Military Board. The board recognized the need to quickly mobilize troops to defend the state, but wished to avoid as much of the cost of the mobilization as possible. Additionally the Military Board feared that troops raised to defend the state would be diverted into the eastern theater of operations by the Confederate government. This concern quickly proved valid. The board made a decision not to mobilize the existing state militia regiments, and instead began organizing new volunteer regiments. The existing militia law authorized volunteer companies to be organized into regiments and brigades of volunteer troops. The regiments are also referred to as "State Troops" in state records from the period. Existing Volunteer Companies, already organized in the militia, were inducted into these new volunteer regiments. The militia regiments would maintain a separate identity from the State Troops and later Confederate regiments.
The board dispatched Christopher C. Danley of Little Rock to Richmond to open negotiations with the new Confederate government for the transfer of State Troops to the Confederate government. The Board immediately issued a call for 10,000 troops (10 regiments). Acting under the militia law's authority to organize volunteer regiments, Governor Rector had already directed volunteer units to begin organizing, so the first seven regiments were already in the process of organization when the military board issued its call for troops.
Much confusion exists in tracking the formation of military units during the initial months of the war because several different governments (Confederate, state, and county), all with competing interests, were raising troops within the state. The State Military Board was raising units which it hoped to transfer to Confederate service. James F. Fagan, T. B. Flournoy, and Albert Rust received authority directly from the new Confederate government to raise regiments for Confederate service. The War Department assigned the regimental designations of 1st Arkansas Volunteers (Fagan), 2nd Arkansas Volunteers (Hindman), and 3rd Arkansas Volunteers (Rust). The 1st and 3rd Arkansas Regiments organized, armed, and reported themselves ready for active service in May 1861, and received orders to report to Lynchburg, Virginia. Col. Hindman, however, had problems organizing his companies and obtaining arms, perhaps because the Arkansas State Troops were actively organizing in the same area. Col. Hindman's 2nd Arkansas Volunteers did not complete its organization and recruiting until June, and then had trouble getting orders from the War Department. Hindman's regiment was eventually sworn into state service and was then transferred to Confederate service with the rest of the eastern division of the Army of Arkansas.
The Military Board developed its own plan for numbering the regiments of State Troops, but this plan was apparently ignored by the new brigade commanders, who tended to number regiments sequentially based upon the date they were sworn into state service. The plan was also ignored by Confederate authorities, who often renumbered the regiments of State Troops when they were transferred into Confederate service, based on the date they were sworn into the Confederate Army. The result is a great deal of confusion regarding the designation of any particular Arkansas unit.
The 1st Arkansas Infantry, State Troops, commanded by Colonel Patrick R. Cleburne, was one of the first regiments created from the initial wave of Volunteer Companies. Of the eight companies which were inducted into state service as a part of this regiment at Mound City on May 14, 1861, seven had been originally organized as volunteer companies under the militia law. The regiment was initially mustered into the Confederate Army as the 1st Arkansas Volunteer Infantry, Confederate States Army. Later it was determined that another regiment had already received that designation. The unit recognized by the Confederate War Department as the 1st Arkansas Infantry was commanded by Col. James F. Fagan. Col. Fagan had served as a lieutenant with Company C of the Arkansas Regiment of Mounted Volunteers during the War with Mexico. Fagan's regiment was not mustered into state service, but left the state for the Eastern Theater; it was mustered into Confederate service in Lexington, Virginia. Col. Cleburne's 1st Arkansas Infantry, State Troops, was redesignated as the 15th Arkansas Infantry. The confusion did not end there, because a total of three Arkansas Infantry regiments were eventually named the "15th", the first being the aforementioned 1st Arkansas Infantry, State Troops commanded by Col. Cleburne. The new 15th Arkansas moved into camp with the 2nd Division of the Army of Arkansas, under the field command of Major General Yell, in Pocahontas.
Volunteer militia companies enlisted in Confederate service
The following volunteer companies who were formed under the authority of the antebellum militia laws were inducted into the new regiments of State Troops or directly into Confederate Service:
Order of battle, Provisional Army of Arkansas
The new Army of Arkansas was to consist of two divisions: the 1st Division, covering western Arkansas, and the 2nd Division in the eastern half of the state. A major general was to command the Army, while each division was to be under the command of a brigadier general. Each regiment was to consist of six to 10 companies. As was tradition, company officers were elected by the men and regimental officers were elected by the company officers.
Brigadier General Thomas Bradely, who initially commanded the eastern or 2nd Division, was quickly relieved of command after a dispute with Col. Cleburne. Major General Yell assumed command of the 2nd (Eastern) Division and had the following units under his command:
1st Regiment, Arkansas State Troops, (15th Josey's Volunteer Infantry)
5th Regiment (Cross's Regiment), Arkansas State Troops, (5th Arkansas Volunteer Infantry, Confederate States Army)
6th Regiment, Arkansas State Troops, (6th Arkansas Volunteer Infantry, Confederate States Army)
7th Regiment, Arkansas State Troops, (7th Arkansas Volunteer Infantry, Confederate States Army)
Helena Artillery (Key's Battery)
Jackson Light Artillery (McCown's Battery)
Clark County Artillery (Roberts Battery)
Brigadier General Pearce assumed command of the 1st (Western) Division and had the following units under his direct command:
3rd Regiment, Arkansas State Troops, (Gratiot's Regiment)
4th Regiment, Arkansas State Troops, (Walker's Regiment)
5th Regiment, Arkansas State Troops, (Dockery's Regiment)
1st Cavalry Regiment, Arkansas State Troops (Carroll's Regiment)
Pulaski Light Artillery, (Woodruff's Battery).
Fort Smith Artillery, (Ried's Battery)
On July 14, 1861, Confederate Brigadier General William J. Hardee arrived in Little Rock to assume unified Confederate command in the state. The following day the state Military Board signed an "Article of Transfer", which provided that all state forces (excepting the militia), some 10,000 men, would be transferred on a voluntary basis to the command of the Confederate States of America. All weapons, ammunition, and supplies were also to be transferred. Before the transfer could take place, Arkansas State Troops got their first taste of real battle.
State troops and the Battle of Wilson's Creek
Brigadier General Pearce, who lived in Benton County, established the headquarters, 1st Division, Provisional Army of Arkansas at Camp Walker at Maysville. Thus when a Union army began operating around Springfield in Southwest Missouri, Pearce's state troops were nearby. Pearce's troops, which are referred to as a brigade of State Troops in the official accounts of the battle, numbered 2,234 troops. Pearce agreed to co-operate with Brigadier General Benjamin McCulloch and his force of about 8,000 other soldiers from several commands, to form a sizable force and immediately marched toward Springfield. On August 10, 1861, Brigadier General Nathaniel Lyon, the forceful commander of Union troops in Missouri, attacked the Confederates. The ensuing day-long battle was fought on a number of fronts. Captain William E. Woodruff, Jr., commander of the Pulaski Light Artillery, engaged in a fierce artillery duel with Captain James Totten, who had only a few months earlier surrendered the Federal Arsenal at Little Rock. Captain Totten found himself with an opportunity to gain revenge, and his cannons roared throughout the day.
The Battle of Wilson's Creek came to an abrupt and inglorious halt when the Union commander was killed. Leaderless and outnumbered five-to-one, the bluecoats fled the battlefield. The Arkansas troops played a major role in winning the battle, but paid a heavy price for victory. Two Arkansas units suffered particularly heavy casualties. Colonel Thomas J. Churchill's 1st Arkansas Mounted Rifles counted 42 killed and 155 wounded out of 600 men. Colonel John Gratiot's 3rd Arkansas Infantry, State Troops suffered 109 casualties, including 25 killed, out of a force of 500 men.
Pearce's Troops vote to disband
Shortly after the Battle of Wilson's Creek, Pearce's troops were polled as to whether they wanted to be transferred to Confederate command as had been arranged prior to the battle. Brig. Gen. Pearce actively campaigned against joining the Confederate States Army. Sources differ as to how many of these Arkansas state troops agreed to the transfer. It appears that few were willing to continue in either service. Colonel Gratiot's command voted en masse against the transfer, and they were marched back to southwest Arkansas, where they were mustered out of state service on September 19, 1861. By the end of September 1861, all organized state troops had either been transferred to Confederate command or mustered out of state service.
Arkansas Confederates transferred east of the river
Between July 2 and August 1, 1861, eight regiments were organized by the Military Board. By November 1861 Governor Rector reported that 21 regiments had been raised, a total of 16,000 men, and an additional 6,000 men were soon to be in the ranks.
The Secession Convention and Military Board fears of Arkansas troops being transferred east of the Mississippi quickly became a reality. Brigadier General William J. Hardee led his new brigade of Arkansas Troops on a short uneventful raid into Missouri, and then transferred the command east of the Mississippi to join what would become the Confederate Army of Tennessee. Arkansas soon found itself virtually defenseless. By insisting that all state troops have the right to approve their transfer to Confederate service, state authorities had effectively killed the chance of raising a large unified force in the state. Governor Rector's newspaper charged: "The Confederate government has abandoned Arkansas to her fate."
Militia operations: Fall 1861
Col. Borland calls for militia to defend Northeast Arkansas: November 1861
In May 1861, Pocahontas and the nearby strategically important Pitman's Ferry, in Randolph County, became an important Confederate military depot. Following the transfer of the State Troop regiments to Brig. Gen Hardee, virtually all the regiments stationed in northeast Arkansas were transferred in late September east of the Mississippi River to Bowling Green, Kentucky. Col. Solon Borland was left in command of a small force at Pitman's Ferry. Col. Borland's force was the only defense left in Northeast Arkansas. The forces included: Borland's own cavalry regiment of seven companies, Col. McCown's five companies of infantry, Maj. Desha's four companies of raw troops, Capt. Robert's artillery unit of 60 men but no guns and about 150 recruits brought by Maj. McCray – altogether about 1286 men. But of these, owing to sickness and casualties Col Borland said he could count on no more than 600 for fighting service, and all were "raw, inexperienced, poorly disciplined and indifferently armed."
A second round of recruiting for new regiments was just getting underway when Col. Borland began receiving reports of enemy movements in Missouri. The initial reports seemed to indicate a possible movement on Pitman's Ferry. The Union army was massing troops in southeast Missouri mainly for the purpose of a thrust down the Mississippi River. But this posed a very real threat to all areas of northeast Arkansas. Col Borland indicated that he had reliable information "that there are 300 infantry and 150 cavalry at Rives' Station, on Black River, 35 miles north of Pitman's Ferry. Also that there is a strong infantry force-7,000-at Greenville, 15 miles north of Rives' Station." Borland was maintaining a regular correspondence with Brig Gen. M. Jeff Thompson, of the Missouri State Guard, who commanded the First Military District of Missouri at Bloomfield, Missouri.
Reports of these Union troop movements were sent to area militia units. The Jacksonport Herald of October 26, 1861, published a communication received by Christopher W. Board, Commander of the 34th Militia Regiment of Jackson County.
Col. Borland moved his command from Pitman's Ferry to Pocahontas and was sufficiently alarmed over the reports to issue a call for reinforcements from the militia. On November 5, 1861, Col. Borland issued an appeal for volunteers in the surrounding counties to hastily organize companies for the defense of Pitman's Ferry until new regular Confederate regiments could be organized and dispatched.
When news of Borland's situation reached Little Rock, the state Military Board responded to Borland's call for aid by calling out the 8th Militia Brigade under the command of Brig. Gen. Phillips:
Brig. Gen. Theodore H. Phillips offered his services to Col. Borland, who welcomed his aid in the emergency. Phillips undertook the organization of the new 30 day volunteer companies into a brigade. He placed a requisition for camp equipment as follows:
Brig. Gen Phillips added his explanation for the requisition: "In response to Col. Borland's call for militia service for 30 days. We have responded and entered service. [with] Capt. Ruffner." The receipt was dated Pocahontas November 23. 1861, and was signed by "T. H. Phillips, Brig. Gen. 8th Brigade of Arkansas Militia."
Col. Borland's call received an almost immediate response, but he continued to harbor serious misgivings about his situation. On November 10, he wrote to Maj. Gen. Leonidas Polk, C.S.A., commanding the 1st Division Western Department, at Columbus, Kentucky, and told of his call for reinforcements from the militia. He said the response was "somewhat tumultuous." On November 9, 1000 men had arrived unorganized and so ill-supplied with arms that be deemed it best to direct them to return home. They followed this direction and assured Borland that within a week's time he would have at least 3000 men at his command. He told them that companies thus organized and prepared would be received into service for 30 days from the time they reported again to him. Borland added a postscript to this letter, saying that he had just received a report from his scouts that a Federal force of 7450 was between Reeve's Station and Greenville in Missouri. He told Gen. Polk that the force he had was wholly insufficient for either attack or defense. It should be three times as large or be abandoned altogether; and finally he asked to be relieved of his command. "It is a Brigadier's command, and should have his responsibility, which I am daily growing more and more distrustful of my competency to sustain. Public interests here would be better provided for by other and abler hands."
News of Borland's call for volunteers and the resulting convergence upon Pocahontas was of course reported to other parts of the state. The Arkansas True Democrat of November 14 printed a dispatch from Des Arc dated November 9, 11:00 pm:
Some two dozen of these emergency companies were organized in Greene, Independence, Izard, Jackson, Lawrence and Randolph counties, including the areas now encompassed in present-day Clay, Cleburne, Sharp and Woodruff counties. They converged on Pocahontas and Pitman's Ferry, beginning about November 9, and were mustered into Confederate service for a period of thirty days. Few records of these hastily organized and short-lived companies have survived. It appears that three thirty-day regiments were organized from these companies.
1st Arkansas Regiment, 30 Day Volunteers, CSA
The 1st Arkansas Regiment, 30-Day Volunteers (infantry), seems to have been formally organized on November 23, 1861—at least that is the date of the appointments of the field and staff officers—under command of Colonel James Haywood McCaleb. Col. McCaleb was the commander of the 25th Militia Regiment, form Lawrence County. It appears that several of the companies that composed the new "30 Day Volunteer" regiment originated as part of the 25th Militia Regiment:
Company A – Capt. A. G. Kelsey—Randolph and Lawrence counties.
Company B – Capt. John W. Peter—Sharp, Independence and Izard counties.
Company C – Capt. M. Shelby Kennard—Independence county.
Company D – Capt. Thomas S. Simington—Randolph county.
Company E – Capt. Joshua Wann—Lawrence (present day Sharp) county.
Company F – Capt. Israel Milligan—Lawrence (present day Sharp) and Izard counties.
Company G – Capt. Daniel Yeager—Lawrence (present day Sharp) county.
Company H – Capt. James Campbell Anderson—Greene (and present day Clay) counties.
Company I – Capt. Beverly B. Owens—Independence county.
Company K – Capt. L. W. Robertson—Lawrence (and present day Sharp) counties.
2nd Arkansas Regiment, 30 Day Volunteers, CSA
The 2nd Regiment Arkansas Regiment, 30-Day Volunteers (infantry), may not have completed its organization—only the records of one battalion of this regiment have survived. Only the records of the four companies of the 1st Battalion of the 2nd Regiment are extant. Four companies from northeast Arkansas constituted the 1st Battalion. The companies enlisted for 30-days of emergency service on November 18, and were discharged on December 18, 1861:
Company A – Capt. John H. Miers' company from Jackson County.
Company B – Capt. W. T. High's company ("High's Repellers") from Prairie (and present-day Lonoke) counties. This company appears to have originated as Company G, 50th Militia Regiment of Prairie County.
Company C – Capt. James R. Morris' company from Independence and present-day Cleburne counties, and
Company D – Capt. Thomas G. Shinpock's company from present-day Woodruff County.
The men of Companies A, B and C returned to their respective homes after being discharged. The men of Company D stayed on to enlist in Confederate service for one year and became Company K of McCarver's 14th Arkansas Infantry. No colonel or lieutenant-colonel was ever assigned to the 2nd Regiment. The only field-grade officer mentioned in the record is a Major Allen, commanding the 1st Battalion, 2nd Regiment.
3rd Arkansas Regiment, 30 Day Volunteers, CSA
A 3rd Arkansas Regiment, 30-Day Volunteers (cavalry), almost surely never completely organized—only the rosters of two mounted companies, under Captains Reves and Hooker, have survived.
Capt. Reves' Mounted Company, 30-Day Volunteers, CSA – from Randolph County. Notation on muster roll—"This company was raised in Randolph county, Arkansas, in response to Colonel Borland's call of November 5, 1861, mustered into the Confederate service on December 26, 1861, for 30 days, and discharged on January 26, 1862, at Pocahontas, Arkansas.".
Capt. Richard Hooker's Company, Arkansas Mounted Volunteers, 30 days 1861, CSA – Jackson County. This company was mustered into Confederate service November 29, and discharged December 28, 1861. Muster rolls for this period bear the remark: "the men were armed with shotguns and borrowed sabers." Hooker's Company began as a cavalry unit. They had evidently spent time training in camp at Jacksonport before going to Pocahontas. In a report of purchases of army equipment at Jacksonport for the military board, R. R. Kellogg wrote on December 20, 1861: "Enclosed please find an Invoice of Goods by the Committee for Jackson County at this place – together with the receipts of all that we have distributed. The tents loaned to Hooker's Company have been returned and are now subject to your order." Although Hooker's Company was originally organized for 30 day service, it was reorganized on February 26, 1862, by Capt. Hooker at Jacksonport and more men were added. It figured prominently in actions around Jackson County in the spring and summer of 1862. Hooker's Company was mustered into it Confederate service as companies C and D of the 32nd Arkansas Infantry Regiment.
Unattached companies
Four additional companies were raised, possibly to fill out the rest of the 2nd Regiment or possibly for the 3rd Regiment of 30 day Volunteers, but they were never formally assigned to a regiment.
Capt. Clayton's Company, 30-Day Volunteers, CSA—From Lawrence (Now Sharp) county. Notation on muster roll—"This company was raised at Ash Flat, Arkansas, in response to Colonel Borland's call of November 5, 1861, mustered into the Confederate service on November 9, 1861, for 30 days, and discharged on December 9, 1861, at Pitman's Ferry, Arkansas."
Capt. Ballard's Company, 30-Day Volunteers, CSA – from Randolph county, Notation on muster roll—"This company was raised in Randolph county, Arkansas, in response to Colonel Borland's call of November 5, 1861, mustered into the Confederate service on November 17, 1861, for 30 days, and discharged on December 17, 1861, at Pitman's Ferry, Arkansas."
Capt. Baker's Company, 30-Day Volunteers, CSA – from St Francis county. Notation on muster roll—"This company was raised at Cotton Plant, Arkansas, in response to Colonel Borland's call of November 5, 1861, mustered into the Confederate service on November 14, 1861, for 30 days, and discharged on December 14, 1861, at Pocahontas, Arkansas."
Capt. Ruffner commanded a company of volunteers from the southern part of Lawrence County and evidently camped with Gen. Phillips. They remained at Pocahontas until the emergency was over and Col. Borland felt their service was no longer needed.
The period of enlistment for these emergency companies expired from mid-December to early January, about the time that the new regular regiments arrived, and they were discharged and sent home. Most of the volunteers subsequently enlisted in various regiments organized in the third round of troop mobilization in March and April 1862.
Operations against the Peace Society
The 45th Regiment Arkansas Militia was the regiment of Searcy and present-day Stone counties. It is the only militia regiment known to have been called up during the war for a specific mission. Confederate and State authorities became increasingly concerned about a shadowy organization in north-central Arkansas known as the Peace Society. The Peace Societies were largely union sympathizers who felt that the large slaveholding planters of southern Arkansas and the deep South had caused the war; they felt that they should be required to bear the burden of the conflict. Governor Rector ordered the 45th Arkansas Militia Regiment (Searcy County) to round up suspected Peace Society members in Searcy and Van Buren counties.
The regiment mustered on November 26, 1861, at Burrowville (now Marshall), and spent the next few weeks identifying and apprehending suspected Peace Society members throughout the mountains of north-central Arkansas. Finally, in mid-December, the regiment "escorted" their prisoners to Little Rock, where most of them were forced into Confederate service. Companies I and K of Marmaduke's 18th Arkansas (later 3rd Confederate) regiment were composed primarily of men rounded up by the 45th Militia. Their mission completed, the regiment returned to Searcy County and mustered out on December 20, 1861. The next spring, most of them enlisted in the 27th and 32nd Arkansas Infantry Regiments.
Inspection of militia units December 1861
The Military Board's efforts to mobilize necessary forces to defend the state, while maintaining the Militia as a separate organization, appear to have still been successful in the fall and winter of 1861. In early December 1861, the commanding generals of the Arkansas Militia Brigades made inspection tours of their districts. The Adjutant General, General Edmund Burevin, reviewed the Militia Division of Major General Thomas D. Merrick, who had mobilized as the Colonel of the 10th Arkansas. Major General James Yell reviewed the 2nd Militia Division. Brigadier General Holt, 2nd Brigade, 1st Division, reported that the militia units in the eight counties that comprised the 2nd Brigade were well organized, and that domestic arms were more plentiful than he had expected. Regimental Drill was conducted on December 5, 1861, at St. Johns College in Little Rock, and on December 7 in Saline County.
Militia operations: 1862
The Confederate Government in Richmond reacted to Arkansas' complaints on January 10, 1862, by creating District of the Trans-Mississippi from General Albert Sidney Johnston's Department of the West and dispatching Major General Earl Van Dorn to assume command. General Van Dorn arrived in Little Rock on January 29, 1862, and immediately made a requisition upon the State Military Board for ten additional regiments of infantry and four companies of artillery. In a proclamation, "To The People Of Arkansas, dated January 31, 1862, Governor Rector commented that:
Under the Governor's Proclamation, the state was divided into four new "divisions" and each division was assigned a recruiting goal. Governor Rector warned that any division which failed to report the number of men to them by March 5, 1862, would be subject to a draft, by counties, until their due proportion according to population was furnished ... Rector also stated that the State Military Board had the authority "to make a draft from the militia to obtain the required number for service".
Militia called out in the face of invasion
Before Major General Van Dorn could make much progress at building his new "Army of the West", a Union invasion of Northwest Arkansas necissitated an activation of the state militia. On February 17, 1862, General McCulloch issued a proclamation from Fayetteville:
Brigadier General N. B. Burrow, commander of the 3rd Brigade, 1st Division, Arkansas State Militia reacted by activating his entire brigade. According to pay records and muster rolls from the period, the following elements of the 3rd Brigade were activated in the face of the Union invasion of Northwest Arkansas:
5th Militia Regiment, 3rd Militia Brigade, Crawford County, on duty 21 February -17 March,
7th Militia Regiment, 3rd Militia Brigade, Franklin County, on duty 22 February -19 March,
10th Militia Regiment, 3rd Militia Brigade, Johnson County, on duty 20 February -19 March
51st Militia Regiment, 3rd Militia Brigade, Sebastian County, on duty 4 March - 19 March,
58th Militia Regiment, 3rd Militia Brigade, Logan County, on duty 22 February - 21 March,
62nd Militia Regiment, 3rd Militia Brigade, Johnson County, on duty 22 February - 1 March,
General Van Dorn received dispatches on February 22, from Generals McCullock and Price which indicated that General Price had rapidly fallen back from Springfield Missouri before a superior force of the enemy, and was endeavoring to form a junction with the division of General McCulloch in Boston Mountains, near Fayetteville. The State Military Board issued an order to Brigadier General George M. Holt, Commander of the 2nd Brigade of Arkansas Militia on February 26, to organize and put in camp each regiment in his militia brigade without delay. Brigadier General Burrow of the 3rd Militia Brigade, wrote from his headquarters at Van Buren to Governor Rector on March 2 informing the governor that he feared that only about 1,400 out of the 4,800 men enlisted in the brigade would report for duty. This estimate was based on the first returns from the units he had called out in response to Brigadier General McCulloch's call. Burrow indicated that reasons for this poor showing were that many had responded to General McCulloch's call by simply joining the existing volunteer regiments. Others had gone into hiding in the mountains in order to avoid militia duty. Finally some had joined the quartermaster department as teamsters and runners, and thus became exempt from militia duty, in order to escape combat.
On March 3, General Van Dorn reached the headquarters of Generals Price and McCulloch and on March 7–8 General Van Dorn's Army of the West engaged the Federal Army of the Southwest near Elk Horn Tavern in what would become known as the Battle of Pea Ridge. After initial success on the first day of the battle, Van Dorn was forced to order a retreat due to a lack of ammunition to continue the fight.
In response to the call of the State Military Board, elements of the 2nd Brigade, Arkansas Militia were mustered during and immediately following the Battle of Pea Ridge. The 50th Militia Regiment, of Prairie County, mustered March 7–9 while the 15th Militia Regiment, of Pope County mustered on 10–11 March. These are the only 2nd Brigade units for which pay roll records are available. H.W. Sholar of Greene County wrote to Governor Rector on 13 March, concerning Rector's recent call for 1,500 men to enlist in the militia. Scholar reported that companies were being raised in the county, but he complained that the men who refuse to enlist are threatened with death and "mob law" reigned in the county.
While General Van Dorn was fighting the Federals, Governor Rector was fighting attempts by the state legislature to abolish the Militia. The Legislature had been called into a special session beginning March 5, but the legislature lacked a quorum until 17 March when they began a 5-day session. Legislators who were tired of the high cost of attempting to maintain a separate state army sought to abolish the militia and passed an act to forbid Governor from paying Militia officers. The Legislature did appropriates $575,000 to implement current military law. Governor used a pocket veto to prevent the bill abolishing the militia and the bill forbidding him to pay Militia Officers from becoming law but signed the appropriation passed by the Legislature and used the funds to finance Militia activities.
Governor Rector attempts to organize a new State Army
Following his defeat at this battle, General Van Dorn initially retreated to Fort Smith and began moving his army back across the state in the direction of Jacksonport. Van Dorn originally intended to attempt an invasion of Missouri from Northeast Arkansas, but before he could begin such an operation, he received orders from General Albert Sydney Johnson directing him to move his army east of the Mississippi to assist with operations near Corinth, Mississippi. Van Dorn left the state with virtually every organized military unit and all the military stores and equipment that he could procure, once again leaving the State of Arkansas virtually defenseless in the face of a continued threat of invasion.
Furious with the authorities in Richmond, Governor Rector threatened to withdraw Arkansas from the Confederacy. Governor Rector issued an address on May 5, 1862, calling for the formation of 30 new infantry companies and 20 new cavalry companies. Rector indicated that if there were insufficient volunteers to fill these new companies, a draft would be made upon the militia regiments and brigades. As a further enticement, Rector also indicated that these regiments were for home defense and that they would not be transferred to Confederate Service without their consent.
General Hindman assumes command
Arkansas' Confederate congressional delegation joined Governor Rector in demanding defense for Arkansas, President Jefferson Davis in the summer of 1862 created the Trans-Mississippi District, made up of Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas. Major General E. Kirby Smith was placed in command, with headquarters at Shreveport, Louisiana. Major General Thomas C. Hindman, a resident of Helena and a forceful commander, was named to command the forces in Arkansas in a Special Order issued by General Bragg on May 26, 1862. With Federal troops only from Little Rock, Hindman was forced to take drastic measures. While on his way to Little Rock he had "impressed" $1 million from Memphis banks. At Helena he raided the stores, confiscating supplies ranging from medicine to ammunition, all of which he loaded on impressed steamboats. Of doubtful legality, these actions continued once Hindman reached Arkansas. Professor Michael Dougan has written that Hindman took "stores of all kinds" from citizens, even going so far as to raid the State Library to obtain paper for making cartridges. Finally, he burned thousands of bales of cotton to prevent their falling into enemy hands.
Reaching Little Rock on May 30, 1862, General Hindman wasted no time in trying to correct the complicated situation in Arkansas. The general at once began to raise a new army. Facing the immediate threat of Federal occupation, General Hindman insisted that the State Military Board transfer all remaining state troops to Confederate service. Rector, having won the battle with Richmond and facing staggering costs in maintaining a state army, was in no position to refuse. On June 2, 1862, Rector issued a proclamation noting that it was "essential that but one military organization shall exist within the Trans-Mississippi Department" and transferred all state forces to Confederate command.
Relying upon a recently adopted Confederate conscription law, General Hindman drafted large numbers of men. To encourage volunteering, Hindman announced that if men formed themselves into volunteer companies by June 20, 1862, they would be permitted to elect their own company officers, instead of their officers being appointed by General Hindman. It is possible that this led to the aforementioned large number or enlistments from former militiamen into Volunteer Regiments in the summer of 1862.
During the spring and summer, many former militiamen joined one of the newly formed volunteer regiments. It may be that the militiamen decided it was better to enlist and remain together than to wait for forced conscription under new Confederate Conscription laws, which were being strictly enforced during the summer of 1862. In some cases, the Militia was ordered to assemble at their Regular Battalion Muster Grounds for the purpose of enrolling conscripts for service the Confederate Army. In many cases, names on the militia muster rolls from the February–March call up of the militia match subsequent enlistments in new Volunteer Regiments being raised in the spring and summer of 1862. A good example of this process is Company A of the 1st Arkansas Cavalry Regiment (Monroe's) which was enlisted at Hickory Plains, Prairie County, Arkansas, on May 9, 1862, by Captain Patrick Henry Wheat. Of the 97 members of this company who enlisted at Hickory Plains, 49 were present for the muster of the 50th Militia Regiment on March 7, 1862.
Home guard
Besides attempting to organize a strong force of regular Confederate troops, General Hindman used the conscription laws to create home guard units. The Confederate conscription statutes required that from 1864, boys of 17 years and men between 45 and 50 serve as a state defense reserve. On June 17, 1862, Hindman issued General Order Number Seventeen, providing that "for the more effectual annoyance of the enemy ... all citizens of this district, who are not subject to conscription, are called upon to organize themselves into independent companies." In the thoroughness that typified Hindman, he suggested the types of operations which the home guards should carry out: "Their duty will be to cut off Federal pickets, scouts, foraging parties, and trains, and to kill pilots and others on gun-boats and transports, attacking them day and night, and using the greatest vigor in their movements." Although the home guard units were similar to the militia, the Federals accused Hindman of legalizing bushwhacking. Many of the men who joined the home guards merely used the organization as an excuse to pillage isolated farms and villages. Northwest Arkansas, in particular, suffered at the hands of these guerilla bands.
The home guards proved to be popular with Confederate sympathizers in Arkansas, primarily because these units could not be sent out of the state without the consent of state authorities. While some of these groups did engage in informal guerrilla activities, others were well-organized and competently commanded. The Home Guard units continued to operate until the closing days of the war.
The fall of Little Rock
General Hindman proved a more effective organizer than a battlefield leader. His new army met defeat first at the Battle of Prairie Grove (December 7, 1962) and later at the Battle of Helena in July 1863. The state capitol, Little Rock, fell to advancing Union Forces on September 10, 1863. Arkansas Confederate forces continued to resist until the end of the war, and managed to inflict a few embarrassing Union defeats, notably at Battle of Jenkins' Ferry and Battle of Marks' Mills during the Red River Campaign of 1864. Many of the units which participated in these final battles of the conflict in Arkansas were raised as State Troops from the militia of southern Arkansas.
Militia operations after the fall of Little Rock
Governor Harris Flanagin (who had defeated Governor Rector in his re-election bid of 1862) began organizing a new force of state troops in the fall of 1863. Governor Flanagin appointed Gordon N. Peay to serve as his Adjutant General. Peay would serve in this capacity until the end of the war. Flanagin issued a proclamation on August 10, 1863, just a month before the capitol fell, announcing that he had been authorized to raise new regiments of state troops and that by special agreement these new units could not be transferred out of the state by Confederate authorities. After the fall of Little Rock, recruiting was far more difficult than it had been in the first years of the war. The constant transfer of Arkansas troops into the eastern theater of the war, across the Mississippi River from their homes, was a major objection by the remaining population of men eligible for military service. With Federal forces now occupying the state capitol, the Confederate state government had no way of enforcing conscription laws in the counties behind the Union lines, except during raids by Generals Price and Shelby in 1864. The remaining Confederate regiments were plagued by desertions.
On September 16, 1863, in the immediate aftermath of the fall of the state capitol, Governor Flanagin issued General Order No. 6 from Arkadelphia, which called into service the militia regiments of the counties of Clark, Hempstead, Sevier, Pike, Polk, Montgomery, La Fayette, Ouachita, Union, and Columbia in order to resist the Federal army. The Governor's order directed the regiments to march to Arkadelphia at the earliest possible day. Companies were to be mounted and commanders were to compel persons evading the call to come to the rendezvous. The intent was to form companies of twelve-month mounted volunteers. Only six physicians, one druggist, millers to supply the wants of the country, clerks, sheriffs, postmasters, and persons in the employ of the Confederate States were exempted from the order. In describing this call in a letter to General Holmes dated October 18, 1863, from Washington, Arkansas, the new Confederate state capitol, Flanagin stated that he issued the order calling out the militia, as an experiment, expecting to get volunteers. The order succeeded so well as to get companies organized in the counties where the call for the militia was enforced which resulted in seven companies being collected under the call. Flanagin also stated that "the troops raised by the State are more than double all the troops raised by volunteering, or by the conscript law, within the past few months".
On October 26, 1863, Governor Flanagin directed Adjutant General Peay to:
These new units of Arkansas State Troops were placed under the overall command of Col. William H. Trader who was detailed to Governor Flanagin by General E. Kirby Smith. Col. Trader remained in command of the state troops until he resigned in June 1864.
Pettus Battalion, Arkansas State Troops
On January 14, 1864, Governor Flanagin, through General Peay, issued General Orders, No. 8. which directed the following named companies of Arkansas mounted volunteers, which had been called into the service of the State under the proclamation of the August 10, A.D. 1863, compose and be designated as the 1st Battalion, Arkansas State Troops:
Company A, of Hempstead County, Captain E. K. Williamson, commanding.
Company B, of Clark County, Captain Reuben C. Reed, commanding.
Company C, of Sevier County, Captain Allen T. Pettus, commanding.
Company D, of Polk County, Captain G. A. Hale, commanding.
Company E, of Hot Spring County, Captain John W. Dyer, commanding.
Allen T. Pettus was elected Lieutenant Colonel of this battalion. The unit participated in the battle of Marks Mill on April 25, 1864, as a part of Brigadier General William L. Cabell's Division. Lt. Col. Pettus was killed during the battle and Capt. P.K. Williamson of Company A commanded the battalion until the unit was increased to a regiment and transferred to Confederate service.
Newton's 10th Arkansas Cavalry Regiment
In August 1864 when the term of enlistment for these state troops was about to expire, Adjutant General Peay issued an order which directed that companies be allowed to vote on the subject of being transferred into Confederate service. However, the chance to vote on being transferred was merely a matter of form because Peay's order also had directions for those who refused transfer to Confederate service:
On September 5, 1864, the State Troop companies, including Pettus Battalion, were formed into one regiment of cavalry to be designated as the 3rd Regiment of Arkansas Cavalry, with Col. Robert C. Newton assigned to the command of the regiment until an election could be held for field officers. The companies of this regiment included:
Company A—Capt. Reuben C. Reed, composed of men from Clark County
Company B—Capt. Robert S. Burke, composed of men from Montgomery County
Company C—Capt. Cyrus K. Holman (replaced Allen T. Pettus), composed of men from Sever County
Company D—Capt. James B. Williamson, composed of men from Polk County
Company E—Capt. Samuel Ogden (replaced P.K. Williamson), composed of men from Hempstead County
Company F—Capt. Theophilus G. Henley, composed of men from Hempstead County
Company G—Capt. George A. Hale, composed of men from Polk County
Company H—Capt. William C. Corcoran, composed of men from Scott County
Company I—Capt. Allen A. McDonald (replaced John W. Dyer), composed of men from Hot Spring County
Company K—Capt. John Connally, composed of men from Pope County.
This unit was mustered into the Confederate Service on the October 31, 1864 as the 10th Arkansas Cavalry Regiment. Col. Newton was elected Regimental Commander. The unit operated in the Arkansas River Valley, interdicting the supply route between Little Rock and Fort Smith during the winter of 1864 to 1865.
The new unionist militia
In September 1863 Little Rock was captured by Union forces, and the Confederate state government fled to Washington, who at that time was in Southwest Arkansas. From that point, effective Confederate control was limited to the southwest corner of the state. Home guard units and guerrilla bands continued to mount frequent raids. The Union government acted quickly to establish a loyal government in Little Rock.
That new loyal government was led by Isaac Murphy. Murphy had gained fame, and no small degree of hatred, by his firm refusal to vote for secession during the state secession convention. In early 1864 a convention was held in Little Rock to draft a unionist state constitution. On March 14 the document was approved by the available voters; Isaac Murphy was shortly thereafter elected governor.
Among Murphy's first acts was to call for the formation of a loyal state militia, as bushwhackers were running rampant in the state. On May 31, 1864, the legislature adopted Act Number Nineteen, which provided for the creation of "a loyal State militia." This legislation stipulated that "none but loyal and trustworthy men shall be permitted to bear arms in said organization." So that the legal militia could be easily separated from the guerrilla forces, the act required each militiaman to "wear, as a mark of distinction, and for the purpose of being recognized at a distance, a band of red cloth [three] inches in width, to be worn on their hats, or in the most manner ..." Governor Murphy was authorized by the legislature to solicit 10,000 stands of arms from the Federal authorities to supply the militia force. Albert W. Bishop, a lieutenant colonel in the 1st Arkansas (Union) Cavalry, became Murphy's adjutant general.
Using United States Army officers to oversee recruitment, the new militia slowly took shape. Recruitment was most effective in strong unionist areas, especially northwest Arkansas, and in areas where a large Federal garrison could provide assistance. By the end of September 1864 militia drills were being held at Little Rock and Fort Smith as well as other points. In Little Rock, authorities ordered businesses to close during the three-hour weekly drills to encourage full attendance.
The rural areas of Northwest Arkansas, which experienced continual depredations by guerrilla forces, witnessed the formation of paramilitary organizations akin to, but different from, the Militia. Portions of the area had been stripped of productive farms, given the roaming bands of bushwhackers and Federal troops who frequently impressed food and supplies. Thus, a large percentage of the population faced starvation. As early as 1863, well before the formation of the Murphy government in Little Rock, Colonel M. LaRue Harrison, a Unionist commander and the man after whom the city of Harrison would be named, formed what came to be known as "Farm Colonies". These colonies would serve both a military and agricultural purpose. The colonies organized Militia companies composed entirely of farmers, which would be expected to cultivate the land and protect it.
Connection to the Arkansas National Guard
Current Arkansas Army National Guard units do not trace their lineage and honors to any of the units that participated in the Civil War. This is due in part to the lack of organization and poor record-keeping at the state level both before and after the war, and in part due to confusion over identification of units. In contrast to other southern states whose current National Guard units are awarded the campaign participate credits for their unit's participation in the various campaigns and engagements while in Confederate service, no current Arkansas National Guard unit has Campaign Participation Credit for the period of the Civil War.
See also
Arkansas in the American Civil War
List of Arkansas Civil War Confederate units
List of Arkansas Union Civil War units
References
References
Arkansas. (1860). Militia law of the state of Arkansas. Little Rock: Johnson & Yerkes, State Printers.
Arkansas Militia Heritage Preservation Foundation., Arkansas Militia Foundation., & Arkansas National Guard Historical Foundation. (1992). Arkansas military journal: A publication of the Arkansas Militia Heritage Preservation Foundation. North Little Rock, AR: Arkansas Militia Heritage Preservation Foundation.
Bearss, E. C. (1992). The battle of Wilson's Creek. Cassville, Mo: Litho Printers & Bindery.
Bevens, W. E., & Sutherland, D. E. (1992). Reminiscences of a private: William E. Bevens of the First Arkansas Infantry, C.S.A. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press
"Colonel Rieff Re-organizes Washington County Militia in 1860." Flashback, 5, No. 5 (October 1955): 33–35.
Collier, C. L. (1961). First in—last out: The Capitol Guards, Ark. brigade. Little Rock: Pioneer Press.
Dougan, M. B. (1976). Confederate Arkansas: The people and policies of a frontier state in wartime. University, Ala: University of Alabama Press.
McRae, D. (n.d.). Dandridge McRae papers.
Oldham, K., Clayton, P., Conway, E. N., Flanagin, H., Murphy, I., Rector, H. M., & Arkansas. (1860). Kie Oldham papers.
Smith, M. Aldridge. "Nicholas Bartlett Pearce and the Clamor of Commands in Benton County During the War of the Rebellion.'" Benton County Pioneer, 30 (Fall 1985): 33–39.
Upton, E., Sanger, J. P., Beach, W. D., & Rhodes, C. D. (1916). The military policy of the United States. Washington: Govt. Print. Off.
U.S. War Department, The War of the Rebellion: a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1880–1901.
Woodruff, W.E. With the Light Guns in '61-'65: Reminiscences of Eleven Arkansas, Missouri and Texas Batteries in the Civil War. (Little Rock, AR: Central Printing Co., 1903).
External links
AR National Guard
AR Air National Guard
AR Army National Guard
The Arkansas National Guard Museum
Bibliography of Arkansas Army National Guard History compiled by the United States Army Center of Military History
Arkansas in the American Civil War
National Guard of the United States
Military in Arkansas
Military units and formations in Arkansas
Units and formations of the Confederate States Army from Arkansas
1865 disestablishments in Arkansas
Military units and formations disestablished in 1865
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB%20flash%20drive
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USB flash drive
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A USB flash drive (i.e. thumb drive) is a data storage device that includes flash memory with an integrated USB interface. It is typically removable, rewritable and much smaller than an optical disc. Most weigh less than . Since first appearing on the market in late 2000, as with virtually all other computer memory devices, storage capacities have risen while prices have dropped. , flash drives with anywhere from 8 to 256 gigabytes (GB) were frequently sold, while 512 GB and 1 terabyte (TB) units were less frequent. As of 2018, 2 TB flash drives were the largest available in terms of storage capacity. Some allow up to 100,000 write/erase cycles, depending on the exact type of memory chip used, and are thought to physically last between 10 and 100 years under normal circumstances (shelf storage time).
Common uses of USB flash drives are for storage, supplementary back-ups, and transferring of computer files. Compared with floppy disks or CDs, they are smaller, faster, have significantly more capacity, and are more durable due to a lack of moving parts. Additionally, they are less vulnerable to electromagnetic interference than floppy disks, and are unharmed by surface scratches (unlike CDs). However, as with any flash storage, data loss from bit leaking due to prolonged lack of electrical power and the possibility of spontaneous controller failure due to poor manufacturing could make it unsuitable for long-term archival of data. The ability to retain data is affected by the controller's firmware, internal data redundancy, and error correction algorithms.
Until about 2005, most desktop and laptop computers were supplied with floppy disk drives in addition to USB ports, but floppy disk drives became obsolete after widespread adoption of USB ports and the larger USB drive capacity compared to the "1.44 megabyte" (1440 kibibyte) 3.5-inch floppy disk.
USB flash drives use the USB mass storage device class standard, supported natively by modern operating systems such as Windows, Linux, and other Unix-like systems, as well as many BIOS boot ROMs. USB drives with USB 2.0 support can store more data and transfer faster than much larger optical disc drives like CD-RW or DVD-RW drives and can be read by many other systems such as the Xbox One, PlayStation 4, DVD players, automobile entertainment systems, and in a number of handheld devices such as smartphones and tablet computers, though the electronically similar SD card is better suited for those devices, due to their standardized form factor, which allows it to be housed inside a device without protruding.
A flash drive consists of a small printed circuit board carrying the circuit elements and a USB connector, insulated electrically and protected inside a plastic, metal, or rubberized case, which can be carried in a pocket or on a key chain, for example. Some are equipped with an I/O indication LED that lights up or blinks upon access. The USB connector may be protected by a removable cap or by retracting into the body of the drive, although it is not likely to be damaged if unprotected. Most flash drives use a standard type-A USB connection allowing connection with a port on a personal computer, but drives for other interfaces also exist (e.g. micro-USB and USB-C ports). USB flash drives draw power from the computer via the USB connection. Some devices combine the functionality of a portable media player with USB flash storage; they require a battery only when used to play music on the go.
History
The basis for USB flash drives is flash memory, a type of floating-gate semiconductor memory invented by Fujio Masuoka in the early 1980s. Flash memory uses floating-gate MOSFET transistors as memory cells.
Multiple individuals have staked a claim to being the inventor of the USB flash drive. On April 5, 1999, Amir Ban, Dov Moran, and Oron Ogdan of M-Systems, an Israeli company, filed a patent application entitled "Architecture for a Universal Serial Bus-Based PC Flash Disk". The patent was subsequently granted on November 14, 2000 and these individuals have often been recognized as the inventors of the USB flash drive. Also in 1999, Shimon Shmueli, an engineer at IBM, submitted an invention disclosure asserting that he had invented the USB flash drive. A Singaporean company named Trek 2000 International is the first company known to have sold a USB flash drive, and has also maintained that it is the original inventor of the device. Finally Pua Khein-Seng, a Malaysian engineer, has also been recognized by some as a possible inventor of the device.
Given these competing claims to inventorship, patent disputes involving the USB flash drive have arisen over the years. Both Trek 2000 International and Netac Technology have accused others of infringing their patents on the USB flash drive. However, despite these lawsuits, the question of who was the first to invent the USB flash drive has not been definitively settled and multiple claims persist.
Technology improvements
Flash drives are often measured by the rate at which they transfer data. Transfer rates may be given in megabytes per second (MB/s), megabits per second (Mbit/s), or in optical drive multipliers such as "180X" (180 times 150 KiB/s). File transfer rates vary considerably among devices. Second generation flash drives have claimed to read at up to 30 MB/s and write at about half that rate, which was about 20 times faster than the theoretical transfer rate achievable by the previous model, USB 1.1, which is limited to 12 Mbit/s (1.5 MB/s) with accounted overhead. The effective transfer rate of a device is significantly affected by the data access pattern.
By 2002, USB flash drives had USB 2.0 connectivity, which has 480 Mbit/s as the transfer rate upper bound; after accounting for the protocol overhead that translates to a 35 MB/s effective throughput. That same year, Intel sparked widespread use of second generation USB by including them within its laptops.
By 2010, the maximum available storage capacity for the devices had reached upwards of 128 GB. USB 3.0 was slow to appear in laptops. Through 2010, the majority of laptop models still contained only USB 2.0.
In January 2013, tech company Kingston, released a flash drive with 1 TB of storage. The first USB 3.1 type-C flash drives, with read/write speeds of around 530 MB/s, were announced in March 2015. By July 2016, flash drives with 8 to 256 GB capacity were sold more frequently than those with capacities between 512 GB and 1 TB. In 2017, Kingston Technology announced the release of a 2-TB flash drive. In 2018, SanDisk announced a 1TB USB-C flash drive, the smallest of its kind.
On a USB flash drive, one end of the device is fitted with a single Standard-A USB plug; some flash drives additionally offer a micro USB plug, facilitating data transfers between different devices.
Technology
On a USB flash drive, one end of the device is fitted with a single USB plug; some flash drives additionally offer a micro USB plug, facilitating data transfers between different devices.
Inside the plastic casing is a small printed circuit board, which has some power circuitry and a small number of surface-mounted integrated circuits (ICs). Typically, one of these ICs provides an interface between the USB connector and the onboard memory, while the other is the flash memory. Drives typically use the USB mass storage device class to communicate with the host.
Flash memory
Flash memory combines a number of older technologies, with lower cost, lower power consumption and small size made possible by advances in semiconductor device fabrication technology. The memory storage was based on earlier EPROM and EEPROM technologies. These had limited capacity, were slow for both reading and writing, required complex high-voltage drive circuitry, and could be re-written only after erasing the entire contents of the chip.
Hardware designers later developed EEPROMs with the erasure region broken up into smaller "fields" that could be erased individually without affecting the others. Altering the contents of a particular memory location involved copying the entire field into an off-chip buffer memory, erasing the field, modifying the data as required in the buffer, and re-writing it into the same field. This required considerable computer support, and PC-based EEPROM flash memory systems often carried their own dedicated microprocessor system. Flash drives are more or less a miniaturized version of this.
The development of high-speed serial data interfaces such as USB made semiconductor memory systems with serially accessed storage viable, and the simultaneous development of small, high-speed, low-power microprocessor systems allowed this to be incorporated into extremely compact systems. Serial access requires far fewer electrical connections for the memory chips than does parallel access, which has simplified the manufacture of multi-gigabyte drives.
Computers access flash memory systems very much like hard disk drives, where the controller system has full control over where information is actually stored. The actual EEPROM writing and erasure processes are, however, still very similar to the earlier systems described above.
Many low-cost MP3 players simply add extra software and a battery to a standard flash memory control microprocessor so it can also serve as a music playback decoder. Most of these players can also be used as a conventional flash drive, for storing files of any type.
Essential components
There are typically five parts to a flash drive:
USB plug provides a physical interface to the host computer. Some USB flash drives use USB plug that does not protect the contacts, with the possibility of plugging it into the USB port in the wrong orientation, if the connector type is not symmetrical.
USB mass storage controller a small microcontroller with a small amount of on-chip ROM and RAM.
NAND flash memory chip(s) stores data (NAND flash is typically also used in digital cameras).
Crystal oscillator produces the device's main clock signal and controls the device's data output through a phase-locked loop.
Cover typically made of plastic or metal, protecting the electronics against mechanical stress and even possible short circuits.
Additional components
The typical device may also include:
Jumpers and test pins – for testing during the flash drive's manufacturing or loading code into its microcontroller.
LEDs – indicate data transfers or data reads and writes.
Write-protect switches – Enable or disable writing of data into memory.
Unpopulated space – provides space to include a second memory chip. Having this second space allows the manufacturer to use a single printed circuit board for more than one storage size device.
USB connector cover or cap – reduces the risk of damage, prevents the entry of dirt or other contaminants, and improves overall device appearance. Some flash drives use retractable USB connectors instead. Others have a swivel arrangement so that the connector can be protected without removing anything.
Transport aid – the cap or the body often contains a hole suitable for connection to a key chain or lanyard. Connecting the cap, rather than the body, can allow the drive itself to be lost.
Some drives offer expandable storage via an internal memory card slot, much like a memory card reader.
Size and style of packaging
Most USB flash drives weigh less than . While some manufacturers are competing for the smallest size, with the biggest memory, offering drives only a few millimeters larger than the USB plug itself, some manufacturers differentiate their products by using elaborate housings, which are often bulky and make the drive difficult to connect to the USB port. Because the USB port connectors on a computer housing are often closely spaced, plugging a flash drive into a USB port may block an adjacent port. Such devices may carry the USB logo only if sold with a separate extension cable. Such cables are USB-compatible but do not conform to the USB standard.
USB flash drives have been integrated into other commonly carried items, such as watches, pens, laser pointers, and even the Swiss Army Knife; others have been fitted with novelty cases such as toy cars or Lego bricks. USB flash drives with images of dragons, cats or aliens are very popular in Asia. The small size, robustness and cheapness of USB flash drives make them an increasingly popular peripheral for case modding.
File system
Most flash drives ship preformatted with the FAT32, or exFAT file systems. The ubiquity of the FAT32 file system allows the drive to be accessed on virtually any host device with USB support. Also, standard FAT maintenance utilities (e.g., ScanDisk) can be used to repair or retrieve corrupted data. However, because a flash drive appears as a USB-connected hard drive to the host system, the drive can be reformatted to any file system supported by the host operating system.
Defragmenting
Flash drives can be defragmented. There is a widespread opinion that defragmenting brings little advantage (as there is no mechanical head that moves from fragment to fragment), and that defragmenting shortens the life of the drive by making many unnecessary writes. However, some sources claim that defragmenting a flash drive can improve performance (mostly due to improved caching of the clustered data), and the additional wear on flash drives may not be significant.
Even distribution
Some file systems are designed to distribute usage over an entire memory device without concentrating usage on any part (e.g., for a directory) to prolong the life of simple flash memory devices. Some USB flash drives have this 'wear leveling' feature built into the software controller to prolong device life, while others do not, so it is not necessarily helpful to install one of these file systems.
Hard disk drive
Sectors are 512 bytes long, for compatibility with hard disk drives, and the first sector can contain a master boot record and a partition table. Therefore, USB flash units can be partitioned just like hard disk drives.
Longevity
The memory in flash drives was commonly engineered with multi-level cell (MLC) based memory that is good for around 3,000-5,000 program-erase cycles. Nowadays Triple-level Cell (TLC) is also often used, which has up to 500 write cycles per physical sector, while some high-end flash drives have single-level cell (SLC) based memory that is good for around 30,000 writes. There is virtually no limit to the number of reads from such flash memory, so a well-worn USB drive may be write-protected to help ensure the life of individual cells.
Estimation of flash memory endurance is a challenging subject that depends on the SLC/MLC/TLC memory type, size of the flash memory chips, and actual usage pattern. As a result, a USB flash drive can last from a few days to several hundred years.
Regardless of the endurance of the memory itself, the USB connector hardware is specified to withstand only around 1,500 insert-removal cycles.
Counterfeit products
Counterfeit USB flash drives are sometimes sold with claims of having higher capacities than they actually have. These are typically low capacity USB drives whose flash memory controller firmware is modified so that they emulate larger capacity drives (for example, a 2 GB drive being marketed as a 64 GB drive). When plugged into a computer, they report themselves as being the larger capacity they were sold as, but when data is written to them, either the write fails, the drive freezes up, or it overwrites existing data. Software tools exist to check and detect fake USB drives, and in some cases it is possible to repair these devices to remove the false capacity information and use its real storage limit.
File transfer speeds
Transfer speeds are technically determined by the slowest of three factors: the USB version used, the speed in which the USB controller device can read and write data onto the flash memory, and the speed of the hardware bus, especially in the case of add-on USB ports.
USB flash drives usually specify their read and write speeds in megabytes per second (MB/s); read speed is usually faster. These speeds are for optimal conditions; real-world speeds are usually slower. In particular, circumstances that often lead to speeds much lower than advertised are transfer (particularly writing) of many small files rather than a few very large ones, and mixed reading and writing to the same device.
In a typical well-conducted review of a number of high-performance USB 3.0 drives, a drive that could read large files at 68 MB/s and write at 46 MB/s, could only manage 14 MB/s and 0.3 MB/s with many small files. When combining streaming reads and writes the speed of another drive, that could read at 92 MB/s and write at 70 MB/s, was 8 MB/s. These differences differ radically from one drive to another; some drives could write small files at over 10% of the speed for large ones. The examples given are chosen to illustrate extremes.
Uses
Personal data transport
The most common use of flash drives is to transport and store personal files, such as documents, pictures and videos. Individuals also store medical information on flash drives for emergencies and disaster preparation.
Secure storage of data, application and software files
With wide deployment(s) of flash drives being used in various environments (secured or otherwise), the issue of data and information security remains important. The use of biometrics and encryption is becoming the norm with the need for increased security for data; on-the-fly encryption systems are particularly useful in this regard, as they can transparently encrypt large amounts of data. In some cases a secure USB drive may use a hardware-based encryption mechanism that uses a hardware module instead of software for strongly encrypting data. IEEE 1667 is an attempt to create a generic authentication platform for USB drives. It is supported in Windows 7 and Windows Vista (Service Pack 2 with a hotfix).
Computer forensics and law enforcement
A recent development for the use of a USB Flash Drive as an application carrier is to carry the Computer Online Forensic Evidence Extractor (COFEE) application developed by Microsoft. COFEE is a set of applications designed to search for and extract digital evidence on computers confiscated from suspects. Forensic software is required not to alter, in any way, the information stored on the computer being examined. Other forensic suites run from CD-ROM or DVD-ROM, but cannot store data on the media they are run from (although they can write to other attached devices, such as external drives or memory sticks).
Updating motherboard firmware
Motherboard firmware (including BIOS and UEFI) can be updated using USB flash drives. Usually, new firmware image is downloaded and placed onto a FAT16- or FAT32-formatted USB flash drive connected to a system which is to be updated, and path to the new firmware image is selected within the update component of system's firmware. Some motherboard manufacturers are also allowing such updates to be performed without the need for entering system's firmware update component, making it possible to easily recover systems with corrupted firmware.
Also, HP has introduced a USB floppy drive key, which is an ordinary USB flash drive with additional possibility for performing floppy drive emulation, allowing its usage for updating system firmware where direct usage of USB flash drives is not supported. Desired mode of operation (either regular USB mass storage device or of floppy drive emulation) is made selectable by a sliding switch on the device's housing.
Booting operating systems
Most current PC firmware permits booting from a USB drive, allowing the launch of an operating system from a bootable flash drive. Such a configuration is known as a Live USB.
Original flash memory designs had very limited estimated lifetimes. The failure mechanism for flash memory cells is analogous to a metal fatigue mode; the device fails by refusing to write new data to specific cells that have been subject to many read-write cycles over the device's lifetime. Premature failure of a "live USB" could be circumvented by using a flash drive with a write-lock switch as a WORM device, identical to a live CD. Originally, this potential failure mode limited the use of "live USB" system to special-purpose applications or temporary tasks, such as:
Loading a minimal, hardened kernel for embedded applications (e.g., network router, firewall).
Bootstrapping an operating system install or disk cloning operation, often across a network.
Maintenance tasks, such as virus scanning or low-level data repair, without the primary host operating system loaded.
, newer flash memory designs have much higher estimated lifetimes. Several manufacturers are now offering warranties of 5 years or more. Such warranties should make the device more attractive for more applications. By reducing the probability of the device's premature failure, flash memory devices can now be considered for use where a magnetic disk would normally have been required. Flash drives have also experienced an exponential growth in their storage capacity over time (following the Moore's Law growth curve). As of 2013, single-packaged devices with capacities of 1 TB are readily available, and devices with 16 GB capacity are very economical. Storage capacities in this range have traditionally been considered to offer adequate space, because they allow enough space for both the operating system software and some free space for the user's data.
Operating system installation media
Installers of some operating systems can be stored to a flash drive instead of a CD or DVD, including various Linux distributions, Windows 7 and newer versions, and macOS. In particular, Mac OS X 10.7 is distributed only online, through the Mac App Store, or on flash drives; for a MacBook Air with Boot Camp and no external optical drive, a flash drive can be used to run installation of Windows or Linux.
However, for installation of Windows 7 and later versions, using USB flash drive with hard disk drive emulation as detected in PC's firmware is recommended in order to boot from it. Transcend is the only manufacturer of USB flash drives containing such feature.
Furthermore, for installation of Windows XP, using USB flash drive with storage limit of at most 2 GB is recommended in order to boot from it.
Windows ReadyBoost
In Windows Vista and later versions, ReadyBoost feature allows flash drives (from 4 GB in case of Windows Vista) to augment operating system memory.
Application carriers
Flash drives are used to carry applications that run on the host computer without requiring installation. While any standalone application can in principle be used this way, many programs store data, configuration information, etc. on the hard drive and registry of the host computer.
The U3 company works with drive makers (parent company SanDisk as well as others) to deliver custom versions of applications designed for Microsoft Windows from a special flash drive; U3-compatible devices are designed to autoload a menu when plugged into a computer running Windows. Applications must be modified for the U3 platform not to leave any data on the host machine. U3 also provides a software framework for independent software vendors interested in their platform.
Ceedo is an alternative product, with the key difference that it does not require Windows applications to be modified in order for them to be carried and run on the drive.
Similarly, other application virtualization solutions and portable application creators, such as VMware ThinApp (for Windows) or RUNZ (for Linux) can be used to run software from a flash drive without installation.
In October 2010, Apple Inc. released their newest iteration of the MacBook Air, which had the system's restore files contained on a USB hard drive rather than the traditional install CDs, due to the Air not coming with an optical drive.
A wide range of portable applications which are all free of charge, and able to run off a computer running Windows without storing anything on the host computer's drives or registry, can be found in the list of portable software.
Backup
Some value-added resellers are now using a flash drive as part of small-business turnkey solutions (e.g., point-of-sale systems). The drive is used as a backup medium: at the close of business each night, the drive is inserted, and a database backup is saved to the drive. Alternatively, the drive can be left inserted through the business day, and data regularly updated. In either case, the drive is removed at night and taken offsite.
This is simple for the end-user, and more likely to be done.
The drive is small and convenient, and more likely to be carried off-site for safety.
The drives are less fragile mechanically and magnetically than tapes.
The capacity is often large enough for several backup images of critical data.
Flash drives are cheaper than many other backup systems.
Flash drives also have disadvantages. They are easy to lose and facilitate unauthorized backups. A lesser setback for flash drives is that they have only one tenth the capacity of hard drives manufactured around their time of distribution.
Password Reset Disk
Password Reset Disk is a feature of the Windows operating system. If a user sets up a Password Reset Disk, it can be used to reset the password on the computer it was set up on.
Audio players
Many companies make small solid-state digital audio players, essentially producing flash drives with sound output and a simple user interface. Examples include the Creative MuVo, Philips GoGear and the first generation iPod shuffle. Some of these players are true USB flash drives as well as music players; others do not support general-purpose data storage. Other applications requiring storage, such as digital voice or sound recording, can also be combined with flash drive functionality.
Many of the smallest players are powered by a permanently fitted rechargeable battery, charged from the USB interface. Fancier devices that function as a digital audio player have a USB host port (type A female typically).
Media storage and marketing
Digital audio files can be transported from one computer to another like any other file, and played on a compatible media player (with caveats for DRM-locked files). In addition, many home Hi-Fi and car stereo head units are now equipped with a USB port. This allows a USB flash drive containing media files in a variety of formats to be played directly on devices which support the format. Some LCD monitors for consumer HDTV viewing have a dedicated USB port through which music and video files can also be played without use of a personal computer.
Artists have sold or given away USB flash drives, with the first instance believed to be in 2004 when the German punk band Wizo released the Stick EP, only as a USB drive. In addition to five high-bitrate MP3s, it also included a video, pictures, lyrics, and guitar tablature. Subsequently, artists including Nine Inch Nails and Kylie Minogue have released music and promotional material on USB flash drives. The first USB album to be released in the UK was Kiss Does... Rave, a compilation album released by the Kiss Network in April 2007.
Brand and product promotion
The availability of inexpensive flash drives has enabled them to be used for promotional and marketing purposes, particularly within technical and computer-industry circles (e.g., technology trade shows). They may be given away for free, sold at less than wholesale price, or included as a bonus with another purchased product.
Usually, such drives will be custom-stamped with a company's logo, as a form of advertising. The drive may be blank, or preloaded with graphics, documentation, web links, Flash animation or other multimedia, and free or demonstration software. Some preloaded drives are read-only, while others are configured with both read-only and user-writable segments. Such dual-partition drives are more expensive.
Flash drives can be set up to automatically launch stored presentations, websites, articles, and any other software immediately on insertion of the drive using the Microsoft Windows AutoRun feature. Autorunning software this way does not work on all computers, and it is normally disabled by security-conscious users.
Arcades
In the arcade game In the Groove and more commonly In The Groove 2, flash drives are used to transfer high scores, screenshots, dance edits, and combos throughout sessions. As of software revision 21 (R21), players can also store custom songs and play them on any machine on which this feature is enabled. While use of flash drives is common, the drive must be Linux compatible.
In the arcade games Pump it Up NX2 and Pump it Up NXA, a specially produced flash drive is used as a "save file" for unlocked songs, as well as for progressing in the WorldMax and Brain Shower sections of the game.
In the arcade game Dance Dance Revolution X, an exclusive USB flash drive was made by Konami for the purpose of the link feature from its Sony PlayStation 2 counterpart. However, any USB flash drive can be used in this arcade game.
Conveniences
Flash drives use little power, have no fragile moving parts, and for most capacities are small and light. Data stored on flash drives is impervious to mechanical shock, magnetic fields, scratches and dust. These properties make them suitable for transporting data from place to place and keeping the data readily at hand.
Flash drives also store data densely compared to many removable media. In mid-2009, 256 GB drives became available, with the ability to hold many times more data than a DVD (54 DVDs) or even a Blu-ray (10 BDs).
Flash drives implement the USB mass storage device class so that most modern operating systems can read and write to them without installing device drivers. The flash drives present a simple block-structured logical unit to the host operating system, hiding the individual complex implementation details of the various underlying flash memory devices. The operating system can use any file system or block addressing scheme. Some computers can boot up from flash drives.
Specially manufactured flash drives are available that have a tough rubber or metal casing designed to be waterproof and virtually "unbreakable". These flash drives retain their memory after being submerged in water, and even through a machine wash. Leaving such a flash drive out to dry completely before allowing current to run through it has been known to result in a working drive with no future problems. Channel Five's Gadget Show cooked one of these flash drives with propane, froze it with dry ice, submerged it in various acidic liquids, ran over it with a jeep and fired it against a wall with a mortar. A company specializing in recovering lost data from computer drives managed to recover all the data on the drive. All data on the other removable storage devices tested, using optical or magnetic technologies, were destroyed.
Comparison with other portable storage
Tape
The applications of current data tape cartridges hardly overlap those of flash drives: on tape, cost per gigabyte is very low for large volumes, but the individual drives and media are expensive. Media have a very high capacity and very fast transfer speeds, but store data sequentially and are very slow for random access of data. While disk-based backup is now the primary medium of choice for most companies, tape backup is still popular for taking data off-site for worst-case scenarios and for very large volumes (more than a few hundreds of TB). See LTO tapes.
Floppy disk
Floppy disk drives are rarely fitted to modern computers and are obsolete for normal purposes, although internal and external drives can be fitted if required. Floppy disks may be the method of choice for transferring data to and from very old computers without USB or booting from floppy disks, and so they are sometimes used to change the firmware on, for example, BIOS chips. Devices with removable storage like older Yamaha music keyboards are also dependent on floppy disks, which require computers to process them. Newer devices are built with USB flash drive support.
Floppy disk hardware emulators exist which effectively utilize the internal connections and physical attributes of a floppy disk drive to utilize a device where a USB flash drive emulates the storage space of a floppy disk in a solid state form, and can be divided into a number of individual virtual floppy disk images using individual data channels.
Optical media
The various writable and re-writable forms of CD and DVD are portable storage media supported by the vast majority of computers as of 2008. CD-R, DVD-R, and DVD+R can be written to only once, RW varieties up to about 1,000 erase/write cycles, while modern NAND-based flash drives often last for 500,000 or more erase/write cycles. DVD-RAM discs are the most suitable optical discs for data storage involving much rewriting.
Optical storage devices are among the cheapest methods of mass data storage after the hard drive. They are slower than their flash-based counterparts. Standard 120 mm optical discs are larger than flash drives and more subject to damage. Smaller optical media do exist, such as business card CD-Rs which have the same dimensions as a credit card, and the slightly less convenient but higher capacity 80 mm recordable MiniCD and Mini DVD. The small discs are more expensive than the standard size, and do not work in all drives.
Universal Disk Format (UDF) version 1.50 and above has facilities to support rewritable discs like sparing tables and virtual allocation tables, spreading usage over the entire surface of a disc and maximising life, but many older operating systems do not support this format. Packet-writing utilities such as DirectCD and InCD are available but produce discs that are not universally readable (although based on the UDF standard). The Mount Rainier standard addresses this shortcoming in CD-RW media by running the older file systems on top of it and performing defect management for those standards, but it requires support from both the CD/DVD burner and the operating system. Many drives made today do not support Mount Rainier, and many older operating systems such as Windows XP and below, and Linux kernels older than 2.6.2, do not support it (later versions do). Essentially CDs/DVDs are a good way to record a great deal of information cheaply and have the advantage of being readable by most standalone players, but they are poor at making ongoing small changes to a large collection of information. Flash drives' ability to do this is their major advantage over optical media.
Flash memory cards
Flash memory cards, e.g., Secure Digital cards, are available in various formats and capacities, and are used by many consumer devices. However, while virtually all PCs have USB ports, allowing the use of USB flash drives, memory card readers are not commonly supplied as standard equipment (particularly with desktop computers). Although inexpensive card readers are available that read many common formats, this results in two pieces of portable equipment (card plus reader) rather than one.
Some manufacturers, aiming at a "best of both worlds" solution, have produced card readers that approach the size and form of USB flash drives (e.g., Kingston MobileLite, SanDisk MobileMate) These readers are limited to a specific subset of memory card formats (such as SD, microSD, or Memory Stick), and often completely enclose the card, offering durability and portability approaching, if not quite equal to, that of a flash drive. Although the combined cost of a mini-reader and a memory card is usually slightly higher than a USB flash drive of comparable capacity, the reader + card solution offers additional flexibility of use, and virtually "unlimited" capacity. The ubiquity of SD cards is such that, circa 2011, due to economies of scale, their price is now less than an equivalent-capacity USB flash drive, even with the added cost of a USB SD card reader.
An additional advantage of memory cards is that many consumer devices (e.g., digital cameras, portable music players) cannot make use of USB flash drives (even if the device has a USB port), whereas the memory cards used by the devices can be read by PCs with a card reader.
External hard disk
Particularly with the advent of USB, external hard disks have become widely available and inexpensive. External hard disk drives currently cost less per gigabyte than flash drives and are available in larger capacities. Some hard drives support alternative and faster interfaces than USB 2.0 (e.g., Thunderbolt, FireWire and eSATA). For consecutive sector writes and reads (for example, from an unfragmented file), most hard drives can provide a much higher sustained data rate than current NAND flash memory, though mechanical latencies seriously impact hard drive performance.
Unlike solid-state memory, hard drives are susceptible to damage by shock (e.g., a short fall) and vibration, have limitations on use at high altitude, and although they are shielded by their casings, they are vulnerable when exposed to strong magnetic fields. In terms of overall mass, hard drives are usually larger and heavier than flash drives; however, hard disks sometimes weigh less per unit of storage. Like flash drives, hard disks also suffer from file fragmentation, which can reduce access speed.
Obsolete devices
Audio tape cassettes and high-capacity floppy disks (e.g., Imation SuperDisk), and other forms of drives with removable magnetic media, such as the Iomega Zip drive and Jaz drives, are now largely obsolete and rarely used. There are products in today's market that will emulate these legacy drives for both tape and disk (SCSI1/SCSI2, SASI, Magneto optic, Ricoh ZIP, Jaz, IBM3590/ Fujitsu 3490E and Bernoulli for example) in state-of-the-art Compact Flash storage devices – CF2SCSI.
Encryption and security
As highly portable media, USB flash drives are easily lost or stolen. All USB flash drives can have their contents encrypted using third-party disk encryption software, which can often be run directly from the USB drive without installation (for example, FreeOTFE), although some, such as BitLocker, require the user to have administrative rights on every computer it is run on.
Archiving software can achieve a similar result by creating encrypted ZIP or RAR files.
Some manufacturers have produced USB flash drives which use hardware-based encryption as part of the design, removing the need for third-party encryption software. In limited circumstances these drives have been shown to have security problems, and are typically more expensive than software-based systems, which are available for free.
A minority of flash drives support biometric fingerprinting to confirm the user's identity. As of mid-, this was an expensive alternative to standard password protection offered on many new USB flash storage devices. Most fingerprint scanning drives rely upon the host operating system to validate the fingerprint via a software driver, often restricting the drive to Microsoft Windows computers. However, there are USB drives with fingerprint scanners which use controllers that allow access to protected data without any authentication.
Some manufacturers deploy physical authentication tokens in the form of a flash drive. These are used to control access to a sensitive system by containing encryption keys or, more commonly, communicating with security software on the target machine. The system is designed so the target machine will not operate except when the flash drive device is plugged into it. Some of these "PC lock" devices also function as normal flash drives when plugged into other machines.
Controversies
Criticisms
Failures
Like all flash memory devices, flash drives can sustain only a limited number of write and erase cycles before the drive fails. This should be a consideration when using a flash drive to run application software or an operating system. To address this, as well as space limitations, some developers have produced special versions of operating systems (such as Linux in Live USB) or commonplace applications (such as Mozilla Firefox) designed to run from flash drives. These are typically optimized for size and configured to place temporary or intermediate files in the computer's main RAM rather than store them temporarily on the flash drive.
When used in the same manner as external rotating drives (hard drives, optical drives, or floppy drives), i.e. in ignorance of their technology, USB drives' failure is more likely to be sudden: while rotating drives can fail instantaneously, they more frequently give some indication (noises, slowness) that they are about to fail, often with enough advance warning that data can be removed before total failure. USB drives give little or no advance warning of failure. Furthermore, when internal wear-leveling is applied to prolong life of the flash drive, once failure of even part of the memory occurs it can be difficult or impossible to use the remainder of the drive, which differs from magnetic media, where bad sectors can be marked permanently not to be used.
Most USB flash drives do not include a write protection mechanism. This feature, which gradually became less common, consists of a switch on the housing of the drive itself, that prevents the host computer from writing or modifying data on the drive. For example, write protection makes a device suitable for repairing virus-contaminated host computers without the risk of infecting a USB flash drive itself. In contrast to SD cards, write protection on USB flash drives (when available) is connected to the drive circuitry, and is handled by the drive itself instead of the host (on SD cards handling of the write-protection notch is optional).
A drawback to the small physical size of flash drives is that they are easily misplaced or otherwise lost. This is a particular problem if they contain sensitive data (see data security). As a consequence, some manufacturers have added encryption hardware to their drives, although software encryption systems which can be used in conjunction with any mass storage medium will achieve the same result. Most drives can be attached to keychains or lanyards. The USB plug is usually retractable or fitted with a removable protective cap.
Robustness
Most USB-based flash technology integrates a printed circuit board with a metal tip, which is simply soldered on. As a result, the stress point is where the two pieces join. The quality control of some manufacturers does not ensure a proper solder temperature, further weakening the stress point. Since many flash drives stick out from computers, they are likely to be bumped repeatedly and may break at the stress point. Most of the time, a break at the stress point tears the joint from the printed circuit board and results in permanent damage. However, some manufacturers produce discreet flash drives that do not stick out, and others use a solid metal or plastic uni-body that has no easily discernible stress point. SD cards serve as a good alternative to USB drives since they can be inserted flush.
Security threats
USB killer
In appearance similar to a USB flash drive, a USB killer is a circuit that charges up capacitors to a high voltage using the power supply pins of a USB port then discharges high voltage pulses onto the data pins. This completely standalone device can instantly and permanently damage or destroy any host hardware that it is connected to.
"Flash Drives for Freedom"
The New York-based Human Rights Foundation collaborated with Forum 280 and USB Memory Direct to launch the "Flash Drives for Freedom" program. The program was created in 2016 to smuggle flash drives with American and South Korean movies and television shows, as well as a copy of the Korean Wikipedia, into North Korea to spread pro-Western sentiment.
Current and future developments
Semiconductor corporations have worked to reduce the cost of the components in a flash drive by integrating various flash drive functions in a single chip, thereby reducing the part-count and overall package-cost.
Flash drive capacities on the market increase continually. High speed has become a standard for modern flash drives. Capacities exceeding 256 GB were available on the market as early as 2009.
Lexar is attempting to introduce a USB FlashCard, which would be a compact USB flash drive intended to replace various kinds of flash memory cards. Pretec introduced a similar card, which also plugs into any USB port, but is just one quarter the thickness of the Lexar model. Until 2008, SanDisk manufactured a product called SD Plus, which was a SecureDigital card with a USB connector.
SanDisk has also introduced a new technology to allow controlled storage and usage of copyrighted materials on flash drives, primarily for use by students. This technology is termed FlashCP.
See also
List of computer hardware
Memristor
Microdrive
Nonvolatile BIOS memory
Portable application
ReadyBoost
Sneakernet
Solid-state drive (SSD)
USB dead drop
USB Flash Drive Alliance
Windows To Go
Disk enclosure
External storage
Notes
References
2000 in computing
2000 in technology
Computer-related introductions in 2000
Solid-state computer storage
Flash drive
21st-century inventions
Office equipment
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ripping
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Ripping
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Ripping is extracting all or parts of digital contents from a container. Originally, it meant to rip music out of Amiga games. Later, the term was used to extract WAV or MP3 format files from digital audio CDs, but got applied as well to extract the contents of any media, most notably DVD and Blu-ray discs.
Despite the name, neither the media nor the data is damaged after extraction. Ripping is often used to shift formats, and to edit, duplicate or back up media content. A rip is the extracted content, in its destination format, along with accompanying files, such as a cue sheet or log file from the ripping software.
To rip the contents out of a container is different from simply copying the whole container or a file. When creating a copy, nothing looks into the transferred file, nor checks if there is any encryption or not, and raw copy is also not aware of any file format. One can copy a DVD byte by byte via programs like the Linux dd command onto a hard disk, and play the resulting ISO file just as one would play the original DVD.
To rip contents is also different from grabbing an analog signal and re-encoding it, as it was done with early day CD-ROM drives not capable of digital audio extraction (DAE). Sometimes even encoding, i.e. digitizing audio and video originally stored on analog formats, such as vinyl records is incorrectly referred to as ripping.
Ripping software
A CD ripper, CD grabber or CD extractor is a piece of software designed to extract or "rip" raw digital audio (in format commonly called CDDA) from a compact disc to a file or other output. Some all-in-one ripping programs can simplify the entire process by ripping and burning the audio to disc in one step, possibly re-encoding the audio on-the-fly in the process.
For example, audio CDs contain 16-bit, 44.1 kHz LPCM-encoded audio samples interleaved with secondary data streams and synchronization and error correction info. The ripping software tells the CD drive's firmware to read this data and parse out just the LPCM samples. The software then dumps them into a WAV or AIFF file, or feeds them to another codec to produce, for example, a FLAC or MP3 file. Depending on the capabilities of the ripping software, ripping may be done on a track-by-track basis, or all tracks at once, or over a custom range. The ripping software may also have facilities for detecting and correcting errors during or after the rip, as the process is not always reliable, especially when the CD or the drive containing the CD itself is damaged or defective.
There are also DVD rippers which operate in a similar fashion. Unlike CDs, DVDs do contain data formatted in files for use in computers. However, commercial DVDs are often encrypted (for example, using Content Scramble System/ARccOS Protection), preventing access to the files without using the ripping software's decryption ability, which may not be legal to distribute or use. DVD files are often larger than is convenient to distribute or copy to CD-R or ordinary (not dual-layer) DVD-R, so DVD ripping software usually offers the ability to re-encode the content, with some quality loss, so that it fits in smaller files.
Legality
When the material being ripped is not in the public domain, and the person making the rip does not have the copyright owner's permission, then such ripping may be regarded as copyright infringement. However, some countries either explicitly allow it in certain circumstances, or at least don't forbid it. Some countries also have fair use-type laws which allow unauthorized copies to be made under certain conditions.
Asia
Europe
A directive of the European Union allows its member nations to instate in their legal framework a private copy exception to the authors and editors rights. If a member State chooses to do so, it must also introduce a compensation for the copyright holders. Most European countries, except for Norway, have introduced a private copying levy that compensates the owners directly from the country's budget. In 2009 the sum awarded to them was $55 million. In all but a few of these countries (exceptions include the UK and Malta), the levy is excised on all machines and blank materials capable of copying copyrighted works.
Under the directive, making copies for other people is forbidden, and if done for profit can lead to a jail sentence.
Netherlands
In the Netherlands, citizens are allowed to make copies of their legally bought audio and video. This contains for example CD, SACD, as well as DVD and Blu-ray. These copies are called "home copies" and may only be used by the ripper. Public distribution of ripped files is not allowed.
Spain
In Spain, anyone is allowed to make a private copy of a copyrighted material for oneself, providing that the copier has accessed the original material legally.
United Kingdom
Private copying of copyrighted material is illegal in the United Kingdom. According to a 2009 survey, 59% of British consumers believed ripping a CD to be legal, and 55% admitted to doing it.
In 2010, the UK government sought input on modernizing copyright exceptions for the digital age, and commissioned the Hargreaves Review of Intellectual Property and Growth. The review asserted that a private copying exception was overdue, citing that users were unaware of what was even legally allowed, and that a copyright law where "millions of citizens are in daily breach of copyright, simply for shifting a piece of music or video from one device to another" was not "fit for the digital age". The review recommended, among other things, that the government consider adopting the EU Copyright Directive's recommendation that member states enact an exception for private, noncommercial copying so long as the rights holders receive "fair compensation." Other EU member states chose to implement the exception paired with a tax on music purchases or widely varying levies on copying equipment and blank media. However, the Review reasoned that no such collections are necessary when implementing a copyright exception for format-shifting:
In August 2011, the government broadly accepted the recommendations of the Hargreaves Review. At the end of 2012, the government published "Modernising Copyright", a document outlining specific changes the government intends to make, including the Hargreaves-recommended exception for private, noncommercial copying.
Following each milestone in the reform process, press reports circulated that ripping non-DRM-protected CDs and DVDs was no longer illegal. However, the actual legislation to implement the changes is not yet in force; the Intellectual Property Office had only begun seeking review of draft legislation in June 2013, and the resulting Statutory Instruments (SIs) weren't laid out for Parliamentary approval until March 27, 2014, and weren't actually approved until July 14 (Commons) and July 27 (Lords); with an effective date of October 1, 2014. Anticipating approval, the Intellectual Property Office published a guide for consumers to explain the forthcoming changes and to clarify what would remain illegal. The private copying exception may seem to conflict with the existing Copyright Directive prohibition on overriding or removing any DRM or TPM (technical protection measures) that are sometimes used on optical media to protect the content from ripping. However, the "Modernising Copyright" report makes clear that any workarounds to allow access will not involve a relaxation of the prohibition.
On 17 July 2015, the private copying exemption was overturned by the High Court of Justice following a complaint by BASCA, Musicians' Union, and UK Music, making private copying once again illegal. The groups objected to the exclusion of a compensation scheme, presenting evidence contradicting an assertion that an exemption would cause "zero or insignificant harm" to copyright holders and thus did not require compensation.
North America
United States
U.S. copyright law (Title 17 of the United States Code) generally says that making a copy of an original work, if conducted without the consent of the copyright owner, is infringement. The law makes no explicit grant or denial of a right to make a "personal use" copy of another's copyrighted content on one's own digital media and devices. For example, space shifting, by making a copy of a personally owned audio CD for transfer to an MP3 player for that person's personal use, is not explicitly allowed or forbidden.
Existing copyright statutes may apply to specific acts of personal copying, as determined in cases in the civil or criminal court systems, building up a body of case law. Consumer copyright infringement cases in this area, to date, have only focused on issues related to consumer rights and the applicability of the law to the sharing of ripped files, not to the act of ripping, per se.
Canada
The Copyright Act of Canada generally says that it is legal to make a backup copy of any copyrighted work if the user owns or has a licence to use a copy of the work or subject-matter as long as the user does not circumvent a technological protection measure or give any of the reproductions away. This means that in most cases, ripping DVDs in Canada is most likely illegal.
Oceania
Australia and New Zealand
In Australia and New Zealand a copy of any legally purchased music may be made by its owner, as long as it is not distributed to others and its use remains personal. In Australia, this was extended in 2006 to also include photographs and films.
Opinions of ripping
Recording industry representatives have made conflicting statements about ripping.
Executives claimed (in the context of Atlantic v. Howell) that ripping may be regarded as copyright infringement. In oral arguments before the Supreme Court in MGM Studios, Inc. v. Grokster, Ltd., MGM attorney Don Verrilli (later appointed United States Solicitor General by the Obama administration), stated: "The record companies, my clients, have said, for some time now, and it's been on their Website for some time now, that it's perfectly lawful to take a CD that you've purchased, upload it onto your computer, put it onto your iPod. There is a very, very significant lawful commercial use for that device, going forward."
Nevertheless, in lawsuits against individuals accused of copyright infringement for making files available via file-sharing networks, RIAA lawyers and PR officials have characterized CD ripping as "illegal" and "stealing".
Asked directly about the issue, RIAA president Cary Sherman asserted that the lawyers misspoke, and that the RIAA has never said whether it was legal or illegal, and he emphasized that the RIAA had not yet taken anyone to court over that issue alone.
Fair use
Although certain types of infringement scenarios are allowed as fair use and thus are effectively considered non-infringing, "personal use" copying is not explicitly mentioned as a type of fair use, and case law has not yet established otherwise.
Personal copying acknowledgments
According to Congressional reports, part of the Audio Home Recording Act (AHRA) of 1992 was intended to resolve the debate over home taping. However, 17 USC 1008, the relevant text of the legislation, didn't fully indemnify consumers for noncommercial, private copying. Such copying is broadly permitted using analog devices and media, but digital copying is only permitted with certain technology like DAT, MiniDisc, and "audio" CD-R—not with computer hard drives, portable media players, and general-purpose CD-Rs.
The AHRA was partially tested in RIAA v. Diamond Multimedia, Inc., a late-1990s case which broached the subject of a consumer's right to copy and format-shift, but which ultimately only ascertained that one of the first portable MP3 players wasn't even a "digital recording device" covered by the law, so its maker wasn't required to pay royalties to the recording industry under other terms of the AHRA.
Statements made by the court in that case, and by both the House and Senate in committee reports about the AHRA, do interpret the legislation as being intended to permit private, noncommercial copying with any digital technology. However, these interpretations may not be binding.
In 2007, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), a government office which requires business to engage in consumer-friendly trade practices, has acknowledged that consumers normally expect to be able to rip audio CDs. Specifically, in response to the Sony BMG copy protection rootkit scandal, the FTC declared that the marketing and sale of audio CDs which surreptitiously installed digital rights management (DRM) software constituted deceptive and unfair trade practices, in part because the record company "represented, expressly or by implication, that consumers will be able to use the CDs as they are commonly used on a computer: to listen to, transfer to playback devices, and copy the audio files contained on the CD for personal use."
A DVD ripper''' is a computer program that facilitates copying the content of a DVD to a hard disk drive. They are mainly used to transfer video on DVDs to different formats, to edit or back up DVD content, and to convert DVD video for playback on media players and mobile devices. Some DVD rippers include additional features such as Blu-ray support, DVD and Blu-ray Disc decryption, copy protection removal and the ability to make discs unrestricted and region-free. While most DVD rippers only convert video to highly compressed MP4 video files, there are other rippers that can convert DVDs to higher quality compressed video. These types of DVD rippers are used by the television and film industry to create broadcast quality video from DVD. Video ripped by these professional DVD rippers is an exact duplicate of the original DVD video.
Circumvention of DVD copy protection
In the case where media contents are protected using some effective copy protection scheme, the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) of 1998 makes it illegal to manufacture or distribute circumvention tools and use those tools for infringing purposes. In the 2009 case RealNetworks v. DVD CCA'', the final injunction reads, "while it may well be fair use for an individual consumer to store a backup copy of a personally owned DVD on that individual's computer, a federal law has nonetheless made it illegal to manufacture or traffic in a device or tool that permits a consumer to make such copies." This case made clear that manufacturing and distribution of circumvention tools was illegal, but use of those tools for non-infringing purposes, including fair use purposes, was not.
The Library of Congress periodically issues rulings to exempt certain classes of works from the DMCA's prohibition on the circumvention of copy protection for non-infringing purposes. One such ruling in 2010 declared, among other things, that the Content Scramble System (CSS) commonly employed on commercial DVDs could be circumvented to enable non-infringing uses of the DVD's content. The Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) hailed the ruling as enabling DVD excerpts to be used for the well-established fair-use activities of criticism and commentary, and for the creation of derivative works by video remix artists. However, the text of the ruling says the exemption can only be exercised by professional educators and their students, not the general public.
See also
References
Copyright law
Audio storage
Video storage
Video conversion software
DVD
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright%20law%20of%20Spain
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Copyright law of Spain
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Spanish copyright law governs copyright (), that is the rights of authors of literary, artistic or scientific works, in Spain. It was first instituted by the Law of 10 January 1879, and, in its origins, was influenced by French copyright law and by the movement led by Victor Hugo for the international protection of literary and artistic works. As of 2006, the principal dispositions are contained in Book One of the Intellectual Property Law of 11 November 1987 as modified. A consolidated version of this law was approved by Royal Legislative Decree 1/1996 of 12 April 1996: unless otherwise stated, all references are to this law.
Protected works
The conception of a "protected work" in Spain (contained in Title II, Chapter 2) is
generalist, and covers (art. 10.1) "all original literary, artistic or scientific creations expressed in any medium or support", including:
books, pamphlets, writings, addresses, lectures, judicial reports (informes forenses) and other works of the same nature;
musical compositions with or without words;
dramatic and dramatico-musical works, choreographies, mime and theatrical works in general
cinematographic works and any other audiovisual works;*
sculptures; drawings, paintings, engravings, lithographies; cartoons and comics; their preparatory work and any other physical works;
projects, plans, models and designs of architectural and engineering works;
graphs, maps and pictures relating to topography, geography and science in general;
photographs and analogous works;
computer programs.*
Cinematographic works, other audiovisual works and computer programs are subject to slightly different treatment from other types of work.
The title of a work is also protected so far as it is original (art. 10.2). Derived works are protected alongside
the protection of the original work (art. 11), and include:
translations and adaptations;
revisions, updates and notes;
musical arrangements;
any other transformation of a work.
Collections of works (e.g. anthologies) and other collections of data which, by reason of the selection or arrangement of
the contents, constitute intellectual creations are also protected (art. 12)
Works are protected by "the sole fact of their creation" (art. 1), regardless of the nationality of the author or the
place of publication. Corporate persons can only be authors of collective works (arts. 4.2, 8).
Exceptions
Article 13 provides that the following official works are not covered by copyright protection:
Laws and reglementary dispositions (disposiciones legales o reglamentarias), either approved or awaiting approval (y sus correspondientes proyectos)
Court judgements (resoluciones de los órganos jurisdiccionales)
Acts, agreements, deliberations and rulings of public bodies (actos, acuerdos, deliberaciones y dictámenes de los organismos públicos)
Official translations of any of the above (las traducciones oficiales de todos los textos anteriores)
Images are only concerned by this exception to copyright protection when they form an integral part of any of the above, for
example the diagrams in a patent: otherwise the copyright is held by the author of the image (e.g. the photographer).
Registration
Registration of a protected work is optional, but a Register of Intellectual Property (Registro de la Propiedad Intelectual)
exists (see "External links") for authors who wish to take advantage of it. Registration provides prima facie
evidence of creation and authorship (art. 140.3, renumbered to art. 145.3 by Ley 5/1998).
Rights of exploitation (Derechos de explotación)
The author has the exclusive right to exploit the work in any way or form, subject to the legal limitations
on the exclusivity, and notably the rights of reproduction, distribution, public communication and transformation (art. 17).
The author may transfer any or all of these rights to another person, although such a transfer cannot prevent the author from
producing a collection (partial or complete) of his/her works (art. 22). Any agreement to transfer rights of exploitation must be made in
writing (art. 45): it cannot cover the totality of the future works of an author (art. 43.3), cannot require the
author not to produce works in the future (art. 43.4) and cannot cover forms of distribution which do not exist at the
time of the agreement (art. 43.5). Such an agreement must normally guarantee the author a reasonable share of the income
derived from the exploitation of the work (art. 46.1, 47), although a fixed-sum payment is allowed in certain
cases (art. 46.2). The different rights of exploitation are independent of one another (art. 23).
The authors of works of plastic art have the right to 3% of the resale price of their works when the resale price is greater
than or equal to 300,000 pesetas (1,807 euros): this right cannot be renounced or transferred during the lifetime of the
author (art. 24).
Duration of the rights of exploitation
The main dispositions concerning the duration of copyright are contained in Title III, Chapter 1, as modified. In general,
copyright protection in Spain lasts for the life of the author plus seventy years (art. 26). Collective works are
protected for seventy years following publication (art. 28.2), as are pseudonymous and anonymous works unless the identity
of the author becomes known (art. 27.2). It always assigns copyright to the author and he or she is not allowed to disclaim it. Posthumous works are protected for seventy years following publication provided
they are published within seventy years of the death of the author. All of these time periods
are calculated starting from 1 January following death or publication (art. 30).
Copyright management societies
As in other countries, there are a number of societies which collectively manage the licensing of different types of work and the collection of royalties on behalf of copyright holders.
These societies (entidades de gestión) are governed by Title IV of Book Three of the Intellectual Property Law (arts. 142–152, renumbered as arts. 147–157
by the Ley 5/1998), which provides for their authorisation by the Ministry of Culture. The largest such copyright management society is the Sociedad General de Autores y Editores (SGAE),
which was established by law in 1941 as the Sociedad General de Autores de España and which had a de facto monopoly on the collective management of copyright royalties before the passage of the 1987 Intellectual Property Law.
Moral rights (Derecho moral)
The moral rights of the author, contained in Chapter 3, Section 1, of Title II, go beyond the minimum requirements
of the Berne Convention. They are enumerated in article 14:
the right to decide whether the work should be published and in what form;
the right to publish the work under his/her real name, pseudonymously or anonymously;
the right to be identified as the author of the work
the right to insist on the respect of the integrity of the work and to prevent any distortion, modification, alteration or derogatory action in relation to the work which would be prejudicial to his/her legitimate interests or reputation;
the right to modify the work in the respect of the rights of third parties and of the protection of "Works of Cultural Interest" (Bienes de Interés Cultural)
the right to withdraw the work from commercial exploitation, due to a change of his/her intellectual or moral convictions, with compensation to the holders of the rights of exploitation. If the author later decides to re-undertake the exploitation of his/their work he/she will have to offer preferably the corresponding rights to the former rightsholder and in conditions reasonably similar to the previous ones.
the right to access to the single copy or a rare copy of the work in order to exercise any of the other rights. This right does not include the right to displace the work, and must be exercised with the minimum of inconvenience to the legal owner of the copy and with compensation for any prejudice.
The right to the respect of the integrity of the work is limited in the case of computer programs, where the author cannot
object to the production of future versions or derived works except with a specific agreement to that effect (art. 98).
The author of a work cannot renounce his/her moral rights, nor transfer them to another person during his/her lifetime.
Duration of moral rights
The rights to be identified as author and to the respect of the integrity of the work are perpetual, and may be exercised
after the author's death by his/her executors, heirs or (by default) by the State (arts. 15, 16). The rights to
modify the work and to withdraw the work from commercial exploitation may only be exercised by the author during his/her
lifetime (this is implicit in the wording of 5º and 6º of art. 14).
Cinematographic and other audiovisual works
The special rules concerning audiovisual works are contained in Title VI of Book One. The authors of an audiovisual work are considered to be (art. 87):
the director;
the authors of the scenario or adaptation and of the dialogue;
the composers of any music created specifically for the work.
The authors are presumed to grant an exclusive licence to the producer, unless there is an agreement to the contrary, covering the reproduction, communication to the public and distribution of the work (art. 88): this is the opposite of the case for other types of work, where the licence is assumed to be non-exclusive unless there is a provision to the contrary (art. 48).
The authors may only exercise their moral rights with relation to the final version of the work (art. 93).
Computer programs
The special rules concerning computer programs are contained in Title VII of Book One: through successive modifications, they are now very close to the rules for other types of work. Article 96 gives a definition of "computer program", and reiterates the criteria for copyright protection: the work is only protected to the extent that it is the author's own intellectual creation, and the ideas and principles underlying any of the elements of the program,
including those underlying its interfaces, are not protected by copyright (under certain circumstances, they may be protectable by patent law). An employer is assumed to have an exclusive grant of the rights of exploitation of computer programs written by employees in the course of their work (art. 97.4). Article 100 lists the following specific limitations of the rights of exploitation of a computer program, insofar as the following are permitted:
reproduction and transformation necessary for the use of the program;
creation of a back-up copy;
observation, study and verification of the ideas and principles underlying the program;
modification to produce successive versions by the holder of the rights of exploitation;
modification to ensure interoperability with an independently-created program.
The term of protection in computer programs is the same as that for other types of work (art. 98).
Related rights (Otros derechos de propiedad intelectual)
A number of "related" rights are detailed in Book Two of the Intellectual Property Law: these are similar in form to the
rights of Book One, but may not directly concern the author of the work. They are independent of the rights of the author of the work: this is especially important for photographs and audiovisual works, which are automatically protected by
related rights regardless of their copyright status but which may also enjoy the greater protection provided by copyright. The limitations to copyright protection also apply to these related rights (art. 132).
Rights of performers
A performer is any person who "presents, sings, reads, recites, interprets or exercutes a work in any form," including the stage director and the conductor of an orchestra (art. 105). Performers have the exclusive rights to authorize:
the recording and/or reproduction of the performance (arts. 106, 107);
the communication of the performance to the public (art. 108);
the distribution of recordings or reproductions of the performance (art. 109).
These rights last for fifty years from either the date of the performance or the date of publication of a recording of the performance, whichever is the later (art. 112). The period of protection runs to 31 December of the relevant year.
Performers also have the moral right to have their name associated with their performances, and to object to distortion or mutilation of their performances: these moral rights last for the life of the performer and for twenty years after his or her death.
Rights of producers of sound recordings
The person who makes a sound recording has the exclusive right to authorize the reproduction, the communication to the public and the distribution of that recording (arts. 114–117). These rights last for fifty years after the date of the recording
or the date of publication, whichever is the later, and run to 31 December of the relevant year (art. 119). Corporate persons can be the holders of these rights if the recording was first made under their "initiative and responsibility".
Rights of producers of audiovisual recordings
An "audiovisual recording" (grabación audiovisual) is any recording of a scene or sequence of images, with or without sound, whether or not it counts as an "audiovisual work" (obra audiovisual) (art. 120): an example would be the images from a security camera.
The person who takes the "initiative and responsibility" to make such a recording has the exclusive right to authorize its reproduction, communication to the public and distribution (arts. 121–123). These rights extend to photographs taken during the production of
an audiovisual recording (art. 124), and last for fifty years after the production of the recording or its publication, whichever is the later, running to 31 December of the relevant year (art. 125). They are independent of the copyright in the audiovisual work.
Corporate persons can be the holders of these rights. All rights fall under Jurisdiction of local law
Rights of broadcasting organisations
Broadcasting organisations have the exclusive right to authorise (art. 126):
the recording of their broadcasts in any form;
the reproduction of their broadcasts in any form;
the retransmission of their broadcasts;
the communication of the broadcasts to a paying public.
the distribution of recordings of their broadcasts.
These rights last for fifty years from the date of broadcast, running to 31 December of the relevant year (art. 127).
Database rights
The sui generis protection of databases was instituted by the Law 5/1998 of 6 March 1998 incorporating Directive 96/9/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 March 1996 on the Legal Protection of Databases. The provisions are
contained in Title VIII of Book Two (arts. 133–137 under the revised numbering), but are not included in the 1996 consolidated version of the Intellectual Property Law. Database rights specifically protect the "substantial investment" in the form of "finance, time, energy or effort", assessed "either qualitatively or quantitatively", which was necessary to create the database (art. 133.1).
The maker of the database, who may be a corporate person, can prevent a user from extracting "all or a substantial portion, evaluated qualitatively or quantitatively," of the contents of the database, either through a single access or through multiple accesses (art. 133). The user may not
do anything which "conflicts with the normal exploitation of the database" or which "unreasonably prejudices the legitimate interests of the maker of the database" (art. 134) There are (limited) exceptions for the private use of non-electronic databases, for teaching and research and for
public security and for administrative or judicial procedures (art. 135).
Database rights last for fifteen years from the completion of the database or from its publication, whichever is the later, although "substantial changes" to the database start a new period of protection: the protection runs to 31 December of the relevant year (art. 136). Database rights are independent of any copyright which might exist in the
database or its contents (art. 137); for example, a database which relied on a subjective choice of material could qualify for copyright as a compilation, and a database of copyrighted works (for example, Wikipedia) does not override the copyright existing on individual entries.
Limitations
The main limitations to the exclusive rights of exploitation are contained in Title III, Chapter 2. The summary
below does not follow the order of this chapter and the headings given below have no legal basis or force.
Right to the private copying and home playing
The law explicitly allows to make private copies of copyrighted work without the author's consent for published works if the copy is not for commercial use. To compensate authors, the law establishes a compensatory tax associated with certain recording media (CDs, DVDs, cassettes), managed through societies of authors and editors (as SGAE and CEDRO). Such private copies of a protected work must be made for the private use (not collective, nor lucrative) of the copier (2º of
art. 31): the author is compensated by a tax on the means of reproduction (e.g. photocopiers, blank cassettes)
determined at article 25. However, computer programs can not be copied except for a backup copy (art. 99.2): they can
be modified for the sole use of the person performing the modification (art. 99.4). Any work can be played in a "strictly home" environment (art. 20.1) without the author's consent. The moral rights of the author can only be exercised in the
respect of the rights of owners of copies of the work or of rights to its exploitation, as detailed in article 14.
Some consumer's associations and specialized lawyers contend that the current legislation allows file sharing (as with p2p networks) as this is not for profit and is for private use . Additionally, the Penal Code explicitly requires the intention of commercial profit in order to commit a crime against the Intellectual Property .
Right to receive and to impart information
Lectures, addresses, judicial proceedings and other works of the same nature may be reproduced or communicated for the sole
purpose of reporting on current events (art. 33.2). The proceedings of parliament and of public corporations may be
reproduced or communicated for any purpose (art. 33.2). Works of news reporting may be reproduced in other news media,
with identification of the author and remuneration (art. 33.1). Any work which can be seen or heard may be reproduced,
distributed and publicly communicated for the purpose of, and only to the extent necessary for, providing information
thereof in the context of reporting on current events (art. 34).
Use for education and research
Museums, libraries and similar public or cultural institutions may make reproductions of works for the purposes of research (art. 37).
"Fragments" of written, sound or audiovisual works or "isolated" plastic, photographic, figurative or analogous works may be
included in another original work for the purposes of teaching or research (fines docentes o de investigación) if the
following conditions are met (art. 32):
the source work has been published;
it is included for citation or for analysis, commentary or critical judgement;
it is included with a citation of the source and the name of the author;
it is only included to the extent justified by the purposes of teaching or research.
Press reviews and collections are expressly covered by the provisions of article 32.
Public policy limitations
Works may be reproduced for judicial and administrative actions (1º of art. 31). Musical works may be performed at official public ceremonies and religious services, if these are free of charge to the public and if the musicians are not specifically
paid for performing the protected works (art. 38). Transcription of works may be made into Braille or another medium
specific for the use of the blind, provided that the use of the copies is non-lucrative (3º of art. 31). The
executors or heirs of a deceased author can be forced to publish the works which remained unpublished during the author's
lifetime if their refusal to do so is judged contrary to article 44 of the Constitution
(art. 40, Intellectual Property Law).
Other limitations
Works which are permanently situated in parks, streets, squares or public routes may be reproduced in paintings, drawings,
photographs and by audiovisual means (art. 35). Parodies of a work are permitted without the consent of the original
author provided that there is no risk of confusion with the original work and that no damage is caused
(ni se infiera un daño) to the original work or to its author (art. 39).
Public domain
A work enters the public domain at the expiration of its term of protection. However, the
rights to be identified as the author and to the respect for the integrity of the work are perpetual (art. 41),
and must be respected even for works in the public domain.
Mediation and arbitration
The 1987 Intellectual Property Law established the Comisión Mediadora y Arbitral de la Propiedad Intelectual ("Intellectual Property Mediation and Arbitration Commission")
under the auspices of the Ministry of Culture (art. 153, renumbered as art. 158 by Ley 5/1998). Its role is to mediate between cable distributors
(widespread and numerous in Spain) and rightsholders; and to arbitrate between copyright management societies and those who use their repertoires.
Other Spanish laws
Ley orgánica 6/1987
Ley 20/1992, del 7 de julio, de modificación de la Ley 22/1987, de 11 de noviembre, de Propiedad Intelectual (this law is included in the consolidated version of the Intellectual Property Law)
Transposition of European Union directives
The first four of these laws are included in the consolidated version of the Intellectual Property Law.
International copyright relations
Spain is a signatory to the following international copyright treaties, which have direct force under Spanish law.
Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works 5 December 1887; Paris Act 10 October 1974 (for the substantive clauses arts. 1–21)
Universal Copyright Convention: Geneva Act 16 September 1955; Paris Act 10 July 1974
Convention for the Protection of Producers of Phonograms Against Unauthorized Duplication of Their Phonograms 24 August 1974
Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) 1 January 1995
Spain has also signed, but as of September 2006 not yet ratified, the WIPO Copyright Treaty.
Copyright relations with the United States
Works by Spanish authors became eligible for U.S. copyright by a Presidential Proclamation of 10 July 1895 under the authority of The Chase Act of 1891, later section 9(b) of the Copyright Act of 1909. All Spanish works which had not entered the public domain in Spain through expiry of their copyright protection, that is all works first published in Spain by authors who are living or who died on or after 1 January 1926, were automatically accorded U.S. copyrights (if they were not already protected in the U.S.) on 1 January 1996 by the Uruguay Round Agreements Act of 1994: these U.S. copyrights run for 95 years from the date of publication (regardless of the Spanish copyright term) for works first published before 1 January 1978 and for collective or anonymous works, and for the life of the author plus seventy years (identical to the Spanish copyright term) for other works.
See also
Copyright law of the European Union
Media of Spain
References
Ley de 10 de enero de 1879.
Ley 22/1987, de 11 de noviembre, de Propriedad Intelectual: Boletin Oficial del Estado núm. 275, del 17 de noviembre de 1987.
Real Decreto Legislativo 1/1996, de 12 de abril, por el que se aprueba el texto refundido de la Ley de Propiedad Intelectual, regularizando, aclarando y armonizando las disposiciones legales vigentes sobre la materia: Boletin Oficial del Estado núm. 97, del 22 de abril de 1996.
Ley 5/1998, de 6 de marzo, de incorporación al Derecho español de la Directiva 96/9/CE, del Parlamento Europeo y del Consejo, de 11 de marzo, sobre la protección jurídica de bases de datos: Boletin Oficial del Estado núm. 57, del 7 de marzo de 1998.
Ley de 24 de junio de 1941 por la que se instituye la Sociedad General de Autores de España.
"International Copyright Relations of the United States", U.S. Copyright Office Circular No. 38a, August 2003.
Pub. L. No. 103-465, 108 Stat. 4809, codified at 17 U.S.C. §104A.
Works which were created before 1 January 1978 and published between that date and 31 December 1992 are protected by U.S. copyright until 31 December 2047: "Duration of copyright: Works created but not published or copyrighted before January 1, 1978", 17 U.S.C. §303.
External links
Consolidated Text of the Law on Intellectual Property regularizing, clarifying and harmonizing the applicable statutory provisions - translation by WIPO of the consolidated law, also including the provisions of Ley 5/1998
Sociedad General de Autores y Editores
Spain
Spanish intellectual property law
Spanish law
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coldstream%20Packet%20%281794%20ship%29
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Coldstream Packet (1794 ship)
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Coldstream Packet was launched at Berwick-upon-Tweed in 1794. During the period of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars she was an armed smack, sailing from Berwick or Leith to other ports in Great Britain. She disappeared in November 1822, believed to have foundered in bad weather.
Career
Although Coldstream Packet was launched in 1794, she first appeared in Lloyd's Register (LR) in 1797.
For about five years (1806–1811), Coldstream Packet sailed for the Union Shipping Company, of Berwick, established in 1794. She may have been sailing for the Company from the start of her career as a book published in 1799 lists her as one of eleven smacks sailing for the Company. The Company apparently first entered into the Leith trade in 1796.
On 30 November 1796 Coldstream Packet, F.Ord, master, was coming into Berwick harbour from Leith when she grounded on Spittle Point. It was expected that she would be gotten off. In the meantime, her crew and passengers were able to get to shore, though with some difficulty.
Fate
Coldstream Packet sailed from Lerwick, Shetland Islands to Leith on 8 November 1822. She was last seen on 10 November and was believed to have foundered off Kinnaird Head, Aberdeenshire. The Register of Shipping for 1823 carried the annotation "LOST" by her name.
Citations
References
1794 ships
Age of Sail merchant ships of England
Packet (sea transport)
Maritime incidents in November 1822
Missing ships
Ships lost with all hands
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio-frequency%20identification
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Radio-frequency identification
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Radio-frequency identification (RFID) uses electromagnetic fields to automatically identify and track tags attached to objects. An RFID system consists of a tiny radio transponder, a radio receiver and transmitter. When triggered by an electromagnetic interrogation pulse from a nearby RFID reader device, the tag transmits digital data, usually an identifying inventory number, back to the reader. This number can be used to track inventory goods.
Passive tags are powered by energy from the RFID reader's interrogating radio waves. Active tags are powered by a battery and thus can be read at a greater range from the RFID reader, up to hundreds of meters.
Unlike a barcode, the tag does not need to be within the line of sight of the reader, so it may be embedded in the tracked object. RFID is one method of automatic identification and data capture (AIDC).
RFID tags are used in many industries. For example, an RFID tag attached to an automobile during production can be used to track its progress through the assembly line, RFID-tagged pharmaceuticals can be tracked through warehouses, and implanting RFID microchips in livestock and pets enables positive identification of animals. Tags can also be used in shops to expedite checkout, and to prevent theft by customers and employees.
Since RFID tags can be attached to physical money, clothing, and possessions, or implanted in animals and people, the possibility of reading personally-linked information without consent has raised serious privacy concerns. These concerns resulted in standard specifications development addressing privacy and security issues.
In 2014, the world RFID market was worth US$8.89 billion, up from US$7.77 billion in 2013 and US$6.96 billion in 2012. This figure includes tags, readers, and software/services for RFID cards, labels, fobs, and all other form factors. The market value is expected to rise from US$12.08 billion in 2020 to US$16.23 billion by 2029.
History
In 1945, Léon Theremin invented the "Thing", a listening device for the Soviet Union which retransmitted incident radio waves with the added audio information. Sound waves vibrated a diaphragm which slightly altered the shape of the resonator, which modulated the reflected radio frequency. Even though this device was a covert listening device, rather than an identification tag, it is considered to be a predecessor of RFID because it was passive, being energized and activated by waves from an outside source.
Similar technology, such as the Identification friend or foe transponder, was routinely used by the Allies and Germany in World War II to identify aircraft as friendly or hostile. Transponders are still used by most powered aircraft. An early work exploring RFID is the landmark 1948 paper by Harry Stockman, who predicted that "Considerable research and development work has to be done before the remaining basic problems in reflected-power communication are solved, and before the field of useful applications is explored."
Mario Cardullo's device, patented on January 23, 1973, was the first true ancestor of modern RFID, as it was a passive radio transponder with memory. The initial device was passive, powered by the interrogating signal, and was demonstrated in 1971 to the New York Port Authority and other potential users. It consisted of a transponder with 16 bit memory for use as a toll device. The basic Cardullo patent covers the use of RF, sound and light as transmission carriers. The original business plan presented to investors in 1969 showed uses in transportation (automotive vehicle identification, automatic toll system, electronic license plate, electronic manifest, vehicle routing, vehicle performance monitoring), banking (electronic checkbook, electronic credit card), security (personnel identification, automatic gates, surveillance) and medical (identification, patient history).
In 1973, an early demonstration of reflected power (modulated backscatter) RFID tags, both passive and semi-passive, was performed by Steven Depp, Alfred Koelle and Robert Frayman at the Los Alamos National Laboratory. The portable system operated at 915 MHz and used 12-bit tags. This technique is used by the majority of today's UHFID and microwave RFID tags.
In 1983, the first patent to be associated with the abbreviation RFID was granted to Charles Walton.
Design
A radio-frequency identification system uses tags, or labels attached to the objects to be identified. Two-way radio transmitter-receivers called interrogators or readers send a signal to the tag and read its response.
Tags
RFID tags are made out of three pieces: a micro chip (an integrated circuit which stores and processes information and modulates and demodulates radio-frequency (RF) signals), an antenna for receiving and transmitting the signal and a substrate.
The tag information is stored in a non-volatile memory. The RFID tag includes either fixed or programmable logic for processing the transmission and sensor data, respectively.
RFID tags can be either passive, active or battery-assisted passive. An active tag has an on-board battery and periodically transmits its ID signal. A battery-assisted passive tag has a small battery on board and is activated when in the presence of an RFID reader. A passive tag is cheaper and smaller because it has no battery; instead, the tag uses the radio energy transmitted by the reader. However, to operate a passive tag, it must be illuminated with a power level roughly a thousand times stronger than an active tag for signal transmission. This makes a difference in interference and in exposure to radiation.
Tags may either be read-only, having a factory-assigned serial number that is used as a key into a database, or may be read/write, where object-specific data can be written into the tag by the system user. Field programmable tags may be write-once, read-multiple; "blank" tags may be written with an electronic product code by the user.
The RFID tag receives the message and then responds with its identification and other information. This may be only a unique tag serial number, or may be product-related information such as a stock number, lot or batch number, production date, or other specific information. Since tags have individual serial numbers, the RFID system design can discriminate among several tags that might be within the range of the RFID reader and read them simultaneously.
Readers
RFID systems can be classified by the type of tag and reader. There are 3 types:
A Passive Reader Active Tag (PRAT) system has a passive reader which only receives radio signals from active tags (battery operated, transmit only). The reception range of a PRAT system reader can be adjusted from , allowing flexibility in applications such as asset protection and supervision.
An Active Reader Passive Tag (ARPT) system has an active reader, which transmits interrogator signals and also receives authentication replies from passive tags.
An Active Reader Active Tag (ARAT) system uses active tags activated with an interrogator signal from the active reader. A variation of this system could also use a Battery-Assisted Passive (BAP) tag which acts like a passive tag but has a small battery to power the tag's return reporting signal.
Fixed readers are set up to create a specific interrogation zone which can be tightly controlled. This allows a highly defined reading area for when tags go in and out of the interrogation zone. Mobile readers may be handheld or mounted on carts or vehicles.
Frequencies
Signaling
Signaling between the reader and the tag is done in several different incompatible ways, depending on the frequency band used by the tag. Tags operating on LF and HF bands are, in terms of radio wavelength, very close to the reader antenna because they are only a small percentage of a wavelength away. In this near field region, the tag is closely coupled electrically with the transmitter in the reader. The tag can modulate the field produced by the reader by changing the electrical loading the tag represents. By switching between lower and higher relative loads, the tag produces a change that the reader can detect. At UHF and higher frequencies, the tag is more than one radio wavelength away from the reader, requiring a different approach. The tag can backscatter a signal. Active tags may contain functionally separated transmitters and receivers, and the tag need not respond on a frequency related to the reader's interrogation signal.
An Electronic Product Code (EPC) is one common type of data stored in a tag. When written into the tag by an RFID printer, the tag contains a 96-bit string of data. The first eight bits are a header which identifies the version of the protocol. The next 28 bits identify the organization that manages the data for this tag; the organization number is assigned by the EPCGlobal consortium. The next 24 bits are an object class, identifying the kind of product. The last 36 bits are a unique serial number for a particular tag. These last two fields are set by the organization that issued the tag. Rather like a URL, the total electronic product code number can be used as a key into a global database to uniquely identify a particular product.
Often more than one tag will respond to a tag reader, for example, many individual products with tags may be shipped in a common box or on a common pallet. Collision detection is important to allow reading of data. Two different types of protocols are used to "singulate" a particular tag, allowing its data to be read in the midst of many similar tags. In a slotted Aloha system, the reader broadcasts an initialization command and a parameter that the tags individually use to pseudo-randomly delay their responses. When using an "adaptive binary tree" protocol, the reader sends an initialization symbol and then transmits one bit of ID data at a time; only tags with matching bits respond, and eventually only one tag matches the complete ID string.
Both methods have drawbacks when used with many tags or with multiple overlapping readers.
Bulk reading
"Bulk reading" is a strategy for interrogating multiple tags at the same time, but lacks sufficient precision for inventory control. A group of objects, all of them RFID tagged, are read completely from one single reader position at one time. However, as tags respond strictly sequentially, the time needed for bulk reading grows linearly with the number of labels to be read. This means it takes at least twice as long to read twice as many labels. Due to collision effects, the time required is greater.
A group of tags has to be illuminated by the interrogating signal just like a single tag. This is not a challenge concerning energy, but with respect to visibility; if any of the tags are shielded by other tags, they might not be sufficiently illuminated to return a sufficient response. The response conditions for inductively coupled HF RFID tags and coil antennas in magnetic fields appear better than for UHF or SHF dipole fields, but then distance limits apply and may prevent success.
Under operational conditions, bulk reading is not reliable. Bulk reading can be a rough guide for logistics decisions, but due to a high proportion of reading failures, it is not (yet) suitable for inventory management. However, when a single RFID tag might be seen as not guaranteeing a proper read, multiple RFID tags, where at least one will respond, may be a safer approach for detecting a known grouping of objects. In this respect, bulk reading is a fuzzy method for process support. From the perspective of cost and effect, bulk reading is not reported as an economical approach to secure process control in logistics.
Miniaturization
RFID tags are easy to conceal or incorporate in other items. For example, in 2009 researchers at Bristol University successfully glued RFID micro-transponders to live ants in order to study their behavior. This trend towards increasingly miniaturized RFIDs is likely to continue as technology advances.
Hitachi holds the record for the smallest RFID chip, at 0.05 mm × 0.05 mm. This is 1/64th the size of the previous record holder, the mu-chip. Manufacture is enabled by using the silicon-on-insulator (SOI) process. These dust-sized chips can store 38-digit numbers using 128-bit Read Only Memory (ROM). A major challenge is the attachment of antennas, thus limiting read range to only millimeters.
TFID
In early 2020, MIT researchers demonstrated a terahertz frequency identification (TFID) tag that is barely 1 square millimeter in size. The devices are essentially a piece of silicon that are inexpensive, small, and function like larger RFID tags. Because of the small size, manufacturers could tag any product and track logistics information for minimal cost.
Uses
An RFID tag can be affixed to an object and used to track tools, equipment, inventory, assets, people, or other objects.
RFID offers advantages over manual systems or use of barcodes. The tag can be read if passed near a reader, even if it is covered by the object or not visible. The tag can be read inside a case, carton, box or other container, and unlike barcodes, RFID tags can be read hundreds per second; barcodes can only be read one at a time using current devices. Some RFID tags, such as battery-assisted passive tags, are also able to monitor temperature and humidity.
In 2011, the cost of passive tags started at US$0.09 each; special tags, meant to be mounted on metal or withstand gamma sterilization, could cost up to US$5. Active tags for tracking containers, medical assets, or monitoring environmental conditions in data centers started at US$50 and could be over US$100 each. Battery-Assisted Passive (BAP) tags were in the US$3–10 range.
RFID can be used in a variety of applications, such as:
Access management
Tracking of goods
Tracking of persons and animals
Toll collection and contactless payment
Machine readable travel documents
Smartdust (for massively distributed sensor networks)
Locating lost airport baggage
Timing sporting events
Tracking and billing processes
Monitoring the physical state of perishable goods
In 2010, three factors drove a significant increase in RFID usage: decreased cost of equipment and tags, increased performance to a reliability of 99.9%, and a stable international standard around HF and UHF passive RFID. The adoption of these standards were driven by EPCglobal, a joint venture between GS1 and GS1 US, which were responsible for driving global adoption of the barcode in the 1970s and 1980s. The EPCglobal Network was developed by the Auto-ID Center.
Commerce
RFID provides a way for organizations to identify and manage stock, tools and equipment (asset tracking), etc. without manual data entry. Manufactured products such as automobiles or garments can be tracked through the factory and through shipping to the customer. Automatic identification with RFID can be used for inventory systems. Many organisations require that their vendors place RFID tags on all shipments to improve supply chain management. Warehouse Management System incorporate this technology to speed up the receiving and delivery of the products and reduce the cost of labor needed in their warehouses.
Retail
RFID is used for item level tagging in retail stores. In addition to inventory control, this provides both protection against theft by customers (shoplifting) and employees ("shrinkage") by using electronic article surveillance (EAS), and a self checkout process for customers. Tags of different types can be physically removed with a special tool or deactivated electronically once items have been paid for. On leaving the shop, customers have to pass near an RFID detector; if they have items with active RFID tags, an alarm sounds, both indicating an unpaid-for item, and identifying what it is.
Casinos can use RFID to authenticate poker chips, and can selectively invalidate any chips known to be stolen.
Access control
RFID tags are widely used in identification badges, replacing earlier magnetic stripe cards. These badges need only be held within a certain distance of the reader to authenticate the holder. Tags can also be placed on vehicles, which can be read at a distance, to allow entrance to controlled areas without having to stop the vehicle and present a card or enter an access code.
Advertising
In 2010 Vail Resorts began using UHF Passive RFID tags in ski passes.
Facebook is using RFID cards at most of their live events to allow guests to automatically capture and post photos.
Automotive brands have adopted RFID for social media product placement more quickly than other industries. Mercedes was an early adopter in 2011 at the PGA Golf Championships, and by the 2013 Geneva Motor Show many of the larger brands were using RFID for social media marketing.
Promotion tracking
To prevent retailers diverting products, manufacturers are exploring the use of RFID tags on promoted merchandise so that they can track exactly which product has sold through the supply chain at fully discounted prices.
Transportation and logistics
Yard management, shipping and freight and distribution centers use RFID tracking. In the railroad industry, RFID tags mounted on locomotives and rolling stock identify the owner, identification number and type of equipment and its characteristics. This can be used with a database to identify the type, origin, destination, etc. of the commodities being carried.
In commercial aviation, RFID is used to support maintenance on commercial aircraft. RFID tags are used to identify baggage and cargo at several airports and airlines.
Some countries are using RFID for vehicle registration and enforcement. RFID can help detect and retrieve stolen cars.
RFID is used in intelligent transportation systems. In New York City, RFID readers are deployed at intersections to track E-ZPass tags as a means for monitoring the traffic flow. The data is fed through the broadband wireless infrastructure to the traffic management center to be used in adaptive traffic control of the traffic lights.
Where ship, rail, or highway tanks are being loaded, a fixed RFID antenna contained in a transfer hose can read an RFID tag affixed to the tank, positively identifying it.
Infrastructure management and protection
At least one company has introduced RFID to identify and locate underground infrastructure assets such as gas pipelines, sewer lines, electrical cables, communication cables, etc.
Passports
The first RFID passports ("E-passport") were issued by Malaysia in 1998. In addition to information also contained on the visual data page of the passport, Malaysian e-passports record the travel history (time, date, and place) of entry into and exit out of the country.
Other countries that insert RFID in passports include Norway (2005), Japan (March 1, 2006), most EU countries (around 2006), Australia, Hong Kong, the United States (2007), the United Kingdom and Northern Ireland (2006), India (June 2008), Serbia (July 2008), Republic of Korea (August 2008), Taiwan (December 2008), Albania (January 2009), The Philippines (August 2009), Republic of Macedonia (2010), Argentina (2012), Canada (2013), Uruguay (2015) and Israel (2017).
Standards for RFID passports are determined by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), and are contained in ICAO Document 9303, Part 1, Volumes 1 and 2 (6th edition, 2006). ICAO refers to the ISO/IEC 14443 RFID chips in e-passports as "contactless integrated circuits". ICAO standards provide for e-passports to be identifiable by a standard e-passport logo on the front cover.
Since 2006, RFID tags included in new United States passports will store the same information that is printed within the passport, and include a digital picture of the owner. The United States Department of State initially stated the chips could only be read from a distance of , but after widespread criticism and a clear demonstration that special equipment can read the test passports from away, the passports were designed to incorporate a thin metal lining to make it more difficult for unauthorized readers to skim information when the passport is closed. The department will also implement Basic Access Control (BAC), which functions as a personal identification number (PIN) in the form of characters printed on the passport data page. Before a passport's tag can be read, this PIN must be entered into an RFID reader. The BAC also enables the encryption of any communication between the chip and interrogator.
Transportation payments
In many countries, RFID tags can be used to pay for mass transit fares on bus, trains, or subways, or to collect tolls on highways.
Some bike lockers are operated with RFID cards assigned to individual users. A prepaid card is required to open or enter a facility or locker and is used to track and charge based on how long the bike is parked.
The Zipcar car-sharing service uses RFID cards for locking and unlocking cars and for member identification.
In Singapore, RFID replaces paper Season Parking Ticket (SPT).
Animal identification
RFID tags for animals represent one of the oldest uses of RFID. Originally meant for large ranches and rough terrain, since the outbreak of mad-cow disease, RFID has become crucial in animal identification management. An implantable RFID tag or transponder can also be used for animal identification. The transponders are better known as PIT (Passive Integrated Transponder) tags, passive RFID, or "chips" on animals. The Canadian Cattle Identification Agency began using RFID tags as a replacement for barcode tags. Currently CCIA tags are used in Wisconsin and by United States farmers on a voluntary basis. The USDA is currently developing its own program.
RFID tags are required for all cattle sold in Australia and in some states, sheep and goats as well.
Human implantation
Biocompatible microchip implants that use RFID technology are being routinely implanted in humans. The first-ever human to receive an RFID microchip implant was American artist Eduardo Kac in 1997. Kac implanted the microchip live on television (and also live on the Internet) in the context of his artwork Time Capsule.
A year later, British professor of cybernetics Kevin Warwick had an RFID chip implanted in his arm by his general practitioner, George Boulos. In 2004 the 'Baja Beach Clubs' operated by Conrad Chase in Barcelona and Rotterdam offered implanted chips to identify their VIP customers, who could in turn use it to pay for service. In 2009 British scientist Mark Gasson had an advanced glass capsule RFID device surgically implanted into his left hand and subsequently demonstrated how a computer virus could wirelessly infect his implant and then be transmitted on to other systems.
The Food and Drug Administration in the United States approved the use of RFID chips in humans in 2004.
There is controversy regarding human applications of implantable RFID technology including concerns that individuals could potentially be tracked by carrying an identifier unique to them. Privacy advocates have protested against implantable RFID chips, warning of potential abuse. Some are concerned this could lead to abuse by an authoritarian government, to removal of freedoms, and to the emergence of an "ultimate panopticon", a society where all citizens behave in a socially accepted manner because others might be watching.
On July 22, 2006, Reuters reported that two hackers, Newitz and Westhues, at a conference in New York City demonstrated that they could clone the RFID signal from a human implanted RFID chip, indicating that the device was not as secure as was previously claimed.
Institutions
Hospitals and healthcare
Adoption of RFID in the medical industry has been widespread and very effective. Hospitals are among the first users to combine both active and passive RFID. Active tags track high-value, or frequently moved items, and passive tags track smaller, lower cost items that only need room-level identification. Medical facility rooms can collect data from transmissions of RFID badges worn by patients and employees, as well as from tags assigned to items such as mobile medical devices. The U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) recently announced plans to deploy RFID in hospitals across America to improve care and reduce costs.
Since 2004 a number of U.S. hospitals have begun implanting patients with RFID tags and using RFID systems, usually for workflow and inventory management.
The use of RFID to prevent mix-ups between sperm and ova in IVF clinics is also being considered.
In October 2004, the FDA approved the USA's first RFID chips that can be implanted in humans. The 134 kHz RFID chips, from VeriChip Corp. can incorporate personal medical information and could save lives and limit injuries from errors in medical treatments, according to the company. Anti-RFID activists Katherine Albrecht and Liz McIntyre discovered an FDA Warning Letter that spelled out health risks. According to the FDA, these include "adverse tissue reaction", "migration of the implanted transponder", "failure of implanted transponder", "electrical hazards" and "magnetic resonance imaging [MRI] incompatibility."
Libraries
Libraries have used RFID to replace the barcodes on library items. The tag can contain identifying information or may just be a key into a database. An RFID system may replace or supplement bar codes and may offer another method of inventory management and self-service checkout by patrons. It can also act as a security device, taking the place of the more traditional electromagnetic security strip.
It is estimated that over 30 million library items worldwide now contain RFID tags, including some in the Vatican Library in Rome.
Since RFID tags can be read through an item, there is no need to open a book cover or DVD case to scan an item, and a stack of books can be read simultaneously. Book tags can be read while books are in motion on a conveyor belt, which reduces staff time. This can all be done by the borrowers themselves, reducing the need for library staff assistance. With portable readers, inventories could be done on a whole shelf of materials within seconds.
However, as of 2008 this technology remained too costly for many smaller libraries, and the conversion period has been estimated at 11 months for an average-size library. A 2004 Dutch estimate was that a library which lends 100,000 books per year should plan on a cost of €50,000 (borrow- and return-stations: 12,500 each, detection porches 10,000 each; tags 0.36 each). RFID taking a large burden off staff could also mean that fewer staff will be needed, resulting in some of them getting laid off, but that has so far not happened in North America where recent surveys have not returned a single library that cut staff because of adding RFID. In fact, library budgets are being reduced for personnel and increased for infrastructure, making it necessary for libraries to add automation to compensate for the reduced staff size. Also, the tasks that RFID takes over are largely not the primary tasks of librarians. A finding in the Netherlands is that borrowers are pleased with the fact that staff are now more available for answering questions.
Privacy concerns have been raised surrounding library use of RFID. Because some RFID tags can be read up to away, there is some concern over whether sensitive information could be collected from an unwilling source. However, library RFID tags do not contain any patron information, and the tags used in the majority of libraries use a frequency only readable from approximately . Another concern is that a non-library agency could potentially record the RFID tags of every person leaving the library without the library administrator's knowledge or consent. One simple option is to let the book transmit a code that has meaning only in conjunction with the library's database. Another possible enhancement would be to give each book a new code every time it is returned. In future, should readers become ubiquitous (and possibly networked), then stolen books could be traced even outside the library. Tag removal could be made difficult if the tags are so small that they fit invisibly inside a (random) page, possibly put there by the publisher.
Museums
RFID technologies are now also implemented in end-user applications in museums. An example was the custom-designed temporary research application, "eXspot," at the Exploratorium, a science museum in San Francisco, California. A visitor entering the museum received an RF tag that could be carried as a card. The eXspot system enabled the visitor to receive information about specific exhibits. Aside from the exhibit information, the visitor could take photographs of themselves at the exhibit. It was also intended to allow the visitor to take data for later analysis. The collected information could be retrieved at home from a "personalized" website keyed to the RFID tag.
Schools and universities
In 2004 school authorities in the Japanese city of Osaka made a decision to start chipping children's clothing, backpacks, and student IDs in a primary school. Later, in 2007, a school in Doncaster, England is piloting a monitoring system designed to keep tabs on pupils by tracking radio chips in their uniforms. St Charles Sixth Form College in west London, England, started in 2008, uses an RFID card system to check in and out of the main gate, to both track attendance and prevent unauthorized entrance. Similarly, Whitcliffe Mount School in Cleckheaton, England uses RFID to track pupils and staff in and out of the building via a specially designed card. In the Philippines, during 2012, some schools already use RFID in IDs for borrowing books. Gates in those particular schools also have RFID scanners for buying items at school shops and canteens. RFID is also used in school libraries, and to sign in and out for student and teacher attendance.
Sports
RFID for timing races began in the early 1990s with pigeon racing, introduced by the company Deister Electronics in Germany. RFID can provide race start and end timings for individuals in large races where it is impossible to get accurate stopwatch readings for every entrant.
In races utilizing RFID, racers wear tags that are read by antennas placed alongside the track or on mats across the track. UHF tags provide accurate readings with specially designed antennas. Rush error, lap count errors and accidents at race start are avoided, as anyone can start and finish at any time without being in a batch mode.
The design of the chip and of the antenna controls the range from which it can be read. Short range compact chips are twist tied to the shoe, or strapped to the ankle with . The chips must be about 400mm from the mat, therefore giving very good temporal resolution. Alternatively, a chip plus a very large (125mm square) antenna can be incorporated into the bib number worn on the athlete's chest at a height of about 1.25 m (4.10 ft).
Passive and active RFID systems are used in off-road events such as Orienteering, Enduro and Hare and Hounds racing. Riders have a transponder on their person, normally on their arm. When they complete a lap they swipe or touch the receiver which is connected to a computer and log their lap time.
RFID is being adapted by many recruitment agencies which have a PET (physical endurance test) as their qualifying procedure, especially in cases where the candidate volumes may run into millions (Indian Railway recruitment cells, police and power sector).
A number of ski resorts have adopted RFID tags to provide skiers hands-free access to ski lifts. Skiers do not have to take their passes out of their pockets. Ski jackets have a left pocket into which the chip+card fits. This nearly contacts the sensor unit on the left of the turnstile as the skier pushes through to the lift. These systems were based on high frequency (HF) at 13.56 megahertz. The bulk of ski areas in Europe, from Verbier to Chamonix, use these systems.
The NFL in the United States equips players with RFID chips that measures speed, distance and direction traveled by each player in real-time. Currently cameras stay focused on the quarterback; however, numerous plays are happening simultaneously on the field. The RFID chip will provide new insight into these simultaneous plays. The chip triangulates the player's position within six inches and will be used to digitally broadcast replays. The RFID chip will make individual player information accessible to the public. The data will be available via the NFL 2015 app. The RFID chips are manufactured by Zebra Technologies. Zebra Technologies tested the RFID chip in 18 stadiums last year to track vector data.
Complement to barcode
RFID tags are often a complement, but not a substitute, for UPC or EAN barcodes. They may never completely replace barcodes, due in part to their higher cost and the advantage of multiple data sources on the same object. Also, unlike RFID labels, barcodes can be generated and distributed electronically by e-mail or mobile phone, for printing or display by the recipient. An example is airline boarding passes. The new EPC, along with several other schemes, is widely available at reasonable cost.
The storage of data associated with tracking items will require many terabytes. Filtering and categorizing RFID data is needed to create useful information. It is likely that goods will be tracked by the pallet using RFID tags, and at package level with Universal Product Code (UPC) or EAN from unique barcodes.
The unique identity is a mandatory requirement for RFID tags, despite special choice of the numbering scheme. RFID tag data capacity is large enough that each individual tag will have a unique code, while current barcodes are limited to a single type code for a particular product. The uniqueness of RFID tags means that a product may be tracked as it moves from location to location while being delivered to a person. This may help to combat theft and other forms of product loss. The tracing of products is an important feature that is well supported with RFID tags containing a unique identity of the tag and the serial number of the object. This may help companies cope with quality deficiencies and resulting recall campaigns, but also contributes to concern about tracking and profiling of persons after the sale.
Waste management
Since around 2007 there been increasing development in the use of RFID in the waste management industry. RFID tags are installed on waste collection carts, linking carts to the owner's account for easy billing and service verification. The tag is embedded into a garbage and recycle container, and the RFID reader is affixed to the garbage and recycle trucks. RFID also measures a customer's set-out rate and provides insight as to the number of carts serviced by each waste collection vehicle. This RFID process replaces traditional "pay as you throw" (PAYT) municipal solid waste usage-pricing models.
Telemetry
Active RFID tags have the potential to function as low-cost remote sensors that broadcast telemetry back to a base station. Applications of tagometry data could include sensing of road conditions by implanted beacons, weather reports, and noise level monitoring.
Passive RFID tags can also report sensor data. For example, the Wireless Identification and Sensing Platform is a passive tag that reports temperature, acceleration and capacitance to commercial Gen2 RFID readers.
It is possible that active or battery-assisted passive (BAP) RFID tags could broadcast a signal to an in-store receiver to determine whether the RFID tag – and by extension, the product it is attached to – is in the store.
Regulation and standardization
To avoid injuries to humans and animals, RF transmission needs to be controlled.
A number of organizations have set standards for RFID, including the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), ASTM International, the DASH7 Alliance and EPCglobal.
Several specific industries have also set guidelines, including the Financial Services Technology Consortium (FSTC) for tracking IT Assets with RFID, the Computer Technology Industry Association CompTIA for certifying RFID engineers, and the International Airlines Transport Association IATA for luggage in airports.
Every country can set its own rules for frequency allocation for RFID tags, and not all radio bands are available in all countries. These frequencies are known as the ISM bands (Industrial Scientific and Medical bands). The return signal of the tag may still cause interference for other radio users.
Low-frequency (LF: 125–134.2 kHz and 140–148.5 kHz) (LowFID) tags and high-frequency (HF: 13.56 MHz) (HighFID) tags can be used globally without a license.
Ultra-high-frequency (UHF: 865–928 MHz) (Ultra-HighFID or UHFID) tags cannot be used globally as there is no single global standard, and regulations differ from country to country.
In North America, UHF can be used unlicensed for 902–928 MHz (±13 MHz from the 915 MHz center frequency), but restrictions exist for transmission power. In Europe, RFID and other low-power radio applications are regulated by ETSI recommendations EN 300 220 and EN 302 208, and ERO recommendation 70 03, allowing RFID operation with somewhat complex band restrictions from 865–868 MHz. Readers are required to monitor a channel before transmitting ("Listen Before Talk"); this requirement has led to some restrictions on performance, the resolution of which is a subject of current research. The North American UHF standard is not accepted in France as it interferes with its military bands. On July 25, 2012, Japan changed its UHF band to 920 MHz, more closely matching the United States’ 915 MHz band, establishing an international standard environment for RFID.
In some countries, a site license is needed, which needs to be applied for at the local authorities, and can be revoked.
As of 31 October 2014, regulations are in place in 78 countries representing approximately 96.5% of the world's GDP, and work on regulations was in progress in three countries representing approximately 1% of the world's GDP.
Standards that have been made regarding RFID include:
ISO 11784/11785 – Animal identification. Uses 134.2 kHz.
ISO 14223 – Radiofrequency identification of animals – Advanced transponders
ISO/IEC 14443: This standard is a popular HF (13.56 MHz) standard for HighFIDs which is being used as the basis of RFID-enabled passports under ICAO 9303. The Near Field Communication standard that lets mobile devices act as RFID readers/transponders is also based on ISO/IEC 14443.
ISO/IEC 15693: This is also a popular HF (13.56 MHz) standard for HighFIDs widely used for non-contact smart payment and credit cards.
ISO/IEC 18000: Information technology—Radio frequency identification for item management:
ISO/IEC 18092 Information technology—Telecommunications and information exchange between systems—Near Field Communication—Interface and Protocol (NFCIP-1)
ISO 18185: This is the industry standard for electronic seals or "e-seals" for tracking cargo containers using the 433 MHz and 2.4 GHz frequencies.
ISO/IEC 21481 Information technology—Telecommunications and information exchange between systems—Near Field Communication Interface and Protocol −2 (NFCIP-2)
ASTM D7434, Standard Test Method for Determining the Performance of Passive Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) Transponders on Palletized or Unitized Loads
ASTM D7435, Standard Test Method for Determining the Performance of Passive Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) Transponders on Loaded Containers
ASTM D7580, Standard Test Method for Rotary Stretch Wrapper Method for Determining the Readability of Passive RFID Transponders on Homogenous Palletized or Unitized Loads
ISO 28560-2— specifies encoding standards and data model to be used within libraries.
In order to ensure global interoperability of products, several organizations have set up additional standards for RFID testing. These standards include conformance, performance and interoperability tests.
EPC Gen2
EPC Gen2 is short for EPCglobal UHF Class 1 Generation 2.
EPCglobal, a joint venture between GS1 and GS1 US, is working on international standards for the use of mostly passive RFID and the Electronic Product Code (EPC) in the identification of many items in the supply chain for companies worldwide.
One of the missions of EPCglobal was to simplify the Babel of protocols prevalent in the RFID world in the 1990s. Two tag air interfaces (the protocol for exchanging information between a tag and a reader) were defined (but not ratified) by EPCglobal prior to 2003. These protocols, commonly known as Class 0 and Class 1, saw significant commercial implementation in 2002–2005.
In 2004, the Hardware Action Group created a new protocol, the Class 1 Generation 2 interface, which addressed a number of problems that had been experienced with Class 0 and Class 1 tags. The EPC Gen2 standard was approved in December 2004. This was approved after a contention from Intermec that the standard may infringe a number of their RFID-related patents. It was decided that the standard itself does not infringe their patents, making the standard royalty free. The EPC Gen2 standard was adopted with minor modifications as ISO 18000-6C in 2006.
In 2007, the lowest cost of Gen2 EPC inlay was offered by the now-defunct company SmartCode, at a price of $0.05 apiece in volumes of 100 million or more.
Problems and concerns
Data flooding
Not every successful reading of a tag (an observation) is useful for business purposes. A large amount of data may be generated that is not useful for managing inventory or other applications. For example, a customer moving a product from one shelf to another, or a pallet load of articles that passes several readers while being moved in a warehouse, are events that do not produce data that are meaningful to an inventory control system.
Event filtering is required to reduce this data inflow to a meaningful depiction of moving goods passing a threshold. Various concepts have been designed, mainly offered as middleware performing the filtering from noisy and redundant raw data to significant processed data.
Global standardization
The frequencies used for UHF RFID in the USA are as of 2007 incompatible with those of Europe or Japan. Furthermore, no emerging standard has yet become as universal as the barcode. To address international trade concerns, it is necessary to use a tag that is operational within all of the international frequency domains.
Security concerns
A primary RFID security concern is the illicit tracking of RFID tags. Tags, which are world-readable, pose a risk to both personal location privacy and corporate/military security. Such concerns have been raised with respect to the United States Department of Defense's recent adoption of RFID tags for supply chain management. More generally, privacy organizations have expressed concerns in the context of ongoing efforts to embed electronic product code (EPC) RFID tags in general-use products. This is mostly as a result of the fact that RFID tags can be read, and legitimate transactions with readers can be eavesdropped on, from non-trivial distances. RFID used in access control, payment and eID (e-passport) systems operate at a shorter range than EPC RFID systems but are also vulnerable to skimming and eavesdropping, albeit at shorter distances.
A second method of prevention is by using cryptography. Rolling codes and challenge–response authentication (CRA) are commonly used to foil monitor-repetition of the messages between the tag and reader, as any messages that have been recorded would prove to be unsuccessful on repeat transmission. Rolling codes rely upon the tag's ID being changed after each interrogation, while CRA uses software to ask for a cryptographically coded response from the tag. The protocols used during CRA can be symmetric, or may use public key cryptography.
While a variety of secure protocols have been suggested for RFID tags,
in order to support long read range at low cost,
many RFID tags have barely enough power available
to support very low-power and therefore simple security protocols such as cover-coding.
Unauthorized reading of RFID tags presents a risk to privacy and to business secrecy. Unauthorized readers can potentially use RFID information to identify or track packages, persons, carriers, or the contents of a package. Several prototype systems are being developed to combat unauthorized reading, including RFID signal interruption, as well as the possibility of legislation, and 700 scientific papers have been published on this matter since 2002. There are also concerns that the database structure of Object Naming Service may be susceptible to infiltration, similar to denial-of-service attacks, after the EPCglobal Network ONS root servers were shown to be vulnerable.
Health
Microchip–induced tumours have been noted during animal trials.
Shielding
In an effort to prevent the passive “skimming” of RFID-enabled cards or passports, the U.S. General Services Administration (GSA) issued a set of test procedures for evaluating electromagnetically opaque sleeves. For shielding products to be in compliance with FIPS-201 guidelines, they must meet or exceed this published standard; compliant products are listed on the website of the U.S. CIO's FIPS-201 Evaluation Program. The United States government requires that when new ID cards are issued, they must be delivered with an approved shielding sleeve or holder. Although many wallets and passport holders are advertised to protect personal information, there is little evidence that RFID skimming is a serious threat; data encryption and use of EMV chips rather than RFID makes this sort of theft rare.
There are contradictory opinions as to whether aluminum can prevent reading of RFID chips. Some people claim that aluminum shielding, essentially creating a Faraday cage, does work. Others claim that simply wrapping an RFID card in aluminum foil only makes transmission more difficult and is not completely effective at preventing it.
Shielding effectiveness depends on the frequency being used. Low-frequency LowFID tags, like those used in implantable devices for humans and pets, are relatively resistant to shielding, although thick metal foil will prevent most reads. High frequency HighFID tags (13.56 MHz—smart cards and access badges) are sensitive to shielding and are difficult to read when within a few centimetres of a metal surface. UHF Ultra-HighFID tags (pallets and cartons) are difficult to read when placed within a few millimetres of a metal surface, although their read range is actually increased when they are spaced 2–4 cm from a metal surface due to positive reinforcement of the reflected wave and the incident wave at the tag.
Controversies
Privacy
The use of RFID has engendered considerable controversy and some consumer privacy advocates have initiated product boycotts. Consumer privacy experts Katherine Albrecht and Liz McIntyre are two prominent critics of the "spychip" technology. The two main privacy concerns regarding RFID are as follows:
As the owner of an item may not necessarily be aware of the presence of an RFID tag and the tag can be read at a distance without the knowledge of the individual, sensitive data may be acquired without consent.
If a tagged item is paid for by credit card or in conjunction with use of a loyalty card, then it would be possible to indirectly deduce the identity of the purchaser by reading the globally unique ID of that item contained in the RFID tag. This is a possibility if the person watching also had access to the loyalty card and credit card data, and the person with the equipment knows where the purchaser is going to be.
Most concerns revolve around the fact that RFID tags affixed to products remain functional even after the products have been purchased and taken home and thus can be used for surveillance and other purposes unrelated to their supply chain inventory functions.
The RFID Network responded to these fears in the first episode of their syndicated cable TV series, saying that they are unfounded, and let RF engineers demonstrate how RFID works. They provided images of RF engineers driving an RFID-enabled van around a building and trying to take an inventory of items inside. They also discussed satellite tracking of a passive RFID tag.
The concerns raised may be addressed in part by use of the Clipped Tag. The Clipped Tag is an RFID tag designed to increase privacy for the purchaser of an item. The Clipped Tag has been suggested by IBM researchers Paul Moskowitz and Guenter Karjoth. After the point of sale, a person may tear off a portion of the tag. This allows the transformation of a long-range tag into a proximity tag that still may be read, but only at short range – less than a few inches or centimeters. The modification of the tag may be confirmed visually. The tag may still be used later for returns, recalls, or recycling.
However, read range is a function of both the reader and the tag itself. Improvements in technology may increase read ranges for tags. Tags may be read at longer ranges than they are designed for by increasing reader power. The limit on read distance then becomes the signal-to-noise ratio of the signal reflected from the tag back to the reader. Researchers at two security conferences have demonstrated that passive Ultra-HighFID tags normally read at ranges of up to 30 feet can be read at ranges of 50 to 69 feet using suitable equipment.
In January 2004 privacy advocates from CASPIAN and the German privacy group FoeBuD were invited to the METRO Future Store in Germany, where an RFID pilot project was implemented. It was uncovered by accident that METRO "Payback" customer loyalty cards contained RFID tags with customer IDs, a fact that was disclosed neither to customers receiving the cards, nor to this group of privacy advocates. This happened despite assurances by METRO that no customer identification data was tracked and all RFID usage was clearly disclosed.
During the UN World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) between the 16th to 18 November 2005, founder of the free software movement, Richard Stallman, protested the use of RFID security cards by covering his card with aluminum foil.
In 2004–2005 the Federal Trade Commission staff conducted a workshop and review of RFID privacy concerns and issued a report recommending best practices.
RFID was one of the main topics of the 2006 Chaos Communication Congress (organized by the Chaos Computer Club in Berlin) and triggered a large press debate. Topics included electronic passports, Mifare cryptography and the tickets for the FIFA World Cup 2006. Talks showed how the first real-world mass application of RFID at the 2006 FIFA Football World Cup worked. The group monochrom staged a special 'Hack RFID' song.
Government control
Some individuals have grown to fear the loss of rights due to RFID human implantation.
By early 2007, Chris Paget of San Francisco, California, showed that RFID information could be pulled from a US passport card by using only $250 worth of equipment. This suggests that with the information captured, it would be possible to clone such cards.
According to ZDNet, critics believe that RFID will lead to tracking individuals' every movement and will be an invasion of privacy. In the book SpyChips: How Major Corporations and Government Plan to Track Your Every Move by Katherine Albrecht and Liz McIntyre, one is encouraged to "imagine a world of no privacy. Where your every purchase is monitored and recorded in a database and your every belonging is numbered. Where someone many states away or perhaps in another country has a record of everything you have ever bought. What's more, they can be tracked and monitored remotely".
Deliberate destruction in clothing and other items
According to an RSA laboratories FAQ, RFID tags can be destroyed by a standard microwave oven; however some types of RFID tags, particularly those constructed to radiate using large metallic antennas (in particular RF tags and EPC tags), may catch fire if subjected to this process for too long (as would any metallic item inside a microwave oven). This simple method cannot safely be used to deactivate RFID features in electronic devices, or those implanted in living tissue, because of the risk of damage to the "host". However the time required is extremely short (a second or two of radiation) and the method works in many other non-electronic and inanimate items, long before heat or fire become of concern.
Some RFID tags implement a "kill command" mechanism to permanently and irreversibly disable them. This mechanism can be applied if the chip itself is trusted or the mechanism is known by the person that wants to "kill" the tag.
UHF RFID tags that comply with the EPC2 Gen 2 Class 1 standard usually support this mechanism, while protecting the chip from being killed with a password. Guessing or cracking this needed 32-bit password for killing a tag would not be difficult for a determined attacker.
See also
AS5678
Balise
Bin bug
Chipless RFID
Internet of Things
Mass surveillance
Microchip implant (human)
Near Field Communication (NFC)
PositiveID
Privacy by design
Proximity card
Resonant inductive coupling
RFdump
RFID in schools
RFID Journal
RFID on metal
RSA blocker tag
Smart label
Speedpass
TecTile
Tracking system
References
External links
An open source RFID library used as door opener
UHF regulations overview by GS1
What is RFID? Educational video by The RFID Network
Privacy concerns and proposed privacy legislation
What is RFID? – animated explanation
IEEE Council on RFID
Proximity cards
Automatic identification and data capture
Privacy
Ubiquitous computing
Wireless
Radio frequency interfaces
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilbur%20H.%20Armacost
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Wilbur H. Armacost
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Wilbur Hering Armacost, Jr. (August 6, 1893 - September 23, 1971) was an American mechanical engineer, vice president-consultant of Combustion Engineering, Inc., New York, and inventor. He is known as pioneer developer of materials adaptable to high temperatures and pressure, and designer of high-temperature high-pressure steam engines. He was recipient of the 1958 ASME Medal for distinguished service in engineering and science.
Biography
Youth, family education, and early career
Armacost was born in the 1893 in Green Valley, Illinois, son of Daniel Nicholas Armacost (1851–1940), and Mary Ellen (McCord) Armacost (1857–1947). Armacost was named after his grandfather Wilbur Hering Armacost, Sr., who had been a tax collector in the 8th district in Western Maryland.
Armacost graduated from the Armour Institute of Technology, now Illinois Institute of Technology, with a BSc in mechanical engineering in 1916. He had written a BSc thesis with Frederic P. Strauch, entitled "Capacity and efficiency test of an autovacuum refrigerating machine."
After his graduation in 1916 he started working as engineer at the Union Stock Yard & Transit Co. in the meatpacking district in Chicago, and became member of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Next he worked for the Armour and Company in Chicago as superintendent of 1600 boiler at the H-P plant for reclaiming potash from cotton seed in 1916-17.
Further career and acknowledgement
In the interbellum Armacost worked as research and design engineer for the Ford Motor Company in Detroit, and the Locomotive Superheater Company, before it merged into and Combustion Engineering in 1948. In 1937 Armacost started at Combustion Engineering as chief engineer.
In 1944 he was elected vice-president of the Combustion Engineering Co. in charge of marine activities, to succeed the late engineer and inventor F. H. Rosencrants. and in 1948 vice-president in charge of engineering. Bij 1958 Armacost was vice president-consultant and chairman of the technical committee at Combustion Engineering.
Armacost received an award for distinguished service from the American Society for Metals (ASM) in 1948, the Stevens Honor Award Medallion from the Stevens Institute of Technology in 1951, and the ASME Medal from the ASME in 1958. He received about 75 patents.
Armacost died September 23, 1971 in Litchfield Park, Arizona, and he was buried at the Prairie Rest Cemetery in Tazewell County, Illinois.
Selected publications
Frederic P Strauch & Wilbur H Armacost. Capacity and efficiency test of an autovacuum refrigerating machine. Armour Institute of Technology, 1916
Patents, a selection
Armacost, Wilbur H. "Boiler with reheater." U.S. Patent No. 1,931,948. 24 Oct. 1933.
Armacost, Wilbur H., and David M. Schoenfeld. "Gas turbine plant." U.S. Patent No. 2,404,938. 30 Jul. 1946.
Armacost, Wilbur H. "Combined radiant and convection superheater." U.S. Patent No. 2,213,185. 3 Sep. 1940.
Armacost, Wilbur H., and Leonard J. Marshall. "Art of generating and heating steam." U.S. Patent No. 2,781,746. 19 Feb. 1957.
Armacost, Wilbur H. "Apparatus and method for controlling a forced flow once-through steam generator." U.S. Patent No. 3,038,453. 12 Jun. 1962.
References
1893 births
1971 deaths
American mechanical engineers
Illinois Institute of Technology alumni
People from Tazewell County, Illinois
ASME Medal recipients
Engineers from Illinois
20th-century American engineers
20th-century American inventors
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007%20Florida%20Gators%20football%20team
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2007 Florida Gators football team
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The 2007 Florida Gators football team represented the University of Florida in the sport of American football during the 2007 NCAA Division I FBS football season. The Gators competed in the Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and the Eastern Division of the Southeastern Conference (SEC), and played their home games at Ben Hill Griffin Stadium on the university's Gainesville, Florida campus. It was the third season for head coach Urban Meyer, who led the Gators to a Capital One Bowl berth and an overall win-loss record of 9–4 (.692).
The team's quarterback was Tim Tebow, the first sophomore ever to win the Heisman Trophy.
Before the season
The Gators won the BCS Championship Game in Glendale, Arizona to cap off the 2006 season, the second national championship in school history. In addition, they won a school-record 13 games and the school's seventh official SEC title. The coaching staff remained, surprisingly, intact after 2006, which gave Meyer a third straight season at Florida with the same coaching staff. The schedule for the Gators played in their favor this season, as they faced their toughest opponents—such as Tennessee, Auburn, and Florida State—at home in Ben Hill Griffin Stadium. Despite the challenges of youth, the Gators were ranked in the top 5 in some preseason polls.
Two highly rated recruiting classes from 2006 and 2007 filled up most of the depth chart, as few upperclassmen remained from last year's title team. Nine of 11 starters were replaced from their championship defense. While the offense lost fewer starters — only 8 — from the previous season, the Gators had to replace Chris Leak at quarterback. Leak was replaced by sophomore Tim Tebow, who shared quarterback duties with him last season.
Pre-season watchlists
Tim Tebow (QB) – 2007 Maxwell Award Watch List
Tim Tebow (QB) – 2007 Manning Award Watch List
Andre Caldwell (WR) – 2007 Maxwell Award Watch List
Percy Harvin (WR) – 2007 Maxwell Award Watch List
Derrick Harvey (DE) – 2007 Bednarik Award Watch List
Schedule
Sources: 2012 Florida Football Media Guide, and GatorZone.com.
Game summaries
WKU
For the season opener, the WKU Hilltoppers filled the void left by the UCF Knights, who had decided to back out of the game in December 2006. This was the first contest between these two schools. It was also the first game in Ben Hill Griffin Stadium after the Gators won their 2006 SEC and national championships.
Sophomore quarterback Tim Tebow led the Gators to touchdowns on their first four possessions en route to a relatively easy 49–3 victory in intense early season heat. Tebow finished his first career start 13-of-17 for 300 yards and three touchdowns passes, and added a rushing touchdown as well. True freshman quarterback Cameron Newton entered the game in the fourth quarter and rushed for a touchdown on the last play before lightning in the area caused an hour-long delay. When the weather failed to clear, the game was declared final with 8:23 remaining in the 4th quarter.
Troy
In the first half against the Troy Trojans, the Gator offense led by QB Tim Tebow scored a touchdown every time it had the ball. The special teams chipped in with two blocked punts, and, after allowing an early touchdown, the young Gator defense shut out their opponents for the rest of the half. The score stood at 49–7 after two quarters, the Gators having racked up over 350 yards of total offense, Tebow throwing 3 touchdown passes and running for another score in an impressive display of all-around dominating football.
After halftime, though, things changed in The Swamp. Florida received the second half kickoff and fumbled a few plays later, leading to a Troy touchdown. That sequence would set the tone for the rest of the game. The Gators seemed to lose their offensive rhythm and the point production dried up while Troy QB Omar Haugabook (30-53, 291 yards, 2 TDs) found his own rhythm, helping the Trojans outscore the Gators 24–10 over the final two quarters.
When the final whistle blew, Florida came away with a 59–31 victory. The outcome was never in doubt; the Gators 2nd half lead was always greater than 20 points. And their final stats looked impressive – they outgained the Trojans 500 to 336 and averaged 7 yards per offensive play. Tebow's numbers were solid as well; he completed 18 of 25 passes for 236 yards and three touchdowns (with no interceptions) and rushed 19 times for a team-high 93 yards and 2 more TDs. In fact, his play earned Tebow honors as the Southeastern Conference offensive player of the week.
However, the second half lapses and miscues (Florida was hit with 11 penalties for 104 yards) made it obvious that the Gators gridders had plenty to work on as they prepared for their SEC opener against the Tennessee Volunteers the following Saturday.
Tennessee
On the 1st possession of the game in the steamy Swamp, the Tennessee Volunteers went three and out. On the ensuing punt, Brandon James took the return 83 yards for Gator touchdown. Things never did get much better for the visitors, as Florida rolled to an impressive 59–20 victory in the SEC opener for both teams.
There was, however, a brief period when it seemed that the contest would be much closer. The Gators ran out to a 28–6 lead by late in the 2nd quarter on two Tim Tebow touchdown passes and a Tebow touchdown run, along with the opening punt return. But then Tennessee QB Erik Ainge got his team's offense moving, throwing a touchdown pass just before halftime to cut the lead to 28–13 at intermission.
The Gators mounted a long drive to start the second half, but freshman Volunteer cornerback Eric Berry picked off a Tim Tebow pass (his first interception thrown in 2007) and returned it 93 yards for another Tennessee touchdown. When Florida's next drive ended in a punt, UT had the ball down only eight, 28–20.
But on the first play of the possession, Erik Ainge's handoff to running back Arian Foster was mishandled, and Gator linebacker Dustin Doe scooped up the loose ball and took it into the endzone for a Florida touchdown. Tennessee's momentum was washed away by the roar of 90,000 Gator fans, and the home team never looked back. Florida would end the game with 31 straight points, turning a close contest into a runaway.
Several Gators had excellent afternoons. Tim Tebow finished 14-19 passing for 299 yards with 2 TDs and 1 INT and rushed for 62 yards and 2 more TDs, and was awarded as the Walter Camp Foundation national offensive player of the week. Brandon James was the SEC special teams player of the week for his 193 yards and a touchdown on kick returns. And receiver Percy Harvin excelled as well, leading all players in rushing (9 attempts for 75 yards and 1 TD) and receiving (4 catches for 120 yards).
The Florida offense rolled up 556 yards of total offense, 255 on the ground. Meanwhile, the Gator defense also did its part, holding Tennessee to just 38 yards rushing with no first downs on the ground and 293 yards total offense.
Overall, the Gators put together a historically dominating performance. Their 59 points scored was the second-highest total in the history of the series (behind only UF's 62 in the 1995 contest), and the 39 point margin of defeat was the Vols' most lopsided loss to any opponent since 1981. Tennessee still leads the overall series by a narrow 19-18 margin.
Ole Miss
Though they looked dominant at times early in the season, the 2007 Florida Gator squad was a team that relied on many freshmen and sophomores in key roles. This inexperience was evident in their contest with the Ole Miss Rebels in Oxford, Mississippi. Thirty-five players on Florida's 60-man traveling roster had never played in a collegiate road game before, and it showed. But as the clock in Vaught–Hemingway Stadium ticked down to 00:00, the Gators had done enough to earn a tighter-than-expected 30–24 victory.
At different points in the game, the young Gators struggled on offense, defense, and special teams. They also committed 14 penalties for 127 yards, with several of the miscues either stalling Gator drives or helping the Rebel's scoring chances.
But once again, it was Tim Tebow who led Florida's charge to victory. The sophomore quarterback completed 20 of 34 passes for 262 yards and 2 touchdowns and no interceptions. Once again, his favorite target was Percy Harvin, who had 11 receptions for 123 yards and a TD. Tebow also rushed 27 times for 168 yards and 2 more touchdowns, setting new Florida single-game records for rushing attempts and rushing yards by a quarterback and almost single-handedly running out the clock late in the game. In all, Tebow accounted for all 4 Gator touchdowns and 427 of his team's 507 total yards. For his efforts, Tebow was named the SEC's offensive player of the week for the 2nd time in the 2007 season.
The Rebels put up a valiant effort. Despite a sore shoulder, Ole Miss quarterback Seth Adams threw for 301 yards and 2 touchdowns, including a perfectly tossed 77-yard scoring strike that cut the Gator advantage to 3 late in the 3rd quarter. Mississippi's lead in the all-time series was reduced to 11-10-1. The Gator victory broke both a two-game losing streak to the Rebels and a three-game losing streak in games played in the state of Mississippi.
Auburn
The Gators were seeking revenge for last seasons's only loss (a 27–17 setback at Auburn) when the Tigers visited The Swamp. The Gator defense proved unreliable in the first half, allowing the Tigers to get two touchdowns, while Auburn exhibited its own top notch defense. While the Gators were able to mount a comeback in the second half, eventually bringing the game to a 17–17 tie, Auburn had the ball at the end of the game, and Auburn kicked a field goal as time expired to make the score 20–17, upsetting the number 4 ranked Gators. This loss was coach Urban Meyer's first in Gainesville, as well as his first loss since last year's loss to Auburn. This was the 82nd meeting between the two teams, with the Tigers bringing their record in the UF-Auburn series to 42–38–2 all-time. Auburn would be the only team Tebow has played, but never defeated. This game was notable for the fact that offensive coordinator and future Florida head coach Dan Mullen underwent an emergency appendectomy the night before, yet still called plays from the press box.
LSU
In one of the most anticipated games of the season, the Florida Gators traveled to Tiger Stadium to take on the LSU Tigers in a game that had conference and national title implications.
The Gators took an early lead by kicking a field goal on their first drive. Two drives later, the Gators mounted a 12-play drive that culminated in a Tim Tebow two-yard pass and an unbelievable catch made by Kestahn Moore to put the Gators up by ten. LSU immediately countered with a long drive of their own, going 80 yards in 16 plays, scoring on a Ryan Perrilloux option play to cut the Gator lead to 10–7. The Gators marched down the field again and scored on a Tebow run to put their lead back at 10 with 2:23 to play in the first half. LSU moved the ball right before the half, but kicker Colt David missed a 43-yard field goal.
In the second half, LSU took the ensuing drive but were stopped by the Gator defense. Appearing to kick another long field goal, LSU instead ran a brilliant fake with the holder—quarterback Matt Flynn—who scooted eight yards for the first down. The Tigers scored on a Keiland Williams run shortly thereafter.
The Gators answered the LSU drive with a quick 3-play drive to score on a 37-yard Tebow pass to Cornelius Ingram. Craig Steltz missed an assignment on the play which left Ingram wide open on the post pattern. Florida started the fourth quarter with a 24–14 lead.
However, the Tigers were not to be denied. After missing another relatively short field goal, LSU took advantage of an errant pass by Tim Tebow which hit Ingram in the helmet. The Tigers drove down the field, and Flynn hit Demetrius Byrd for a 3-yard touchdown to cut the Gator lead to 3.
On the final LSU drive, the Tigers converted several fourth down plays, including one by runningback Jacob Hester where he made a great second effort to surge ahead to just get the first down. Hester scored a short touchdown with 1:06 to play in the game, giving the Tigers a 28–24 lead.
On the final drive, Florida gained 30 yards, but Tebow's hail mary pass as time expired was batted down by Chad Jones, sealing the LSU victory. The loss cut Florida's lead in the budding rivalry to 28–23–3.
Kentucky
The Gators traveled to Lexington to take on the Kentucky Wildcats for the 57th time. In a rare reversal, Kentucky was ranked in the top 10 with the Gators on the outside looking in. The Gators still entered the game as 7-point favorites.
Kentucky opened the scoring on an Andre' Woodson 33-yard pass to Dicky Lyons to take an early 7–0 lead. Florida answered on consecutive drives with a 10-yard Tim Tebow pass to Cornelius Ingram and a Tebow to Louis Murphy 66-yard pass to put the Gators up by a touchdown. Kentucky cut the lead to four on a field goal. The Gators countered by mounting a drive before the half that culminated in a Tebow 1-yard "jump pass" to Aaron Hernandez.
The second half began with another Gator score, as Tebow found Andre Caldwell in the end zone on an 8-yard pass. This stretched the Gator lead to 18, their largest of the day. Woodson hit Jacob Tamme on a 28-yard pass to pull the Wildcats within 11. Florida added a field goal to build their lead to 14 midway through the third quarter. Woodson then found Lyons again on a 50-yard catch and run. Again the Gators responded, mounting a 6-minute drive that spanned the third and fourth quarters, culminating in a Percy Harvin 24-yard touchdown run. Both teams traded punts before Woodson found Lyons for the third time on the day on a 6-yard TD pass.
With 3:28 left in the game, Kentucky opted to kick off instead of onside kick. The Gators rolled the dice after getting a first down, as Tebow threw a 40-yard pass to Harvin to get the Gators in the red zone. Tebow closed the drive with a touchdown score on the ground to put the game away.
Kentucky refused to give up, driving to the Florida 5-yard-line with seconds left and closed the game with a touchdown from Woodson to Keenan Burton. With the game already decided, the PAT was not tried and the Gators walked away with a 45–37 victory.
With the win and Tennessee's loss to Alabama, the Gators once again control their destiny in the SEC Eastern Division.
With the victory, Florida leads the series 40-17-0 and has beaten Kentucky twenty one consecutive years in football, the third longest active streak in Division I-FBS. Navy's victory over Notre Dame subsequently snapped the longest streak to make Florida/Kentucky the second longest.
Georgia
The 2007 Florida–Georgia football rivalry game saw the emergence of Knowshon Moreno, the Bulldogs' redshirt freshman, with 188 yards on the ground and three touchdowns. Florida's Tim Tebow was limited in the game due to a bruised shoulder and Kestahn Moore suffered from a fumble and missed snap. Moore's fumble early in the game led to Georgia's first touchdown. Suddenly, the entire Bulldog bench rushed onto the field resulting in two separate 15-yard penalties, both assessed on the ensuing kickoff. This excessive celebration was known as the "Gator Stomp", and that play was only the first of three TDs in the game that ended in penalties for excessive celebration, with Georgia's Mohamed Massaquoi and Florida's Wondy Pierre-Louis drawing the other flags. The Gators rallied back with a quick touchdown but were never able to take the lead. A late touchdown by Moreno sealed the victory for the Bulldogs. This was the 85th meeting between the two teams. The Bulldogs hold a 46–37–2 series lead. Florida has won fifteen of the last eighteen contests, but are 2 and 2 in the last 4 games.
Vanderbilt
The Vanderbilt Commodores traveled to Gainesville for the first time since 2005 where they nearly came away with a win in overtime. In the 41st meeting between the two, Florida came out early with a 35–7 lead by the half. The Gators finished with 498 yards on offense against what had been the 14th best defense in the nation. Tim Tebow completed 22 of 27 passes for 281 yards passing and also ran for 35 yards on 6 carries. Percy Harvin carried the ball 11 times for 113 yards and two touchdowns and also caught 9 passes for 110 yards receiving, becoming the first player in school history to have over 100 yards rushing and receiving in the same game. Florida leads with a lopsided 30–9–2 record and has won the last 17 games in a row.
South Carolina
Florida traveled to Columbia and renewed their budding rivalry with a win over the Gamecocks. The Gators now lead the all-time series 21–4–3, although the annual contest has become much more intense since Heisman Trophy-winning ex-Gator quarterback and championship-winning ex-Gator head coach Steve Spurrier took the reins at South Carolina for the 2005 season. Spurrier's new team upset his old team in 2005, and only a blocked last-second field goal kept him from repeating that feat in Gainesville in 2006. Florida quarterback Tim Tebow set a career-high in passing yards in the game with 304 yards. He also set a new school record for rushing touchdowns by a QB in a game with 5 breaking the old record held by ex-Florida QB Jesse Palmer. The first of these five rushing touchdowns broke the school record for most rushing touchdowns. Tebow was tied with Emmitt Smith and Buford Long with 14 rushing touchdowns in the season entering this game. This was also Florida's first game of the season without leading receiver Percy Harvin due to a sinus infection.
Florida Atlantic
The FAU Owls traveled to Gainesville for the first meeting between the two teams. This marked the third game of the season where the Gators faced an opponent for the first time. Tim Tebow rushed for his 20th touchdown of the season in the 2nd quarter setting a new SEC record for rushing touchdowns in a season. Tebow finished last week's game with 19 total rushing touchdowns leaving him tied with Shaun Alexander, LaBrandon Toefield, and Garrison Hearst. He also became the first quarterback in Division I-FBS history to pass for at least 20 touchdowns and rush for at least 20 touchdowns in the same season. He also set a career best in passing yards with 338.
The record-setting day continued when Gators' wide receiver Andre Caldwell set a new school record for career receptions with 177 breaking the prior record held by Carlos Alvarez with 172. This was the second game in a row where Florida wide receiver Percy Harvin was absent with a sinus infection and migraine headaches.
Florida State
Source:
Senior day in the Swamp saw the Gators start strong, scoring four touchdowns and a field goal on their first five possessions en route to a 45–12 victory over the in-state rival Florida State Seminoles. The Gator offense compiled 541 total yards to the Seminoles' 287, and were often able to finish drives with touchdowns while Florida State was forced to settle for field goals. One of FSU kicker Gary Cismesia's four FGs was a school record 60-yard effort on the last play of the 1st half to cut his team's deficit to 24–12 at intermission. However, the momentum was short-lived, as Florida went on a 6-play, 81-yard scoring drive without throwing a pass to open the 2nd half and cruised from then on.
That 3rd-quarter touchdown was the second rushing TD of the contest for Gator QB Tim Tebow and his 22nd of the year, tying the NCAA Division I-FBS record for most rushing touchdowns in a season by a quarterback. Despite suffering a fractured hand on that run, he remained in the game and threw his third touchdown pass of the game in the 4th quarter, giving him 5 total TDs in the contest and 51 for the season. With his 262 passing yards and 89 rushing, Tebow set a new school record for most yards of total offense in a season with 3,970, surpassing Rex Grossman's 2001 total.
Gator RB/WR Percy Harvin did his part as well, returning from a 2-game absence to rush 16 times for a game-high 157 yards and a touchdown and catch 5 passes for another 67 yards.
The Gators' winning streak versus FSU grew to four games with this victory, including a 21–14 triumph in Tallahassee in 2006. Florida leads the all-time series 31-19-2. It also marked the fourth win of the season in which the Gators defeated a team led by a former national championship winning coach (Bobby Bowden, Howard Schnellenberger, Phillip Fulmer, and Steve Spurrier being those coaches).
Postseason
Michigan
The Florida Gators closed out the 2007 season against the Michigan Wolverines on New Years Day in the Capital One Bowl. This was only the second meeting between the two storied programs with the first having taken place a short five seasons ago in the Outback Bowl. Lloyd Carr coached his Wolverines for the final time with the announcement of his retirement shortly after his final regular season game against rival Ohio State.
Urban Meyer and the Gators were looking to carry their momentum from the second half of the season with Heisman-winning sophomore Tim Tebow into the bowl game. Coming off of two consecutive regular season losses, the Wolverines were attempting to break their four bowl game losing streak. Ironically, their last bowl game win came against the Ron Zook coached Gators following the 2002 season. This was the fifth game of the season where the Gators played a team led by a former national championship winning head coach.
The Gators lost the game 41–35 as Michigan barraged the Gator defense for over 500 yards of offense. Chad Henne finished his career at the University of Michigan with a victory in a bowl game, the first in five seasons, and finished with a career-high in passing yards. The newly named Michigan head coach, Rich Rodriguez, could be seen during the game along the Michigan sidelines.
Awards and honors
Associated Press All-SEC
Coaches All-SEC
National awards and honors
Tebow was the first sophomore to win the Heisman Trophy. He garnered 462 first-place votes and 1,957 points, 254 points ahead of the runner-up, Arkansas running back Darren McFadden. Tebow finished the regular season with the second highest passing efficiency in the nation with 177.8. Additionally, he averaged 4.3 yards per carry on the ground.
Personnel
Depth chart
Roster
Coaching staff
Urban Meyer – Head Coach – 2 years at UF
Steve Addazio – Tackles/Tight Ends – 2 years
Stan Drayton – Running Backs – 2 years
Billy Gonzales – Wide Receivers – 2 years
Chuck Heater – Recruiting Coordinator/Cornerbacks – 2 years
John Hevesy – Centers/Guards – 2 years
John "Doc" Holliday – Associate Head Coach/Safeties – 2 years
Greg Mattison – Co-Defensive Coordinator/Defensive Line – 2 years
Dan Mullen – Offensive Coordinator/Quarterbacks – 2 years
Charlie Strong – Assistant Head Coach/Co-Defensive Coordinator/Linebackers – 7 years
Players drafted into the NFL
Notes
References
Florida
Florida Gators football seasons
Florida Gators football
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3919958
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cc%3AMail
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Cc:Mail
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cc:Mail is a discontinued store-and-forward LAN-based email system originally developed on Microsoft's MS-DOS platform by Concentric Systems, Inc. in the 1980s. The company, founded by Robert Plummer, Hubert Lipinski, and Michael Palmer, later changed its name to PCC Systems, Inc., and then to cc:Mail, Inc. At the height of its popularity, cc:Mail had about 14 million users, and won various awards for being the top email software package of the mid-1990s.
Architecture overview
In the 1980s and 1990s, it became common in office environments to have a personal computer on every desk, all connected via a local area network (LAN). Typically, (at least) one computer is set up as a file server, so that any computer on the LAN can store and access files on the server as if they were local files. cc:Mail was designed to operate in that environment.
The central point of focus in the cc:Mail architecture is the cc:Mail "post office," which is a collection of files located on the file server and consisting of the message store and related data. However, no cc:Mail software needs to be installed or run on the file server itself. The cc:Mail application is installed on the user desktops. It provides a user interface, and reads and writes to the post office files directly in order to send, access, and manage email messages. This arrangement is called a "shared-file mail system" (which was also implemented later in competing products such as Microsoft Mail). This is in contrast to a "client/server mail system" which involves a mail client application interacting with a mail server application (the latter then being the focal point of message handling). Client/server mail was added later to the cc:Mail product architecture (see below), and also became available in competing offerings (such as Microsoft Exchange).
Other than the cc:Mail desktop application, key software elements of the cc:Mail architecture include cc:Mail Router (for transferring messages between post offices, possibly in distant locations, and for providing a dial-in access point for users using the mobile version of the cc:Mail desktop application), gateways (providing links to other mail system types), and various administrative tools. Like the cc:Mail desktop application, all of these can access the post office via the file-sharing facility of the local area network. However, some administrative functions required exclusive access to the post office, so post offices would be taken offline periodically for necessary maintenance (such as recovering disk space from deleted messages).
Message store
The cc:Mail message store is based on a related set of files including a message store file, a directory and index file, and user files. In this structure, multiple users may have a reference in their individual files to the same message, thus the product offered a single instance message store. Message references in user files relate to message offsets stored in an indexed structure. Message offsets refer to locations within the message store file which is common to all users within a given database or "post office".
Client technology
The cc:Mail system provided native email clients for DOS, Microsoft Windows, OS/2, Macintosh, and Unix (the MIT X Window System under HP-UX and Solaris). cc:Mail allowed client access via native clients, web browsers, POP3 and IMAP4. cc:Mail provided the first commercial web-based email product in 1995.
MTA (Router)
The cc:Mail MTA or Router, which ran on DOS, 16-bit Windows, Windows NT, and OS/2, supported file access, asynchronous communications, and various network protocols including Novell SPX and TCP/IP. The cc:Mail Router also provided remote access to end users via dial-up and network protocols such as TCP/IP. The "remote call through" feature of the cc:Mail Router made it possible for a mobile user to connect through a single point to access any cc:Mail database within a given cc:Mail system. Various connection types and schedules could be configured along with conditions related to message attributes such as priority or message size to create complex message routing topologies.
Gateways
The cc:Mail system offered a wide range of email gateways, connectors, and add-on products including links to SMTP, UUCP, IBM PROFS, pager networks, fax, commercial email services such as MCI and more.
Directory services
cc:Mail provided directory synchronization throughout a system via an Automatic Directory Exchange (ADE) feature which supported a number of 'propagation types', such as peer, superior, and subordinate, from which sophisticated topologies could be constructed. cc:Mail also provided an email-based newsgroup or discussion-like feature referred to as Bulletin Boards which were propagated and synchronized using similar mechanisms. Related features included the ability to synchronize the cc:Mail directory with other directories, such as that of Novell NetWare.
Server technology
The core cc:Mail technology relied on OSI model network operating systems such as Novell NetWare. These network operating systems provided redirection of native operating system file I/O allowing network nodes to access server-based files transparently, as well as concurrently.
Delivery of messages in cc:Mail is time invariant meaning that many database changes, such as message deliveries and deletions, can be under way at the same time without conflicting. Fundamentally, time invariance is made possible in OSI model network operating systems by the combination of the ability to write data to a file system past the end of a file and the ability to lock a record within a file.
Advantages
The shared file access architecture of cc:Mail offered significant performance benefits and made it possible for cc:Mail to implement a single instance message store years in advance of other products. The file-based nature of the message store also made the system very flexible and in some respects, e.g., moving a database to a new server, easy to manage.
Criticisms
The architectural approach of cc:Mail had drawbacks both in terms of scalability and in terms of vulnerability of cc:Mail databases to data corruption due to network errors or network operating system software defects. The cc:Mail system became notorious for its tendency to suffer database corruptions. Additionally, the technology was originally developed in a 1980s environment comprising disconnected LANs linked by dial-up connections. While the technology adapted well to WAN environments due to the robust nature of the Router, the system was best suited to a highly distributed deployment model. Client access over a WAN was not recommended because of poor performance related to the network traffic overhead of file I/O redirection and because of increased risk of database corruption. Although automation was possible, maintenance of large numbers of databases, each with relatively few users, was undesirable compared to highly centralized client/server systems where client access could be reliably provided over a WAN.
Client/Server cc:Mail
cc:Mail developed a native cc:Mail server, cc:Guardian, which would allow superior scalability, reliable client access over a WAN, and virtually eliminate database corruptions by removing file I/O access to the database. At the same time the development of POP3 and IMAP4 servers provided integration with Internet standards-based client/server technologies. With the development of cc:Guardian and with support for POP3 and IMAP4, cc:Mail evolved into a true client/server platform. However, customers never deployed cc:Mail as a client/server solution in large numbers.
Acquisition by Lotus
Lotus Development acquired cc:Mail, Inc. (formerly PCC Systems), which was a Silicon Valley startup, in 1991 and used the cc:Mail technology to enhance Lotus Notes. Lotus Notes features derived from cc:Mail included Shared Mail, client type-ahead addressing, enhancements to the Notes MTA (also called Router), and the Notes Passthru feature. Lotus developed a version of cc:Mail Remote for the HP 95LX. cc:Mail Remote was also included in the built-in software of the HP 100LX, HP 200LX and HP OmniGo 700LX.
Lotus, which was acquired by IBM in 1995, attempted to move cc:Mail customers to Lotus Notes, which was a superior client/server platform, but their efforts met with limited success, because of early challenges in the area of coexistence and migration between cc:Mail and Notes and because Lotus was focused on groupware rather than simple email. Microsoft, which provided a simpler migration path and a more focused solution (email), succeeded in winning the majority of the cc:Mail installed base in the United States.
End of life
LAN-based email technology was rendered obsolete by client/server email systems such as Lotus Notes and Microsoft Exchange. The final version of cc:Mail was 8.5 and was released in 2000.
October 31, 2000: cc:Mail withdrawn from the market.
January 31, 2001: All cc:Mail development ceased.
October 31, 2001: cc:Mail telephone support ceased.
References
Further reading
Message transfer agents
Email systems
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FCC%20Computer%20Inquiries
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FCC Computer Inquiries
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In the United States, the Federal Communications Commission Computer Inquiries were a trio of interrelated FCC Inquiries focused on problems posed by the convergence of regulated telephony with unregulated computing services. These Computer Inquiries created rules and requirements designed to prevent cross subsidization, discrimination, and anti-competitive behavior from companies such as Bell Operating Companies (BOCs) to enter the enhanced services market.
Background
In the 1960s, The Federal Communications Commission ("FCC" or "Commission") awoke to the reality of powerful computers running communications networks, and communications networks over which humans interacted with really powerful computers. In 1966, the FCC was interested in the difference between computers that facilitate communications and computers with which people communicate. The Commission had to make a decision on whether both of these types of computers should be regulated as a basic phone service. "The task before the Commission was the nature and extent of the regulatory jurisdiction to be applied to data processing services; and whether, under what circumstances, and subject to what conditions or safeguards, common carriers should be permitted to engage in data processing." To answer these questions, the Commission launched the first Computer Inquiry.
Computer I
In the 1960s the FCC faced a problem with existing regulated communication networks, such as AT&T who offered basic communication service. Companies such as AT&T had found a way to add computers to the ends of these existing networks by layering protocols on top of the network to achieve data processing. These enhancements if left unregulated threatened growth of these services. In 1970, the FCC made its first attempt at dividing the computer world into two categories: computers that ran communication networks and computers at the end of telephone lines that people interacted. "The division was technological, focused on computer processing, attempting to divide the difference between circuit or message switching and data processing." This division by the Commission were either called "pure communications" or "pure data processing."
Pure Communications/Pure Data Processing/Hybrid cases
If a message is sent from one location to another and it does not change, the FCC defined it as Pure Communication. On the other hand, if a changes or processing happen at the end of phone line the FCC defined it as Pure Data Processing. In pure data processing the computer processes the information and determines if it is a circuit or message-switching. Also, in pure data processing the computer processes the information by using storing, retrieving, sorting, merging or calculating data functions based on how the computer is programmed. Some computer processing, however, use both pure communication and pure data processing. The FCC was not too sure how to handle these situations and created a third category known as hybrids. Hybrid cases were considered a gray area and the FCC planned to resolve these gray services on case-by-case basis. The FCC determined if there is more communications, then it was communications; if it was more data processing, then it was data processing. Hybrid cases became Computer Inquires I's undoing as it did not clearly define pure and data communications.
Regulations
Pure communications and pure data processing have very different characteristics that led to different policy results. The markets that the technology existed on assisted the FCC make its policy decisions. "The pure data processing market was viewed as an innovative, competitive market with low barriers to entry and little chance of monopolization." The FCC established that no additional regulation or safeguards where required for the pure data processing market. The pure communications market on the other hand was being managed by an incumbent monopoly. The FCC had four concerns about the incumbent telephone companies which were: "the sale of data processing services by carriers should not hurt the provision of common carrier services, the costs of such data processing services should not be passed on to telephone rate payers, revenues derived from common carrier services should not be used to cross subsidize data processing services, and the furnishing of such data processing services by carriers should not hurt the competitive computer market."
Safeguard: Maximum Separation
With concerns relating to communication facility, the FCC developed its "Maximum Separation" safeguards. The FCC made it so that if carrier wanted to enter the unregulated data processing market they could only do so by going through a fully separate subsidiary. The separate subsidiary needed to have a separate data processing corporation, accounting books, offices, personnel, equipment, and facilities. The carrier also could not use the separate subsidiary to promote their data processing services, use network computers for non-network purposes, or use network computers during peak hours to provision data processing services.
Computer II
In 1976, the FCC was astounded by the number of hybrid cases that used both "pure communication" and "pure data processing" thus leading to the launch of the Second Computer Inquiry. After Computer I took effect, new technological developments in the telecommunications and computer industries exposed flaws in its definitional structure approach to evaluating the "hybrid category". Dumb terminals had become smart, the cost of computer processing units (CPU's) dropped, logical networks overlaying physical networks, and microcomputers made their appearance that set the stage for the scrapping of Computer Inquiry I. The Commission's situation was "more complicated" and eventually led to the birth of the basic versus enhanced services dichotomy. This established a division between “common carrier transmission services from those computer services which depend on common carrier services in the transmission of information.”
Basic versus Enhanced Dichotomy
If a carrier offers a pure transmission over a path that is transparent in terms of its interaction with customer supplied information, the FCC considered this to fall into the basic service category. Basic service includes processing the movement of information and computer processing, which includes protocol conversion, security, and memory storage. The category of basic service is everything from "voice telephone calls" to a phone company's lease of private lines.
If a carrier offers services over common carrier transmission facilities that employ computer processing applications that act on the format, content, code, protocol or similar aspects of the subscriber's transmitted information; provide the subscriber additional, different, or restructured information; or involve subscriber interaction with stored information, the FCC consider this to fall into the enhanced services category. The Commission found that e-mail, voice mail, the World Wide Web, newsgroups, fax store-and-forward, interactive voice response, gateway, audiotext information services, and protocol processing are enhanced services.
The FCC did not want to fall into the same trap as they did with Computer Inquiry I and having a hybrid category. They wanted to make sure that every application fell into either the basic or enhanced service. "The Commission made the classification dependent upon the nature of the activity involved." The nature of the activity involved would determine if it fell into the communications or data processing service. This changed the process from an examination of the technology to an examination of the service provisioned.
To eliminate the hybrid cases in the basic versus enhanced dichotomy the FCC designed a "bright-line test" The FCC bright-line test defined enhanced services as anything more than the transmission capacity of basic service." A three prong test was also established to test enhanced services. The three prong test "employs computer processing applications that: act on the format, content, code, protocol or similar aspects of a subscriber's transmitted information; provide the subscriber additional, different, or restructured information; or involve subscriber interaction with stored information." "The enhanced service is layered on top, creating a new service for the edge user." "The image the Commission has at this time is of enhanced service providers (“ESPs”) acquiring basic services, adding enhanced services, and then selling the bundled service to consumers on a resale basis."
Adjunct Services
If a regulated service uses a traditional telephone service and it does not change the fundamental character of the telephone service, the FCC considered it as an Adjunct service. An example of this would be directory assistance. Directory assistance provides a phone number that uses a telephone network. Directory service is characterized as a basic service, which does not transform into an enhanced service.
Computer III
In 1985, the FCC launched the last phase of regulations, Computer Inquiries III prior to the deployment of the Internet to the consumer. Computer Inquiries II established the basic and enhanced service dichotomy, but Computer Inquiries III kept the policy objectives the same while changing how these services were implemented. The Computer Inquiries III wanted to make sure that the separate subsidiary requirements of Computer Inquiry II did not have additional costs to the public with decreased service and innovation by Bell Operating Companies (BOCS) from using existing regulated operations to benefit from the unregulated enhanced services.
The FCC found that the cost of structural separation was more important than not having nonstructural safeguards in place for the Enhanced Service Providers (ESPs) by the BOCs. "
These separate structural subsidiaries were not required to be set up by the BOCs if they were moving from a structural safeguard to non-structural safeguard. To set up these safeguards the FCC created two non-structural safeguards called the Comparatively Efficient Interconnection ("CEI") and Open Network Architecture ("ONA").
Comparatively Efficient Interconnection
The BOCs to solve the non-structural separation for entering into enhanced services created a temporary solution called the Comparatively Efficient Interconnection (CEI). The CEI allowed BOCs to enter the enhanced service market on a non-structural basis. This allowed the ESP to integrate with the BOC and the separate subsidiary was no longer needed. Under current rules, the FCC permitted the company to post their CEI plans on the company website. The following information must be included in the CEI plan: information on interface functionality, unbundling of basic services, resale, technical characteristics, installation, maintenance and repair, end-user access, CEI availability, minimization of transport costs, and recipients of CEI." The CEI plans were used to make sure that if a BOC had terms and conditions with an affiliated ESP’s they would provide the same provisions to non-affiliated ESP’s. This was intended to provide ESPs equal access to basic services that the BOCs use to provide their own enhanced service.
Open Network Architecture
The second safeguard that the FCC introduced required BOCs to break their networks into “basic building blocks” and make those available to ESPs to build new services, which became known as the Open network architecture (ONA) The basic service offering by the BOCs were to be broken apart to help the ESP market. The building blocks would be divided by the BOCs as follows: Basic Service Elements, Basic Serving Arrangements, Complimentary Network Services, and Ancillary Network Services. Even if a BOC did not want to enter the ESP market they were required to file with the FCC their ONA plans. If the BOCs successfully filed an ONA plan with the Commission, it would then be permitted to provide integrated ESP services without filing a CEI plan.
Safeguards
The Computer Inquiries III provided safeguards that fell upon different entities into the following categories: annual ONA reporting, network information disclosure, cross-subsidization prohibitions, accounting safeguards, and customer proprietary network information.
Annual ONA Reporting
In 1989, the FCC created a reporting structure that the BOCs are required to file quarterly, semi-annual, and annual reports for their ONA that include the following information: "annual projected deployment schedules for ONA service, by type of service (BSA, BSE, CNS), in terms of percentage of access lines served system-wide and by market area; disposition of new ONA service requests from ISPs; disposition of ONA service requests that have previously been designated for further evaluation; disposition of ONA service requests that were previously deemed technically infeasible; information on Signaling System 7 (SS7), Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), and Intelligent Network (IN) projected development in terms of percentage of access lines served system-wide and on a market area basis; new ONA services available through SS7, ISDN, and IN; progress in the IILC (now NIIF) on continuing activities implementing service-specific and long-term uniformity issues; progress in providing billing information including Billing Name and Address (BNA), line-side Calling Number Identification (CNI), or possible CNI alternatives, and call detail services to ISPs; progress in developing and implementing Operation Support Systems (OSS) services and ESP access to those services; progress on the uniform provision of OSS services; and a list of BSEs used in the provision of BOC/GTE's own enhanced services." "In addition, the BOCs are required to report annually on the unbundling of new technologies arising from their own initiative, in response to requests by ISPs, or resulting from requirements imposed by the Commission." As of February 2011, the FCC to better serve the public interest have temporarily waived the reporting of these ONA reports to eliminate added expenses to the BOCs in preparing these reports.
Network Information Disclosure
Carriers are required by the FCC to disclosure to the public all information relating to network design and technical standards and information affecting changes to the telecommunications network which would affect either inter-carrier interconnection or the manner in which customer-premises equipment is attached to the interstate network prior to implementation and with reasonable advance notification. This information is called Network Information Disclosure and is set in 47 CFR 51.325 through 51.335. These procedures require public notice by the carrier if changes are made to the network that would cause it to be unavailable with another service provider or affect a provider's performance. If network changes are made the carrier must provide references to technical specifications, protocols, and standards regarding the transmission, signal, routing, and facility assignment as well any new technology or equipment that may affect the connection to the consumer.
Cross-Subsidization Prohibitions
A carrier may not use services not subject to competition to subsidize a service that is subject to competition, if they do the FCC consider it as cross-subsidization prohibitions. An example of this would be a carrier could not fund their Internet services from a noncompetitive local telephone revenue.
Accounting Safeguards
The FCC created a series of accounting safeguards that can be found in Subpart I of Part 64 of Title 47, Code of Federal Regulations. Annual independent audits are performed to ensure certain carriers are not improperly cross subsidizing their services. The final reports of these independent audits are publicly available and can be obtained by contacting the Accounting Safeguards Division of the FCC’s Common Carrier Bureau. The FCC provides information about Common Carrier account on their ARMIS database on their website.
Customer Proprietary Network Information
The FCC needed to create restrictions on BOCs to gather sensitive information from their subscribers. This safeguard to protect subscriber's information has become known as the Customer Proprietary Network Information (CPNI). The FCC require carriers to provide any customer proprietary network information available to the public on the same terms and conditions of the affiliated ESP if requested.
In 1996, Congress passed the new Privacy of Customer Information provision, codified as Section 222 of the Communications Act. Under this section 222 Customer Proprietary Network Information (CPNI) is defined as "information that relates to the quantity, technical configuration, type, destination, location, and amount of use of a telecommunications service subscribed to by any customer of a telecommunications carrier, and that is made available to the carrier by the customer solely by virtue of the carrier-customer relationship; and information contained in the bills pertaining to telephone exchange service or telephone toll service received by a customer of a carrier, except that such term does not include subscriber list information.
See also
Net Neutrality
References
Federal Communications Commission
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike%20Williams%20%28wide%20receiver%2C%20born%201984%29
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Mike Williams (wide receiver, born 1984)
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Michael Troy Williams (born January 4, 1984) is a former American football wide receiver who played in the National Football League (NFL). Williams played college football at USC, and received consensus All-American recognition. The Detroit Lions selected him in first round of the 2005 NFL Draft, and he also played for the Oakland Raiders, Tennessee Titans, and Seattle Seahawks of the NFL.
Early years
Williams was born in Tampa, Florida. He attended Henry B. Plant High School in Tampa, and played both high school football and basketball for the Plant Panthers. As a senior, Williams had 38 receptions for 789 yards (20.8 average reception) with 14 touchdowns. Williams' honors included Tom Lemming All-American, Super Prep All-Dixie, PrepStar All-Southeast Region, St. Petersburg Times All-Suncoast second team, and Tampa Tribune All-Hillsborough County.
During his junior year, Williams made the all-state Class 4A second team while making 35 receptions for 803 yards (22.9 avg.) and 14 touchdowns.
As a sophomore, Williams made 28 receptions for 631 yards (22.5 avg.) and 10 touchdowns.
In basketball, Williams was a 4-year Starter, winning over 100 games. As a Senior in 2002, Williams was a McDonald's All American Finalist. He earned “Tampa Tribune” All Hillsborough County 1st Team, District Tournament MVP, Western Conference MVP, and 3rd Team All State selections. Williams averaged 16.9 points, 8.3 rebounds, and 4.6 assists. As a junior in 2001, Williams earned Tampa Tribune All-Hillsborough County first team honors, averaging 14.7 points, 10.7 rebounds and 5.3 assists while helping his team to the state semifinals. As a Freshman, Williams started every game, averaging 12.6 points, 9.6 rebounds and 4.6 assists while leading the team in Blocks and Rebounds. Williams graduated as the All Time leader in Blocks and Rebounds in school history.
College career
Williams attended the University of Southern California, where he played for coach Pete Carroll's USC Trojans football team from 2002 to 2003. Before attending USC, Williams was offered scholarships to Florida State University and the University of Florida, but neither school saw him as a wide receiver. Williams played split end wide receiver during most of his games for USC. Williams played in all 26 games during his freshman and sophomore years at USC, and started 15 of those games. He wore jersey No. 1 while on the football team.
His freshman season, he had 81 receptions for 1,265 yards and 14 touchdowns. These statistics are all USC and Pacific-10 Conference freshman records.
Williams was named First-Team Freshman All-American choice by The Sporting News, Scripps/Football Writers, and Rivals.com. Selected as the Pac-10 Freshman of the Year, named to the All-Pac-10 second team, All-American honorable mention, The Sporting News Freshman All-Pac-10 first team, and The Sporting News All-Pac-10 Freshman Offensive Player of the Year.
In his final season, as a sophomore, Williams started all 13 games at wide receiver, and led the Trojans in receiving yards and touchdowns which resulted in 95 catches leading to 1,314 yards and 16 touchdowns. Williams was a finalist for the 2003 Biletnikoff Award (nation's top receiver) while finishing eighth in Heisman Trophy voting. He also earned first team All-American (AP, ESPN.com, Football Writers, and SI.com among others) honors. Williams also was a 2003 All-Pac-10 First Team selection and CBS.Sportsline.com National Player of the Year. That year, he also completed two pass attempts for 38 yards and one touchdown against Michigan in the Rose Bowl, and blocked a field goal.
College statistics
Awards and honors
Second-team All-Pac-10 (2002)
Pac-10 Freshman of the Year (2002)
First-team Sporting News Freshman All-American (2002)
Honorable mention All-American (2002)
First-team All-Pac-10 (2003)
Consensus First-team All-American (2003)
Biletnikoff Award finalist (2003)
Heisman Trophy finalist (2003)
CBS Sportsline.com National Player of the Year (2003)
Sporting News National Player of the Year (2003)
Professional career
NFL draft controversy
Ohio State running back Maurice Clarett was suspended by his school following his 2002 freshman year. After being unable to gain reinstatement with Ohio State, Clarett made the decision to declare for the NFL Draft. However, since Clarett was only of true sophomore eligibility, he had to legally challenge the NFL rule that a player must be three years removed from high school to be eligible for the NFL Draft. After a court proceeding, a federal judge ruled that the NFL could not legally bar Clarett from entering the 2004 NFL Draft.
Williams, having completed his sophomore year and only two years removed from high school, made the decision to declare for the 2004 NFL Draft as well after hearing the federal judge's ruling. Williams hired an agent and moved forward presenting himself as a legitimate first round pick (and most, if not all, NFL pundits and NFL personnel agreed that Williams was a first round choice). By declaring his intent to enter the draft, hiring an agent to represent his interests, and filing the NFL paperwork necessary to enter the draft, he made himself ineligible for NCAA reinstatement.
Before the 2004 NFL Draft, the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit overturned the Federal Judge's decision allowing Clarett to enter the Draft. Additionally, the United States Supreme Court refused to hear a final appeal. Clarett and Williams were ineligible for the 2004 NFL Draft.
As Williams was ineligible for NCAA reinstatement, he was required to sit the entire 2004 football season and was not allowed to practice with USC as well.
Pre-draft
Detroit Lions
Despite sitting out an entire season, Williams was selected 10th overall in the 2005 NFL Draft by the Detroit Lions, the third WR drafted in the first round in as many years by the Lions. Williams selected jersey #88, which had been retired in honor of Hall of Fame tight end Charlie Sanders.
As a rookie in 2005, Williams, appeared in 14 games with four starts. Williams recorded his first touchdown catch in his NFL debut, a 3-yard pass from quarterback Joey Harrington, in the season opener against Green Bay. Williams made his first career start against the Ravens and had 1 reception for 7 yards. Williams had a career-long, 49-yard reception in Cleveland. He finished that game with 5 receptions for 95 yards. Williams then again started in Minnesota and had 4 receptions for 43 yards. Three-of-four receptions were for first downs. Williams was then inactive for the Lions game in Dallas due to an injured ankle. Williams had a season-high 6 receptions for 84 yards against Atlanta and had a 21-yard reception for a first down in New Orleans on the Lions opening drive.
He finished his rookie season with 29 receptions for 350 yards and 1 touchdown.
In 2006, Williams was on the inactive list for both of the Lions' first two games. He played in just eight games in the 2006 season, and made eight catches for 99 yards and one touchdown. During the Lions' Week 15 loss at Green Bay, Williams led the Lions in receiving yards after catching three passes for 42 yards. Williams caught two more passes in a Week 16 loss to Chicago, but posted several drops as well, and was unable to secure a potential game-winning touchdown pass thrown by Jon Kitna as time expired. During the Lions' Week 17 win on the road in Dallas, Williams caught two passes, including a fourth quarter 50-yard pass.
Oakland Raiders
Williams was traded along with Josh McCown to the Oakland Raiders during the first day of the 2007 NFL Draft in exchange for a 2007 fourth-round pick which the Lions used to select A.J. Davis. In Oakland, Williams reunited with his former college position coach Lane Kiffin.
Tennessee Titans
Williams signed with the Tennessee Titans on November 22, 2007, reuniting him with former USC running back LenDale White and his former offensive coordinator from USC, Norm Chow.
Seattle Seahawks
After spending two years out of football, Williams signed with the Seattle Seahawks on April 15, 2010, reuniting Williams with former USC head coach Pete Carroll. After the Seahawks released T. J. Houshmandzadeh, Williams joined the starting unit, and during his debut for Seattle, Williams recorded four catches for 64 yards. In Week 6, he had career highs in both catches and yards going 10 catches for 123 yards in a 23–20 win against Chicago. He topped this performance four weeks later against the Cardinals, catching 11 passes for 145 yards. On Monday, January 3, the Seahawks rewarded Williams for his comeback season with a three-year contract extension. Williams responded by catching a touchdown pass in the Seahawks' wildcard victory over the New Orleans Saints, and two touchdowns in the following round's loss to Chicago. , Williams, Steve Largent, Jerramy Stevens and Jermaine Kearse as the only four Seahawks with two receiving touchdowns in a single post-season game; he is also the only receiver in franchise history with three receiving touchdowns in the same postseason.
Williams followed this up with a disappointing 2011 season in which he broke his leg and ankle and had only 18 catches.
He was released by the Seattle Seahawks on July 13, 2012.
Toronto Argonauts
On May 23, 2013, Williams signed with the Toronto Argonauts of the Canadian Football League. He was released by the team on May 31.
Career statistics
Coaching career
After retiring in 2011, Williams coached defensive backs in his first season of high school in Los Angeles. Williams was both the football and basketball head coach at Brentwood School. In 2014, Williams accepted a position as head coach at Locke High School in Los Angeles. In March 2016, he became the head coach at Van Nuys High School.
Williams accepted the head coaching job at Wharton High School in Tampa, Florida. Accepting the position following the resignation of coach David Mitchell, who stepped away after 14 seasons to deal with family medical issues, he embraces the challenge of coaching in Florida's highest class, 8A. He passed on his alma mater and Tampa powerhouse, Plant High School, saying “I didn’t even apply.”
References
External links
Seattle Seahawks profile
1984 births
Living people
African-American basketball players
African-American players of American football
African-American players of Canadian football
All-American college football players
American football tight ends
American football wide receivers
American men's basketball players
Basketball players from Tampa, Florida
Canadian football wide receivers
Detroit Lions players
Henry B. Plant High School alumni
High school football coaches in California
High school football coaches in Florida
Oakland Raiders players
Players of American football from Tampa, Florida
Players of Canadian football from Tampa, Florida
Seattle Seahawks players
Tennessee Titans players
Toronto Argonauts players
USC Trojans football players
21st-century African-American sportspeople
20th-century African-American people
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62718269
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriela%20Ruffels
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Gabriela Ruffels
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Gabriela Ruffels (born 14 April 2000) is an Australian former tennis player and current professional golfer. Starting at the age of eight, Ruffels started playing tennis and won twenty one International Tennis Federation doubles events in Europe. She also was the number one ranking Australian junior when she was twelve. After switching from tennis to golf in 2015, Ruffels primarily competed in Australia from 2016 to 2017. In 2018, Ruffels joined the USC Trojans women's golf team at the University of Southern California. With the USC, Ruffels appeared at the NCAA Division I Women's Golf Championships from 2018 to 2019 in both the individual and team events.
During this time period, Ruffels became the first ever Australian to win the U.S. Women's Amateur in 2019. In professional events, Ruffels was tied for 13th at the 2020 U.S. Women's Open and the 2020 Women's British Open. At the ANA Inspiration, Ruffels was tied for fifteenth in 2020 and tied for nineteenth in 2021. During the 2021 Women's PGA Championship, Ruffels finished the event in a tie for thirty-third place. Ruffels announced her decision to turn professional on February 10, 2021. As a professional golfer that year, Ruffels primarily competed in LPGA Tour events while also appearing at the Symetra Tour and Ladies European Tour. During golf events held in 2021, Ruffels was fourth at the IOA Championship and tied for seventeenth at the Hugel-Air Premia LA Open.
Early life and education
Ruffels was born on 14 April 2000, in Orlando, Florida. Her parents are former tennis players Anna-Maria Fernandez and Ray Ruffels. During her childhood, Ruffels lived in Laguna Niguel, California before moving to Melbourne, Australia. At the age of six, Ruffels began to play tennis and continued until she was fourteen.
Her two years older brother Ryan also was a talented tennis player and became a successful golfer, representing Australia in the 2014 Eisenhower Trophy and turned professional in 2016.
For her post-secondary education, Ruffels enrolled at the University of Southern California in 2018 to study business administration.
Career
As a tennis player, Ruffels won three doubles championships from 2011 to 2012. From 2013 to 2014, Ruffels primarily competed in ITF Grade 4 and Grade 5 events throughout Australia. In singles, her best finish was the quarterfinals at the 2014 Wilson Tennis Canterbury. For doubles, Ruffel's won the 2014 New South Wales Junior International. In other finals, Ruffels lost at the Wilson Tennis Canterbury and Auckland ITF Indoor Champs events in 2014. In team events, Ruffels was part of the Australian team that finished fourth at the 2014 World Junior Tennis Finals. Overall, Ruffels was the number one ranking Australian junior when she was twelve years old and held the number three ranking two years later. She also had twenty one doubles event wins held by the ITF in Europe.
At the beginning of 2015, Ruffels became tired of tennis and switched to golf. As an amateur golfer, Ruffels primarily played in Australia from 2016 to 2017 while also competing in Singapore, the United States and Canada. During these years, she was ninth at the 2016 Australian Women's Amateur and 17th at the 2017 Australian Women's Amateur. In 2018, Ruffels joined the USC Trojans women's golf team. At the NCAA Division I Women's Golf Championships, Ruffels tied for 38th in 2018 and tied for 19th in 2019 at the individual events. In the team events, Ruffels was part of the Southern California team that made it to the semifinals in 2018 and the quarterfinals in 2019. Ruffels was also a member of the International team that won the 2019 Arnold Palmer Cup.
While competing for USC, Ruffels appeared at the Canadian Women's Amateur, placing 38th at the 2018 edition and 21st at the 2019 event. In 2019, Ruffels became the first ever Australian to win the U.S. Women's Amateur. With her U.S Amateur win, Ruffels received an exemption to the 2020 U.S. Women's Open. Additional 2020 events Ruffels received exemptions for were the ANA Inspiration, Evian Championship and Women's British Open. The following year, Ruffels was runner-up at the 2020 U.S Women's Amateur.
In professional events, Ruffels was cut in the 2016 and 2017 Women's Victorian Open on the ALPG Tour. A few years later, Ruffels missed the cut in the 2019 U.S. Women's Open. In Japan, Ruffels also missed the cut at the Suntory Ladies Open and Japan Women's Open Golf Championship during 2019. During 2020, Ruffels had a 13th place tie at the 2020 U.S. Women's Open and a 15th place tie at the 2020 ANA Inspiration. Outside of the United States, Ruffels had a 13th place tie at the 2020 Women's British Open.
In 2021, Ruffels became a professional golfer upon her debut at the Gainbridge LPGA at Boca Rio. Throughout the year, Ruffels primarily played on the LPGA Tour while also competing on the Symetra Tour and Ladies European Tour. Her highest finishes that season were fourth place at the IOA Championship and a tie for 17th place at the Hugel-Air Premia LA Open. She also tied for 19th place during the 2021 ANA Inspiration and tied for 33rd place during the 2021 Women's PGA Championship.
Amateur wins
2018 Windy City Collegiate Championship
2019 North and South Women's Amateur, U.S. Women's Amateur
2020 Rebel Beach Intercollegiate
Source:
Results in LPGA majors
NT = no tournament
T = tied
Team appearances
Arnold Palmer Cup (representing the International team): 2019 (winners), 2020 (winners)
References
External links
Australian female golfers
Australian people of Peruvian descent
USC Trojans women's golfers
Winners of ladies' major amateur golf championships
Australian female tennis players
Australian people of American descent
2000 births
Living people
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft%20Edge
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Microsoft Edge
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Microsoft Edge is a cross-platform web browser created and developed by Microsoft. It was first released for Windows 10 and Xbox One in 2015, for Android and iOS in 2017, for macOS in 2019, and for Linux in 2020, and can replace Internet Explorer on Windows 7, Windows Server 2008 R2 and later versions but unlike IE, this browser does not support Windows Vista or earlier versions.
The Chromium-based Edge replaced Internet Explorer (IE) in Windows 11, as the default web browser (for compatibility with Google Chrome web browser).
Edge was initially built with Microsoft's own proprietary browser engine EdgeHTML and their Chakra JavaScript engine, a version now referred to as Microsoft Edge Legacy. In December 2018, Microsoft announced plans to rebuild the browser as Chromium-based with Blink and V8 engines. During development (codenamed Anaheim), Microsoft made preview builds of Edge available on Windows 7, 8/8.1, 10, and macOS.
Microsoft announced the public release of the new Edge on January 15, 2020. In June 2020, Microsoft began automatic rollout of the new version via Windows Update for Windows 7, 8.1, and Windows 10 versions from 1903 to 2004. Microsoft stopped releasing security patches for Edge Legacy from March 9, 2021, and released a security update on April 13, 2021, which replaced Edge Legacy with Chromium-based Edge. Microsoft released the Chromium-based Edge to the Xbox Insider Alpha Skip Ahead group on March 6, 2021, and to all users in September 2021.
Edge is the third most popular (desktop) web browser, slightly after Safari, and on weekdays is even with Safari as a desktop web browser or ahead (Safari is very popular on smartphones and thus overall across platforms more popular by a wide margin, and Edge still third).
Features
Microsoft Edge is the default web browser on Windows 10, Windows 10 Mobile, Windows 11, Xbox One, and Xbox Series X and Series S consoles, replacing Internet Explorer 11 and Internet Explorer Mobile. As its development and release is dependent on the model of Windows as a service, it is not included in Windows 10 Enterprise Long-Term Servicing Channel (LTSC) builds.
Microsoft initially announced that Edge would support the legacy MSHTML (Trident) browser engine for backwards compatibility, but later said that, due to "strong feedback," Edge would use a new engine, while Internet Explorer would continue to provide the legacy engine.
Favorites, reading list, browsing history and downloads are viewed at the Hub, a sidebar providing functionality similar to Internet Explorer's Downloads manager and Favorites Center.
Edge features a PDF reader, and supports WebAssembly. Until January 2021, Edge also featured an integrated Adobe Flash Player (with an internal whitelist allowing Flash applets on Facebook websites to load automatically, bypassing all other security controls requiring user activation).
Edge does not support legacy technologies such as ActiveX and Browser Helper Objects, instead it uses an extension system.
Internet Explorer 11 remains available alongside Edge on Windows 10 for compatibility; it remains identical to the Windows 8.1 version and does not use the Edge engine as was previously announced.
Edge integrates with Microsoft's online platforms to provide voice control, search functionality, and dynamic information related to searches within the address bar. Users can make annotations to web pages that can be stored to and shared with OneDrive, and can save HTML and MHTML pages to their computers. It also integrates with the "Reading List" function and provides a "Reading Mode" that strips unnecessary formatting from pages to improve their legibility.
Preliminary support for browser extensions was added in March 2016, with build 14291, three extensions were initially supported. Microsoft indicated that the delay in allowing extensions and the small number was due to security concerns.
HTML5 standards
Edge originally lacked support for open media standards such as WebM and Opus, but these were later added in Edge 14.14291.
, Edge 84 had scored 496/555 on HTML5test.
Release strategy
Microsoft Edge Legacy's release cadence was tied to the Windows 10 release cycle and used the Windows Insider Program to preview new versions of the browser. These pre-release builds were known as "Edge Preview". Every major release of Windows included an updated version of Edge and its render engine.
On April 8, 2019, Microsoft announced the introduction of four preview channels: Canary, Dev, Beta, and Stable and launched the Canary and Dev channel that same day with the first preview builds off the new Edge. Microsoft collectively calls the Canary, Dev, and Beta channels the "Microsoft Edge insider channels". As a result, Edge updates were decoupled from new versions of Windows. Major versions of Edge Stable are now scheduled for release every 4 weeks, closely following Chromium version releases.
Development
Edge Legacy (2014–19)
In December 2014, writing for ZDNet, technology writer Mary Jo Foley reported that Microsoft was developing a new web browser codenamed "Spartan" for Windows 10. She said that "Spartan" would be treated as a new product separate from Internet Explorer, with Internet Explorer 11 retained alongside it for compatibility.
In early January 2015, The Verge obtained further details surrounding "Spartan" from sources close to Microsoft, including reports that it would replace Internet Explorer on both the desktop and mobile versions of Windows 10. Microsoft officially unveiled "Spartan" during a Windows 10-focused keynote on January 21, 2015. It was described as a separate product from Internet Explorer, its final name was not announced.
"Spartan" was first made publicly available as the default browser of Windows 10 Technical Preview build 10049, released on March 30, 2015. The new engine used by "Spartan" was available in Windows 10 builds as part of Internet Explorer 11, Microsoft later announced that Internet Explorer would be deprecated on Windows 10 and would not use the "Spartan" engine.
On April 29, 2015, during the Build Conference keynote, it was announced that "Spartan" would officially be known as Microsoft Edge. The browser's logo and branding were designed to maintain continuity with the branding of Internet Explorer. The Project "Spartan" branding was used in versions released after Build 2015. On June 25, 2015, Microsoft released version 19.10149 for Windows 10 Mobile which included the new brand. On June 28, 2015, version 20.10158 followed for the desktop versions, also including the updated branding. On July 15, 2015, Microsoft released version 20.10240 as the final release to Insiders. The same version was rolled out to consumers on July 29, 2015.
On August 12, 2015, Microsoft started the preview program for the next version of Microsoft Edge. They released version 20.10512 to Mobile users. 6 days later followed by version 20.10525 for desktop users. The preview received multiple updates. On November 5, 2015, Microsoft released version 25.10586 as the final release for Edge's second public release for desktop users. On November 12, 2015, the update was rolled out to both desktop users and Xbox One users as part of the New Xbox Experience Update. On November 18, 2015, the update was to Windows 10 Mobile. Finally, on November 19, 2015, the update was also made available as part of the Windows Server 2016 Technical Preview 4.
In November 2017, Microsoft released ports of Edge for Android and iOS. The apps feature integration and synchronization with the desktop version on Windows 10 PCs. Due to platform restrictions and other factors, these ports do not use the same layout engine as the desktop version and instead use OS-native WebKit-based engines.
In April 2018, Edge added tab audio muting. In June 2018, support for the Web Authentication specifications were added to Windows Insider builds, with support for Windows Hello and external security tokens.
Microsoft stopped supporting Microsoft Edge Legacy on March 9, 2021. On April 13, 2021, Microsoft released a cumulative monthly security update which replaced Edge Legacy with the new Edge.
EdgeHTML
EdgeHTML is the proprietary browser engine originally developed for Edge. It is a fork of MSHTML (Trident) with all legacy code of older versions of Internet Explorer removed, with the majority of its source code rewritten to support web standards and interoperability with other modern browsers. EdgeHTML is written in C++.
The rendering engine was first released as an experimental option in Internet Explorer 11 as part of the Windows 10 Preview 9926 build.
EdgeHTML is meant to be fully compatible with the WebKit layout engine used by Safari, Chrome and other browsers. Microsoft stated their original acceptance criteria: "Any Edge–WebKit differences are bugs that we’re interested in fixing."
A review of the engine in the beta Windows 10 build by AnandTech found substantial benchmark improvements over MSHTML (Trident), particularly its new Chakra JavaScript engine performance, which had come up to par with that of Google Chrome. Other benchmarks focusing on the performance of the WebGL API found EdgeHTML to perform much better than Google Chrome and Mozilla Firefox.
Edge Legacy release history
New Edge (2019–present)
Codenamed "Anaheim", on December 6, 2018, Microsoft announced its intent to base Edge on the Chromium source code, using the same rendering engine as Google Chrome but with enhancements developed by Microsoft. It was also announced that there will be versions of Edge available for Windows 7, Windows 8 and macOS, plus that all versions will be updated on a more frequent basis. According to Microsoft executive Joe Belfiore, the decision for the change came after CEO Satya Nadella told the team in 2017 that the product needed to be better and pushed for replacing its in-house rendering engine with an open source one.
On April 8, 2019, the first builds of the new Edge for Windows were released to the public.
On May 20, 2019, the first preview builds of Edge for macOS were released to the public, marking the first time in 13 years that a Microsoft browser was available on the Mac platform. The last time a Microsoft browser was available on the Mac platform was Microsoft Internet Explorer for Mac, which was withdrawn in January 2006.
On June 18, 2019, IAmA post on Reddit, an Edge developer stated that it was theoretically possible for a Linux version to be developed in the future, but no work had actually started on that possibility.
On June 19, 2019, Microsoft made Edge available on both Windows 7 and Windows 8 for testing.
On August 20, 2019, Microsoft made its first beta build of Edge available for Windows 7, Windows 8, Windows 10 and macOS.
August 2019 also saw the removal of support for the EPUB file format. At Microsoft Ignite, Microsoft released an updated version of the Edge logo.
The new Edge was released on January 15, 2020.
On September 22, 2020, Microsoft announced that a beta version of Edge for Linux would be available in preview form in October 2020. This comes after the company announced in November 2019 that a Linux version would be developed and confirmed in May 2020 that the Linux version was in development. The first preview build for Linux was released on October 20, 2020.
Full support for the new Edge on Windows 7 was scheduled to end on January 15, 2022, but extended support "for critical security and stability updates" will continue until January 15, 2023.
New Edge release history
Performance
Early benchmarks of the EdgeHTML engine—included in the first beta release of Edge in Windows 10 Build 10049—had drastically better JavaScript performance due to the new Chakra than MSHTML (Trident) 7 using the older Chakra in Internet Explorer 11, with similar performance to Google Chrome 41 and Mozilla Firefox 37. In the SunSpider benchmark, Edge performed faster than other browsers, while in other benchmarks it operated slower than Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox and Opera.
Later benchmarks conducted with the version included in 10122 showed significant performance improvement compared to both IE11 and Edge back in 10049. According to Microsoft's benchmark result, this iteration of Edge performed better than both Chrome and Firefox in Google's Octane 2.0 and Apple's Jetstream benchmark.
In July 2015, Edge scored 377 out of 555 points on the HTML5test. Chrome 44 and Firefox 42 scored 479 and 434 respectively, while Internet Explorer 11 scored 312.
In August 2015, Microsoft released Windows 10 Build 10532 to insiders, which included Edge 21.10532.0. This beta version scored 445 out of 555 points on the HTML5test.
In July 2016, with the release of Windows 10 Build 14390 to insiders, the HTML5 test score of the browser's development version was 460 out of 555 points. Chrome 51 scored 497, Firefox 47 scored 456, and Safari 9.1 scored 370.
Power efficiency
In June 2016, Microsoft published benchmark results to prove superior power efficiency of Edge in comparison to all other major web browsers. Opera questioned the accuracy and provided their own test results where Opera came out on top. Independent testing by PC World confirmed Microsoft's results. However, tests conducted by Linus Sebastian in June 2017 instead showed that, at that time, Chrome had the best battery performance.
Reception
In an August 2015 review of Windows 10 by Dan Grabham of TechRadar, Microsoft Edge was praised for its performance, despite not being in a feature-complete state at launch. Andrew Cunningham of Ars Technica praised the browser for being "tremendously promising" and "a much better browser than Internet Explorer ever was" but criticized it for its lack of functionality on launch. Thom Holwerda of OSNews criticized Edge in August 2015 for its hidden URL bar, lack of user friendliness, poor design and a tab system that is "so utterly broken it should never have shipped in a final release". He described the browser's implemented features as "some sort of cosmic joke", saying that "infuriating doesn't even begin to describe it".
Data from August 2015, a few weeks after release, showed that user uptake of Edge was low, with only 2% of overall computer users using the new browser. Among Windows 10 users usage peaked at 20% and then dropped to 14% through August 2015.
In October 2015, a security researcher published a report outlining a bug in Edge's "InPrivate" mode, causing data related to visited sites to still be cached in the user's profile directory, theoretically making it possible for others to determine sites visited. The bug gained mainstream attention in early February 2016, and was fixed with a cumulative update on February 9, 2016.
Microsoft's switch to Blink as Edge's engine has faced mixed reception. The move increases consistency of web platform compatibility between major browsers. For this reason, the move has attracted criticism, as it reduces diversity in the overall web browser market and increases the influence of Google on the overall browser market by Microsoft ceding its independently developed browser engine.
According to Douglas J. Leith, a computer science professor from Trinity College, Dublin, Microsoft Edge is among the least private browsers. In response, a spokesperson from Microsoft Edge explained that it uses user diagnostic data to improve the product.
In June 2020, users criticized newly released Windows 7, Windows 8.1 and Windows 10 updates that installed Edge and imported some user data from Chrome and Firefox prior to obtaining user permission. Microsoft responded stating that if a user rejects giving Edge data import permission, then Edge will delete the imported data. However, if the browser crashes before the user has a chance to reject the import, then the already imported data will not be cleared. The Verge called these "spyware tactics" and called Edge's "first run experience" a "dark pattern".
Microsoft uses proprietary URL handlers in Windows 10 and 11 to redirect URLs accessed via system search functions to Edge, regardless of the user's choice of default browser. In November 2021, a patch was released to frustrate a workaround employed by the third-party tool "EdgeDeflector", with a Microsoft spokesperson stating that search in the Windows shell is an "end-to-end customer experience" that is not designed to be modified. The developer of EdgeDeflector, Daniel Aleksandersen, called this "clearly a user-hostile move that sees Windows compromise its own product usability in order to make it more difficult to use competing products." In December 2021, it was similarly reported that Microsoft was testing the display of in-browser advertising prompts on the Google Chrome website to discourage downloading the browser.
In November 2021, Microsoft announced that it would display integrated advertising for the buy now, pay later service Zip Pay in Edge during online purchases eligible for financing via the service, and allow users to link their Microsoft account to expedite registration for the service. Microsoft claims that it "does not collect a fee for connecting users to loan providers." This decision was met with criticism from users and the press, arguing that the feature was added bloat.
Market share
According to StatCounter, in August 2019 Edge overtook the market share of Internet Explorer (IE) on PCs, ranking third place at 9.14% and IE in sixth. Mobile versions of Edge exist for Android and iOS, however they have little to no market share. On Microsoft consoles, Edge replaced IE as the dominant browser a few months after its release in 2015. Market share varies by region. On some days of the week, Edge takes second place with a 10.02% share in the US on PC, and Firefox and Edge have a very similar share globally, switching places for second and third depending on the day.
For example, in March 2020, Edge ranked second with a market share of 7.59%, overtaking Firefox, which had 7.19% of the market share.
References
Further reading
External links
Official website for preview builds of Chromium-based Microsoft Edge
2015 software
Cross-platform web browsers
Universal Windows Platform apps
Windows 10
Windows components
Windows web browsers
Xbox One software
IOS web browsers
MacOS web browsers
Android web browsers
Linux web browsers
Freeware
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1159304
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remedy%20Corporation
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Remedy Corporation
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Remedy Corporation was a software company that produced the Action Request System and various applications therein. It is one of the biggest and oldest names in ITSM software. Remedy is now the Service Management Business Unit of BMC Software.
History
Remedy Corporation was founded in 1990 by Larry Garlick, who was the CEO until 2001, and Dave Mahler and Doug Mueller. The company went public in 1995 and in 1996 was named by Business Week as the "Number 1 Top Hot Growth Company in America."
In 2001, competitor Peregrine Systems, purchased the company for $1.2 billion in cash and stock. On September 22, 2002, Peregrine and its wholly owned subsidiary, Peregrine Remedy, Inc., filed for voluntary protection under Chapter 11 of the United States Bankruptcy Code. Two months after accounting irregularities forced Peregrine Systems into bankruptcy, it sold the Remedy business unit to BMC Software. Remedy was then known as Remedy, a BMC Software Company until 2004, when it became known as the Service Management Business Unit.
References
External links
Remedy IT Service Management
BMC
ARSList - an independent community of ARSystem Users
Remedies for Remedy - User contributed news and information gathering site about Remedy AR System.
BMC Helix Remedy force expert ] - Remedyforce Features
Software companies based in California
Software companies of the United States
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50049120
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SHELL%20model
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SHELL model
|
The SHELL model is a conceptual model of human factors that clarifies the scope of aviation human factors and assists in understanding the human factor relationships between aviation system resources/environment (the flying subsystem) and the human component in the aviation system (the human subsystem).
The SHELL model was first developed by Elwyn Edwards (1972) and later modified into a 'building block' structure by Frank Hawkins(1984). The model is named after the initial letters of its components (software, hardware, environment, liveware) and places emphasis on the human being and human interfaces with other components of the aviation system.
The SHELL model adopts a systems perspective that suggests the human is rarely, if ever, the sole cause of an accident. The systems perspective considers a variety of contextual and task-related factors that interact with the human operator within the aviation system to affect operator performance. As a result, the SHELL model considers both active and latent failures in the aviation system.
Description
Each component of the SHELL model (software, hardware, environment, liveware) represents a building block of human factors studies within aviation.
The human element or worker of interest is at the centre or hub of the SHELL model that represents the modern air transportation system. The human element is the most critical and flexible component in the system, interacting directly with other system components, namely software, hardware, environment and liveware.
However, the edges of the central human component block are varied, to represent human limitations and variations in performance. Therefore, the other system component blocks must be carefully adapted and matched to this central component to accommodate human limitations and avoid stress and breakdowns (incidents/accidents) in the aviation system. To accomplish this matching, the characteristics or general capabilities and limitations of this central human component must be understood.
Human characteristics
Physical size and shape
In the design of aviation workplaces and equipment, body measurements and movement are a vital factor. Differences occur according to ethnicity, age and gender for example. Design decisions must take into account the human dimensions and population percentage that the design is intended to satisfy.
Human size and shape are relevant in the design and location of aircraft cabinf equipment, emergency equipment, seats and furnishings as well as access and space requirements for cargo compartments.
Fuel requirements
Humans require food, water and oxygen to function effectively and deficiencies can affect performance and well-being.
Input characteristics
The human senses for collecting vital task and environment-related information are subject to limitations and degradation. Human senses cannot detect the whole range of sensory information available. For example, the human eye cannot see an object at night due to low light levels. This produces implications for pilot performance during night flying. In addition to sight, other senses include sound, smell, taste and touch (movement and temperature).
Information processing
Humans have limitations in information processing capabilities (such as working memory capacity, time and retrieval considerations) that can also be influenced by other factors such as motivation and stress or high workload. Aircraft display, instrument and alerting/warning system design needs to take into account the capabilities and limitations of human information processing to prevent human error.
Output characteristics
After sensing and processing information, the output involves decisions, muscular action and communication. Design considerations include aircraft control-display movement relationship, acceptable direction of movement of controls, control resistance and coding, acceptable human forces required to operate aircraft doors, hatches and cargo equipment and speech characteristics in the design of voice communication procedures.
Environmental tolerances
People function effectively only within a narrow range of environmental conditions (tolerable for optimum human performance) and therefore their performance and well-being is affected by physical environmental factors such as temperature, vibration, noise, g-forces and time of day as well as time zone transitions, boring/stressful working environments, heights and enclosed spaces.
Components
Software
Non-physical, intangible aspects of the aviation system that govern how the aviation system operates and how information within the system is organised.
Software may be likened to the software that controls the operations of computer hardware.
Software includes rules, instructions, Aviation regulations, policies, norms, laws, orders, safety procedures, standard operating procedures, customs, practices, conventions, habits, symbology, supervisor commands and computer programmes.
Software can be included in a collection of documents such as the contents of charts, maps, publications, emergency operating manuals and procedural checklists.
Hardware
Physical elements of the aviation system such as aircraft (including controls, surfaces, displays, functional systems and seating), operator equipment, tools, materials, buildings, vehicles, computers, conveyor belts etc.
Environment
The context in which aircraft and aviation system resources (software, hardware, liveware) operate, made up of physical, organisational, economic, regulatory, political and social variables that may impact on the worker/operator.
Internal air transport environment relates to immediate work area and includes physical factors such as cabin/cockpit temperature, air pressure, humidity, noise, vibration and ambient light levels.
External air transport environment includes the physical environment outside the immediate work area such as weather (visibility/Turbulence), terrain, congested airspace and physical facilities and infrastructure including airports as well as broad organisational, economic, regulatory, political and social factors.
Liveware
Human element or people in the aviation system. For example, flight crew personnel who operate aircraft, cabin crew, ground crew, management and administration personnel.
The liveware component considers human performance, capabilities and limitations.
The four components of the SHELL model or aviation system do not act in isolation but instead interact with the central human component to provide areas for human factors analysis and consideration. The SHELL model indicates relationships between people and other system components and therefore provides a framework for optimising the relationship between people and their activities within the aviation system that is of primary concern to human factors. In fact, the International Civil Aviation Organisation has described human factors as a concept of people in their living and working situations; their interactions with machines (hardware), procedures (software) and the environment about them; and also their relationships with other people.
According to the SHELL model, a mismatch at the interface of the blocks/components where energy and information is interchanged can be a source of human error or system vulnerability that can lead to system failure in the form of an incident/accident. Aviation disasters tend to be characterised by mismatches at interfaces between system components, rather than catastrophic failures of individual components.
Interfaces
Liveware-Software (L-S)
Interaction between human operator and non-physical supporting systems in the workplace.
Involves designing software to match the general characteristics of human users and ensuring that the software (e.g. rules/procedures) is capable of being implemented with ease.
During training, flight crew members incorporate much of the software (e.g. procedural information) associated with flying and emergency situations into their memory in the form of knowledge and skills. However, more information is obtained by referring to manuals, checklists, maps and charts. In a physical sense these documents are regarded as hardware however in the information design of these documents adequate attention has to be paid to numerous aspects of the L-S interface.
For instance, by referring to cognitive ergonomics principles, the designer must consider currency and accuracy of information; user-friendliness of format and vocabulary; clarity of information; subdivision and indexing to facilitate user retrieval of information; presentation of numerical data; use of abbreviations, symbolic codes and other language devices; presentation of instructions using diagrams and/or sentences etc. The solutions adopted after consideration of these informational design factors play a crucial role in effective human performance at the L-S interface.
Mismatches at the L-S interface may occur through:
Insufficient/inappropriate procedures
Misinterpretation of confusing or ambiguous symbology/checklists
Confusing, misleading or cluttered documents, maps or charts
Irrational indexing of an operations manual.
A number of pilots have reported confusion in trying to maintain aircraft attitude through reference to the Head-Up-Display artificial horizon and 'pitch-ladder' symbology.
Liveware-Hardware (L-H)
Interaction between human operator and machine
Involves matching the physical features of the aircraft, cockpit or equipment with the general characteristics of human users while considering the task or job to be performed. Examples:
designing passenger and crew seats to fit the sitting characteristics of the human body
designing cockpit displays and controls to match the sensory, information processing and movement characteristics of human users while facilitating action sequencing, minimising workload (through location/layout) and including safeguards for incorrect/inadvertent operation.
Mismatches at the L-H interface may occur through:
poorly designed equipment
inappropriate or missing operational material
badly located or coded instruments and control devices
warning systems that fail in alerting, informational or guidance functions in abnormal situations etc.
The old 3-pointer aircraft altimeter encouraged errors because it was very difficult for pilots to tell what information related to which pointer.
Liveware-Environment (L-E)
Interaction between human operator and internal and external environments.
Involves adapting the environment to match human requirements. Examples:
Engineering systems to protect crews and passengers from discomfort, damage, stress and distraction caused by the physical environment.
Air conditioning systems to control aircraft cabin temperature
Sound-proofing to reduce noise
Pressurisation systems to control cabin air pressure
Protective systems to combat ozone concentrations
Using black-out curtains to obtain sleep during daylight house as a result of transmeridian travel and shift work
Expanding infrastructure, passenger terminals and airport facilities to accommodate more people due to larger jets (e.g. Airbus A380) and the growth in air transport
Examples of mismatches at the L-E interface include:
Reduced performance and errors resulting from disturbed biological rhythms (jet lag) as a result of long-range flying and irregular work-sleep patterns
Pilot perceptual errors induced by environmental conditions such as visual illusions during aircraft approach/landing at nighttime
Flawed operator performance and errors as a result of management failure to properly address issues at the L-E interface including:
Operator stress due to changes in air transport demand and capacity during times of economic boom and economic recession.
Biased crew decision making and operator short-cuts as a consequence of economic pressure brought on by airline competition and cost-cutting measures linked with deregulation.
Inadequate or unhealthy organisational environment reflecting a flawed operating philosophy, poor employee morale or negative organisational culture.
Liveware-Liveware (L-L)
Interaction between central human operator and any other person in the aviation system during performance of tasks.
Involves interrelationships among individuals within and between groups including maintenance personnel, engineers, designers, ground crew, flight crew, cabin crew, operations personnel, air traffic controllers, passengers, instructors, students, managers and supervisors.
Human-human/group interactions can positively or negatively influence behaviour and performance including the development and implementation of behavioural norms. Therefore, the L-L interface is largely concerned with:
interpersonal relations
leadership
crew cooperation, coordination and communication
dynamics of social interactions
teamwork
cultural interactions
personality and attitude interactions.
The importance of the L-L interface and the issues involved have contributed to the development of cockpit/crew resource management (CRM) programmes in an attempt to reduce error at the interface between aviation professionals
Examples of mismatches at the L-L interface include:
Communication errors due to misleading, ambiguous, inappropriate or poorly constructed communication between individuals. Communication errors have resulted in aviation accidents such as the double Boeing 747 disaster at Tenerife Airport in 1977.
Reduced performance and error from an imbalanced authority relationship between aircraft captain and first officer. For instance, an autocratic captain and an overly submissive first officer may cause the first officer to fail to speak up when something is wrong, or alternatively the captain may fail to listen.
The SHELL Model does not consider interfaces that are outside the scope of human factors. For instance, the hardware-hardware, hardware-environment and hardware-software interfaces are not considered as these interfaces do not involve the liveware component.
Aviation System Stability
Any change within the aviation SHELL system can have far-reaching repercussions. For example, a minor equipment change (hardware) requires an assessment of the impact of the change on operations and maintenance personnel (Liveware-Hardware) and the possibility of the need for alterations to procedures/training programmes (to optimise Liveware-Software interactions). Unless all potential effects of a change in the aviation system are properly addressed, it is possible that even a small system modification may produce undesirable consequences. Similarly, the aviation system must be continually reviewed to adjust for changes at the Liveware-Environment interface.
Uses
**Safety analysis tool**: The SHELL model can be used as a framework for collecting data about human performance and contributory component mismatches during aviation incident/accident analysis or investigation as recommended by the International Civil Aviation Organisation. Similarly, the SHELL model can be used to understand systemic human factors relationships during operational audits with the aim of reducing error, enhancing safety and improving processes For example, LOSA (Line Operations Safety Audit) is founded on Threat and error management (TEM) that considers SHELL interfaces. For instance, aircraft handling errors involve liveware-hardware interactions, procedural errors involve liveware-software interactions and communication errors involve liveware-liveware interactions.
**Licensing tool**: The SHELL model can be used to help clarify human performance needs, capabilities and limitations thereby enabling competencies to be defined from a safety management perspective.
**Training tool**: The SHELL model can be used to help an aviation organisation improve training interventions and the effectiveness of organisation safeguards against error.
References
ICAO Circular 216-AN31 "Human factors Digest No 1", 1989
First version of this article from aviationknowledge.wikidot.com/aviation:shell-model, wikidotUser:mjperry, wikidotUser:jdperezgonzalez Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 License
External links
AviationKnowledge - Shell Model Interface Errors This AviationKnowledge page provides examples of aviation accidents where errors or mismatches at SHELL interfaces have either contributed to or caused accidents
AviationKnowledge - Shell Model Variants, You can also consult on two variants to the SHELL model:
SCHELL
SHELL-T.
AviationKnowledge - ICAO: Fundamental Human Factors Concepts This AviationKnowledge page is a synopsis of ICAO's digest number 1 and provides a good background context for the SHELL Model. ICAO's digest number 1 is accessed as CAP 719: Fundamental Human Factors Concepts that includes further information and examples of SHELL Model components and interfaces within the aviation context
AviationKnowledge - ICAO: Ergonomics This AviationKnowledge page is a synopsis of ICAO's digest number 6 and outlines information on ergonomics (the study of human-machine system design issues), human capabilities, hardware and flight deck design and the environment
AviationKnowledge - ICAO: Human Factors in Air Traffic Control** : This AviationKnowledge page is a synopsis of ICAO's digest number 8 and discusses aspects of the SHELL Model with respect to ATC
CAP 718: Human Factors in Aircraft Maintenance and Inspection** : This Civil Aviation Authority Publication discusses aspects of the SHELL Model with respect to aircraft maintenance and inspection
Aviation safety
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38140
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wide%20area%20network
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Wide area network
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A wide area network (WAN) is a telecommunications network that extends over a large geographic area. Wide area networks are often established with leased telecommunication circuits.
Businesses, as well as schools and government entities, use wide area networks to relay data to staff, students, clients, buyers and suppliers from various locations around the world. In essence, this mode of telecommunication allows a business to effectively carry out its daily function regardless of location. The Internet may be considered a WAN.
Design options
The textbook definition of a WAN is a computer network spanning regions, countries, or even the world. However, in terms of the application of communication protocols and concepts, it may be best to view WANs as computer networking technologies used to transmit data over long distances, and between different networks. This distinction stems from the fact that common local area network (LAN) technologies operating at lower layers of the OSI model (such as the forms of Ethernet or Wi-Fi) are often designed for physically proximal networks, and thus cannot transmit data over tens, hundreds, or even thousands of miles or kilometres.
WANs are used to connect LANs and other types of networks together so that users and computers in one location can communicate with users and computers in other locations. Many WANs are built for one particular organization and are private. Others, built by Internet service providers, provide connections from an organization's LAN to the Internet.
WANs are often built using leased lines. At each end of the leased line, a router connects the LAN on one side with a second router within the LAN on the other. Because leased lines can be very expensive, instead of using leased lines, WANs can also be built using less costly circuit switching or packet switching methods. Network protocols including TCP/IP deliver transport and addressing functions. Protocols including Packet over SONET/SDH, Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS), Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) and Frame Relay are often used by service providers to deliver the links that are used in WANs.
Academic research into wide area networks can be broken down into three areas: mathematical models, network emulation, and network simulation.
Performance improvements are sometimes delivered via wide area file services or WAN optimization.
Private networks
Of the approximately four billion addresses defined in IPv4, about 18 million addresses in three ranges are reserved for use in private networks. Packets addressed in these ranges are not routable on the public Internet; they are ignored by all public routers. Therefore, private hosts cannot directly communicate with public networks, but require network address translation at a routing gateway for this purpose.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Reserved private IPv4 network ranges
|-
!Name!!CIDR block!!Address range!!Number of addresses!!Classful description
|-
|24-bit block||10.0.0.0/8||10.0.0.0 – 10.255.255.255||align="right"|||Single Class A.
|-
|20-bit block|||172.16.0.0/12||172.16.0.0 – 172.31.255.255||align="right"|||Contiguous range of 16 Class B blocks.
|-
|16-bit block||192.168.0.0/16||192.168.0.0 – 192.168.255.255||align="right"|||Contiguous range of 256 Class C blocks.
|}
Since two private networks, e.g., two branch offices, cannot directly communicate via the public Internet, the two networks must be bridged across the Internet via a virtual private network (VPN) or other form of IP tunnel that encapsulates packets, including their headers containing the private addresses, for transmission across the public network. Additionally, encapsulated packets may be encrypted to secure their data.
Connection technology
Many technologies are available for wide area network links. Examples include circuit-switched telephone lines, radio wave transmission, and optical fiber. New developments have successively increased transmission rates. In ca. 1960, a line was normal on the edge of the WAN, while core links of 56 or 64 kbit/s were considered fast. Today, households are connected to the Internet with dial-up, asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL), cable, WiMAX, cellular network or fiber. The speeds that people can currently use range from 28.8 kbit/s through a 28K modem over a telephone connection to speeds as high as 100 Gbit/s using 100 Gigabit Ethernet.
The following communication and networking technologies have been used to implement WANs.
Asynchronous Transfer Mode
Cable modem
Dial-up internet
Digital subscriber line
Fiber-optic communication
Frame Relay
ISDN
Leased line
SD-WAN
Synchronous optical networking
X.25
AT&T conducted trials in 2017 for business use of 400-gigabit Ethernet. Researchers Robert Maher, Alex Alvarado, Domaniç Lavery, and Polina Bayvel of University College London were able to increase networking speeds to 1.125 terabits per second. Christos Santis, graduate student Scott Steger, Amnon Yariv, Martin and Eileen Summerfield developed a new laser that potentially quadruples transfer speeds with fiber optics.
See also
Cell relay
Internet area network (IAN)
Label switching
Low-power wide-area network (LPWAN)
Wide area application services
Wireless WAN
References
External links
Cisco - Introduction to WAN Technologies
What is a software-defined wide area network?
Wide area networks
Telecommunications
Data transmission
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2622214
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OneSIS
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OneSIS
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oneSIS is an open-source software tool developed at Sandia National Laboratories aimed at easing systems administration in large-scale, Linux cluster environments.
The official tag line for oneSIS is that it is a thin, role-based Single Image System for scalable cluster management. oneSIS is a simple and highly extensible method for deploying and managing one or more root images of supported Linux distributions into a master image used as the root of diskless nodes. A single image can serve thousands of nodes.
Using oneSIS
oneSIS requires functional infrastructure, such as DHCP, PXE, and NFSroot; see HOWTO. Sysadmin has to determine which machine will serve as the source for the image that will eventually be deployed to the remaining machines in the cluster.
One of the easy-to-use conventions of oneSIS is that all configuration settings for all nodes within a cluster are controlled by a single file on the master node, /etc/sysimage. This file is used to list the machines in the cluster, define which machines belong to what class, and explains which classes boot which images from the NFSroot server and how their configuration settings differ. Changes applied to the master images appear instantly to the nodes using said images. Changing a node to boot into a different image only requires a quick modification to and a reboot of the target client. Since oneSIS was designed with the Linux-systems administrator in mind, users will not find proprietary-GUI frontends here; all the tools to image a box, copying root-images, converting diskless machines diskfull, etc. are accessible exclusively through the command line interface (CLI). The goal is to let Linux systems administrators feel at home with the typical CLI tools they're already used to.
OneSIS benefits include:
Overall system complexity and administration overhead is reduced.
Potentially more stable and secure environment because sysadmins concentrate on hardening single images.
Images can be deployed in diskless and diskfull environments.
Uses standard tools and settings found in any Linux distribution and the open Linux kernel source.
Scalability.
Possibilities for load balancing and failover support.
External links
oneSIS Project Home
Sandia National Laboratories
See also
Warewulf -- a similar diskless cluster package
System administration
Sandia National Laboratories
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1638821
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20steam%20frigates%20of%20France
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List of steam frigates of France
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This is a comprehensive list of 19th-century French steam-driven (or steam-assisted) frigates - both paddle-driven and screw-propelled varieties - of the period 1841 to 1860 (including wooden-hulled frigates commenced before but launched after 1860), after which the wooden-hulled frigate merged into the evolving cruiser category.
Paddle frigates
, 20 guns
, launched 19 July 1841 at Rochefort
, launched 20 October 1841 at Rochefort
Converted paddle packets
(begun as Transatlantic Packetboat No.1), 14, launched 6 October 1842 at Cherbourg
(begun as Transatlantic Packetboat No.2), 14, launched 8 August 1842 at Cherbourg
(begun as Transatlantic Packetboat No.3), 14, launched 15 March 1843 at Brest
(begun as Transatlantic Packetboat No.4), 16, launched 15 March 1843 at Brest
(begun as Transatlantic Packetboat No.5), 14, launched 15 May 1843 at Brest
(begun as Transatlantic Packetboat No.?6), 14, launched 2 December 1842 at Lorient - wrecked 11 January 1847
(begun as Transatlantic Packetboat No.?7), 14, launched 9 September 1843 at Lorient
(begun as Transatlantic Packetboat No.?8), 14, launched 7 December 1843 at Lorient
(begun as Transatlantic Packetboat No.9), 14, launched 13 May 1843 at Rochefort - wrecked 26 August 1844
(begun as Transatlantic Packetboat No.10), 14, launched 28 June 1843 at Rochefort – wrecked 27 July 1863, burnt 10 September 1863
(begun as Transatlantic Packetboat No.11), 14, launched 21 November 1843 at Rochefort
(begun as Transatlantic Packetboat No.12), 14, launched 15 July 1844 at Rochefort
(begun as Transatlantic Packetboat No.13), 14, launched 7 August 1842 at Toulon
(begun as Transatlantic Packetboat No.14), 14, launched 19 August 1843 at Toulon
, 8, launched 1 May 1843 at Rochefort
, 20, launched 5 March 1844 at Rochefort
, 20, launched 10 March 1845 at Lorient
, 20, launched 29 May 1847 at Brest
, 20, launched 15 February 1847 at Cherbourg - wrecked 23 September 1859
, 8, launched 19 February 1848 at Rochefort
Screw frigates
, 40 guns, launched 19 July 1849 at Brest
, 56 guns
, launched 21 August 1856 at Toulon
, launched 2 December 1856 at Toulon
, launched 22 January 1856 at Brest
, launched 25 May 1857 at Brest
, 56 guns
, launched 15 August 1856 at Cherbourg
, launched 3 June 1856 at Lorient
, 36, converted from sail 1857-59 at Cherbourg
, 36, converted from sail 1857
, 36, converted from sail 1857
, 36, converted from sail 1857
, 36, converted from sail 1845
, 40, converted from sail 1857
, 36, converted from sail 1857
Sail frigates converted to steam on the stocks while building:
, 28, launched 24 December 1859 at Lorient
, 34, launched 3 May 1860 at Brest
, 34, launched 15 August 1860 at Lorient
, 28, launched 15 August 1860 at Brest
, 28, launched 15 October 1860 at Rochefort
, 28, launched 28 January 1861 at Brest
, 34, launched 8 August 1861 at Rochefort
, 34, launched 21 August 1861 at Lorient
, 28, launched 26 December 1861 at Toulon
, 22, launched 1 March 1862 at Lorient
, 28, launched 29 April 1862 at Toulon
, 22, launched 18 June 1863 at Cherbourg
, 25, launched 27 February 1869 at Rochefort
See also
List of French sail frigates
List of French modern frigates
List of French current frigates
Sources and Bibliography
Demerliac, Alain: La Marine de la Restauration et de Louis-Philippe 1er: Nomenclature des Navires Français de 1815 a 1848. Éditions A.N.C.R.E., Nice, 2007.
Roche, Jean-Michel: Dictionnaire des Bâtiments de la Flotte de Guerre Française de Colbert a nos jours - Tome (Volume) I, 1781-1870. Self-publication, 2005.
Winfield, Rif and Roberts, Stephen (2015) French Warships in the Age of Sail 1786-1861: Design, Construction, Careers and Fates. Seaforth Publishing. .
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Eighth Air Force
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The Eighth Air Force (Air Forces Strategic) is a numbered air force (NAF) of the United States Air Force's Air Force Global Strike Command (AFGSC). It is headquartered at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana. The command serves as Air Forces Strategic – Global Strike, one of the air components of United States Strategic Command (USSTRATCOM). The Eighth Air Force includes the heart of America's heavy bomber force: the Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit stealth bomber, the Rockwell B-1 Lancer supersonic bomber, and the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress heavy bomber aircraft.
Established on 22 February 1944 by the redesignation of VIII Bomber Command at RAF Daws Hill in High Wycombe, England, the Eighth Army Air Force (8 AAF) was a United States Army Air Forces combat air force in the European Theater of World War II (1939/41–1945), engaging in operations primarily in the Northern Europe area of responsibility; carrying out strategic bombing of enemy targets in France, the Low Countries, and Germany; and engaging in air-to-air fighter combat against enemy aircraft until the German capitulation in May 1945. It was the largest of the deployed combat Army Air Forces in numbers of personnel, aircraft, and equipment.
During the Cold War (1945–1991), 8 AF was one of three Numbered Air Forces of the United States Air Force's Strategic Air Command (SAC), with a three-star general headquartered at Westover Air Force Base, Massachusetts commanding USAF strategic bombers and missiles on a global scale. Elements of 8 AF engaged in combat operations during the Korean War (1950–1953); Vietnam War (1961–1975), as well as Operation Desert Storm (1990–1991) over Iraq and occupied Kuwait in the First Persian Gulf War.
Overview
Eighth Air Force is one of two active duty numbered air forces in Air Force Global Strike Command. Eighth Air Force, with headquarters at Barksdale Air Force Base in the Bossier City – Shreveport, Louisiana metro area, supports U.S. Strategic Command, and is designated as U.S. Strategic Command's Task Force 204, providing on-alert, combat-ready forces to the president. The mission of "The Mighty Eighth" is to safeguard America's interests through strategic deterrence and global combat power. Eighth Air Force controls long-range nuclear-capable bomber assets throughout the United States and overseas locations. Its flexible, conventional and nuclear deterrence mission provides the capability to deploy forces and engage enemy threats from home station or forward positioned, anywhere, any time. The 8th Air Force motto is "Peace Through Strength."
The Eighth Air Force team consists of more than 16,000 Regular Air Force (e.g., active duty), Air National Guard and Air Force Reserve professionals operating and maintaining a variety of aircraft capable of deploying air power to any area of the world. This air power includes the heart of America's heavy bomber force, deploying the Rockwell B-1 Lancer, Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit and the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress. The Mighty Eighth's B-52 force consists of 76 bombers assigned to two active duty wings, the 2d Bomb Wing at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana and the 5th Bomb Wing at Minot Air Force Base, North Dakota, and one reserve wing, the 307th Bomb Wing at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana. The B-2 force consists of 20 bombers assigned to the active duty 509th Bomb Wing along with the Missouri Air National Guard's associate 131st Bomb Wing at Whiteman AFB, Missouri. The B-1 force consists of 62 bombers assigned to the active duty 7th Bomb Wing at Dyess AFB, Texas and the 28th Bomb Wing at Ellsworth AFB, South Dakota. The 131st Bomb Wing is operationally-gained by AFGSC and 8 AF from the Air National Guard, while the 307th Bomb Wing is operationally-gained from Air Force Reserve Command and 10th Air Force.
Major General Mark E. Weatherington assumed command of 8th Air Force on 12 June 2020.
History: World War II
Eighth Air Force was established as VIII Bomber Command on 19 January 1942 and activated at Langley Field, Virginia on 1 February. It was reassigned to Savannah Army Air Base, Georgia on 10 February 1942. An advanced detachment of VIII Bomber Command was established at RAF Daws Hill, near RAF Bomber Command Headquarters at RAF High Wycombe, on 23 February in preparation for its units to arrive in the United Kingdom from the United States. The first combat group of VIII Bomber Command to arrive in the United Kingdom was the ground echelon of the 97th Bombardment Group, which arrived at RAF Polebrook and RAF Grafton Underwood on 9 June 1942.
Start of offensive operations against Nazi-occupied territory
The VIII Bomber Command launched its first raid in North-western Europe on 4 July 1942, when six RAF Douglas A-20 Havocs flown by crews of the 15th Bombardment Squadron (Light) (accompanied by another six Bostons from the more experienced No. 226 Squadron RAF) commanded by 26-year-old Captain Charles C. Kegelman attacked four airfields in the Netherlands. Alerted to the attack, the airfield defences were alert. The right propeller of Kegelman's Boston was shot away by flak while over the target at De Kooy Airfield Further ground fire caused damage to his right wing, and the engine caught fire. Kegelman's aircraft lost altitude and even bounced off the ground. However, through superior airmanship, he brought his damaged bomber home and received the Distinguished Service Cross (DSC) from General Carl "Tooey" Spaatz on 11 July. It was the first DSC earned by a member of the Eighth Air Force in World War II. The other American-flown Boston had been shot down over De Kooy
Regular combat operations by the VIII Bomber Command began on 17 August 1942, when the 97th Bombardment Group flew twelve Boeing B-17E Flying Fortresses on the first VIII Bomber Command heavy bomber mission of the war from RAF Grafton Underwood, attacking the Rouen-Sotteville marshalling yards in France. Colonel Frank A. Armstrong may have been the commander of the 97th, but at the time of the raid, not yet left seat qualified. On this mission, he sat in the co-pilot's seat of the lead B-17, Butcher Shop The pilot in command and leader of this historic mission was Paul Tibbets, who on 6 August 1945, dropped the first Atomic Bomb, Little Boy, on Hiroshima from the Boeing B-29 Superfortress, Enola Gay.
During World War II, the offensive air forces of the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) came to be classified as strategic or tactical. A strategic air force was that with a mission to attack an enemy's war effort beyond his front-line forces, predominantly production and supply facilities, whereas a tactical air force supported ground campaigns, usually with objectives selected through co-operation with the armies.
In Europe, Eighth Air Force was the first USAAF strategic air force, with a mission to support an invasion of continental Europe from the British Isles. Eighth Air Force carried out strategic daytime strategic bombing operations in Western Europe from airfields in eastern England as part of the Combined Bomber Offensive
World War II (1944–1945)
On 4 January 1944, the Consolidated B-24 Liberators and B-17s based in England flew their last mission as a subordinate part of VIII Bomber Command. On 22 February 1944, a massive reorganization of American airpower took place in Europe. The original Eighth Air Force was redesignated as the United States Strategic Air Forces (USSTAF). VIII Bomber Command, re-designated as Eighth Air Force, and Ninth Air Force were assigned to (USSTAF).
VIII Bomber Command, after redesignation as Eighth Air Force, was assigned VIII Fighter and VIII Air Support Commands under its command. This is from where the present-day Eighth Air Force's history, lineage and honors derive.
General Carl Spaatz returned to England to command the USSTAF. Major General Jimmy Doolittle relinquished command of the Fifteenth Air Force to Major General Nathan F. Twining and on January 6, 1944, took over command of the Eighth Air Force from Lieutenant General Ira C. Eaker at RAF Daws Hill. Doolittle was well known to American airmen as the famous "Tokyo Raider" and former air racer. His directive was simple: "Win the air war and isolate the battlefield."
Spaatz and Doolittle's plan was to use the US Strategic Air Forces in a series of co-ordinated raids, code-named Operation 'Argument' (popularly known as 'Big Week' ) and supported by RAF night bombing, on the German aircraft industry at the earliest possible date.
Big Week
Cold and clear weather was predicted for the last week of February 1944. On the night of 19–20 February, the RAF bombed Leipzig with 823 aircraft. Eighth Air Force's effort was over 1,000 B-17s and B-24s and over 800 fighters and the RAF provided sixteen squadrons of North American P-51 Mustangs and Supermarine Spitfires in addition In all, twelve aircraft factories were attacked, with the B-17s heading to Leipzig ( – Junkers Ju 88 production and – Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighters), Bernburg-Strenzfeld (Junkers Ju 88 plant) and Oschersleben (AGO plant making Focke Wulf Fw 190A fighters), while the B-24s hitting the Gothaer Waggonfabrik (production of Messerschmitt Bf 110 heavy fighters), the Fw 190 Arado Flugzeugwerke plant at Tutow and Heinkel's "Heinkel-Nord" headquarters at Rostock (production of He 111 bombers). As a contrast, the Luftwaffe was undertaking the sixth major raid of the "Baby Blitz" the following night (20/21 February), with only some 165 German aircraft sortieing against British targets.
The raids on the German aircraft industry comprising much of "Big Week" caused so much damage that the Germans were forced to disperse aircraft manufacturing eastward, to safer parts of the Reich.
The next day, over 900 bombers and 700 fighters of Eighth Air Force hit more aircraft factories in the Braunschweig area. Over 60 Luftwaffe fighters were shot down with a loss of 19 US bombers and 5 US fighters. On 24 February, with the weather clearing over central Germany, Eighth Air Force sent over 800 bombers, hitting Schweinfurt and attacks on the Baltic coast, with a total of 11 B-17s being lost. Some 230 B-24s hit the Messerschmitt Bf 110 assembly plant at Gotha with a loss of 24 aircraft.
On 22 February 1944, due to many mistakes, Nijmegen was bombarded by twelve aircraft of the 446th Bombardment Group and two aircraft of the 453rd. They did not realize that they were over Dutch territory; 850 civilians, including children on their way to school, were among the casualties.
On 25 February, both Eighth and Fifteenth Air Forces hit numerous targets at Fürth airfield, Augsburg and Regensburg, attacking Messerschmitt Bf 110 and Bf 109 plants. The 8th lost 31 bombers, the 15th lost 33.
Berlin
Less than a week after "Big Week", Eighth Air Force made its first attack on the Reich's capital, Berlin. The RAF had been making night raids on Berlin since 1940, (with heavy raids in 1943) and nuisance de Havilland Mosquito raids in daylight, but this was the first major daylight bombing raid on the German capital. On 6 March 1944, over 700 heavy bombers along with 800 escort fighters of the Eighth Air Force hit numerous targets within Berlin, dropping the first American bombs on the capital of the Third Reich. On 8 March, another raid of 600 bombers and 200 fighters hit the Berlin area again, destroying the VKF ball-bearing plant at Erkner. The following day, on 9 March, H2X radar-equipped B-17s mounted a third attack on the Reich capital through clouds. Altogether, the Eighth Air Force dropped over 4,800 tons of high explosive on Berlin during the first week of March. The photograph shows housing destroyed by the RAF during night raids.
On 22 March, over 800 bombers, led by H2X radar equipped bombers hit Berlin yet again, bombing targets through a thick rainy overcast causing more destruction to various industries. Because of the thick clouds and rain over the area the Luftwaffe did not attack the American bomber fleet, as the Germans believed that because of the weather the American bombers would be incapable of attacking their targets. Even so, the "pathfinder" bombers of the RAF Alconbury-based 482d Bomb Group proved very capable of finding the targets and guiding the bombers to them.
Prelude to Operation Overlord
In a prelude to the invasion of France, American air attacks began in February 1944 against railroad junctions, airfields, ports and bridges in northern France and along the English Channel coastline. Fighters from both Eighth and Ninth Air Forces made wide sweeps over the area, mounting strafing missions at airfields and rail networks. By 6 June, Allied fighter pilots had succeeded in damaging or destroying hundreds of locomotives, thousands of motorized vehicles, and many bridges. In addition, German airfields in France and Belgium were attacked.
On 1 May, over 1,300 Eighth Air Force heavy bombers made an all-out attack on the enemy's rail network, striking at targets in France and Belgium. On 7 May, another 1,000 bombers hit additional targets along the English Channel coast, hitting fortifications, bridges and marshaling areas.
On D-Day, over 2,300 sorties were flown by Eighth Air Force heavy bombers in the Normandy and Cherbourg invasion areas, all aimed at neutralizing enemy coastal defenses and front-line troops.
Defeat of the Luftwaffe
The P-51 Mustang first entered squadron service in Europe with the British in early 1942; the Allison V-1710-engined P-51A (Mustang I) having much success with the RAF, although it found the aircraft's performance inadequate at higher altitudes. Rolls-Royce engineers rapidly realized that equipping the Mustang with a Rolls-Royce Merlin engine with its two speed, two stage supercharger would substantially improve performance. Also, by using a four-bladed propeller, rather than the three-bladed one used on the P-51A, the performance was greatly improved; the XP-51B achieved a level speed of 441 mph at , over faster than the Allison-engined P-51A at that altitude. At all heights, the rate of climb was approximately doubled.
The USAAF now finally had an aircraft that could compete on equal terms with the Focke-Wulf Fw 190 and the later models of the Messerschmitt Bf 109. The USAAF was finally fully sold on the Mustang, and a letter contract for 2200 P-51Bs was issued. The engine was to be the Packard V-1650-3, based on the Rolls-Royce Merlin Mk68.
In late 1943, the P-51B Mustang was introduced to the European Theater by the USAAF. It could fly as far on its internal fuel tanks as the P-47 could with drop tanks. However, the P-51B was introduced as a tactical fighter, so the first deliveries of the P-51B in November 1943 were assigned to three groups in the tactical Ninth Air Force at the expense of VIII Bomber Command, whose need for a long range escort fighter was critical. The first escort mission for the bombers was not flown until 5 December.
As the new commander of the Eighth Air Force from January 1944 onwards, Major General Jimmy Doolittle's major influence on the European air war occurred early that year when he made a critical change to the policy requiring escorting fighters to remain with the bombers at all times. With Doolittle's permission, American fighter pilots on bomber defense missions would primarily be flying far ahead of the bombers' combat box formations in air supremacy mode, literally "clearing the skies" of any Luftwaffe fighter opposition heading towards the target. This strategy fatally disabled the twin-engined Zerstörergeschwader heavy fighter wings and their replacement, single-engined Sturmgruppen of heavily armed Fw 190As, clearing each force of bomber destroyers in their turn from Germany's skies throughout most of 1944. As part of this game-changing strategy, especially after the bombers had hit their targets, the USAAF's fighters were then free to strafe German airfields and transport while returning to base, contributing significantly to the achievement of air superiority by Allied air forces over Europe.
The effect of the Mustangs, fully operating as an air supremacy fighter force, on the Luftwaffe defenders was arguably swift and decisive. The result was that the Luftwaffe was notable by its absence over the skies of Europe after D-Day and the Allies were starting to achieve air superiority over the continent. Although the Luftwaffe could, and did, mount effective attacks on the ever-larger formations of Allied heavy bombers, the sheer numbers of B-17s and B-24s attacking enemy targets was overwhelming the German fighter force, which simply could not sustain the losses the Eighth Air Force bombers and fighters were inflicting on it. In order to quickly assemble these formations, specially outfitted assembly ships were created from older bombers.
By mid-1944, Eighth Air Force had reached a total strength of more than 200,000 people (it is estimated that more than 350,000 Americans served in Eighth Air Force during the war in Europe). At peak strength, Eighth Air Force had forty heavy bomber groups, fifteen fighter groups, and four specialized support groups. It could, and often did, dispatch more than 2,000 four-engine bombers and more than 1,000 fighters on a single mission to multiple targets.
By 1945, all but one of the Eighth Air Force fighter groups were equipped with the P-51D.
Destroying the German oil industry
Eighth Air Force did not strike at oil industry targets until 13 May 1944 when 749 bombers, escorted by almost 740 fighters, pounded oil targets in the Leipzig area and at Brux in Czechoslovakia. At the same time, a smaller force hit an Fw 190 repair depot at Zwickau. Over 300 German fighters attacked the bomber forces, losing almost half its aircraft, with claims of upwards of 47 Luftwaffe fighters by American fighter pilots. However, the Luftwaffe was successful in shooting down 46 bombers in a very unequal fight.
After D-Day, attacks on the German oil industry assumed top priority which was widely dispersed around the Reich. Vast fleets of B-24s and B-17s escorted by P-51Ds and long-range P-38Ls hit refineries in Germany and Czechoslovakia in late 1944 and early 1945. Having almost total air superiority throughout the collapsing German Reich, Eighth Air Force hit targets as far east as Hungary, while Fifteenth Air Force hit oil industry facilities in Yugoslavia, Romania, and northeastern Italy. On at least eighteen occasions, the Merseburg refineries in Leuna, where the majority of Germany's synthetic fuel for jet aircraft was refined, was hit. By the end of 1944, only three out of ninety-one refineries in the Reich were still working normally, twenty-nine were partially functional, and the remainder were completely destroyed.
Casualties and awards
These missions, however, carried a high price. Half of the U.S. Army Air Forces' casualties in World War II were suffered by Eighth Air Force (more than 47,000 casualties, with more than 26,000 dead). Seventeen Medals of Honor went to Eighth Air Force personnel during the war. By war's end, they had been awarded a number of other medals to include 220 Distinguished Service Crosses, and 442,000 Air Medals. Many more awards were made to Eighth Air Force veterans after the war that remain uncounted. There were 261 fighter aces in the Eighth Air Force during World War II. Thirty-one of these aces had 15 or more aircraft kills apiece. Another 305 enlisted gunners were also recognized as aces.
One notable Eighth Air Force casualty was Brigadier General Arthur W. Vanaman, Chief of Intelligence, who was captured by the Germans in northern France on 27 June 1944, becoming the highest-ranked American POW captured in Europe during the war.
Victory in Europe
In January 1945, the Luftwaffe attempted one last major air offensive against the Allied Air Forces. Over 950 fighters had been sent west from the Eastern Front for "Operation Bodenplatte". On 1 January, the entire German fighter force in the West, comprising combat aircraft from some eleven Jagdgeschwader day fighter wings, took off and attacked 27 Allied airfields in northern France, Belgium and the southern part of the Netherlands in an attempt by the Luftwaffe to cripple Allied air forces in the Low Countries of Europe. It was a last-ditch effort to keep up the momentum of the German forces during the stagnant stage of the Battle of the Bulge (Unternehmen Wacht am Rhein). The operation was a pyrrhic success for the Luftwaffe as the losses suffered by the German air arm were irreplaceable and over 300 Luftwaffe aircraft were shot down, mostly by Allied anti-aircraft guns. The losses of the Allied Air Forces were replaced within weeks. The operation failed to achieve air superiority, even temporarily, and the German Army continued to be exposed to air attack.
First seen by Allied airmen during the late summer of 1944, it wasn't until March 1945 that German jet aircraft started to attack Allied bomber formations in earnest. On 2 March, when Eighth Air Force bombers were dispatched to attack the synthetic oil refineries at Leipzig, Messerschmitt Me 262As attacked the formation near Dresden. The next day, the largest formation of German jets ever seen, most likely from the Luftwaffe's specialist 7th Fighter Wing, Jagdgeschwader 7 Nowotny, made attacks on Eighth Air Force bomber formations over Dresden and the oil targets at Essen, shooting down a total of three bombers.
However, the Luftwaffe jets were simply too few and too late to have any serious effect on the Allied air armadas now sweeping over the Reich with near-impunity. A lack of fuel and available pilots for the new jets greatly reduced their effectiveness. The Me 262A was a difficult foe for the P-47s and P-51s, possessing a distinct speed advantage. Allied bomber escort fighters would fly high above the bombers – diving from this height gave them extra speed, thus reducing the speed difference. The Me 262 was also less maneuverable than the P-51 and so trained Allied pilots could turn tighter than an Me 262A. However, the only reliable way of dealing with the jets, as with the even faster Me 163B Komet rocket fighters, was to attack them on the ground and during takeoff and landing. Luftwaffe airfields that were identified as jet and rocket bases, such as Parchim and Bad Zwischenahn, were frequently bombed, and Allied fighters patrolled over the fields to attack jets trying to land. The Luftwaffe countered by installing flak alleys along the approach lines in order to protect the Me 262s from the ground and providing top cover with conventional fighters during takeoff and landing. Nevertheless, in March and April 1945, Allied fighter patrol patterns over Me 262 airfields resulted in numerous losses of jets and serious attrition of the force.
On 7 April 1945, the Luftwaffe flew its most desperate and deadliest mission, with the dedicated aerial ramming unit Sonderkommando Elbe. This operation involved German pilots of the unit ramming their worn-out Bf 109Gs, each barely armed with only one MG 131 machine gun and 50 rounds of ammunition, into American bombers in order to get the Allies to suspend bombing raids long enough for the Germans to make a significant amount of Me 262A jet fighters. The 8th Air Force was targeted in this operation. Fifteen Allied bombers were attacked, eight were successfully destroyed.
On 7 April, Eighth Air Force dispatched thirty-two B-17 and B-24 groups and fourteen Mustang groups (the sheer numbers of attacking Allied aircraft were so large in 1945 that they were now counted by the group) to targets in the small area of Germany still controlled by the Nazis, hitting the remaining airfields where the Luftwaffe jets were stationed. In addition, almost 300 German aircraft of all types were destroyed in strafing attacks. On 16 April, this record was broken when over 700 German aircraft were destroyed on the ground.
The end came on 25 April 1945 when Eighth Air Force flew its last full-scale mission of the European War. B-17s hit the Skoda armaments factory at Pilsen in Czechoslovakia, while B-24s bombed rail complexes in Bad Reichenhall and Freilassing, surrounding Hitler's mountain retreat at Berchtesgaden.
Pacific Theater
Following the end of the war in Europe in May 1945 plans were made to transfer some of the B-17/B-24 heavy bomber groups of Eighth Air Force to the Pacific Theater of Operations and upgrade them to Boeing B-29 Superfortress Very Heavy (VH) bomb groups. As part of this plan, Eighth Air Force headquarters was reassigned to Sakugawa (Kadena Airfield), Okinawa, on 16 July 1945, being assigned to the United States Strategic Air Forces in the Pacific without personnel or equipment.
On Okinawa, Eighth Air Force derived its headquarters personnel from the inactivated XX Bomber Command, and Lieutenant General James H. Doolittle assumed command, being reassigned from England on 19 July. The command controlled three airfields on Okinawa, Bolo, Futema, and Kadena Airfield. The Eighth received its first B-29 Superfortress on 8 August 1945.
Eighth Air Force's mission in the Pacific was initially to organize and train new bomber groups for combat against Japan. In the planned invasion of Japan, the mission of Eighth Air Force would be to conduct B-29 Superfortress raids from Okinawa in coordination with Twentieth Air Force operating from airfields in the Mariana Islands.
Units assigned to Eighth Air Force in the Pacific were:
Headquarters, 301st Fighter Wing
Ie Shima Airfield, Okinawa, 31 July – 29 November 1945
318th Fighter Group (P-47N Thunderbolt)
Ie Shima Airfield, Okinawa, 31 July – 29 November 1945
413th Fighter Group (P-47N Thunderbolt)
Ie Shima Airfield, Okinawa, 31 July – 29 November 1945
507th Fighter Group (P-47N Thunderbolt)
Ie Shima Airfield, Okinawa, 31 July – 29 January 1946
Headquarters, 316th Bombardment Wing
Kadena Airfield Okinawa, 5 September 1945 – 7 June 1946
22d Bombardment Group, (B-29 Superfortress)
Kadena Airfield Okinawa, 15 August – 23 November 1945
333d Bombardment Group, (B-29 Superfortress)
Kadena Airfield, Okinawa, 5 August 1945 – 28 May 1946
346th Bombardment Group, (B-29 Superfortress)
Kadena Airfield, Okinawa, 7 August 1945 – 30 June 1946
382d Bombardment Group, (B-29 Superfortress
Northwest Field, Guam, 8 September – 16 December 1945
Note: Only 420th Bombardment Squadron of group arrived with B-29 Aircraft, 464th and 872d Bomb Squadrons only ground echelons arrived. Air Echelon of squadrons with assigned aircraft remained in United States until inactivation.
383d Bombardment Group, (B-29 Superfortress)
West Field, Tinian, 12 September – 19 December 1945
The atomic bombings of Japan led to the Japanese surrender before Eighth Air Force saw action in the Pacific theater. Eighth Air Force remained in Okinawa until 7 June 1946.
History: Strategic Air Command
World War II proved what the proponents of air power had been championing for the previous two decades—the great value of strategic forces in bombing an enemy's industrial complex and of tactical forces in controlling the skies above a battlefield. As a result, Eighth Air Force was incorporated into the new SAC.
On 7 June 1946, Headquarters Eighth Air Force was reassigned without personnel or equipment from Okinawa to MacDill Field, Florida, becoming SAC's second numbered air force. At MacDill, Eighth Air Force headquarters were manned chiefly by personnel from the 58th Bombardment Wing, Very Heavy, stationed at Fort Worth Army Air Fied, Texas. The organization reported administratively to the Fifteenth Air Force at Colorado Springs, Colorado. That base assignment lasted until 1 November 1946, when SAC transferred the Eighth to Fort Worth (later renamed Carswell AFB).
Bomb units
Both Davis-Monthan and Fort Worth Army Airfields were B-29 training bases during World War II, and the Eighth Air Force Bomb Groups were simply activated at the same field and on the same day as the original Army Air Force Continental Air Forces training bomb groups were inactivated. The assets of the former training units were simply assigned to Eighth Air Force. This was largely so that the Air Force could perpetuate the names of groups that had distinguished themselves in World War II.
These bomb wings were drastically undermanned and under equipped. At the close of 1946, they shared only a handful of operational bombers, all B-29 Superfortresses. Although there were many available which were returned from Twentieth Air Force in the Pacific Theater they were war-weary from the many long combat missions flown during the war. However, it was believed that a strong strategic air arm equipped with B-29s would deter a possible aggressor from attacking the United States for fear of massive retaliation with nuclear weapons.
By the late 1940s, the B-17 Flying Fortresses and Consolidated B-24 Liberators used in the European Theater of the war were thoroughly obsolete as combat aircraft and were mostly sent to the smelters. A handful remained in service performing non-combat duties through the mid-1950s as air-sea rescue aircraft (SB-17, SB-24); photo-reconnaissance aircraft (RB-17, RB-24), and as unmanned target drones (QB-17) and their controllers (DB-17).
Initially, Eighth Air Force under SAC consisted of the following:
Fort Worth Army Air Field (Later Carswell Air Force Base), Texas
58th Bombardment Wing (later Air Division)
Moved from March Field, California 8 May 1946
Moved to Andrews AFB, Maryland 1 March 1948 (Inactivated 16 October 1948)
449th Bombardment Group
Moved from McCook Army Air Field, Nebraska December 1945 (McCook AAF Closed)
Inactivated on 4 August 1946
7th Bombardment Group
Activated on 1 October 1946
7th Bombardment Wing established on 17 November 1947. 7th Bomb Group assigned as subordinate unit.
Personnel and equipment from the inactivated 449th Bomb Group were reassigned to the 7th Bomb Group (later 7th Bomb Wing). The command staff and all personnel of the 58th Bomb wing were eliminated on 1 November 1946 and the organization was reduced to a paper unit. For two years, the wing remained in this status until the 58th Bomb Wing was inactivated on 16 October 1948.
Davis-Monthan AAF (Later Davis-Monthan Air Force Base), Arizona
40th Bombardment Group
Moved from March Field, California, 8 May 1946
Inactivated on 1 October 1946
444th Bombardment Group
Moved from Merced AAF, California 6 May 1945
Inactivated on 1 October 1946
43rd Bombardment Group
Activated on 4 October 1946
43d Bombardment Wing established on 3 November 1947. 43d Bomb Group assigned as subordinate unit.
Personnel and equipment from the inactivated 40th and 444th Bomb Groups were reassigned to the 43d Bomb Group
Roswell AAF (Later Walker Air Force Base), New Mexico
509th Bombardment Group
Reassigned from North Field, Tinian on 8 November 1946
509th Bombardment Wing established on 3 November 1947. 509th Bombardment Group assigned as subordinate unit.
The Eighth Air Force was specifically charged with the atomic mission; however, only the 509th Composite Group at Roswell AAF had B-29s that had the capability to drop nuclear weapons – the 7th Bomb Group at Fort Worth AAF was modifying their aircraft to carry the atomic bomb.
Smoky Hill AAF (Later Smoky Hill Air Force Base), Kansas Transferred from Fifteenth Air Force, 16 May 1948
301st Bombardment Wing
Moved to Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana, 1 August 1949. Smoky Hill AFB Inactivated.
From 1946 through 1949, what little money became available was used to buy new planes (Boeing B-50 Superfortress, Convair B-36 Peacemaker) for SAC, and as the newer aircraft became available, the older B-29s were sent to storage depots or sent to Air Force Reserve units for training missions.
Fighter units
SAC was founded by the men who fought in World War II, who knew the importance of fighter escorts. In its early days, SAC had fighter wings for the escorting its aircraft equipped with the new F-82E Twin Mustang along with long range F-51H Mustangs and F-47N Thunderbolts, all of which were designed late in World War II for use in the planned invasion of Japan. SAC fighter wings assigned to Eighth Air Force were:
27th Fighter Wing (F-82E Twin Mustang)
Activated at Kearney AFB, Nebraska on 27 July 1947
Reassigned to Bergstrom AFB, Texas on 16 March 1949 (Base Closed)
31st Fighter Wing (F-47N Thunderbolt)
Activated at Turner AFB, Georgia on 25 June 1947
Inactivated on 16 June 1952
33d Fighter Wing (F-51H Mustang, F-80C Shooting Star)
Attached to 509th Bombardment Wing, Very Heavy, Walker AFB, New Mexico 17 November 1947
Reassigned to Otis AFB, Massachusetts, 15 November 1948
82d Fighter Wing (F-51D Mustang)
Activated at Grenier AFB, New Hampshire on 12 April 1947
Inactivated 2 October 1949
Fighter escorts were no longer needed once SAC was equipped with Boeing B-47 Stratojet and then Boeing B-52 Stratofortress jet bombers carrying nuclear bombs. As the nuclear weapons carried by the bombers were so powerful that only one plane was assigned to a target that might have previously needed a whole bomb group of aircraft. Although SAC fighter squadrons upgraded to Republic F-84F Thunderstreak jet fighters in the early 1950s, the new jet bombers flew so high and so fast there was little danger of them being intercepted by enemy fighters. By 1955, SAC no longer needed its fighters and these fighter units were transferred to Tactical Air Command and utilized in a tactical role.
In 1949, a realignment of responsibilities for SAC's two air forces occurred. Fifteenth Air Force relocated to March Air Force Base, California. As part of this realignment, most SAC bomber forces west of the Mississippi River were reassigned to 15th AF. Those east of the Mississippi were assigned to SAC's other strategic air force, Eighth Air Force, which moved to Westover Air Force Base, Massachusetts, where it commanded all SAC bases in the eastern United States.
Several events in the late 1940s reversed the drawdown of United States strategic forces. The 1948 blockade of West Berlin by the Eastern bloc and the outbreak of the Cold War caused the United States to deploy SAC's B-29 bomber force back to the United Kingdom and West Germany. Communist victories in the Chinese Civil War in 1949 and the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950 meant that the United States would have to expand SAC to address these potential threats both in Europe as well as Asia.
By the time of the outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950, Eighth Air Force consisted of the following units:
Carswell Air Force Base, Texas
7th Bombardment Wing (B-36 Peacekeeper)
11th Bombardment Wing (inactive)
Biggs AFB, Texas
97th Bombardment Wing (B-29 Superfortress)
Davis-Monthan AFB, Arizona
43d Bombardment Wing (B-29, B-50 Superfortress)
Ellsworth AFB, South Dakota
28th Bombardment Wing (B-36 Peacekeeper)
Walker AFB, New Mexico
6th Bombardment Wing (B-36 Peacekeeper)
509th Bombardment Wing (B-29, B-50 Superfortress)
Chatham AFB, Georgia
2d Bombardment Wing (B-29, KB-50 Superfortress)
Bergstrom AFB Texas
27th Fighter-Escort Wing (F-84 Thunderstreak)
Korean War
On 25 June 1950, the armed forces of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) invaded South Korea. On 27 June, the United Nations Security Council voted to assist the South Koreans in resisting the invasion. Although Eighth Air Force's strategic bomber force was not committed to combat in Korea, the Eighth deployed the 27th Fighter Escort Wing for combat action in Korea and earned numerous honors and awards for their combat record during the Korean War.
On 21 January 1951, Lt. Col. William Bertram, commander of the 523rd Fighter-Escort Squadron, shot down the first MiG-15 for the wing and became the first F-84 pilot with a confirmed MiG kill. Two days later, on 23 January, the 27th FEW participated in the raid on Sinuju Airfield in North Korea and shot down four more MiG-15s. By the time the group rotated back to the United States, they had flown more than 23,000 combat hours in more than 12,000 sorties.
For its Korean War service, the 27th Fighter-Escort Wing received the Distinguished Unit Citation, covering the period of 26 January through 21 April 1951, for their actions in Korea.
The 27th was relieved of its duties supporting U.N. forces in Korea and returned to Bergstrom AFB on 31 July 1951, but was redeployed to Misawa AB, Japan during 6 October 1952 – 13 February 1953 to provide air defense.
Cold War
With the end of fighting in Korea, President Dwight D. Eisenhower, who had taken office in January 1953, called for a "new look" at national defense. The result: a greater reliance on nuclear weapons and air power to deter war. His administration chose to invest in the Air Force, especially Strategic Air Command. The nuclear arms race shifted into high gear. The Air Force retired nearly all of its piston-engined B-29/B-50s and they were replaced by new Boeing B-47 Stratojet aircraft. By 1955 the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress would be entering the inventory in substantial numbers, as prop B-36s were phased out of heavy bombardment units rapidly.
Also after the deployment of forces to Far East Air Force to engage in combat over Korea, the history of Eighth Air Force becomes indistinguishable from that of SAC. The Eighth's weapons inventory also changed to include KC-135 air refuelers and intercontinental ballistic missiles (the Atlas, Titan I and Titan II, and all Minuteman models.)
At the same time, aerial refueling techniques were improved to the extent that Eighth Air Force bombers could still reach targets in Europe and Asia even if overseas bases were destroyed by an enemy attack. To reduce the risk to its bomber fleet in the United States, Eighth Air Force aircraft stood nuclear alert, providing a deterrent against an attack on the United States by the Soviet Union. It dispersed its planes to a large number of bases across the United States so as not to have too many concentrated at a single location.
Vietnam War
In 1965, Eighth Air Force entered combat again, this time in Southeast Asia. At first, the Eighth deployed its B-52 bomber and KC-135 tanker units from the U.S. to operating bases in Guam, Okinawa and Thailand. Then in April 1970, SAC moved the Eighth without personnel or equipment to Andersen AFB Guam, absorbing resources of the 3d Air Division. At Andersen AFB, the Eighth took over the direction of all bombing and refueling operations in Southeast Asia. The intensive bombing of Hanoi and Haiphong during 11 days in December 1972, known as Operation Linebacker II, was but one highlight of those war years. Importantly, the Eighth's bombing effectiveness influenced the North Vietnamese to end hostilities. With the end of combat in Southeast Asia, the Eighth Air Force moved without personnel or equipment to Barksdale Air Force Base Louisiana on 1 January 1975, absorbing the resources of Second Air Force.
In the 1980s, the Eighth participated in several key operations such as running the tanker task force for Operation Urgent Fury in 1983 and directing all air refueling operations for Operation El Dorado Canyon in 1986 and Operation Just Cause in 1989.
Operations over Iraq
The Eighth's units played a key role in the 42-day Gulf War in 1991. An Eighth Air Force unit, the 2d Bomb Wing, spearheaded the air campaign by dispatching B-52s from Barksdale to launch conventional air-launched cruise missiles against Iraqi targets. Eighth Air Force bomb wings, stationed in the Persian Gulf region, also attacked Iraq's Republican Guard forces and numerous key strategic targets, while other units provided air refueling and tactical reconnaissance throughout the conflict. As a headquarters, the Eighth had another important role in victory over Iraqi forces—operating the logistics supply and air refueling bridge between the U.S. and gulf region.
History from June 1992
Fifteen months after Operation Desert Storm, the Air Force reorganized. Eighth Air Force was relieved from assignment to Strategic Air Command and assigned to the new Air Combat Command (ACC) on 1 June 1992.
Under ACC, Eighth Air Force provides command and control, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (C2ISR); long-range attack; and information operations forces to Air Force components and warfighting commands. Eighth Air Force trains, tests, exercises and demonstrates combat-ready forces for rapid employment worldwide.
Eighth Air Force also provides conventional forces to U.S. Joint Forces Command and provides nuclear capable bombers, specified Global Strike assets, and C2ISR capabilities to U.S. Strategic Command (STRATCOM). Eighth Air Force also supports STRATCOM's Joint Force Headquarters – Information Operations and serves as the command element for Air Force wide computer network operations.
Under ACC, the Eighth received control over active duty, Air Force Reserve, and Air National Guard units in the central U.S. and two overseas locations. Then in January 1994, ACC reorganized Eighth Air Force as a general purpose Numbered Air Force (NAF) with a warfighting mission to support the U.S. Joint Forces and U.S. Strategic Commands. Support to the latter command included the operation of Task Force 204 (bombers).
Since 1994, the Eighth has participated in a string of contingency operations, such as the 1996 Operation "Desert Strike" against Iraq] the 1998 Operation "Desert Fox" (similarly named but in no way associated with Field Marshal Erwin Rommel) against Iraq, which featured the B-1 Lancer in its combat debut, and 1999 Operation "Allied Force" against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, which involved the B-2A Spirit. The "Allied Force" campaign also marked the Eighth's return to Europe and the participation of U.S. bombers in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization's (NATO) first combat operation. Altogether, the Eighth's bombers flew 325 sorties to drop over 7 million pounds of ordnance on a nation slightly smaller than the state of Colorado.
In 2000, the Air Force decided to integrate information operations into Eighth Air Force. The integration process started on 1 February 2001, when the Air Force realigned the Air Intelligence Agency (AIA) under ACC and assigned the 67th Information Operations Wing and the 70th Intelligence Wing to the Eighth. The reorganization transformed the Eighth into the only information operations and bomber NAF in the Air Force. For the Mighty Eighth, that change heralded an interesting future, one that bring further restructuring, different aircraft system purchases, and a new challenging mission to the NAF.
While posturing itself for that mission change, the Eighth also supported Operation Enduring Freedom in which the Air Force operates against targets in Afghanistan, and Operation Noble Eagle for the defense of North American airspace. Throughout the first six months of Enduring Freedom, the Mighty Eighth's bombers were instrumental in the eradication of many targets and opposing combatants in Afghanistan.
Major General James C. Dawkins Jr. assumed command of 8th Air Force on 20 August 2018, after having served as the Deputy Director for Nuclear, Homeland Defense, and Current Operations on the Joint Staff at the Pentagon, Washington, D.C. On 12 June 2020, he was succeeded by Major General Mark E. Weatherington, who had previously served as deputy commander of Air Education and Training Command at Joint Base San Antonio in Randolph, Texas.
Air Force Global Strike Command
Under Air Force Global Strike Command since 1 Feb 2010, Eighth Air Force controls strategic bomber (e.g., B-2 Spirit and B-52 Stratofortress, and B-1 Lancer) forces throughout the United States and overseas locations. Eighth Air Force carries out its warfighting missions under U.S. Strategic Command and the air component commands of the other regional Unified combatant commands. Eighth Air Force has five Regular Air Force bomb wings, two Air Reserve Total Force Integration bomb wings (one in Air Force Reserve Command and one in the Air National Guard), and one detachment in the continental United States.
Bomber wings of the 8th Air Force include:
Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana
2d Bomb Wing, B-52H
307th Bomb Wing, B-52H (AFRC)
Dyess Air Force Base, Texas
7th Bomb Wing, B-1B
Ellsworth Air Force Base, South Dakota
28th Bomb Wing, B-1B
Minot Air Force Base, North Dakota
5th Bomb Wing, B-52H
Whiteman Air Force Base, Missouri
509th Bomb Wing, B-2A
131st Bomb Wing (Associate), B-2A (ANG)
AFGSC Direct Reporting Units (DRU)
576th Flight Test Squadron – Vandenberg Air Force Base, California
595th Command and Control Group – Offutt Air Force Base, Nebraska
Lineage, assignments, components, and stations
Lineage
Established as VIII Bomber Command on 19 January 1942 and activated 1 February 1942.
Redesignated the Eighth Air Force on 22 February 1944.
Redesignated: Eighth Air Force (Air Forces Strategic – Global Strike) on 3 June 2008.
Assignments
Eighth Air Force (later United States Strategic Air Forces), 22 February 1944
United States Strategic Air Forces in the Pacific, 16 July 1945
Pacific Air Command, United States Army, 6 December 1945 (redesignation of U.S. Strategic Air Forces in the Pacific)
Strategic Air Command, 7 June 1946
Air Combat Command, 1 June 1992
Air Force Global Strike Command, 1 August 2010
Major components
Commands
VIII Air Force Composite Command: 22 Feb 1944 – 1 Feb 1945
VIII Air Force Service Command: 22 Feb 1944 – 16 Jul 1945
VIII Fighter Command: 22 Feb 1944 – 16 Jul 1945
Divisions during World War II
1st Bombardment (later, 1st Air) Division
Operated the B-17F/G Flying Fortress with "Triangle" tail codes between 22 February 1944 and 16 July 1945
Headquartered at Brampton Grange, Brampton, Cambridgeshire
1st Combat Bombardment Wing, RAF Bassingbourn (Call sign: Goonchild/Swordfish)
91st Bombardment Group (Triangle-A), RAF Bassingbourn
381st Bombardment Group (Triangle-L), RAF Ridgewell
398th Bombardment Group (Triangle-W), RAF Nuthampstead
482d Bombardment Group (No Tail Code), (B-17, B-24) RAF Alconbury
RADAR-equipped pathfinder group. Attached to: VIII Composite Command, 14 Feb 1944 – 1 Jan 1945
40th Combat Bombardment Wing, RAF Thurleigh (Call sign: Bullpen/Foxhole)
92d Bombardment Group (Triangle-B), RAF Podington
305th Bombardment Group (Triangle-G), RAF Chelveston
306th Bombardment Group (Triangle-H), RAF Thurleigh
41st Combat Bombardment Wing, RAF Molesworth (Call sign: Fatgal/Cowboy)
303d Bombardment Group (Triangle-C), RAF Molesworth
379th Bombardment Group (Triangle-K), RAF Kimbolton
384th Bombardment Group (Triangle-P), RAF Grafton Underwood
94th Combat Bombardment Wing, RAF Polebrook (Call sign: Ragweed/Woodcraft)
351st Bombardment Group (Triangle-J), RAF Polebrook
401st Bombardment Group (Triangle-S), RAF Deenethorpe
457th Bombardment Group (Triangle-U), RAF Glatton
67th Fighter Wing, Walcot Hall, Northamptonshire (Attached from VIII Fighter Command) (P-51D/K Mustang) (Call sign: Mohair)
20th Fighter Group, RAF Kings Cliffe
352d Fighter Group, RAF Bodney
356th Fighter Group, RAF Martlesham Heath
359th Fighter Group, RAF East Wretham
364th Fighter Group, RAF Honington
1st Scouting Force, (Attached to: 364th FG), RAF Honington
2d Bombardment (later, 2d Air) Division
Operated B-24D/H/J/L/M Liberator with "Circle" tail codes until early February, 1944. Later designation was by various color vertical tail fins with contrasting horizontal, vertical, or diagonal stripes designating a specific bomb group between 22 February 1944 and 25 June 1945
Headquartered at Ketteringham Hall Norwich, Norfolk
2d Combat Bombardment Wing, RAF Hethel (Call sign: Winston/Bourbon)
389th Bombardment Group (Circle-C, Black/White Vertical ), RAF Hethel
445th Bombardment Group (Circle-F, Black/White Horizontal), RAF Tibenham
453d Bombardment Group (Circle-J, Black/White Diagonal), RAF Old Buckenham
14th Combat Bombardment Wing, RAF Shipdham (Call sign: Hambone/Hardtack)
44th Bombardment Group (Circle-A), RAF Shipdham
392d Bombardment Group (Circle-D), RAF Wendling
491st Bombardment Group (Circle-Z), RAF North Pickenham (Aug 1944 – 16 Jul 1945)
20th Combat Bombardment Wing, RAF Hardwick (Call sign: Pinestreet/Bigbear)
93d Bombardment Group (Circle-B), RAF Hardwick
446th Bombardment Group (Circle-H), RAF Bungay
448th Bombardment Group (Circle-I), RAF Seething
489th Bombardment Group (Circle-W), RAF Halesworth (Aug 1944 – 16 Jul 1945)
95th Combat Bombardment Wing, RAF Halesworth (May–Aug 1944) (Call sign: Shamrock)
489th Bombardment Group (Circle-W), RAF Halesworth
491st Bombardment Group (Circle-Z), RAF North Pickenham
96th Combat Bombardment Wing, RAF Horsham St Faith (Call sign: Redstar/Lincoln)
458th Bombardment Group (Circle-K), RAF Horsham St. Faith
466th Bombardment Group (Circle-L), RAF Attlebridge
467th Bombardment Group (Circle-P), RAF Rackheath
65th Fighter Wing (Attached from VIII Fighter Command), Saffron Walden (P-51D/K Mustang) (Call sign: Colgate)
4th Fighter Group, RAF Debden
56th Fighter Group, RAF Boxted (P-47D Thunderbolt)
355th Fighter Group, RAF Steeple Morden
361st Fighter Group, RAF Bottisham then RAF Little Walden
2d Scouting Force, (Attached to: 355th FG), RAF Steeple Morden
.
3d Bombardment (later, 3d Air) Division
Operated B-17F/G Flying Fortress with Square tail codes between 22 February 1944 and 16 July 1945
Headquartered at RAF Honington, Thetford, Norfolk
4th Combat Bombardment Wing, RAF Bury St Edmunds (Call sign: Franklin/Hotshot)
Redesignated from: 92d Combat Bombardment Wing, 22 November 1944
Redesignated from: 4th Bombardment Wing (Provisional), 16 February 1945
94th Bombardment Group (Square-A), RAF Bury St. Edmunds
447th Bombardment Group (Square-K), RAF Rattlesden
486th Bombardment Group (Square-O/W), RAF Sudbury
(Converted from B-24s to B-17s, Summer 1944)
487th Bombardment Group (Square-P), RAF Lavenham
(Converted from B-24s to B-17s, Summer 1944)
13th Combat Bombardment Wing, RAF Horham (Call sign: Zootsuit/Fireball)
95th Bombardment Group (Square-B), RAF Horham
100th Bombardment Group (Square-D), RAF Thorpe Abbotts
390th Bombardment Group (Square-J), RAF Framlingham
45th Combat Bombardment Wing, RAF Snetterton Heath (Call sign: Zootsuit/Fireball)
96th Bombardment Group (Square-C), RAF Snetterton Heath
388th Bombardment Group (Square-H), RAF Knettishall
452d Bombardment Group (Square-L), RAF Deopham Green
93d Combat Bombardment Wing, RAF Mendlesham, (Call sign: Zootsuit/Fireball)
34th Bombardment Group (Square-S), RAF Mendlesham
(Converted from B-24s to B-17s, Summer 1944)
385th Bombardment Group (Square-G), RAF Great Ashfield
490th Bombardment Group (Square-T), RAF Eye
(Converted from B-24s to B-17s, Summer 1944)
493d Bombardment Group (Square-S), RAF Debach
(Converted from B-24s to B-17s, Summer 1944)
66th Fighter Wing, Sawston Hall, (Attached from VIII Fighter Command) (P-51D/K Mustang) (Call sign: Oilskin)
55th Fighter Group, RAF Wormingford
78th Fighter Group, RAF Duxford
339th Fighter Group, RAF Fowlmere
353d Fighter Group, RAF Raydon
357th Fighter Group, RAF Leiston
3d Scouting Force, (Attached to: 55th FG), RAF Wormingford
Special Groups: as of 1 Jan 1945
36th Bombardment Squadron, (B-24H/J)
Radar/Electronic-countermeasure operations: August 1944 – April 1945
RAF Cheddington
Divisions (Strategic Air Command)
6th Air Division: 1 Jan 1959 – 2 Jul 1966
13th Strategic Missile Division: 1 Jul 1963 – 1 Jul 1965
17th Strategic Aerospace Division: 1 Jul 1963 – 31 Mar 1970
19th Air Division: 16 Feb 1951 – 1 Jul 1955; 1 Jan 1975 – 30 Sep 1988
21st Air Division: 1 Jul 1955 – 1 Jan 1959
38th Air Division: 1 Jan 1959 – 1 Nov 1959
42d Air Division: 10 Mar 1951 – 1 Apr 1955; 15 Jul 1959 – 9 Jul 1991
45th Air Division: 8 Oct 1954 – 18 Jan 1958; 20 Nov 1958 – 31 Mar 1970; 1 Jan 1975 – 15 Jun 1989
47th Air Division: 10 Feb 1951 – 1 Apr 1955
57th Air Division: 4 Sep 1956 – 2 Jul 1969
801st Air Division: 1 Jul 1955 – 15 Mar 1965
802d Air Division: 1 Jul 1955 – 1 Jan 1959
810th Air Division: 16 Jun 1952 – 1 Apr 1955
817th Air Division: 1 Feb 1956 – 31 Mar 1970
818th Air Division: 1 Jul 1955 – 1 Jan 1959
820th Air (later, 820 Strategic Aerospace) Division: 1 Feb 1956 – 25 Jun 1965.
822d Air Division: 1 Jan 1959 – 2 Sep 1966
823d Air Division: 1 Jan 1959 – 31 Mar 1970
Wings
2d Bomb Wing, 16 Jun 1988 – present
5th Bomb Wing, 1 Jun 1991 – present
7th Bomb Wing, 1 Oct 2015 – present
9th Reconnaissance Wing, 1 Oct 2002 – 1 October 2009
28th Bomb Wing, 1 Oct 2015 – present
67th Information Operations (later, 67th Network Warfare) Wing, 1 Feb 2001
509th Bombardment (later, 509th Bomb) Wing, 29 Mar 1989 – present
552d Air Control Wing, 1 Oct 2002 – 1 Oct 2009
Groups
92d Bombardment Group: August 1942 – Spring 1943
94th Bombardment Group: 19–25 May 1943
95th Bombardment Group: 19–25 May 1943
97th Bombardment Group: 20 May – 14 September 1942
100th Bombardment Group: c. 4 June 1943 – 4 June 1943
301st Bombardment Group: c. 9 August 1942 – 14 September 1942
305th Bombardment Group: 10 September–c. 12 September 1942
322d Bombardment Group: c. 15 November – c. 1 December 1942
385th Bombardment Group: c. 8−13 July 1943
386th Bombardment Group: 4–15 June 1943
388th Bombardment Group, 10–13 6 July 1943
389th Bombardment Group, 29 June 1943
445th Bombardment Group: 5–9 November 1943
446th Bombardment Group, 5–9 November 1943
452d Bombardment Group: January 1944
479th Fighter Group: 15–16 May 1944; c. 4−16 July 1945
492nd Bombardment Group: April 1944
Centers
608th Air Operations Center (formerly 608th Air Operations Group and 608th Air and Space Operations Center), 1 Jan 1994 – present
Air Force Information Operations: 1 May 2007 – present
Stations
RAF Daws Hill, England, 22 Feb 1944
Sakugawa (Kadena Airfield), Okinawa, 16 Jul 1945
MacDill Field, Florida, 7 Jun 1946
Fort Worth Army Air Field (later, Griffiss Air Force Base; Carswell Air Force Base), Texas, 1 Nov 1946
Westover Air Force Base, Massachusetts, 13 Jun 1955
Post-Attack Command and Control System Facility, Hadley, 1958–1970
Andersen Air Force Base, Guam, 1 Apr 1970
Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana, 1 Jan 1975 – present
List of commanders
See also
Target for Today – ninety-four-minute depiction of an Operation Pointblank mission from 1944.
Mighty Eighth Air Force Museum
Eighth Air Force Museum
David Wade, past commander
Notes
References
Bibliography
Anderson, Christopher J. The Men of the Mighty Eighth: The U.S. 8th Air Force, 1942–1945 (G.I. Series N°24). London : Greenhill, 2001.
Astor, Gerald. The Mighty Eighth: The Air War in Europe as told by the Men who Fought it. New York: D.I. Fine Books, 1997.
Bowman, Martin. 8th Air Force at War: Memories and Missions, England, 1942–1945. Cambridge, UK: Patrick Stephens Ltd., 1994.
Bowman, Martin. Castles in the Air: The Story of the Men from the US 8th Air Force. Walton-on-Thames, UK: Red Kite, 2000.
Maurer, Maurer. Air Force Combat Units of World War II. Office of Air Force History, 1961, republished 1983..
Freeman, Roger A. and Winston G. Ramsey. Airfields of the Eighth: Then and Now. London: After the Battle, 1978. Republished 1992.
Freeman, Roger A. The Mighty Eighth: Units, Men and Machines – A History of the US 8th Air Force. 1970. .
Revised as The Mighty Eighth: a History of the Units, Men and Machines of the Us 8th Air Force. Cassell & Co., 2000. .
Freeman, Roger A. et al. The Mighty Eighth War Diary. London: Jane's Publishing Company, 1981.
Freeman, Roger A. (Ed.) The Mighty Eighth in Art. London: Arms & Armour, 1995.
Freeman, Roger A. The Mighty Eighth in Colour. London: Arms & Armour, 1991.
New Edition as The Mighty Eighth: The Colour Record. London: Cassell & Co., 2001.
Freeman, Roger A. The Mighty Eighth War Diary. 1990. .
Freeman, Roger A. Mighty Eighth War Manual. London: Jane's Publishing Company, 1984.
Freeman, Roger A. The Mighty Eighth: Warpaint and Heraldry. London: Arms & Armour, 1997.
Lambert, John W. The 8th Air Force: Victory and Sacrifice: A World War II Photo History. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing, 2006. .
McLachlan, Ian and Russell J. Zorn. Eighth Air Force Bomber Stories: Eye-Witness Accounts from American Airmen and British Civilians of the Perils of War. Yeovil, UK: Patrick Stephens Ltd., 1991.
McLaughlin, (Brigadier General) J. Kemp. The Mighty Eighth in World War II: A Memoir. Kentucky University Press, 2000.
Miller, Kent D. Fighter Units & Pilots of the 8th Air Force September 1942 – May 1945. Volume 1 Day-to-Day Operations – Fighter Group Histories. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing, 2000. .
Miller, Kent D. and Nancy Thomas. Fighter Units & Pilots of the 8th Air Force September 1942 – May 1945. Volume 2 Aerial Victories – Ace Data. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing, 2001. .
Ramsey, Winston G. [Editor]. Airfields of the Eighth. London: 1978.
Scutts, Jerry. Lion in the Sky: US 8th Air Force Fighter Operations, 1942–1945. Cambridge, UK: Patrick Stephens Ltd., 1987.
Smith, Graham. The Mighty Eighth in the Second World War. Newbury: Countryside Books, 2001.
Steijger, Cees. A History of USAFE. Voyageur, 1991. .
Strong, Russell A. A Biographical Directory of the 8th Air Force, 1942–1945. Manhattan, Kansas: Military Affairs – Aerospace Historian, 1985.
Werrell, Kenneth P. & Robin Higham. Eighth Air Force Bibliography : An Extended Essay & Listing of Published & Unpublished Materials. Manhattan, Kansas: Military Affairs – Aerospace Historian, 1981 (Second Edition 1997, Strasburg, Pennsylvania: 8th Air Force Memorial Museum Foundation, 1997).
Woolnough, John H. (Ed.) The 8th Air Force Album: The Story of the Mighty Eighth Air Force in WW II. Hollywood, Florida: 8th AF News, 1978.
Woolnough, John H. (Ed.) The 8th Air Force Yearbook: The current Status of 8th AF Unit Associations, 1980. Hollywood, Florida: 8th AF News, 1981.
Woolnough, John H. (Ed.) Stories of the Eighth: An Anthology of the 8th Air Force in World War Two. Hollywood, Fla.: 8th AF News, 1983.
Ravenstein, Charles A. (1984). Air Force Combat Wings Lineage and Honors Histories 1947–1977. Maxwell AFB, Alabama: Office of Air Force History. .
External links
USAF Fact Sheets: Eighth Air Force History
Eighth Air Force official website
Eighth Air Force Archive at Penn State
Eight Air Force tactical mission report of Operation Shuttle
Establishment of the Eighth Air Force in the United Kingdom
The Ruhr – one of the main target of the 8th USAAF in Europe, 1943–1945
Map of 8th Air Force airfields in England 1942–1945
Eighth Air Force Historical Society
A 1956 LIFE photo of every plane in the Eighth Air Force's arsenal
4th Fighter Group Association, 65 Fighter Wing, 8th Air Force World War II
Replica WWII 8th AF Briefing Room at U.S. Veterans Memorial Museum
National Museum of the Mighty Eighth Air Force Savannah, Georgia
1942 establishments in Georgia (U.S. state)
08 Air Force
Military units and formations in Louisiana
Military units and formations of the United States in the Cold War
08
World War II strategic bombing units
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joel%20Trammell
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Joel Trammell
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Joel Trammell is an American businessman and entrepreneur. Trammell works in CEO education and software.
Trammell is the former CEO of Black Box Network Services, and the founder and chairman of Khorus Software, which equips CEOs with strategy-execution software. He is also the author of The CEO Tightrope, published by Greenleaf Book Group in 2014.
Education
Trammel received his bachelor of science degree in electrical engineering from Louisiana Tech University in 1987. Trammell served on the board of directors for The Louisiana Tech University Research Foundation for the 2013–2014 year.
Career
After college, Trammell went on to be an instructor at the Naval Nuclear Power School for four years. From 1990 to 1995, Trammell served as CEO for UST Computers, then co-founded HomeSmart. In 1999, Trammell and his wife, Cathy Fulton, co-founded NetQoS, a developer of network and application performance management software. He served as CEO until the company was acquired by CA Technologies in 2009 for $200 million. After NetQoS, Trammell founded Cache IQ, a developer of network resident caching solutions for file-based storage. Cache IQ was acquired by NetApp Inc. in November 2012. In 2011, he co-founded Lone Rock Technology Group LLC., where he serves as a managing partner. Trammell founded Khorus Software in 2013, a business management software company made specifically for CEOs to align organizations, execute strategy, and deliver predictable results. The company officially launched in February 2014 and Trammell serves as chairman.
Trammell serves as a board member for Rise School of Austin and Austin Technology Council, where he serves as Chairman Emeritus. He is also a managing partner at Lake Austin Advisors. He served as a board member at Black Box Network Services until November 2017, when he was selected as CEO.
Trammell contributes to Forbes and Entrepreneur with advice for current and aspiring CEOs, as well as sharing his leadership experiences on his blog, The American CEO. At the Austin Chapter of Rice Alliance, Trammell teaches a yearly 9-week long CEO training program.
Personal life
Joel Trammell is married to Cathy Fulton, with whom he co-founded NetQoS in 1999. They have three children and reside in Austin, Texas. Joel and Cathy are investors and board members at BridgingApps, an Easter Seals Houston program which provides disabled children with communication and educational technology and training. Trammell enjoys playing tennis, and applies the lessons learned from the game to his entrepreneurship. In 1999, he won the "Player of the Year" award, for his sportsmanship and playing level from the Capital Area Tennis Association. In 2005, Joel and his tennis partner, Jonas Lundblad, won the USTA Men's 30 and Over National Doubles Championship, and again in 2014, with partner David Corrie. Trammell also enjoys playing poker and is a basketball fan.
Awards and recognition
In 2006, Trammell was awarded Ernst and Young's "Entrepreneur of the Year" for its Central Texas Region and Austin Business Journals "Private Company Executive of the Year" award. That year he also won the CEO Poker Tournament, taking home $15,870.
References
External links
The American CEO blog
1965 births
Living people
Members of the Libertarian Party (United States)
21st-century American businesspeople
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RStudio
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RStudio
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RStudio is an Integrated Development Environment (IDE) for R, a programming language for statistical computing and graphics. It is available in two formats: RStudio Desktop is a regular desktop application while RStudio Server runs on a remote server and allows accessing RStudio using a web browser.
Licensing model
The RStudio IDE is available with the GNU Affero General Public License version 3. The AGPL v3 is an open source license that guarantees the freedom to share the code.
RStudio Desktop and RStudio Server are both available in free and fee-based (commercial) editions. OS support depends on the format/edition of the IDE. Prepackaged distributions of RStudio Desktop are available for Windows, macOS, and Linux. RStudio Server and Server Pro run on Debian, Ubuntu, Red Hat Linux, CentOS, openSUSE and SLES.
Overview and History
The RStudio IDE is partly written in the C++ programming language and uses the Qt framework for its graphical user interface. The bigger percentage of the code is written in Java. JavaScript is also amongst the languages used.
Work on the RStudio IDE started around December 2010, and the first public beta version (v0.92) was officially announced in February 2011. Version 1.0 was released on 1 November 2016. Version 1.1 was released on 9 October 2017.
In April 2018, RStudio PBC (at the time RStudio, Inc.) announced that it will provide operational and infrastructure support to Ursa Labs in support of the Labs focus on building a new data science runtime powered by Apache Arrow.
In April 2019, RStudio PBC (at the time RStudio, Inc.) released a new product, the RStudio Job Launcher. The Job Launcher is an adjunct to RStudio Server. The launcher provides the ability to start processes within various batch processing systems (e.g. Slurm) and container orchestration platforms (e.g. Kubernetes). This function is only available in RStudio Server Pro (fee-based application).
Packages
In addition to the RStudio IDE, RStudio PBC and its employees develop, maintain, and promote a number of R packages. These include:
Tidyverse – R packages for data science, including ggplot2, dplyr, tidyr, and purrr
Shiny – An interactive web technology
RMarkdown – Markdown documents make it easy for users to mix text with code of different languages, most commonly R. However, the platform supports mixing R with Python, shell scripts, SQL, Stan, JavaScript, CSS, Julia, C, Fortran, and other languages in the same RMarkdown document.
flexdashboard - publish a group of related data visualizations as a dashboard
TensorFlow - open-source software library for Machine Intelligence. The R interface to TensorFlow lets you work productively using the high-level Keras and Estimator APIs and the core TensorFlow API
Tidymodels - install and load tidyverse packages related to modeling and analysis
Sparklyr - provides bindings to Spark’s distributed machine learning library. Together with sparklyr’s dplyr interface, you can easily create and tune machine learning workflows on Spark, orchestrated entirely within R
Stringr - consistent, simple and easy-to-use set of wrappers around the 'stringi' package
Reticulate - provides a comprehensive set of tools for interoperability between Python and R.
Plumber - enables you to convert your existing R code into web APIs by merely adding a couple of special comments.
knitr – Dynamic reports combining R, TeX, Markdown & HTML
packrat – Package dependency tool
devtools – Package development tool as well as helps to install R-packages from GitHub.
sf – supports for simple features, a standardized way to encode spatial vector data. Binds to 'GDAL' for reading and writing data, to 'GEOS' for geometrical operations, and to 'PROJ' for projection conversions and datum transformations.
Addins
The RStudio IDE provides a mechanism for executing R functions interactively from within the IDE through the Addins menu. This enables packages to include Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs) for increased accessibility. Popular packages that use this feature include:
bookdown – a knitr extension to create books
colourpicker – a graphical tool to pick colours for plots
datasets.load – a graphical tool to search and load datasets
googleAuthR – Authenticate with Google APIs
Development
The RStudio IDE is developed by RStudio, PBC, a public-benefit corporation founded by J. J. Allaire, creator of the programming language ColdFusion. RStudio, PBC has no formal connection to the R Foundation, a not-for-profit organization located in Vienna, Austria, which is responsible for overseeing development of the R environment for statistical computing.
See also
R interfaces
Comparison of integrated development environments
References
External links
Free R (programming language) software
R (programming language)
Science software for Linux
Software using the GNU AGPL license
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows%20Mobile
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Windows Mobile
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Windows Mobile is a discontinued family of mobile operating systems developed by Microsoft for smartphones and personal digital assistants.
Its origin dated back to Windows CE in 1996, though Windows Mobile itself first appeared in 2000 as Pocket PC 2000 which ran on Pocket PC PDAs. It was renamed "Windows Mobile" in 2003, at which point it came in several versions (similar to the desktop versions of Windows) and was aimed at business and enterprise consumers. When initially released in the mid-2000s, it was to be the portable equivalent of what Windows desktop OS was: a major force in the then-emerging mobile/portable areas.
Following the rise of newer smartphone OSs (iOS and Android) Windows Mobile never equalled the success and faded rapidly in the following years. By February 2010, Microsoft announced Windows Phone to supersede Windows Mobile with a more modern take on the industry. As a result, Windows Mobile has been deprecated. Windows Phone is incompatible with Windows Mobile devices and software. The last version of Windows Mobile, released after the announcement of Windows Phone, was 6.5.5. After this, Microsoft ceased development on Windows Mobile in order to concentrate on Windows Phone.
Features
Most versions of Windows Mobile have a standard set of features, such as multitasking and the ability to navigate a file system similar to that of Windows 9x and Windows NT, including support for many of the same file types. Similarly to its desktop counterpart, it comes bundled with a set of applications that perform basic tasks. Internet Explorer Mobile is the default web browser, and Windows Media Player is the default media player used for playing digital media. The mobile version of Microsoft Office is the default office suite.
Internet Connection Sharing, supported on compatible devices, allows the phone to share its Internet connection with computers via USB and Bluetooth. Windows Mobile supports virtual private networking over PPTP protocol. Most devices with mobile connectivity also have a Radio Interface Layer. The Radio Interface Layer provides the system interface between the Cell Core layer within the Windows Mobile OS and the radio protocol stack used by the wireless modem hardware. This allows OEMs to integrate a variety of modems into their equipment.
The user interface changed dramatically between versions, only retaining similar functionality. The Today Screen, later called the Home Screen, shows the current date, owner information, upcoming appointments, e-mails, and tasks. The taskbar displays the current time as well as the volume level. Devices with a cellular radio also show the signal strength on said taskbar.
History
Windows Mobile is based on the Windows CE kernel and first appeared as the Pocket PC 2000 operating system. It includes a suite of basic applications developed with the Microsoft Windows API, and is designed to have features and appearance somewhat similar to desktop versions of Windows. It allowed third party developers to develop software for Windows Mobile with no restrictions imposed by Microsoft. Software applications were purchasable from Windows Marketplace for Mobile during the service's lifespan.
Most early Windows Mobile devices came with a stylus, which can be used to enter commands by tapping it on the screen. The primary touch input technology behind most devices were resistive touchscreens which often required a stylus for input. Later devices used capacitive sensing which does not require a stylus. Along with touchscreens, a large variety of form factors existed for the platform. Some devices featured slideout keyboards, while others featured minimal face buttons.
Windows CE
Microsoft's work on handheld portable devices began with research projects in 1990, with the work on Windows CE beginning in 1992. Initially, the OS and the user interface were developed separately. With Windows CE being based on Windows 95 code and a separate team handing the user interface which was codenamed WinPad (later Microsoft At Work for Handhelds). Windows 95 had strong pen support making porting easy; with some saying "At this time, Windows 95 offers outstanding pen support. It is treating pens right for the first time." WinPad was delayed due to price and performance issues, before being scrapped in early 1995 due to touchscreen driver problems relating to WriteTouch technology, made by NCR Microelectronic Products. Although WinPad was never released as a consumer product, Alpha builds were released showcasing many interface elements. During development of WinPad a separate team worked on a project called Pulsar; designed to be a mobile communications version of WinPad, described as a "pager on Steroids". This project was also canceled around the same time as WinPad. The two disbanded groups would form the Pegasus project in 1995. Pegasus would work on the hardware side of the Windows CE OS, attempting to create a form factor similar to a PC-esque PDA like WinPad, with communications functionality like Pulsar. Under the name Handheld PC, a hardware reference guide was created and devices began shipping in 1996, although most of these device bore little resemblance to the goal of a pen-based touchscreen handheld device. A specification for a smaller form factor under the name Palm-size PC was released in 1998.
Pocket PC 2000
Pocket PC 2000, originally codenamed "Rapier", was released on April 19, 2000, and was based on the Windows CE 3.0 kernel.
It was the debut of what was later dubbed the Windows Mobile operating system, and meant to be a successor to the operating system aboard Palm-size PCs. It retained backwards compatibility with such Palm-size PC applications. Pocket PC 2000 was intended mainly for Pocket PC devices; however, several Palm-size PC devices had the ability to be updated also. While, several Pocket PC 2000 phones were released, Microsoft's smartphone hardware platform was not yet created. The only resolution supported by this release was 240×320 (QVGA). Removable storage card formats that were supported were CompactFlash and MultiMediaCard. At this time Pocket PC devices had not been standardized with a specific CPU architecture. As a result, Pocket PC 2000 was released on multiple CPU architectures; SH-3, MIPS, and ARM. Infrared (IR) File beaming capability was among the original hardware features.
The original Pocket PC operating system had similar appearance to Windows 98, Windows Me, and Windows 2000 operating systems. Crucially, unlike the interface on predecessing Palm-size PC, the Pocket PC had a less cluttered interface more suitable for a mobile device. Pocket PC 2000 is unsupported as of September 10, 2007.
This initial release had multiple built-in applications, many of them similarly branded to match their desktop counterparts; such as Microsoft Reader, Microsoft Money, Pocket Internet Explorer and Windows Media Player. A version of Microsoft Office called Pocket Office was also bundled and included Pocket Word, Pocket Excel and Pocket Outlook. Notes, a note-taking app saw its first release and would be supported by most later versions of Windows Mobile. Intelligent character recognition support allowed Notes to distinguish styles of handwriting to be learned by the OS during processing to improve accuracy and recognition levels.
Pocket PC 2002
Pocket PC 2002, originally codenamed "Merlin", was released in October 2001, and like Pocket PC 2000, was based on the Windows CE 3.0 kernel.
Although targeted mainly for 240×320 (QVGA) Pocket PC devices, Pocket PC 2002 was also used for Pocket PC phones, and for the first time, smartphones. These Pocket PC 2002 Smartphones were mainly GSM devices. With future releases, the Pocket PC and Smartphone lines would increasingly collide as the licensing terms were relaxed allowing OEMs to take advantage of more innovative, individual design ideas. Aesthetically, Pocket PC 2002 was meant to be similar in design to the then newly released Windows XP. Newly added or updated programs include Windows Media Player 8 with streaming capability; MSN Messenger, and Microsoft Reader 2, with Digital rights management support. Upgrades to the bundled version of Office Mobile include a spell checker and word count tool in Pocket Word and improved Pocket Outlook. Connectivity was improved with file beaming on non-Microsoft devices such as Palm OS, the inclusion of Terminal Services and Virtual private networking support, and the ability to synchronize folders. Other upgrades include an enhanced UI with theme support and savable downloads and WAP in Pocket Internet Explorer.
Windows Mobile 2003
Originally called Pocket PC 2003 but later renamed Windows Mobile 2003, originally codenamed "Ozone", was released on June 23, 2003, was based on the Windows CE 4.x kernel, and was the first release under the Windows Mobile banner.
It came in four editions: "Windows Mobile 2003 for Pocket PC Premium Edition", "Windows Mobile 2003 for Pocket PC Professional Edition", "Windows Mobile 2003 for Smartphone" and "Windows Mobile 2003 for Pocket PC Phone Edition". The last was designed especially for Pocket PCs which include phone functionalities. The Professional Edition was used in Pocket PC budget models. It lacked a number of features that were in the Premium Edition, such as a client for L2TP/IPsec VPNs. Windows Mobile 2003 was powered by Windows CE 4.20.
Communications interface were enhanced with Bluetooth device management, which allowed for Bluetooth file beaming support, Bluetooth headset support and support for Bluetooth add-on keyboards. A pictures application with viewing, cropping, e-mail, and beaming support was added. Multimedia improvements included MIDI file support as ringtones in Phone Edition and Windows Media Player 9.0 with streaming optimization. A puzzle game titled Jawbreaker is among the preinstalled programs. GAPI was included with this release to facilitate the development of games for the platform.
Other features/built-in applications included the following: enhanced Pocket Outlook with vCard and vCal support, improved Pocket Internet Explorer and SMS reply options for Phone Edition.
Windows Mobile 2003 SE
Windows Mobile 2003 Second Edition, also known as "Windows Mobile 2003 SE", was released on March 24, 2004, was based on the Windows CE 4.x kernel, and first offered on the Dell Axim x30. This was the last version which allowed users to back up and restore an entire device through ActiveSync.
This upgrade allows users to switch between portrait and landscape modes and introduces a single-column layout in Pocket Internet Explorer. It includes support for Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) and new screen resolutions: 640×480 (VGA), 240×240, and 480×480.
Windows Mobile 5
Windows Mobile 5.0, originally codenamed "Magneto", was released at Microsoft's Mobile and Embedded Developers Conference 2005 in Las Vegas, May 9–12, 2005, and was based on the Windows CE 5.0 kernel.
Microsoft offered mainstream support for Windows Mobile 5 through October 12, 2010, and extended support through October 13, 2015. It was first offered on the Dell Axim x51. It used the .NET Compact Framework 1.0 SP3, an environment for programs based on .NET. Windows Mobile 5.0 included Microsoft Exchange Server "push" functionality improvements that worked with Exchange 2003 SP2. The "push" functionality also required vendor/device support. With AKU2 software upgrades all WM 5.0 devices supported DirectPush.
Other features included an enhanced battery-saving capability called persistent storage capability. Previously up to 50% (enough for 72 hours of storage) of battery power was reserved just to maintain data in volatile RAM. This continued the trend of Windows-based devices moving from using RAM as their primary storage medium to the use of a combination of RAM and flash memory (in use, no distinction between the two is obvious to users). Programs and frequently accessed data run in RAM, while most storage is in the flash memory. The OS seamlessly moves data between the two as needed. Everything is backed up in the flash memory, so unlike prior devices, WM5 devices lose no data if power is lost. New to 5.0, OS updates were released as adaptation kit upgrades, with AKU 3.5 being the final released.
Windows Mobile 5 comes with Microsoft Office Mobile which includes PowerPoint Mobile, Excel Mobile with graphing capability and Word Mobile with the ability to insert tables and graphics. Media management and playback was enhanced with Picture and Video package, which converged the management of videos and pictures and Windows Media Player 10 Mobile. Among new hardware features were enhanced Bluetooth support, default QWERTY keyboard-support and a management interface for Global Positioning System (GPS). Improvements were made to ActiveSync 4.2 with 15% increased synchronization speed. Business customers benefited from a new error reporting facility similar to that present in desktop and server Windows systems. Caller ID now supports photos so a user can apply an image to each contact to show when a call is received. DirectShow was also natively added. This release was the first to include DirectDraw with hardware acceleration, replacing the deprecated graphics component of GAPI.
Windows Mobile 5.0 requires at least 64 MB of ROM (it's advisable to have 64 MB of RAM), and the device must run an ARM compatible processor such as the Intel XScale or the Samsung and Texas Instruments ARM compatibles.
Windows Mobile 6
Windows Mobile 6, formerly codenamed "Crossbow", was released on February 12, 2007 at the 3GSM World Congress 2007and was based on the Windows CE 5.2 kernel.
It comes in three different versions: "Windows Mobile 6 Standard" for Smartphones (phones without touchscreens), "Windows Mobile 6 Professional" for Pocket PCs with phone functionality, and "Windows Mobile 6 Classic" for Pocket PCs without cellular radios.
Windows Mobile 6 is powered by Windows CE 5.0 (version 5.2) and is strongly linked to the then newly introduced Windows Live and Exchange 2007 products. Windows Mobile 6 Standard was first offered on the Orange's SPV E650, while Windows Mobile 6 Professional was first offered on the O2's Xda Terra. Aesthetically, Windows Mobile 6 was meant to be similar in design to the then newly released Windows Vista. Functionally, it works much like Windows Mobile 5, but with much better stability.
Along with the announcement of Office Mobile 6.1 with support for Office 2007 document formats (pptx, docx, xlsx); OneNote Mobile, a companion to Microsoft Office OneNote was added to the already installed version. In addition to the newly included programs with Office Mobile improvements were made to existing applications. Such as HTML email support in Outlook Mobile. A large number of Windows Mobile users are enterprise users business environments were targeted. With Server Search on Microsoft Exchange 2007, Out of Office Replies with Microsoft Exchange 2007, and search ability for contacts in an Exchange Server Address Book being implemented. To aid development for programmers, .NET Compact Framework v2 SP2 is now preinstalled with the OS. Developers and users also have access to Microsoft SQL Server 2005 Compact Edition for storage and retrieval of information. AJAX, JavaScript, and XMLDOM support were added to Internet Explorer Mobile along with improved devicewide Internet Sharing. Communication abilities were further enhanced with a new Microsoft Bluetooth Stack and VoIP (Internet calling) support with AEC (Acoustic Echo Cancelling) and MSRT audio codec.
To improve security Microsoft added Storage Card Encryption so that encryption keys are lost if device is cold-booted. Further updates both, security and feature, can now also be provided using Operating System Live Update.
Among other improvements: 320×320 and 800×480 (WVGA) screen resolutiopport (The S01SH or "Em One" by Sharp was the first and only device to have an 800×480 screen on WM5), Improved Remote Desktop access (available for only certain Pocket PCs), Customer Feedback option, Smartfilter for searching within programs and Unlicensed Mobile Access (UMA) support for select operators.
Windows Mobile 6.1
Windows Mobile 6.1 was announced April 1, 2008, and was based on the Windows CE 5.x kernel.
It is a minor upgrade to the Windows Mobile 6 platform with various performance enhancements and a redesigned Home screen featuring horizontal tiles that expand on clicking to display more information, although this new home screen is featured only on Windows Mobile Standard edition. This was not supported in the Professional edition. Several other changes such as threaded SMS, full page zooming in Internet Explorer and 'Domain Enroll' were also added, along with a "mobile" version of the Microsoft OneNote program and an interactive "Getting Started" wizard. Domain Enroll is functionality to connect the device to System Center Mobile Device Manager 2008, a product to manage mobile devices. Windows Mobile 6.1 also had improved bandwidth efficiency in its push-email protocol ActiveSync up to 40%; this considerably improved battery life in many devices.
Aside from the visual and feature distinctions, the underlying CE versions can be used to differentiate WM 6.0 from WM 6.1. The version of Windows CE in WM 6.0 is 5.2.*, where the third and final number being a four-digit build ID (e.g. 5.2.1622 on HTC Wing). In WM 6.1, the CE version is 5.2.* with a five-digit build number (e.g. 5.2.19216 on Palm Treo 800w).
Windows Mobile 6.5
Windows Mobile 6.5 is a stopgap update to Windows Mobile 6.1, based on the Windows CE 5.x kernel, intended to bridge the gap between version 6.1 and the then yet-to-be released Windows Mobile 7 (Later canceled in favor of Windows Phone 7), that arrived in 2010. It was never part of Microsoft's mobile phone roadmap, and has been described by its chief executive, Steve Ballmer, as "not the full release Microsoft wanted" until the multi-touch-enabled Windows Mobile 7 (now replaced by Windows Phone) arrived in 2010. Ballmer also indicated that the company "screwed up with Windows Mobile", he lamented that Windows Mobile 7 was not yet available and that the Windows Mobile team needed to try to recoup losses. Microsoft unveiled this version at the 2009 Mobile World Congress in February, and several devices were supplied with it. It was released to manufacturers on May 11, 2009; the first devices running the operating system appeared in late October 2009. Several phones that officially shipped with Windows Mobile 6.1 can be officially updated to Windows Mobile 6.5. This update includes some significant new added features, such as a revamped GUI, a new Today screen resembling that of Microsoft's Zune player with vertically scrollable labels (called 'Titanium') in terms of functionality with a styling similar to that of Windows 7. WM 6.5 also includes the new Internet Explorer Mobile 6 browser, with improved interface.
Along with Windows Mobile 6.5, Microsoft announced several cloud computing services codenamed "SkyBox", "SkyLine", "SkyMarket". "SkyBox" has been confirmed as My Phone, while "SkyMarket" has been confirmed as Windows Marketplace for Mobile. This version was designed mainly for easier finger usage. Some reviewers have noted interface inconsistencies, with some applications having small buttons making them harder to operate using only a finger. Whilst this version of Windows Mobile does not natively support capacitive screens, mobile manufacturers have been able to use them on their devices.
In the months following this release, development shifted from Windows Mobile to its successor Windows Phone. As such no major upgrades were planned or released, although three minor updates; 6.5.1, 6.5.3 and 6.5.5; were made to satisfy consumers during the transition period. 6.5.1 brings larger user interface elements, including icon based soft buttons (rather than text based), an updated contacts app, native support for A-GPS, improved threaded text messaging, and performance improvements. It was unofficially ported to several Windows Mobile phones.
The second minor update was announced on February 2, 2010, along with the Sony Ericsson Aspen which was the first phone to use this version. 6.5.3 continues the trend of attempting to provide a more finger-friendly user interface with several new usability features such as native support for multitouch; although device maker HTC Corporation created proprietary work-arounds to allow multi-touch to work on some applications it installed on its HD2 handset (However, Microsoft applications on this handset, such as the Internet Explorer web browser, did not support multi-touch.) and drag-and-drop start menu icons. Touchable tiles replaced soft keys." Internet Explorer Mobile 6 has also received some major updates including decreased page load time, improved memory management and gesture smoothing. As with other updates it was unofficially ported to some other devices. Additional features include threaded email and Office Mobile 2010.
The last minor update and the last released version is 6.5.5. It first leaked in January 2010, and was unofficially ported to some Windows Mobile phones. The name Windows Mobile 6.5.5 has been applied to these newer builds, although this name remained unconfirmed by Microsoft.
Although Microsoft released a similarly-named Windows 10 Mobile in 2015, this operating system is unrelated to the former Windows Mobile operating systems.
Hardware
There are three main versions of Windows Mobile for various hardware devices:
Windows Mobile Professional runs on smartphones with touchscreens,
Windows Mobile Standard runs on mobile phones without touchscreens,
Windows Mobile Classic which runs on personal digital assistant or Pocket PCs.
Windows Mobile for Automotive and Windows Mobile software for Portable Media Centers are among some specialty versions of the platform.
Microsoft had over 50 handset partners, when Windows Mobile was still being shipped on new devices. 80% of the 50 million Windows Mobile devices that were made from launch to February 2009 were built by one contract manufacturing group, HTC, which makes handsets for several major companies under their brands, and under its own brand.
Embedded Handheld
On January 10, 2011, Microsoft announced Windows Embedded Handheld 6.5. The operating system has compatibility with Windows Mobile 6.5 and is presented as an enterprise handheld device, targeting retailers, delivery companies, and other companies that rely on handheld computing. Unlike Windows Phone, Windows Embedded Handheld retains backward compatibility with legacy Windows Mobile applications.
Pocket PCs
Pocket PCs and personal digital assistants were originally the intended platform for Windows Mobile. These were grouped into two main categories: devices that lacked mobile phone capabilities, and those that included it. Beginning with version 6 devices with this functionality ran "Windows Mobile 6 Professional" and those that lacked it ran "Windows Mobile 6 Classic". Microsoft had described these devices as "a handheld device that enables you to store and retrieve e-mail, contacts, appointments, play multimedia files, games, exchange text messages with MSN Messenger, browse the Web, and more". From a technical standpoint Microsoft also specified various hardware and software requirements such as the inclusion of a touchscreen and a directional pad or touchpad.
Smartphones
Smartphones were the second hardware platform after Pocket PC to run Windows Mobile, and debuted with the release of Pocket PC 2002. Although in the broad sense of the term "Smartphone", both Pocket PC phones and Microsoft branded Smartphones each fit into this category. Microsoft's use of the term "Smartphone" includes only more specific hardware devices that differ from Pocket PC phones. Such Smartphones were originally designed without touchscreens, intended to be operated more efficiently with only one hand, and typically had lower display resolution than Pocket PCs. Microsoft's focus for the Smartphone platform was to create a device that functioned well as a phone and data device in a more integrated manner.
Market share
Windows Mobile's share of the smartphone market grew from its inception while new devices were being released. After peaking in 2007, it saw decline year-on-year.
In Q1 2003, Windows Mobile was the third largest operating system in the smart handheld market, behind Symbian and Palm OS.
In Q1 2004, Windows Mobile accounted for 23% of worldwide smartphone sales. Windows Mobile was projected in 2005 to overtake Symbian to become the leading mobile OS by 2010. In Q3 2004, Windows Mobile (CE) surpassed Palm OS to become the largest PDA operating system.
In Q4 2005 Microsoft shipped 2.2 million PDAs, which increased to 3.5 million in the same quarter the following year. Windows Mobile saw year over year growth between 2005 and 2006 of 38.8% which according to Gartner "helped Windows Mobile to solidify its stronghold on the market".
But by 2008, its share had dropped to 14%. Microsoft licensed Windows Mobile to four out of the world's five largest mobile phone manufacturers, with Nokia being the exception.
Gartner research data showed that while the total smartphone industry grew 27% between 2008 and 2009, Windows Mobile's share of the smartphone market fell 2.7% in that same period. It also decreased by 20% in Q3 2009. At one time Windows Mobile was the most popular handset for business use, but by 2009 this was no longer the case; 24% of planned business deployments of mobile application in the United States were for Windows Mobile, putting it in 3rd place, behind BlackBerry (61%) and iPhone OS (27%);
In February 2009, Microsoft signed a deal with the third largest mobile phone maker, LG Electronics, to license Windows Mobile OS on 50 upcoming LG smartphone models. But in September 2009, Palm, Inc. announced it would drop Windows Mobile from its smartphone line-up. Gartner estimated that by the third quarter of 2009 Windows Mobile's share of worldwide smartphone sales was 7.9%. By August 2010, it was the least popular smartphone operating system, with a 5% share of the worldwide smartphone market (after Symbian, BlackBerry OS, Android and iOS). An October 2009 report in DigiTimes said that Acer will shift its focus from Windows Mobile to Google Android. The New York Times reported in 2009 that Windows Mobile "is foundering", as cellphone makers desert it in favor of Google's Android phone platform. It cited the difficulties in Microsoft's business model, which involves charging handset manufacturers up to $25 for each copy of Windows Mobile, while rival Google gives away Android for free. From late 2009 analysts and media reports began to express concerns about the future viability of the Windows Mobile platform, and whether Microsoft would keep supporting it into the future. Samsung announced in November 2009 that it would phase out the Windows Mobile platform, to concentrate on its own Bada operating system, Google's Android, and Microsoft's Windows Phone.
Software development
Software could be developed by third parties for the Windows Mobile operating system. Developers had several options for deploying mobile applications. These included writing native code with Visual C++, managed code that worked with the .NET Compact Framework, writing code in Tcl-Tk with eTcl, GCC using CeGCC, Python using PythonCE or server-side code that could be deployed using Internet Explorer Mobile or a mobile client on a user's device. The .NET Compact Framework was a subset of the .NET Framework and hence shared many components with software development on desktop clients, application servers, and web servers which had the .NET Framework installed, thus integrating networked computing space.
To aid developers Microsoft released software development kits (SDKs) that worked in conjunction with their Visual Studio development environment. These SDKs included emulator images for developers to test and debug their applications while writing them. Software could be tested on a client machine directly or be downloaded to a device. Microsoft also distributed Visual Studio 2008 / 2005 Professional Editions, and server/database counterparts to students as downloads free of charge via its DreamSpark program. Third party integrated development environments could also be used to write software such as Lazarus, Resco MobileForms Toolkit, Lexico, NS Basic and Basic4ppc. Some third party development environments allowed coding to be done on the device itself without the need for a computer.
Developer communities have used the SDK to port later versions of Windows Mobile OS to older devices and making the OS images available for free, thus providing the devices with newer feature sets. Microsoft had tolerated this procedure for some time but decided in February 2007 to ask developers to take their OS images off the net, which in turn raised discussions. At the same time Microsoft offered upgrades to Windows Mobile 6 versions to manufacturers for free.
On July 5, 2009, Microsoft opened a third-party application distribution service called Windows Marketplace for Mobile. In 2011, Windows Marketplace for Mobile stopped accepting new admissions. and then fully closed on May 9, 2012.
Connectivity
In the early years of Windows Mobile devices were able to be managed and synced from a remote computer using ActiveSync; a data synchronization technology and protocol developed by Microsoft, originally released in 1996. This allowed servers running Microsoft Exchange Server, or other third party variants, to act as a personal information manager and share information such as email, calendar appointments, contacts or internet favorites.
With the release of Windows Vista, ActiveSync was replaced with Windows Mobile Device Center. Device Center is included with Vista and Windows 7 and provides many front end enhancements, allowing a home user to sync PIM information with Microsoft Outlook 2003 and later, photos from Windows Photo Gallery, videos or music from Windows Media Player and favorites with Internet Explorer; without the need for a server back end. Devices at this time also included a base driver compatible with Mobile Device Center so a user can connect to a computer without a need for any configuration.
See also
List of defunct consumer brands
References
External links
Windows Mobile Team Blog
Windows CE
Microsoft franchises
Mobile operating systems
Defunct consumer brands
Discontinued products
ARM operating systems
Discontinued Microsoft operating systems
Discontinued versions of Microsoft Windows
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EBay%20v.%20Bidder%27s%20Edge
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EBay v. Bidder's Edge
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eBay v. Bidder's Edge, 100 F. Supp. 2d 1058 (N.D. Cal. 2000), was a leading case applying the trespass to chattels doctrine to online activities. In 2000, eBay, an online auction company, successfully used the 'trespass to chattels' theory to obtain a preliminary injunction preventing Bidder's Edge, an auction data aggregator, from using a 'crawler' to gather data from eBay's website. The opinion was a leading case applying 'trespass to chattels' to online activities, although its analysis has been criticized in more recent jurisprudence.
Origins of dispute
Bidder's Edge ("BE") was founded in 1997 as an "aggregator" of auction listings. Its website provided a database of auction listings that BE automatically collected from various auction sites, including eBay. Accordingly, BE's users could easily search auction listings from throughout the web rather than having to go to each individual auction site.
In early 1998, eBay allowed BE to include Beanie Babies and Furby auction listings in BE's database. It is unclear whether BE scraped these listings from eBay or linked to them in some other format. However, on April 24, 1999, eBay verbally approved BE automatically "crawling" the eBay web site for a period of 90 days.
During this time, the parties contemplated striking a formal license agreement. These negotiations did not conclude successfully because the parties could not agree on technical issues. Subsequently, in early 1999, BE added auction listings from many other sites in its database, including eBay's. Despite the integration of many websites' listings, nearly 69% of the listings in BE's database were from eBay.
eBay wanted BE to access the eBay system only when a BE user queried the BE system. Doing so would increase the accuracy/currency of the data BE presented to its users and impose a lighter load on eBay's network. BE accessed eBay approximately 100,000 times a day, constituting about 1.53% of eBay's total daily requests. BE wanted to periodically crawl eBay's entire website to compile its own auction database, which would increase the speed of BE's response to user queries and allow BE to notify its users when eBay auctions changed.
Further developments leading to suit
Due to the disagreement regarding technical issues, at the end of the 90-day period, eBay notified BE that its activities were no longer permitted, but eBay offered again to license BE's activities. BE did not accept eBay's offer.
In late August or early September 1999, eBay requested by telephone that BE cease posting eBay auction listings on its site. BE agreed to do so. In October 1999, BE learned that other auction aggregations sites were including information about eBay auctions.
On November 2, 1999, BE issued a press release indicating that it had resumed including eBay auction listings on its site. On November 9, 1999, eBay sent BE a letter reasserting that BE's activities were unauthorized, insisting that BE cease accessing the eBay site, alleging that BE's activities constituted a trespass of eBay's chattels and offering to license BE's activities.
IP address blocking and proxy
As a result, eBay attempted to block BE from accessing the eBay site; by the end of November 1999, eBay had blocked a total of 169 IP addresses it believed BE was using to query eBay's system. BE continued crawling eBay's site by using proxy servers to evade eBay's IP address blocks. Information requests sent through such servers cannot easily be traced back to the originating IP Address, which allowed Bidder's Edge to evade eBay's attempts to block queries from the originating IP address.
Lawsuits
eBay sued Bidder's Edge on December 10, 1999, in the Northern District of California federal court. eBay moved for a preliminary injunction on the following causes of action:
Trespass to chattels,
False advertising under the Lanham Act, 15 U.S.C. § 1125(a),
Trademark dilution,
violation of the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act, 18 U.S.C. § 1030,
Unfair competition,
Misappropriation,
Interference with prospective economic advantage and
Unjust enrichment.
BE filed antitrust counterclaims on February 7, 2000. The counterclaims charged eBay with monopolization, attempted monopolization, unfair business practices and interference with contractual relations. On May 24, 2000, District Court Judge Whyte found that eBay had established a sufficient likelihood of prevailing on the trespass claim to support eBay's requested injunctive relief. Because the court found eBay entitled to the relief requested based on its trespass claim, the court did not address the remaining claims. The opinion first addressed the merits of the trespass claim, then BE's arguments regarding copyright preemption of the trespass claim, and finally the public interest.
Trespass to chattels
The court said that eBay's trespass to chattels claim required it to show that:
Bidder's Edge intentionally and without authorization interfered with eBay's possessory interest in the computer system; and
Bidder's Edge's unauthorized use proximately resulted in damage to eBay.
eBay argued that BE's use was unauthorized and intentional. The court said that eBay had not permitted BE's activity simply by having a website available over the Internet. BE had violated eBay's terms of use and ignored eBay's requests to stop using its crawlers. BE responded that it was not causing eBay irreparable harm because its activity (80,000–100,000 hits per day) represented only a small fraction (approximately 1 ½ percent) of the overall activity on eBay's site. eBay acknowledged that BE's activity was only a relatively slight interference with eBay's servers.
Nevertheless, the court found that although BE's interference was not substantial, "any intermeddling with or use of another's personal property" established BE's possessory interference with eBay's chattel. Further, BE's use of eBay's bandwidth and system resources, even though small, harmed eBay because other companies might follow BE's example: "If the court were to hold otherwise, it would likely encourage other auction aggregators to crawl the eBay site, potentially to the point of denying effective access to eBay's customers. If preliminary injunctive relief were denied, and other aggregators began to crawl the eBay site, there appears to be little doubt that the load on eBay's computer system would qualify as a substantial impairment of condition or value."
Public interest
The parties argued that the Internet would cease to function if, according to eBay, personal and intellectual property rights were not respected, or, according to BE, if information published on the Internet could not be universally accessed and used. The court suspected that the Internet would not only survive but continue to grow and develop regardless of its ruling. The court noted that particularly on the limited record available at the preliminary injunction stage, it was unable to determine whether the general public interest factors favored or opposed a preliminary injunction.
BE also argued that eBay engaged in anticompetitive behavior. However, the district court was not obligated to consider the merits of any antitrust counterclaims once it decided that eBay had a likelihood of success on the merits.
Order
Based on its findings, the court issued a preliminary injunction against BE from "using any automated query program, robot, or similar device to access eBay's computer systems or networks for the purpose of copying any part of eBay's auction database."
Subsequent developments and negative history
One day after it filed federal antitrust charges against eBay, Bidder's Edge announced it would be acquired by OpenSite, an auction software company. However, the deal fell through when Siebel Systems bought OpenSite.
eBay and Bidder's Edge settled their legal disputes in March 2001. As part of the settlement, Bidder's Edge paid eBay an undisclosed amount and agreed not to access and re-post eBay's auction information. The settlement also required BE to drop its appeal of the preliminary injunction. Meanwhile, Bidder's Edge shut down its website on February 21, 2001.
In 2003, the California Supreme Court implicitly overruled the eBay v. Bidder's Edge opinion in Intel v. Hamidi, a case interpreting California's common law trespass to chattels.
The Hamidi court considered the eBay court analysis, which stated that if BE's activity were allowed to continue unchecked, it would encourage other auction aggregators to engage in similar searching which would cause eBay irreparable harm. In analyzing this point, the Hamidi court stated,"[W]e do not read [eBay decision] as expressing the court's complete view of the issue. In isolation, moreover, [it] would not be a correct statement of California or general American law on this point." As a result, the opinion may be or may no longer be valid precedent.
Further, since eBay was issued, some courts have become more circumspect about the "slippery slope" argument that eBay successfully made about additional crawlers following BE's lead. For example, in White Buffalo Ventures LLC v. University of Texas at Austin, the Fifth Circuit said "Since the spider does not cause physical injury to the chattel, there must be some evidence that the use or utility of the computer (or computer network) being 'spiderized' is adversely affected by the use of the spider. No such evidence is presented here. This court respectfully disagrees with other district courts' finding that mere use of a spider to enter a publicly available web site to gather information, without more, is sufficient to fulfill the harm requirement for trespass to chattels."
References
External links
Intel v. Hamidi
Ticketmaster L.L.C. v. RMG Technologies, Inc.
2000 in California
2000 in United States case law
EBay litigation
United States District Court for the Northern District of California cases
United States property case law
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18365452
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seth%20J.%20Teller
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Seth J. Teller
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Seth Jared Teller (May 28, 1964 – July 1, 2014) was an American computer scientist and professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, whose research interests included computer vision, sensor networks, and robotics. In his Argus and Rover projects of the late 1990s, Teller was an early pioneer in the use of mobile cameras and geolocation to build three-dimensional models of cities.
Early life and education
Teller's parents are Joan Teller and Samuel H. Teller of Bolton, Connecticut; Samuel Teller is a senior judge in the Connecticut Superior Court in Rockville.
Teller received his undergraduate degree from the Wesleyan University, and a Ph.D. from the University of California, Berkeley in 1992. His dissertation, Visibility Computations in Densely Occluded Polyhedral Environments, was supervised by Carlo H. Séquin.
Academic career
He was a post-doctoral fellow at the Computer Science Institute of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and Princeton University's Computer Science Department.
Teller was awarded a Sloan Research Fellowship by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation in 1997.
Teller was heading the Robotics, Vision, and Sensor Networks group at the MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, conducting robotics and artificial intelligence research on developing robots with situational awareness. His work involved, in particular, creating various assistive technology robots and devices for people with disabilities. Teller's robotics projects included "a robotic, voice-controlled wheelchair, a wearable device for visually-impaired people that provides them with information about their surroundings, a self-driving car and an unmanned forklift". He also worked on developing technology for reducing the danger of first responders being hit by the passing vehicles while stopped to deal with highway accidents.
Teller was part of the MIT group developing software for a DoD robot, "Atlas", in the DARPA Robotics Challenge competition. Earlier, Teller's robotic car competed in the 2007 DARPA Urban Challenge competition.
In 2015, the Robotics Science and Systems Foundation established a Best Systems Paper Award in honor of Teller.
Personal life
Seth Teller married Rachel Zimmerman, a journalist from New York, in September 2002. They had two daughters.
Teller was involved in neighborhood activism in Cambridge, Massachusetts and helped create the Neighborhood Association of East Cambridge.
Seth Teller died by suicide on July 1, 2014, at the age of 50.
References
External links
Home page
Seth J. Teller at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
1964 births
2014 deaths
American roboticists
Massachusetts Institute of Technology faculty
Sloan Research Fellows
Suicides in Massachusetts
20th-century American scientists
21st-century American scientists
American computer scientists
University of California, Berkeley alumni
2014 suicides
MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory people
Suicides in the United States
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