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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8%C2%BD%20%28Plan%209%29
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8½ (Plan 9)
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is a window system developed for the Plan 9 from Bell Labs operating system by Rob Pike. According to its documentation, the system has little graphical fanciness, a fixed user interface, and depends on a three-button mouse. Like much of the Plan 9 operating system, many operations work by reading and writing to special files.
Because of the limitations stemming from its unusual implementation, has been completely rewritten into its successor rio in recent Plan 9 versions.
See also
Plan 9 from Bell Labs — the operating system
mux — the predecessor to
rio — the new Plan 9 windowing system
9wm — an X window manager which attempts to emulate
External links
, the Plan 9 Window System by Rob Pike — The original paper.
Plan 9 from Bell Labs
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4733351
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trading%20room
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Trading room
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A trading room gathers traders operating on financial markets. The trading room is also often called the front office. The terms "dealing room" and "trading floor" are also used, the latter being inspired from that of an open outcry stock exchange. As open outcry is gradually replaced by electronic trading, the trading room becomes the only remaining place that is emblematic of the financial market. It is also the likeliest place within the financial institution where the most recent technologies are implemented before being disseminated in its other businesses.
Specialized computer labs that simulate trading rooms are known as "trading labs" or "finance labs" in universities and business schools.
Origin
Before the sixties or seventies, the banks' capital market businesses were mostly split into many departments, sometimes scattered at several sites, as market segments: money market (domestic and currencies), foreign exchange, long-term financing, exchange, bond market. By gathering these teams to a single site, banks want to ease:
a more efficient broadcast of market information, for greater reactivity of traders;
idea confrontation on market trends and opportunities;
desk co-ordination towards customers.
Context
The Trading Rooms first appeared among United States bulge bracket brokers, such as Morgan Stanley, from 1971, with the creation of NASDAQ, which requires an equity trading desk on their premises, and the growth of the secondary market of federal debt products, which requires a bond trading desk.
The spread of trading rooms in Europe, between 1982 and 1987, has been subsequently fostered by two reforms of the financial markets organization, that were carried out roughly simultaneously in the United Kingdom and France.
In the United Kingdom, the Big Bang on the London Stock Exchange, removed the distinction between stockbrokers and stockjobbers, and prompted US investment banks, hitherto deprived of access to the LSE, to set up a trading room in the City of London.
In France, the deregulation of capital markets, carried out by Pierre Bérégovoy, Economics and Finance Minister, between 1984 and 1986, led to the creation of money-market instruments, of an interest-rate futures market, MATIF, of an equity options market, MONEP, the streamlining of sovereign debt management, with multiple-auction bond issues and the creation of a primary dealer status. Every emerging market segment raised the need for new dedicated trader positions inside the trading room.
Businesses
A trading room serves two types of business:
trading, and arbitrage, a business of investment banks and brokers, often referred to as the sell side.
portfolio management, a business of asset management companies and institutional investors, often referred to as the buy side.
Brokers and investment banks set up their trading rooms first and large asset-management firms subsequently followed them.
The business type determines peculiarities in the organization and the software environment inside the trading room.
Organization
Trading rooms are made up of "desks", specialised by product or market segment (equities, short-term, long-term, options...), that share a large open space.
An investment bank's typical room makes a distinction between:
traders, whose role is to offer the best possible prices to sales, by anticipating market trends. After striking a deal with a sales, the trader arranges a reverse trade either with another trader belonging to another entity of the same institution or to an outside counterparty;
market-makers, acting like wholesalers. Trades negotiated by market-makers usually bear standard terms.
Sales make deals tailored to their corporate customers' needs, that is, their terms are often specific. Focusing on their customer relationship, they may deal on the whole range of asset types.
Many large institutions have grouped their cash and derivative desks, while others, such as UBS or Deutsche Bank, for example, giving the priority to customer relationship, structure their trading room as per customer segment, around sales desks.
Some large trading rooms hosts offshore traders, acting on behalf of another entity of the same institution, located in another time-zone. One room in Paris may have traders paid for by the New York City subsidiary, and whose working hours are consequently shifted. On the foreign exchange desk, because this market is live on a 24/24 basis, a rolling book organisation can be implemented, whereby, a London-based trader, for instance, will inherit, at start of day, the open positions handed over by the Singapore, Tokyo, or Bahrain room, and manages them till his own end-of-day, when they are handed over to another colleague based in New York City.
Some institutions, notably those that invested in a rapid development (RAD) team, choose to blend profiles inside the trading room, where traders, financial engineers and front-office dedicated software developers sit side by side. The latter therefore report to a head of trading rather than to a head of IT.
More recently, a profile of compliance officer has also appeared; he or she makes sure the law, notably that relative to market use, and the code of conduct, are complied with.
The middle office and the back office are generally not located in the trading room.
The organisation is somewhat simpler with asset management firms:
asset managers are responsible for portfolios or funds;
"traders" are in contact with "brokers" – that is, with the above-mentioned investment banks' "sales"; however, this profile is absent from asset management firms that chose to outsource their trading desk.
The development of trading businesses, during the eighties and nineties, required ever larger trading rooms, specifically adapted to IT- and telephony cabling. Some institutions therefore moved their trading room from their downtown premises, from the City to Canary Wharf, from inner Paris to La Défense, and from Wall Street towards Times Square or New York City's residential suburbs in Connecticut; UBS Warburg, for example, built a trading room in Stamford, Connecticut in 1997, then enlarged it in 2002, to the world's largest one, with about floor space, allowing the installation of some working positions and monitors.
The "Basalte" building of Société Générale is the first ever building specifically dedicated to trading rooms; it is fit for double power sourcing, to allow trading continuity in case one of the production sources is cut off.
JP Morgan is planning to construct a building, close to the World Trade Center site, where all six floors dedicated to trading rooms will be cantilevered, the available ground surface being only .
Infrastructure
The early years
Telephone and teleprinter have been the broker's first main tools. The teleprinter, or Teletype, got financial quotes and printed them out on a ticker tape. US equities were identified by a ticker symbol made of one to three letters, followed by the last price, the lowest and the highest, as well as the volume of the day. Broadcasting neared real time, quotes being rarely delayed by more than 15 minutes, but the broker looking for a given security's price had to read the tape...
As early as 1923, the Trans-Lux company installed the NYSE with a projection system of a transparent ticker tape onto a large screen. This system has been subsequently adopted by most NYSE-affiliated brokers till the 1960s.
In 1956, a solution called Teleregister, came to the market; this electro-mechanical board existed in two versions, of the top 50 or top 200 securities listed on the NYSE; but one had to be interested in those equities, and not in other ones...
During the 1960s, the trader's workstation was remarkable for the overcrowding of telephones. The trader juggled with handsets to discuss with several brokers simultaneously. The electromechanical, then electronic, calculator enabled him or her to perform basic computations.
In the 1970s, if the emergence of the PABX gave way to some simplification of the telephony equipment, the development of alternative display solutions, however, lead to a multiplication of the number of video monitors on their desks, pieces of hardware that were specific and proprietary to their respective financial data provider.
The main actors of the financial data market were; Telerate, Reuters, Bloomberg with its Bloomberg Terminal, Knight Ridder notably with its Viewtron offering, Quotron and Bridge, more or less specialised on the money market, foreign exchange, securities market segments, respectively, for the first three of them.
The advent of spreadsheets
From the early 1980s, trading rooms multiplied and took advantage of the spread of micro-computing. Spreadsheets emerged, the products on offer being split between the MS-DOS/Windows/PC world and the Unix world. For PC, there was Lotus 1-2-3, it was quickly superseded by Excel, for workstations and terminals. For UNIX, there was Applix and Wingz among others. Along video monitors, left space had to be found on desks to install a computer screen.
Quite rapidly, Excel got very popular among traders, as much as a decision support tool as a means to manage their position, and proved to be a strong factor for the choice of a Windows NT platform at the expense of a Unix or VAX/VMS platform.
Though software alternatives multiplied during this decade, the trading room was suffering from a lack of interoperability and integration. To begin with, there was scant automated transmission of trades from the front-office desktop tools, notably Excel, towards the enterprise application software that gradually got introduced in back-offices; traders recorded their deals by filling in a form printed in a different colour depending on the direction (buy/sell or loan/borrow), and a back-office clerk came and picked piles of tickets at regular intervals, so that these could be re-captured in another system.
The digital revolution
Video display applications were not only wrapped up in cumbersome boxes, their retrieval-based display mode was no longer adapted to markets that had been gaining much liquidity and henceforth required decisions in a couple of seconds. Traders expected market data to reach them in real time, with no intervention required from them with the keyboard or the mouse, and seamlessly feed their decision support and position handling tools.
The digital revolution, which started in the late 1980s, was the catalyst that helped meet these expectations. It found expression, inside the dealing room, in the installation of a digital data display system, a kind of local network. Incoming flows converged from different data providers, and these syndicated data were distributed onto traders' desktops. One calls a feed-handler the server that acquires data from the integrator and transmits them to the local distribution system.
Reuters, with its TRIARCH 2000, Teknekron, with its TIB, Telerate with TTRS, Micrognosis with MIPS, soon shared this growing market. This infrastructure is a prerequisite to the further installation, on each desktop, of the software that acquires, displays and graphically analyses these data.
This type of software usually enables the trader to assemble the relevant information into composite pages, comprising a news panel, in text format, sliding in real time from bottom to top, a quotes panel, for instance spot rates against the US dollar, every quote update or « tick » showing up in reverse video during one or two seconds, a graphical analysis panel, with moving averages, MACD, candlesticks or other technical indicators, another panel that displays competitive quotes from different brokers, etc...
Two software package families were belonging to this new generation of tools, one dedicated to Windows-NT platforms, the other to Unix and VMS platforms.
However, Bloomberg and other, mostly domestic, providers, shunned this movement, preferring to stick to a service bureau model, where every desktop-based monitor just displays data that are stored and processed on the vendor's premises. The approach of these providers was to enrich their database and functionalities enough so that the issue of opening up their datafeed to any spreadsheet or third-party system gets pointless.
This decade also witnessed the irruption of television inside trading rooms. Press conferences held by central bank presidents are henceforth eagerly awaited events, where tone and gestures are decrypted. The trader has one eye on a TV set, the other on a computer screen, to watch how markets react to declarations, while having, very often, one customer over the phone. Reuters, Bloomberg, CNN, CNBC each propose their news channel specially dedicated to financial markets.
Internet and bandwidth
The development of the internet triggered the fall of the cost of information, including financial information. It hit a serious blow to integrators who, like Reuters, had invested a lot the years before to deliver data en masse and in real time to the markets, but henceforth recorded a wave of terminations of their data subscriptions as well as flagging sales of their data distribution and display software licences.
Moreover, the cable operators' investors lead to a huge growth of information capacity transport worldwide. Institutions with several trading rooms in the world took advantage of this bandwidth to link their foreign sites to their headquarters in a hub and spoke model. The emergence of technologies like Citrix supported this evolution, since they enable remote users to connect to a virtual desktop from where they then access headquarters applications with a level of comfort similar to that of a local user. While an investment bank previously had to roll out a software in every trading room, it can now limit such an investment to a single site. The implementation cost of an overseas site gets reduced, mostly, to the telecoms budget.
And since the IT architecture gets simplified and centralised, it can also be outsourced. Indeed, from the last few years, the main technology providers active on the trading rooms market have been developing hosting services.
Software equipment
From the late 1980s, worksheets have been rapidly proliferating on traders' desktops while the head of the trading room still had to rely on consolidated positions that lacked both real time and accuracy. The diversity of valuation algorithms, the fragility of worksheets incurring the risk of loss of critical data, the mediocre response times delivered by PCs when running heavy calculations, the lack of visibility of the traders' goings-on, have all raised the need for shared information technology, or enterprise applications as the industry later called it.
But institutions have other requirements that depend on their business, whether it is trading or investment.
Risk-management
Within the investment bank, the trading division is keen to implement synergies between desks, such as:
hedging the currency risk born from foreign exchange swaps or forward positions;
funding by the money market desk of positions left open at end of day;
hedging bond positions by interest-rate futures or options contracts.
Such processes require mutualisation of data.
Hence a number of package software come to the market, between 1990 and 1993 : Infinity, Summit, Kondor+, Finance Kit, Front Arena, Murex and Sophis Risque, are quickly marketed under the umbrella of risk-management, a term more flattering though somewhat less accurate than that of position-keeping.
Though Infinity died, in 1996, with the dream of the toolkit that was expected to model any innovation a financial engineer could have designed, the other systems are still well and alive in trading rooms. Born during the same period, they share many technical features, such as a three-tier architecture, whose back-end runs on a Unix platform, a relational database on either Sybase or Oracle, and a graphical user interface written in English, since their clients are anywhere in the world. Deal capture of transactions by traders, position-keeping, measure of market risks (interest-rates and foreign exchange), calculation of Profit & Loss (P&L), per desk or trader, control of limits set per counterparty, are the main functionalities delivered by these systems.
These functions will be later entrenched by national regulations, that tend to insist on adequate IT: in France, they are defined in 1997 in an instruction from the “Commission Bancaire” relative to internal control.
Electronic trading
Telephone, used on over-the-counter (OTC) markets, is prone to misunderstandings. Should the two parties fail to clearly understand each other on the trade terms, it may be too late to amend the transaction once the received confirmation reveals an anomaly.
The first markets to discover electronic trading are the foreign-exchange markets. Reuters creates its Reuter Monitor Dealing Service in 1981. Contreparties meet each other by the means of the screen and agree on a transaction in videotex mode, where data are loosely structured.
Several products pop up in the world of electronic trading including Bloomberg Terminal, BrokerTec, TradeWeb and Reuters 3000 Xtra for securities and foreign exchange. While the Italian-born Telematico (MTS) finds its place, in the European trading rooms for trading of sovereign-debt.
More recently other specialised products have come to the market, such as Swapswire, to deal interest-rate swaps, or SecFinex and EquiLend, to place securities loans or borrowings (the borrower pays the subscription fee to the service).
However, these systems also generally lack liquidity. Contrarily to an oft-repeated prediction, electronic trading did not kill traditional inter-dealer brokerage. Besides, traders prefer to mix both modes: screen for price discovery, and voice to arrange large transactions.
Order management and routing
For organised markets products, processes are different: customer orders must be collected and centralised; some part of them can be diverted for internal matching, through so-called alternative trading systems (ATS); orders with a large size, or on equities with poor liquidity or listed on a foreign bourse, and orders from corporate customers, whose sales contact is located in the trading room, are preferably routed either towards brokers, or to multilateral trading facilities (MTF); the rest goes directly to the local stock exchange, where the institution is electronically connected to.
Orders are subsequently executed, partially of fully, then allocated to the respective customer accounts. The increasing number of listed products and trading venues have made it necessary to manage this order book with an adequate software.
Stock exchanges and futures markets propose their own front-end system to capture and transmit orders, or possibly a programming interface, to allow member institutions to connect their order management system they developed in-house. But software publishers soon sell packages that take in charge the different communication protocols to these markets; The UK-based Fidessa has a strong presence among LSE members; Sungard Global Trading and the Swedish Orc Software are its biggest competitors.
Program trading
In program trading, orders are generated by a software program instead of being placed by a trader taking a decision. More recently, it is rather called algorithmic trading. It applies only to organised markets, where transactions do not depend on a negotiation with a given counterparty.
A typical usage of program trading is to generate buy or sell orders on a given stock as soon as its price reaches a given threshold, upwards or downwards. A wave of stop sell orders has been largely incriminated, during the 1987 financial crises, as the main cause of acceleration of the fall in prices. However, program trading has not stopped developing, since then, particularly with the boom of ETFs, mutual funds mimicking a stock-exchange index, and with the growth of structured asset management; an ETF replicating the FTSE 100 index, for instance, sends multiples of 100 buy orders, or of as many sell orders, every day, depending on whether the fund records a net incoming or outgoing subscription flow. Such a combination of orders is also called a basket. Moreover, whenever the weight of any constituent stock in the index changes, for example following an equity capital increase, by the issuer, new basket orders should be generated so that the new portfolio distribution still reflects that of the index. If a program can generate more rapidly than a single trader a huge quantity of orders, it also requires monitoring by a financial engineer, who adapts its program both to the evolution of the market and, now, to requirements of the banking regulator checking that it entails no market manipulation. Some trading rooms may now have as many financial engineers as traders.
The spread of program trading variants, many of which apply similar techniques, leads their designers to seek a competitive advantage by investing in hardware that adds computing capacity or by adapting their software code to multi-threading, so as to ensure their orders reach the central order book before their competitors'. The success of an algorithm therefore measures up to a couple of milliseconds.
This type of program trading, also called high-frequency trading, conflicts however with the fairness principle between investors, and some regulators consider forbidding it
.
Portfolio management
With order executions coming back, the mutual fund's manager as well the investment bank's trader must update their positions. However, the manager does not need to revalue his in real time: as opposed to the trader whose time horizon is the day, the portfolio manager has a medium to long-term perspective. Still, the manager needs to check that whatever he sells is available on his custodial account; he also needs a benchmarking functionality, whereby he may track his portfolio performance with that of his benchmark; should it diverge by too much, he would need a mechanism to rebalance it by generating automatically a number of buys and sells so that the portfolio distribution gets back to the benchmark's.
Relations with the back-office
In most countries, the banking regulation requires a principle of independence between front-office and back-office: a deal made by the trading room must be validated by the back-office to be subsequently confirmed to the counterparty, to be settled, and accounted for. Both services must report to divisions that are independent from each at the highest possible level in the hierarchy.
In Germany, the regulation goes further, a "four eyes' principle" requiring that every negotiation carried by any trader should be seen by another trader before being submitted to the back-office.
In Continental Europe, institutions have been stressing, since the early 1990s, on Straight Through Processing (STP), that is, automation of trade transmission to the back-office. Their aim is to raise productivity of back-office staff, by replacing trade re-capture by a validation process. Publishers of risk-management or asset-management software meet this expectation either by adding back-office functionalities within their system, hitherto dedicated to the front-office, or by developing their connectivity, to ease integration of trades into a proper back-office-oriented package.
Anglo-Saxon institutions, with fewer constraints in hiring additional staff in back-offices, have a less pressing need to automate and develop such interfaces only a few years later.
On securities markets, institutional reforms, aiming at reducing the settlement lag from a typical 3 business days, to one day or even zero day, can be a strong driver to automate data processes.
As long as front-office and back-offices run separately, traders most reluctant to capture their deals by themselves in the front-office system, which they naturally find more cumbersome than a spreadsheet, are tempted to discard themselves towards an assistant or a middle-office clerk. An STP policy is then an indirect means to compel traders to capture on their own. Moreover, IT-based trade-capture, in the shortest time from actual negotiation, is growingly seen, over the years, as a "best practice" or even a rule.
Banking regulation tends to deprive traders from the power to revalue their positions with prices of their choosing. However, the back-office staff is not necessarily best prepared to criticize the prices proposed by traders for complex or hardly liquid instruments and that no independent source, such as Bloomberg, publicize.
Anatomy of the biggest failures
Whether as an actor or as a simple witness, the trading room is the place that experiences any failure serious enough to put the company's existence at stake.
In the case of Northern Rock, Bear Stearns or Lehman Brothers, all three wiped out by the subprime crisis, in 2008, if the trading room finally could not find counterparts on the money market to refinance itself, and therefore had to face a liquidity crisis, each of those defaults is due to the company's business model, not to a dysfunction of its trading room.
On the contrary, in the examples shown below, if the failure has always been precipitated by market adverse conditions, it also has an operational cause :
These operational causes, in the above columns, are due to organisational or IT flaws :
A fictitious trade gets possible whenever the system allows to post a trade to either a fictitious counterparty, or to a real counterparty, but for which the system sends neither a confirmation to that counterparty nor an automated message to the back-office, for settlement and accounting;
Hidden position, which are fraudulent, and excess over authorized positions, which is not, are also made possible by the absence of a mechanism of limits control with transmission of a warning to the Risk Department, or by the absence of reaction by the recipient of such a warning;
Some insider trading cases can be explained by the proximity, inside the trading room, of desks with conflicting interests, such as the one that arranges equity issues with that invests on behalf of customers.
Price manipulation is also possible if no control is made on the share of an instrument that is held in relation to the total outstanding on the market, whether this outstanding is the total number of stocks of a given corporate issuer, or is the open position of a listed derivative instrument;
Risk can be miscalculated, because it depends on parameters whose quality cannot be assessed, or because excessive confidence is put in the mathematical model that is used;
An erroneous valuation may stem from a fraudulent handling of reference prices, or because the lack of fresh quotations on an instrument, and the failure to consider an alternative, model-based, valuation, have led to the use of obsolete prices;
The lack of trader's control can be assessed by the weakness of the reporting required from him, or by the lack of expertise or critique by the recipients of this reporting;
A user entitlement may prove inadequate, either because it is granted by the hierarchy in contradiction with the industry's best practices, or because, though not granted, it is still enforced either because the system cannot manage it or because, by neglect, it has not been properly set up in that system;
Finally, a capture error may arise in a system with weak plausibility controls, such as that on a trade size, or with no « four eyes principle » mechanism, whereby a manifest anomaly would have been detected and stopped by a second person.
Destroyed rooms
On May 5, 1996, during a Saturday to Sunday night, a fire, suspected to be criminal, ravaged the trading room of Crédit Lyonnais; trading businesses have been transferred in a couple of days to a backup, or disaster recovery, site, in outer Paris.
On September 11, 2001, the attack against the World Trade Center destroyed the Cantor Fitzgerald's trading room and killed 658 persons, two-thirds of its workforce. Yet business resumed about one week later.
Gambling
Trading rooms are also used in the sports gambling sector. The term is often used to refer to the liabilities and odds setting departments of bookmakers where liabilities are managed and odds are adjusted. Examples include internet bookmakers based in the Caribbean and also legal bookmaking operations in the United Kingdom such as William Hill, Ladbrokes and Coral which operate trading rooms to manage their risk. The growth of betting exchanges such as Betfair has also led to the emergence of "trading rooms" designed for professional gamblers. (reference: Racing Post newspaper 19/7/07) The first such establishment was opened in Edinburgh in 2003 but later folded. Professional gamblers typically pay a daily "seat" fee of around £30 per day for the use of IT facilities and sports satellite feeds used for betting purposes. Today there are eight such trading rooms across the UK, with two based in London – one in Highgate and one in Canary Wharf.
See also
Regulation NMS
Security (finance)
Notes and references
External links
Financial markets
Electronic trading systems
Financial software
Stock exchanges
Financial risk
Share trading
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System%20Support%20Program
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System Support Program
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System Support Program (SSP) was the operating system of the IBM System/34 and System/36 minicomputers. SSP was a command-based operating system released in 1977.
History
SSP originally contained 60 or so commands that were implemented on the System/34 from 1977 to 1983 in different versions called releases. Release 1 was issued with the original S/34 in 1977. Release 9 was issued in 1981. In 1983, IBM repackaged SSP on a new computer called the IBM System/36, which was not object-code compatible with the S/34. In 1994, IBM repackaged SSP on an updated model of the S/36 called the Advanced/36. The A/36 was an IBM AS/400 which had the SSP implemented as a "virtual machine".
Major releases of SSP include:
S/34
S/34 Release 1.0 – this was apparently shipped with the first S/34 in 1977.
S/34 Release 8.0 – this seems to have been issued about 1980.
S/34 Release 9.0 – this was the last release for the S/34 c.1980.
S/36
S/36 Release 1.0 – this was apparently shipped with the first S/36 in 1983.
S/36 Release 2.0 – this release supported the 8809 tape drive.
S/36 Release 4.0 – this was the release where S/36 was given 5 job queues.
S/36 Release 5.1 – this 1988 release was the last major change on 536X platforms.
S/36 Release 6.0 – also known as the VASP or Value-Added Support Product, this release added functionality that allowed program calls in RPG, and it also provided software to calculate the size AS/400 that the user would need when upgrading. The VASP was controversial. Rumors circulated in the industry papers that the customer could not go back to 5.1 if 6.0 did not function adequately. Program calls with RPG CALL/PARM were inferior to RPGIII designs and inferior to customer add-on products.
S/36 Release 7.1 – this 1994 release was shipped with the Advanced/36 (9402-236 models). The first A/36 machines would not function on a lower release and were also incompatible with 7.5 (while technically, true, program object code from a 7.1 machine would run on a 7.5 and vice versa, plus many 9402-236's were upgraded to 9402-436, which they changed out the motherboard and installed some new LIC code and you restored on a copy of your files and voila, it all worked). Rumors circulated that stated prior release compilers would not function on the Advanced/36, but they proved unfounded. There were reasons a programmer would rather use the 5.1 RPGII compiler instead of the presumably more advanced 7.x compiler.
S/36 Release 7.5 – this 1995 release was shipped with the second and final wave of the Advanced/36 (9402-436). Functions like WRKSYSVL allowed the operator to change the system time on the fly, which was interesting because customer add-ons to do this through assembler subroutines did not function on the Advanced/36. However assembler routines to do things like open/close files, retrieve the VTOC, etc. functioned just fine on 7.1 and 7.5
Guest/36 – this is Release 7.5, but you could set up an M36 (a guest) on an AS/400 (running OS/400 V3R6 thru V4R4), and it would function just like the 9402-436, except that in addition to having this guest "partition", you also had OS/400 if you wanted it. So if the 9402-436 which came in 3 speeds 2102, 2104 and 2106 (which the latter was about 2.7X faster than the base) wasn't fast enough, you could get a 9406-xxx machine and install a "guest/36" on such. And actually you could install more than one guest/36. There was some limitations of number of attached workstations, but having two guest/36's running on an AS/400, and setting up DDM (distributed data management) between them and even with OS/400 to host large files, could easily be done. While the S/36 and A/36 for the most part worked only with twinax attached terminals, on a Guest/36 (or M/36), you could have all your terminals be on a LAN running tcp/ip and be virtual devices in the Guest/36 environment.
S36EE (S/36 execution environment) – this was supported native on the AS/400 and its follow on (iSeries, IBM i), which allows a user to continue to run their s/36 programs and procedures without having to convert them. Many of the system procs also work with such. While it was typically "slower" since it has to go through additional steps, however today with such fast machines, the speed of an S36EE is many times faster than the A/36 execution speed. Example, one job took 12 minutes to run on an Adv/36, took 20 seconds to run in S36EE mode. The object code however is NOT compatible with the previous S/36 and A/36, meaning that one had to recompile all programs and menus. However one advantage is that you can not only run S36EE but also OS/400 applications. You can access database tables in your S/36 programs, you can call RPG/400 and RPGIV programs from with a S/36 program. So while technically not SSP, it looks like SSP, it acts like SSP and it will run your S/36 programs/procs.
Limitations on S/36 and A/36 and M/36 operating system: The maximum amount of disk space that a system could utilize was 4 gb (per occurrence of the operating system, so a machine running two M36 "partitions" could have 4 gb in each. Another limitation was the program size, could not exceed 64KB. If you had a program that was larger than that, you had to become creative in the later years when call/parm came into place, as you would move code into a called program, because if the base program was 63kb for example, you could easily call a 20kb called program. You also could not have more than around 8,000+ files on the machine. There were also restrictions on the number of files you could bring into a program (again, you could get around by putting files in called programs and passing the result back in. The maximum number of records you could initially load was about 8 million and the maximum a file could hold was about 16 million. None of these limitations exist in S36EE (there are a few maximum number of files in a program, but much larger# than in native SSP).
Functions and components
Using SSP, the operator can create, delete, and manage S/34-36 objects such as libraries, data files, menus, procedures, source members, and security files.
SSP contains modules such as DFU, SEU, SDA, and WSU that permit operators to build libraries and files, enter information into those files, produce simple reports, and maintain a menu structure that simplifies access to the information. The Advanced/36 does not support WSU. Password and resource security are also implemented through SSP, as are remote communications, which today is similar to dial-up networking.
SSP is a disk-based operating system. Computer programs can be run from the fixed disk, but not from diskette or tape. The complement of a System/34 5340, or System/36 5360/5362 is a fixed disk array of one to four fixed disks, at least one computer terminal, and an 8" diskette drive, optionally fitted with two magazine units that can contain 10 diskettes each and three diskette slots.. A S/36 5363/5364 has a 5-1/4" diskette drive. S/36 computers can be configured with an 8809 reel-to-reel tape drive (800/1600 bpi) or a 6157 1/4" cartridge (QIC) tape drive. A/36 computers have a high-density QIC drive but the 5.25" or 8" diskette drive (single) was optional as was a 9348-001 9 track (reel to reel) 1600/6250 bpi tape drive.
System utility programs
SSP procedures utilize utility programs, which can in some cases be more useful to the computer programmer than the SSP procedures themselves. $MAINT is the library utility, used in ALOCLIBR, BLDLIBR, FROMLIBR, LIBRLIBR, REMOVE, CONDENSE, LISTLIBR, and TOLIBR. $COPY is the file utility used in SAVE, RESTORE, COPYDATA, and LISTDATA. There are many other utilities, including $FBLD, $LABEL, $DUPRD, $INIT, $DELET, $HIST, $CNFIG, #GSORT, $PACK, and $PROF, which are more flexible at the program level than associated SSP procedures can be.
Configuring using CNFIGSSP
The CNFIGSSP procedure was used to configure the system, including the devices. Each device is assigned a two-character ID. The first letter must be alphabetic; the second must be alphameric. The system also reserved certain IDs; the device can't be called I1 or F1, for example. I1 is the name of the diskette drive; F1 is what the system calls the hard drive (stands for "fixed disk," since it is not a removable disk pack.)
To apply CNFIGSSP, the system must be dedicated (no other users logged on or programs running.) The system must be IPLed (rebooted.) When IPL finished, the new devices would appear on the status display.
SDA - Screen Design Aid
SDA allows the operator to build screen formats or menus. Command keys can be enabled/disabled. Input fields, output fields, and constants can be created and conditioned. Conditions (in RPG these are called indicators) can cause fields to disappear or change colours.
SEU - Source Entry Utility
SEU is a text editor which allows data entry on a line-by-line basis. Special forms are used to assist the operator in keying RPG programs or other types of form-based languages (WSU, Sort, SDA, etc.)
SORT - The system sort utility
SORT has one to eight input files, which may be of any valid record length. It has one output file, of any stated length, which may contain from zero to 8 million-plus records.
A sort can contain entire records or just 3-byte addresses which point to records in an associated file. This was called an address-out file or ADDROUT. When using an Addrout, the program read in these 3-byte addresses and then fetched associated records from the master file.
WSU - Work Station Utility
This was an RPG-like language that ran on SSP. It was focused on data entry type programs. WSU was free, but it wasn't particularly well-received because it was so limited.
DFU - Data File Utility
It is an IBM-supplied no-charge item which is used to view and change field values in individual records.
DFU can be used
by programmers to update data base files on the fly without writing programs
by programmers to create simple programs to do carry out basic operations on a data base file
by data entry personnel to add or remove records from a file, or to print records.
Programming
Operational Control Language (OCL)
High-level language programs require OCL to be activated. OCL is used to load programs into the system's memory and start them (a process called execution) and assign resources such as disk files, printers, message members, memory, and disk space to those programs. Other abilities, such as displaying text on the screen, pause messages, and so forth, make OCL more powerful.
RPG II
RPG II was modified from the System/3 days to allow access to the "WORKSTN file" to allow a punched card-based language to interact with a person sitting at a keyboard and monitor. A WORKSTN file was an output file (it wrote to the monitor) and also an input file (because it accepted the user's keyboard input). Thus it was labeled a combined-primary file or a combined-demand file.
Command keys became RPG indicators KA-KY, and different on-screen forms were recognized by different invisible control characters hidden in the forms themselves. Since the user had to display a form on the screen in order to type, RPG II provided a way for a program to write output before accepting input. Many successful programmers moved from using the combined-primary WORKSTN file to using a combined-demand file, which had operation codes to read and write the display. There was even a way to code for multiple WORKSTNs; several people could sign on to the same copy of the same program in memory. The largest program size was 64k.
Program attributes - MRTs, SRTs, NRTs and NEPs
MRT = Multiple Requestor Terminal program. SSP could attach up to 7 terminals to a program at once. Any operator could start the program at their terminal, then other operators' terminals would be attached when they selected the same program. The maximum number of terminals to be serviced was controllable by the programmer.
SRT = Single Requestor Terminal program. Not a MRT.
NRT = No Requestor Terminal program. Started at a terminal, the NRT releases the requesting terminal and continues. This is similar to an MS-DOS TSR (Terminate and Stay Resident) program. By definition, any program that was EVOKEd or submitted to the JOBQ was a NRT.
NEP = Never Ending Program. This was typically an interactive MRT program that would wait after all terminals disconnected until some terminal reconnected, avoiding initiation overhead. This was commonly used to allow large programs to be implemented as a chain of small programs that would pass the terminals from one to another while remaining ready to continue processing for other terminals and/or subsequent transactions. NRT programs could also be NEPs if written to loop and wait for some condition indicating there was work to be done. NEP programs normally did not end until system shutdown, unless written to recognize some special terminate condition.
Object code formats
Cobol, Fortran, and RPG generated object code (type O). Basic was interpreted only; a compilation utility called BASICS created subroutine code (type R). Basic programs could be saved as sources for compatibility with other computers, but the project's text was preserved in the subroutine (unless the programmer used the LOCK parameter to keep it private.)
Procedures, which use OCL to start programs and assign resources to them, are type P.
Source members for all objects are type S, with the exception of Basic as above-specified.
DFU programs generated subroutine (R) code. So did WSU programs.
Screen formats generated object code.
Menus generated object code. A menu is simply a very specific screen format with a companion message member suffixed with two pound signs ("##") to contain the action to be taken when the associated number was chosen.
Popular SSP applications
The Programmer and Operator Productivity Aid (POP) was a widely used development program. It was included with the Advanced 36.
MAPICS, the Manufacturing and Production Information Control System.
IMAS, a simple accounting package
BPCS, a more advanced accounting system
IBM Office/36 collection of programs (DisplayWrite/36, IDDU, Query, and so forth) were popular in the late 1980s and were later bundled with the Advanced/36. The System/34 Text Editor was a precursor to Office/36.
The Britz Word Processing System was a general-purpose text editor that had mailmerge, label, and basic file editing capabilities.
System security
There are four types of security on an SSP system:
Badge security.
Password security.
Resource security.
Menu security.
Badge security is implemented using a stripe reader device attached to a 5250-series terminal. In order to log on, the user not only typed the user/password information but also swiped the badge through the reader.
SECEDIT
The SECEDIT procedure was used to work with User IDs and passwords. The user profile contains a 1-to-8 character alphanumeric User ID, a 4 character alphanumeric password, a code for the user's security rating – M (Master Security Officer), S (Security Officer), O (System Operator), C (Subconsole Operator), or D (Display Station Operator) – and a number of other default settings.
The SECEDIT RESOURCE procedure was used to establish security ratings for file, library, folder, and group objects. Access levels of O (Owner), C (Change), U (Update), R (Read), E (Execute) or N (None) could be granted for a user to a particular resource. A group object was a sort of holding company that owned one or more lower objects. For example, granting access to the group ACCOUNTG made it easier to establish access to all of the accounting files. Group objects could also reference group files; the group UB referenced UB.OLD, UB.NEW, UB.01, or any filename with the embedded period.
SECEDIT USERID was also used to confine a user's operational authority to a specific menu. By entering a Y for Mandatory Menu and specifying a default sign-on menu, the security officer could prevent the user from any program access not found on that sign-on menu. A user so confined could only run menu options, send messages, and sign off the system.
Other procedures
The PROF ("Profile") procedure was used to work with User IDs and passwords. The user profile contains a 1-to-8 character alphanumeric User ID, a 4 character alphanumeric password, a code for the user's security rating—M (Master Security Officer), S (Security Officer), O (System Operator), C (Subconsole Operator), or D (Display Station Operator) -- and a number of other default settings.
The PRSRCID ("Profile Resource Security By User ID") procedure was used to establish security ratings for file and library objects. Access levels of O (Owner), G (Change), R (Read), E (Execute) or N (None) could be granted for a user to a particular resource.
The printed disk catalog (VTOC, Volume Table of Contents) displayed all secured objects with the notation 3 as being secured.
Files, libraries, and folders
SSP provides for two different data objects called files and libraries. Files contain records, almost always with a fixed record length. Libraries contain programs which can reference and access these files. SSP contained more than 80 different commands that allowed operators to create, delete, copy, edit/change, and secure files and libraries.
A library or a file must exist in a contiguous organization on one fixed disk (however, a library may contain one "extent" of roughly 50 blocks which must be reorganized, and it cannot be extended if allocated to other users). A file may be organized with an EXTEND value or it may be allocated with FILE OCL to automatically extend. All record adds/updates/deletes wait while the file is being extended. It is good sense policy to create extend values large enough to minimize the frequency of extends. Libraries could have "extents" that were not contiguous. At times, when compiling a program, an extent would be created and by doing a "CONDENSE", it was removed if there was enough room in the main allocation for it. Otherwise one did an ALOCLIBR to reallocate the library to a bigger size.
Files on the S/36 may be Sequential (S), Direct (D), or Indexed (I). An indexed file can have multiple alternate indexes (X), and in fact, a sequential file may have alternate indexes placed on it so there is no primary index. An indexed file contains a key, which must be contiguous and may be up to 60 characters long; however, alternate indexes may have three-part keys which are not contiguous with one another. Duplicate keys in indexed or alternate index files may be allowed or disallowed. A file with direct organization is built with all records added and cannot auto-extend. A file with sequential or indexed organization is built with no records added. An alternate index always has as many records as its parent, as opposed to a System/38-style logical file which is built with conditions to filter records from the parent.
In 1986, support for Distributed Data Management Architecture (DDM) was added to SSP. This enabled System/36 programs to create, manage, and access record-oriented files on remote System/36, System/38, and IBM mainframe systems running CICS. It also enabled programs on remote System/36 and System/38 computers to create, access, and manage files on a System/36. The initial record-oriented file models defined by DDM were based on the System/36 file system.
Related operating systems
The System/3 (1969) ran a disk-based batch operating system called the System Control Program (SCP) (5702-SC1). IBM later introduced an online program for the System/3 named the Communications Control Program (CCP) which was started as a batch program. The IBM System/32 (1975) ran a disk-based operating system also called the System Control Program. The IBM System/38 (1978) ran an operating system named the Control Program Facility (CPF) that was much more advanced than SSP and not particularly similar.
Sources
IBM Publication SC21-8299, General Information for SSP Operating System.
External links
Bitsavers Archive of System/34 Documentation - Including documentation on SSP
Bitsavers Archive of System/36 Documentation - Including documentation on SSP
Computer-related introductions in 1979
IBM operating systems
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6192642
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PISCES
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PISCES
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PISCES (Personal Identification Secure Comparison and Evaluation System) is a border control database system largely based on biometrics developed by Booz Allen Hamilton Inc..
Overview
The PISCES-project was initiated by the Department of State, Terrorist Interdiction Program (TIP) in 1997, initially as a system for countries in improving their watchlisting capabilities by providing a mainframe computer system to facilitate immigration processing in half a dozen countries. Foreign authorities used the technology to watchlist and exchange information with the United States Department of State about suspected terrorists appearing at their borders. The information is used to track and apprehend individual terrorists, not for wide-ranging analysis of terrorist travel methods", according to US-government reports. It matches passengers inbound for the United States against facial images, fingerprints and biographical information at airports in high-risk countries. A high-speed data network permits U.S. authorities to be informed of problems with inbound passengers.
PISCES workstations installed throughout a country are linked by wide area network to the participating nation’s immigration, police or intelligence headquarters. The headquarters is provided with the automated capability to monitor activities at immigration points, evaluate traveler information and conduct real time data analysis.
Currently the PISCES-project falls under The Terrorist Interdiction Program (TIP), an ongoing programme of the United States Department of State. TIP provides all necessary software and hardware (mostly commercial and off-the-shelf, such as cameras and passport scanners), full installation, operator training, and system sustainment. Additionally, TIP assists with immigration business process improvement at ports of entry chosen for PISCES installation.
For FY 2007, funds will be used to support enhancements to the existing watch listing system software in order to provide a fraudulent document detection capability, a biometrics search capability, and improved name-searching effectiveness.
Starting in FY 2010 and onward to FY 2011, PISCES funding will be increased in what the United States Department of State considers "high risk" countries such as Afghanistan, Iraq, and Pakistan. A project to verify US visas via limited access to a US government database will go under trial in select outposts.
Controversy
Effectiveness
Although PISCES was operational in the months prior to September 11, 2001 it apparently failed to detect any of the terrorists involved in the attack.
According to the US Department of State,
TIP provided photos and travel history to Pakistan of three of the four July 7, 2005 London Metro bombers.
Within one week of TIP's introduction, a ring of human traffickers were identified at Chiang Mai, Thailand.
Hundreds of travelers have been interdicted in Pakistan on suspicion of using stolen passports.
"... in terms of linking it to specific arrests, nothing that I have -- nothing that I'm aware of''."
Data-handling
INTERPOL: "... TIP will also assist the upgrading of INTERPOL's communications system to transmit fingerprints, photos and other graphics on a near-real time basis to and from a participating country’s INTERPOL National Central Bureau (NCB). INTERPOL data can then be imported into PISCES to expand the pool of suspects."
Deployment
In 2003: "is currently being deployed in five countries and is scheduled for deployment in 12 more countries this calendar year. Arrests and detentions have occurred in all five countries where the system has been deployed."
In 2005: "Since 2001, twenty nations have been provided this capability"
Expected 2011: 31
Currently deployed
Maldives PISCES was deployed in Maldives at 0000hrs on 20 August 2013, replacing the border control system developed and installed by NexBiz of Malaysia.
Iraq FY 2007 NADR/Terrorist Interdiction Program funding is requested to support efforts to disrupt the travel of terrorists into Iraq by increasing the number of Iraqi ports of entry equipped with and capable of effectively operating the program's PISCES watchlisting system.
Pakistan FY 2002 PISCES system has been installed at seven major airports of the country i.e. Islamabad, Karachi, Lahore, Peshawar, Quetta, Multan and Faisalabad airports. The system has provision to accommodate information on suspects from all law enforcement agencies like Immigration, Police, Narcotics Control, Anti-smuggling, and Intelligence Services.
Malta Inaugurated 2004-05-05 by the Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Justice and Home Affairs Dr Tonio Borg and United States Ambassador Anthony H. Gioia. PISCES is being provided by the United States at no cost to Malta, and assistance will include installation of the system, training of immigration officials on use of PISCES, and maintenance of the system. The overall U.S. assistance to Malta for this program is valued at approximately $US 1.5 million, nearly Lm700,000.
Thailand
March 2004, during his visit to Thailand, Secretary Ridge and I witnessed the signing of the Memorandum of Intent for Provision of a Terrorist Interdiction Program Border Control System. Under this Memorandum, the Personal Identification Secure Comparison and Evaluation System, known in short as PISCES, could be used to screen people passing through Thailand's ports of entry, so that we may be able to detect suspected terrorists.
In FY 2007, NADR/TIP funds will be used to expand operation of the program's watchlisting computer system to additional ports of entry and provide for system software upgrades as they become available.
Bangladesh memorandum of understanding signed in May 2004, renewable agreement would be valid for five years. Relevant portions of PISCES will immediately become operational at the capital's Shahjalal International Airport and later expand to cover all land, sea and airports.
Tanzania The State Department's counterterrorism bureau is funding the "PISCES" (Personal Identification Secure Comparison System) program to improve interdiction capabilities at major border crossings. While the program targets terrorist activities, it has implications for narcotics and other smuggling as well.
Cambodia FY 2007 NADR Terrorist Interdiction Program (NADR/TIP) funds will be used to sustain a computerized system for collecting, comparing and analyzing traveler data to identify possible terrorists, and provide for software upgrades to the system as they become available.
Philippines In FY 2007, NADR/TIP funds will be used to expand operation of the program's watchlisting computer system to additional ports of entry in the Republic of the Philippines, and provide for system software upgrades as they become available.
Kosovo FY 2009 NADR Terrorism Interdiction Program funding will sustain existing program operations and provide for software upgrades to program equipment.
Macedonia FY 2007 NADR Terrorism Interdiction Program funding will sustain existing program operations and provide for software upgrades to program equipment.
Cote d'Ivoire FY 2009 NADR Terrorism Interdiction Program funding will sustain existing program operations and provide for software upgrades to program equipment. "The Ivoirian Ministry of Interior, in cooperation with the United States, uses PISCES to enhance border security at its major airport and seaport.": On August 6, 2009 Ivoirian authorities detained Imam Abd al Menhem Qubaysi, a Hizballah spiritual leader and U.S. designated terrorist financier, at the airport upon his arrival on a commercial flight from Lebanon. Qubaysi, who lived in Côte d'Ivoire for a number of years, was denied entry at immigration and returned to Lebanon on the same flight through the use of PISCES.
Bosnia and Herzegovina
On 27 March 2018 the country and the US government signed a Memorandum of Intention on the donation of a System for Personal Identification Secure Comparison and Evaluation (PISCES). In cooperation with Bosnia's Council of Ministers, the US government aims to install and maintain all the hardware and software required for the PISCES system to operate - starting with the International airport Sarajevo and later expanding to other airports and border crossings in the country.
Expected future deployment
Algeria. In FY 2007, NADR/Terrorism Interdiction Program (TIP) assistance is requested to implement new program operations and equipment that Algeria will use in support of the ongoing Global War on Terrorism.
Morocco. In FY 2007, NADR/Terrorism Interdiction Program (TIP) assistance is requested to implement new program operations and equipment that Morocco will use in support of the ongoing Global War on Terrorism.
Tunisia. NADR/Terrorist Interdiction Program (TIP) funds are requested to launch program operations and provide necessary equipment.
Yemen. NADR/Terrorism Interdiction Program (TIP) assistance is requested to implement new and increased program operations and provide equipment that Yemen will use in support of the ongoing Global War on Terrorism.
Afghanistan PISCES Program started in Afghanistan on 2002 from Kabul International Airport and successfully expanded into 12 other POEs.
Kenya Since mid-2003, the Terrorist Interdiction Program computer system has been operational at select airports; scheduled for NADR-TIP funding in FY 2007
Tanzania Since mid-2003, the Terrorist Interdiction Program computer system has been operational at select airports; scheduled for NADR-TIP funding in FY 2007
Ethiopia Since mid-2003, the Terrorist Interdiction Program computer system has been operational at select airports; scheduled for NADR-TIP funding in FY 2007
Former deployment
Azerbaijan: Part of Canadian Bank Note Company ID card and passport-issuing and inspection system in Azerbaijan was a border control system that replaced the State Departments's Pisces system in Azerbaijan. No TIP-funding FY 2007.
Nicaragua In 2003, post began the deployment of a new immigration computer system called PISCES. The contractor made the original equipment installations, but was unable to follow through with making the system operational due to the greater demand to bring the system on line in the Middle East. PISCES should be operational in 2005. The contractor will provide training to Nicaraguan Immigration personnel. No TIP-funding FY 2007
Unclear
Ghana, Senegal, Zambia and Georgia were scheduled for NADR-TIP funding in FY 2007.
Djibouti is expected to be operational this year (2004); scheduled for NADR-TIP funding in FY 2007
Uganda is expected to be operational this year (2004); scheduled for NADR-TIP funding in FY 2007
See also
Booz Allen Hamilton
References
United States Department of State
Databases
Counter-terrorism in the United States
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21470042
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melissa%20Hathaway
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Melissa Hathaway
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Melissa Hathaway (born 10 November 1968) is a leading expert in cyberspace policy and cybersecurity. She served under two U.S. presidential administrations from 2007 to 2009, including more than 8 months at the White House, spearheading the Cyberspace Policy Review for President Barack Obama after leading the Comprehensive National Cybersecurity Initiative (CNCI) for President George W. Bush. She is President of Hathaway Global Strategies LLC, a Senior Fellow and member of the Board of Regents at Potomac Institute for Policy Studies, a Distinguished Fellow at the Centre for International Governance Innovation in Canada, and a non-resident Research Fellow at the Kosciuszko Institute in Poland. She was previously a Senior Adviser at Harvard Kennedy School's Belfer Center.
Career
Hathaway received a B.A. at The American University. She graduated from the US Armed Forces Staff College with a special certificate in Information Operations.
Hathaway was employed with consulting firm Evidence Based Research. Her work included developing models for detection of cocaine movement into the United States.
From June 1993 to February 2007, Hathaway worked for consulting firm Booz Allen Hamilton, focusing on information operations and long-range strategy and policy support business units. Her work included evaluations of "new force options across the electromagnetic spectrum" and "design and development of novel techniques for mapping social, business, and process and infrastructure relationships."
Hathaway served as Senior Advisor to the Director of National Intelligence, Mike McConnell, and Cyber Coordination Executive. She chaired the National Cyber Study Group (NCSG). In her role at the NCSG, she contributed to the development of the Comprehensive National Cybersecurity Initiative (CNCI). Hathaway was appointed the Director of the Joint Interagency Cyber Task Force in January 2008.
Hathaway was named the Acting Senior Director for Cyberspace for the National Security and Homeland Security Councils on 9 February 2009, and placed in charge of a 60-day inter-agency review of the plan, programs, and activities underway throughout the government dedicated to cyber security.
In January 2009, at the request of the Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs, Ms. Hathaway was asked to lead the 60-Day Cyberspace Policy Review for President Obama. She assembled a team of experienced government cyber experts and identified over 250 recommendations. In May 2009, President Obama presented the blueprint of the Cyberspace Policy Review and announced cybersecurity would be one of his Administration's priorities. He recognized Ms. Hathaway's leadership and noted that there were, as the President said, "opportunities for everyone—academia, industry, and governments—to work together to build a trusted and resilient communications and information infrastructure".
On 3 August 2009, it was announced that Hathaway would return to the private sector, with her resignation taking effect 21 August 2009. In departing, she cited frustration over not yet having been selected for the new position of cyber coordinator, "I wasn't willing to continue to wait any longer, because I'm not empowered right now to continue to drive the change".
From 1 October 2009, till the project's conclusion in 2015, Hathaway served as a senior adviser to Project MINERVA at the Harvard Kennedy School. She is also one of the lead instructors for the executive program, Cybersecurity: The Intersection of Policy and Technology
Hathaway is president of Hathaway Global Strategies, her own consulting firm. She also serves as an advisor to companies including Cisco. She is one of thirty commissioners for the Global Commission on Internet Governance.
Notes
External links
Publications from Ms. Hathaway: http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/experts/2132/melissa_hathaway.htm
Wall Street Journal on Ms. Hathaway:
Federal News Radio on Ms. Hathway:
Hathaway's Op Ed in McClatchy-Tribune News Service:
Computer security specialists
George W. Bush administration personnel
Obama administration personnel
Booz Allen Hamilton people
Living people
1968 births
American University alumni
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20381810
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avsim.com
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Avsim.com
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AVSIM is a free to join nonprofit flight simulation social networking service that focuses heavily on Microsoft Flight Simulator, Prepar3D, and X-Plane. It features a community forum, file library, and product reviews. The website is maintained by a group of volunteers and bandwidth and equipment is paid for by donations and advertising. It is one of the world's largest flight simulation websites and provides users access to information and addons for the flight simulator series of games. On May 12, 2009 the website was attacked by a hacker which resulted in a catastrophic loss of data. AVSIM was able to fully recover from the hack with the help of IT support from around the world.
History
The publisher of AVSIM, Tom Allensworth, operated a Bulletin Board System from 1983 until approximately the fall of 1995. Initially named CAPENET because it was located in Cape Cod (a peninsula of Massachusetts) during the early 1980s, it was renamed The Vine (The Virginia Information and Network Exchange) when moved to central Virginia in 1987. These early forays into BBS systems, combined with an early exposure to aviation through flight lessons in the early 1970s, as well as Bruce Artwick's Flight Simulator 1.0, brought about the concept of developing an aviation-themed website in the closing months of 1996.
The initial concept for AVSIM was the provision of articles and capture images of the flight simulation genre, collated into HTML format as a monthly magazine and packaged into a zip file. This was then made available for download among the major library servers on the Internet, including the file library system run and maintained at the Indiana University of Pennsylvania, which was becoming one of the first major file libraries for flight simulation. The first issue was uploaded to the university and elsewhere on 1 March 1997. With the growth of the flight simulation community, the magazine moved into a continuously updated website in April 1997. The site began listing news items from the flight simulation industry in 1999, and has been doing so ever since.
Reception
The website is popular within the video game genre of flight simulation. Commentators within the flight simulation and aviation community identify the site as a key website within the genre, along with the similar website Flightsim.com. The Alexa traffic website lists Avsim.com as the highest rating flight simulation website on its network, which Avsim.com claim makes them the most visited flight simulation website on the internet.
Hacking case
On May 12, 2009, AVSIM was attacked by a hacker, resulting in a catastrophic loss of data of the website. Tom Allensworth, CEO and Publisher of AVSIM, explained that the site used two servers to back-up the site's data, but that the hacker deleted the content of both, destroying the ability to use one server to restore the data of the other. The site had not established an external backup system. After AVSIM went offline, Allensworth issued the following announcement: “We regret to inform the flight simulation community that on Tuesday, May 12, AVSIM was hacked and effectively destroyed. The method of the hack makes recovery difficult, if not impossible, to recover from. Both servers, that was the library/email and website/forum servers were attacked. AVSIM is totally offline at this time and we expect to be so for some time to come. We are not able to predict when we will be back online, if we can come back at all. We will post more news as we are able to in the coming days and weeks….”
Nevertheless, the recovery process went quicker than most expected. Sections of the site began restoration on May 26, and as of May 28, most of the site has been recovered to its original form, but the file library and some links are still being repaired. The cost of the recovery of the site is about $25,000 to pay for new servers and experts who will recover the files. Most of that cost has been funded through Avsim's donation system and advertisers. Limited service was restored after Memorial Day, 2009. The file library was then tentatively scheduled for reactivation in the first week of June, 2009 following file investigation, debugging, and recompilation.
A gradual recovery of the site took place over several days. The servers were replaced, the email addresses and forums were recovered on May 26, and the front page and other elements of the site on May 28. On the 28th it was also announced on the front page that approximately 90% of the file library would be recoverable, and that all Flight Simulator X and Flight Simulator 9 files were intact. The library was brought back online, with more than 95% of the original content, as of July 26.
On September 7 AVSIM filed a civil suit in Britain against the person who hacked the organization in May. The AVSIM website issued the following statement:
“Today, September 7th, 2009, AVSIM filed a criminal complaint with the Police Constabulary of London. We will not name any names, but have incontrovertible evidence of the individual that performed the hack of AVSIM on May 12th this year. We have protected the forensic evidence and provided that evidence to the London police. We are committed to bringing justice to bear on this case...
[T]hough we tried to resolve this over the last three months out of court, giving this person two opportunities to settle with us, the individual did not avail himself of the opportunity - in fact, he has ignored our proffers. We are now doing as we promised this person we would do; ratcheting this up to the next, criminal, level. To the extent that prudence allow, we will keep you informed of future developments.”
As of July 2011 AVSIM have still not updated its users on the situation and it appeared that the matter had been brushed under the carpet given the last few words of the above quote; then, in a retrospective blog post in June 2012, Tom Allensworth, the founder of AVSIM, explained that legal action was ultimately dropped.
Avsim Conference and Exhibition
The website runs a regular conference and exhibition since 1999, most recently titled FANCON, focusing on aviation simulation to showcase flight simulation technology, software, and hardware. This conference has been supported by leading manufacturers and developers in the industry, including Microsoft. Previous conferences have been held each year at a different location from 2002 through to 2007, with the 2007 event held in Bellevue, Washington from November 9 to 11. The event featured sponsorship from a number of major industry organizations, such as NaturalPoint. The website decided not to have a 2008 convention due to the decaying economy and an anticipated reluctance to travel but has announced a social meeting to take place instead.
In 2009, AVSIM planned to hold the convention in Dayton, Ohio from September 4 until September 6, at the Wright-Patterson Air Force Base.
Services
The main focus of the website is providing additional content that users can use within a Flight Simulator, such as aircraft in addition to default planes, scenery, modified airport files, additional AI (artificial intelligence) aircraft (Simulator-controlled air traffic), and programs which modify all of the above. Additionally, the website provides users with reviews of commercial content created for use with a flight simulator such as Microsoft Flight Simulator, X-Plane, and Prepar3D. Full commercial reviews are covered as news items listed on the website's main page. The website's forums are used as a focal point for discussion of reviews, news within the industry, as well as general industry topics.
The website has been run completely by volunteers since its opening in 1996. Since the founder's passing, all affairs have been managed by a volunteer Board of Directors consisting of Jim Young, Chuck Jodry, and Chase Kreznor. The website is monitored and maintained by over 30 volunteers.
Downloadable content
The website manages files of various content including:
Aircraft
Panels
Gauges
Scenery
Repaints/Replacement Textures
Missions
Sounds
Utilities
Flight Manuals
Flight simulator guides
References
External links
AVSIM's Official Website
AVSIM's File Library
Avsim.com (1997 Website Archive)
Video game news websites
Aviation websites
Video game Internet forums
Internet properties established in 1996
Video game genre websites
Aviation Internet forums
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25106970
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musition
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Musition
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Musition is an educational music theory software program. Musition contains 34 topics and allows students to improve their theory knowledge and musicianship. Teachers can tailor the drills and testing features of Musition, to assist students in reaching specific goals, or to help them prepare for particular assessment tasks. Musition allows teachers to track students' progress using the syllabus, test and record keeping features.
Content
Musition offers 34 topics covering music theory fundamentals for students of classical, jazz and contemporary music. The core content includes lessons and drills on note reading, intervals, scales, chords, rhythm, beaming, meter, key signatures, terms, symbols, and instruments. Other areas of study include modulation, enharmonic notes, ornaments, diatonic chords, and jazz chord symbols.
Features
Musition allows students to practice tasks from any of the predefined levels and syllabi that are provided with the software, or they can create their own custom level to focus on specific problem areas. Teachers can create and save their own syllabi, and assign them to each class. The Tests feature also allows teachers to create a custom electronic worksheet for their students to complete.
Using the Course feature, students can be guided through a series of lessons, drills and tests that are specific to their learning needs. These graduated learning pathways provide constant feedback, support and lesson reinforcement. Teachers can review student progress in practice, tests and courses using the Reports feature, and print or export the results as needed.
Musition is currently available in 2 different versions. The Student version, which is designed for the home user, allows tracking of up to 3 students’ results and cannot be networked. The full version allows tracking of an unlimited number of students’ results and is fully network compatible. The content of both versions is otherwise identical.
History
Musition was first published in 1997 by Rising Software (also the publishers of Auralia ear training software).
Version release dates:
1997 – Musition 1.0 for Windows
1999 – Musition 2.0 for Windows
2006 – Musition 3.0 for Windows
2008 – Musition 3.5 for Windows
2010 – Musition 4 for Windows and Mac
References
“Review of Musition”, The Piano Education Page, http://www.pianoeducation.org/pnomusnr.html, (accessed January 5, 2005).
Nottleman Music Page http://www.nottelmannmusic.com/SoftwareReviewMusition2.html, Accessed Oct 25 2009
“Rising Software – Musition 2.0 (Win)”, Electronic Musician, September 2001.
Chamberlain Music, http://www.chamberlainmusic.com/ProductDetail.asp?ProductID=MUWEE3%2E5, Accessed August 20, 2009
External links
Musition
Auralia ear training software
Sibelius Software
Musical training software
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadow%20Tower%20Abyss
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Shadow Tower Abyss
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is a role-playing video game developed and published by FromSoftware for the PlayStation 2. The game is a sequel to Shadow Tower and features a number of genre and mechanical elements that can also be found in Demon's Souls and the King's Field series. Shadow Tower Abyss was announced on 22 August 2001 and released in Japan on 23 October 2003. An English version was being developed by Agetec, but the project was cancelled by Sony Computer Entertainment America (SCEA), its publisher, prior to completion. A fan translation was released in 2011.
Development
Three years after the release of its predecessor, From Software announced Shadow Tower Abyss in 2001 and unveiled the game's website on 13 December 2002. A demonstration version, presented at the Tokyo Game Show between 26 and 28 September 2003, suggested that development was almost finished. Shadow Tower Abyss was the only role-playing game in From Software's stall, and the company's other ventures at the time included Otogi: Myth of Demons, Kuon, Armored Core: Nexus and Echo Night: Beyond.
While the Japanese release of Shadow Tower Abyss continued as planned, the English version was cancelled during the localisation stage. Mark Johnson, Agetec's producer, announced the cancellation on the SCEA website and stated that "for the most part the localization was completed, aside from package and manual". According to Johnson, the publisher had expressed concerns over its projected sales outside of its home market. Although Shadow Tower Abyss was ranked 14th overall and had been released mid-week, only 12,908 units were sold in Japan in the period from 20 to 26 October 2003. SCEA was also worried at the game's visual quality in comparison with its contemporary rivals within the role-playing and first-person genres. Johnson went on to say that the cancellation was "by far the hardest thing for me to accept and I did everything possible to fight for its release". A petition to SCEA was unsuccessful. Instead, Agetec went on to publish one of From Software's other games, Echo Night: Beyond, in the United States in 2004.
Plot
The game is set within the citadel first featured in Shadow Tower, and sees the return of a number of familiar non-player characters. The protagonist, an explorer, is in search of an arcane spear thought to have given great powers to the long-dead ruler of the kingdom, and ushered in an age of unrivalled prosperity. What remains of the kingdom today is largely covered over by the forest, save for the tower itself. Once inside the citadel, the protagonist encounters a mysterious Old Man, who traps him within and forces him to climb to the very top of the structure to escape.
Gameplay
Shadow Tower Abyss is played entirely from the first-person perspective, and requires the player to navigate through a series of catacombs, caverns and open-air walkways in an effort to ascend the tower. There are numerous regions within the citadel, including subterrean forests, hellish caverns, waterfalls and temple-like chambers. While exploring, the player encounters a variety of friendly and aggressive characters, and collects keys, armour and up to 500 different weapons. Furthermore, the game features the ability to wield two weapons, a detail that allows players to easily switch between a handgun and a dagger, for example. Unlike Shadow Tower, the sequel does not feature a multiplayer mode.
The game world is populated with a total of 68 monsters and non-player characters, who "seem to have regular schedules and activities--that take place independent of [one's] actions--such as burning a bonfire and talking amongst themselves". The majority are aggressive and attack the protagonist on sight, while others provide information and serve to further the plot. During battle, players can sever segments of a creature's body with knives and decapitate them with carefully placed shots from their firearm. Indeed, the wings of aerial combatants can be targeted with a sniper rifle, causing them to plummet to earth when struck. Additionally, the game's Artificial Intelligence (A.I.) results in opponents often fleeing from the player when injured.
Typical to a number of games within the role-playing genre, Shadow Tower Abyss features a statistics-orientated character development system. Unusually, however, the protagonist does not gain experience points, but 'grows' by destroying the numerous denizens of the tower and harvesting their souls. Thus, over time the player will gradually become stronger and inflict comparatively more damage. This 'growth' mechanic is also found in the game's predecessor, and serves to encourage players to explore as much as possible. Hit points, which represent the life force of the player, and magic points, for casting spells, are determined by additional mental and physical attributes. Vitality, for example, directly affects the number of hit points, while Strength influences the maximum weight that can be carried. Break, Pierce and Slash each determine the damage done by the relevant melee weapon, whether it be a hammer, dagger, or an axe. In addition, certain items grant permanent or temporary bonuses to the player's attributes. A Soul Pod, for example, will grant the player an extra twenty points for any attribute, while the Symbol of Elements increases the magical Elements statistic by fifty percent for a brief period.
Although there are firearms spread throughout the game, ammunition is scarce, and the various melee weapons are all durable. If the player uses their axe excessively, for example, it will eventually deteriorate to the point of breaking. While replacement weaponry can be found in containers and retrieved from corpses, the game features a number of different shops, which are each represented by glowing crystalline structures: Merchants (green), Blacksmiths (purple) and Healers (red). 'Cunes' are the game's unit of currency, and are typically looted from cadavers. In addition, there are save points, which are represented by a cyan crystal.
Reception
The Japanese gaming publication Famitsu gave the game a score of 30 out of 40.
Legacy
In 2009, From Software revisited the dark fantasy role-playing genre with the critically acclaimed Demon's Souls on the PlayStation 3 (PS3). As with Shadow Tower Abyss, Demon's Souls centres on the collection of the souls of the dead as a means of developing the statistics and equipment of one's character. Also like Abyss, Sony once again declined to publish Demon's Souls overseas, and instead publishing rights for the American release were obtained by Atlus. While IGN reported that the game had sold out in Japan, with 39,689 units shipped during its first week, the game also fared well in the United States with 150,000 units sold by October 2009 and 250,000 by mid-March 2010. Given its overseas performance, Yeonkyung Kim, a Sony employee responsible for localisation, remarked that the company's decision not to publish world-wide was "a mistake", and Demon's Souls should have "come out as a first-party title". As the spiritual successor to Shadow Tower Abyss and the King's Field series, the game received multiple accolades, obtaining a Metacritic ranking of 90.
References
External links
Official website
2003 video games
Fantasy video games
FromSoftware games
Japan-exclusive video games
PlayStation 2 games
PlayStation 2-only games
Role-playing video games
Video game sequels
Video games developed in Japan
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25162583
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East%20Texas%20League
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East Texas League
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The East Texas League was a Texas–based minor league baseball league that existed between 1916 to 1950. The East Texas League played as a Class D level league in 1916 and from 1923 to 1926. The league became a Class C level league from 1936 to 1940, 1946 and 1949 to 1950.
Cities Represented
Bryan, TX: Bryan Bombers 1949; Bryan Sports 1950
Crockett, TX: Crockett 1916
Gladewater, TX: Gladewater Bears 1936, 1949–1950
Greenville, TX: Greenville Staplers 1923; Greenville Hunters 1924–1926; Greenville Majors 1946
Henderson, TX: Henderson Oilers 1936–1940, 1946, 1949–1950
Jacksonville, TX: Jacksonville Tomato Pickers 1916; Jacksonville Jax 1936–1940, 1946
Kilgore, TX: Kilgore Braves 1936; Kilgore Rangers 1937–1938; Kilgore Boomers 1939–1940; Kilgore Drillers 1949–1950
Longview, TX: Longview Cannibals 1923–1926; Longview Cannibals 1936–1939; Longview Texans 1940, 1949–1950
Lufkin, TX: Lufkin Lumbermen 1916; Lufkin Foresters 1946
Marshall, TX: Marshall Indians 1923–1926; Marshall Orphans 1936; Marshall Tigers 1937–1940; Marshall Browns 1949–1950
Mount Pleasant, TX: Mount Pleasant Cats 1923–1925
Nacogdoches, TX: Nacogdoches Cogs 1916
Palestine, TX: Palestine Athletics 1916; Palestine Pals 1936–1940
Paris, TX: Paris Grays 1923; Paris North Stars 1924; Paris Bearcats 1925–1926; Paris Red Peppers 1946; Paris Panthers 1949–1950
Rusk, TX: Rusk Governors 1916
Sherman, TX: Sherman Twins 1946
Sulphur Springs, TX: Sulphur Springs Lions 1923; Sulphur Springs Saints 1924; Sulphur Springs Spartans 1925
Texarkana, TX: Texarkana Twins 1924–1926; Texarkana Liners 1937–1940; Texarkana Bears 1946
Tyler, TX: Tyler Trojans 1924–1926, 1936–1940, 1946, 1949–1950
Seasons
1916
In 1916, the first East Texas League began play. A Class D level league, it folded on July 19, 1916. The "league champions", by default, were the Palestine Athletics and Lufkin Lumbermen, who both finished atop the league with a .609 winning percentage. The other teams in the league were the Nacogdoches Cogs, Rusk Governors, Jacksonville Tomato Pickers and a team based in Crockett, Texas that did not have a (known) nickname. Crockett, Nacogdoches and Rusk would never field a professional baseball team again. The Athletics dissolved following the season, with the next Palestine team showing up in 1925 as the Palestine Pals in the Texas Association. The Lumbermen dissolved as well, although a team with that name played in the West Dixie League in 1934.
1923–1926
The next incarnation of the league began play in 1923, and ran until 1926. After playing in the Texas–Oklahoma League in 1921 and 1922 as the Paris Snappers, the Paris Grays moved to the East Texas League and finished at the top with a 76–43 record in 1923, with the Longview Cannibals finishing last, with a 41–77 record. Other teams in the league that year were the Greenville Staplers who played in the Texas–Oklahoma League as the Greenville Togs in 1922; the Marshall Indians; the Mt. Pleasant Cats and Sulphur Springs Lions.
The Cannibals, Cats and Indians returned to the league in 1924. The Greenville, Sulphur Springs and Paris-based teams did as well, however they underwent name changes: the Greenville Staplers became the Greenville Hunters, the Sulphur Springs Lions became the Sulphur Springs Saints and the Paris Grays became the Paris North Stars. In its very first season of existence, league newcomer the Tyler Trojans were league champions with an 83–37 record. Another team, the Texarkana Twins, was new to the league as well.
Returning to the league in 1925 were the Tyler Trojans, Greenville Hunters, Longview Cannibals, Texarkana Twins, Marshall Indians and Mt. Pleasant Cats. The Sulphur Springs Saints became the Sulphur Springs Spartans for 1925, and the Paris North Stars became the Paris Bearcats. The Bearcats won the league championship with a 76-46 record. The Spartans disbanded on June 7 of that year, and because of that the Cannibals consolidated with the Mt. Pleasant Cats, playing as the Longview-Mount Pleasant Longcats until July 12, when the team permanently settled in Longview.
1926 was the final year of the second incarnation of the East Texas League. The Longview Cannibals, Texarkana Twins, Greenville Hunters, Tyler Trojans and Paris Bearcats returned to the league with the names they held the previous year. The Marshall Indians became the Marshall Snappers-Indians. After finishing first in the league in 1925, the Bearcats finished last in the league in 1926, with a 39–81 record. The Cannibals finished with the best record in the league that year, with a mark of 83–39.
1931
The league was revived in 1931, lasting not even the whole season. The Longview Cannibals and Tyler Trojans returned to the league, and newcomers the Henderson Oilers and Kilgore Gushers joined the league as well. Tyler disbanded on May 5 and the entire league disbanded on May 7, with the default league champions being the Oilers who went 4–1. The Gushers and Trojans both went 1–3, while the Cannibals went 4–3.
1936–1940
In 1936, the league resumed play once again, this time until 1940. For the first time in the league's history, it was a Class C level league, upgrading from a Class D level league. Returning teams were the Tyler Trojans, Longview Cannibals and Henderson Oilers. The Kilgore team was now known as the Kilgore Braves, while the Marshall team, which did not participate in the 1931 incarnation, was known as the Marshall Orphans. Jacksonville and Palestine had representatives in the league for the first time since 1916, with teams known as the Jacksonville Jax and Palestine Pals, respectively. The Gladewater Bears were completely new to the league, coming from the West Dixie League, where they played in 1935. The Bears won the League Championship, as they beat the Trojans four games to two in the finals. The Trojans had placed first in the regular season standings that year, going 94–56, while the Bears went 93–59 to finish second in the league. The Braves finished last in the league, going 45–106. Following the season, the Bears ceased to exist in Gladewater. A new team with that name would show up in 1948, playing in the Lone Star League.
The Tyler Trojans, Jacksonville Jax, Henderson Oilers, Palestine Pals and Longview Cannibals returned to the league for 1937 with their names the same. The Marshall team changed its name to the Marshall Tigers, while Kilgore became the Kilgore Rangers. Texarkana had a representative in the league for the first time since 1926, with a team known as the Texarkana Liners. Despite Tyler leading the league with an 85–52 record in the regular season, they were eliminated in the first round of the playoffs. Jacksonville beat Marshall in the league finals four games to two, to become the league champions. Kilgore finished last in the league with a 42–97 record.
For the first time in East Texas League history, the same exact same teams played in the league two consecutive seasons: 1937 and 1938. Following 1937, there were no league departures, and there were no name changes or new teams for the 1938 season. The Trojans, who had finished in fourth place in the regular season, beat the Oilers, who had finished in third place during the regular season, four games to three in the league finals to win the league championship. Marshall (84–55) and Texarkana (80–60) had finished first and second in the league, respectively, however they were knocked out of the playoffs in the first round. The Jax finished last with a 58–82 record.
No teams would leave the league following 1938, and only one team would change its name for the 1939 season: the Kilgore Rangers became the Kilgore Boomers. Aside from that, every team would stay the same. The Henderson Oilers had the best record in the league, going 85-55, while the Jacksonville Jax went only 51–89. In the league finals, the second-place Boomers beat the first-place Oilers four games to zero. The Jax again finished last in the league, this time with a 51–89 record.
1940 was the final year of the fourth incarnation of the East Texas League. Each team returned from the previous season, and only one team underwent a name change: the Longview Cannibals became the Longview Texans. The third-place Trojans beat the fourth-place Tigers in the league championship. Longview had finished first in the league with a 79–53 record, but were eliminated in the first round of the playoffs. On June 5, both the Palestine Pals and Jacksonville Jax disbanded. The Marshall Tigers moved on to the Cotton States League for the 1941 season. The Texarkana Liners changed their name back to the Texarkana Twins and moved to the Cotton States League as well.
1946
The league made a one-year comeback in 1946, with the Oilers, Trojans and Jax returning. Texarkana came back with a new team name, the Texarkana Bears, as did Greenville (which hadn't had a team in the league since 1926), its team known as the Greenville Majors. Paris, too, returned with a team called the Paris Red Peppers, and Lufkin returned to the league for the first time since 1916, with a team known as the Lufkin Foresters. Sherman was entirely new to the league, with a team known as the Twins. Henderson finished atop the league with an 83–56 record, and they won the League Championship as well, defeating Texarkana four games to two. Lufkin finished last in the league with a 47–92 record. The league disbanded following the 1946 season. The Oilers, Jax, Foresters and Trojans moved on to the Lone Star League, while the Bears, Majors, Red Peppers and Twins moved on to the Big State League. The Twins became known as the Sherman–Denison Twins.
1949–1950
1949 was the beginning of the sixth and final incarnation of the East Texas League. It would last until 1950. The Longview Texans returned to the league after not playing in it during the 1946 incarnation, coming from the Lone Star League. The Gladewater Bears returned as well, after not playing in the league since 1936. They too arrived from the Lone Star League. The Tyler Trojans and Henderson Oilers returned after spending time in the Lone Star League, as well. The Paris team arrived from the Big State League, changing its name from the Paris Rockets (it changed its name to the Rockets for the 1948 Big State League season) to the Paris Panthers. Kilgore returned as the Kilgore Drillers, coming from the Lone Star League. The Marshall team was now known as the Marshall Browns. They arrived from the Lone Star League, where they were known as the Marshall Comets in 1947 and Marshall Tigers in 1948. Bryan, Texas had a representative in the league for the first time, the Bryan Bombers. They arrived from the Lone Star League. So many team arrived from the Lone Star league because that league folded following the 1948 season.
Longview finished first in the league in 1949, with an 89–51 record. Gladewater ended up winning the league championship, however, defeating the fourth–place Kilgore four games to zero. The Bombers finished last in the league, with a 48–91 record.
Every team that played in the league in 1949 returned for 1950, with the Bombers changing their name to the Bryan Sports. The Sports and Paris Panthers disbanded on July 20. Gladewater led the league with a 92–45 record, but second-place Marshall beat fourth–place Longview four games to one in the finals.
The league folded following the 1950 season. The Gladewater Bears, Marshall Browns, Henderson Oilers and Kilgore Drillers folded with it. The Longview Texans did not play in 1950, however Longview was represented by the Longview Cherokees in 1952 and the Longview Pirates in 1953 in the Big State League. The Tyler Trojans became the Tyler East Texans and moved to the Big State League. A team named the Paris Indians represented Paris in Big State League from 1952 to 1953. Paris had minor league teams through 1957. Bryan had minor league teams until 1954, although none in 1951 and 1952.
References
The Encyclopedia of Minor League Baseball: Second Edition.
Defunct minor baseball leagues in the United States
Baseball leagues in Texas
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20the%20San%20Francisco%20Bay%20Area
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Timeline of the San Francisco Bay Area
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This is a timeline of the San Francisco Bay Area in California, events in the nine counties that border on the San Francisco Bay, and the bay itself.
An identical list of events, formatted differently, may be found here.
Prehistory
The San Andreas Fault (pictured) begins to form in the mid Cenozoic about 30 million years ago
9.5 million years ago, the Moraga Volcanics produces most of the lavas that underlie the East Bay ridges from present day Tilden Regional Park to Moraga
During the Quaternary glaciation beginning 2.58 million years ago, the basin that will be filled by the bay is a large linear valley with small hills, similar to most of the valleys of the Coast Ranges. The rivers of the Central Valley run out to sea through a canyon that will become the Golden Gate. As the ice sheets melt, sea levels rise over the next 4,000 years, and the valley fills with water from the Pacific.
Evidence of human occupation of California dates from at least 17,000 BCE.
The Ohlone people (pictured) inhabit the Bay Area region as early as 6,000 years ago, with a 1770 estimated population of 10,000–20,000
The Coast Miwok inhabit the Sonoma region as early as 4,000 years ago, with a 1770 estimated population of 2,000
The Patwin people inhabit the northern Bay region as early as 1,500 years ago, with a 1770 estimated population of 12,000
The Bay Miwok inhabit the region that is now Contra Costa County, with a 1770 estimated population of approximately 1,700
16th century
In 1539, Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo lands on islands off the coast of California, and names them Farallones, Spanish for cliffs or small pointed islets
On 13 November 1542, Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo sights a peninsula from his ship and names it "Cabo de Pinos", while missing the entrance to San Francisco Bay
Francis Drake lands at what is now known as Drakes Bay in 1579 (pictured), and claims the land for England, as New Albion
17th century
Despite numerous sailing vessels traveling along the coast, no ships discover the Golden Gate and the San Francisco Bay, due to factors such as fog and ships avoiding sailing close to shore
18th century
Las Californias is established in 1768 by New Spain, encompassing the Bay Area
Gaspar de Portolà arrives in the Bay Area in 1769
Mission San Francisco de Asís and El Presidio Real de San Francisco are founded in 1776 in Yerba Buena
Baptisms of the Yelamu by Spanish missionaries begin in 1777
La Misión Santa Clara de Thamien and el Pueblo de San José de Guadalupe are established in 1777 on the Guadalupe River
In 1786, Jean-François de Galaup, comte de Lapérouse sails to San Francisco and maps the Bay Area
In 1792, British explorer George Vancouver stops in San Francisco, in part, according to his journal, to spy on the Spanish settlements in the area
19th century
In 1804, The Bay Area is part of the newly created New Spain state of Alta California
The Russian-American Company establishes Fortress Ross (Крѣпость Россъ, tr. Krepostʹ Ross) (pictured) in 1812, in what is now Sonoma County
In 1821, New Spain cedes Alta California, including the Bay Area, to the newly created Mexican Empire
William A. Richardson (pictured) arrives in San Francisco in 1822, and in 1838 is given Rancho Saucelito in present-day Marin County by Mexican Governor Juan Alvarado
In 1823, the Bay Area, as part of Alta California, becomes part of the newly founded United Mexican States
In 1837, Antonio Ortega begins operating a pulqueria (tavern) north of San Francisco, on the former site of Mission San Francisco Solano
In 1838, a 7.0 MLa earthquake strikes the Peninsula, on or near the San Andreas Fault, with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII (Severe)
Colonists in Alta California rebel against the Mexican department's government, raise a flag featuring a grizzly bear (pictured) at El Cuartel de Sonoma, and establish the short-lived (and unrecognized) California Republic
US Navy Commodore John D. Sloat claims California for the United States during the Mexican–American War, and US Navy Captain John Berrien Montgomery and US Marine Second Lieutenant Henry Bulls Watson of the arrives to claim Yerba Buena two days later by raising the American flag over the town plaza
Washington Allon Bartlett is named alcalde of Yerba Buena
Yerba Buena doubles in population when about 240 Mormon pioneers arrive, among them Samuel Brannan
Samuel Brannan's California Star begins publishing in Yerba Buena (Sam Brannan pictured)
The Californian moves to Yerba Buena from Monterey, shortly after the California Star debuts
Alcalde Washington Allon Bartlett proclaims that Yerba Buena will henceforth be known as San Francisco
Nathan Coombs purchases a farm on Rancho Napa from Salvador Vallejo, and of Rancho Entre Napa from Nicholas Higuera
James W. Marshall finds several flakes of gold at a lumber mill he owned in partnership John Sutter, at the bank of the South Fork of the American River, news of which quickly travels around the world (advertisement for transportation to the Gold Rush pictured, right)
The California Star and the Californian both cease publication in San Francisco due to losing all their staff to the California Gold Rush
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (pictured, left) ends the Mexican–American War, and cedes the territory of California (including the San Francisco Bay Area) to the United States from Mexico
San Francisco's population is 1,000
A small coffee stand (1983 menu pictured, left) opens on Clay Street in San Francisco
Boudin Bakery is established in San Francisco, producing San Francisco sourdough (loaves pictured, right)
The Alta California begins publishing in San Francisco
Bayard Taylor visits San Francisco and the Gold Country, writing about the Gold Rush
The Niantic whaling ship is stranded by its crew on the shore of San Francisco, who desert it to join the Gold Rush
Irish immigrants Peter and James Donahue found Union Iron Works (pictured) in South of Market, San Francisco
San Francisco's population is 25,000, an increase by 2,400% from 1848's 1,000
The San Francisco Bay Area is part of the new state of California, which is admitted into the United States of America
The City and County of San Francisco is incorporated
John W. Geary (pictured) becomes the first mayor of San Francisco
Contra Costa County is incorporated
Marin County is incorporated
Napa County is incorporated
Santa Clara County is incorporated
San Jose is incorporated in Santa Clara County (First Street, c. 1868–1885, pictured)
Solano County is incorporated
Benicia is incorporated in Solano County (Benicia's State Capitol building from 1853 pictured)
Sonoma County is incorporated
The San Francisco Unified School District is established, as the first public school district in California (historic Ida B. Wells High School building pictured, right)
The San Francisco Committee of Vigilance is formed in response to rampant crime and corruption in the municipal government (1851 hanging pictured, left)
Congregation Emanu-El is chartered in San Francisco
A fire destroys large swaths of San Francisco
After opening a number of businesses in Peru and California, Italian chocolatier Domenico Ghirardelli imports 200 pounds of cocoa beans and establishes D. Ghirardelli & Co in San Francisco (1864 advertisement pictured, left)
Henry Wells and William G. Fargo establish Wells, Fargo & Company in San Francisco, a joint-stock association with an initial capitalization of $300,000, to provide express and banking services (iconic stagecoach pictured, right)
The city of Santa Clara is incorporated in Santa Clara County (1910 postcard pictured, right)
Oakland is incorporated in Alameda County (1867 painting shown, right)
Francis K. Shattuck, George Blake, and two partners they met in the gold fields, William Hillegass and James Leonard, lay claim to four adjoining strips of land north of Oakland
The California Academy of Natural Sciences (modern display pictured, left) is founded in San Francisco
Levi Strauss & Co. is established when Levi Strauss (pictured, right) arrives from Buttenheim, Bavaria, in San Francisco to open a west coast branch of his brothers' New York dry goods business
Alameda County is incorporated
Mare Island Naval Shipyard (pictured, left), the first United States Navy base established on the Pacific Ocean, is established in Vallejo, Solano County
The Mechanics' Institute Library and Chess Room is founded in San Francisco
The city of Alameda is incorporated in Alameda County (Alameda Works Shipyard pictured, right)
The first department store in San Francisco opens: Davidson & Lane, later renamed The White House.
Saint Ignatius Academy is founded in San Francisco by the Italian Jesuits Rev. Anthony Maraschi, Rev. Joseph Bixio, and Rev. Michael Accolti (present St. Ignatius Church, on campus, pictured)
With gold only profitably retrieved by medium to large groups of workers, either in partnerships or as employees, the California Gold Rush ends
The College of California is founded in Oakland
San Mateo County is incorporated (1878 map pictured)
Hutchings' Illustrated California Magazine is founded in San Francisco
Early San Francisco developer William A. Richardson dies
Daily Evening Bulletin editor James King of William is shot and killed at Montgomery Street in San Francisco
Église Notre Dame Des Victoires (pictured) in San Francisco is completed
The Sisters of Mercy open St. Mary's Hospital on Stockton Street in San Francisco, the first Catholic hospital west of the Rocky Mountains (hospital ruins in 1906 pictured)
Minns Evening Normal School is founded in San Francisco by George W. Minns
George Kenny starts construction of an octagonal house at Russian Hill in San Francisco
Landscape painter Fortunato Arriola moves to San Francisco from Cosala, Sinaloa, Mexico
Lafayette is incorporated in Contra Costa County
Buena Vista Winery is founded by Agoston Haraszthy in the Sonoma Valley (early champagne production pictured)
The first San Francisco Chinese New Year Festival and Parade is held in Chinatown, combining elements of the Chinese Lantern Festival with a typical American parade (contemporary parade dragon pictured)
The William Hood House is built in Sonoma County, using bricks made on the property
The Medical Department of the University of the Pacific, the first medical school on the West Coast, is founded in Santa Clara
Bolinas School opens in Marin County
Alcatraz Citadel (pictured) is built on Alcatraz Island in the San Francisco Bay
Laurentine Hamilton comes to San Jose to preach at the First Presbyterian Church of San Jose
Joshua Norton declares himself "NORTON I, Emperor of the United States" in San Francisco
Francis K. Shattuck is elected the fifth mayor of Oakland
Congregation Beth Israel-Judea forms in San Francisco from the merger of the Conservative Congregation Beth Israel and the Reform Temple Judea
The San Francisco Olympic Club is founded (founder Arthur Nahl pictured working out with his brother in 1855)
The Woodford Hotel and Saloon in Contra Costa County becomes a Pony Express stop (historical plaque pictured)
The James Lick Mansion in Santa Clara, the estate of James Lick, is completed
The Black Diamond coal mine is started by Noah Norton
San Francisco's population is 56,802, an increase by 63% from 1852's 34,776
S & G Gump is established in San Francisco as a mirror and frame shop by Solomon Gump and his brother, Gustav (contemporary display pictured)
Hutchings' Illustrated California Magazine in San Francisco ceases publishing
Charles Krug founds the first winery in Napa Valley
The Halleck, Peachy & Billings law firm in San Francisco is dissolved
Schramsberg Vineyards is established in Napa Valley by Jacob Schram (pictured, left)
The state capitol is moved from Sacramento to San Francisco, due to Flooding of the Central Valley
Minns Evening Normal School in San Francisco is taken over by the state and moved to San Jose as the California State Normal School
William Boothby (pictured, right) is born in San Francisco
The Democratic Press is founded in San Francisco
The California Educational Society is established in San Francisco
Jack's Restaurant (pictured) opens in San Francisco
The Napa Valley Register is established
Mountain View Cemetery (pictured), designed by Frederick Law Olmsted, is established in Oakland
African American resident Charlotte L. Brown files a lawsuit after being forcibly removed from a segregated horse-drawn streetcar in San Francisco
The Alameda County Infirmary is established (Fairmont Hospital pictured)
literary newspaper The Californian begins publishing in San Francisco, with Bret Harte as editor, and Mark Twain as a writer
The Bank of California (pictured) is founded in San Francisco by William Chapman Ralston
The Napa Valley Railroad Company is founded by Samuel Brannan to shuttle tourists between ferry boats docked in Vallejo to the resort town of Calistoga
The San Francisco and San Jose Railroad completes its route from San Francisco to San Jose along the San Francisco Peninsula, becoming the first railroad to link the two cities
The Daily Dramatic Chronicle (later logo pictured) is founded in San Francisco by teenage brothers Charles de Young and Michael H. de Young
The California Pacific Rail Road Company is incorporated in San Francisco
The California State Mineral Collection is begun in San Francisco, driven by the mineral finds of the California Gold Rush
Jefferson Thompson in West Marin begins making a fresh Brie "breakfast cheese" that is transported by horse-drawn carriage to Petaluma, then shipped by steamboat down the Petaluma River to San Francisco where it is sold to waterfront dockworkers
Pacific Rolling Mill Company, the West's first iron and steel producing foundry (rolling mill of the period pictured), is established in San Francisco
Frederick Billings of the College of California, while walking with fellow collegians through land purchased in 1860 for the new location of the college, stops at a spot (pictured) in the Contra Costa Range astride Strawberry Creek, with a view of the Bay Area and the Pacific Ocean through the Golden Gate. While watching two ships standing out to sea, he remembers a line by Anglican Bishop George Berkeley, "westward the course of empire takes its way", and suggests Berkeley's name for the college and the town to grow around it.
Ezra Decoto, an Alameda County landowner, sells land to the railroads, and an eponymous small settlement begins at the location
Redwood City in San Mateo County is incorporated (historic building pictured)
Hill Park is established in San Francisco
An earthquake estimated at 6.3–6.7 on the moment magnitude scale hits the Bay Area, with an epicenter in the East Bay. It causes significant damage throughout the region, and comes to be known as the "Great San Francisco earthquake". (damage in the Haywards area pictured, right)
The Convent of Our Lady of the Sacred Heart (pictured, right) in Oakland is established by members of the Sisters of the Holy Names from Canada
The University of California (logo pictured, left) is established in Berkeley, along with the first campus in the system, the University of California, Berkeley
Santa Rosa in Sonoma County is incorporated
Vallejo in Solano County is incorporated
Bret Harte begins publishing the Overland Monthly in San Francisco
The Guittard Chocolate Company is founded in San Francisco
Meek Mansion (pictured) in the East Bay is completed
The first Japanese immigrants arrive in San Francisco
The California Theatre in San Francisco opens
Frederick Marriott's unmanned, lighter-than-air craft the Hermes Avitor Jr. (replica pictured) takes to the air at the Shellmound Park racetrack in Emeryville, flying at about 5 miles per hour
Laurentine Hamilton is charged with heresy and resigns from his ordination in the Presbyterian church, with most of his parishioners joining him in forming the First Independent Presbyterian Church in Oakland
Golden Gate Park in San Francisco (contemporary aerial photo shown) is surveyed and mapped
The First National Gold Bank in San Francisco begins producing National Bank Notes redeemable in gold
San Francisco's population is 149,473, an increase by 163% from 1860's 56,802
The California Historical Society is founded in San Francisco
The Daily Californian student-run newspaper (contemporary kiosk pictured) is founded at the University of California, Berkeley
The San Francisco Art Association is founded by a group of landscape painters led by Virgil Williams
The Bohemian Club (plaque pictured) is founded in San Francisco
Alum Rock Park, the first municipal park in California, is established at a valley in the Diablo Range foothills on the east side of San Jose
Napa is incorporated in Marin County
Julia Morgan is born in San Francisco (Hearst Gymnasium for Women at the University of California, Berkeley pictured)
The Clay Street Hill Railroad, the first in the San Francisco cable car system (pictured, left), begins operations
South Hall (pictured, right) is built in Berkeley, thus becoming the new location of the University of California, Berkeley, formerly located in Oakland
The second San Francisco Mint building (pictured) is completed
Markham Vineyards is founded in the Napa Valley
East Brother Island Light (pictured) is built on East Brother Island near the tip of Point San Pablo in Richmond
The Oakland Tribune begins publishing
Beringer Vineyards (pictured) in the Napa Valley is established
Napa State Hospital in Napa is established
Point Montara Light in Montara begins operating using a kerosene lantern
Luther Burbank moves to Santa Rosa from Massachusetts, with money from selling the rights to a potato cultivar (russet Burbank potatoes pictured)
The Baldwin Hotel (pictured) is built in San Francisco as an addition to the Baldwin Theatre
Hayward in Alameda County is incorporated
A two-day pogrom is waged against Chinese immigrants in San Francisco by the city's majority white population, resulting in four deaths and the destruction of more than $100,000 worth of property belonging to the city's Chinese immigrant population.
The Argonaut literary journal is founded by Frank M. Pixley (pictured) in San Francisco
The Conservatory of Flowers (pictured) in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco is completed
Mark Hopkin's mansion (pictured) in San Francisco is completed
The California Street Cable Railroad, a cable car company, is founded in San Francisco by Leland Stanford
Austin Herbert Hills and R. W. Hills begin selling coffee and tea from a market stall in San Francisco
The Conservatory of Flowers (pictured) in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, opens to the public
Finnish fur trader Gustave Niebaum founds Inglenook Winery in the Napa Valley village of Rutherford
Croll's Gardens and Hotel is built in Alameda
Joshua Abraham Norton (pictured), self-declared "Emperor of these United States" and subsequently "Protector of Mexico", collapses and dies in front of Old St. Mary's Church while on his way to a lecture at the California Academy of Sciences
Famed Scottish writer Robert Louis Stevenson honeymoons for 2 months at a played out mine on Mount Saint Helena in the northern San Francisco Bay Area, and writes a memoir about his travels in Napa Valley
Max J. Brandenstein begins producing coffee in San Francisco (early M.J. Brandenstein facility pictured)
A. Schilling & Company is founded in San Francisco by August Schilling and George F. Volkmann, both natives of Bremen, Germany
Chateau Montelena, at the foot of Mount Saint Helena in the Napa Valley, is established
Cresta Blanca Winery (pictured) in the Livermore Valley is established
Concannon Vineyard (pictured) in the Livermore Valley is established
Firemen on coal-burning steamers found the Pacific Coast Marine Firemen, Oilers, Watertenders and Wipers Association in San Francisco
The Silverado Squatters, about Robert Louis Stevenson's travels in Napa Valley, is published
Matthew Turner, his brother, and John Eckley form the Matthew Turner Shipyard at Benicia
Charles N. Felton (pictured) of Menlo Park is elected to the United States House of Representatives
The California and Nevada Railroad, a narrow gauge steam railroad in the East Bay, is incorporated
The Grand Army of the Republic opens a home for war veterans in Napa County
Alcazar Theatre in San Francisco opens
V. Sattui Winery (pictured) in the Napa Valley is established
Leland Stanford Junior University is founded (on paper) by Leland Stanford, former governor of and U.S. senator from California and leading railroad tycoon, and his wife, Jane Lathrop Stanford, in memory of their only child, Leland Stanford, Jr., who died of typhoid fever at age 15 the previous year.
The Aegis high school newspaper is founded in Oakland
The Students' Observatory (historical plaque pictured) at the University of California, Berkeley is constructed
Eshcol vineyards and winery in the Napa Valley is established
The California League Baseball Grounds baseball park opens in San Francisco
John McLaren (pictured) is appointed superintendent of the developing Golden Gate Park in San Francisco
William Randolph Hearst takes over management of the San Francisco Examiner, which his father had received in 1880 as payment for a gambling debt
The 36-inch telescope at Lick Observatory is the largest telescope in the world when it sees first light.
The SS City of Chester sinks after a collision (pictured) with RMS Oceanic at the Golden Gate in San Francisco Bay
Hunt Bros. Fruit Packing Co. is founded in Sebastopol
Swinerton construction is founded in San Francisco
The Pacific-Union Club in San Francisco (pictured) is founded as a merger of two earlier clubs: the Pacific Club (founded 1852) and the Union Club (founded 1854)
The Astronomical Society of the Pacific is founded in San Francisco
Mayacamas Vineyards is established on the Mayacamas Mountains within the Napa Valley
St. Paul's Episcopal Church (historical plaque pictured) in Walnut Creek is completed
Livermore Valley winery Cresta Blanca's first vintage, an 1884 dry white wine, wins Grand Prize at the Paris Exposition, becoming the first California wine to win a competition in France
Jacob Gillig opens a carriage and wagon shop in San Francisco
Oakland Harbor Light (pictured) is built at the Oakland Estuary
Dominican College is founded in San Rafael
Nichelini Winery is founded in Napa Valley
Roe Island Light (pictured) is built at the east end of Suisun Bay across from Port Chicago
Stanford University (pictured) opens in Santa Clara County, with 21 departments, including the Department of the History and Art of Education
King Kalākaua of Hawaii dies at the Palace Hotel in San Francisco
The First Unitarian Church of Berkeley is founded
Le Petit Trianon (pictured) near Santa Clara Valley is built for Charles A. Baldwin and his wife Ellen Hobart Baldwin, as the center of their wine-producing estate
Stanford Cardinal football play the first game of their first season, 1891–1892, and shortly into the season win in their first game against California Golden Bears football
The University of California, Berkeley Graduate School of Education is established
Paul Masson's first sparkling wine under the name "champagne" is introduced at Almaden Valley in Santa Clara County
The Owl Drug Company is established in San Francisco
Church Divinity School of the Pacific is founded in San Mateo
Stanford Law School (founder and former U.S. president Benjamin Harrison pictured) is established at Stanford University
University of California Press is established at the University of California, Berkeley
Adolph Sutro (pictured) is elected Mayor of San Francisco
Fentons Creamery in Oakland is founded
The California Midwinter International Exposition of 1894 is held in San Francisco
Palo Alto in Santa Clara County, Pleasanton in Alameda County, and San Mateo in San Mateo County are incorporated
The De Young museum is founded in San Francisco by San Francisco Chronicle publisher M. H. de Young (pictured) as an outgrowth of the California Midwinter International Exposition of 1894
Landscape designer Makoto Hagiwara creates the Japanese Tea Garden in Golden Gate Park
The Native Sons of the Golden State, a Chinese benevolent society, is founded in San Francisco
John Van Denburgh completes his organizing of the herpetology department of the California Academy of Sciences
The Sutro Baths (pictured) north of Ocean Beach, San Francisco open to the public
Native son James D. Phelan (pictured) is elected mayor of San Francisco
Molinari's delicatessen in San Francisco's North Beach is founded
Colombo Baking Company is founded in the Bay Area
Anchor Brewing Company is founded in San Francisco
Cutter Laboratories in Berkeley is founded (penicillin chemical structure pictured)
The Evening Press and Sonoma Democrat are merged to create The Press Democrat in Santa Rosa
Californio and former Contra Costa County Supervisor Víctor Castro dies
United States v. Wong Kim Ark is decided in favor of Wong Kim Ark (pictured, left), who is thus considered a U.S. citizen
The San Francisco Ferry Building (pictured, right), designed by A. Page Brown, opens
A columbarium (pictured, right) is built at Odd Fellows Cemetery in San Francisco by Bernard J. S. Cahill, to complement an earlier columbarium built by him
The Baldwin Hotel (pictured, right) in San Francisco, built in 1876, burns down
Francis K. Shattuck dies after being knocked down by a man exiting from a train that Shattuck was attempting to board on the eponymous Shattuck Avenue
San Francisco State Normal School (later architectural element pictured) is established
Botanist Willis Linn Jepson receives his Ph.D. degree from, and is made assistant professor at, the University of California, Berkeley
McTeague by Frank Norris is published
An epidemic of bubonic plague centered on San Francisco's Chinatown begins, the first plague epidemic in the continental United States (reviled investigator Joseph J. Kinyoun pictured)
The California Automobile Company is founded in San Francisco
The Sempervirens Club is founded with the goal of preserving old growth coast redwood forest in the Santa Cruz Mountains
The World's Drinks And How To Mix Them, by William "Cocktail" Boothby, is published by the Palace Hotel, San Francisco
20th century
The Lowie Museum of Anthropology is established in San Francisco by patron Phoebe Hearst (pictured), to house items for the University of California, Berkeley.
The Family, a private club in San Francisco, California, is formed by newspapermen who had left the Bohemian Club
The California Society of Artists is founded in San Francisco by Xavier Martínez, Maynard Dixon, Gottardo Piazzoni, Matteo Sandona and other artists disaffected with the San Francisco Art Association
YMCA Evening College in San Francisco opens its law school, becoming a full-fledged college
The Paul Masson Mountain Winery is established by Paul Masson in Saratoga
The SS City of Rio de Janeiro shipwrecks off the shores of San Francisco at the Golden Gate
A light bulb is installed at a LIvermore fire station
Hotel Majestic (pictured) in San Francisco is built.
The Carpenter Gothic Victorian St. Thomas Aquinas Church is completed in Palo Alto
Big Basin Redwoods State Park is established in the Santa Cruz Mountains
Stanford Memorial Church (pictured) at Stanford University, designed by architect Charles A. Coolidge, is dedicated
George A. Wyman becomes the first person to ride a motorcycle (and the first using any motor vehicle) across the US, from San Francisco to New York City
The Alameda Free Library is completed
The California Pelican student humor magazine begins publishing at the University of California, Berkeley
Pittsburg is incorporated in Contra Costa County
The Bank of Italy is founded in San Francisco by A.P. Giannini, a San Jose born son of Italian immigrants.
The 12-story Flood Building (pictured) in San Francisco is completed.
The Merchants Exchange Building in San Francisco is completed
The San Francisco Motorcycle Club is founded
Graft trials begin in San Francisco against mayor Eugene Schmitz, members of the San Francisco Board of Supervisors, and attorney and political boss Abe Ruef, who were receiving bribes, and business owners who were paying the bribes. (prosecutors pictured)
Concord and Richmond are incorporated in Contra Costa County
The Bank of Pinole (pictured) is founded in Richmond
The Hill Opera House opens in Petaluma
The Bancroft Library at the University of California, Berkeley is founded when the university purchases Hubert Howe Bancroft's 50,000 volumes on the history of California and the North American West
On April 17, Daniel Burnham delivers plans (pictured, left) for the redesign of San Francisco
The next day, a massive earthquake hits San Francisco, starting fires which burn much of the city to the ground. 3,000 people die during the disaster.
By the end of a violent streetcar operator strike in San Francisco, thirty-one people had been killed and about 1100 injured.
San Francisco Mayor Eugene Schmitz (pictured) is found guilty of extortion, and the office of mayor is declared vacant
The School of the California Guild of Arts and Crafts is founded in Berkeley during the height of the Arts and Crafts movement
Piedmont is incorporated in Alameda County
The whaling bark Lydia wrecks on the shore of San Francisco
Brisbane is incorporated in San Mateo County on the lower slopes of San Bruno Mountain
Muir Woods National Monument (coast redwood undergrowth pictured) is established in Marin County
Cooper Medical College is acquired by Stanford University and renamed the Stanford University School of Medicine
Brown's Opera House opens in San Francisco
The first Portola Road Race (pictured, left) is run through Melrose in Oakland, San Leandro and Hayward, with at least 250,000 attending
Albany (Albany Hill pictured, right) is incorporated in Alameda County
Fort Ross State Historic Park is established in Sonoma County to protect Fort Ross, founded in 1812 as the southernmost point in the Russian colonization of the Americas
The C. H. Brown Theater opens in the Mission District, San Francisco
Samuel Merritt College is founded in Oakland as a hospital school of nursing
San Francisco Law School is founded
The neighborhood of Thousand Oaks, a refugee camp from the 1906 San Francisco earthquake adjacent to Albany and Berkeley, is first subdivided
The Richmond Police Department is founded
John Sabatte opens the South Berkeley Creamery (current logo pictured), selling milk from local farmers in Alameda and Contra Costa counties (including "farms in Berkeley?") (sound clip shown, simulating radio ad for company)
The Southern Pacific railroad company completes the Dumbarton Rail Bridge, the first bridge crossing San Francisco Bay. The bridge is inaugurated on .
Hillsborough is incorporated in San Mateo County on May 5
The San Francisco Symphony, conducted by Henry Kimball Hadley (pictured), is founded
Italian immigrant Ambrogio Soracco opens Liguria Bakery in San Francisco
Daly City is incorporated in San Mateo County
The Bay to Breakers (news headline on race pictured, right) is run in San Francisco for the first time
Chinese restaurant Sam Wo (pictured, left. translation: "Three Harmonies Porridge and Noodles") in San Francisco's Chinatown opens
Sunnyvale in Santa Clara County is incorporated
The California Society of Etchers is founded in San Francisco
Essanay Studios opens the Essanay-West studio in Niles, at the foot of Niles Canyon
Chauncey Thomas opens The Tile Shop on San Pablo Avenue in Berkeley to make and sell faience tiles (Hearst Castle tower, decorated with tiles from California Faience, pictured)
Dewing Park in Contra Costa County is renamed Saranap after the local inter-urban commuter rail system developer's mother, Sara Napthaly
John Swett, former Superintendent of the San Francisco Public Schools, and "Father of the California public school", dies
Sather Tower (pictured, left), a campanile at the University of California, Berkeley is completed
Temple Sinai (pictured, right) in Oakland is completed
The Baby Hospital Association (organized September 1912), and the Baby Hospital Association of Alameda County (organized September 1913), establish The Children's Hospital of the East Bay in Oakland
The new Beaux-Arts style San Francisco City Hall (pictured, right) opens at the Civic Center, San Francisco
The Panama–Pacific International Exposition is held in San Francisco, to celebrate the completion of the Panama Canal. It features the Palace of Fine Arts (pictured, left), the Tower of Jewels (pictured, right), and The San Francisco Civic Auditorium. Laura Ingalls Wilder writes about the exposition during her visit to the city that year.
During a parade on Preparedness Day, prior to entry into World War I, a suitcase bomb detonates, killing ten and wounding forty, the worst such attack in San Francisco's history
Buena Vista Cafe opens in San Francisco on the first floor of a boardinghouse converted into a saloon
Thomaso Castagnola opens the first crab stand on Fisherman's Wharf in San Francisco, selling fresh crab to passersby
Writer Jack London (pictured) dies at his ranch on the eastern slope of Sonoma Mountain
General Motors Oakland Assembly opens
Fageol Motors is founded in Oakland
University of California, Berkeley establishes the first program in the US for the study of criminal justice, headed by Berkeley police chief August Vollmer
The San Francisco Sausage Company is established by Italian immigrants Peter Domenici and Enrico Parducci
Neptune Beach opens in Alameda with private picnic areas, barbecue pits, a clubhouse for dancing, and vacation cottages
El Cerrito in Contra Costa County is incorporated
During World War I, a major explosion of barges loaded with munitions at Mare Island Naval Shipyard killes 6 people, wounds another 31, and destroys some port facilities.
The -long Twin Peaks Tunnel (pictured) opens to streetcar service under Twin Peaks, San Francisco
Santa Rosa Junior College is established
Historian and ethnologist Hubert Howe Bancroft dies in Walnut Creek
Wines & Vines, a journal devoted to the North American wine business (early Wine Country vintages pictured), begins publishing in Marin County
Edward Howard Duncan Jr. is born in Oakland
The 18th Amendment results in Bay Area vineyards uprooted and cellars destroyed, with some vineyards and wineries converting to table grape or grape juice production, or providing churches with sacramental wine
The Democratic National Convention (guest pass pictured) is held at the San Francisco Civic Auditorium, with their platform supporting the League of Nations and women's suffrage
Cooley LLP is founded in San Francisco by attorneys Arthur Cooley and Louis Crowley
The Schlage lock company is founded in San Francisco by Walter Schlage
The Solon and Schemmel Tile Company is founded in San Jose
San Jose engineer Charles Herrold, after experimenting with radio broadcasting since 1909, receives a commercial license under the callsign KQW
KLX, owned by Oakland Tribune publisher Joseph R. Knowland, begins broadcasting out of Oakland
San Jose Junior College is established
The original Stanford Stadium (pictured) is completed on the Stanford University campus, as the home of the Stanford Cardinal football team
The University of California Museum of Paleontology opens at the University of California, Berkeley, to hold fossils gathered during the 1860–1867 California Geological Survey
The (pictured) goes missing after leaving Mare Island
KPO, owned by the Hale Brothers department store and the San Francisco Chronicle, begins broadcasting out of San Francisco
Naturalist Henry A. Snow establishes the Oakland Zoo
San Mateo Junior College is founded
Huntington Apartments in San Francisco (pictured), named after Collis Potter Huntington of the "Big Four", is completed
A large fire in Berkeley (pictured, right) consumes some 640 structures, before being extinguished by cool, humid afternoon air coming through the Golden Gate across the bay
Atherton is incorporated in San Mateo County
California Memorial Stadium (pictured, right) opens in Berkeley, as the home field for the California Golden Bears football team of the University of California, Berkeley
The East Bay Municipal Utility District is formed to provide water and sewage treatment services to the East Bay
The San Francisco Opera Ballet gives its first performance, of La bohème (pictured, left), with Queena Mario and Giovanni Martinelli, conducted by founder Gaetano Merola, at the San Francisco Civic Auditorium
The California Palace of the Legion of Honor in San Francisco (pictured), modeled after the Palais de la Légion d'Honneur in Paris, opens
KGO Radio begins broadcasting from General Electric's Oakland electrical facility
Lawndale is incorporated in San Mateo County, at the behest of the cemetery owners in the area, which had been established after San Francisco banned all cemeteries in 1900, and removed most existing ones from the city
Congregation Beth Israel is established in Berkeley
San Francisco is reported to have the highest average per capita income of any city in the world
The heated, saltwater Fleishhacker Pool in San Francisco opens (pictured, left)
The original Kezar Stadium in San Francisco opens (replica arch pictured, right)
San Carlos is incorporated in San Mateo County
The California Arts and Crafts Ainsley House is built in Campbell
George Whitney becomes general manager of a variously named complex of seaside attractions next to Ocean Beach in San Francisco, and christens it "Playland-at-the-Beach" (Big Dipper pictured)
The law firm of Brobeck, Phleger & Harrison is founded
Marin Junior College in Kentfield is founded
The Leimert Bridge in Oakland, a cement and steel arch bridge spanning 357 feet and rising 117 feet above Sausal Creek, becomes the largest single-span bridge on the West Coast
The Weeks and Day designed Mark Hopkins Hotel opens on Nob Hill in San Francisco (interior mural pictured)
During Prohibition, Frank Torres builds Frank's Place (pictured) as a speakeasy and clandestine liquor smuggling center on the cliffs above Moss Beach in San Mateo County
Governor C. C. Young signs the State Bar Act into law, establishing the State Bar of California, which begins operating out of San Francisco
Menlo Park in San Mateo County is incorporated
680 acres of land in Oakland are purchased to create an airport runway, which, when finished in time for the Dole Air Race, at 7,020 feet, becomes the longest in the world. Later in the year the airport is dedicated by Charles Lindbergh
The West Coast Oakland movie theatre (renamed theatre pictured), built by Weeks and Day, opens
The Golden Gate Bridge and Highway District incorporates, its purpose to design, construct, and finance the Golden Gate Bridge
Harvey Spencer Lewis of the Ancient Mystical Order Rosae Crucis presents his first exhibit of Egyptian antiquities, "The Rosicrucian Egyptian Oriental Museum", at the Rosicrucian headquarters in San Jose
Edy's Grand Ice Cream is established in Oakland
The Emeryville Research Center of Shell Development Company is established in Emeryville by the Shell Oil Company
Fleishhacker Zoo opens in San Francisco
Air Corps Station, San Rafael begins service
The Golden West Savings and Loan Association in Oakland opens
The Berkeley Women's City Club building (pictured) is built by Julia Morgan
The Art Deco downtown Berkeley Public Library building is completed (pictured)
International House Berkeley is established by YMCA official Harry Edmonds
Stern Grove in the Sunset District, San Francisco opens to the public
The Bal Tabarin nightclub opens, the same year as the 365 Club opens at 365 Market Street, San Francisco
The state of California acquires enough land to create a small state park around the peak of Mount Diablo (pictured) in Contra Costa County
The Radiation Laboratory is established at University of California, Berkeley by Ernest O. Lawrence
The War Memorial Opera House (pictured) opens, becoming the new home of the San Francisco Opera
Air Corps Station, San Rafael, begins formal development, and is renamed Hamilton Army Airfield
The Art Deco Doelger Building is built as the offices for local developer Henry Doelger
Coit Tower in San Francisco is completed (interior mural pictured)
The Alley (pictured), a restaurant and piano bar in Oakland, opens
The Oakland Symphony is formed as a volunteer community orchestra
The San Francisco City Clinic for treating sexually transmitted diseases is established
The Black Cat Bar reopens in San Francisco, upon the repeal of Prohibition
The alleged kidnappers and murderers of San Jose resident Brooke Hart are lynched
Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary is opened (Mugshot of Robert Stroud pictured, right)
A waterfront strike along the West Coast begins in San Francisco (billy club used at the strike in Seattle pictured, right)
The San Jose Light Opera Association is established
Victor Jules Bergeron, Jr. opens a small bar/restaurant across from his parent's grocery store at San Pablo Avenue and 65th Street in Oakland, originally calling it "Hinky Dink's" (Trader Vic's menu pictured, left)
The Wine Institute in San Francisco is cofounded by wine historian Leon Adams
Palo Alto Junior Museum and Zoo was founded in Palo Alto by Josephine O’Hara in the basement of a local elementary school
The San Francisco Museum of Art opens at the War Memorial Veterans Building on Van Ness Avenue in the Civic Center (Woman with a Hat by Matisse, from the museum collection, pictured, left)
Benjamin Franklin Davis, grandson of the man who helped develop Levi's jeans, opens his eponymous clothing store in San Francisco
Benicia Capitol State Historic Park opens at the site of California's third capital building (pictured, right), where the California State Legislature convened from February 3, 1853 to February 24, 1854
San Francisco Junior College is established
Lucky Stores is founded in Alameda County
Trolleybuses (pictured, right) began operating in San Francisco
The San Francisco Oakland Bay Bridge opens to traffic, in a ceremony attended by former U.S. president Herbert Hoover, among others (Bridge commemorative coin from 1936 pictured)
Cliff's Variety Store in The Castro, San Francisco opens for business
Former San Francisco political boss Abe Ruef dies
Lafayette Park is created in San Francisco
The Berkeley Rose Garden (pictured, right), built with funds from the Civil Works Administration, opens to the public
The Golden Gate Bridge (opening day pictured, left) opens to the public
The Hanna–Honeycomb House (pictured, right), built by Frank Lloyd Wright at Stanford University, is completed
The new San Francisco Mint (pictured, right) is completed
Stanford Memorial Auditorium is completed
Golden Gate National Cemetery in San Bruno is dedicated
The Malloch Building in San Francisco is completed
The 49-Mile Scenic Drive (road sign pictured, left) is created in San Francisco for the Golden Gate International Exposition by the San Francisco Down Town Association
Lake Anza (pictured, right) is created in Tilden Park in the Berkeley Hills
The Golden Gate International Exposition (poster pictured, left) opens at newly created Treasure Island
The Neptune Beach amusement park closes in Alameda
Hewlett-Packard is founded in a garage (pictured) in Palo Alto
Blue Shield of California is founded in San Francisco by the California Medical Association
Consumers' Cooperative of Berkeley opens, having formed from the Berkeley Buyers' Club, which was associated with the End Poverty in California movement
The Top of the Mark rooftop bar (pictured) is established at the top of the Mark Hopkins Hotel on Nob Hill in San Francisco
Nuclear scientist Ernest Lawrence at the University of California, Berkeley wins the Nobel Prize for Physics for his invention of the cyclotron
The Anshen + Allen architectural firm (the International Building in San Francisco, designed by firm, pictured) is founded by Frank Lloyd Wright disciple Rob Anshen, and Steve Allen, in San Francisco
Palo Alto Airport of Santa Clara County begins operations
Neptunium and Plutonium are synthesized at the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory
Treasure Island is leased to the United States Navy, which opens Naval Station Treasure Island the next year
World War II enlistment commences in the Bay Area (San Francisco recruiting office pictured)
A two-masted schooner, Benicia, built in Tahiti by a shipwright who had worked in Matthew Turner's Benicia shipyard, arrives in San Francisco under the French flag
The Xerces blue butterfly is last observed in San Francisco either this year, or in 1943
The Concord Army Air Base in Contra Costa County begins operations
The Santa Rosa Army Air Field in Sonoma County begins operations
The transport of Japanese Americans to "War Relocation Camps" (pictured) begins in the San Francisco Bay Area
The Fairfield-Suisun Army Air Base (pictured, right), near Fairfield, in Solano County, is officially activated
Golden Gate Park superintendent John McLaren dies
Edwin Hawkins is born in Oakland (Edwin Hawkins Singers pictured, left)
In Korematsu v. United States (plaintiff Fred Korematsu pictured), concerning the constitutionality of Executive Order 9066, which ordered Japanese Americans into internment camps during World War II regardless of citizenship, the Supreme Court sides with the government, ruling that the exclusion order was constitutional
A munitions explosion (pictured) at the Port Chicago Naval Magazine in Port Chicago kills 320 sailors and civilians and injures 390 others, with most of the dead and injured enlisted African-American sailors.
George P. Miller is elected to California's 6th congressional district
The Hayward Area Recreation and Park District is created
Americium and curium are synthesized at the University of California, Berkeley, with the discovery kept secret due to World War II
The United Nations Charter is signed at the San Francisco War Memorial and Performing Arts Center in San Francisco
Following the effective end of World War II on Victory over Japan Day, thousands of drunken people, the vast majority of them Navy enlistees who had not served in the war theatre, embarked in what the San Francisco Chronicle summarized in 2015 as "a three-night orgy of vandalism, looting, assault, robbery, rape and murder" and "the deadliest riots in the city's history", with more than 1000 people injured, 13 killed, and at least six women raped.
The Tonga Room restaurant and tiki bar opens at the Fairmont San Francisco
San Francisco-based Western Pipe and Steel Company ends operations
The Bay Area Council for economic development is founded in San Francisco
Samuel P. Taylor State Park is established in Marin County (gravesite of Samuel Penfield Taylor, at park, pictured)
Two guards and three inmates die during an unsuccessful escape attempt (pictured) from Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary
Cargo airline Emery Worldwide begins operating out of Redwood City
Potato chip maker Granny Goose is founded in Oakland
Overstock and government surplus Cannery Sales stores open in San Francisco
Japanese American newspaper Nichi Bei Times begins publishing in San Francisco
The Pacifica Foundation is created by World War II conscientious objectors E. John Lewis and Lewis Hill
The Stanford Research Institute (contemporary building pictured) is founded in Menlo Park
Sunset Books is founded by the San Francisco-based publishers of Sunset magazine
Southwest Airways (plane pictured) begins operations out of San Francisco International Airport
The Contra Costa Times begins publishing in Walnut Creek
Mel's Drive-In opens in San Francisco
Trans International Airlines begins service out of Oakland International Airport
The University of California Police Department is created at the University of California, Berkeley (logo pictured)
KPIX-TV Channel 5, the first television station in Northern California and the first television station in the San Francisco Bay Area signs on the air in San Francisco
The Point Reyes Light weekly newspaper begins publishing in Marin County
The San Francisco Boys Chorus (pictured) is formed
Stanford University School of Humanities and Sciences is created from the merger of the Schools of Biological Sciences, Humanities, Physical Sciences and Social Sciences
Beat Generation hangout Vesuvio Cafe (pictured) opens in San Francisco
Westlake Shopping Center opens in Daly City
Richard Diebenkorn has his first art exhibit at the California Palace of the Legion of Honor in San Francisco
The Doggie Diner fast food restaurant opens in Oakland (later iconic doggie head pictured)
KPFA community supported radio is founded in Berkeley
KGO-TV Channel 7, the second television station in Northern California and the second television station in the San Francisco Bay Area signs on the air in San Francisco
KRON-TV Channel 4, the third television station in Northern California and the second television station in the San Francisco Bay Area signs on the air in San Francisco
East Contra Costa Junior College is founded in Pleasant Hill
Fantasy Records is founded in San Francisco
The first Mervyn's department store opens in San Lorenzo (contemporary logo pictured)
The Western Air Defense Force (pictured) is established at the Hamilton Air Force Base in Marin County
Berkelium is synthesized at the University of California, Berkeley
Children's Fairyland (child performance pictured) opens at Lake Merritt in Oakland
Contra Costa College is established in San Pablo
Californium is synthesized at the University of California, Berkeley
The Treaty of San Francisco, between Japan and part of the Allied Powers, is officially signed by 48 nations at the War Memorial Opera House in San Francisco (signing pictured, right)
Stanford Industrial Park in Palo Alto is completed
A Trader Vic's opens in San Francisco
Nuclear scientist Glenn T. Seaborg (pictured, left) at the University of California, Berkeley shares the Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Edwin McMillan for "discoveries in the chemistry of the transuranium elements."
The is scuttled near the Farallon Islands, after being used as a target for the Operation Crossroads nuclear test at Bikini Atoll
The Purple Onion nightclub opens in San Francisco
Dwinelle Hall is completed at the University of California, Berkeley
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (pictured) is established in Livermore
Russ Harvey adds hamburgers to the menu of his San Pablo hot dog stand, and renames it Harvey's Giant Hamburgers
Poet Lawrence Ferlinghetti's City Lights Bookstore (pictured) opens in San Francisco
Johnny Kan opens an early "open kitchen" Chinese restaurant in San Francisco
Laney College is established in Oakland
The Survey of California and Other Indian Languages begins publication at the University of California, Berkeley
Merritt College is established in Oakland
Henry Cowell Redwoods State Park (pictured) is established in the Santa Cruz Mountains
KQED (TV) Channel 9, the fourth television station in Northern California and the fourth television station in the San Francisco Bay Area signs on the air in Berkeley, California
Brookside Hospital opens in San Pablo
Howl, by Allen Ginsberg (signature pictured), is written, then recited at the Six Gallery reading in San Francisco
The California Medical Facility, a state prison in Vacaville, opens
Cazadero Performing Arts Camp is established in western Sonoma County
The city of Cupertino (flag pictured) is incorporated in Santa Clara County
Daughters of Bilitis, the first lesbian civil and political rights organization in the United States, is formed in San Francisco
KNTV Channel 11, the first television station in San Jose, California signs on the air
Newark is incorporated in Alameda County
Caffe Trieste (pictured) opens in San Francisco
The Republican National Convention is held at the Cow Palace in San Francisco
The Argonaut ceases publication in San Francisco
Half Moon Bay State Beach (pictured) is established in San Mateo County
The Hayward Area Historical Society is founded
Williams Sonoma opens its first store in Sonoma
George Christopher is elected mayor of San Francisco
While living with poet Gary Snyder outside Mill Valley, Jack Kerouac works on a book centering on Snyder, which he considers calling Visions of Gary
The San Francisco International Film Festival is founded
Fairchild Semiconductor (historic plaque pictured) is founded in San Jose
The State College for Alameda County is founded in Hayward
The Flower Drum Song (the basis of 1958 musical Flower Drum Song) by C. Y. Lee, is published
The Kingston Trio folk music group forms in San Francisco
Pacifica is incorporated in San Mateo County
KTVU Channel 2 signs on the air in Oakland, California
Rice-A-Roni, "The San Francisco Treat", is introduced
The first Cost Plus store opens at Fisherman's Wharf in San Francisco
The New York Giants move to San Francisco and become the San Francisco Giants (logo pictured)
San Francisco columnist Herb Caen coins the term Beatnik, adding the suffix "-nik" from Sputnik I to the Beat Generation, or "Beats"
The Embarcadero Freeway (pictured) opens in San Francisco, the same year the San Francisco Board of Supervisors votes to cancel seven of ten planned freeways
The Montgomery Block building (pictured) in San Francisco is demolished
Henry W. Coe State Park (pictured), in the Diablo Range in Santa Clara and Stanislaus counties, is established
Jack London State Historic Park, on the eastern slope of Sonoma Mountain, is established
The Crown-Zellerbach Building in San Francisco is completed
The San Francisco Mime Troupe is formed in San Francisco, performing (despite its name) musical political satire
Union City is established in Alameda County
Owen Chamberlain and Emilio Segrè at the University of California, Berkeley are awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of the antiproton
George Miller is re-elected to California's 8th congressional district
Bothe-Napa Valley State Park is established
Candlestick Park opens in San Francisco
The Air Force Satellite Test Center (pictured), in Santa Clara County, becomes operational
Sonoma State University (pictured) is established
Donald A. Glaser at the University of California, Berkeley is awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his invention of the bubble chamber
San Jose's population is 204,196, an increase by 114% from 1950's 95,280
Alameda-Contra Costa Transit District (AC Transit) begins service in October.
The Moore Dry Dock Company in Oakland ceases operations
Chabot College (pictured) is established in Hayward
The Frontier Village amusement park in San Jose opens
Melvin Calvin of the University of California, Berkeley, Andrew Benson and James Bassham are awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their discovery of the Calvin cycle
Marine World (pictured) opens in Redwood Shores
Ramparts, a left-wing political and literary magazine, is founded in Menlo Park
The Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (pictured) is established in Menlo Park
Sproul Plaza is completed at the University of California, Berkeley
General Motors' Fremont Assembly plant opens
The Berkeley Art Museum and Pacific Film Archive (pictured) is founded
The Committee improvisational theatre group is formed in San Francisco
The Reverend Cecil Williams becomes pastor of Glide Memorial Church in San Francisco
General Motors Oakland Assembly closes
The Republican National Convention is held at the Cow Palace, San Francisco
The Christmas flood hits Sonoma County
The Free Speech Movement begins at the University of California, Berkeley
Pacific Air Lines Flight 773 crashes near San Ramon after a gunman kills the pilot and co-pilot, with no survivors
Don Edwards (pictured) is elected to California's 9th congressional district
The Oakland California Temple (pictured) of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is completed
The Grateful Dead (pictured) forms in Palo Alto
Jefferson Airplane (pictured) forms in San Francisco
The Acid Tests begin to be given by author and Merry Prankster Ken Kesey in the San Francisco Bay Area and across the West Coast
Condominium 1 is built at Sea Ranch on the Sonoma County coast
The San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Commission is created to protect and preserve the San Francisco Bay
The Love Pageant Rally is held, on the day LSD becomes illegal, in Golden Gate Park, by the creators of the San Francisco Oracle
The Society for Creative Anachronism (pictured) forms in Berkeley, with a parade down Telegraph Avenue
George Paul Miller is re-elected to California's 8th congressional district
The Asian Art Museum of San Francisco (artifacts pictured) opens as a wing of the M. H. de Young Memorial Museum in Golden Gate Park
High-end clothier Wilkes Bashford opens in Union Square, San Francisco
The Black Panther Party for Self-Defense is formed in Oakland by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale
Moby Grape is formed in San Francisco by Skip Spence and Matthew Katz
The Oakland Coliseum (pictured) opens
Peet's Coffee & Tea (pictured) is founded in Berkeley
The Print Mint begins publishing and distributing posters and underground comics in Berkeley
The San Francisco Bay Guardian weekly alternative newspaper is founded in San Francisco
The American Conservatory Theater moves to San Francisco
KICU-TV Channel 36 signs on the air in San Francisco
The Mantra-Rock Dance concert takes place at the Avalon Ballroom in San Francisco
The Human Be-In (poster artwork from magazine cover depicted, left) occurs at San Francisco's Golden Gate Park, a prelude to the Summer of Love
The University of California, Berkeley Graduate School of Journalism is established
Creedence Clearwater Revival (pictured, right) is formed in El Cerrito
Rolling Stone magazine (current logo pictured, right) begins publishing in San Francisco
Santana is formed in San Francisco by Carlos Santana (pictured, right)
The Summer of Love comes to San Francisco
KBHK-TV Channel 44 signs on the air in San Francisco
KEMO-TV Channel 20 signs on the air in San Francisco
In the last minute of a football game between the Oakland Raiders and the New York Jets, Oakland scores two touchdowns to overcome a 32–29 New York lead, just as the NBC Television Network breaks away from the game, with the Jets still winning, to air the television film Heidi
Japan Airlines Flight 2 flying from Tokyo International Airport to San Francisco International Airport lands in the shallow waters of San Francisco Bay, two and a half miles short of the runway, with no injuries
Douglas Englebart presents The Mother of All Demos (prototype based on the demo pictured) at the Fall Joint Computer Conference in San Francisco
The Lawrence Hall of Science (pictured) is established in Berkeley
KSFR, 94.9 FM, changes to call letters KSAN, and switches formats from classical music to freeform rock
Luis Walter Alvarez at the University of California, Berkeley is awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics
The Altamont Free Concert is held at the Altamont Speedway between Tracy and Livermore
Advanced Micro Devices is founded in Sunnyvale
American Zoetrope (headquarters at the Sentinel Building pictured) is founded in San Francisco by Francis Ford Coppola
The Exploratorium (interior pictured) is founded in San Francisco
Clothing retailer The Gap (early logo pictured) is founded in San Francisco
The Oakland Museum of California is established
The San Jose Museum of Art (pictured) is established
A "People's Park" (pictured) is created by community activists on University of California, Berkeley property, off Telegraph Avenue in Berkeley
The Bank of America Center building in San Francisco is completed
The Occupation of Alcatraz by Native American activists begins
Earth Day is first proposed by John McConnell at a UNESCO conference in San Francisco
An unidentified person sends letters to the Vallejo Times Herald, the San Francisco Chronicle, and The San Francisco Examiner, taking credit for two fatal shooting incidents, then sends a fourth letter to the Examiner with the salutation "Dear Editor This is the Zodiac speaking."
Jonathan Jackson attempts to negotiate the freedom of the Soledad Brothers (which included his older brother George) by kidnapping Superior Court judge Harold Haley from the Marin County Civic Center in San Rafael. The resulting shootout leaves four men dead, including both Jackson and Judge Haley.
People v. Newton reverses the voluntary manslaughter conviction of Huey P. Newton in the death of an Oakland Police officer
A pipe bomb filled with shrapnel detonates on the ledge of a window at the San Francisco Police Department's Golden Gate Park station, killing one officer and wounding nine
The Berkeley Art Museum and Pacific Film Archive (pictured) opens
Ron Dellums is elected to California's 7th congressional district
San Jose's population is 459,913, an increase by 125% from 1960's 204,196
Two Standard Oil tankers collide in the San Francisco Bay, spilling 800,000 gallons of oil
Annadel State Park (pictured) is established in the Sonoma Valley
Erhard Seminars Training is founded in San Francisco
Eugene O'Neill's Tao House (pictured), in what is now Danville, is declared a National Historic Landmark
Chez Panisse restaurant (pictured) is established in Berkeley
Filmmaker George Lucas founds Lucasfilm in San Rafael, the same year he releases THX 1138, filmed in the San Francisco Bay Area
Japanese American city councilman Norman Mineta is elected Mayor of San Jose
The Palo Alto Community Cultural Center is founded in Palo Alto
The Stanford marshmallow experiment results are published
The Tiffany Building in San Francisco is completed
Playland (pictured) in San Francisco closes
Bay Area Rapid Transit (early car model pictured) begins operations
The Haas-Lilienthal House in San Francisco opens to the public
Venture capital firm Kleiner Perkins Caufield & Byers is founded in Menlo Park
Stag's Leap Wine Cellars in the Napa Valley produces its first vintage
The first San Francisco Pride festival, then called Christopher Street West, attracts an estimated 54,000 attendees (1983 parade pictured)
The Oakland A's win the World Series
The pornographic film Behind the Green Door is released, directed by the San Francisco-based Mitchell Brothers
Burst of Joy, depicting United States Air Force Lt. Col. Robert L. Stirm being reunited with his family, after spending more than five years in captivity as a prisoner of war in North Vietnam, is taken at Travis Air Force Base (pictured) in Solano County
16 people are killed, during a string of racially motivated attacks, dubbed the Zebra murders, committed by African-American men against mostly white victims, in San Francisco, continuing into 1974
The Oakland A's win the World Series
Bill Owens' photoessay Suburbia, featuring images of Livermore, is published by Straight Arrow Press in San Francisco
The University of California, Berkeley College of Natural Resources is established
Symbionese Liberation Army members hold up a Hibernia Bank in San Francisco, where an iconic image (pictured) of kidnapped heiress Patricia Hearst is caught on security footage
The serial Tales of the City by Armistead Maupin appears in the Pacific Sun alternative newsweekly
George Moscone is elected mayor of San Francisco
KDTV Channel 60 (now Channel 14) signs on the air in San Francisco
The Marine Mammal Center (staff and patient pictured) is established in the Marin Headlands at a former Nike Missile site
Gary Snyder's 1974 Turtle Island (after the Goano'ganoch'sa'jeh'seroni name for the lands of North America) wins the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry
The San Francisco Review of Books is founded by Ronald Nowicki
The Golden State Warriors win the NBA Finals
Five unsolved murders of young women are committed in San Mateo County
Apple Inc. (pictured, left) is founded in Cupertino by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, and Ronald Wayne
Napa Valley wineries Stag's Leap Wine Cellars and Chateau Montelena (pictured, right) place best in the red and white wine categories respectively, against their traditionally first ranked French competitors, in the wine tasting that becomes known as the Judgment of Paris
China Camp State Park is established in San Rafael
Fairfield-based candy company Herman Goelitz sells their first Jelly Bellies
Cyra McFadden's The Serial's first installments are published in the Pacific Sun alternative newsweekly
Dennis Richmond becomes the lead anchor at KTVU news in Oakland, an early African American news anchor in a major US television market
KPIX television in San Francisco debuts a locally produced magazine program called Evening: The MTWTF Show
The San Francisco Board of Supervisors election places Dianne Feinstein (pictured, left), Harvey Milk (pictured, far right) and Dan White on the board
Oracle Corporation is founded in Santa Clara
Victoria's Secret opens its first store at the Stanford Shopping Center in Palo Alto
Members of the Joe Boys gang open fire at the Golden Dragon Restaurant in Chinatown, in an assault on rival gang Wah Ching, leaving 5 people dead and 11 others injured, none of whom are gang members.
Apple Computer introduces the Apple II
909 members of the San Francisco-based People's Temple die, primarily from cyanide poisoning, at an agricultural project coined Jonestown in Guyana, following the murder of five others by Temple members at Port Kaituma, including United States Congressman Leo Ryan (pictured) of the Bay Area
San Francisco Mayor George Moscone and San Francisco Supervisor Harvey Milk are shot and killed in San Francisco City Hall by former Supervisor Dan White (news headline pictured)
Retailer Banana Republic is founded in Mill Valley
The Dead Kennedys are formed in San Francisco
The French Laundry restaurant opens in Yountville in the Napa Valley
The San Francisco Gay Men's Chorus is formed
The whaling ship Niantic is uncovered near the Transamerica Pyramid in San Francisco
The body of Tammy Vincent is found in Tiburon
The White Night riots (pictured) erupt in San Francisco
Dianne Feinstein (pictured) is elected mayor of San Francisco
The Gilroy Garlic Festival is founded
Huey Lewis and the News is founded in San Francisco
Experimental music group Negativland is founded in Concord
Data storage company Seagate Technology is founded in Cupertino
David Carpenter commits his first trailside killings in the Bay Area
A 5.7 magnitude earthquake strikes with an epicenter near Coyote Lake in Santa Clara County
Hughes Airwest, based out of San Francisco International Airport, is acquired by Republic Airlines
The Louise M. Davies Symphony Hall (pictured) in San Francisco is completed
A medical patient in San Francisco is reported to have both Kaposi's sarcoma and Cryptococcus
KSAN radio switches formats from freeform rock to country music
University of California, Berkeley Slavic Languages and Literature Professor Czesław Miłosz (pictured) is awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature
The first World Games are held in Santa Clara
Erhard Seminars Training in San Francisco dissolved
The Sonoma Valley AVA (winery directional sign pictured, left) is established
The Napa Valley AVA (historic marker pictured, right) is established
KSTS Channel 48 signs on the air in San Jose, California
The Gulf of the Farallones National Marine Sanctuary is established in coastal waters off the Golden Gate
Arthur Leonard Schawlow at Stanford University, along with Nicolaas Bloembergen and Kai Siegbahn, share the Nobel Prize in Physics for their work with lasers
14 year old Marcy Renee Conrad is murdered in Milpitas
Ceratitis capitata, known commonly as the "Mediterranean fruit fly", infests the Bay Area
The Caldecott Tunnel fire kills seven people in the third (then-northernmost) bore of the Caldecott Tunnel, on State Route 24 between Oakland and Orinda
San Francisco 49ers quarterback Joe Montana throws a memorable touchdown pass to Dwight Clark in the NFC Championship Game with the Dallas Cowboys
The University of California Golden Bears perform The Play, a kickoff return during a college football game with the Stanford Cardinals, which is among the most memorable events in American sports.
E-Trade (pictured) is founded in Palo Alto
Symantec (pictured) is founded in Mountain View
General Motors' Fremont Assembly (pictured) closes
The San Francisco 49ers win the Super Bowl for the first time
Cleve Jones and Marcus Conant establish the Kaposi's Sarcoma Research and Education Foundation
Severe flooding in the Bay Area results in 33 deaths and $280 million in losses.
The San Jose School District declares bankruptcy
Dianne Feinstein (pictured) is re-elected mayor of San Francisco
Tax preparation software company Intuit is founded in Mountain View
KRCB-TV Channel 22 signs on the air in Cotati, California
San Francisco General Hospital establishes the first inpatient ward and outpatient clinic in the United States to treat Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
Charles McCabe, writer of the "Fearless Spectator" and "Himself" columns for the San Francisco Chronicle, dies at his home in North Beach
The 1984 Democratic National Convention (Vice Presidential nominee Geraldine Ferraro pictured) is held at Moscone Center in San Francisco
An earthquake with an epicenter near Mount Hamilton, close to Morgan Hill in the South Bay, inflicts over US$7 million in damage
The Alexander Valley AVA is established
California State Prison, Solano in Vacaville is completed
The Cartoon Art Museum in San Francisco is established by publisher Malcolm Whyte
New United Motor Manufacturing, Inc. (pictured) opens at the site of the former General Motors Fremont Assembly
Apple Computer introduces the Macintosh personal computer (pictured)
A plane heading for Buchanan Field Airport loses control and crashes into the roof of Macys, killing the pilot and two passengers, and seriously injuring 84 Christmas shoppers at the Sun Valley Mall in Concord
Año Nuevo State Park is established at Año Nuevo Island (pictured, left) and points in San Mateo County
Emeryville Crescent State Marine Reserve (pictured, right) is established
NeXT is founded in Redwood City by Apple Computer co-founder Steve Jobs, after being forced out of Apple
The San Francisco 49ers win the Super Bowl for the second time
The Napa River experiences its worst flooding of the 20th century
The Oakland Symphony is dissolved
The punk rock club 924 Gilman Street (pictured) is established in Berkeley
The Cacophony Society of culture jammers is founded in San Francisco, and
The first Burning Man gathering occurs at Baker Beach (pictured, with typical apparel of later events) in San Francisco
Shoreline Amphitheatre opens in Mountain View
Jackie Speier is elected to the California State Assembly
Art Agnos is elected mayor of San Francisco
Punk rock band Green Day (Billie Joe Armstrong pictured) forms in the East Bay, with early gigs at 924 Gilman in Berkeley
Security software company McAfee is founded in Santa Clara
Biotech pharmaceutical company Gilead Sciences is founded in Foster City
The Santa Clara Valley Transportation Authority light rail system (logo pictured) begins operation
The Sonoma Coast AVA is established
Nancy Pelosi is elected to California's 5th congressional district
Cleve Jones and Mike Smith begin work in San Francisco on a quilt project to memorialize people who had died from AIDS
A gunman kills seven people and wounds four others at ESL Incorporated in Sunnyvale.
A sculpture of Ashurbanipal (pictured) is installed at the Civic Center, San Francisco
The Niles Canyon Railway is reopened in the East Bay
The Oakland East Bay Symphony is established
Beat Generation and San Francisco Renaissance poet Robert Duncan dies
Pacific Sports Network (now NBC Sports Bay Area) signs on the air in San Francisco
The Oakland Athletics win the World Series
An earthquake centered near Loma Prieta in the Santa Cruz Mountains causes significant damage in the Bay Area, kills 63 people throughout Northern California, and injures 3,757 (damage pictured)
The original Kezar Stadium (pictured) in San Francisco is demolished
The Santa Clara Valley AVA is established
The San Francisco 49ers win the Super Bowl for the third time
California sea lions begin to haul out on docks at San Francisco's Pier 39
The Children's Discovery Museum of San Jose (pictured) opens
Ron Dellums is re-elected to the 8th district of the United States Congress
Michael Sweeney is elected mayor of Hayward
The San Francisco 49ers win the Super Bowl for the fourth time
Long time International Longshore and Warehouse Union president Harry Bridges dies in San Francisco
The 1990 United States Census indicates that San Jose has officially surpassed San Francisco as the most populous city in the Bay Area.
The Oakland and Berkeley Hills are hit by a firestorm (damage pictured, left)
Frank Jordan is elected mayor of San Francisco
Groundbreaking ceremonies take place at the AIDS Memorial Grove in San Francisco (logo pictured, right)
San Francisco pornography and striptease club pioneer Jim Mitchell kills his brother and business partner Artie in Marin County
Apple Computer introduces the PowerBook line of subnotebook personal computers
Barbara Boxer (pictured) is elected to the United States Senate
Nicholas C. Petris is re-elected to the 9th State Senate district
Lynn Woolsey is elected to the 6th congressional district
Eight people are killed and six others injured by a gunman at the 101 California Street building in San Francisco
Polly Hannah Klaas is kidnapped from her home in Petaluma and subsequently strangled
The magazine Wired begins publishing in San Francisco
The Yerba Buena Center for the Arts (pictured) opens in San Francisco
Employees of San Francisco's two major daily newspapers, the San Francisco Chronicle and The San Francisco Examiner, walk off the job for eleven days
The San Francisco-based I. Magnin department store chain is liquidated (former SF building pictured)
Yahoo! is founded in Sunnyvale
The Mount Vision fire (damage pictured) burns 12,000 acres (49 km2) at the Point Reyes National Seashore
Willie Brown is elected mayor of San Francisco
Craigslist is founded by Craig Newmark (pictured) in San Francisco
The San Jose Earthquakes soccer team is established
The St. Helena AVA is established
The Salon website is established in San Francisco
The San Francisco 49ers win the Super Bowl for the fifth time
Grateful Dead co-founder, guitarist and singer/songwriter Jerry Garcia dies in Marin County
The Computer History Museum (pictured) is established in Mountain View
The Internet Archive is established in San Francisco
San Francisco Chronicle columnist Herb Caen wins a Special Pulitzer Prize for "his extraordinary and continuing contribution as a voice and conscience of his city"
Stanley B. Prusiner of the University of California, San Francisco and the University of California, Berkeley is awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his research into prions
The Silicon Graphics campus in Mountain View is completed
Netflix is founded in Los Gatos
San Francisco Chronicle columnist Herb Caen (pictured) dies
Steve Jobs returns as CEO of Apple Computer
Google is founded in Menlo Park
The Sonoma Valley Museum of Art is founded in Sonoma
Ron Gonzales (pictured) is elected mayor of San Jose
Jerry Brown is elected mayor of Oakland
The Elihu M. Harris State Office Building (pictured) in Oakland is completed
Apple Computer introduces the iMac
Willie Brown (pictured) is re-elected mayor of San Francisco
The San Francisco Bay AVA is designated
The Union Landing Shopping Center in Union City is completed
AT&T Park opens in San Francisco
Pandora Radio is founded in Oakland
The Rosie the Riveter/World War II Home Front National Historical Park is designated in Richmond (historic photo shown)
Peanuts creator Charles M. Schulz dies at his home in Santa Rosa
The Dot-com bubble, affecting many Silicon Valley internet companies, peaks
21st century
30 inches (76 cm) of snow falls on Mount Hamilton (pictured)
The collapse of the Dot-com bubble accelerates
City Lights Bookstore is declared a San Francisco Designated Landmark
Michael Chabon's 2000 novel The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay wins the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction
Apple, Inc. releases iTunes, and later in the year introduces the iPod
Gwen Araujo is murdered in Newark
Laci Peterson is murdered at an unknown location along the San Francisco Bay
The Berkeley I-80 bridge (pictured) opens
The JPMorgan Chase Building in San Francisco is completed
Tom Bates (pictured) is elected mayor of Berkeley
The Paramount residential tower in San Francisco is completed
555 City Center, a skyscraper in Oakland, is completed
Gavin Newsom is elected mayor of San Francisco
The Los Esteros Critical Energy Facility goes online in San Jose
Tesla Motors (pictured) is founded in Palo Alto
Adobe World Headquarters, Almaden tower in San Jose is completed
San Francisco mayor Gavin Newsom directs the city-county clerk to begin issuing marriage licenses to same-sex couples (applicants pictured)
Bob Wasserman is elected mayor of Fremont
Johan Klehs is elected to California's 18th State Assembly district
Thin-film solar cell manufacturer Solyndra (logo pictured) is founded in Fremont
YouTube is founded in San Bruno
The new San Jose City Hall (pictured) is completed
The Sobrato Office Tower in San Jose is completed
The first Maker Faire (exhibit pictured) takes place at the San Mateo County Event Center
Microblogging site Twitter is founded in San Francisco
Knight Ridder, a media company based in San Jose, is purchased by The McClatchy Company
Gayle McLaughlin is elected mayor of Richmond
Chuck Reed is elected mayor of San Jose
Ron Dellums is elected mayor of Oakland
Ellen Corbett (pictured) is elected to the 10th State Senate district
Leland Yee is elected to the 8th State Senate district
George Smoot at the University of California, Berkeley is awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics, with John C. Mather for work that led to the "discovery of the black body form and anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background radiation."
Members of Code Pink begin protesting in front of a United States Marine Corps Recruiting Center in Berkeley
Teachers go on strike against the Hayward Unified School District
A tiger escapes from her open-air enclosure at the San Francisco Zoo and attacks three visitors, killing one
Village Music in Mill Valley closes
Gavin Newsom (pictured) is re-elected mayor of San Francisco
The Año Nuevo State Marine Conservation Area is established (elephant seals pictured)
The Greyhound Rock State Marine Conservation Area, adjacent to Año Nuevo, is established
Zodiac, a film about the Zodiac killer, debuts
The container ship Cosco Busan strikes a base tower of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge in thick fog, spilling of heavy fuel oil into San Francisco Bay
Apple Inc. introduces the iPhone
Three people are fatally shot at the office of SiPort, a start-up company in Silicon Valley
The Hayward-based Mervyn's department store chain is liquidated (headquarters pictured)
The Outside Lands Music and Arts Festival premieres at Golden Gate Park in San Francisco
A fire on Angel Island (pictured) scorches a third of the island
One Rincon Hill South Tower in San Francisco is completed
The 555 Mission Street office tower in San Francisco is completed
The 88, a residential skyscraper in San Jose, is completed
Tesla Motors introduces the Tesla Roadster, the first fully electric sports car
Vintner Robert Mondavi dies in Yountville
Oscar Grant is fatally shot by BART Police officer Johannes Mehserle
A convicted felon shoots and kills four Oakland police officers
Jack's Restaurant (pictured) closes in San Francisco after operating since 1863
Millennium Tower (pictured) in San Francisco is completed
The Infinity complex, consisting of 2 high-rise towers and 2 low-rise buildings in San Francisco, is completed
A fight on an AC Transit Bus is recorded on video and uploaded to YouTube
A pipeline explosion in San Bruno (pictured) registers a shock wave equivalent to a magnitude 1.1 earthquake
Sun Microsystems is acquired by Oracle
The Calistoga AVA (wine region) is established
Onizuka Air Force Station in Santa Clara County closes
Jean Quan (pictured) is elected mayor of Oakland
Michael Sweeney is re-elected mayor of Hayward
The San Francisco Giants win the World Series
The NUMMI automobile manufacturing plant in Fremont closes, then reopens as the Tesla Factory (pictured)
Steve Jobs dies at his home in Palo Alto
Oakland Raiders owner Al Davis dies in his suite at the Oakland Airport Hilton Hotel
A gunman kills 3 co-workers and wounds 6 others at Permanente Quarry in Cupertino
Occupy Oakland protests and demonstrations (pictured) at Frank H. Ogawa Plaza
Ed Lee is elected mayor of San Francisco
Fremont solar panel manufacturer Solyndra closes
Former San Francisco District Attorney Kamala Harris begins serving as California's first female Attorney General
The San Francisco Giants win the World Series
Matt Cain (pictured) pitches a perfect game at AT&T Park in San Francisco
Five people are found dead at a home in San Francisco's Ingleside neighborhood
The Novato meteorite (trajectory pictured) crosses the North Bay
A gunman kills 7 people inside Oikos University in Oakland
The South San Francisco Ferry Terminal opens
Nadia Lockyer resigns as Alameda County Supervisor
Gus Morrison is appointed mayor of Fremont
Eric Swalwell is elected to California's 15th congressional district
A large fire erupts at the Chevron Richmond Refinery (smoke plume pictured), and a shelter in place order is given by Contra Costa County
Tesla Motors introduces the Tesla Model S
The 2013 America's Cup (Oracle Team USA yacht pictured) is held in San Francisco Bay
Asiana Airlines Flight 214 crashes while landing at San Francisco International Airport
An unofficial death certificate is issued for Jahi McMath by the Alameda County coroner
Andy Lopez is shot and killed by a Sonoma County sheriff's deputy
Warren Hall (pictured), at California State University, East Bay, is demolished by implosion
Graton Resort & Casino opens in Rohnert Park
The Russell City Energy Center goes online in Hayward
SFJAZZ Center (pictured) opens in San Francisco
The new eastern span of the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge opens
Ordinaire, a wine bar and shop serving natural wine, opens in Oakland
Solar Impulse begins a cross-US flight, taking off from Moffett Field in Mountain View
The Tom Lantos Tunnels (pictured), at Devil's Slide near Pacifica, open
Gilead Sciences' drug Sovaldi, for the treatment of hepatitis C, is approved by the FDA
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory physicist Carl Haber is awarded a MacArthur "Genius Grant"
San Francisco Bay is designated a Ramsar Wetland of International Importance
Cancer patient Miles Scott becomes Batkid for a day in San Francisco, turning it into Gotham City, with Mayor Ed Lee and others participating in the Make-A-Wish project
March
The Mission Bay fire (pictured) breaks out in San Francisco
Democratic California State Senator Leland Yee is arrested by the FBI on charges related to public corruption and gun trafficking
June
A new Kaiser Permanente Medical Center opens in San Leandro
Barbara Halliday is elected mayor of Hayward
San Francisco political consultant Ryan Chamberlain is apprehended by the FBI and the San Francisco Police Department after explosive materials are allegedly discovered in his apartment
Amelia Rose Earhart (pictured) departs from Oakland on June 26, and lands back in Oakland on July 1, successfully recreating her namesake Amelia Earhart's unsuccessful 1937 circumnavigation of the Earth
The San Jose Repertory Theatre ceases operations and files for Chapter 7 bankruptcy
July
Levi's Stadium (pictured) opens in Santa Clara as the new home of the San Francisco 49ers of the National Football League
August
Actor and comedian Robin Williams (pictured) dies from an apparent suicide at his home outside Tiburon
Maryam Mirzakhani of Stanford University becomes the first woman to be awarded the Fields Medal in mathematics
The East Bay Municipal Utility District and the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission impose mandatory water rationing measures, as a consequence of the ongoing drought in California
Paul McCartney plays a concert at Candlestick Park, the last event to be held at the venue, and 50 years after The Beatles performed their last concert there
Two owners and two staff of the now defunct Rancho Feeding Corporation in Petaluma are indicted on federal charges of violating the 1906 Federal Meat Inspection Act
A magnitude 6.0 earthquake strikes in Napa County (damage pictured), with an epicenter northwest of the city of American Canyon, the largest earthquake to hit the San Francisco Bay Area since the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, sending at least 172 people to the hospital
September
The Berkeley city council passes an ordinance to provide free medical marijuana for low-income patients
Apple Inc. CEO Tim Cook presents the Apple Watch (pictured), the iPhone 6 and the iPhone 6 Plus at the Flint Performing Arts Center in Cupertino
Stanford University social psychologist Jennifer Eberhardt is awarded a Macarthur "Genius Grant" Fellowship
Larry Ellison (pictured) steps down as CEO of Oracle Corporation, to become chief technical officer, and executive chairman of the board of directors
October
Hewlett-Packard CEO Meg Whitman announces plans for the company to split in two, forming Hewlett-Packard Enterprise and HP, Inc.
Stanford University professor William E. Moerner (pictured), Eric Betzig and Stefan Hell are awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their use of fluorescence in microscopy
Livermore golf coach Andrew Nisbet is sentenced to 27 years in prison on charges of molesting three of his juvenile students, and then plotting to kill them while being held in jail
The Daughters of Charity Health System approves the sale of Daly City's Seton Medical Center and San Jose's O'Connor Hospital to Prime Healthcare Services
The San Francisco Bay Guardian free weekly alternative newspaper ceases publication after 48 years (logo pictured)
The San Francisco Giants defeat the Kansas City Royals to win the World Series, their third championship in five seasons
Ross William Ulbricht is arrested in San Francisco, charged with running the Silk Road dark web online illicit marketplace
Apple, Inc. CEO Tim Cook states in an editorial that he is "proud to be gay", becoming the first openly gay leader of a major U.S. company
University of California, Berkeley Chancellor Nicholas Dirks announces plans for a Berkeley Global Campus at Richmond Bay, to develop existing UC campuses in Richmond
Susan Xiao-Ping Su, founder and former president of the defunct Pleasanton-based Tri-Valley University, is sentenced to 16 years in prison for visa and mail fraud
November
Libby Schaaf (pictured) is elected mayor of Oakland, defeating incumbent mayor Jean Quan
Measure D, a sugary drink tax, is approved by Berkeley voters, the first such tax in the United States
Mike Honda is elected to California's 17th congressional district, defeating Ro Khanna
David Chiu is elected to California's 17th State Assembly district, defeating David Campos
Sam Liccardo is elected mayor of San Jose, defeating Dave Cortese
A new, unnamed species (pictured) in the coral genus Leptogorgia is discovered off the coast of Sonoma County, near the Gulf of the Farallones and Cordell Bank National Marine Sanctuaries
Up to 18,000 nurses from at least 21 Kaiser Permanente hospitals and 35 clinics around the Bay Area go on strike, citing issues with patient care standards and Ebola safeguards
The 27 story 535 Mission Street office skyscraper opens in the South of Market district of San Francisco
Marian Brown of the San Francisco Twins, dies, her sister Vivian having died in January 2013 (sisters pictured)
The BART to Oakland International Airport automated guideway transit system begins operating between the Bay Area Rapid Transit Oakland Coliseum Station and Oakland International Airport
The Watershed Alliance of Marin reports that no coho salmon had returned to Redwood Creek in 2014, prompting concerns of likely local extinction of the species.
The remains of the SS City of Rio de Janeiro (pictured), which shipwrecked in 1901, are found off the shores of San Francisco at the Golden Gate
December
Protesters of the grand jury decision in the death of New Yorker Eric Garner take to the streets in Berkeley, Oakland and San Francisco
A large storm (video shown) leaves 150,000 households without power across the Bay Area
San Jose demolishes The Jungle, the nation's largest homeless person encampment
Google unveils a fully functioning prototype of the Google driverless car, with plans to test it on Bay Area roads beginning in 2015
January
Personal genomics and biotechnology company 23andMe announces a $60 million investment by Genentech for Parkinson's research
The Golden Gate Bridge closes to automobile traffic for the first time in its history, in order to install a mobile concrete median (pictured)
Birds coated with an unidentified sticky grey substance are found along the eastern shore of San Francisco Bay, and are sent to International Bird Rescue in Fairfield for cleanup efforts
Ford Motor Company announces the creation of the Ford Research and Innovation Center, located in Palo Alto (logo pictured)
The Tesoro refinery in Martinez closes due to a strike affecting nine refineries in the US
February
The National Weather Service announces that due to the ongoing California drought, San Francisco received no January rainfall for the first time in 165 years. The Bay Area had the driest January on record.
The University of California, San Francisco Medical Center opens a new hospital in the Mission Bay district of San Francisco (construction pictured)
President Barack Obama attends the White House Cybersecurity Summit at Stanford University
San Francisco resident Christie White, battling cancer, sues the state of California for the right to die at home, by physician assisted suicide
Shipowners at the Port of Oakland suspend the unloading of container and other cargo ships, due to a slowdown during contract negotiations with the International Longshore and Warehouse Union
The UCSF Medical Center receives a philanthropic donation of $100 million from Chuck Feeney, the largest gift by an individual in the history of the UC system.
Avaya Stadium, the new home of the San Jose Earthquakes soccer team, stages its first Earthquakes soccer game
March
Scientists (pictured) at the Ames Research Center announce they have synthesized "...uracil, cytosine, and thymine, all three components of RNA and DNA, non-biologically in a laboratory under conditions found in space."
Patrick Willis, linebacker for eight years with the San Francisco 49ers, retires at age 30 due to a foot injury
Prime Healthcare Services rejects an offer to purchase Daly City's Seton Medical Center and San Jose's O'Connor Hospital from the Daughters of Charity Health System
The U.S. Geological Survey report, "Third Uniform California Earthquake Rupture Forecast", estimates there is a 72 percent chance that a magnitude-6.7 or larger quake will strike the Bay Area before the year 2044
Professor Ronald Rael, of the College of Environmental Design at UC Berkeley unveils a 9' high 3D printed architectural experiment, entitled "Bloom", the first printed structure of its type.
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration more than doubles the size of the Cordell Bank and Gulf of the Farallones Marine Sanctuaries (underwater topography pictured)
The San Francisco Police Department relocates its headquarters from the Hall of Justice to a new facility at Mission Bay (insignia pictured)
Lawyer and Reddit executive Ellen Pao loses in a gender discrimination lawsuit against Silicon Valley venture capital firm Kleiner Perkins Caufield & Byers
April
The Brookings Institution reports that San Francisco has the wealthiest people, in the top 5% of its population, of any major U.S. city, and the fastest growing income inequality
Governor Jerry Brown imposes mandatory water rationing for the first time in state history, requiring all local water supply agencies, including the Alameda County, Marin, Sonoma and Santa Clara Valley Water Districts, reduce water use by 25%, due to the ongoing drought in California
Author and community activist Eddy Zheng is pardoned by governor Brown, for crimes he committed at age 16
Apple, Inc. introduces the Apple Watch (pictured)
Over 100 prominent Bay Area Catholics sign a full page advertisement in the San Francisco Chronicle appealing to Pope Francis to replace Salvatore Cordileone as archbishop of the San Francisco Archdiocese, for fostering "an atmosphere of division and intolerance."
The World War II era aircraft carrier (pictured) is rediscovered near the Farallon Islands by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Doctors Medical Center in San Pablo closes
The San Francisco-based Heald College system shuts down, when its parent company, Corinthian Colleges, goes out of business
Tesla Motors announces the Powerwall, a battery system for home use
May
Golden State Warriors basketball player Stephen Curry (pictured) is awarded the NBA Most Valuable Player Award
The San Mateo–Hayward Bridge closes to traffic, for the first time since opening in 1967, for resurfacing and maintenance.
San Francisco District Attorney George Gascón orders a review of at least 3,000 arrests over the last 10 years, in response to evidence that San Francisco Police Department officers may have shown racial bias, based on their having sent racist and homophobic text messages
San Francisco becomes the first city in the United States to ban chewing tobacco at sports venues, including AT&T Park, the home of the San Francisco Giants
The Regional Renewable Energy Procurement Project dedicates its first project, a future solar farm at Hayward's former landfill site
Dead gray whales wash ashore at Half Moon Bay, then at Portuguese Beach in Sonoma County, with a sperm whale also washing ashore at Point Reyes National Seashore, the third, fourth and fifth dead whales found on Bay Area beaches (among eight in Northern California) in less than 2 months
Oakland based start-up Next Thing Co. raises over $1.5m in its Kickstarter campaign for its forthcoming $9 miniature computer, Chip.
The population of San Jose is now officially over 1,000,000, making it the tenth largest city in the United States, according to the U.S. Census
Vandals damage an inflatable dam across Alameda Creek in Fremont, releasing 50 million gallons of drinking water into San Francisco Bay
The Solar Energy Research Center opens at the newly built Chu Hall at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in Berkeley
The Golden State Warriors beat the Houston Rockets in the National Basketball Association Playoffs, and advance to the NBA Finals for the first time since 1975
June
Surgeons at University of California, San Francisco and California Pacific Medical Center successfully complete 18 surgeries in the nation's first nine-way, two-day kidney transplant chain in a single city
Six people are killed and eight are injured, some with life-threatening injuries, after a balcony collapses in Berkeley, near the campus of the University of California, Berkeley; five of the casualties are Irish students.
The Golden State Warriors win the National Basketball Association Finals against the Cleveland Cavaliers, their first championship since 1975
The surviving members of the Grateful Dead play the first concerts of their Fare Thee Well farewell tour, celebrating the 50th anniversary of the Dead, at Santa Clara's Levi's Stadium
July
Former state senator Leland Yee pleads guilty to a federal racketeering charge, confessing to using his bids for secretary of state and Mayor of San Francisco to extort bribes
A gunman opens fire at Pier 14 in San Francisco's Embarcadero district, killing Kathryn Steinle. An illegal immigrant from Mexico, Francisco Sanchez, is subsequently arrested and charged with murder.
The Wragg Fire wildland fire (pictured) starts just off of California State Route 128 near Lake Berryessa in Napa County
August
Alphabet, a holding company and conglomerate owning several companies owned by or sprung from Google, is founded
September
The Valley Fire encroaches into Napa and Sonoma Counties
Tesla Motors begins shipping the Model X SUV (pictured) from its Fremont factory
UC Berkeley chemistry and materials science professor Peidong Yang is awarded a MacArthur "Genius" grant
Filmmaker Alexandra Pelosi releases the documentary San Francisco 2.0, chronicling the recent high tech takeover and gentrification of the City
The Golden State Warriors finalize the purchase of 12 acres of land in Mission Bay, San Francisco, to house a future stadium
November
San Jose is the richest city in the United States, according to Bloomberg
Topless stripper Carol Doda, an iconic Condor Club performer, dies in San Francisco (Condor Club c. 1973 pictured)
Wang Hall, housing the National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center, opens at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
December
Artificial intelligence laboratory OpenAI is founded in San Francisco
Linux software pioneer and Debian founder Ian Murdock (pictured) dies in San Francisco at age 42
CMA CGM Benjamin Franklin, the largest container ship to visit a US port, comes to the Port of Oakland
January
Researchers at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, including Peidong Yang (pictured, above), announce they were able to induce Moorella thermoacetica to photosynthesize, despite its not being photosynthetic. It also synthesized semiconductor nanoparticles, thus using light to produce chemical products other than those produced in photosynthesis.
A federal court jury in San Francisco finds Raymond Chow Kwok-cheung guilty of all 162 charges against him, including murder, after a five year long undercover federal operation
William Del Monte, the last known survivor of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, dies in Marin County at age 109
Paul Kantner (pictured), guitarist, vocalist and co-founder of Jefferson Airplane, dies in San Francisco
The Berkeley Art Museum and Pacific Film Archive opens its new building to the public (entrance pictured)
February
The Denver Broncos beat the Carolina Panthers, in Super Bowl 50, held at Levi's Stadium (halftime show pictured)
Apple Inc says it will not comply with an FBI request to provide unblocking software for an IPhone owned by one of the perpetrators of the 2015 San Bernardino attack
March
An Altamont Corridor Express train derails in Sunol
Ben Bagdikian, journalist, author, and dean emeritus at the University of California, Berkeley Graduate School of Journalism, dies in Berkeley
The first Silicon Valley Comic Con, organized by Steve Wozniak and Stan Lee, is held at the San Jose Convention Center
Former Intel CEO and chairman Andy Grove (pictured), one of the major figures in the growth of Silicon Valley, dies
The wreck of the (pictured) is confirmed in the Greater Farallones National Marine Sanctuary, 95 years after it had gone missing
Tesla Motors announces the Model 3, pre-orders of which reach 115,000 within 4 hours of the announcement.
April
The Oakland Tribune ceases publication after 142 years, and is replaced by the East Bay Times
Hundreds of pages of University of California, Berkeley records are released, showing a pattern of documented sexual harassment and firings of non-tenured staff
The San Francisco Board of Supervisors passes a parental leave law requiring employers to offer six weeks of fully paid leave for new parents, the first city in the US to do so.
The long closed UC Theatre in Berkeley, formerly a revival house movie theater, reopens as a music venue
The Golden State Warriors win against the Memphis Grizzlies, their 73rd win of the season, breaking the previous NBA record, held by the 1995–96 Chicago Bulls, for the most victories in a single season
Napster founder and philanthropist Sean Parker donates $250 million to create the Parker Institute for Cancer Immunotherapy, with funds going to over 300 scientists at 40 laboratories, in 6 institutions, including the University of California at San Francisco
The San Francisco Board of Supervisors passes a law requiring all new buildings below 10 stories to have rooftop solar panels, making it the first major US city to do so
Sanford and Joan Weill donate $185 million to the University of California, San Francisco to create the Weill Institute for Neurosciences
May
A poll of 1,000 people, by the Bay Area Council, showed that 34 percent are considering leaving the area, due primarily to the high costs of living and housing, and traffic.
McDonald's tests garlic fries at four restaurants in the South Bay, using locally grown garlic from Gilroy (Gordon Biersch Brewing Company garlic fries pictured)
The Golden State Warriors' Stephen Curry (pictured) is named NBA MVP, in their first unanimous vote
It is revealed that the FBI hid microphones outside an Oakland Alameda County Superior Court building (pictured), between March 2010 and January 2011, as part of an investigation into bid rigging and fraud by Alameda and San Mateo County real estate investors, this done without a warrant
The San Francisco Museum of Modern Art (pictured) reopens after the completion of a two-and-a-half-year expansion, by architecture firm Snøhetta, more than doubling the gallery space
Pittsburg moves to install surveillance cameras along California State Route 4, in response to a series of 20 freeway shootings in the area that have taken the lives of six people, and injured 11, in the past year
Scientists find evidence of methane-producing microbes in water coming from underground at The Cedars, freshwater springs along Austin Creek in Sonoma County, the first time these methanogens that thrive in harsh environments have been discovered beyond the ocean floor
The San Jose Sharks win against the St. Louis Blues in the Stanley Cup ice hockey playoffs, advancing them to the Stanley Cup Finals, their first trip to the finals since their founding in 1991
San Francisco Police Chief Greg Suhr resigns after the officer-involved shooting death of a woman.
The Golden State Warriors beat Oklahoma City Thunder in the National Basketball Association Playoffs, and advance to the NBA Finals for the second year in a row
June
The San Francisco Bay Restoration Authority's ballot measure, the San Francisco Bay Clean Water, Pollution Prevention, and Habitat Restoration Program, passes with 2/3 of the vote in the 9 Bay Area counties, providing $500 million in funding for wetland restoration and other projects
Protesters attack Trump supporters at a Donald Trump campaign stop in San Jose, leaving one supporter bloodied after having their head bludgeoned
Public protest erupts over the sentencing of former Stanford University swimmer Brock Turner, convicted of three charges of felony sexual assault, to six months of jail and three years of probation, by Santa Clara County Superior Court judge Aaron Persky
Oakland Police Department chief Sean Whent steps down, while the department is being investigated for an alleged sex scandal possibly involving an underage girl, following the suicide of one officer associated with the scandal
Oakland mayor Libby Schaaf appoints City Administrator Sabrina Landreth as head of the Oakland Police Department, putting it under civilian control, after 3 police chiefs resign within 9 days, while the department is under multiple investigations
In San Francisco's highly volatile housing market, a North Beach resident's rent is increased by 344%, from $1,800 a month to $8,000, with him facing eviction for nonpayment
The Oakland City Council votes unanimously to ban the handling of coal and coke at the city's shipping and storage facilities, including the as yet unfinished Oakland Bulk and Oversized Terminal
Stanford University researchers, including study co-author Robert Jackson, find evidence for new groundwater in the California Central Valley, tripling the previous estimates for deep aquifer reserves in the region
The Sonoma Stompers professional baseball team add two female players to their roster, outfielder-pitcher Kelsie Whitmore and infielder Stacy Piagno, the first women to play professional baseball for a mixed-gender team in the US since the 1950s.
San Francisco bans the sale of products made from expanded polystyrene (typical pollution pictured), including packing material, buoys and cups, the most stringent ban on foam-type plastics in the US
July
The augmented reality mobile game Pokémon GO, developed by San Francisco-based Niantic, Inc. (stock value at release pictured), is published by The Pokémon Company, reaching 15 million downloads within one week
More than 140 Silicon Valley technology figures, including Steve Wozniak, Vinod Khosla (pictured), and Twitter co-founder Evan Williams, sign a statement opposing Donald Trump's campaign for the presidency, saying it will potentially have a negative impact on innovation
Verizon Communications announces their intent to acquire Yahoo's internet business for US$4.8 billion
August
The San Francisco Millennium Tower (pictured) is found to have sunk 16 inches since construction, and is tilting 2 inches towards the northwest
California declares that Napa County, and California, are free of the invasive species Lobesia botrana (pictured), known as the "European grapevine moth", with no moths found since June 2014
A statue of Tony Bennett is unveiled outside the Fairmont Hotel, the venue at which he first sang "I Left My Heart in San Francisco" in 1961
Governor Jerry Brown signs legislation banning the use of state transportation funds for new coal export terminals, in response to a developer's failed proposal to build a coal terminal at the Port of Oakland
San Francisco 49ers quarterback Colin Kaepernick (pictured) refuses to stand for the national anthem at a preseason football game, in protest of police brutality and racism in the United States
September
Napa Valley's Margrit Mondavi, the widow of wine pioneer Robert Mondavi, and advocate for the culture of the region, dies at her home in Napa at age 91
Facebook co-founder Dustin Moskovitz (pictured) donates $20 million to a number of elections organizations, with the express purpose of supporting Democratic Party candidates and issues, and defeating Donald Trump, making him the 3rd largest donor in the 2016 campaigns
Discovery Bay former realtor Marco Gutierrez, the co-founder of Latinos for Trump, says to Joy Reid on MSNBC that Mexican culture in the US is "dominant" and that "If you don’t do something about it, you’re going to have taco trucks on every corner"
Influential San Francisco political activist and broker Rose Pak, an advocate for the Chinatown community, dies in San Francisco
The Chan Zuckerberg Initiative announces a new science program, Chan Zuckerberg Science, with $3 billion in investment over the next decade, with the goal of helping to cure, manage, or prevent all disease by the year 2100. $600 million is to be spent on Biohub, a location in San Francisco's Mission Bay District near the University of California, San Francisco
The Sawmill Fire breaks out in rural Cloverdale, near The Geysers, in Sonoma County, followed by the Loma Fire (pictured) in the Santa Cruz Mountains
The MacArthur "Genius" grant recipients are announced, including Stanford University bioengineering professor and inventor Manu Prakash, San Jose graphic novelist Gene Luen Yang, and San Francisco sculptor Vincent Fecteau
The San Francisco Board of Supervisors passes a law, authored by Scott Wiener, barring the city from doing business with companies that have a home base in states such as North Carolina, Tennessee, and Mississippi, that forbid civil rights protections for lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people
October
Theranos announces it will close its laboratory operations, shutter its wellness centers and lay off around 40 percent of its work force, while focusing on an initiative to create miniature medical testing machines
Researchers led by Ali Javey at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory announce the creation of a transistor with a working 1-nanometer gate, the smallest transistor reported to date
A new California law, authored by San Jose Assemblywoman Nora Campos (pictured), will allow San Jose to be the first California city to create "tiny homes" for the homeless, bypassing some state building codes
The new control tower (pictured) at San Francisco International Airport (SFO) begins operating
The US Justice Department's Office of Community Oriented Policing Services releases a 432-page report stating that the San Francisco Police Department stops and searches African Americans at a higher rate than other groups, and inadequately investigates officers use of force. The report details "numerous indicators of implicit and institutionalized bias against minority groups", with a large majority of suspects killed by police being people of color
Peninsula Clean Energy begins providing electricity to 20 percent of residential customers in San Mateo County, all municipalities, and all small- to mid-size businesses, as a Community Choice Aggregation program, an alternative to Pacific Gas and Electric
Wells Fargo chairman and CEO John Stumpf announces he will retire, shortly after the bank is issued $185 million in fines for creating over 1.5 million checking and savings accounts and 500,000 credit cards that its customers never authorized. This includes $100 million in fines from the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau, the largest in the agency's history.
Tesla Motors posts a profitable quarter, their first in 8 quarters, defying industry expectations
November
The San Francisco – Oakland Metropolitan Region has the worst road conditions of any major US metropolitan area (71% rated "poor"), with the San Jose region rated third nationwide (59%) (street of San Francisco pictured)
The nine Bay Area counties all vote overwhelmingly for Hillary Clinton for president, from 62% (Solano County) to 85% (San Francisco)
Hundreds of people turn out in San Francisco (pictured), Oakland and Berkeley, protesting the election of Donald Trump to the presidency, blocking freeways, lighting fires and chanting, "Not our president" and "Fuck Trump"
Half the students at Berkeley High School, as well as students at Oakland Technical High School, Oakland's Bishop O'Dowd High School, and high schools in San Jose and Contra Costa County walk out of classes the morning after Donald Trump is elected president
The cities of San Francisco, Oakland and Albany pass 1 cent/ounce soda taxes, to combat health risks from excessive sugar consumption
Protesters against President-Elect Donald Trump join hands around Lake Merritt in Oakland
Mayor Ed Lee declares that San Francisco will remain a sanctuary city, in response to the election of Donald Trump as president, stating, "I know that there are a lot of people who are angry and frustrated and fearful, but our city's never been about that. We have been and always have been a city of refuge, a city of sanctuary, a city of love."
With the approval of both companies' shareholders, Tesla Motors will merge with SolarCity, which will expedite Elon Musk's plans to introduce solar roofing tiles to integrate with home automobile charging
An American-born, non-Muslim woman in Fremont, finds a note on her car, reading "Hijab wearing bitch this is our nation now get the fuck out", after making a peace walk to the top of Mission Peak, where presumably the note writer had observed her wearing a head scarf, which she wears to protect her scalp from the sun, due to having lupus. The incident is part of a wave of 437 incidents of hateful intimidation or harassment, since the presidential election, according to the Southern Poverty Law Center
During a concert at the SAP Center at San Jose, Kanye West is booed by shoe-throwing fans, as he goes on a political tirade, including stating that he had not voted in the presidential election, but that "If I would have voted, I would have voted for Trump"
San Jose teacher and transgender activist Dana Rivers (formerly David Warfield), who made headlines in 1999 for fighting unsuccessfully to keep a teaching position in Sacramento after sharing her transition with her high school students, is arrested in Oakland, charged with the murders of 3 acquaintances: married couple Patricia Wright and Charlotte Reed, and their 19-year-old son, Toto Diambu-Wright
Robert P. Goldman, professor of Sanskrit at the University of California, Berkeley, publishes the 7th and final volume of his translation of the critical edition of Valmikis epic poem, the Ramayana, one of the foundational texts in the history of India, with core themes dating back to the Vedic period
Copies of an anti-Muslim letter are sent to the Evergreen Islamic Center in San Jose, and Islamic Centers in Long Beach and Claremont, reading, in part, "Your day of reckoning has arrived, there's a new sheriff in town — President Donald Trump. He's going to cleanse America and make it shine again. And, he's going to start with you Muslims... [he is] going to do to you Muslims what Hitler did to the jews [sic]."
A liberal household in Concord is targeted at night by vandals, who plant 56 United States flags defaced with pro-Trump remarks such as "Build The Damn Wall" and "I Luv The Donald", and who then cut the house's power, causing a loud explosion
The San Francisco Municipal Transportation Agency is hit by hackers, using ransomware, demanding $70,000 in bitcoins, with fare machines reading "OUT OF SERVICE", resulting in passengers riding for free
San Francisco area activist Gregory Lee Johnson, the defendant in the landmark 1989 Supreme Court decision Texas v. Johnson abolishing laws against flag burning on free speech grounds, declares that Donald Trump is "using the bully pulpit for fascism and forced patriotism", after Trump tweets "Nobody should be allowed to burn the American flag — if they do, there must be consequences — perhaps loss of citizenship or year in jail!"
December
A fire at an Oakland warehouse (pictured), which was hosting a music event, kills 36 people, the deadliest fire in Oakland history.
The Biomimetic Millisystems Lab at the University of California, Berkeley designs a wall-jumping robot, called Salto (Latin for jump), modelled after the galago, and which is described as the most vertically agile robot ever built
John Stewart, chief judge at the San Francisco Superior Court, discards 66,000 arrest warrants for criminal infractions, like sleeping on the sidewalk, public urination and public drunkenness, stating "You’re putting somebody in jail because they’re poor and can’t pay a fine. We got a lot of criticism, but we thought it was the right thing to do."
More than 300 Silicon Valley technology company employees sign a letter declaring they will not help build a registry, for the upcoming Trump Administration, to be used to track Muslims in the United States, stating "We refuse to build a database of people based on their Constitutionally-protected religious beliefs. We refuse to facilitate mass deportations of people the government believes to be undesirable"
Uber rolled out self-driving cars (test vehicle pictured) in San Francisco, its headquarter city, and is almost immediately ordered to stop the service by the California Department of Motor Vehicles, which cited it as illegal until an autonomous vehicle testing permit is acquired
Yahoo reports that hackers had, in 2013, stolen data on more than 1 billion user accounts, the largest hack worldwide to date
Apple, Google, Uber and Twitter all took the Never Again pledge, declaring that they will not support the development of a registry of Muslims in the United States as proposed by President-Elect Donald Trump
Scientists at Stanford University and the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory created the world's thinnest wire, 3 atoms thick, using diamondoids to aid the manufacturing process
January
After a series of storms hit California, including January storms causing flooding on the Russian River, Northern California, including the Bay Area, is no longer in drought
The Land Trust of Napa County, with The Trust for Public Land, secures the largest conservation easement in its history, 7,260 acres northeast of Calistoga known as Montesol Ranch, near Mount St. Helena, and contiguous to Robert Louis Stevenson State Park
Kevin Starr (pictured), American historian and California's State Librarian, best known for his multi-volume series on the history of California, collectively called "Americans and the California Dream", dies in San Francisco, the home of his birth as a seventh-generation Californian
Protests of the presidential inauguration of Donald Trump occur in cities across the Bay Area (SF protest pictured), including local versions of the Women's March on Washington, a human chain along the span of the Golden Gate Bridge (pictured), and a 90% no show of dockworkers at the Port of Oakland
Due to severe storms, Governor Jerry Brown declares states of emergency in multiple counties, including all nine Bay Area counties: Alameda, Contra Costa, Marin, Napa, San Francisco, San Mateo, Santa Clara, Solano, and Sonoma counties
The cities of Oakland, San Francisco, San Jose, and Berkeley affirm their formal (for San Jose, informal) status as Sanctuary cities, after a Trump Administration executive order is issued that will require cities to cooperate with Immigration and Customs Enforcement orders, or face cuts to federal spending, more than $1 billion in the Bay Area alone
Pacific Gas and Electric is ordered by U.S. District Judge Thelton Henderson to publicly advertise its guilt in violating pipeline safety laws, and obstruction of justice, in the 2010 San Bruno explosion (fires that night pictured), pay $3 million in fines, and make its employees perform 10,000 hours of community service, including at least 2,000 hours by high-level officials
Google, Inc. recalls all staff travelling overseas who may be affected by President Trump's executive order suspending all entry of citizens from certain Middle Eastern nations, out of concern they may be barred from re-entry to the US
Protesters of the executive order suspending entry of certain foreign nationals are joined at San Francisco International Airport by Sergey Brin, Google co-founder and president of Alphabet, who states "I'm here because I'm a refugee", while the airport issues a statement in support of the protesters, saying "We share [[their]] concerns deeply, as our highest obligation is to the millions of people from around the world whom we serve. Although Customs and Border Protection services are strictly federal and operate outside the jurisdiction of all U.S. airports, including SFO, we have requested a full briefing from this agency to ensure our customers remain the top priority. We are also making supplies available to travelers affected by this Executive Order, as well as to the members of the public who have so bravely taken a stand against this action by speaking publicly in our facilities." (protesters pictured)
San Francisco becomes the first city to sue the Trump Administration over his executive order to deny federal funds to sanctuary cities, joining 2 states that have sued
February
The University of California, Berkeley cancels a talk by inflammatory speaker and Breitbart writer Milo Yiannopoulos, and puts the campus on lockdown, due to massive protests, violence, property destruction and fire-setting
Berkeley mayor Jesse Arreguín receives thousands of hateful, racist, abusive and threatening messages, including death threats, following his criticism of Milo Yiannopoulos' attempted talk at UC Berkeley, initially describing him as a white nationalist, then apologizing and changing the description to "alt-rightist"
Thousands attend a protest at Civic Center, San Francisco to protest the immigration/travel ban on seven majority-Muslim nations (US Representative Mike Honda, pictured at event), one of a number of nationwide protests against the ban
In San Francisco, three judges on the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals unanimously reject the US Government argument that a stay of the executive order barring nationals from seven majority-Muslim nations should be lifted, stating that any argument limiting or dismissing the courts ability to serve as a check on Executive Branch power "runs contrary to the fundamental structure of our constitutional democracy"
Historically strong Pineapple Express storms bring flooding and mudslides to the Bay Area, destroying homes and closing numerous roads, including State Route 17, State Route 35, State Route 37, Interstate 80, State Route 12, State Route 1, State Route 84, State Route 9, and State Route 152 (storm systems pictured)
California Governor Jerry Brown requests a Presidential Major Disaster Declaration from President Donald Trump, following a series of storms that hit California, including the Bay Area
The Kunal Patel San Francisco Open has its first tournament, at the Bay Club SF Tennis Center, part of the ATP Challenger Tour
The United States Patent Office rules that the Broad Institute's patent claims on the CRISPR gene manipulation technology are valid for Eukaryotic cells (plants and animals), ruling against claims made by the University of California, Berkeley, and granting UC Berkeley a patent limited to its use on Prokaryotic cells (bacteria)
Thousands gather at Ocean Beach in San Francisco, to stand together in protest against Donald Trump and spell out the word "Resist !!", with overflow crowds creating an underline
A Day without Immigrants, modeled on the Great American Boycott of 2006, protesting the Trump Administration immigration policy, has businesses across the Bay Area closing in solidarity with the nationwide day of action
San Francisco is ranked third in traffic congestion of all major US cities, according to the traffic and driver analytics company INRIX (Third Street congestion pictured)
More than 200 residents are rescued by boat, in the Rocksprings neighborhood of San Jose, due to flooding at Coyote Creek from storm water released at Anderson Lake (dam and spillway pictured) Over 14,000 households are subject to mandatory evacuation due to widespread flooding that exceeds the 100-year flood zone
Richmond is the first city in the United States to pass a resolution calling on the United States Congress to investigate, and if necessary, impeach, President Donald Trump, for violating the Foreign Emoluments Clause of the United States Constitution in his international business relations
Santa Clara County is the first county in the nation to file a motion requesting that a Federal judge halt implementation of the Trump Administration's executive order withholding federal funding for sanctuary cities
The Jewish Anti-Defamation League offices in San Francisco receive two consecutive bomb threats, as do other Bay Area Jewish community centers, part of a widespread wave of over 100 threats and criminal actions directed against the US Jewish community in 2017
March
House Minority Leader Nancy Pelosi, from California's 12th congressional district in San Francisco, and other senior Democratic congressional leaders, call on United States Attorney General Jeff Sessions to resign, following reports that he had lied under oath to Congress about phone contacts he had had with Russian officials prior to taking his post, and during the presidential campaign of Donald Trump, for who he campaigned
Violence at a Berkeley March 4 Trump rally results in injuries to 7, and the arrests of 10 people
The Warm Springs / South Fremont Bay Area Rapid Transit station (pictured) begins operating in Fremont
Berkeley is the first city in the US to declare they will refuse to conduct business with companies that are involved with the US/Mexico border wall proposed by President Trump, and will move to divest from those companies that they have investments in
The National Football League approves the Oakland Raiders move from Oakland to Las Vegas, Nevada, once a new stadium is constructed there, despite efforts by Oakland Mayor Libby Schaaf to create financing for a new stadium complex in Oakland
April
A collection of the works of Arthur Szyk (work pictured), consisting of 450 paintings, drawings and sketches owned by Burlingame Rabbi Irvin Ungar, is purchased for $10.1 million by the University of California, Berkeley's Magnes Collection of Jewish Art and Life, through a donation by Taube Philanthropies, the largest single monetary gift to acquire art in UC Berkeley history
Santa Clara County and San Francisco ask U.S. District Judge William Orrick to block an executive order by President Donald Trump that threatens to deny federal funding to sanctuary cities and counties, arguing that it violates the Constitution and federal laws
Suicide barriers begin to be installed under the Golden Gate Bridge after years of debate and delays.
At least 21 people are arrested, and 7 hospitalized, at a clash between approximately 200 Pro-Trump and Anti-Trump demonstrators in Berkeley, at Martin Luther King Jr. Civic Center Park, during which numerous fights broke out, with reports of the use of firecrackers and pepper spray
Computer scientist Robert W. Taylor (pictured), who was integral in the development of the Internet, and who founded the Digital Equipment Corporation Systems Research Center in Palo Alto, dies at his home in Woodside
Women's clothing retailer Bebe begins closing all 175 of its stores, to become an exclusively online retailer
The area's first officially sanctioned "Weed Day" takes place in San Francisco's Golden Gate Park
Tens of thousands turn out in San Francisco on Earth Day at the local March for Science, to protest federal budget cuts to science research, with Mythbusters host Adam Savage saying "The enemy of science isn’t politics or a party or an ideology or a law — it is bias, and bias is everywhere. Science is the rigorous elimination of bias. That is a good thing."
In response to requests by Santa Clara County and San Francisco, U.S. District Judge William Orrick temporarily blocks Executive Order 13768, which had threatened to deny federal funding to sanctuary cities, writing "The statements of the President, his press secretary and the Attorney General belie the Government's argument in the briefing that the Order does not change the law. They have repeatedly indicated an intent to defund sanctuary jurisdictions in compliance with the Executive Order."..."The threat of the Order and the uncertainty it is causing impermissibly interferes with the Counties’ ability to operate, to provide key services, to plan for the future, and to budget."
May
At least 80 leopard sharks wash up dead on the shores of San Francisco Bay, possibly due to a fungal infection, with likely as many as 1,000 dying and sinking since early March
June
The Golden State Warriors become NBA champions over the Cleveland Cavaliers, with Kevin Durant earning the Bill Russell M.V.P. Award, with coach Steve Kerr joking, "We have very little talent, actually, it was most coaching"
A gunman kills 3 people at a San Francisco UPS facility before killing himself
July
The Tesla Model 3 electric car begins production at the Fremont Tesla Factory (customers pictured)
Air Canada Flight 759 narrowly misses a runway incursion at San Francisco International Airport that one retired pilot called "close to the greatest aviation disaster in history".
August
Bay Area rapper Keak Da Sneak is shot and critically injured in Richmond, in a targeted attack
The Consulate-General of Russia in San Francisco is ordered to close by the Trump Administration, in retaliation to Russia ordering staff reductions at the US Embassies there
September
San Francisco reaches a daytime temperature of 106 degrees Fahrenheit, its highest recorded temperature since record keeping began in 1874.
Hiking and mountain bike trails open to the peak of Mount Umunhum in San Mateo County, a spur of the Bay Area Ridge Trail
October
Fourteen large wildfires, including the Atlas and Tubbs Fires, spread over a 200-mile region north of San Francisco, in Napa, Sonoma and Yuba counties, kill at least 10 people and destroy over 1,500 structures (smoke from fires pictured)
November
A rare mountain lion spotted in San Francisco is tranquilized and released into the wild, far south of the city
The La Honda Creek Open Space Preserve, a 6,142-acre open space reserve in San Mateo County, California, part of the Midpeninsula Regional Open Space District, opens to the public
Jose Ines Garcia Zarate, an undocumented immigrant, is found not guilty of murder for the 2015 shooting of Kathryn Steinle on a San Francisco pier, in a case that had touched off a national immigration debate.
December
A data breach at Stanford University reveals that the university secretly ranked fellowship applicants on their potential value to the university, rather than the university's publicly stated method of by need
Silicon Valley software engineer Susan Fowler and San Francisco lobbyist Adama Iwu are featured, with other women, on the cover of Time's 2017 Person of the Year issue, this year given to "The Silence Breakers", people who spoke out against sexual abuse and harassment
San Francisco Mayor Ed Lee, the city's first Asian-American mayor, dies from a heart attack, with San Francisco Board of Supervisors president London Breed (pictured) sworn in as acting mayor
Senator Dianne Feinstein formally asks Immigration and Customs Enforcement to investigate the West County Detention Center, where multiple federal detainees have stated that they were not allowed to use restrooms. Feinstein wrote, "It has been reported that the conditions are so deplorable that detainees are requesting deportation over pursuing claims in immigration court"
Buddy's Cannabis Shop, in San Jose, is the first California business to obtain a state Marijuana Micro-Business License, which, along with a city business license, will make it the first fully licensed recreational marijuana shop in California, when it becomes legal on 1 January 2018
Everitt Aaron Jameson, a 25-year-old former marine, is arrested by the FBI on suspicion of planning a terror attack in the Pier 39 area of San Francisco over Christmas.
January
Starting January 1, with the Adult Use of Marijuana Act going into effect statewide, Harborside Health Center, The Berkeley Patients Group, and many other Marijuana dispensaries in the Bay Area begin retail sales of Marijuana to the general public (public performer on 2016 Independence Day pictured)
Parks in the Golden Gate National Recreation Area, including Muir Woods National Monument and Fort Point National Historic Site, experience partial or total closure, due to the United States federal government shutdown of 2018
More than 150,000 people attend 2018 Women's March protests across the Bay Area, adding the #MeToo and #TimesUp movements to the protests against President Donald Trump (San Francisco event pictured)
The San Francisco Board of Supervisors votes to replace acting mayor London Breed with an interim mayor, former supervisor Mark Farrell (pictured), amid accusations of racism
San Jose mayor Sam Liccardo resigns from the Federal Communications Commission Broadband Advisory Board, citing undue influence from telecommunications companies
San Francisco District Attorney George Gascón announces his department will begin to retroactively apply Proposition 64, the Adult Use of Marijuana Act, which legalized the possession and recreational use of marijuana for adults ages 21 years or older, to misdemeanor and felony convictions dating back to 1975, recalling and re-sentencing up to 4,940 felony marijuana convictions and dismissing and sealing 3,038 misdemeanors
February
The Berkeley City Council declares Berkeley a "sanctuary city" for recreational cannabis sales, prohibiting the use of city resources to assist in enforcing federal marijuana laws or providing information on legal cannabis sales, the first city in California to do so
Marin County is ranked worst among all California counties in racial disparity, according to Race Counts and Advancement Project California, with a spokesperson for the groups stating, "We were surprised, and were not expecting Marin to be the number-one county in terms of disparity...It’s not that progressive counties have it all figured out"
Alameda County District Attorney Nancy O'Malley announces that her office will review thousands of marijuana convictions, dating back to 1974, for possible dismissal under Proposition 64, the Adult Use of Marijuana Act, guidelines, following closely after San Francisco announced a similar plan (above)
Oakland Mayor Libby Schaaf alerts city residents to imminent Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) raids, earning criticism from some federal authorities. She responds, "I was sharing information in a way that was legal and was not obstructing justice, and it was an opportunity to ensure that people were aware of their rights."
March
A man with a rifle enters the Veterans Home of California Yountville, the largest veterans home in the United States, holds employees hostage, and is found dead, along with 3 hostages
May
Two studies conclude that the housing crisis in the Bay Area and California is reaching emergency proportions, with one study estimating that two counties alone, Santa Clara and Alameda, will need more than 50,000 new homes to meet the demand for affordable housing for lower-income residents, while homelessness increased by 36% in Alameda County from 2016-2017
The father of some of the ten children that were removed from a home in Fairfield, where they were living in conditions of severe neglect and abuse, is arrested and booked on seven counts of torture and nine counts of felony child abuse
A nine-story electronic sculpture, "Day for Night", created by artist Jim Campbell, that features low resolution, abstract videos of San Francisco, debuts at the top of Salesforce Tower
June
San Francisco voters pass an ordinance banning the sale of flavored tobacco products, due in part to concerns that candy-flavored products may lure teenagers into nicotine addiction
Santa Clara County voters remove Santa Clara County Superior Court judge Aaron Persky, who came to national attention in 2016 when he sentenced a Stanford University student to just six months in jail for sexually assaulting an unconscious woman
London Breed (pictured) is elected Mayor of San Francisco in a special election, defeating close rival Mark Leno
Theranos founder and CEO Elizabeth Holmes, and former president and COO Ramesh Balwani are indicted on charges of wire fraud, accused of carrying out a multi-million dollar scheme to defraud investors, doctors and patients. Theranos announced that Holmes would resign as CEO, but retain her position as chairwoman of the board
Hanabiko "Koko", a female western lowland gorilla born at the San Francisco Zoo, who was known for having learned a large number of hand signs from a modified version of American Sign Language. dies at her home in Woodside, California
July
The West County Detention Center severs ties with Immigration and Customs Enforcement, and will no longer incarcerate undocumented migrants at the Contra Costa County facility.
Nia Wilson, an African American woman, is killed while exiting MacArthur BART station, when a white male attacked her and one of her two sisters with her, with strong suspicions that this was a racially motivated hate crime
Ron Dellums (pictured), former East Bay US Representative and mayor of Oakland, known for his fiery anti-Vietnam War oratory and progressive politics, dies at his home in Washington, D.C.
August
Apple Inc becomes the first company in history to reach $1,000,000,000,000 in value
The Transbay Transit Center opens in San Francisco, initially as a hub for bus lines including MUNI and AC Transit, and eventually nearly a dozen other transit agencies, including BART and CalTrain
A study by the California Association of Realtors shows that only about 1 in 5 Bay Area residents can afford the median purchase price for a home, with state home affordability rates at a 10 year low
A jury in San Francisco awards 46-year-old former school groundskeeper Dewayne Johnson US$289m in damages against Monsanto, after alleging that it had spent decades hiding the cancer-causing dangers of its Roundup herbicides.
September
The US Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit upholds a patent filed by the Broad Institute of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard University involving Crispr Cas-9 gene-editing, ruling that the patent didn’t infringe on another patent filed two years prior by the University of California, Berkeley, where the technique was first developed
The Global Climate Action Summit convenes in San Francisco, hosted by California governor Jerry Brown, who pledges to uphold state environmental guidelines despite moves by the United States to roll them back
San Francisco businessman and co-founder of Salesforce.com, Marc Benioff, and his wife, Lynn Benioff, purchase Time magazine for $190 million Time Magazine Sold to Salesforce Founder Marc Benioff for $190 Million
Psychologist and Palo Alto University statistics professor Christine Blasey Ford accuses Supreme Court nominee Brett Kavanaugh of sexually assaulting her in 1982
January
Pacific Gas and Electric Company files for Chapter 11 bankruptcy for its recent roles in the California wildfires.
February
Oakland teachers go on strike.
Elected San Francisco Public Defender Jeff Adachi dies at the age of 59.
Rainstorms cause the Russian River to flood, engulfing the town of Guerneville in the highest floodwaters in 25 years
March
California governor Gavin Newsom declares a moratorium on the death penalty in California, and orders the gas chamber at San Quentin State Prison, the state's only site for the administration of capital punishment, to be dismantled and closed
April
East Bay congressperson Eric Swalwell announces his candidacy for President of the United States in the 2020 election
A Google, Inc offshoot company, Wing, becomes the first drone delivery service to receive Air Carrier Certification from the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA).
June
Oakland becomes the second city in the United States to decriminalize some entheogens, including "Magic Mushrooms"
March
During the week of March 16, in response to the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States across San Francisco Bay Area, all 9 Bay Area counties issued directives for residents to shelter-in-place until at least April 7.
May
George Floyd protests in the San Francisco Bay Area begin.
May
On May 26, 2021, a mass shooting occurred at a Santa Clara Valley Transportation Authority (VTA) rail yard in San Jose. Ten people were killed during the shooting, including the gunman, a VTA employee who then committed suicide. It is the deadliest mass shooting in the Bay Area's history.
See also
Cities in California
Timeline of Fresno, California
Timeline of Los Angeles
Timeline of Mountain View, California
Timeline of Oakland, California
Timeline of Riverside, California
Timeline of Sacramento, California
Timeline of San Bernardino, California
Timeline of San Diego
Timeline of San Francisco
Timeline of San Jose, California
References
San Francisco Bay Area-related lists
San Francisco Bay Area
History of the San Francisco Bay Area
Articles containing video clips
Years in California
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26570366
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaisa%20Sere
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Kaisa Sere
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Kaisa Sere (3 June 1954 – 5 December 2012) was a Finnish computer scientist, specialising in research into formal methods.
Kaisa Sere was born 3 June 1954 in Gamlakarleby (present-day Kokkola, Finland). She received an MSc in mathematics in 1979 and a PhD in computer science in 1990, both from Åbo Akademi University in Turku, southern Finland. She undertook formal methods research in action systems, distributed systems, hardware design, neural networks, and program refinement. She undertook joint research with Ralph-Johan Back and was involved in many collaborative European research projects. She also supervised 19 PhD students.
During 1984–5, Sere was a lecturer at Ohio State University in the United States. During 1991–2, she was a post-doctoral researcher in the Department of Computer Science at the Utrecht University in the Netherlands. During 1993–8, she held an Associate Professorship at the Department of Computer Science and Applied Mathematics in the University of Kuopio in Finland. In 1997, she became a Docent of Computer Science in the same department in 1997. During 1998–9, she held a senior research professorship funded by the Academy of Finland. In 1998, she became a full professor of Computer Science and Engineering in the Department of Information Technology at Åbo Akademi University. She held a senior researcher position from the Academy of Finland during 2010–11. Sere was also affiliated with the Turku Center for Computer Science (TUCS) and a member of the Research Council for Natural Sciences and Engineering for the Academy of Finland.
Publications
Sere's books included:
Emil Sekerinski and Kaisa Sere, Program Development by Refinement: Case Studies Using the B Method. Springer-Verlag, Formal Approaches to Computing and Information Technology (FACIT), 1998. .
Michael Butler, Luigia Petre, and Kaisa Sere (editors), Integrated Formal Methods, Springer-Verlag, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Volume 2335, 2002. .
References
External links
1954 births
2012 deaths
Åbo Akademi University alumni
Åbo Akademi University faculty
Formal methods people
People from Kokkola
Finnish women computer scientists
20th-century women scientists
Finnish women academics
Place of death missing
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10410427
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partimage
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Partimage
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Partimage is a disk cloning utility for Linux/UNIX environments. Partimage can save partitions in many formats to a disk image. Utilities such as Partimage are useful in a number of situations which are commonly encountered by network administrators as well as advanced computer users who maintain their own systems. The last stable release was in 2010; since then, one of Partimage's authors has worked on FSArchiver, which has broader functionality than Partimage.
Common uses
Some common uses for Partimage are as follows.
Backup of individual disk partitions. volume backups are very useful for recovery in the case of a disk failure or data corruption.
Large-scale operating system deployment. Organizations with multiple, similar computer systems may use Partimage or similar utilities to ease the process of operating system and software provisioning.
Features
For Windows users, Partimage includes experimental support for NTFS. Partimage supports most common Linux file systems, and can be found in many Linux distributions, including Debian and the live distros PING, Knoppix and SystemRescueCD.
Other notable features include compression of disk image files, support for backup/restore from a network file server and data encryption.
Partimage uses Newt for its GUI.
Partimage is limited to cloning partitions that have supported filesystem types. This includes Ext2, Ext3, Reiserfs, FAT12, FAT16, FAT16B, FAT32, HPFS, JFS, Xfs, UFS, HFS and Ntfs. Partimage does NOT support Ext4 and Btrfs
See also
List of disk cloning software
References
External links
Disk images
Free backup software
Disk cloning
Free system software
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18720123
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pmset
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Pmset
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On Apple computers, pmset is a command line utility to manipulate power management settings under the Darwin and macOS operating systems. It can assign sleep settings, schedule sleep and wake times, and display power information.
History
The pmset utility first appeared in Darwin 6.0.1 and Mac OS X 10.2 "Jaguar". It has been updated periodically since its introduction, and is still available as of Darwin 21.2.0 and macOS Monterey.
Behavior
The utility sets or lists power management settings. Some of the functionality provided by the utility is available through the GUI interface of the Energy Saver preference pane. However, pmset allows for greater flexibility and access to several options not available in the GUI.
The utility can set different power management settings depending on usage scenario. Different settings can be applied for when the machine is running off a charger, battery, UPS, or all three. The appropriate flags are as follows:
-c (charger), adjust settings used while connected to a charger
-b (battery), adjust settings used when running off a battery
-u (UPS), adjust settings used when running off a UPS
-a (all, default) adjust settings for all scenarios
Additional arguments be supplied when assigning any power management settings. Power management arguments are discussed in greater detail below. When invoking the command, only specified arguments modify power management options. Any arguments already set will be unmodified by pmset unless those arguments are specifically included.
The utility can schedule wake, sleep, power on or power off events. Events can be recurring based on arbitrary weekday and time combinations, or scheduled for future dates and times. The syntax for scheduling an event is as follows:
pmset [repeat, schedule] [sleep, wake, poweron, shutdown, wakeorpoweron] [<MTWRFSU> <date/time>]
Previously stored events will be overwritten upon running this command. To schedule multiple events they must be entered in one command string. For example, to set a shutdown event every day of the week at 23:59 and a wake or power on event every day of the week at 7:00 enter the following:
sudo pmset repeat shutdown MTWRFSU 23:59:00 wakeorpoweron MTWRFSU 7:00:00
The get flag displays information about the current power management configuration, or a log of recent activity. If no additional arguments are supplied the flag will only display current settings. Additional get arguments are discussed in greater detail below. The get flag is as follows:
-g get, list current power management settings
To view the currently scheduled events type:
pmset -g sched
The utility is also able to configure hibernation and safe sleep options, and change Energy Saver profiles.
Power management settings
The pmset utility recognizes the following arguments. Arguments can be passed in serial form in any order. Any bad syntax or unrecognized argument will cause the entire command to fail, resulting in an error message and brief help screen. Power management settings can only be changed by a privileged user.
displaysleep – display sleep timer in minutes, 0 to disable display sleep
disksleep – disk spin-down timer in minutes, 0 to disable disk sleep
sleep – system sleep timer in minutes, 0 to disable sleep
womp - wake on "magic" Ethernet packet, 1 to enable or 0 to disable. Note this setting only appears when running "pmset -g" if the device is plugged into a power source. Otherwise, the womp setting will NOT appear when running "pmset -g".
hibernatemode change hibernation mode, 0 for RAM powered while sleeping; 1 for RAM contents written to disk and system totally unpowered; 3 for RAM both powered and written to disk; 5 is the same as mode 1, but for use with secure virtual memory; 7 is the same as mode 3, but for use with secure virtual memory; 25 for hibernation in Mac OS X 10.7, with RAM contents written to disk and system totally unpowered
hibernatefile change hibernation image file location; image may only be located on the root volume
ring wake on modem ring, 1 to enable or 0 to disable
autorestart automatic restart after loss of power, 1 to enable or 0 to disable
dps dynamically change processor speed based on load, 1 to enable or 0 to disable
reduce permanently reduce processor speed, 1 to enable or 0 to disable
powerbutton put the machine to sleep when the power button pressed instead of shutting it down, 1 to enable or 0 to disable
powernap lets machine stay up to date even while they're sleeping, 1 to enable or 0 to disable
lidwake (laptop only) wake the machine when the laptop lid is opened, 1 to enable or 0 to disable
acwake (laptop only) wake the machine when the power source is changed, such as when AC power is removed and the machine switches to battery power, 1 to enable or 0 to disable
lessbright (laptop only) slightly turn down display brightness when switching to a specified power source, 1 to enable or 0 to disable
halfdim display sleep will use an intermediate half-brightness state between full brightness and fully off, 1 to enable or 0 to disable
sms (supported laptops only) use Sudden Motion Sensor to park disk heads on sudden changes in G force, 1 to enable or 0 to disable
haltlevel (UPS only) UPS charge in percentage, shut down the machine when UPS reaches a specified charge level
haltafter (UPS only) UPS charge in minutes, shut down machine after drawing on UPS for specified number of minutes
haltremain (UPS only) UPS charge in minutes, shut down machine when specified time remains on UPS
ttyskeepawake prevent idle system sleep when any tty (such as a remote login session) is active; a tty is inactive only when its idle time exceeds the system sleep timer, 1 to enable or 0 to disable
autopoweroff (AC power) Where supported, enabled per default as an implementation of Lot 6 to the European Energy-related Products Directive. After sleeping for autopoweroffdelay minutes, the system will write a hibernation image and go into a lower power chipset sleep. Wakeups from this state will take longer than wakeups from regular sleep. The system will not auto power off if any external devices are connected, if the system is on battery power, or if the system is bound to a network and wake for network access is enabled.
autopoweroffdelay (AC power) delay before entering autopoweroff mode. (Value = integer, in seconds)
standbydelaylow Delay before writing the hibernation image to disk and powering off memory for Standby. standbydelaylow is used when the remaining battery capacity is low. (Value = integer, in seconds)
standbydelayhigh Delay before writing the hibernation image to disk and powering off memory for Standby. standbydelayhigh is used when the remaining battery capacity is high. (Value = integer, in seconds)
networkoversleep This setting affects how macOS networking presents shared network services during system sleep. This setting is not used by all platforms; changing its value is unsupported.
destroyfvkeyonstandby Destroy File Vault Key when going to standby mode. By default File vault keys are retained even when system goes to standby. If the keys are destroyed, user will be prompted to enter the password while coming out of standby mode. (value: 1 - Destroy, 0 - Retain). Since it is essential that the system fully powered down, you also need to set `hibernatemode` to 25 (suspend to disk).
Settings may be adjusted independently for circumstances where the machine is attached to a charger, when running off a battery (in the case of a laptop), or when running off a UPS (if available). Settings can also be adjusted for all four scenarios simultaneously; this is the default option, for when no usage flag is specified. Power management options can be specified for different profiles by appending -c (charger), -b (battery), -u (UPS) or -a (all) flags. The following example will set the machine to sleep after 10 minutes and sleep the display after five minutes, but only when powered by the battery.
pmset -b sleep 10 displaysleep 5
The following command will assign slightly different power management settings for circumstances where the machine is powered by the charger. Here, the machine is set to sleep after 30 minutes and the display is set to never sleep, but only when set by the charger. Issuing both commands will not interfere with each other.
pmset -c sleep 30 displaysleep 0
Arguments can be entered in serial form to set or modify several power management parameters with one command. The following command will set the machine to never sleep (sleep 0), enable the Sudden Motion Sensor (sms 1), set the display to sleep after 20 minutes (displaysleep 20), disable processor speed reduction (reduce 0), enable intermediate display dimness (halfdim 1), enable the machine to wake when the lid is opened (lidwake 1), prevent the system from sleeping when a tty session (such as SSH) is active (ttyskeepawake 1), disable waking the machine when the AC adapter is inserted (acwake 0), disable an automatic restart after power is removed and restored (autorestart 0), enable dynamic change of processor speed based on system load (dps 1), enable wake on modem ring (ring 1), enable wake on receipt of "magic" Ethernet packet (womp 1), and disable hard disk sleep (disksleep 0):
pmset sleep 0 sms 1 displaysleep 20 reduce 0 halfdim 1 lidwake 1 ttyskeepawake 1 acwake 0 autorestart 0 dps 1 ring 1 womp 1 disksleep 0
Because the above example did not include a usage flag, the settings specified will apply to all usage scenarios. Subsequent commands that do specify a usage flag will only affect settings for that usage scenario. For instance, pmset -b sleep 10 will cause the machine to sleep after 10 minutes, but only when the battery is attached. All other settings will apply when the battery is attached, and all settings in the above example will apply when a charger or UPS is attached.
At least as of Darwin 9.4 and OS X 10.5.4 "Leopard", all changes made through pmset are saved in a persistent preferences file at /Library/Preferences/SystemConfiguration/com.apple.PowerManagement.plist. This file can be modified manually using the defaults command, but those changes will not be taken up immediately by the power management system. Manual edits of com.apple.PowerManagement.plist also stand the risk of being overwritten. The command pmset touch will reread existing settings from disk and apply them to the system.
With autopoweroff enabled the machine will got into hibernate mode even if hibernatemode is 0. The value of autopoweroffdelay may be in seconds despite the man page (for Mavericks, Nov 9, 2012) documenting it as minutes.
Schedule Settings
The pmset command is able to schedule system sleep, shutdown, wakeup or power on events. The schedule argument is for setting up one-time power events, and repeat is for setting up daily or weekly events. Scheduling of events can only be done by a privileged user.
The schedule argument recognizes the following additional arguments:
type; one of sleep, wake, poweron, shutdown or wakeorpoweron
date and time (schedule only); in the format "MM/dd/yy HH:mm:ss"; must be in 24-hour format, must be in quotes
time (repeat only); in the format HH:mm:ss; must be in 24 format, but does not have to be in quotes
weekdays; a subset of MTWRFSU such as M or MTWRF are valid, as are strings weekdays, weekends, and everyday
owner; a string describing the person or program who is scheduling the power event (optional)
The utility can be very unforgiving of improper syntax. Any errors in syntax will cause the command to fail and will display a brief help message. The syntax for a scheduled event is as follows:
pmset schedule [sleep, wake, poweron, shutdown, wakeorpoweron] "MM/dd/yy HH:mm:ss"
Only one type of event (sleep, wake, et cetera) can be specified, and the date chosen must be in the future. The utility expects to be able to store this information in the PMU, and so may not work reliably on non-Apple hardware. The date and time string must be enclosed in quotation marks.
The syntax for a repeating event is as follows:
pmset repeat [sleep, wake, poweron, shutdown, wakeorpoweron] [MTWRFSU, weekdays, weekends, everyday] HH:mm:ss
Scheduled wake, sleep and power events are stored in a persistent preferences file in /Library/Preferences/SystemConfiguration/com.apple.AutoWake.plist. This file can be manually edited using the defaults command, but any changes so made stand a serious risk of being overwritten. Also, such edits will not be immediately taken up by the system.
List options
The list flag, -g, displays information about the current power configuration. The flag alone, with no additional arguments, will display current power management settings. Additional arguments will display more specific information. The get functions of pmset do not require privileged access. The utility recognizes the following arguments (an up-to-date list can be retrieved with the undocumented pmset -g getters command, though it does not show all *log variants):
live like -g with no option, displays the settings currently in use
custom will display custom settings for all power sources, although these settings may not currently be in use
cap capabilities, display which power management features the machine supports
sched schedule, display scheduled startup, wake, shutdown and sleep events
ups will display UPS emergency thresholds
ac or adapter will display details about an attached AC power adapter. Only supported for MacBook and MacBook Pro.
ps or batt power source, display status of connected batteries and UPSs
accps will display details of power sources for accessories
pslog display an ongoing log of power source state
rawlog display an ongoing log of power source state as read directly from battery
rawbatt display battery state
therm shows thermal conditions (not on all platforms)
thermlog show an ongoing log of thermal notifications (not on all platforms)
assertions displays the summary of current power assertions (10.6 and later)
assertionslog displays an ongoing log of power assertions (10.6 and later)
sysload displays the system load advisory (10.6 and later)
useractivity show current user activity status
useractivitylog show an ongoing log of user activity events
log show a history log of events
history show a timeline of events for debugging
historydetailed show driver-level timings for the UUID of a history event
hidnull show status of
userclients display a list of processes accepting/sending events
uuid display the currently active sleep/wake UUID
rtc display raw RTC data
getters display a list of valid options for -g
powerstate display the current power state of all device drivers
stats display the sleep/wake statistics
systemstate display the current power state and the system's power capabilities
everything display everything
Only one get argument can be passed to pmset -g. For instance, to display scheduled events, type pmset -g sched. The utility will not return an error if more than one get argument is provided, but all other than the first will be ignored.
The sleep and displaysleep can show an imposed value of 0 (disabled) together with a list of process IDs that impose this value. These are processes such as backup programs which need the machine to stay awake, for example until the backup is finished.
Sample usage
The following examples demonstrate the output of the pmset command on an Apple PowerBook G4 running Mac OS X 10.5.4 "Leopard".
The following example will put the relevant computer to sleep immediately:
pmset sleepnow
The following example will apply only to laptops when powered by the battery. It will set the machine to sleep after 5 minutes of inactivity, put the display to sleep after 2 minutes, and spin down the hard disk after 3 minutes. Only privileged users can issue this command. If the command is issued successfully and is without syntax errors, pmset will exit silently with an exit code of 0. To verify that the system took the new configuration, issue the command pmset -g.
pmset -b sleep 5 displaysleep 2 disksleep 3
The following example will apply only to machines being powered by a UPS. It will set the machine to perform an emergency shutdown when 5 percent battery remains on the UPS, or 5 minutes estimated draw time remains, whichever comes first. Only privileged users can issue this command. If the command is issued successfully and is without syntax errors, pmset will exit silently with an exit code of 0. To verify that the system took the new configuration, issue the command pmset -g.
pmset -u haltlevel 5 haltremain 5
The following example will apply for all usage scenarios. It will set the machine to wake on receipt of a "magic" Ethernet packet, wake if the modem detects a ring, and prevent the system from sleeping if a tty session is active. Only privileged users can issue this command. If the command is issued successfully and is without syntax errors, pmset will exit silently with an exit code of 0. To verify that the system took the new configuration, issue the command pmset -g.
pmset -a womp 1 ring 1 ttyskeepawake 1
The following example sets a one-time scheduled power event. The machine will be set to shut down 01/10/2009 at 10:00 PM (10 January 2009 – Note the US centric MM/DD/YYY time syntax). Only privileged users can issue this command. If the command is issued successfully and is without syntax errors, pmset will exit silently with an exit code of 0. To verify that the system took the new configuration, issue the command pmset -g sched.
pmset schedule shutdown "01/10/2009 22:00:00"
The following example sets a repeating power event. The machine will wake or power on every weekday at 8:00 AM. Only privileged users can issue this command. If the command is issued successfully and is without syntax errors, pmset will exit silently with an exit code of 0. To verify that the system took the new configuration, issue the command pmset -g sched.
pmset repeat wakeorpoweron MTWRF 08:00:00
Here, example output from pmset -g. At the time, the machine was being powered by the charger, while simultaneously charging the battery. The command prints the current configuration.
$ pmset -g
Active Profiles:
Battery Power -1
AC Power -1*
Currently in use:
sleep 0
sms 1
displaysleep 20
reduce 0
halfdim 1
lidwake 1
ttyskeepawake 1
acwake 0
autorestart 0
dps 1
ring 1
womp 1
disksleep 0
Here, example output from pmset -g sched. In this example, the machine has already been configured for a repeating event to start or wake up every weekday at 8:00 AM. The command prints the repeating event; note that the next such occurrence appears as a scheduled power event.
$ pmset -g sched
Repeating power events:
wakepoweron at 8:00AM weekdays only
Scheduled power events:
[0] wakeorpoweron at 08/04/08 08:00:00 by Repeating
Here, example output from pmset -g. At the time, the machine was being backed up. The output shows the PID for the backup program.
$ pmset -g | grep sleep
disksleep 10
sleep 0 (imposed by 33927)
displaysleep 5
$ ps -ef | grep 33927
0 33927 1 0 9:22am ?? 10:54.97 /System/Library/CoreServices/backupd
See also
System profiler
Sleep proxy service
References
pmset(1) manual page at Apple Developer Connection
Power Management and Scheduling via Command Line at uMac, University of Utah
standbydelayhigh and standbydelay low at Apple Discussions
External links
pmset source code at Apple Developer Connection)
pm-hibernate, pm-suspend for Linux systems
pm-pmu for Linux systems on Mac hardware
sys-suspend for Solaris systems
poweradm for Solaris systems
MacOS
Utilities for macOS
Command-line software
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48465449
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Girl%20in%20the%20Spider%27s%20Web%20%28film%29
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The Girl in the Spider's Web (film)
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The Girl in the Spider's Web is a 2018 action-thriller film directed by Fede Álvarez and written by Jay Basu, Álvarez, and Steven Knight, and based on the 2015 novel of the same name by David Lagercrantz, which in turn is based on characters in the Millennium book series by Stieg Larsson. The film acts as a soft-reboot/sequel to David Fincher's The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo. It stars Claire Foy in the role of Lisbeth Salander and follows Salander as she battles against a mysterious notorious organization, the Spiders, who seek world dominance. Sverrir Gudnason, Lakeith Stanfield, Sylvia Hoeks, and Stephen Merchant also appear in the film.
The Girl in the Spider's Web had its world premiere at the Rome Film Festival on October 24, 2018, and was theatrically released by Sony Pictures Releasing in Sweden on October 26, 2018, and in the United States on November 9, 2018. A box-office disappointment, the film grossed $35.2 million worldwide and received mixed reviews from critics, although Foy's performance was praised.
Plot
In the introduction, sisters Camilla and Lisbeth Salander are seen as young girls playing chess at the home of their father, crime lord Alexander Zalachenko. When Zalachenko asks Camilla to play a game with him (the implication being inappropriate sexual behaviour) Lisbeth tries to drag her away, before leaping from a high balcony into a snowdrift and making her escape, leaving Camilla behind.
Some years later, in Stockholm, Sweden, computer programmer Frans Balder hires Lisbeth, now a vigilante hacker, to retrieve Firefall, a program he developed for the National Security Agency that can access the world's nuclear codes. Balder believes it too dangerous to exist. Lisbeth successfully retrieves Firefall from the NSA's servers, but she is unable to unlock it. Her actions attract the attention of NSA agent Edwin Needham.
Mercenaries led by Jan Holtser steal the program from Lisbeth and attempt to kill her, though she survives. When she misses a scheduled rendezvous with Balder, he mistakenly believes Lisbeth has kept Firefall for herself and contacts Gabrielle Grane, the deputy director of the Swedish Security Service. Grane moves Balder and his young son, August, to a safe house. Meanwhile, Needham tracks the unauthorized login to Stockholm and arrives there seeking Lisbeth and Firefall.
Lisbeth and her hacker friend, Plague, contact Lisbeth's former lover, investigative journalist Mikael Blomkvist, for help identifying her assailants. Blomkvist learns Holtser previously worked for Lisbeth's late father, Zalachenko, and is now affiliated with an elusive international crime syndicate known as the "Spiders". Lisbeth puts surveillance on Balder's safe house, and when it is attacked, she intervenes, attempting to protect Balder and his son. She is intercepted by Holtser, who kills Balder and frames Lisbeth, then kidnaps August. Lisbeth pursues them and rescues August. Lisbeth also learns the Spiders' leader is her sister, Camilla, whom Lisbeth believed was dead. As a child, Lisbeth escaped her abusive father, leaving Camilla behind after she hesitated to leave. After years of physical and sexual abuse, Camilla faked her suicide and went underground to form the Spiders.
Lisbeth takes August to another safe house, where she confirms only he can unlock Firefall. Elsewhere, Needham locates Lisbeth's girlfriend, Sofia, and persuades her to arrange a meeting between them, intending to lure Lisbeth into a trap. Lisbeth evades him, and Needham is later arrested by Grane. Lisbeth helps him escape in exchange for him safely escorting August to San Francisco to reunite him with his mother; she begrudgingly agrees to later give him Firefall.
The Spiders trick August by calling him from his father's cellphone, then track him to Lisbeth's safe house. Camilla and the Spiders take August to her base of operations, the sisters' childhood home. Grane had hired the Spiders to retrieve Firefall for her and informed them of Balder's location, but Camilla kills Grane, instead.
Using a tracker hidden on August, Lisbeth, Blomkvist, Plague, and Needham locate him. Lisbeth breaks in to give Plague remote computer access to the building's surveillance system. She is caught and taken to where August is being held. She learns that Blomkvist has also been captured. When Camilla threatens to torture him, Lisbeth tells August to trust her and to reveal the Firefall password. Camilla tries suffocating Lisbeth while describing their father's abuse.
Armed with a .50 BMG sniper rifle and remotely guided by Plague via computer, Needham fires through brick walls, eliminating Camilla's henchmen, saving August and Blomkvist. Camilla escapes with the laptop containing Firefall, and Lisbeth pursues her. Holtser, injected with a poison that induces blindness, stumbles through some woods onto a road, where he is fatally hit by Camilla's fleeing car. The vehicle crashes into the trees. Camilla, injured, escapes into the woods. Lisbeth pursues her to a nearby clifftop, where Camilla tearfully asks why she never returned to rescue her; Lisbeth says Camilla chose to remain with their father rather than escape with her. Camilla, heavily bleeding, drops the laptop computer and steps off the cliff before Lisbeth can stop her, disappearing into a snowy mist and apparently falling to her death.
Needham attempts to access Firefall, only to discover Lisbeth has destroyed it. August is reunited with his mother in the United States. Blomkvist writes an investigative article about the Spider's Web to be published in Millennium, but then deletes it. Lisbeth destroys her childhood home as closure, then rides away on her motorcycle.
Cast
Claire Foy as Lisbeth Salander, a computer hacker who has survived severe emotional and sexual abuse.
Beau Gadsdon as Young Lisbeth Salander.
Sverrir Gudnason as Mikael Blomkvist, a journalist for Millennium and lover/partner of Lisbeth.
Lakeith Stanfield as Edwin Needham, an NSA security expert who is tracking Salander.
Sylvia Hoeks as Camilla Salander, Lisbeth's estranged sister, who is the head of a major crime syndicate.
Carlotta von Falkenhayn as Young Camilla Salander.
Stephen Merchant as Frans Balder, a terminated employee of the NSA who developed a program called Firefall, which accesses the world's nuclear codes. He requests Salander's help in destroying his program, which he believes to be too powerful for any player.
Vicky Krieps as Erika Berger, the publisher of Millennium.
Claes Bang as Jan Holster, Camilla's accomplice.
Christopher Convery as August Balder, Frans' son.
Synnøve Macody Lund as Gabriella Grane, the deputy director of the Swedish Security Service.
Cameron Britton as Plague, a close associate of Lisbeth's, and a computer expert to whom she reaches out when she needs assistance.
Andreja Pejić as Sofia, Lisbeth's lover/partner.
Mikael Persbrandt as Alexander Zalachenko, Lisbeth and Camilla Salander's father.
Volker Bruch as Peter Ahlgren.
Production
In November 2015, The Hollywood Reporter announced that Sony Pictures Entertainment was planning to develop a new film series based on the Millennium novels, starting from the book The Girl in the Spider's Web by David Lagercrantz. Rooney Mara and Daniel Craig, who portrayed Salander and Blomkvist, respectively, in The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo, would not be back for the film. New actors would be cast, and David Fincher would also not return as director, though he later received an executive producer credit. Steven Knight was announced to be in talks to adapt the novel, while the producers would be Scott Rudin, Amy Pascal, and Elizabeth Cantillon, along with Yellow Bird's Berna Levin, Søren Stærmose, and Ole Sondberg. TheWrap reported that Alicia Vikander was being considered for the role of Salander. However, while promoting Carol, Mara stated that she was still signed for the sequel: "As far as I know I'm doing it until someone tells me otherwise". Tatiana Maslany, Jane Levy and Troian Bellisario were also linked to the project.
In November 2016, Variety reported that Sony was in negotiations with Fede Álvarez to direct the film, with Eli Bush as an additional producer. In March 2017, it was announced that the film would feature an entirely new cast, with production set to begin in September 2017. In May 2017, it was reported that Claire Foy was the frontrunner to play Salander, and, in September 2017, Foy was officially cast in the film. Sylvia Hoeks joined the cast in October 2017. The rest of the cast was announced over the next five months.
Principal photography began in January 2018 in Berlin, Leipzig Airport then moved to Hamburg February 2–4, for filming at the Kattwyk Bridge; and ended in April 2018, in Stockholm.
Release
The Girl in the Spider's Web was released in the United States on November 9, 2018 by Sony. It was originally scheduled for October 5, 2018, but was moved in March 2017. The first trailer was released on June 7, 2018. The film premiered at the Rome Film Festival on October 24, 2018.
Reception
Box office
The Girl in the Spider's Web worldwide gross was $35 million, against a production budget of $43 million. Having failed to recover its production budget, it emerged a box-office bomb.
In Canada and the United States, The Girl in the Spider's Web was released alongside The Grinch and Overlord, and was projected to gross $10–15 million from 2,929 theaters in its opening weekend. It made $3 million on its first day, including $635,000 from Thursday night previews. It went on to debut to $8 million, down from the $12.8 million opening of the first film and finishing fifth at the box office. The film fell 68% in its second weekend to $2.8 million, finishing ninth.
Critical response
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, and an average rating of . The website's critical consensus reads, "The Girl in the Spider's Web focuses on the action elements of its source material for a less complex – and only sporadically effective – franchise reboot." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 43 out of 100, based on 42 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave it a 75% positive score.
References
External links
2018 films
2018 action thriller films
2018 crime action films
2018 crime thriller films
American action thriller films
American crime action films
American crime thriller films
American films
American sequel films
American vigilante films
British action thriller films
British crime action films
British crime thriller films
British films
British sequel films
British vigilante films
Canadian action thriller films
Canadian crime thriller films
Canadian films
Canadian LGBT-related films
Canadian sequel films
Canadian vigilante films
Columbia Pictures films
2010s English-language films
English-language Canadian films
English-language German films
English-language Swedish films
Films about domestic violence
Films about terrorism in the United States
Films about twin sisters
Films based on Swedish novels
Films directed by Fede Álvarez
Films produced by Amy Pascal
Films produced by Scott Rudin
Films scored by Roque Baños
Films set in Stockholm
Films shot in Berlin
Films shot in Stockholm
Films with screenplays by Fede Álvarez
Films with screenplays by Steven Knight
German action thriller films
German crime action films
German crime thriller films
German films
German sequel films
German vigilante films
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films
Swedish action thriller films
Swedish crime thriller films
Swedish films
Swedish sequel films
Swedish vigilante films
Techno-thriller films
Films about the National Security Agency
Dragon Tattoo Stories (film series)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Bushwhackers%20%28band%29
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The Bushwhackers (band)
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The Bushwhackers, initially named "The Heathcote Bushwhackers", Australia's first bush band were arguably the catalyst for Australia's folk revival of the 1950s. They performed from 1952 to 1957, when founder John Meredith disbanded the group and its members dispersed into other activities. (An unrelated group with a similar sounding name, "The Bushwackers", formed in Victoria, Australia in 1971 and continues to the present day). Over its relatively brief existence, the group evolved from an initial novelty act to one with a more serious mission of presenting and promoting to Australia its neglected bush song heritage, and laid the foundation for similar groups to follow through the 1960s and to the present. Its members also operated—at least initially—from a Marxist / Australian Communist Party ideology, attempting to embody the struggle of the working class against the ruling classes, although this may have been less than obvious to their audiences under the guise of popular entertainment.
Band formation and source of name
The group was originally formed as "The Heathcote Bushwhackers" in the outer Sydney suburb of Heathcote in 1952 by folklorist John Meredith together with his neighbours Jack Barrie and Brian Loughlin, to perform and popularise "bush music" and later, Australian songs that Meredith had started to collect in the field from traditional performers. In Australia, the term "to bushwhack" most commonly means to make one's way through the scrub or forest ("the bush") by "whacking" (cutting) a trail where none currently exists; a "bushwhacker" therefore means either such a traveller, or more generally, either a person who lives in such country, that is, off the beaten track, or simply a resident of the countryside in general (by implication, an unsophisticated person, similar to the U.S. term "hillbilly") as opposed to a resident of the city or the suburbs. It seems likely that, at least at first, the group name was intended to be ironic, since Heathcote, although indeed a rural / "bush" area at that time, was basically a retreat for escapees from city life in search of a more rural lifestyle, who were attracted by cheap land for sale there while still with regular rail links to Sydney. Meredith resided in Heathcote from 1952 (when he moved there to share a somewhat primitive owner-built dwelling with its builder, Eric Burnett, an ex-roommate from Sydney) up to mid 1954, when he returned to the inner Sydney suburbs, taking up lodgings in Lewisham in order to avoid the long train commute from Heathcote to his job in the city, in addition to his burgeoning city-based musical activities.
In its initial lineup, the group's instrumentation was button accordion and tin whistle (played by Meredith), "bush bass" or tea chest bass played by Barrie (actually not a traditional "bush" instrument at all, but one previously played by sailors and "wharfies"), while Loughlin played the lagerphone, a home-made percussion instrument constructed by loosely nailing bottle tops to a broom handle to make a rattling sound when struck upon the floor, this example being constructed and named by Meredith's brother Claude and copied from something he had seen played by "an old rabbitter". Years later, Meredith gave the following account of their formation:
"Botany Bay" and "Click Go the Shears" were in fact learned from the repertoire of the American singer Burl Ives, who had toured Australia earlier that year and had included these and some other Australian songs in his performances, having been supplied with them in advance by the Australian collector Dr. Percy Jones. (Later these formed the basis of Ives' own albums 9 Australian Folk Songs (10", Australia, 1954) and Australian Folk Songs (USA, 1958).) Of the new recruits to the band, Chris Kempster (thirteen years younger than Meredith, and a singer on occasion to his own guitar-based accompaniment) was known to him via the Sydney based left-wing organisations the Eureka Youth League and the Unity Singers, of which both were members, while Harry Kay, also from the Eureka Youth League, played excellent harmonica.
The group gave its first public performance at the Rivoli Hall in Hurstville in late 1952, deciding to shorten its name to just "The Bushwhackers" at the same time.
Reedy River
In 1953 Reedy River, an Australian musical written by Dick Diamond featuring bush and Australian folk music, opened first in Melbourne and then as an amateur production at the Sydney New Theatre, and the Bushwhackers were engaged to provide the musical accompaniment for the Sydney version, which saw the addition of one song "Widgegoeera Joe" (alternate title: "The Backblocks Shearer") which Meredith had collected earlier that year from a bush singer named Jack "Hoopiron" Lee. The production also included "Click Go the Shears", which although credited in the Reedy River Song Book to versions collected by Meredith in the field, actually derived mostly from the Burl Ives version that the band had originally learned. Performing as singers in the musical were Chris Kempster and Harry Kay, joined later in the season by Cecil Grivas, Alex Hood and Alan Scott, all of whom subsequently became assimilated into the band. Around this time, the group also supplied the songs and music for several historical radio features written for the Australian Broadcasting Commission (ABC) by Nancy Keesing.
Subsequent activities
In 1954 the Bushwhackers, along with other folklore enthusiasts, established the Sydney Bush Music Club to encourage members of the Club and the general public to learn about and perform Australian folk and traditional music; an additional reason was to deflect more requests from interested parties to join the band, instead encouraging them to perform at the club and/or form their own groups. The band travelled outside Sydney into rural New South Wales, and Meredith and Scott often used their performances to scout out local bush musicians and singers for field recordings. In 1955 the group played for Dame Mary Gilmore's ninetieth birthday and recorded The Drover's Dream, released as a 78 rpm record on the newly established "Wattle" label, selling thousands of copies, followed by a number of other 78 recordings, as well as two 33 rpm EP releases, Australian Bush Songs and Nine Miles from Gundagai (both 1957). Other local groups taking inspiration from the Bushwhackers and/or the Bush Music Club around that time, performing similar music, included "The Overlanders" (from Leichhardt), "The Spraggers", "The Rouseabouts", and "The Drovers".
Remembering some of the group's activities some 25 years later, member Alan Scott wrote:
Although happy to commence, and then to continue the existence of the group under the general public perception as popular entertainment, Meredith and the other members were affiliated to the Australian Commununist Party, at that time very much a focal point for idealistic youth, in particular following the end of the Second World War, together with its Marxist ideology and various offshoots such as the Eureka Youth League; in this respect, his aims paralleled those of folk-song activists working in America since the 1940s such as the Almanac Singers and The Weavers. As well as representing the struggle of the working class against the capitalist system, Meredith wanted the group to be at the vanguard of a movement to regain a national cultural identity. In his own papers of the time he wrote:
As the 1950s developed, Meredith in particular, sometimes assisted by other group members, became interested in collecting Australian songs "in the field" and was able to use performances by the group as a means to reach out to otherwise unknown local singers and other persons with knowledge of local, unrecorded material that he hoped to be able to capture for posterity, the start of an activity that he was to continue on his own or with other collectors long after the demise of the group. A contemporary account of the band's activities in the Sydney Morning Herald reads as follows:
Demise of the group
With very little notice to the group members, in 1957 Meredith abruptly decided to disband the group (minus Grivas, who had departed in 1955 due to a change in location), citing in his personal notes musical and personal differences between the older and younger members of the band: for example Kempster and Hood aspired to harmony singing, occasional solo vocals and more variety in the arrangements, Meredith's conception only involved solo singing in the verses, unison singing in the choruses, plus all the instruments playing all of the time. (By contrast, group member Alan Scott stated that in his opinion, the constant touring and rehearsing had simply got too much for Meredith, who "could not cope with all his other activities and be a Bushwhacker too".) Various of its members continued to perform in bush bands: Kempster, Hood and Kay initially as "The Three Bushwhackers" and then continuing as "The Rambleers"; Grivas with his brothers Roland and Milton as "The Galahs", already formed post his 1955 departure from the Bushwhackers; while Meredith continued to collect field recordings of Australian traditional and folk music, as well as performing with "The Shearers" and the Bush Music Club's "Concert Party".
Reunions
There were no reunions of the group during Meredith's lifetime; while he remained good friends with Loughlin and the latter's family, and also subsequently occasionally happily performed with Alan Scott, Meredith reportedly never forgave Kempster, Kay and particularly Hood for their attitudes which in his mind precipitated the demise of the Bushwhackers, as well as their later performing careers which included songs learned during their tenure with the Bushwhackers but uncredited as such on later recordings. Nevertheless, the surviving band members - apart from Cec Grivas, who was not in attendance - were present at a celebration of Meredith's life held at Gay Scott's Balmoral property in March 2001, a month after his death, and were persuaded to give a brief impromptu performance. The following year, members of the band played two 50th anniversary reunion concerts at the 2002 Australian National Folk Festival and the National Library in Canberra, plus there was an anniversary performance of Reedy River. Original members Cecil Grivas, Alex Hood, Harry Kay and Chris Kempster all took part, together with Meredith's long time friend and collecting associate Rob Willis who took the musical part of Meredith; Jack Barrie was unable to attend but sent his best wishes, Brian Loughlin having passed away earlier, in 1974. Kempster, Hood and Kay also took part in a Rambleers reunion the same year, along with their later musical associate Barbara Lisyak. Subsequently, Kempster died in January 2004 aged 70, Barrie in August 2015 (two years short of his one-hundredth birthday), and Grivas in August 2019 aged 88.
Influence and legacy
Meredith's "Bushwhackers" had a musical influence far greater than their brief, 5-year life span, virtually single-handedly starting the entire Australian "bush music" revival of the 1950s, which still continues today in various forms (not least via the auspices of the Sydney Bush Music Club which Meredith and the group co-founded), as well as starting the wider Australian "folk revival" only a few years following its equivalent in the United States. Meredith's biographer, Keith McKenry, notes that the group
In that mission, the group certainly succeeded, also assisted by the popular success of "Reedy River" which brought its included bush songs to a wide audience as well as introducing the then-novel concept of allowing the accompanying musicians to play their instruments on stage rather than out of sight, a precursor to numerous "folk song" performances that were to follow. Direct successors to the original group, such as "The Rambleers", continued Meredith's vision (with or without his blessing) in both live performances and recorded output.
Writing in 2004, and following the gift of the group's original "lagerphone" to the National Library of Australia after the group's reunion performance at the National Folk Festival in 2002, curator Mark Cranfield wrote:
Unrelated group
An unrelated group with a similar sounding name, "The Bushwackers" (note slightly different spelling), initially "The Original Bushw[h]ackers and Bullockies Bush Band", formed in Melbourne, Australia in 1971 and continues to the present day.
Discography and filmography
78 and EP releases
"Reedy River" original cast recording:
Diaphon presents Selections from "Reedy River". Diaphon DPR-8 (10-inch LP), 1954. Features Milton Moore, Cecil Grivas and Jack Barrie as soloists, with musical accompaniment by the Bushwhackers band.
Wattle Records "A Series" 78s
A1 The Bushwhackers: The Drover's Dream / The Bullockies' Ball (1956)
A2 The Bushwhackers: Travelling Down the Castlereagh / Australia's on the Wallaby (1956)
A3 The Bushwhackers: Old Bullock Dray / Nine Miles from Gundagai (1956)
A4 The Bushwhackers: Give a Fair Go / Rabbiter (not issued?)
A5 The Bushwhackers: Botany Bay / Click Go the Shears (1956)
A11 The Bushwhackers: Black Velvet Band / The Hut That's Upside-Down (1956)
"B Series" 7" 33rpm EPs
B1 The Bushwhackers: Australian Bush Songs (1957)
?? The Bushwhackers: Nine Miles from Gundagai (1957)
Reissues
"The Ballad of 1891" (Reedy River Cast recording, from the 10" LP) "The Drover's Dream" (Wattle 78 rpm single featuring Alan Scott), and "Click Go the Shears" (Wattle 78 rpm single featuring Brian Loughlin) are included on the CD accompanying Keith McKenry's 2014 book More Than a Life: John Meredith and the Fight for Australian Tradition, CD reference Fanged Wombat Productions FWD 011.
Short films
3 in 1. Directed by Cec Holmes
Wattle Ballad Series No. 4, The Old Bullock Dray, The Bushwhackers 1961
References
External links
Small collection of photographs of The Bushwhackers at the National Library of Australia
Australian folk music groups
Australian country music groups
Musical groups from Sydney
Musical groups established in 1952
1952 establishments in Australia
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4577068
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plurix
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Plurix
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Plurix is a Unix-like operating system developed in Brazil in the early 1980s.
Overview
Plurix was developed in the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), at the Electronic Computing Center (NCE).
The NCE researchers, after returning from postgraduate courses in the USA, attempted to license the UNIX source code from AT&T in the late 1970s without success. In 1982, due to AT&T refusing to license the code, a development team led by Newton Faller decided to initiate the development of an alternative system, called Plurix (**), using as reference UNIX Version 7, the most recent at the time, that they had running on an old Motorola computer system.
In 1985, the Plurix system was up and running on the Pegasus 32-X, a shared-memory, multi-processor computer also designed at NCE. Plurix was licensed to some Brazilian companies in 1988.
Two other Brazilian universities also developed their own UNIX systems: Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG) developed the DCC-IX operating system, and University of São Paulo (USP) developed the REAL operating system in 1987.
The NCE/UFRJ also offered technical courses on OS design and implementation to local computer companies, some of which later produced their own proprietary UNIX systems. In fact, these Brazilian companies first created an organization of companies interested in UNIX (called API) and tried to license UNIX from AT&T. Their attempts were frustrated at the end of 1986, when AT&T canceled negotiations with API.
Some of these companies, EDISA, COBRA, and SOFTEC, invested in the development of their own systems, EDIX, SOX and ANALIX, respectively.
AT&T License
When AT&T finally licensed their code to Brazilian companies, the majority of them decided to drop their local development, use the licensed code, and just "localize" the system for their purposes.
COBRA and NCE/UFRJ kept developing, and tried to convince the Brazilian government to prohibit the further entrance of AT&T UNIX into Brazil, since the operating systems they developed, (COBRA and Plurix), were similar to AT&T's and could do the same things. The Brazilian IT industry in the 80s was a protected market, so a foreign company couldn't sell a product in Brazil if a Brazilian IT company offered similar hardware or software. COBRA had a very strong argument: the similarity of its OS was recognized by X/OPEN.
The government, under North American pressure, delayed the decision. A new president was elected after twenty years of a military dictatorship, and his first act was to terminate the laws that ruled the Brazilian IT market protection for hardware, software, and later everything else. All projects were withdrawn. NCE went "back to the University." COBRA almost went bankrupt, and now is a state-owned company whose major customer is Banco do Brasil.
Certainly none of the national systems had the comprehensiveness of the original UNIX System V, which incorporated software from different origins and was more than fifteen years ahead. However, the evolution of the national systems could have followed a viable and proper way and still preserved the basic characteristics ("Unix philosophy") to assure compatibility with other UNIX systems around the world.
Related projects
At the NCE, the Plurix Project has evolved into 2 other projects:
Mulplix
Mulplix is a Unix-like operating system designed to support medium-grain parallelism and to provide an efficient environment for running parallel applications within MULTIPLUS. MULTIPLUS is a distributed shared-memory multiprocessor designed to have a modular architecture, which is able to support up to 1024 processing elements and 32 GB of global memory address space.
Tropix
Developed by a group of volunteers, (like Linux), Tropix is a fully preemptive real-time Unix-like operating system for PCs.
At the user level, TROPIX bears a reasonable similarity to the UNIX operating system. Processes are created through fork-execs, I/O is always treated as a sequence of bytes and is performed through open-read-write-close primitives, signals can be sent to processes, there is a kernel process zero (swapper/pager), the init process is the common ancestor of all other user processes, etc.
Internally, the TROPIX kernel structure is quite different from UNIX. TROPIX has a fully preemptible kernel and many specialized system calls to manipulate and coordinate the execution of real-time processes. Real-time processes coexist with their time-sharing counterparts, but they can run at higher priorities and have many other privileges. Besides its swapper/pager, TROPIX kernel standard processes include a unique dispatcher process per processor. When running in a multiprocessing environment, this scheme greatly facilitates the implementation of different scheduling strategies to be followed by different processors. Fine-grain parallel processing within executing processes is also possible, since TROPIX implements threads at the supervisor level.
Notes
There is a different, German OS also called Plurix (http://www.plurix.de/) which is a new OS for PC clusters.
COBRA (now a state company) has recently launched its own Linux customized distribution called FreeDows.
References
Further reading
"Proceedings of the Second IEEE Workshop on Workstation Operating Systems", 1989.
External links
more on Mulplix
more on Tropix (in Portuguese)
Unix variants
Discontinued operating systems
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61658617
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DeepL%20Translator
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DeepL Translator
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DeepL Translator is a neural machine translation service launched in August 2017 and owned by DeepL SE, based in Cologne.
The translator was first developed within Linguee and was launched as DeepL offering translations between 7 European languages and was gradually expanded to offer 24 languages with 552 language pairs. Additionally, approximations of language equivalence are proposed among all of those languages, using a two-step process via an English pivot.
The translator is offered for free with limitations, which can be removed with a paid subscription. The company also licenses its translation application programming interface.
Service
Translation methodology
The service uses a proprietary algorithm with convolutional neural networks (CNNs) that have been trained with the Linguee database. According to the developers, the service uses a newer, improved architecture of neural networks, which results in a more natural sound of translations compared to competing services. The translation is said to be generated using a supercomputer that reaches 5.1 petaflops and is operated in Iceland with hydropower. In general, CNNs are slightly more suitable for long, coherent word sequences, but have so far not been used by the competition due to their weaknesses compared to recurrent neural networks. The weaknesses at DeepL are compensated for with additional tricks, some of which are publicly known.
Translator
The translator can be used for free, with a 5,000 characters limit per translation. Commercial software customers can use a paid application programming interface to embed DeepL in their software.
Microsoft Word and PowerPoint files in Office Open XML file formats (.docx and .pptx) and PDF files can also be translated. Footnotes, formatting and embedded images are retained.
Supported languages
As of March 2021, it supports the following languages:
Bulgarian
Chinese (Simplified)
Czech
Danish
Dutch
English (American and British)
Estonian
Finnish
French
German
Greek
Hungarian
Italian
Japanese
Latvian
Lithuanian
Polish
Portuguese (Brazilian and European)
Romanian
Russian
Slovak
Slovene
Spanish
Swedish
Pro subscription
The DeepL Pro paid subscription for professional translators, companies and developers, which has been available since March 2018, offers a programming interface and a software plug-in for computer-assisted translation tools, including SDL Trados Studio. In contrast to the free version, translated texts are not saved; the text length in the input field is not limited. The pricing model provides for a basic monthly fee that includes a set amount of text, with texts beyond this calculated according to the number of characters. Confidentiality features are also available to deliver translations of submitted text and delete the text as soon as the translation is complete.
History
The translator first developed within Linguee lead by Jaroslaw Kutylowski and later launched as DeepL Translator on 28 August 2017, offering translations between English, German, French, Spanish, Italian, Polish and Dutch. With the launch, DeepL claimed to have surpassed its competitors in self-conducted blind tests and BLEU scores, including Google Translate, Amazon Translate, Microsoft Translator and Facebook's translation feature.
With the release of DeepL in 2017, the Linguee's company name was changed to DeepL GmbH. In 2017, it was also financed by advertising on its sister site linguee.com. In January 2021, the company changed its form from Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung to Societas Europaea.
Support for Portuguese and Russian was added on 5 December 2018, and Chinese (Simplified) and Japanese on 19 March 2020. In March 2020, it also claimed to have surpassed aforementioned competitors as well as Baidu's and Youdao's translation features in translating Japanese and Chinese (Simplified). Translation software for Microsoft Windows and macOS was released in September 2019. 13 more European languages were added in March 2021.
Reception
Reception of DeepL Translator in 2017 has been generally positive, with TechCrunch appreciating it for the accuracy of its translations, stating that it was more accurate and nuanced than Google Translate, and Le Monde thanking its developers for translating French text into more 'French-sounding' expressions. A news article from the website of the Dutch television channel RTL Z stated that DeepL Translator "offers better translations […] when it comes to Dutch to English and vice versa". An Italian newspaper la Repubblica and a Latin American website "WWWhat's new?" showed praise as well. In 2020, Japanese website Gigazine found the Japanese translation to be accurate, even when the text was mixed with dialects.
Press noted it had far fewer languages available for translation than competing products. It also lacks a website translation feature and free app integrations. A 2018 paper by the University of Bologna evaluated the Italian to German translation capabilities and found the preliminary results to be in similar quality to Google Translate. In September 2021, Slator remarked that the language industry response was more measured than the press, while noting it is still highly regarded.
DeepL Translator won the 2020 Webby Award for Best Practices, and the 2020 Webby Award for Technical Achievement (Apps, Mobile, and Features), both in the category Apps, Mobile & Voice.
Statistics
DeepL.com was ranked 136th in the Alexa ranking of the most visited sites in the world as of October 2021.
See also
Comparison of machine translation applications
Google Translate
Microsoft Translator
Yandex.Translate
Apertium
SYSTRAN
References
Bibliography
External links
Machine translation software
Multilingual websites
Natural language processing software
Products introduced in 2017
Translation websites
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10956313
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werner%20Vogels
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Werner Vogels
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Werner Hans Peter Vogels (born 3 October 1958) is the chief technology officer and vice president of Amazon in charge of driving technology innovation within the company. Vogels has broad internal and external responsibilities.
Early life and education
Vogels studied computer science at The Hague University of Applied Sciences finishing in June 1989. Vogels received a Ph.D. in computer science from the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Netherlands, supervised by Henri Bal and Andy Tanenbaum.
Career
After his mandatory military service at the Royal Netherlands Navy, Vogels studied radiology, both diagnostics and therapy. He worked at the Antoni van Leeuwenhoekziekenhuis, part of the Netherlands Cancer Institute, from 1979 through 1985. In 1985 he returned to university to study computer science. After completing his studies, he pursued a career in computer science research.
From 1991 through 1994, Vogels was a senior researcher at INESC in Lisboa, Portugal. He worked with Paulo Verissimo and Luis Rodrigues on fault-tolerant distributed systems, evolving the reliable group communication system that was developed in the context of the Delta-4 project.
In 1994 he was invited to join the computer science department of Cornell University as a visiting scientist. From 1994 until 2004, Vogels was a research scientist at the Computer Science Department of Cornell University. He mainly conducted research in scalable reliable enterprise systems. He is the author of many conference and journal articles, mainly on distributed systems technologies for enterprise computing systems.
He co-founded a company with Kenneth Birman and Robbert van Renesse in 1997 called Reliable Network Solutions, Inc. The company possessed U.S. patents on computer network resource monitoring and multicast protocols. From 1999 through 2002, he held vice president and chief technology officer positions with the company.
He joined Amazon in September 2004 as the director of systems research. He was named chief technology officer in January 2005 and vice president in March of that year.
Vogels described the deep technical nature of Amazon's infrastructure work in a paper about Amazon's Dynamo, the storage engine for Amazon's shopping cart.
In 2008, it became evident that Vogels was one of the architects behind Amazon's approach to cloud computing, the Amazon Web Services (AWS). During that year Vogels was continuously on the road to promote cloud computing and AWS and its benefits to the industry.
Awards
2008: Information Week recognized Vogels for educational and promotional role in cloud computing with the 2008 CIO/CTO of the Year award.
2009: Media Momentum Personality of the Year Award.
2010:
ReadWriteWeb voted on the "Cloud's Most Influential Executive" and selected Vogels with a double-digit margin.
Vogels was named a TechTarget Top 10 Cloud Computing Leader in 2010, 2011, and 2012,
2012: Led the list of Wired's Top 10 Cloud Influencers and Thought Leaders.
2014:
Vogels received the inaugural Holland on the Hill Heineken Award for "Substantial contributions to the US-Dutch economic relationship, a commitment to innovation and support for entrepreneurs".
AdvisoryCloud ranked Vogels Top Chief Technology Officer.
References
External links
A podcast interview with Vogels on architecture and distributed systems, Software Engineering Radio, Episode 40, Dec 2006.
All Things Distributed, personal blog
1958 births
Living people
Amazon (company) people
American computer scientists
Businesspeople in online retailing
Chief technology officers
Dutch computer scientists
Dutch emigrants to the United States
Scientists from Amsterdam
Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam alumni
Cornell University
The Hague University of Applied Sciences alumni
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249854
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampex
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Ampex
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Ampex is an American electronics company founded in 1944 by Alexander M. Poniatoff as a spin-off of Dalmo-Victor. The name AMPEX is a portmanteau, created by its founder, which stands for Alexander M. Poniatoff Excellence. Today, Ampex operates as Ampex Data Systems Corporation, a subsidiary of Delta Information Systems, and consists of two business units. The Silicon Valley unit, known internally as Ampex Data Systems (ADS), manufactures digital data storage systems capable of functioning in harsh environments. The Colorado Springs, Colorado unit, referred to as Ampex Intelligent Systems (AIS), serves as a laboratory and hub for the company's line of industrial control systems, cyber security products and services and its artificial intelligence/machine learning technology.
Ampex's first great success was a line of reel-to-reel tape recorders developed from the German wartime Magnetophon system at the behest of Bing Crosby. Ampex quickly became a leader in audio tape technology, developing many of the analog recording formats for both music and movies that remained in use into the 1990s. Starting in the 1950s, the company began developing video tape recorders, and later introduced the helical scan concept that make home video players possible. They also introduced multi-track recording, slow-motion and instant playback television, and a host of other advances. Ampex's tape business was rendered obsolete during the 1990s, and the company turned to digital storage products.
Ampex moved into digital storage for DoD Flight Test Instrumentation (FTI) with the introduction of the first, true all digital flight test recorder. Ampex supports numerous major DoD programs with the US Air Force, US Army, US Marines, US Navy and other government entities (NASA, DHS and national labs). Ampex also works with all major DoD primes and integrators including Boeing, General Atomics, Lockheed, Northrop, Raytheon and many others.
Currently, Ampex is attempting to do more with the data stored on its network attached storage (NAS) devices. This includes adding encryption for secure data storage; algorithms focused on control system cyber security for infrastructure and aerospace platforms; and artificial intelligence/machine learning for automated entity identification and data analytics.
Origin
Russian-American inventor Alexander Matthew Poniatoff established the company in San Carlos, California, in 1944 as the Ampex Electric and Manufacturing Company. The company name came from his initials plus "ex" to avoid using the name AMP already in use (by Aircraft and Marine Products). During World War II, Ampex was a subcontractor to Dalmo-Victor, manufacturing high quality electric motors and generators for radars that used alnico 5 magnets from General Electric. Ampex was initially set up in an abandoned loft-space above the Dalmo-Victor plant; eventually they would have offices at 1313 Laurel Street, San Carlos, California (at the intersection of Howard Avenue and Laurel Street).
Near the end of the war, while serving in the U.S. Army Signal Corps, Major Jack Mullin was assigned to investigate German radio and electronics experiments. He discovered the Magnetophons with AC biasing on a trip to Radio Frankfurt. The device produced much better fidelity than shellac records. The technological processes in tape recording and equipment developed by German companies before and during the 1939-45 War had copyrights which were effectively voided after Germany's 1945 surrender and defeat. Mullin acquired two Magnetophon recorders and 50 reels of BASF Type L tape, and brought them to America, where he produced modified versions. He demonstrated them to the Institute of Radio Engineers in San Francisco on May 16, 1946.
Bing Crosby, a big star on radio at the time, was receptive to the idea of pre-recording his radio programs. He disliked the regimentation of live broadcasts, and much preferred the relaxed atmosphere of the recording studio. He had already asked the NBC network to let him pre-record his 1944–45 series on transcription discs, but the network refused; so Crosby had withdrawn from live radio for a year and returned (this time to the recently created ABC) for the 1946–47 season, only reluctantly.
In June 1947, Mullin, who was pitching the technology to the major Hollywood movie studios, got the chance to demonstrate his modified tape recorders to Crosby. When Crosby heard a demonstration of Mullin's tape recorders, he immediately saw the potential of the new technology and commissioned Mullin to prepare a test recording of his radio show. Ampex was finishing its prototype of the Model 200 tape recorder, and Mullin used the first two models as soon as they were built. After a successful test broadcast, ABC agreed to allow Crosby to pre-record his shows on tape. Crosby immediately appointed Mullin as his chief engineer and placed an order for $50,000 worth of the new recorders so that Ampex (then a small six-man concern) could develop a commercial production model from the prototypes.
Crosby Enterprises was Ampex's West Coast representative until 1957.
Early tape recorders
The company's first tape recorder, the Ampex Model 200, was first shipped in April 1948. The first two units, serial numbers 1 and 2, were used to record Bing Crosby's show. The American Broadcasting Company used these recorders along with 3M Scotch 111 gamma ferric oxide coated acetate tape for the first-ever U.S. delayed radio broadcast of Bing Crosby's Philco Radio Time. Ampex tape recorders revolutionized the radio and recording industries because of their superior audio quality and ease of operation over audio disk cutting lathes.
During the early 1950s, Ampex began marketing one- and two-track machines using tape. The line soon expanded into three- and four-track models using tape. In the early 1950s, Ampex moved to Redwood City, California. Ampex acquired Orradio Industries in 1959, which became the Ampex Magnetic Tape Division, headquartered in Opelika, Alabama. This made Ampex a manufacturer of both recorders and tape. By the end of that decade Ampex products were much in demand by top recording studios worldwide.
In 1952, movie producer Mike Todd asked Ampex to develop a high fidelity movie sound system using sound magnetically recorded on the film itself, as contrasted with the technology of the time, which used magnetic tracks on a separate celluloid base film (later commonly known as mag stock). The result of this development was the CinemaScope/Todd-AO motion picture sound system, which was first used in movies such as The Robe (1953) in 35mm and Oklahoma (1955) in 70mm (and also in 35mm). In 1960, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences awarded Ampex an Oscar for technical achievement as a result of this development.
Les Paul, a friend of Crosby and a regular guest on his shows, had already been experimenting with overdubbed recordings on disc. He received an early portable Ampex Model 200A from Crosby. Using this machine, Les Paul invented "Sound on Sound" recording technology. He placed an additional playback head, located before the conventional erase/record/playback heads. This allowed Paul to play along with a previously recorded track, both of which were mixed together on to a new track. This was a destructive process because the original recording was recorded over.
Professional 8-track recorders
Ampex built a handful of multitrack machines during the late 1950s that could record as many as eight tracks on tape. The project was overseen by Ross Snyder, Ampex manager of special products. To make the multitrack recorder work, Snyder invented the Sel-Sync process, which used some tracks on the head for playback and other tracks on the head for recording. This made the newly recorded material be in sync with the existing recorded tracks. The first of these machines cost $10,000 and was installed in Les Paul's home recording studio by David Sarser.
In 1967, Ampex responded to demand by stepping up production of their 8-track machines with the production model MM 1000. Like earlier 8-track machines of this era, it used 1 inch tape.
16 and 24-track recorders
In 1966, Ampex built their first 16-track recorder, the model AG-1000, at the request of Mirasound Studios in New York City. In 1967, Ampex introduced a 16-track version of the MM 1000 which was the world's first 16-track professional tape recorder put into mass-production. Both used a tape transport design adapted from the video recording division. The 16-track MM-1000 quickly became legendary for its tremendous flexibility, reliability and outstanding sound quality. This brought about the "golden age" of large format analog multitrack recorders which would last into the mid-1990s. MCI built the first 24-track recorder (using 2 inch tape) in 1968 which was installed at TTG Studios in Los Angeles. Later machines built by Ampex starting in 1969 would have as many as 24 tracks on 2 inch tape. In addition to this, the introduction of SMPTE time code allowed studios to run multiple machines in perfect synchronization, making the number of available tracks virtually unlimited.
By the 1970s, Ampex faced tough competition from the Swiss company Studer and Japanese manufacturers such as Otari and Sony (who also purchased the MCI brand in 1982). In 1979, Ampex introduced their most advanced 24-track recorder, the model ATR-124. The ATR-124 was ruggedly constructed and had audio specifications that nearly rivaled the first digital recording machines. However, sales of the ATR-124 were slow due to the machine's high price tag. Ampex sold only about 50 or 60 ATR-124 machines, and withdrew from the professional audio tape recorder market entirely in 1983.
The 1990s
By the 1990s, Ampex focused more on video recorders, instrumentation recorders, and data recorders. In 1991, Ampex sold their professional audio recorder line to Sprague Magnetics. The Ampex Recording Media Corporation spun off in 1995 as Quantegy Inc.; that company has ceased producing recording tape.
Video technology
Video Processing
While AMPEX are well recognised for their contribution to magnetic tape recording, they also had a huge impact on developments the whole video signal chain.
They did rebadge some specialist low-volume OEM products to complete the package, but their in-house teams developed industry leading products in the following categories...
Digital Optics
ADO - Ampex Digital Optics provided comprehensive frame manipulation in 2 and 3 dimensions. Adjusting the aspect, size, and rotation of the image was performed continuously in real-time. An optional digital ‘combiner’ was available to perform the foreground layering and priority switching - to reduce the burden on the vision mixer with multi-channel effects.
Video Switching & Effects
AVC - The AVC range of vision mixers ranged from small, single buss devices up to the high-end Century Series, with multiple Mix/Effect busses, infinite re-entry and powerful keying and control software.
Editing controllers
The product line evolved quickly from manual editing on the actual VTRs themselves to incorporate SMPTE timecode providing advanced timeline control.
The RA-4000 and EDM-1 were fully functional early products, but soon evolved to the extremely powerful ACE family to compete with CMX and other edit controller brands .
Quadruplex Two-Inch tape
Starting in the early 1950s, RCA, Bing Crosby and others tried to record analog video on very fast-moving magnetic tape. As early as 1952, Ampex developed prototype video tape recorders that used a spinning head and relatively slow-moving tape. In early 1956, a team produced the first videotape recorder. A young, 19-year-old engineer Ray Dolby was also part of the team. Ampex demonstrated the VR-1000, which was the first of Ampex's line of 2 inch Quadruplex videotape recorders on April 14, 1956, at the National Association of Radio and Television Broadcasters in Chicago. The first magnetically recorded time-delayed television network program using the new Ampex Quadruplex recording system was CBS's Douglas Edwards and the News on November 30, 1956.
The "Quad" head assembly rotates at 14,400 rpm (NTSC). The four head pieces (quad) are switched successively so that recorded stripes cross the video portion (most of the tape middle, audio is on one edge, control track is on the other) so that head to tape write speed is well in excess of the physical motion. They wrote the video vertically across the width of a tape that was wide and ran at per second. This allowed hour-long television programs to be recorded on one reel of tape. In 1956, one reel of tape cost $300; and Ampex advertised the cost of the recorder as $45,000. A version was released later, and this required a new, narrower headwheel. This vertical writing facilitated mechanical editing, once the control track was developed to display the pulse that indicates where a frame ends and the next one begins. Later, Ampex developed electronic editing.
The National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences awarded Ampex its first Emmy in 1957 for this development. Ampex received a total of 12 Emmys for its technical video achievements.
In 1959, Richard Nixon, then Vice President, and Nikita Khrushchev held discussions at the Moscow Trade Fair, which became known as the "Kitchen Debate" because they were mostly held in the kitchen of a suburban model house. These discussions were recorded on an Ampex color videotape recorder, and during the debate Nixon pointed this out as one of the many American technological advances.
In 1967, Ampex introduced the Ampex VR-3000 portable broadcast video recorder, which revolutionized the recording of broadcast quality television in the field without the need for long cables and large support vehicles. Broadcast quality images could now be shot anywhere, including from airplanes, helicopters and boats.
The Quadruplex format dominated the broadcast industry for a quarter of a century. The format was licensed to RCA for use in their "television tape recorders." Ampex's invention revolutionized the television production industry by eliminating the kinescope process of time-shifting television programs, which required the use of motion picture film. For archival purposes, the kinescope method continued to be used for some years; film was still preferred by archivists. The Ampex broadcast video tape recorder facilitated time-zone broadcast delay so that networks could air programming at the same hour in various time zones. Ampex had trademarked the name "video tape", so competitor RCA called the medium "TV tape" or "television tape". The terms eventually became genericized, and "videotape" is commonly used today.
While the quadruplex recording system per se is no longer in use, the principle evolved into the helical scanning technique used in virtually all video tape machines, such as those using the consumer formats of VHS, Sony Betamax and Video 2000. Sony Betacam was successful as a professional format, but operated with a different recording system and faster tape speed than Betamax.
One of the key engineers in the development of the Quadruplex video recorder for Ampex was Ray Dolby, who worked under Charlie Ginsburg and went on to form Dolby Laboratories, a pioneer in audio noise reduction systems. Dolby's contribution to the videotape system was limited to the mathematics behind the reactance tube FM modulator, as videotape then used FM modulation for the video portion. Another contributor designed the FM modulator itself. Dolby left Ampex to seek a PhD in physics in England, which is where Dolby Labs was later founded, before moving back to San Francisco. Dolby's brother Dale was also an engineer at Ampex.
VR-5000 and VR-8000
In 1961, Ampex introduced the first One-Inch helical scan video recorders, the Ampex 2 inch helical VTRs, which recorded video using helical scan recording technology on tape.
Ampex 2 inch helical VTR
Ampex 2 inch helical VTRs were manufactured from 1963 to 1970. Model VR-1500 for home. The VR-660 for Broadcast television systems, industrial companies, educational institutions, and a few for In-flight entertainment. The VR-1500 and VR-660 found service at educational institutions especially due to their relatively low cost vs. quadruplex VTRs. These machines were simple to operate, reliable, small in size and produced, for their time, very good video without the complexity of the larger and much more complex 2" Quad machines.
HS-100 & HS-200 "slo-mo" disc recorder
In March 1967, Ampex introduced the HS-100 video disc recorder. The system was developed by Ampex at the request of the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) for a variety of sports broadcast uses. It was first demonstrated on the air on March 18, 1967, when ABC's Wide World of Sports televised the "World Series of Skiing" from Vail, Colorado. The video was recorded on analog magnetic disc. The disc weighed and rotated at 60rps, 3600rpm (50rps in PAL). One NTSC unit could record 30 seconds of video, PAL units 36 seconds. The video could then be played back in slow motion, stop action to freeze frame.
A more deluxe version, the HS-200, was introduced in April 1968, and provided a large control console with variable speed playback. This made it ideal for instant replay for sports events and precise timing control in post production service. CBS-TV was the first to use the technique during live sportscasts, though it was quickly adopted by all American TV networks. The HS-200, which was an HS-100 connected to a control console when combined called the HS-200, had greater precise frame and timing control capability, lending itself to post-production applications like special effects and titles. The HS-200 had a frame accurate timing computer that enabled frame-accurate cuts and dissolve transitions by way of a two-input video switcher. Slow-motion sequences could likewise be programmed and could be "triggered" to begin via an external control pulse such as might come from an external VTR editor like the Ampex VR-2000 VTR with Editec. The HS-200 was the first system capable of single-frame video animation recording, using magnetic discs as opposed to videotape. The HS-200 also provided a readout with specific frame numbers showing from the 900 frames available (NTSC version.) Sequences could be triggered to start from any of these 900 frames with frame-accurate repeatability for creative fine tuning of sequence start and end points.
Type A
1 inch type A videotape (designated Type A by the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, SMPTE) was an open-reel helical scan videotape format developed by Ampex in 1965, one of the first standardized open-reel videotape formats in the width; most others of that size at that time were proprietary.
Type C
1 inch type C videotape (designated Type C by SMPTE) was a professional open-reel videotape format co-developed and introduced by Ampex and Sony in 1976. It became the replacement in the professional video and television broadcast industries for the then-incumbent Quadruplex.
D2
D2 is a digital video tape format created by Ampex and other manufacturers (through a standards group of SMPTE) and introduced at the 1988 NAB (National Association of Broadcasters) convention as a lower-cost alternative to the D-1 format. Like D-1, D-2 video is uncompressed; however, it saves bandwidth and other costs by sampling a fully encoded NTSC or PAL composite video signal, and storing it directly to magnetic tape, rather than sampling component video. This is known as digital composite.
DCT & DST
Digital Component Technology (DCT) and Data Storage Technology (DST) are VTR and data storage devices respectively, created by Ampex in 1992. Both were similar to the D1 and D2 VTR formats, using a width, with the DCT format using DCT (discrete cosine transform) video compression, also its namesake.
The DCT and DST formats yielded relatively high capacity and speed for data and video. Double-density DST data storage was introduced in 1996. The final generation of these products were quad density, introduced in 2000, resulting in a large cartridge holding 660GB of data.
Milestones
In 1948, the first tape-delayed U.S. radio program was broadcast by using an Ampex Model 200 tape recorder.
In May 1949 Model 300 introduced improvements in audio head, tape drive and tape path.
In 1950, Model 400 introduced lower cost professional quality audio recorder, soon to be replaced by the Model 400A, which was the logical precursor of the Model 350.
In 1950, Ampex introduced the first "dedicated" instrumentation recorder, Model 500, built for the U.S. Navy.
In April 1953 Model 350 introduced audio recorder to replace the Model 400/Model 400A. The Model 350 had more simplicity and durability. Ampex released the 35mm four-track CinemaScope stereo reproduction system.
In May 1954 Model 600 introduced mastering quality audio portable recorder. Models 3200-3300 high-speed duplicators also introduced.
In 1954, in a recording studio equipped with an Ampex reel-to-reel audio tape recording machine, an unknown truck driver named Elvis Presley recorded his historic first single, "That's All Right" at Sun Studios in Memphis. Also that year, Ampex introduced the first multi-track audio recorder derived from multi-track data recording technology.
In 1955, Ampex released the 70mm/35mm six-track/four-track Todd-AO system, and an improved 35mm four-track system.
On March 14, 1956, The Ampex VRX-1000 (later renamed the Mark IV) videotape recorder is introduced at the National Association of Radio and Television Broadcasters in Chicago. This is the first practical videotape recorder and is hailed as a major technological breakthrough. CBS goes on air with the first videotape delayed broadcast, Douglas Edwards and The News, on November 30, 1956, from Los Angeles, California, using the Ampex Mark IV.
In March 1957, Ampex won an Emmy award for the invention of the Video Tape Recorder (VTR).
In 1958, NASA selected Ampex data recorders and magnetic tape. It has been used for virtually all U.S. space missions since.
In 1959, the Nixon-Khrushchev Kitchen Debate was recorded on Ampex videotape. The fact that the debate was being videotaped was mentioned by Nixon as an example of American technological development.
In 1960, The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences presented Ampex with an Oscar for technical achievement.
January 1961 Helical scan recording was invented by Ampex. The technology behind the worldwide consumer video revolution; it is used in all home Video Tape Recorders today.
In 1963, Ampex technology was used to show replays of the live assassination of Lee Harvey Oswald.
In 1963, Ampex introduced EDITEC, electronic video editing, allowing broadcast television editors frame-by-frame recording control, simplifying tape editing and the ability to make animation effects possible. This was the basis for all subsequent editing systems.
On December 7, 1963 – Instant Replay is used for the first time during the live transmission of the Army Navy Game by its inventor, director, Tony Verna.
In April 1964, Ampex introduced the VR-2000 high band videotape recorder, the first ever to be capable of color fidelity required for high quality color broadcasting.
February 1965 introduced VR-303\VR-7000 closed-circuit video tape recorder.
May 1965 introduced AG-350 first all-transistorized audio recorder.
July 1965 introduced VR-660B VTR advanced version of VR-660; replaces VR-660/1500.
November 1965 introduced VR-7000 compact portable closed circuit video tape recorder.
During 1966–1967, Ampex FR-900 data drives were used to record the first images of the Earth from the Moon, as part of the Lunar Orbiter program. Two drives were refurbished to recover the images as part of the Lunar Orbiter Image Recovery Project (LOIRP).
In 1967, ABC used the Ampex HS-100 disk recorder for slow-motion playback of downhill skiing on the program World Series of Skiing in Vail, Colorado. This was the first use of slow-motion instant replay in sporting events.
In 1968, the introduction of the Ampex VR-3000 revolutionizes video recording: the first truly portable VTR. It is used at the '68 Summer Olympics in Mexico City to follow the world's cross-country runners for the first time in Broadcast history.
In 1969, Ampex introduced Videofile, still in use today at Scotland Yard for the electronic storage and retrieval of fingerprints.
In 1972, Ampex introduced the ACR-25, the first automated robotic library system for the recording and playback of television commercials. Each commercial was recorded on an individual cartridge. These cartridges were then loaded into a large rotating carousel. Using sophisticated mechanics and vacuum pneumatics, the "carts" were loaded into and extracted from the machine with an 8-second cycle time for spots under 61 seconds. This freed TV stations from loading individual machines with spots in real time, or preparing spot reels in advance of a broadcast. The TV newsroom also began to use the ACR-25 to run news stories because of its random access capability. The ACR-25 used AVR-1 signal, servo, and timebase systems, and a machine-programming control bay designed by Ampex engineer E. Stanley Busby. Both machines had a lockup time of 200 milliseconds, as distinct from the industry standard 5 second pre-roll. This was accomplished with optical-vacuum reel servos providing the vacuum capstan negligible inertial mass to control, and predictive digital servos that could re-frame vertically at horizontal rate, as well as timebase correction with a window exceeding 64 microseconds (compared to the VR-2000's window of less than 5 microseconds).
Also in 1970, Ampex started its own record label, Ampex Records. Its biggest hit was "We Gotta Get You A Woman" by Todd Rundgren (as "Runt"), reaching #20 on the charts in 1970.
In 1978, the Ampex Video Art (AVA) video graphics system is used by artist LeRoy Neiman on air during Super Bowl XII. AVA, the first video paint system, allows the graphic artist, using an electronic pen, to illustrate in a new medium, video. This innovation paved the way for today's high quality electronic graphics, such as those used in video games.
In 1983, Ampex introduced the DCRS digital cassette recorder, offering compact cassette storage with the equivalent of 16 digital or 8 DDR instrumentation reels on one cassette. Also, Partial Response Maximum Likelihood (PRML) data decoding technology has its first use in Ampex's DCRsi recorders. This technology is now commonly used in high performance computer disk drives and other high density magnetic data storage devices.
In 1982, Ampex introduced DST (high-performance computer mass storage products able to store half the Library of Congress in of floor space) and DCT, the first digital component post production system using image compression technology to produce high quality images.
In 1985, Ampex introduced the DIS 120i and DIS 160i dual port, data/instrumentation recorders. These made it possible for the first time to capture real time instrumentation data and then utilize the same recorder to process the data in a computer environment through its second port using SCSI-2 protocol.
In 2005, Ampex received its 12th Emmy award for its invention of slow-motion color recording and playback. Also honored with Lifetime Achievement Awards were the members of the engineering team that created the videotape recorder when they worked for Ampex: Charles Andersen, Ray Dolby, Shelby Henderson, Fred Pfost, and the late Charles Ginsburg and Alex Maxey.
Sticky-shed syndrome
Some master tapes and other recordings predominantly from the 1970s and 1980s have degraded due to the so-called sticky-shed syndrome. When sticky-shed syndrome occurs, the binding agent deteriorates, resulting in the magnetic coating coming off the base and either sticking to the backing of the tape layer wound on top of it (resulting in dropout), or being scraped off and deposited on the tape heads while lifting the head off the tape, degrading the treble.
The problem has been reported on a number of makes of tape (usually back-coated tapes), including Ampex tapes.
Ampex filed for a baking process ("A typical temperature used is and a typical time is 16 hours") to attempt to recover such tapes, allowing them to be played once more and the recordings transferred to new media. The problems have been reported on tapes of type 406/407, 456/457, 2020/373.
Branding
In 1959, Ampex acquired Orradio Industries and it became the Ampex Magnetic Tape Division.
In 1995, Ampex divested this division, then called the Ampex Recording Media Corporation. This became Quantegy, Inc., which later changed its name to the current Quantegy Recording Solutions.
In January 2005, having previously filed for bankruptcy protection, Quantegy closed its manufacturing facility in Opelika.
In October 2014, Ampex Data Systems Corporation was sold to Delta Information Systems, but retains the rights to the Ampex name.
In 2017, Ampex established a second business unit, Ampex Intelligent Systems (AIS), in Colorado Springs Colorado, and branded its Silicon Valley business unit Ampex Data Systems (ADS).
Record labels
Ampex Records started in 1970. Its biggest hit was "We Gotta Get You A Woman" by Todd Rundgren (as "Runt"), reaching #20 on the Billboard Hot 100 charts in 1970. Ampex also originated three subsidiary labels: Bearsville, Big Tree, and Lizard. Ampex Records ceased around 1973 and Bearsville and Big Tree switched distribution to Warner Bros. Records and Bell Records, respectively with Lizard becoming an independent entity. Later on, Big Tree was picked up by Atlantic Records.
Legal history
In 2005, iNEXTV, a wholly owned subsidiary of respondent Ampex Corporation, brought a defamation lawsuit against a poster on an Internet message board who posted messages critical of them (Ampex Corp. v. Cargle (2005), Cal.App.4th ). The poster, a former employee, responded with an anti-SLAPP suit and eventually recovered his attorney fees. The case was unique in that it involved the legality of speech in an electronic public forum.
Current situation
After being sold to Delta Information Systems in 2014, two former subsidiaries of Ampex Corporation continue business as part of the Ampex legacy. Ampex Data Systems Corporation (ADSC) headquartered in Silicon Valley, and Ampex Japan Ltd. These are the only two Ampex businesses that still exist as more than "in name only" entities. ADSC has two business units. The Silicon Valley unit, Ampex Data Systems (ADS), continues the Ampex tradition in the storage industry by manufacturing ruggedized, high-capacity, high-performance digital data storage systems. The Colorado Springs, Colorado unit, Ampex Intelligent Systems (AIS), is the center for company's line of industrial control system cyber security products and services and its artificial intelligence/machine learning technology which is available in all of the products.
The Ampex video system is now obsolete, but many thousands of quadruplex videotape recordings remain. Machines that survive are used to transfer archival recordings to modern digital video formats.
Ampex Corporation supported the Ampex Museum of Magnetic Recording, started by Peter Hammar in 1982.
The contents of that museum were donated to Stanford in 2001. A project is now underway to curate Ampex artifacts in physical and digital form. This project will find a permanent home in Redwood City for the Ampex Museum and digital artifacts will be curated at AmpexMuseum.org This project is being funded by contributions from former Ampex employees.
Photo gallery
See also
Ampex Golden Reel Award
Erhard Kietz
References
Further reading
Ampex Corporation Records, ca. 1944–1999 (c.577 linear ft.) are housed in the Department of Special Collections and University Archives at Stanford University Libraries
FindLaw Ampex Corp v. Cargle (2005)
External links
Video storage
Companies based in Hayward, California
Electronics companies of the United States
Defunct record labels of the United States
Electronics companies established in 1944
American companies established in 1944
1944 establishments in California
Record labels established in 1970
Record labels disestablished in 1973
Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2008
Video equipment manufacturers
2014 mergers and acquisitions
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport%20Driver%20Interface
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Transport Driver Interface
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The Transport Driver Interface or TDI is the protocol understood by the upper edge of the Transport layer of the Microsoft Windows kernel network stack.
Transport Providers are implementations of network protocols such as TCP/IP, NetBIOS, and AppleTalk.
When user-mode binaries are created by compiling and linking, an entity called a TDI client is linked into the binary. TDI clients are provided with the compiler. The user-mode binary uses the user-mode API of whatever network protocol is being used, which in turn causes the TDI client to emit TDI commands into the Transport Provider.
Typical TDI commands are TDI_SEND, TDI_CONNECT, TDI_RECEIVE.
The purpose of the Transport Driver Interface is to provide an abstraction layer, permitting simplification of the TDI clients.
See also
Windows Vista networking technologies
References
Windows XP Driver Development Kit documentation.
Further reading
Network protocols
Windows communication and services
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84684
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polydamas%20%28mythology%29
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Polydamas (mythology)
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In Greek mythology, Polydamas (; Ancient Greek: Πολυδάμας, gen. Πολυδάμαντος, Polydámas, Polydámantos) was a lieutenant and friend of Hector during the Trojan War.
Family
Polydamas was the son of Panthous, one of the Trojan elders and Phrontis. He was the father of Leocritus who was killed by Odysseus.
Mythology
During the battles described in the Iliad, he often proposes a cautious battle strategy which is sometimes accepted but more often refused by Hector, who prefers direct attack. In Book XII, he prefers retreat in the face of the omen of an eagle. Hector defies this and presses forth anyway. However, Hector does take his advice to regroup in Book XIII, after the Argives have done tremendous damage to the Trojans. In Book XVIII of the Iliad, Polydamas advises the Trojans to retire from the battlefield after the death of Patroclus. Hector, however, overrules Polydamas, leaving the army in the field when Achilles ends his feud with Agamemnon and rejoins the Achaean forces. As a result, Achilles kills a great number of Trojan warriors, culminating in a duel with Hector in which the latter is killed.
Polydamas appears periodically throughout the battles, and brags about killing Prothoënor. He often complements Hector in battle. In Book XV, after killing Mecistus and Otus, he is attacked by Meges, but Apollo saves him, causing him to dodge at the last moment. Polydamas killed three Greeks in the war.
Homer gives no foreshadowing of Polydamas's final fate, nor is he mentioned in most of the later poems dealing with the aftermath of the war, leaving the reader to infer that he perished in the general slaughter after the fall of Troy to the Greek forces.
He is mentioned in Quintus Smyrnaeus' Posthomerica, but again, no death is mentioned. In Quintus Smyrneaus' story, Polydamas actually suggests that instead of attacking or fleeing, the Trojans should just give Helen back to the Greeks. This suggestion is well received by many soldiers, but nobody admits it. Paris calls him a deserter and a coward, but Polydamas retorts that Paris' ambitions instigated the problem. Later on, he tries again to persuade the Trojans to stay inside the city in order to raise troop morale, but it is Aeneas that opposes his opinion this time, on the grounds that the Greeks will not be disheartened by a long stay inside the walls.
Notes
References
Gaius Julius Hyginus, Fabulae from The Myths of Hyginus translated and edited by Mary Grant. University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies. Online version at the Topos Text Project.
Pausanias, Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. . Online version at the Perseus Digital Library
Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio. 3 vols. Leipzig, Teubner. 1903. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
External links
Trojans
Characters in the Iliad
Characters in Greek mythology
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert%20Cyril%20Thacker
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Herbert Cyril Thacker
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Major General Herbert Cyril Thacker (16 September 1870 – 2 June 1953) was a Canadian soldier and Chief of the General Staff, the head of the Canadian Army from 1927 until 1929.
Military career
Thacker was born the son of Major-General J. Thacker of the Bombay Staff Corps in 1870 in Poona, India. He attended Upper Canada College in Toronto and, in 1887, he graduated from the Royal Military College of Canada. Commissioned in the Royal Canadian Artillery in 1891, he conducted survey work in western Canada for the Canadian Pacific Railway. He was promoted to Lieutenant in 1893.
His service in the Second Boer War of 1900 in the Canadian Field Artillery led to the award of the Queen's medal with three clasps.
From 1904 to 1905 he had the unique Canadian assignment as a military attaché with the Japanese Army during the Russo-Japanese War but he was joined by other colonials. Along with other Western military attachés, Thacker had two complementary missions – to assist the Japanese and to observe the Japanese forces in the field during the Russo-Japanese War.
In 1907, his appointment as Director of Artillery at Ottawa accompanied a promotion as Commanding Officer of the Royal Canadian Garrison Artillery (RCGA), and he became one of the 65 to live in the Commanding Officers’ Residence at Royal Artillery Park in Halifax. In 1911 he became Inspector of Coast Defense Artillery.
At the outbreak of World War I, Thacker joined the Canadian Expeditionary Forces (CEF), sailing for Europe with the 1st Canadian Division. Thacker went on to command the 2nd Canadian Divisional Artillery from 1914 to 1915. After General Sir Henry E. Burstall was promoted, Thacker commanded the 1st Canadian Divisional Artillery from September 1915 through the end of World War and the CEF return to Canada.
After the war, Thacker was appointed the District Officer Commanding Military District 6, returning with his family to live at Royal Artillery Park. His career was capped with service as Chief of the General Staff from 1927 to 1929.
Thacker retired from military service in 1929. He died in Victoria, British Columbia, in June 1953.
Honors
For his service in the Boer War, Thacker was awarded the Queen's Medal with three clasps (1900).
He was awarded the Order of the Sacred Treasure, Third Class by the Japanese government for his services during the Russo-Japanese War. He also received the Japanese War medal for service during that campaign.
For service in World War I, he was made a Companion of the Order of Saint Michael and Saint George (CMG) in 1916. Thacker was appointed to the Distinguished Service Order (DSO) in 1918. He was created a Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB) in 1919.
Notes
See also
Library and Archives Canada: CEF Attestation paper
References
Hitsman, J. Mackay and Desmond Morton. "Canada's First Military Attache: Capt. H. C. Thacker in the Russo-Japanese War," Military Affairs, Vol. 34, No. 3 (Oct., 1970), pp. 82–84; "Report No. 14,", Directorate of History, Canadian Forces Headquarters, 8 September 1967.
Armstrong, Captain J.G., "A Gunner in Manchuria: Canada Observes the Russo-Japanese War," Canadian Defence Quarterly, Vol. 12, No.4 (Spring 1983), 37–44.
External links
Herbert Cyril Thacker at The Canadian Encyclopedia
1870 births
1953 deaths
Canadian generals
Canadian military personnel of World War I
Canadian Companions of the Order of the Bath
Canadian Companions of the Order of St Michael and St George
Canadian Companions of the Distinguished Service Order
Recipients of the Order of the Sacred Treasure
People of the Russo-Japanese War
Royal Military College of Canada alumni
Canadian military personnel of the Second Boer War
Military personnel of British India
Royal Regiment of Canadian Artillery officers
Canadian Militia officers
Commanders of the Canadian Army
Military attachés
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60837212
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RDock
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RDock
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rDock (previously RiboDock) is an open-source molecular docking software that be used for docking small molecules against proteins and nucleic acids. It is primarily designed for high-throughput virtual screening and prediction of binding mode.
History
The development of rDock started in 1998 in RiboTargets (later Vernalis (R&D) Ltd). The software was originally called RiboDock. The development went on until 2006 when the software was licensed to University of York for academic distribution and also maintenance.
Six years later, in 2012, Vernalis and University of York decided to release rDock as open-source software to allow its further development by the wider community. The version that was released as open source is developed and supported by University of Barcelona on SourceForge. The development on SourceForge stalled after June 2014. A fork named RxDock is continuing the development of rDock since April 2019 on GitLab.
See also
Docking (molecular)
Virtual screening
List of protein-ligand docking software
References
External links
rDock - The Molecular Docking Platform (University of York)
rDock - A Fast, Versatile and Open Source Program for Docking Ligands to Proteins and Nucleic Acids (SourceForge)
RxDock (fork of rDock)
Barril Lab Software (University of Barcelona)
Molecular modelling software
Molecular modelling
Free and open-source software
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54371541
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulrich%20Kulisch
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Ulrich Kulisch
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Ulrich W. Kulisch (born 1933 in Breslau) is a German mathematician specializing in numerical analysis, including the computer implementation of interval arithmetic.
Experience
After graduation from high school in Freising, Kulisch studied mathematics at the University of Munich and the Technical University of Munich where in 1961 he completed his dissertation (Behandlung von Differentialgleichungen im Komplexen auf dem elektronischen Analogrechner) under Josef Heinhold. After his postdoctoral qualification in 1963, he was acting Professor for Numerical Mathematics of the University of Munich from 1964 to 1966, and from 1966 Professor of Mathematics and Director of the Institute of Applied Mathematics at the University of Karlsruhe.
During his time in academia, Kulisch spent several sabbaticals abroad. He spent time in 1969/1970 at the Mathematics Research Center of the University of Wisconsin–Madison under Ramon Edgar Moore; in 1972/1973 and 1978/1979 at IBM's Thomas J. Watson Research Center in Yorktown Heights (where he worked alongside Willard L. Miranker (1932–2011)); and in 1998 and 1999/2000 at the Electrotechnical Laboratory at the University of Tsukuba.
Kulisch was one of the pioneers of interval arithmetic in Germany in the 1960s and helped to found the discipline, along with and . His implementations of interval arithmetic in computers started with Algol in the 1960s. Kulisch developed software with automated results verification including Nixdorf Computer (Pascal-XSC and others), IBM (projects ACRITH and ACRITH-XSC) and Siemens (program package ARITHMOS). In Karlsruhe, he developed C-XSC and associated program libraries. In 1993/1994 he was also involved in a hardware implementation on the XPA 3233 vector arithmetic coprocessor.
He was a founding member of the Computer Science Association in 1968, was chairman of the Computer Mathematics and Scientific Computing Committee of the Gesellschaft für Angewandte Mathematik und Mechanik (GAMM) and of the Technical Committees Enhanced Computer Arithmetic of the International Association for Mathematics and Computers in Simulation (IMACS) 1979 German member of the Working Group 2.5 (Numerical Software) of the International Federation for Information Processing (IFIP), of which he has been a member since 1980. He is on IEEE Standard Committee P1788 for interval arithmetic.
From 1975 to 1998 he was editor of the Bibliographisches Institut's Jahrbuchs Überblicke Mathematik.
Bibliography
"Grundlagen des Numerischen Rechnens – Mathematische Begründung der Rechnerarithmetik", Reihe Informatik 19, BI 1976
"Grundzüge der Intervallrechnung", Jahrbuch Überblicke Mathematik, volume 2, BI, Mannheim 1969
with Willard L. Miranker (editor): A New Approach to Scientific Computation, Academic Press, New York, 1983.
with Willard L. Miranker: "The arithmetic of the digital computer: a new approach", SIAM Rev. 28 (1986) 1–40.
with H. J. Stetter (editor), "Scientific Computation with Automatic Result Verification", Computing Supplementum, volume 6, Springer, Wien, 1988.
Editor: Wissenschaftliches Rechnen mit Ergebnisverifikation, Vieweg 1989
with Willard L. Miranker: Computer Arithmetic in Theory and Practice, Academic Press 1981
with R. Klatte, M. Neaga, D. Ratz, Ch. Ullrich: Pascal XSC- Sprachbeschreibung mit Beispielen, Springer 1991 (English edition, Springer 1992)
with R. Hammer, M. Hocks, D. Ratz: C++ Toolbox for Verified Computing, Springer 1995
Computer, Arithmetik und Numerik – ein Memorandum, Überblicke Mathematik, Vieweg 1998
Advanced Arithmetic for the Digital Computer – Design of Arithmetic Units, Springer-Verlag 2002
Computer Arithmetic and Validity – Theory, Implementation, and Applications, de Gruyter 2008, 2nd edition, 2013
References
External links
Homepage (in German)
Biography (in German)
1933 births
20th-century German mathematicians
Living people
21st-century German mathematicians
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63859150
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matzov
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Matzov
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Matzov (Hebrew: מצו״ב), Hebrew abbreviation for Center of Encryption and Information Security (Hebrew: מרכז צופן וביטחון Merkaz Tzophen UVitahon), is an information security unit under the C4I directorate of the Israel Defence Force.
The unit is exclusively responsible for all aspects of Information Security and Encryption in Israel, providing encryption solutions to security forces, including the IDF, Shin Beit, and Mossad, as well as state-owned enterprises, such as Bezeq, Mekorot, and the Israel Electric Corporation.
Despite its relatively small size, Matzov alumni have gone on to found many successful tech companies, among them Taboola, Trusteer, and SlickLogin.
Activities
Due to its secretive nature, little is publicly known about Matzov's activities. However, several of its operations were made public. Notably, the unit provided the encryption solution for the Iron Dome air defence system.
Recruitment
Matzov recruits soldiers from a variety of elite military programs, including Talpiot, Gamma, and Psagot. In addition, high school students demonstrating extraordinary programming or mathematical abilities are actively sought after and recruited by the unit.
References
Israel Defense Forces
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7856636
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsort
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Tsort
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The tsort program is a command line utility on Unix and Unix-like platforms, that performs a topological sort on its input. , it is part of the POSIX.1 standard.
History
According to its info page, this command was initially written for providing an ordering of object files that allowed the linker to process them sequentially (each one exactly once, and in order). The FreeBSD manual page dates its appearance to Version 7 Unix.
Note that the following description is describing the behaviour of the FreeBSD implementation of tsort and mentions GNU features where they may exist. Other implementations or versions may differ.
Syntax
tsort [-dlq] [FILE]
FreeBSD options can be:
-d turn on debugging
-l search for and display the longest cycle.
-q Do not display informational messages about cycles.
GNU provides the following options only:
--help display help message and exit
--version display version information and exit
There are no options prescribed by POSIX.
Behavior
tsort reads its input (from the given FILE, or standard input if no input file is given or for a FILE of '-') as pairs of strings, separated by blanks, indicating a partial ordering. The output is a total ordering that corresponds to the given partial ordering.
In other words: for a directed acyclic graph (used as a dependency graph), tsort produces a listing of the
vertices so that for all edges 'a->b', 'a' comes before 'b' in the listing.
Examples
tsort lists the vertices of a directed acyclic graph in such an order that all ordering/direction relations are respected:
Call graph
tsort can help rearranging functions in a source file so that as many as possible are defined before they are used (Interpret the following as: calls , and ; calls , and so on. The result is that should be defined first, second, etc.):
Library
The traditional ld (Unix linker) requires that its library inputs be sorted in topological order, since it processes files in a single pass. This applies both to static libraries () and dynamic libraries (), and in the case of static libraries preferably for the individual object files contained within.
BSD UNIX uses tsort as a common part of the typical ar & ranlib command invocations (from /usr/share/mk/bsd.lib.mk):
lib${LIB}.a: ${OBJS} ${STATICOBJS}
@${ECHO} building static ${LIB} library
@${AR} cq ${.TARGET} `lorder ${OBJS} ${STATICOBJS} | tsort -q` ${ARADD}
${RANLIB} ${.TARGET}
Here ("library order") is used to generate the inter-file dependency list by inspecting the symbol table.
Usage notes
Notice the interchangeability of white space separators so the following inputs are equivalent:
Pairs of identical items indicate presence of a vertex, but not ordering (so the following represents one vertex without edges):
a a
Strictly speaking there is no topological ordering of a graph that contains one or more cycles. However tsort prints a warning and GNU tsort prints the detected cycles to standard error (lines beginning with 'tsort:'):
$ tsort <<EOF
> a b
> b c
> c a
> EOF
UX: tsort: INFORM: cycle in data
tsort: a
tsort: b
tsort: c
a
b
c
See also
Sort (Unix)
Make (software)
Topological sorting
List of Unix commands
Call graph
References
Further reading
External links
manual page of tsort on
FreeBSD,
OpenBSD,
NetBSD,
AIX,
Solaris,
HP-UX
dep-trace Orders basic dependencies and unfolds nested ones. (basic: without 2D graphical presumption)
Unix SUS2008 utilities
Inferno (operating system) commands
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231088
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multichannel%20Multipoint%20Distribution%20Service
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Multichannel Multipoint Distribution Service
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Multichannel Multipoint Distribution Service (MMDS), formerly known as Broadband Radio Service (BRS) and also known as Wireless Cable, is a wireless telecommunications technology, used for general-purpose broadband networking or, more commonly, as an alternative method of cable television programming reception.
MMDS is used in Australia, Barbados, Belarus, Bolivia, Brazil, Cambodia, Canada, Czech Republic, Dominican Republic, Iceland, India, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Lebanon, Mexico, Nepal, Nigeria, Pakistan, Panama, Portugal (including Madeira), Russia, Slovakia, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Thailand, Ukraine, United States, Uruguay and Vietnam. It is most commonly used in sparsely populated rural areas, where laying cables is not economically viable, although some companies have also offered MMDS services in urban areas, most notably in Ireland, until they were phased out in 2016.
Technology
The BRS band uses microwave frequencies from 2.3 GHz to 2.5 GHz. Reception of BRS-delivered television and data signals is done with a rooftop microwave antenna. The antenna is attached to a down-converter or transceiver to receive and transmit the microwave signal and convert them to frequencies compatible with standard TV tuners (much like on satellite dishes where the signals are converted down to frequencies more compatible with standard TV coaxial cabling), some antennas use an integrated down-converter or transceiver. Digital TV channels can then be decoded with a standard cable set-top box or directly for TVs with integrated digital tuners. Internet data can be received with a standard DOCSIS Cable Modem connected to the same antenna and transceiver.
The MMDS band is separated into 33 6 MHz "channels" (31 in USA) which may be licensed to cable companies offering service in different areas of a country. The concept was to allow entities to own several channels and multiplex several television, radio, and later Internet data onto each channel using digital technology. Just like with Digital Cable channels, each channel is capable of 30.34 Mbit/s with 64QAM modulation, and 42.88 Mbit/s with 256QAM modulation. Due to forward error correction and other overhead, actual throughput is around 27 Mbit/s for 64QAM and 38 Mbit/s for 256QAM.
The newer BRS Band Plan makes changes to channel size and licensing in order to accommodate new WIMAX TDD fixed and mobile equipment, and reallocated frequencies from 2150–2162 MHz to the AWS band. These changes may not be compatible with the frequencies and channel sizes required for operating traditional MMDS or DOCSIS based equipment.
MMDS and DOCSIS+
Local Multipoint Distribution Service (LMDS) and BRS have adapted the DOCSIS (Data Over Cable Service Interface Specification) from the cable modem world. The version of DOCSIS modified for wireless broadband is known as DOCSIS+.
Data-transport security is accomplished under BRS by encrypting traffic flows between the broadband wireless modem and the WMTS (Wireless Modem Termination System) located in the base station of the provider's network using Triple DES.
DOCSIS+ reduces theft-of-service vulnerabilities under BRS by requiring that the WMTS enforce encryption, and by employing an authenticated client/server key-management protocol in which the WMTS controls distribution of keying material to broadband wireless modems.
LMDS and BRS wireless modems utilize the DOCSIS+ key-management protocol to obtain authorization and traffic encryption material from a WMTS, and to support periodic reauthorization and key refresh. The key-management protocol uses X.509 digital certificates, RSA public key encryption, and Triple DES encryption to secure key exchanges between the wireless modem and the WMTS.
MMDS provided significantly greater range than LMDS.
MMDS may be obsoleted by the newer 802.16 WiMAX standard approved since 2004.
MMDS was sometimes expanded to Multipoint Microwave Distribution System or Multi-channel Multi-point Distribution System. All three phrases refer to the same technology.
Current status
In the United States, WATCH Communications (based in Lima, Ohio), Eagle Vision (based in Kirksville, MO), and several other companies offer MMDS-based wireless cable television, Internet access, and IP-based telephone services.
In certain areas, BRS is being deployed for use as wireless high-speed Internet access, mostly in rural areas where other types of high-speed internet are either unavailable (such as cable or DSL) or prohibitively expensive (such as satellite internet). CommSPEED is a major vendor in the US market for BRS-based internet.
AWI Networks (formerly Sky-View Technologies) operates a number of MMDS sites delivering high-speed Internet, VoIP telephone, and Digital TV services in the Southwestern U.S. In 2010, AWI began upgrading its infrastructure to DOCSIS 3.0 hardware, along with new microwave transmission equipment, allowing higher modulation rates like 256QAM. This has enabled download speeds in excess of 100 Mbit/s, over distances up to 35 miles from the transmission site.
In the early days of MMDS, it was known as "Wireless Cable" and was used in a variety of investment scams that still surface today. Frequent solicitations of Wireless Cable fraud schemes were often heard on talk radio shows like The Sonny Bloch Show in the mid-1990s.
Several US telephone companies attempted television services via this system in the mid-1990sthe Tele-TV venture of Bell Atlantic, NYNEX and Pacific Bell; and the rival Americast consortium of Ameritech, BellSouth, SBC, SNET and GTE. The Tele-TV operation was only launched from 1999 to 2001 by Pacific Bell (the merged Bell Atlantic/NYNEX never launched a service), while Americast also petered out by that time, albeit mainly in GTE and BellSouth areas; the systems operated by Ameritech utilized standard wired cable.
In the Canadian provinces of Manitoba and British Columbia, Craig Wireless operates a wireless cable and internet service (MMDS) for rural and remote customers. In Saskatchewan, Sasktel operated an MMDS system under the name Wireless Broadband Internet (WBBI) for rural internet access until it was shut down in 2014 and replaced with an LTE-TDD system due to reallocation of the radio spectrum by Industry Canada.
In Mexico, the 2.5 GHz band spectrum was reclaimed by the government in order to allow newer and better wireless data services. Hence, MAS TV (formerly known as MVS Multivision) had to relinquish the concessions for TV broadcast and shut down its MMDS pay TV services in 2014 after 25 years of service.
In Ireland, since 1990, UPC Ireland (previously Chorus and NTL Ireland) offered MMDS TV services almost nationwide. The frequency band initially allocated was 2500–2690 MHz (the "2.6 GHz band") consisting of 22–23 8 MHz analogue channels; digital TV was restricted to 2524–2668 MHz, consisting of 18 8 MHz digital channels. Two digital TV standards were used: DVB-T/MPEG-2 in the old Chorus franchise area and DVB-C/MPEG-2 in the old NTL franchise area. The existing licences were to expire 18 April 2014 but Comreg, the Irish communications regulator, extended the licences for a further 2 years to 18 April 2016 at which date they expired together with all associated spectrum rights of use. The 2.6 GHz band spectrum will be auctioned off so that when the existing MMDS licences expire new rights of use can issue on a service and technology neutral basis (by means of new licences). As a result, holders of the new rights of use may choose to provide any service capable of being delivered using 2.6 GHz spectrum. For instance, they could distribute television programming content, subject to complying with the relevant technical conditions and with any necessary broadcasting content authorisations, or they could adopt some other use.
In Iceland, since November 2006, Vodafone Iceland runs Digital Ísland (Digital Iceland)the broadcasting system for 365 (media corporation), (previously operated by 365 Broadcast Media). Digital Ísland offers digital MMDS television services using DVB-T technology alongside a few analogue channels. The MMDS frequency range extends from 2500–2684 MHz for a total of 23 8 MHz channels, of which 21 are considered usable for broadcasting in Iceland. Analogue MMDS broadcasting began in 1993, moving to digital in 2004.
In Brazil, the shutdown of the MMDS technology started in 2012 to release the frequency for the 2500–2600 MHz LTE-UTRAN band, which would make the service infeasible. The national shutdown was planned to be finished at the end of 2012; as of 2013, the service had already been shut down in most cities.
In the Dominican Republic, Wind Telecom started operations using MMDS technology in 2008; at that time and ever since it became a pioneer taking advantage of such implementations. The company uses the DVB standard for its digital television transmissions.
See also
Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
References
External links
FCC BRS EBS Homepage
What is MMDS?
Vodafone Digital Ísland MMDS
Íslenska Fjarskiptahandbókin Digital Ísland info
Network access
Microwave bands
Educational television
ca:Banda Ku
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13028025
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flat%20network
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Flat network
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A flat network is a computer network design approach that aims to reduce cost, maintenance and administration. Flat networks are designed to reduce the number of routers and switches on a computer network by connecting the devices to a single switch instead of separate switches. Unlike a hierarchical network design, the network is not physically separated using different switches.
The topology of a flat network is not segmented or separated into different broadcast areas by using routers. Some such networks may use network hubs or a mixture of hubs and switches, rather than switches and routers, to connect devices to each other. Generally, all devices on the network are a part of the same broadcast area.
Uses
Flat networks are typically used in homes or small businesses where network requirements are low. Home networks usually do not require intensive security, or separation, because the network is often used to provide multiple computers access to the Internet. In such cases, a complex network with many switches is not required. Flat networks are also generally easier to administer and maintain because less complex switches or routers are being used. Purchasing switches can be costly, so flat networks can be implemented to help reduce the amount of switches that need to be purchased.
Drawbacks
Flat networks provide some drawbacks, including:
Poor security – Because traffic travels through one switch, it is not possible to segment the networks into sections and prevent users from accessing certain parts of the network. It is easier for hackers to intercept data on the network.
No redundancy – Since there is usually one switch, or a few devices, it is possible for the switch to fail. Since there is no alternative path, the network will become inaccessible and computers may lose connectivity.
Scalability and speed – Connecting all the devices to one central switch, either directly or through hubs, increases the potential for collisions (due to hubs), reduced speed at which the data can be transmitted and additional time for the central switch to process the data. It also scales badly and increases the chance of the network failing if excessive hubs are used and there are not enough switches to control the flow of the data through the network.
References
Computer networks
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34828150
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gatekeeper%20%28macOS%29
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Gatekeeper (macOS)
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Gatekeeper is a security feature of the macOS operating system by Apple. It enforces code signing and verifies downloaded applications before allowing them to run, thereby reducing the likelihood of inadvertently executing malware. Gatekeeper builds upon File Quarantine, which was introduced in Mac OS X Leopard and expanded in Mac OS X Snow Leopard. The feature originated in version 10.7.3 of Mac OS X Lion as the command-line utility . A graphical user interface was originally added in OS X Mountain Lion (10.8) but was backported to Lion with the 10.7.5 update.
Functions
Configuration
In the security & privacy panel of System Preferences, the user has three options, allowing apps downloaded from:
The command-line utility provides granular controls, such as custom rules and individual or blanket permissions, as well as an option to turn Gatekeeper off.
Quarantine
Upon download of an application, a particular extended file attribute ("quarantine flag") can be added to the downloaded file. This attribute is added by the application that downloads the file, such as a web browser or email client, but is not usually added by common BitTorrent client software, such as Transmission, and application developers will need to implement this feature into their applications and is not implemented by the system. The system can also force this behavior upon individual applications using a signature-based system named Xprotect.
Execution
When the user attempts to open an application with such an attribute, the system will postpone the execution and verify whether it:
is blacklisted,
is code-signed by Apple or a certified developer, or
has code-signed contents that still match the signature.
Since Snow Leopard, the system keeps two blacklists to identify known malware or insecure software. The blacklists are updated periodically. If the application is blacklisted, then File Quarantine will refuse to open it and recommend to the user to move it to trash.
Gatekeeper will refuse to open the application if the code-signing requirements are not met. Apple can revoke the developer's certificate with which the application was signed and prevent further distribution.
Once an application has passed File Quarantine or Gatekeeper, it will be allowed to run normally and will not be verified again.
Override
To override Gatekeeper, the user (acting as an administrator) either has to switch to a more lenient policy from the security & privacy panel of System Preferences or authorize a manual override for a particular application, either by opening the application from the context menu or by adding it with .
Path randomization
Developers can sign disk images that can be verified as a unit by the system. In macOS Sierra, this allows developers to guarantee the integrity of all bundled files and prevent attackers from infecting and subsequently redistributing them. In addition, "path randomization" executes application bundles from a random, hidden path and prevents them from accessing external files relative to their location. This feature is turned off if the application bundle originated from a signed installer package or disk image or if the user manually moved the application without any other files to another directory.
Implications
The effectiveness and rationale of Gatekeeper in combating malware have been acknowledged, but been met with reservations. Security researcher Chris Miller noted that Gatekeeper will verify the developer certificate and consult the known-malware list only when the application is first opened. Malware that already passed Gatekeeper will not be stopped. In addition, Gatekeeper will only verify applications that have the quarantine flag. As this flag is added by other applications and not by the system, any neglect or failure to do so does not trigger Gatekeeper. According to security blogger Thomas Reed, BitTorrent clients are frequent offenders of this. The flag is also not added if the application came from a different source, like network shares and USB flash drives. Questions have also been raised about the registration process to acquire a developer certificate and the prospect of certificate theft.
In September 2015, security researcher Patrick Wardle wrote about another shortcoming that concerns applications that are distributed with external files, such as libraries or even HTML files that can contain JavaScript. An attacker can manipulate those files and through them exploit a vulnerability in the signed application. The application and its external files can then be redistributed, while leaving the original signature of the application bundle itself intact. As Gatekeeper does not verify such individual files, the security can be compromised. With path randomization and signed disk images, Apple provided mechanisms to mitigate this issue in macOS Sierra.
See also
Microsoft SmartScreen
System Integrity Protection
Sandbox (computer security)
References
MacOS security technology
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6324216
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sipura%20Technology
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Sipura Technology
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Sipura Technology, Inc. was a Voice over IP (VoIP) startup company based in San Jose, California founded in 2003 with its siblings VideoCore and Komodo Technology, Inc. Sipura made VoIP telephone adapters including the Sipura Phone Adapter SPA2100, SPA3000, SPA9000, as well as SPA series IP phones, like the SPA941.
Cisco Systems acquired VOIP maker Sipura Technologies for its Linksys division on April 26, 2005. Ever since, Sipura has been releasing its SPA series equipment under the Linksys brand.
Products
SPA2000: Basic analog telephone adapter (ATA) that allows two plain old telephone service (POTS) phones or fax machines to be connected to an Ethernet network in order to make and receive telephone calls or faxes.
SPA2100: Similar to the SPA2000 with the addition of an Ethernet router. Functions of the built-in router include QoS.
SPA3000: The SPA3000 has one analog telephone adapter port (FXS) and one FXO port for connection to the public switched telephone network.
SPA3102: Similar to the SPA3000, it includes a single LAN output that can be connected to a computer. This is useful if the user has an ISP modem but no router. The SPA3102 connects to the LAN socket on the ISP modem, and the computer directly to the LAN connection on the SPA3102. The SPA3102, effectively, is an analog telephone adapter (ATA) and single output router in one box.
SPA9000: An IP PBX system with auto-attendants, hunt groups, telephone extensions, and POTS connectors. The SPA9000 also has basic router functionality including port forwarding, quality of service, and DTMF configurability.
SPA901: A single-line VoIP telephone.
SPA921: A single-line VoIP telephone with LCD screen.
SPA922: A single-line VoIP telephone with LCD screen and built in Ethernet switch.
SPA941: Flagship four-line VoIP telephone with LCD screen.
SPA942: A four-line VoIP telephone, similar in appearance and functionality to the SPA941, with the additions of power over Ethernet capability, backlit LCD screen, and a single port built-in Ethernet switch.
SPA962: A six-line VoIP telephone, similar in appearance and functionality to the SPA941 and SPA942, with the addition of a six line, 2-inch color LCD screen.
See also
Cisco Systems and Linksys
Obihai Technology
Cisco Systems acquisitions
Defunct networking companies
Defunct computer companies of the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer%20liquidator
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Computer liquidator
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A computer liquidator buys computer technology and related equipment that is no longer required by one company, and resells ("flips") it to another company. Computer liquidators are agents that act in the computer recycling, or electronic recycling, business.
There are several reasons why companies will sell, or liquidate, used Information Technology (I.T.) equipment: bankruptcy, downsizing and expanding, or technological advancement. Technological advancement is the most common reason, as the equipment is no longer performing the tasks required of it, usually because it has been rendered obsolete by more advanced technology coming on to the market. This used or obsolete technology is often referred to as electronic waste. Equipment designated as outdated for one company is still viable for another company, whose operations may not require advanced solutions. Often, an information technology audit will be performed to help a company decide if their equipment needs updating, and if so, what the requirements are.
Reasons for Liquidation
Computer liquidation is a sustainable solution and is environmentally friendly. Rapid technology change, low initial cost, and planned obsolescence have resulted in a fast-growing surplus of computers and other electronic components around the globe. The purpose of computer liquidators is to keep as many computers and electronic parts out of landfills. As newer and better technology replaces hardware at an ever-increasing speed, the amount of technical trash increases as the technology is being replaced. The speed at which hardware changes and innovates in the last few years follows, to some degree, Moore's Law. Predictions were made that every landfill would soon be overflowing with discarded computer screens and computers, along with associated equipment such as keyboards and mouses and all the other hardware associated with use of the Internet. Most electronic waste is sent to landfills or incinerated, which releases toxic materials such as lead, mercury, or cadmium into the soil, groundwater, and atmosphere, thus having a negative impact on the environment. The best liquidating companies have clearly outlined policies regarding the disposal of dangerous substances which are often an issue with information technology.
The act of liquidation avoids the possible toxins and pollution that comes with putting electronic waste in landfills and also avoids the extra costs that go into recycling. For example, New York passed a law in 2015 that banned putting electronic devices in landfills. Now waste facilities in rural counties are being forced to either turn people away or eat the cost of recycling cathode ray tubes. Outside New York City, counties are spending from $6 million to $10 million a year to deal with the problem, according to Stephen Acquario, executive director of the New York State Association of Counties. The option of liquidation actually incentivizes people to get rid of their electronic waste in a safer way, since recycling actually costs the owner money, so there are cases where people would rather throw it out to avoid the recycling fee.
Computer liquidators effectively create a secondary market to meet the demand of those who are looking for a cheaper solution and do not require cutting edge technology. It is important to note that the IT equipment being liquidated ranges from new technology to old technology. Because of the relatively lower price for secondary market equipment, some companies may even purchase tech devices from the secondary market to use as backups, stocking the equipment themselves preemptively so that a replacement is always on hand in the event of trouble. Product availability is also another reason for buyers to buy in this market. Manufacturers generally refresh their product line every 12 to 24 months, typically liquidating older products. But networking hardware can often see service lives of five years or more, and resellers and computer liquidators might carry products that are upwards of a decade old. End users that use a particular product may find it much easier and cheaper to add/replace an older device rather than take on the costs, business disruptions, and knowledge gaps that occur when upgrading to new products. When newer products are adopted, the used equipment is inevitably liquidated, thrown out or sold back, which creates a robust marketplace.
Process
There are typically three agents in the computer liquidation process: the seller, the computer liquidator, and the buyer. The sellers are companies who are bankrupt and need to sell their assets, companies who are downsizing or expanding, and companies who are upgrading their technology. Usually, companies who are looking to sell their equipment will first conduct an information technology audit to review their systems and equipment. The process is generally fueled by the supply side, as computer liquidators rely on what is available on the market for them to liquidate and resell. Thus, there nearly always exists a shortage for buyers.
Oceantech, for example, buys up computers, laptops, tablets and other such electronics from companies who no longer need the technology. They then conduct certified data destruction on the appliances. Technicians will then perform a thorough check of the systems and confirm that the devices are functional then they are stored into a warehouse. If only certain parts, like the motherboard or hard drives, are able to be used, these are stripped off of the machine and put into a warehouse to store. Then, the devices or parts are resold to smaller companies and places like school districts, who are in need of these products. Most of the companies involved in the computer liquidation business are also heavily involved in the computer and electronic recycling industry which takes on a similar process of disassembling and testing.
This process theoretically benefits both ends of the exchange, the seller gets money for equipment they no longer needs and the buyer gets cheap equipment that is necessary for their work.
Resources
A number of organizations have sprung up that provide technical guidelines to those handling or dealing in eWaste.
References
Electronic waste
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16269782
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnaural
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Gnaural
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Gnaural is brainwave entrainment software for Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux licensed under GPL-2.0-or-later. Gnaural is free software for creating binaural beats intended to be used as personal brainwave synchronization software, for scientific research, or by professionals.
Gnaural allows for the creation of binaural beat tracks specifying different frequencies and exporting tracks into different audio formats. Gnaural runnings can also be linked over the internet, allowing synchronous sessions between many users.
See also
Brainwave Entrainment
Comparison of brainwave entrainment software
Binaural beats
Linux audio software
External links
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nck9SX52qpU - A Gnaural Video Tutorial
Free audio software
Free science software
Free software programmed in C
Free health care software
Open source software synthesizers
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31353
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Hitchhiker%27s%20Guide%20to%20the%20Galaxy
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The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy
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The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (sometimes referred to as HG2G, HHGTTG, H2G2, or tHGttG) is a comedy science fiction franchise created by Douglas Adams. Originally a 1978 radio comedy broadcast on BBC Radio 4, it was later adapted to other formats, including stage shows, novels, comic books, a 1981 TV series, a 1984 text-based computer game, and 2005 feature film.
The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy has become an international multi-media phenomenon; the novels are the most widely distributed, having been translated into more than 30 languages by 2005. The first novel, The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (1979), has been ranked fourth on the BBC’s The Big Read poll. The sixth novel, And Another Thing, was written by Eoin Colfer with additional unpublished material by Douglas Adams. In 2017, BBC Radio 4 announced a 40th-anniversary celebration with Dirk Maggs, one of the original producers, in charge. The first of six new episodes was broadcast on 8 March 2018.
The broad narrative of Hitchhiker follows the misadventures of the last surviving man, Arthur Dent, following the demolition of the Earth by a Vogon constructor fleet to make way for a hyperspace bypass. Dent is rescued from Earth's destruction by Ford Prefect—a human-like alien writer for the eccentric, electronic travel guide The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy—by hitchhiking onto a passing Vogon spacecraft. Following his rescue, Dent explores the galaxy with Prefect and encounters Trillian, another human who had been taken from Earth (before its destruction) by the two-headed President of the Galaxy Zaphod Beeblebrox and the depressed Marvin, the Paranoid Android. Certain narrative details were changed among the various adaptations.
Spelling
The different versions of the series spell the title differently−thus Hitch-Hiker's Guide, Hitch Hiker's Guide and Hitchhiker's Guide are used in different editions (UK or US), formats (audio or print) and compilations of the book, with some omitting the apostrophe. Some editions used different spellings on the spine and title page. The h2g2's English Usage in Approved Entries claims that Hitchhiker's Guide is the spelling Adams preferred. At least two reference works make note of the inconsistency in the titles. Both, however, repeat the statement that Adams decided in 2000 that "everyone should spell it the same way [one word, no hyphen] from then on."
Synopsis
The various versions follow the same basic plot but they are in many places mutually contradictory, as Adams rewrote the story substantially for each new adaptation. Throughout all versions, the series follows the adventures of Arthur Dent, a hapless Englishman, following the destruction of the Earth by the Vogons (a race of unpleasant and bureaucratic aliens) to make way for an intergalactic bypass. Dent's adventures intersect with several other characters: Ford Prefect (an alien and researcher for the eponymous guidebook who rescues Dent from Earth's destruction), Zaphod Beeblebrox (Ford's eccentric semi-cousin and the Galactic President who has stolen the Heart of Gold — a spacecraft equipped with Infinite Improbability Drive), the depressed robot Marvin the Paranoid Android, and Trillian (formerly known as Tricia McMillan) who is a woman Arthur once met at a party in Islington and who — thanks to Beeblebrox's intervention — is the only other human survivor of Earth's destruction.
In their travels, Arthur comes to learn that the Earth was actually a giant supercomputer, created by another supercomputer, Deep Thought. Deep Thought had been built by its creators to give the answer to the "Ultimate Question of Life, the Universe, and Everything", which, after eons of calculations, was given simply as "42". Deep Thought was then instructed to design the Earth supercomputer to determine what the Question actually is. The Earth was subsequently destroyed by the Vogons moments before its calculations were completed, and Arthur becomes the target of the descendants of the Deep Thought creators, believing his mind must hold the Question. With his friends' help, Arthur escapes and they decide to have lunch at The Restaurant at the End of the Universe, before embarking on further adventures.
Background
The first radio series comes from a proposal called "The Ends of the Earth": six self-contained episodes, all ending with Earth being destroyed in a different way. While writing the first episode, Adams realised that he needed someone on the planet who was an alien to provide some context, and that this alien needed a reason to be there. Adams finally settled on making the alien a roving researcher for a "wholly remarkable book" named The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. As the first radio episode's writing progressed, the Guide became the centre of his story, and he decided to focus the series on it, with the destruction of Earth being the only hold-over.
Adams claimed that the title came from a 1971 incident while he was hitchhiking around Europe as a young man with a copy of the Hitch-hiker's Guide to Europe book: while lying drunk in a field near Innsbruck with a copy of the book and looking up at the stars, he thought it would be a good idea for someone to write a hitchhiker's guide to the galaxy as well. However, he later claimed that he had forgotten the incident itself, and only knew of it because he'd told the story of it so many times. His friends are quoted as saying that Adams mentioned the idea of "hitch-hiking around the galaxy" to them while on holiday in Greece in 1973.
Adams's fictional Guide is an electronic guidebook to the entire universe, originally published by Megadodo Publications, one of the great publishing houses of Ursa Minor Beta. The narrative of the various versions of the story is frequently punctuated with excerpts from the Guide. The voice of the Guide (Peter Jones in the first two radio series and TV versions, later William Franklyn in the third, fourth and fifth radio series, and Stephen Fry in the movie version), also provides general narration.
Radio
Overview
Original radio series
The first radio series of six episodes (called "Fits" after the names of the sections of Lewis Carroll's nonsense poem "The Hunting of the Snark") was broadcast in 1978 on BBC Radio 4. Despite a low-key launch of the series (the first episode was broadcast at 10:30 pm on Wednesday, 8 March 1978), it received generally good reviews and a tremendous audience reaction for radio. A one-off episode (a "Christmas special") was broadcast later in the year. The BBC had a practice at the time of commissioning "Christmas Special" episodes for popular radio series, and while an early draft of this episode of The Hitchhiker's Guide had a Christmas-related plotline, it was decided to be "in slightly poor taste" and the episode as transmitted served as a bridge between the two series. This episode was released as part of the second radio series and, later, The Secondary Phase on cassettes and CDs. The Primary and Secondary Phases were aired, in a slightly edited version, in the United States on NPR Playhouse.
The first series was repeated twice in 1978 alone and many more times in the next few years. This led to an LP re-recording, produced independently of the BBC for sale, and a further adaptation of the series as a book. A second radio series, which consisted of a further five episodes, and bringing the total number of episodes to 12, was broadcast in 1980.
The radio series (and the LP and TV versions) were narrated by comedy actor Peter Jones as The Book. Jones was cast after a three-month-long casting search and after at least three actors (including Michael Palin) turning down the role.
The series was also notable for its use of sound, being the first comedy series to be produced in stereo. Adams said that he wanted the programme's production to be comparable to that of a modern rock album. Much of the programme's budget was spent on sound effects, which were largely the work of Paddy Kingsland (for the pilot episode and the complete second series) at the BBC Radiophonic Workshop and Dick Mills and Harry Parker (for the remaining episodes (2–6) of the first series). The fact that they were at the forefront of modern radio production in 1978 and 1980 was reflected when the three new series of Hitchhiker's became some of the first radio shows to be mixed into four-channel Dolby Surround. This mix was also featured on DVD releases of the third radio series.
The theme tune used for the radio, television, LP, and film versions is "Journey of the Sorcerer", an instrumental piece composed by Bernie Leadon and recorded by the Eagles on their 1975 album One of These Nights. Only the transmitted radio series used the original recording; a sound-alike cover by Tim Souster was used for the LP and TV series, another arrangement by Joby Talbot was used for the 2005 film, and still another arrangement, this time by Philip Pope, was recorded to be released with the CDs of the last three radio series. Apparently, Adams chose this song for its futuristic-sounding nature, but also for the fact that it had a banjo in it, which, as Geoffrey Perkins recalls, Adams said would give an "on the road, hitch-hiking feel" to it.
The twelve episodes were released (in a slightly edited form, removing the Pink Floyd music and two other tunes "hummed" by Marvin when the team land on Magrathea) on CD and cassette in 1988, becoming the first CD release in the BBC Radio Collection. They were re-released in 1992, and at this time Adams suggested that they could retitle Fits the First to Sixth as "The Primary Phase" and Fits the Seventh to Twelfth as "The Secondary Phase" instead of just "the first series" and "the second series". It was at about this time that a "Tertiary Phase" was first discussed with Dirk Maggs, adapting Life, the Universe and Everything, but this series would not be recorded for another ten years.
Radio series 3–5
On 21 June 2004, the BBC announced in a press release that a new series of Hitchhiker's based on the third novel would be broadcast as part of its autumn schedule, produced by Above the Title Productions Ltd. The episodes were recorded in late 2003, but actual transmission was delayed while an agreement was reached with The Walt Disney Company over Internet re-broadcasts, as Disney had begun pre-production on the film. This was followed by news that further series would be produced based on the fourth and fifth novels.
The third series was broadcast in September and October 2004. The fourth and fifth were broadcast in May and June 2005, with the fifth series following immediately after the fourth. CD releases accompanied the transmission of the final episode in each series.
The adaptation of the third novel followed the book very closely, which caused major structural issues in meshing with the preceding radio series in comparison to the second novel. Because many events from the radio series were omitted from the second novel, and those that did occur happened in a different order, the two series split in completely different directions. The last two adaptations vary somewhat—some events in Mostly Harmless are now foreshadowed in the adaptation of So Long and Thanks For All The Fish, while both include some additional material that builds on incidents in the third series to tie all five (and their divergent plotlines) together, most especially including the character Zaphod more prominently in the final chapters and addressing his altered reality to include the events of the Secondary Phase. While Mostly Harmless originally contained a rather bleak ending, Dirk Maggs created a different ending for the transmitted radio version, ending it on a much more upbeat note, reuniting the cast one last time.
The core cast for the third to fifth radio series remained the same, except for the replacement of Peter Jones by William Franklyn as the Book, and Richard Vernon by Richard Griffiths as Slartibartfast, since both had died. (Homage to Jones' iconic portrayal of the Book was paid twice: the gradual shift of voices to a "new" version in episode 13, launching the new productions, and a blend of Jones and Franklyn's voices at the end of the final episode, the first part of Maggs' alternative ending.) Sandra Dickinson, who played Trillian in the TV series, here played Tricia McMillan, an English-born, American-accented alternate-universe version of Trillian, while David Dixon, the television series' Ford Prefect, made a cameo appearance as the "Ecological Man". Jane Horrocks appeared in the new semi-regular role of Fenchurch, Arthur's girlfriend, and Samantha Béart joined in the final series as Arthur and Trillian's daughter, Random Dent. Also reprising their roles from the original radio series were Jonathan Pryce as Zarniwoop (here blended with a character from the final novel to become Zarniwoop Vann Harl), Rula Lenska as Lintilla and her clones (and also as the Voice of the Bird), and Roy Hudd as Milliways compere Max Quordlepleen, as well as the original radio series' announcer, John Marsh.
The series also featured guest appearances by such noted personalities as Joanna Lumley as the Sydney Opera House Woman, Jackie Mason as the East River Creature, Miriam Margolyes as the Smelly Photocopier Woman, BBC Radio cricket legends Henry Blofeld and Fred Trueman as themselves, June Whitfield as the Raffle Woman, Leslie Phillips as Hactar, Saeed Jaffrey as the Man on the Pole, Sir Patrick Moore as himself, and Christian Slater as Wonko the Sane. Finally, Adams himself played the role of Agrajag, a performance adapted from his book-on-tape reading of the third novel, and edited into the series created some time after the author's death.
Radio series 6
The first of six episodes in a sixth series, the Hexagonal Phase, was broadcast on BBC Radio 4 on 8 March 2018 and featured Professor Stephen Hawking introducing himself as the voice of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Mk II by saying: "I have been quite popular in my time. Some even read my books."
Novels
The novels are described as "a trilogy in five parts", having been described as a trilogy on the release of the third book, and then a "trilogy in four parts" on the release of the fourth book. The US edition of the fifth book was originally released with the legend "The fifth book in the increasingly inaccurately named Hitchhiker's Trilogy" on the cover. Subsequent re-releases of the other novels bore the legend "The [first, second, third, fourth] book in the increasingly inaccurately named Hitchhiker's Trilogy". In addition, the blurb on the fifth book describes it as "the book that gives a whole new meaning to the word 'trilogy.
The plots of the television and radio series are more or less the same as that of the first two novels, though some of the events occur in a different order and many of the details are changed. Much of parts five and six of the radio series were written by John Lloyd, but his material did not make it into the other versions of the story and is not included here. Many consider the books' version of events to be definitive because they are the most readily accessible and widely distributed version of the story. However, they are not the final version that Adams produced.
Before his death from a heart attack on 11 May 2001, Adams was considering writing a sixth novel in the Hitchhiker's series. He was working on a third Dirk Gently novel, under the working title The Salmon of Doubt, but felt that the book was not working and abandoned it. In an interview, he said some of the ideas in the book might fit better in the Hitchhiker's series, and suggested he might rework those ideas into a sixth book in that series. He described Mostly Harmless as "a very bleak book" and said he "would love to finish Hitchhiker on a slightly more upbeat note". Adams also remarked that if he were to write a sixth instalment, he would at least start with all the characters in the same place. Eoin Colfer, who wrote the sixth book in the Hitchhiker's series in 2008–09, used this latter concept but none of the plot ideas from The Salmon of Doubt.
The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy
The first book was adapted from the first four radio episodes (the Primary Phase), with Arthur being rescued from Earth's destruction by Ford, meeting Zaphod and Trillian, coming to the planet of Magrathea to discover the true purpose of Earth, and ending with the group preparing to go to the Restaurant at the End of the Universe. It was first published in 1979, initially in paperback, by Pan Books, after BBC Publishing had turned down the offer of publishing a novelisation, an action they would later regret. The book reached number one on the book charts in only its second week, and sold over 250,000 copies within three months of its release. A hardback edition was published by Harmony Books, a division of Random House in the United States in October 1980, and the 1981 US paperback edition was promoted by the give-away of 3,000 free copies in the magazine Rolling Stone to build word of mouth. In 2005, Del Rey Books re-released the Hitchhiker series with new covers for the release of the 2005 movie. To date, it has sold over 14 million copies.
A photo-illustrated edition of the first novel appeared in 1994.
The Restaurant at the End of the Universe
In The Restaurant at the End of the Universe (published in 1980), Zaphod is separated from the others and finds he is part of a conspiracy to uncover who really runs the Universe. Zaphod meets Zarniwoop, a conspirator and editor for The Guide, who knows where to find the secret ruler. Zaphod becomes briefly reunited with the others for a trip to Milliways, the restaurant of the title. Zaphod and Ford decide to steal a ship from there, which turns out to be a stunt ship pre-programmed to plunge into a star as a special effect in a stage show. Unable to change course, the main characters get Marvin to run the teleporter they find in the ship, which is working other than having no automatic control (someone must remain behind to operate it), and Marvin seemingly sacrifices himself. Zaphod and Trillian discover that the Universe is in the safe hands of a simple man living on a remote planet in a wooden shack with his cat.
Ford and Arthur, meanwhile, end up on a spacecraft full of the outcasts of the Golgafrinchan civilisation. The ship crashes on prehistoric Earth; Ford and Arthur are stranded, and it becomes clear that the inept Golgafrinchans are the ancestors of modern humans, having displaced the Earth's indigenous hominids. This has disrupted the Earth's programming so that when Ford and Arthur manage to extract the final readout from Arthur's subconscious mind by pulling lettered tiles from a Scrabble set, it is "What do you get if you multiply six by nine?" Arthur then comments, "I've always said there was something fundamentally wrong with the universe."
The book was adapted from the remaining material in the radio series—covering from the fifth episode to the twelfth episode, although the ordering was greatly changed (in particular, the events of Fit the Sixth, with Ford and Arthur being stranded on pre-historic Earth, end the book, and their rescue in Fit the Seventh is deleted), and most of the Brontitall incident was omitted, instead of the Haggunenon sequence, co-written by John Loyd, the Disaster Area stunt ship was substituted—this having first been introduced in the LP version. Adams himself considered Restaurant to be his best novel of the five.
Life, the Universe and Everything
In Life, the Universe and Everything (published in 1982), Ford and Arthur travel through the space-time continuum from prehistoric Earth to Lord's Cricket Ground. There they run into Slartibartfast, who enlists their aid in preventing galactic war. Long ago, the people of Krikkit attempted to wipe out all life in the Universe, but they were stopped and imprisoned on their home planet; now they are poised to escape. With the help of Marvin, Zaphod, and Trillian, our heroes prevent the destruction of life in the Universe and go their separate ways.
This was the first Hitchhiker's book originally written as a book and not adapted from radio. Its story was based on a treatment Adams had written for a Doctor Who theatrical release, with the Doctor role being split between Slartibartfast (to begin with), and later Trillian and Arthur.
In 2004, it was adapted for radio as the Tertiary Phase of the radio series.
So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish
In So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish (published in 1984), Arthur returns home to Earth, rather surprisingly since it was destroyed when he left. He meets and falls in love with a girl named Fenchurch, and discovers this Earth is a replacement provided by the dolphins in their Save the Humans campaign. Eventually, he rejoins Ford, who claims to have saved the Universe in the meantime, to hitch-hike one last time and see God's Final Message to His Creation. Along the way, they are joined by Marvin, the Paranoid Android, who, although 37 times older than the universe itself (what with time travel and all), has just enough power left in his failing body to read the message and feel better about it all before expiring.
This was the first Hitchhiker's novel which was not an adaptation of any previously written story or script. In 2005 it was adapted for radio as the Quandary Phase of the radio series.
Mostly Harmless
Finally, in Mostly Harmless (published in 1992), Vogons take over The Hitchhiker's Guide (under the name of InfiniDim Enterprises), to finish, once and for all, the task of obliterating the Earth. After abruptly losing Fenchurch and travelling around the galaxy despondently, Arthur's spaceship crashes on the planet Lamuella, where he settles in happily as the official sandwich-maker for a small village of simple, peaceful people. Meanwhile, Ford Prefect breaks into The Guide's offices, gets himself an infinite expense account from the computer system, and then meets The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, Mark II, an artificially intelligent, multi-dimensional guide with vast power and a hidden purpose. After he declines this dangerously powerful machine's aid (which he receives anyway), he sends it to Arthur Dent for safety ("Oh yes, whose?"—Arthur).
Trillian uses DNA that Arthur donated for travelling money to have a daughter, and when she goes to cover a war, she leaves her daughter Random Frequent Flyer Dent with Arthur. Random, a more than typically troubled teenager, steals The Guide Mark II and uses it to get to Earth. Arthur, Ford, Trillian, and Tricia McMillan (Trillian in this alternate universe) follow her to a crowded club, where an anguished Random becomes startled by a noise and inadvertently fires her gun at Arthur. The shot misses Arthur and kills a man (the ever-unfortunate Agrajag). Immediately afterwards, The Guide Mark II causes the removal of all possible Earths from probability. All of the main characters, save Zaphod, were on Earth at the time and are apparently killed, bringing a good deal of satisfaction to the Vogons.
In 2005 it was adapted for radio as the Quintessential Phase of the radio series, with the final episode first transmitted on 21 June 2005.
And Another Thing...
It was announced in September 2008 that Eoin Colfer, author of Artemis Fowl, had been commissioned to write the sixth instalment entitled And Another Thing... with the support of Jane Belson, Adams's widow. The book was published by Penguin Books in the UK and Hyperion in the US in October 2009.
The story begins as death rays bear down on Earth, and the characters awaken from a virtual reality. Zaphod picks them up shortly before they are killed, but completely fails to escape the death beams. They are then saved by Bowerick Wowbagger, the Infinitely Prolonged, whom they agree to help kill. Zaphod travels to Asgard to get Thor's help. In the meantime, the Vogons are heading to destroy a colony of people who also escaped Earth's destruction, on the planet Nano. Arthur, Wowbagger, Trillian and Random head to Nano to try to stop the Vogons, and on the journey, Wowbagger and Trillian fall in love, making Wowbagger question whether or not he wants to be killed. Zaphod arrives with Thor, who then signs up to be the planet's God. With Random's help, Thor almost kills Wowbagger. Wowbagger, who merely loses his immortality, then marries Trillian.
Thor then stops the first Vogon attack and apparently dies. Meanwhile, Constant Mown, son of Prostetnic Jeltz, convinces his father that the people on the planet are not citizens of Earth, but are, in fact, citizens of Nano, which means that it would be illegal to kill them. As the book draws to a close, Arthur is on his way to check out a possible university for Random, when, during a hyperspace jump, he is flung across alternate universes, has a brief encounter with Fenchurch, and ends up exactly where he would want to be. And then the Vogons turn up again.
In 2017 it was adapted for radio as the Hexagonal Phase of the radio series, with its premiere episode first transmitted on 8 March 2018 (exactly forty years, to the day, from the first episode of the first series, the Primary Phase).
Omnibus editions
Two omnibus editions were created by Douglas Adams to combine the Hitchhiker series novels and to "set the record straight". The stories came in so many different formats that Adams stated that every time he told it he would contradict himself. Therefore, he stated in the introduction of The More Than Complete Hitchhiker's Guide that "anything I put down wrong here is, as far as I'm concerned, wrong for good." The two omnibus editions were The More Than Complete Hitchhiker's Guide, Complete and Unabridged (published in 1987) and The Ultimate Hitchhiker's Guide, Complete and Unabridged (published in 1997).
The More Than Complete Hitchhiker's Guide
Published in 1987, this 624-page leatherbound omnibus edition contains "wrong for good" versions of the four Hitchhiker series novels at the time, and also includes one short story:
The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy
The Restaurant at the End of the Universe
Life, the Universe and Everything
So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish
"Young Zaphod Plays it Safe"
The Ultimate Hitchhiker's Guide
Published in 1997, this 832-page leatherbound final omnibus edition contains five Hitchhiker series novels and one short story:
The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy
The Restaurant at the End of the Universe
Life, the Universe and Everything
So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish
Mostly Harmless
"Young Zaphod Plays it Safe"
Also appearing in The Ultimate Hitchhiker's Guide, at the end of Adams's introduction, is a list of instructions on "How to Leave the Planet", providing a humorous explanation of how one might replicate Arthur and Ford's feat at the beginning of Hitchhiker's.
Television series
1981 series
The popularity of the radio series gave rise to a six-episode television series, directed and produced by Alan J. W. Bell, which first aired on BBC 2 in January and February 1981. It employed many of the actors from the radio series and was based mainly on the radio versions of Fits the First to Sixth. A second series was at one point planned, with a storyline, according to Alan Bell and Mark Wing-Davey that would have come from Adams's abandoned Doctor Who and the Krikkitmen project (instead of simply making a TV version of the second radio series). However, Adams got into disputes with the BBC (accounts differ: problems with budget, scripts, and having Alan Bell involved are all offered as causes), and the second series was never made. Elements of Doctor Who and the Krikkitmen were instead used in the third novel, Life, the Universe and Everything.
The main cast was the same as the original radio series, except for David Dixon as Ford Prefect instead of McGivern, and Sandra Dickinson as Trillian instead of Sheridan.
Upcoming television series
A new television series for Hulu was announced in July 2019. Carlton Cuse was named as the showrunner alongside Jason Fuchs, who will also be writing for the show. The show will be produced by ABC Signature and Genre Arts. The series was set to premiere in 2021. Production was slated to begin in the summer of 2020 and air on Fox in international markets. The series has reportedly been renewed for a second season. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, production on the series has most likely been delayed. However, a production outlet claimed that the series began production in May 2021.
Other television appearances
Segments of several of the books were adapted as part of the BBC's The Big Read survey and programme, broadcast in late 2003. The film, directed by Deep Sehgal, starred Sanjeev Bhaskar as Arthur Dent, alongside Spencer Brown as Ford Prefect, Nigel Planer as the voice of Marvin, Stephen Hawking as the voice of Deep Thought, Patrick Moore as the voice of the Guide, Roger Lloyd-Pack as Slartibartfast, and Adam Buxton and Joe Cornish as Loonquawl and Phouchg.
Film
After several years of setbacks and renewed efforts to start production and a quarter of a century after the first book was published, the big-screen adaptation of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy was finally shot. Pre-production began in 2003, filming began on 19 April 2004 and post-production began in early September 2004. Adams died during the film's production but had still helped with early screenplays and concepts introduced with the film.
After a London premiere on 20 April 2005, it was released on 28 April in the UK and Australia and on 29 April in the United States and Canada. The movie stars Martin Freeman as Arthur, Mos Def as Ford, Sam Rockwell as President of the Galaxy Zaphod Beeblebrox and Zooey Deschanel as Trillian, with Alan Rickman providing the voice of Marvin the Paranoid Android (and Warwick Davis acting in Marvin's costume), and Stephen Fry as the voice of the Guide/Narrator.
The plot of the film adaptation of Hitchhiker's Guide differs widely from that of the radio show, book and television series. The romantic triangle between Arthur, Zaphod, and Trillian is more prominent in the film; and visits to Vogsphere, the homeworld of the Vogons (which, in the books, was already abandoned), and Viltvodle VI are inserted. The film covers roughly events in the first four radio episodes, and ends with the characters en route to the Restaurant at the End of the Universe, leaving the opportunity for a sequel open. A unique appearance is made by the Point-of-View Gun, a device specifically created by Adams himself for the movie.
Commercially the film was a modest success, taking $21 million in its opening weekend in the United States, and nearly £3.3 million in its opening weekend in the United Kingdom.
The film was released on DVD (Region 2, PAL) in the UK on 5 September 2005. Both a standard double-disc edition and a UK-exclusive numbered limited edition "Giftpack" were released on this date. The "Giftpack" edition includes a copy of the novel with a "movie tie-in" cover, and collectible prints from the film, packaged in a replica of the film's version of the Hitchhiker's Guide prop. A single-disc widescreen or full-screen edition (Region 1, NTSC) were made available in the United States and Canada on 13 September 2005. Single-disc releases in the Blu-ray format and UMD format for the PlayStation Portable were also released on the respective dates in these three countries.
Stage shows
There have been multiple professional and amateur stage adaptations of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. Three early professional productions were staged in 1979 and 1980.
The first of these was performed at the Institute of Contemporary Arts in London, between 1 and 19 May 1979, starring Chris Langham as Arthur Dent (Langham later returned to Hitchhiker's as Prak in the final episode of 2004's Tertiary Phase) and Richard Hope as Ford Prefect. This show was adapted from the first series' scripts and was directed by Ken Campbell, who went on to perform a character in the final episode of the second radio series. The show ran 90 minutes, but had an audience limited to eighty people per night. Actors performed on a variety of ledges and platforms, and the audience was pushed around in a hovercar, 1/2000th of an inch above the floor. This was the first time that Zaphod was represented by having two actors in one large costume. The narration of "The Book" was split between two usherettes, an adaptation that has appeared in no other version of H2G2. One of these usherettes, Cindy Oswin, went on to voice Trillian for the LP adaptation.
The second stage show was performed throughout Wales between 15 January and 23 February 1980. This was a production of Theatr Clwyd, and was directed by Jonathan Petherbridge. The company performed adaptations of complete radio episodes, at times doing two episodes in a night, and at other times doing all six episodes of the first series in single three-hour sessions. This adaptation was performed again at the Oxford Playhouse in December 1981, the Bristol Hippodrome, Plymouth's Theatre Royal in May–June 1982, the Belgrade Theatre, Coventry, in July 1983 and La Boite in Brisbane, November 1983.
The third and least successful stage show was held at the Rainbow Theatre in London, in July 1980. This was the second production directed by Ken Campbell. The Rainbow Theatre had been adapted for stagings of rock operas in the 1970s, and both reference books mentioned in footnotes indicate that this, coupled with incidental music throughout the performance, caused some reviewers to label it as a "musical". This was the first adaptation for which Adams wrote the "Dish of the Day" sequence. The production ran for over three hours, and was widely panned for this, as well as for the music, laser effects, and the acting. Despite attempts to shorten the script, and make other changes, it closed three or four weeks early (accounts differ), and lost a lot of money. Despite the bad reviews, there were at least two stand-out performances: Michael Cule and David Learner both went on from this production to appearances in the TV adaptation.
In December 2011 a new stage production was announced to begin touring in June 2012. This included members of the original radio and TV casts such as Simon Jones, Geoff McGivern, Susan Sheridan, Mark Wing-Davey and Stephen Moore with VIP guests playing the role of the Book. It was produced in the form of a radio show which could be downloaded when the tour was completed. This production was based on the first four Fits in the first act, with the second act covering material from the rest of the series. The show also featured a band, who performed the songs "Share and Enjoy", the Krikkit song "Under the Ink Black Sky", Marvin's song "How I Hate The Night", and "Marvin", which was a minor hit in 1981.
The production featured a series of "VIP guests" as the voice of The Book including Billy Boyd, Phill Jupitus, Rory McGrath, Roger McGough, Jon Culshaw, Christopher Timothy, Andrew Sachs, John Challis, Hugh Dennis, John Lloyd, Terry Jones and Neil Gaiman. The tour started on 8 June 2012 at the Theatre Royal, Glasgow and continued through the summer until 21 July when the final performance was at Playhouse Theatre, Edinburgh. The production started touring again in September 2013, but the remaining dates of the tour were cancelled due to poor ticket sales.
Other adaptations
Vinyl LPs
The first four radio episodes were adapted for a double LP, also entitled The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (appended with "Part One" for the subsequent Canadian release), first by mail-order only, and later into stores. The double LP and its sequel were originally released by Original Records in the United Kingdom in 1979 and 1980, with the catalogue numbers ORA042 and ORA054 respectively. They were first released by Hannibal Records in 1982 (as HNBL 2301 and HNBL 1307, respectively) in the United States and Canada, and later re-released in a slightly abridged edition by Simon & Schuster's Audioworks in the mid-1980s. Both were produced by Geoffrey Perkins and featured cover artwork by Hipgnosis.
The script in the first double LP very closely follows the first four radio episodes, although further cuts had to be made for reasons of timing. Despite this, other lines of dialogue that were indicated as having been cut when the original scripts from the radio series were eventually published can be heard in the LP version. The Simon & Schuster cassettes omit the Veet Voojagig narration, the cheerleader's speech as Deep Thought concludes its seven-and-one-half-million-year programme, and a few other lines from both sides of the second LP of the set.
Most of the original cast returned, except for Susan Sheridan, who was recording a voice for the character of Princess Eilonwy in The Black Cauldron for Walt Disney Pictures. Cindy Oswin voiced Trillian on all three LPs in her place. Other casting changes in the first double LP included Stephen Moore taking on the additional role of the barman, and Valentine Dyall as the voice of Deep Thought. Adams's voice can be heard making the public address announcements on Magrathea.
Because of copyright issues, the music used during the first radio series was either replaced, or in the case of the title it was re-recorded in a new arrangement. Composer Tim Souster did both duties (with Paddy Kingsland contributing music as well), and Souster's version of the theme was the version also used for the eventual television series.
The sequel LP was released, singly, as The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Part Two: The Restaurant at the End of the Universe in the UK, and simply as The Restaurant at the End of the Universe in the USA. The script here mostly follows Fit the Fifth and Fit the Sixth, but includes a song by the backup band in the restaurant ("Reg Nullify and his Cataclysmic Combo"), and changes the Haggunenon sequence to "Disaster Area".
As the result of a misunderstanding, the second record was released before being cut down in a final edit that Douglas Adams and Geoffrey Perkins had both intended to make. Perkins has said, "[I]t is far too long on each side. It's just a rough cut. [...] I felt it was flabby, and I wanted to speed it up." The Simon & Schuster Audioworks re-release of this LP was also abridged slightly from its original release. The scene with Ford Prefect and Hotblack Desiato's bodyguard is omitted.
Sales for the first double-LP release were primarily through mail order. Total sales reached over 60,000 units, with half of those being mail order, and the other half through retail outlets. This is in spite of the facts that Original Records' warehouse ordered and stocked more copies than they were actually selling for quite some time, and that Paul Neil Milne Johnstone complained about his name and then-current address being included in the recording. This was corrected for a later pressing of the double-LP by "cut[ting] up that part of the master tape and reassembl[ing] it in the wrong order". The second LP release ("Part Two") also only sold a total of 60,000 units in the UK. The distribution deals for the United States and Canada with Hannibal Records and Simon and Schuster were later negotiated by Douglas Adams and his agent, Ed Victor, after gaining full rights to the recordings from Original Records, which went bankrupt.
All five phases were released on LP in 2018 by Demon Records, and for its 42nd anniversary, the original Hitchhiker's Guide and Restaurant at the End of the Universe were combined into a three-record set that was released in August 2020 for Record Store Day, also by Demon Records. It is available in three versions: Translucent Vogon Green, Translucent Magrathean Blue and Translucent Pan-Galactic Purple.
Audiobooks
There have been three audiobook recordings of the novel. The first was an abridged edition (), recorded in the mid-1980s for the EMI label Music For Pleasure by Stephen Moore, best known for playing the voice of Marvin the Paranoid Android in the radio series and in the TV series. In 1990, Adams himself recorded an unabridged edition for Dove Audiobooks (), later re-released by New Millennium Audio () in the United States and available from BBC Audiobooks in the United Kingdom. Also by arrangement with Dove, ISIS Publishing Ltd produced a numbered exclusive edition signed by Douglas Adams () in 1994. To tie-in with the 2005 film, actor Stephen Fry, the film's voice of the Guide, recorded a second unabridged edition ().
In addition, unabridged versions of books 2-5 of the series were recorded by Martin Freeman for Random House Audio. Freeman plays Arthur in the 2005 film adaptation. Audiobooks 2-5 follow in order and include: The Restaurant at the End of the Universe (); Life, the Universe, and Everything (); So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish (); and Mostly Harmless ().
Video games
Sometime between 1982 and 1984 (accounts differ), the British company Supersoft published a text-based adventure game based on the book, which was released in versions for the Commodore PET and Commodore 64. One account states that there was a dispute as to whether valid permission for publication had been granted, and following legal action the game was withdrawn and all remaining copies were destroyed. Another account states that the programmer, Bob Chappell, rewrote the game to remove all Hitchhiker's references, and republished it as "Cosmic Capers".
Officially, the TV series was followed in 1984 by a best-selling "interactive fiction", or text-based adventure game, distributed by Infocom. It was designed by Adams and Infocom regular Steve Meretzky and was one of Infocom's most successful games. As with many Infocom games, the box contained a number of "feelies" including a "Don't panic" badge, some "pocket fluff", a pair of peril-sensitive sunglasses (made of cardboard), an order for the destruction of the Earth, a small, clear plastic bag containing "a microscopic battle fleet" and an order for the destruction of Arthur Dent's house (signed by Adams and Meretzky).
In September 2004, it was revived by the BBC on the Hitchhiker's section of the Radio 4 website for the initial broadcast of the Tertiary Phase, and is still available to play online. This new version uses an original Infocom datafile with a custom-written interpreter, by Sean Sollé, and Flash programming by Shimon Young, both of whom used to work at The Digital Village (TDV). The new version includes illustrations by Rod Lord, who was head of Pearce Animation Studios in 1980, which produced the guide graphics for the TV series. On 2 March 2005 it won the Interactive BAFTA in the "best online entertainment" category.
A sequel to the original Infocom game was never made. An all-new, fully graphical game was designed and developed by a joint venture between The Digital Village and PAN Interactive (no connection to Pan Books / Pan MacMillan). This new game was planned and developed between 1998 and 2002, but like the sequel to the Infocom game, it also never materialised. In April 2005, Starwave Mobile released two mobile games to accompany the release of the film adaptation. The first, developed by Atatio, was called The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy: Vogon Planet Destructor. It was a typical top-down shooter and except for the title had little to do with the actual story. The second game, developed by TKO Software, was a graphical adventure game named The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy: Adventure Game. Despite its name, the newly designed puzzles by TKO Software's Ireland studio were different from the Infocom ones, and the game followed the movie's script closely and included the new characters and places. The Adventure Game won the IGN's "Editors' Choice Award" in May 2005.
On 25 May 2011, Hothead Games announced they were working on a new edition of The Guide. Along with the announcement, Hothead Games launched a teaser web site made to look like an announcement from Megadodo Publications that The Guide will soon be available on Earth. It has since been revealed that they are developing an iOS app in the style of the fictional Guide.
Comic books
In 1993, DC Comics, in conjunction with Byron Preiss Visual Publications, published a three-part comic book adaptation of the novelisation of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. This was followed up with three-part adaptations of The Restaurant at the End of the Universe in 1994, and Life, the Universe and Everything in 1996. There was also a series of collectors' cards with art from and inspired by the comic adaptations of the first book, and a graphic novelisation (or "collected edition") combining the three individual comic books from 1993, itself released in May 1997. Douglas Adams was deeply opposed to the use of American English spellings and idioms in what he felt was a very British story, and had to be talked into it by the American publishers, although he remained very unhappy with the compromise.
The adaptations were scripted by John Carnell. Steve Leialoha provided the art for Hitchhiker's and the layouts for Restaurant. Shepherd Hendrix did the finished art for Restaurant. Neil Vokes and John Nyberg did the finished artwork for Life, based on breakdowns by Paris Cullins (Book 1) and Christopher Schenck (Books 2–3). The miniseries were edited by Howard Zimmerman and Ken Grobe.
Live radio
On Saturday 29 March 2014, Radio 4 broadcast an adaptation in front of a live audience, featuring many members of the original cast including Stephen Moore, Susan Sheridan, Mark Wing-Davey, Simon Jones and Geoff McGivern, with John Lloyd as the book.
The adaptation was adapted by Dirk Maggs primarily from Fit the First, including material from the books and later radio Fits as well as some new jokes. It formed part of Radio 4's Character Invasion series.
Legacy
Future predictions
While Adams' writing in The Hitchhiker's Guide was mostly to poke fun at scientific advance, such as through the artificial personalities built into the work's robots, Adams had predicted some concepts that have since come to be reality. The Guide itself, described as a small book-sized object that held a great volume of information, predated computer laptops and is comparable to tablet computers. The idea of being able to instantaneously translate between any language, a function provided by the Babel Fish, has since become possible with several software products that work in near real-time. In the Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, Adams also mentions computers being controlled by voice, touch and gesture, a reality for us today.
"Hitch-Hikeriana"
Many merchandising and spin-off items (or "Hitch-Hikeriana") were produced in the early 1980s, including towels in different colours, all bearing the Guide entry for towels. Later runs of towels include those made for promotions by Pan Books, Touchstone Pictures / Disney for the 2005 movie, and different towels made for ZZ9 Plural Z Alpha, the official Hitchhiker's Appreciation society. Other items that first appeared in the mid-1980s were T-shirts, including those made for Infocom (such as one bearing the legend "I got the Babel Fish" for successfully completing one of that game's most difficult puzzles), and a Disaster Area tour T-shirt. Other official items have included "Beeblebears" (teddy bears with an extra head and arm, named after Hitchhiker's character Zaphod Beeblebrox, sold by the official Appreciation Society), an assortment of pin-on buttons and a number of novelty singles. Many of the above items are displayed throughout the 2004 "25th Anniversary Illustrated Edition" of the novel, which used items from the personal collections of fans of the series.
Stephen Moore recorded two novelty singles in character as Marvin, the Paranoid Android: "Marvin"/"Metal Man" and "Reasons To Be Miserable"/"Marvin I Love You". The last song has appeared on a Dr. Demento compilation. Another single featured the re-recorded "Journey of the Sorcerer" (arranged by Tim Souster) backed with "Reg Nullify In Concert" by Reg Nullify, and "Only the End of the World Again" by Disaster Area (including Douglas Adams on bass guitar) . These discs have since become collector's items.
The 2005 movie also added quite a few collectibles, mostly through the National Entertainment Collectibles Association. These included three prop replicas of objects seen on the Vogon ship and homeworld (a mug, a pen and a stapler), sets of "action figures" with a height of either 3 or 6 inches (76 or 150 mm), a gun—based on a prop used by Marvin, the Paranoid Android, that shoots foam darts—a crystal cube, shot glasses, a ten-inch (254 mm) high version of Marvin with eyes that light up green, and "yarn doll" versions of Arthur Dent, Ford Prefect, Trillian, Marvin and Zaphod Beeblebrox. Also, various audio tracks were released to coincide with the movie, notably re-recordings of "Marvin" and "Reasons To Be Miserable", sung by Stephen Fry, along with some of the "Guide Entries", newly written material read in-character by Fry.
Towel Day
Celebrated on 25 May, Towel Day is a fan-created event in which they carry a towel with them throughout the day, in reference to the importance of towels as a tool of a galactic hitchhiker described in the work. The annual event was started in 2001 two weeks after Adams' death.
42, or The Answer to the Ultimate Question of Life, The Universe, and Everything
In the works, the number 42 is given as The Answer to the Ultimate Question of Life, The Universe, and Everything by the computer Deep Thought. The absurdly simple answer to a complex philosophical question became a frequent reference in popular culture in homage to The Hitchhiker's Guide, particularly within works of science fiction and in video games, such as in Doctor Who, Lost, Star Trek and The X-Files.
2020 was the 42nd anniversary of HG2G appearing on Radio 4. The book Hitchhiking: Cultural Inroads was dedicated to the memory of British actor Stephen V. Moore who died in Oct 2019 and played the voice of Marvin the Paranoid Android in the original BBC Radio and Television Series.
Other references in popular culture
Two asteroids, 18610 Arthurdent and 25924 Douglasadams were named after Arthur Dent and Douglas Adams, as both had been discovered shortly after Adams' death in 2001. The fish species Bidenichthys beeblebroxi and moth species Erechthias beeblebroxi were both named after the character of Zaphod Beeblebrox.
Radiohead's song "Paranoid Android" was named after the character of Marvin the Paranoid Android. The band's singer Thom Yorke used the character's name jokingly, as the song was not about depression, but Yorke knew many of his fans felt that he should seem to be depressed. The album OK Computer which "Paranoid Android" appears on is also taken from The Hitchhiker's Guide, referencing how Zaphod would address the Heart of Gold's onboard computer Eddie, and was selected by the band after listening to the radio plays while travelling on tour.
SpaceX CEO Elon Musk has stated that The Hitchhikers's Guide is one of his favourite works, his "favorite philosopher is Douglas Adams" and his favourite spaceship ever is in The Hitchhikers's Guide. Musk said the attitude that Adams presented through The Hitchhiker's Guide had influenced the vision behind both SpaceX and Tesla Motors. When Musk launched his Tesla Roadster into an elliptical heliocentric orbit as part of the initial test launch of the Falcon Heavy, he had a copy of Douglas Adams' novel The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy in the glovebox, along with references to the book in the form of a towel and a sign on the dashboard that reads "DON'T PANIC!", as a nod to the Hitchhiker's Guide.
Other Hitchhiker's-related books and stories
Related stories
A short story by Adams, "Young Zaphod Plays It Safe", first appeared in 1986, in The Utterly Utterly Merry Comic Relief Christmas Book, a special large-print compilation of different stories and pictures that raised money for the then-new Comic Relief charity in the UK. The story also appears in some of the omnibus editions of the trilogy, and in The Salmon of Doubt. There are two versions of this story, one of which is slightly more explicit in its political commentary.
A novel, Douglas Adams' Starship Titanic: A Novel, written by Terry Jones, is based on Adams's computer game of the same name, Douglas Adams's Starship Titanic, which in turn is based on an idea from Life, the Universe and Everything. The idea concerns a luxury passenger starship that suffers "sudden and gratuitous total existence failure" on its maiden voyage.
Wowbagger the Infinitely Prolonged, a character from Life, the Universe and Everything, also appears in a short story by Adams titled "The Private Life of Genghis Khan" which appears in some early editions of The Salmon of Doubt.
Published radio scripts
Douglas Adams and Geoffrey Perkins collaborated on The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy: The Original Radio Scripts, first published in the United Kingdom and United States in 1985. A tenth-anniversary (of the script book publication) edition was printed in 1995, and a twenty-fifth-anniversary (of the first radio series broadcast) edition was printed in 2003.
The 2004 series was produced by Above The Title Productions and the scripts were published in July 2005, with production notes for each episode. This second radio script book is entitled The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Radio Scripts: The Tertiary, Quandary and Quintessential Phases. Douglas Adams gets the primary writer's credit (as he wrote the original novels), and there is a foreword by Simon Jones, introductions by the producer and the director, and other introductory notes from other members of the cast.
See also
Hitchhiking
List of characters from The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy
Phrases from The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy
The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy cast lists
"The Last Question", a story written by Isaac Asimov that inspired Deep Thought
Timeline of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy versions
Towel Day
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
External links
Official sites
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Other links
1978 radio programme debuts
BBC Radio comedy programmes
British radio dramas
Comic science fiction novels
Novel series
Novels by Douglas Adams
The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (radio series)
Novels about time travel
Hitchhiking in fiction
Radio programs adapted into comics
Radio programs adapted into novels
Radio programs adapted into plays
Radio programs adapted into video games
Radio programs adapted into television shows
Post-apocalyptic fiction
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubble%20Space%20Telescope
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Hubble Space Telescope
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The Hubble Space Telescope (often referred to as HST or Hubble) is a space telescope that was launched into low Earth orbit in 1990 and remains in operation. It was not the first space telescope, but it is one of the largest and most versatile, renowned both as a vital research tool and as a public relations boon for astronomy. The Hubble telescope is named after astronomer Edwin Hubble and is one of NASA's Great Observatories, along with the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (1991–2000), the Chandra X-ray Observatory (1999–present), and the Spitzer Space Telescope (2003–2020). The Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) selects Hubble's targets and processes the resulting data, while the Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) controls the spacecraft.
Hubble features a mirror, and its five main instruments observe in the ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Hubble's orbit outside the distortion of atmosphere of Earth allows it to capture extremely high-resolution images with substantially lower background light than ground-based telescopes. It has recorded some of the most detailed visible light images, allowing a deep view into space. Many Hubble observations have led to breakthroughs in astrophysics, such as determining the rate of expansion of the universe.
Space telescopes were proposed as early as 1923. Hubble was funded in the 1970s and built by the United States space agency NASA with contributions from the European Space Agency. Its intended launch was 1983, but the project was beset by technical delays, budget problems, and the 1986 Challenger disaster. Hubble was finally launched in 1990, but its main mirror had been ground incorrectly, resulting in spherical aberration that compromised the telescope's capabilities. The optics were corrected to their intended quality by a servicing mission in 1993.
Hubble is the only telescope designed to be maintained in space by astronauts. Five Space Shuttle missions have repaired, upgraded, and replaced systems on the telescope, including all five of the main instruments. The fifth mission was initially canceled on safety grounds following the Columbia disaster (2003), but after NASA administrator Michael D. Griffin approved it, it was completed in 2009. The telescope completed 30 years of operation in April 2020 and is predicted to last until 2030–2040. One successor to the Hubble telescope is the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), which was launched on December 25, 2021.
Conception, design and aim
Proposals and precursors
In 1923, Hermann Oberth — considered a father of modern rocketry, along with Robert H. Goddard and Konstantin Tsiolkovsky — published ("The Rocket into Planetary Space"), which mentioned how a telescope could be propelled into Earth orbit by a rocket.
The history of the Hubble Space Telescope can be traced back as far as 1946, to astronomer Lyman Spitzer's paper entitled "Astronomical advantages of an extraterrestrial observatory". In it, he discussed the two main advantages that a space-based observatory would have over ground-based telescopes. First, the angular resolution (the smallest separation at which objects can be clearly distinguished) would be limited only by diffraction, rather than by the turbulence in the atmosphere, which causes stars to twinkle, known to astronomers as seeing. At that time ground-based telescopes were limited to resolutions of 0.5–1.0 arcseconds, compared to a theoretical diffraction-limited resolution of about 0.05 arcsec for an optical telescope with a mirror in diameter. Second, a space-based telescope could observe infrared and ultraviolet light, which are strongly absorbed by the atmosphere of Earth.
Spitzer devoted much of his career to pushing for the development of a space telescope. In 1962, a report by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences recommended development of a space telescope as part of the space program, and in 1965 Spitzer was appointed as head of a committee given the task of defining scientific objectives for a large space telescope.
Crucial was also the work of Nancy Grace Roman who together with Spitzer are known as the mother and father of Hubble, before NASA endorsement she gave public lectures touting the scientific value of the telescope and later worked as the program scientist setting up the steering group in charge of making astronomer needs feasible to implement as well writing testimony for Congress throughout the 1970s to continue to fund the telescope and in general shaping NASA's standard for operation of large scientific projects.
Space-based astronomy had begun on a very small scale following World War II, as scientists made use of developments that had taken place in rocket technology. The first ultraviolet spectrum of the Sun was obtained in 1946, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) launched the Orbiting Solar Observatory (OSO) to obtain UV, X-ray, and gamma-ray spectra in 1962. An orbiting solar telescope was launched in 1962 by the United Kingdom as part of the Ariel space program, and in 1966 NASA launched the first Orbiting Astronomical Observatory (OAO) mission. OAO-1's battery failed after three days, terminating the mission. It was followed by Orbiting Astronomical Observatory 2 (OAO-2), which carried out ultraviolet observations of stars and galaxies from its launch in 1968 until 1972, well beyond its original planned lifetime of one year.
The OSO and OAO missions demonstrated the important role space-based observations could play in astronomy. In 1968, NASA developed firm plans for a space-based reflecting telescope with a mirror in diameter, known provisionally as the Large Orbiting Telescope or Large Space Telescope (LST), with a launch slated for 1979. These plans emphasized the need for crewed maintenance missions to the telescope to ensure such a costly program had a lengthy working life, and the concurrent development of plans for the reusable Space Shuttle indicated that the technology to allow this was soon to become available.
Quest for funding
The continuing success of the OAO program encouraged increasingly strong consensus within the astronomical community that the LST should be a major goal. In 1970, NASA established two committees, one to plan the engineering side of the space telescope project, and the other to determine the scientific goals of the mission. Once these had been established, the next hurdle for NASA was to obtain funding for the instrument, which would be far more costly than any Earth-based telescope. The U.S. Congress questioned many aspects of the proposed budget for the telescope and forced cuts in the budget for the planning stages, which at the time consisted of very detailed studies of potential instruments and hardware for the telescope. In 1974, public spending cuts led to Congress deleting all funding for the telescope project.
In response a nationwide lobbying effort was coordinated among astronomers. Many astronomers met congressmen and senators in person, and large scale letter-writing campaigns were organized. The National Academy of Sciences published a report emphasizing the need for a space telescope, and eventually the Senate agreed to half the budget that had originally been approved by Congress.
The funding issues led to something of a reduction in the scale of the project, with the proposed mirror diameter reduced from 3 m to 2.4 m, both to cut costs and to allow a more compact and effective configuration for the telescope hardware. A proposed precursor space telescope to test the systems to be used on the main satellite was dropped, and budgetary concerns also prompted collaboration with the European Space Agency (ESA). ESA agreed to provide funding and supply one of the first generation instruments for the telescope, as well as the solar cells that would power it, and staff to work on the telescope in the United States, in return for European astronomers being guaranteed at least 15% of the observing time on the telescope. Congress eventually approved funding of US$36 million for 1978, and the design of the LST began in earnest, aiming for a launch date of 1983. In 1983, the telescope was named after Edwin Hubble, who confirmed one of the greatest scientific discoveries of the 20th century, made by Georges Lemaître, that the universe is expanding.
Construction and engineering
Once the Space Telescope project had been given the go-ahead, work on the program was divided among many institutions. Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) was given responsibility for the design, development, and construction of the telescope, while Goddard Space Flight Center was given overall control of the scientific instruments and ground-control center for the mission. MSFC commissioned the optics company Perkin-Elmer to design and build the Optical Tube Assembly (OTA) and Fine Guidance Sensors for the space telescope. Lockheed was commissioned to construct and integrate the spacecraft in which the telescope would be housed.
Optical Tube Assembly
Optically, the HST is a Cassegrain reflector of Ritchey–Chrétien design, as are most large professional telescopes. This design, with two hyperbolic mirrors, is known for good imaging performance over a wide field of view, with the disadvantage that the mirrors have shapes that are hard to fabricate and test. The mirror and optical systems of the telescope determine the final performance, and they were designed to exacting specifications. Optical telescopes typically have mirrors polished to an accuracy of about a tenth of the wavelength of visible light, but the Space Telescope was to be used for observations from the visible through the ultraviolet (shorter wavelengths) and was specified to be diffraction limited to take full advantage of the space environment. Therefore, its mirror needed to be polished to an accuracy of 10 nanometers, or about 1/65 of the wavelength of red light. On the long wavelength end, the OTA was not designed with optimum IR performance in mind—for example, the mirrors are kept at stable (and warm, about 15 °C) temperatures by heaters. This limits Hubble's performance as an infrared telescope.
Perkin-Elmer intended to use custom-built and extremely sophisticated computer-controlled polishing machines to grind the mirror to the required shape. However, in case their cutting-edge technology ran into difficulties, NASA demanded that PE sub-contract to Kodak to construct a back-up mirror using traditional mirror-polishing techniques. (The team of Kodak and Itek also bid on the original mirror polishing work. Their bid called for the two companies to double-check each other's work, which would have almost certainly caught the polishing error that later caused such problems.) The Kodak mirror is now on permanent display at the National Air and Space Museum. An Itek mirror built as part of the effort is now used in the 2.4 m telescope at the Magdalena Ridge Observatory.
Construction of the Perkin-Elmer mirror began in 1979, starting with a blank manufactured by Corning from their ultra-low expansion glass. To keep the mirror's weight to a minimum it consisted of top and bottom plates, each thick, sandwiching a honeycomb lattice. Perkin-Elmer simulated microgravity by supporting the mirror from the back with 130 rods that exerted varying amounts of force. This ensured the mirror's final shape would be correct and to specification when finally deployed. Mirror polishing continued until May 1981. NASA reports at the time questioned Perkin-Elmer's managerial structure, and the polishing began to slip behind schedule and over budget. To save money, NASA halted work on the back-up mirror and put the launch date of the telescope back to October 1984. The mirror was completed by the end of 1981; it was washed using of hot, deionized water and then received a reflective coating of 65 nm-thick aluminum and a protective coating of 25 nm-thick magnesium fluoride.
Doubts continued to be expressed about Perkin-Elmer's competence on a project of this importance, as their budget and timescale for producing the rest of the OTA continued to inflate. In response to a schedule described as "unsettled and changing daily", NASA postponed the launch date of the telescope until April 1985. Perkin-Elmer's schedules continued to slip at a rate of about one month per quarter, and at times delays reached one day for each day of work. NASA was forced to postpone the launch date until March and then September 1986. By this time, the total project budget had risen to US$1.175 billion.
Spacecraft systems
The spacecraft in which the telescope and instruments were to be housed was another major engineering challenge. It would have to withstand frequent passages from direct sunlight into the darkness of Earth's shadow, which would cause major changes in temperature, while being stable enough to allow extremely accurate pointing of the telescope. A shroud of multi-layer insulation keeps the temperature within the telescope stable and surrounds a light aluminum shell in which the telescope and instruments sit. Within the shell, a graphite-epoxy frame keeps the working parts of the telescope firmly aligned. Because graphite composites are hygroscopic, there was a risk that water vapor absorbed by the truss while in Lockheed's clean room would later be expressed in the vacuum of space; resulting in the telescope's instruments being covered by ice. To reduce that risk, a nitrogen gas purge was performed before launching the telescope into space.
While construction of the spacecraft in which the telescope and instruments would be housed proceeded somewhat more smoothly than the construction of the OTA, Lockheed still experienced some budget and schedule slippage, and by the summer of 1985, construction of the spacecraft was 30% over budget and three months behind schedule. An MSFC report said Lockheed tended to rely on NASA directions rather than take their own initiative in the construction.
Computer systems and data processing
The two initial, primary computers on the HST were the 1.25 MHz DF-224 system, built by Rockwell Autonetics, which contained three redundant CPUs, and two redundant NSSC-1 (NASA Standard Spacecraft Computer, Model 1) systems, developed by Westinghouse and GSFC using diode–transistor logic (DTL). A co-processor for the DF-224 was added during Servicing Mission 1 in 1993, which consisted of two redundant strings of an Intel-based 80386 processor with an 80387 math co-processor. The DF-224 and its 386 co-processor were replaced by a 25 MHz Intel-based 80486 processor system during Servicing Mission 3A in 1999. The new computer is 20 times faster, with six times more memory, than the DF-224 it replaced. It increases throughput by moving some computing tasks from the ground to the spacecraft and saves money by allowing the use of modern programming languages.
Additionally, some of the science instruments and components had their own embedded microprocessor-based control systems. The MATs (Multiple Access Transponder) components, MAT-1 and MAT-2, utilize Hughes Aircraft CDP1802CD microprocessors. The Wide Field and Planetary Camera (WFPC) also utilized an RCA 1802 microprocessor (or possibly the older 1801 version). The WFPC-1 was replaced by the WFPC-2 during Servicing Mission 1 in 1993, which was then replaced by the Wide Field Camera 3 (WFC3) during Servicing Mission 4 in 2009. The upgrade extended Hubble's capability of seeing deeper into the universe and providing images in three broad regions of the spectrum.
Initial instruments
When launched, the HST carried five scientific instruments: the Wide Field and Planetary Camera (WF/PC), Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph (GHRS), High Speed Photometer (HSP), Faint Object Camera (FOC) and the Faint Object Spectrograph (FOS). WF/PC used a radial instrument bay, and the other 4 instruments were each installed in an axial instrument bay.
WF/PC was a high-resolution imaging device primarily intended for optical observations. It was built by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and incorporated a set of 48 filters isolating spectral lines of particular astrophysical interest. The instrument contained eight charge-coupled device (CCD) chips divided between two cameras, each using four CCDs. Each CCD has a resolution of 0.64 megapixels. The wide field camera (WFC) covered a large angular field at the expense of resolution, while the planetary camera (PC) took images at a longer effective focal length than the WF chips, giving it a greater magnification.
The Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph (GHRS) was a spectrograph designed to operate in the ultraviolet. It was built by the Goddard Space Flight Center and could achieve a spectral resolution of 90,000. Also optimized for ultraviolet observations were the FOC and FOS, which were capable of the highest spatial resolution of any instruments on Hubble. Rather than CCDs, these three instruments used photon-counting digicons as their detectors. The FOC was constructed by ESA, while the University of California, San Diego, and Martin Marietta Corporation built the FOS.
The final instrument was the HSP, designed and built at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. It was optimized for visible and ultraviolet light observations of variable stars and other astronomical objects varying in brightness. It could take up to 100,000 measurements per second with a photometric accuracy of about 2% or better.
HST's guidance system can also be used as a scientific instrument. Its three Fine Guidance Sensors (FGS) are primarily used to keep the telescope accurately pointed during an observation, but can also be used to carry out extremely accurate astrometry; measurements accurate to within 0.0003 arcseconds have been achieved.
Ground support
The Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) is responsible for the scientific operation of the telescope and the delivery of data products to astronomers. STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA) and is physically located in Baltimore, Maryland on the Homewood campus of Johns Hopkins University, one of the 39 U.S. universities and seven international affiliates that make up the AURA consortium. STScI was established in 1981 after something of a power struggle between NASA and the scientific community at large. NASA had wanted to keep this function in-house, but scientists wanted it to be based in an academic establishment. The Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility (ST-ECF), established at Garching bei München near Munich in 1984, provided similar support for European astronomers until 2011, when these activities were moved to the European Space Astronomy Centre.
One rather complex task that falls to STScI is scheduling observations for the telescope. Hubble is in a low-Earth orbit to enable servicing missions, but this means most astronomical targets are occulted by the Earth for slightly less than half of each orbit. Observations cannot take place when the telescope passes through the South Atlantic Anomaly due to elevated radiation levels, and there are also sizable exclusion zones around the Sun (precluding observations of Mercury), Moon and Earth. The solar avoidance angle is about 50°, to keep sunlight from illuminating any part of the OTA. Earth and Moon avoidance keeps bright light out of the FGSs, and keeps scattered light from entering the instruments. If the FGSs are turned off, the Moon and Earth can be observed. Earth observations were used very early in the program to generate flat-fields for the WFPC1 instrument. There is a so-called continuous viewing zone (CVZ), at roughly 90° to the plane of Hubble's orbit, in which targets are not occulted for long periods.
Due to the precession of the orbit, the location of the CVZ moves slowly over a period of eight weeks. Because the limb of the Earth is always within about 30° of regions within the CVZ, the brightness of scattered earthshine may be elevated for long periods during CVZ observations. Hubble orbits in low Earth orbit at an altitude of approximately and an inclination of 28.5°. The position along its orbit changes over time in a way that is not accurately predictable. The density of the upper atmosphere varies according to many factors, and this means Hubble's predicted position for six weeks' time could be in error by up to . Observation schedules are typically finalized only a few days in advance, as a longer lead time would mean there was a chance the target would be unobservable by the time it was due to be observed. Engineering support for HST is provided by NASA and contractor personnel at the Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, south of the STScI. Hubble's operation is monitored 24 hours per day by four teams of flight controllers who make up Hubble's Flight Operations Team.
Challenger disaster, delays, and eventual launch
By January 1986, the planned launch date of October looked feasible, but the Challenger explosion brought the U.S. space program to a halt, grounding the Shuttle fleet and forcing the launch of Hubble to be postponed for several years. The telescope had to be kept in a clean room, powered up and purged with nitrogen, until a launch could be rescheduled. This costly situation (about per month) pushed the overall costs of the project even higher. This delay did allow time for engineers to perform extensive tests, swap out a possibly failure-prone battery, and make other improvements. Furthermore, the ground software needed to control Hubble was not ready in 1986, and was barely ready by the 1990 launch. Following the resumption of shuttle flights, successfully launched the Hubble on April 24, 1990, as part of the STS-31 mission.
At launch, NASA had spent approximately in inflation-adjusted 2010 dollars on the project. Hubble's cumulative costs are estimated to be about in 2015 dollars, which include all subsequent servicing costs, but not ongoing operations, making it the most expensive science mission in NASA history.
List of Hubble instruments
Hubble accommodates five science instruments at a given time, plus the Fine Guidance Sensors, which are mainly used for aiming the telescope but are occasionally used for scientific astrometry measurements. Early instruments were replaced with more advanced ones during the Shuttle servicing missions. COSTAR was a corrective optics device rather than a science instrument, but occupied one of the four axial instrument bays.
Since the final servicing mission in 2009, the four active instruments have been ACS, COS, STIS and WFC3. NICMOS is kept in hibernation, but may be revived if WFC3 were to fail in the future.
Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS; 2002–present)
Cosmic Origins Spectrograph (COS; 2009–present)
Corrective Optics Space Telescope Axial Replacement (COSTAR; 1993–2009)
Faint Object Camera (FOC; 1990–2002)
Faint Object Spectrograph (FOS; 1990–1997)
Fine Guidance Sensor (FGS; 1990–present)
Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph (GHRS/HRS; 1990–1997)
High Speed Photometer (HSP; 1990–1993)
Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer (NICMOS; 1997–present, hibernating since 2008)
Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS; 1997–present (non-operative 2004–2009))
Wide Field and Planetary Camera (WFPC; 1990–1993)
Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2; 1993–2009)
Wide Field Camera 3 (WFC3; 2009–present)
Of the former instruments, three (COSTAR, FOS and WFPC2) are displayed in the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum. The FOC is in the Dornier museum, Germany. The HSP is in the Space Place at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. The first WFPC was dismantled, and some components were then re-used in WFC3.
Flawed mirror
Within weeks of the launch of the telescope, the returned images indicated a serious problem with the optical system. Although the first images appeared to be sharper than those of ground-based telescopes, Hubble failed to achieve a final sharp focus and the best image quality obtained was drastically lower than expected. Images of point sources spread out over a radius of more than one arcsecond, instead of having a point spread function (PSF) concentrated within a circle 0.1 arcseconds (485 nrad) in diameter, as had been specified in the design criteria.
Analysis of the flawed images revealed that the primary mirror had been polished to the wrong shape. Although it was believed to be one of the most precisely figured optical mirrors ever made, smooth to about 10 nanometers, the outer perimeter was too flat by about 2200 nanometers (about mm or inch). This difference was catastrophic, introducing severe spherical aberration, a flaw in which light reflecting off the edge of a mirror focuses on a different point from the light reflecting off its center.
The effect of the mirror flaw on scientific observations depended on the particular observation—the core of the aberrated PSF was sharp enough to permit high-resolution observations of bright objects, and spectroscopy of point sources was affected only through a sensitivity loss. However, the loss of light to the large, out-of-focus halo severely reduced the usefulness of the telescope for faint objects or high-contrast imaging. This meant nearly all the cosmological programs were essentially impossible, since they required observation of exceptionally faint objects. This led politicians to question NASA's competence, scientists to rue the cost which could have gone to more productive endeavors, and comedians to make jokes about NASA and the telescope. In the 1991 comedy The Naked Gun 2½: The Smell of Fear, in a scene where historical disasters are displayed, Hubble is pictured with RMS Titanic and LZ 129 Hindenburg. Nonetheless, during the first three years of the Hubble mission, before the optical corrections, the telescope still carried out a large number of productive observations of less demanding targets. The error was well characterized and stable, enabling astronomers to partially compensate for the defective mirror by using sophisticated image processing techniques such as deconvolution.
Origin of the problem
A commission headed by Lew Allen, director of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, was established to determine how the error could have arisen. The Allen Commission found that a reflective null corrector, a testing device used to achieve a properly shaped non-spherical mirror, had been incorrectly assembled—one lens was out of position by . During the initial grinding and polishing of the mirror, Perkin-Elmer analyzed its surface with two conventional refractive null correctors. However, for the final manufacturing step (figuring), they switched to the custom-built reflective null corrector, designed explicitly to meet very strict tolerances. The incorrect assembly of this device resulted in the mirror being ground very precisely but to the wrong shape. A few final tests, using the conventional null correctors, correctly reported spherical aberration. But these results were dismissed, thus missing the opportunity to catch the error, because the reflective null corrector was considered more accurate.
The commission blamed the failings primarily on Perkin-Elmer. Relations between NASA and the optics company had been severely strained during the telescope construction, due to frequent schedule slippage and cost overruns. NASA found that Perkin-Elmer did not review or supervise the mirror construction adequately, did not assign its best optical scientists to the project (as it had for the prototype), and in particular did not involve the optical designers in the construction and verification of the mirror. While the commission heavily criticized Perkin-Elmer for these managerial failings, NASA was also criticized for not picking up on the quality control shortcomings, such as relying totally on test results from a single instrument.
Design of a solution
Many feared that Hubble would be abandoned. The design of the telescope had always incorporated servicing missions, and astronomers immediately began to seek potential solutions to the problem that could be applied at the first servicing mission, scheduled for 1993. While Kodak had ground a back-up mirror for Hubble, it would have been impossible to replace the mirror in orbit, and too expensive and time-consuming to bring the telescope back to Earth for a refit. Instead, the fact that the mirror had been ground so precisely to the wrong shape led to the design of new optical components with exactly the same error but in the opposite sense, to be added to the telescope at the servicing mission, effectively acting as "spectacles" to correct the spherical aberration.
The first step was a precise characterization of the error in the main mirror. Working backwards from images of point sources, astronomers determined that the conic constant of the mirror as built was , instead of the intended . The same number was also derived by analyzing the null corrector used by Perkin-Elmer to figure the mirror, as well as by analyzing interferograms obtained during ground testing of the mirror.
Because of the way the HST's instruments were designed, two different sets of correctors were required. The design of the Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2, already planned to replace the existing WF/PC, included relay mirrors to direct light onto the four separate charge-coupled device (CCD) chips making up its two cameras. An inverse error built into their surfaces could completely cancel the aberration of the primary. However, the other instruments lacked any intermediate surfaces that could be configured in this way, and so required an external correction device.
The Corrective Optics Space Telescope Axial Replacement (COSTAR) system was designed to correct the spherical aberration for light focused at the FOC, FOS, and GHRS. It consists of two mirrors in the light path with one ground to correct the aberration. To fit the COSTAR system onto the telescope, one of the other instruments had to be removed, and astronomers selected the High Speed Photometer to be sacrificed. By 2002, all the original instruments requiring COSTAR had been replaced by instruments with their own corrective optics. COSTAR was removed and returned to Earth in 2009 where it is exhibited at the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C. The area previously used by COSTAR is now occupied by the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph.
Servicing missions and new instruments
Servicing overview
Hubble was designed to accommodate regular servicing and equipment upgrades while in orbit. Instruments and limited life items were designed as orbital replacement units. Five servicing missions (SM 1, 2, 3A, 3B, and 4) were flown by NASA space shuttles, the first in December 1993 and the last in May 2009. Servicing missions were delicate operations that began with maneuvering to intercept the telescope in orbit and carefully retrieving it with the shuttle's mechanical arm. The necessary work was then carried out in multiple tethered spacewalks over a period of four to five days. After a visual inspection of the telescope, astronauts conducted repairs, replaced failed or degraded components, upgraded equipment, and installed new instruments. Once work was completed, the telescope was redeployed, typically after boosting to a higher orbit to address the orbital decay caused by atmospheric drag.
Servicing Mission 1
The first Hubble servicing mission was scheduled for 1993 before the mirror problem was discovered. It assumed greater importance, as the astronauts would need to do extensive work to install corrective optics; failure would have resulted in either abandoning Hubble or accepting its permanent disability. Other components failed before the mission, causing the repair cost to rise to $500 million (not including the cost of the shuttle flight). A successful repair would help demonstrate the viability of building Space Station Alpha.
STS-49 in 1992 demonstrated the difficulty of space work. While its rescue of Intelsat 603 received praise, the astronauts had taken possibly reckless risks in doing so. Neither the rescue nor the unrelated assembly of prototype space station components occurred as the astronauts had trained, causing NASA to reassess planning and training, including for the Hubble repair. The agency assigned to the mission Story Musgrave—who had worked on satellite repair procedures since 1976—and six other experienced astronauts, including two from STS-49. The first mission director since Project Apollo would coordinate a crew with 16 previous shuttle flights. The astronauts were trained to use about a hundred specialized tools.
Heat had been the problem on prior spacewalks, which occurred in sunlight. Hubble needed to be repaired out of sunlight. Musgrave discovered during vacuum training, seven months before the mission, that spacesuit gloves did not sufficiently protect against the cold of space. After STS-57 confirmed the issue in orbit, NASA quickly changed equipment, procedures, and flight plan. Seven total mission simulations occurred before launch, the most thorough preparation in shuttle history. No complete Hubble mockup existed, so the astronauts studied many separate models (including one at the Smithsonian) and mentally combined their varying and contradictory details.
Service Mission 1 flew aboard Endeavour in December 1993, and involved installation of several instruments and other equipment over ten days. Most importantly, the High Speed Photometer was replaced with the COSTAR corrective optics package, and WF/PC was replaced with the Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2) with an internal optical correction system. The solar arrays and their drive electronics were also replaced, as well as four gyroscopes in the telescope pointing system, two electrical control units and other electrical components, and two magnetometers. The onboard computers were upgraded with added coprocessors, and Hubble's orbit was boosted.
On January 13, 1994, NASA declared the mission a complete success and showed the first sharper images. The mission was one of the most complex performed up until that date, involving five long extra-vehicular activity periods. Its success was a boon for NASA, as well as for the astronomers who now had a more capable space telescope.
Servicing Mission 2
Servicing Mission 2, flown by Discovery in February 1997, replaced the GHRS and the FOS with the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS) and the Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer (NICMOS), replaced an Engineering and Science Tape Recorder with a new Solid State Recorder, and repaired thermal insulation. NICMOS contained a heat sink of solid nitrogen to reduce the thermal noise from the instrument, but shortly after it was installed, an unexpected thermal expansion resulted in part of the heat sink coming into contact with an optical baffle. This led to an increased warming rate for the instrument and reduced its original expected lifetime of 4.5 years to about two years.
Servicing Mission 3A
Servicing Mission 3A, flown by Discovery, took place in December 1999, and was a split-off from Servicing Mission3 after three of the six onboard gyroscopes had failed. The fourth failed a few weeks before the mission, rendering the telescope incapable of performing scientific observations. The mission replaced all six gyroscopes, replaced a Fine Guidance Sensor and the computer, installed a Voltage/temperature Improvement Kit (VIK) to prevent battery overcharging, and replaced thermal insulation blankets.
Servicing Mission 3B
Servicing Mission 3B flown by Columbia in March 2002 saw the installation of a new instrument, with the FOC (which, except for the Fine Guidance Sensors when used for astrometry, was the last of the original instruments) being replaced by the Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS). This meant COSTAR was no longer required, since all new instruments had built-in correction for the main mirror aberration. The mission also revived NICMOS by installing a closed-cycle cooler and replaced the solar arrays for the second time, providing 30 percent more power.
Servicing Mission 4
Plans called for Hubble to be serviced in February 2005, but the Columbia disaster in 2003, in which the orbiter disintegrated on re-entry into the atmosphere, had wide-ranging effects to the Hubble program and other NASA missions. NASA Administrator Sean O'Keefe decided all future shuttle missions had to be able to reach the safe haven of the International Space Station should in-flight problems develop. As no shuttles were capable of reaching both HST and the space station during the same mission, future crewed service missions were canceled. This decision was criticised by numerous astronomers who felt Hubble was valuable enough to merit the human risk. HST's planned successor, the James Webb Telescope (JWST), as of 2004 was not expected to launch until at least 2011. A gap in space-observing capabilities between a decommissioning of Hubble and the commissioning of a successor was of major concern to many astronomers, given the significant scientific impact of HST. The consideration that JWST will not be located in low Earth orbit, and therefore cannot be easily upgraded or repaired in the event of an early failure, only made concerns more acute. On the other hand, many astronomers felt strongly that servicing Hubble should not take place if the expense were to come from the JWST budget.
In January 2004, O'Keefe said he would review his decision to cancel the final servicing mission to HST, due to public outcry and requests from Congress for NASA to look for a way to save it. The National Academy of Sciences convened an official panel, which recommended in July 2004 that the HST should be preserved despite the apparent risks. Their report urged "NASA should take no actions that would preclude a space shuttle servicing mission to the Hubble Space Telescope". In August 2004, O'Keefe asked Goddard Space Flight Center to prepare a detailed proposal for a robotic service mission. These plans were later canceled, the robotic mission being described as "not feasible". In late 2004, several Congressional members, led by Senator Barbara Mikulski, held public hearings and carried on a fight with much public support (including thousands of letters from school children across the U.S.) to get the Bush Administration and NASA to reconsider the decision to drop plans for a Hubble rescue mission.
The nomination in April 2005 of a new NASA Administrator, Michael D. Griffin, changed the situation, as Griffin stated he would consider a crewed servicing mission. Soon after his appointment Griffin authorized Goddard to proceed with preparations for a crewed Hubble maintenance flight, saying he would make the final decision after the next two shuttle missions. In October 2006 Griffin gave the final go-ahead, and the 11-day mission by Atlantis was scheduled for October 2008. Hubble's main data-handling unit failed in September 2008, halting all reporting of scientific data until its back-up was brought online on October 25, 2008. Since a failure of the backup unit would leave the HST helpless, the service mission was postponed to incorporate a replacement for the primary unit.
Servicing Mission 4 (SM4), flown by Atlantis in May 2009, was the last scheduled shuttle mission for HST. SM4 installed the replacement data-handling unit, repaired the ACS and STIS systems, installed improved nickel hydrogen batteries, and replaced other components including all six gyroscopes. SM4 also installed two new observation instruments—Wide Field Camera 3 (WFC3) and the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph (COS)—and the Soft Capture and Rendezvous System, which will enable the future rendezvous, capture, and safe disposal of Hubble by either a crewed or robotic mission. Except for the ACS's High Resolution Channel, which could not be repaired and was disabled, the work accomplished during SM4 rendered the telescope fully functional.
Major projects
Since the start of the program, a number of research projects have been carried out, some of them almost solely with Hubble, others coordinated facilities such as Chandra X-ray Observatory and ESO's Very Large Telescope. Although the Hubble observatory is nearing the end of its life, there are still major projects scheduled for it. One example is the upcoming Frontier Fields program, inspired by the results of Hubble's deep observation of the galaxy cluster Abell 1689.
Cosmic Assembly Near-infrared Deep Extragalactic Legacy Survey
In an August 2013 press release, CANDELS was referred to as "the largest project in the history of Hubble". The survey "aims to explore galactic evolution in the early Universe, and the very first seeds of cosmic structure at less than one billion years after the Big Bang." The CANDELS project site describes the survey's goals as the following:
The Cosmic Assembly Near-IR Deep Extragalactic Legacy Survey is designed to document the first third of galactic evolution from z = 8 to 1.5 via deep imaging of more than 250,000 galaxies with WFC3/IR and ACS. It will also find the first Type Ia SNe beyond z > 1.5 and establish their accuracy as standard candles for cosmology. Five premier multi-wavelength sky regions are selected; each has multi-wavelength data from Spitzer and other facilities, and has extensive spectroscopy of the brighter galaxies. The use of five widely separated fields mitigates cosmic variance and yields statistically robust and complete samples of galaxies down to 109 solar masses out to z ~ 8.
Frontier Fields program
The program, officially named "Hubble Deep Fields Initiative 2012", is aimed to advance the knowledge of early galaxy formation by studying high-redshift galaxies in blank fields with the help of gravitational lensing to see the "faintest galaxies in the distant universe". The Frontier Fields web page describes the goals of the program being:
to reveal hitherto inaccessible populations of z = 5–10 galaxies that are ten to fifty times fainter intrinsically than any presently known
to solidify our understanding of the stellar masses and star formation histories of sub-L* galaxies at the earliest times
to provide the first statistically meaningful morphological characterization of star forming galaxies at z > 5
to find z > 8 galaxies stretched out enough by cluster lensing to discern internal structure and/or magnified enough by cluster lensing for spectroscopic follow-up.
Cosmic Evolution Survey (COSMOS)
The Cosmic Evolution Survey (COSMOS) is an astronomical survey designed to probe the formation and evolution of galaxies as a function of both cosmic time (redshift) and the local galaxy environment. The survey covers a two square degree equatorial field with spectroscopy and X-ray to radio imaging by most of the major space-based telescopes and a number of large ground based telescopes, making it a key focus region of extragalactic astrophysics. COSMOS was launched in 2006 as the largest project pursued by the Hubble Space Telescope at the time, and still is the largest continuous area of sky covered for the purposes of mapping deep space in blank fields, 2.5 times the area of the moon on the sky and 17 times larger than the largest of the CANDELS regions. The COSMOS scientific collaboration that was forged from the initial COSMOS survey is the largest and longest-running extragalactic collaboration, known for its collegiality and openness. The study of galaxies in their environment can be done only with large areas of the sky, larger than a half square degree. More than two million galaxies are detected, spanning 90% of the age of the Universe. The COSMOS collaboration is led by Caitlin Casey, Jeyhan Kartaltepe, and Vernesa Smolcic and involves more than 200 scientists in a dozen countries.
Public use
Policy
Anyone can apply for time on the telescope; there are no restrictions on nationality or academic affiliation, but funding for analysis is available only to U.S. institutions. Competition for time on the telescope is intense, with about one-fifth of the proposals submitted in each cycle earning time on the schedule.
Proposals
Calls for proposals are issued roughly annually, with time allocated for a cycle lasting about one year. Proposals are divided into several categories; "general observer" proposals are the most common, covering routine observations. "Snapshot observations" are those in which targets require only 45 minutes or less of telescope time, including overheads such as acquiring the target. Snapshot observations are used to fill in gaps in the telescope schedule that cannot be filled by regular general observer programs.
Astronomers may make "Target of Opportunity" proposals, in which observations are scheduled if a transient event covered by the proposal occurs during the scheduling cycle. In addition, up to 10% of the telescope time is designated "director's discretionary" (DD) time. Astronomers can apply to use DD time at any time of year, and it is typically awarded for study of unexpected transient phenomena such as supernovae.
Other uses of DD time have included the observations that led to views of the Hubble Deep Field and Hubble Ultra Deep Field, and in the first four cycles of telescope time, observations that were carried out by amateur astronomers.
Public image processing of Hubble data is encouraged as most of the data in the archives has not been processed into color imagery.
Use by amateur astronomers
The first director of STScI, Riccardo Giacconi, announced in 1986 that he intended to devote some of his director discretionary time to allowing amateur astronomers to use the telescope. The total time to be allocated was only a few hours per cycle but excited great interest among amateur astronomers.
Proposals for amateur time were stringently reviewed by a committee of amateur astronomers, and time was awarded only to proposals that were deemed to have genuine scientific merit, did not duplicate proposals made by professionals, and required the unique capabilities of the space telescope. Thirteen amateur astronomers were awarded time on the telescope, with observations being carried out between 1990 and 1997. One such study was "Transition Comets—UV Search for OH". The first proposal, "A Hubble Space Telescope Study of Posteclipse Brightening and Albedo Changes on Io", was published in Icarus, a journal devoted to solar system studies. A second study from another group of amateurs was also published in Icarus. After that time, however, budget reductions at STScI made the support of work by amateur astronomers untenable, and no additional amateur programs have been carried out.
Regular Hubble proposals still include findings or discovered objects by amateurs and citizen scientists. These observations are often in a collaboration with professional astronomers. One of earliest such observations is the Great White Spot of 1990 on planet Saturn, discovered by amateur astronomer S. Wilber and observed by HST under a proposal by J. Westphal (Caltech). Later professional-amateur observations by Hubble include discoveries by the Galaxy Zoo project, such as Voorwerpjes and Green Pea galaxies. The "Gems of the Galaxies" program is based on a list of objects by galaxy zoo volunteers that was shortened with the help of an online vote. Additionally there are observations of minor planets discovered by amateur astronomers, such as 2I/Borisov and changes in the atmosphere of the gas giants Jupiter and Saturn or the ice giants Uranus and Neptune. In the pro-am collaboration backyard worlds the HST was used to observe a planetary mass object, called WISE J0830+2837. The non-detection by the HST helped to classify this peculiar object.
Scientific results
Key projects
In the early 1980s, NASA and STScI convened four panels to discuss key projects. These were projects that were both scientifically important and would require significant telescope time, which would be explicitly dedicated to each project. This guaranteed that these particular projects would be completed early, in case the telescope failed sooner than expected. The panels identified three such projects: 1) a study of the nearby intergalactic medium using quasar absorption lines to determine the properties of the intergalactic medium and the gaseous content of galaxies and groups of galaxies; 2) a medium deep survey using the Wide Field Camera to take data whenever one of the other instruments was being used and 3) a project to determine the Hubble constant within ten percent by reducing the errors, both external and internal, in the calibration of the distance scale.
Important discoveries
Hubble has helped resolve some long-standing problems in astronomy, while also raising new questions. Some results have required new theories to explain them.
Age of the universe
Among its primary mission targets was to measure distances to Cepheid variable stars more accurately than ever before, and thus constrain the value of the Hubble constant, the measure of the rate at which the universe is expanding, which is also related to its age. Before the launch of HST, estimates of the Hubble constant typically had errors of up to 50%, but Hubble measurements of Cepheid variables in the Virgo Cluster and other distant galaxy clusters provided a measured value with an accuracy of ±10%, which is consistent with other more accurate measurements made since Hubble's launch using other techniques. The estimated age is now about 13.7 billion years, but before the Hubble Telescope, scientists predicted an age ranging from 10 to 20 billion years.
Expansion of the universe
While Hubble helped to refine estimates of the age of the universe, it also cast doubt on theories about its future. Astronomers from the High-z Supernova Search Team and the Supernova Cosmology Project used ground-based telescopes and HST to observe distant supernovae and uncovered evidence that, far from decelerating under the influence of gravity, the expansion of the universe may in fact be accelerating. Three members of these two groups have subsequently been awarded Nobel Prizes for their discovery. The cause of this acceleration remains poorly understood; the term.used for the currently-unknown cause is dark energy, signifying that it is dark (unable to be directly seen and detected) to our current scientific instruments.
Black holes
The high-resolution spectra and images provided by the HST have been especially well-suited to establishing the prevalence of black holes in the center of nearby galaxies. While it had been hypothesized in the early 1960s that black holes would be found at the centers of some galaxies, and astronomers in the 1980s identified a number of good black hole candidates, work conducted with Hubble shows that black holes are probably common to the centers of all galaxies. The Hubble programs further established that the masses of the nuclear black holes and properties of the galaxies are closely related. The legacy of the Hubble programs on black holes in galaxies is thus to demonstrate a deep connection between galaxies and their central black holes.
Extending visible wavelength images
A unique window on the Universe enabled by Hubble are the Hubble Deep Field, Hubble Ultra-Deep Field, and Hubble Extreme Deep Field images, which used Hubble's unmatched sensitivity at visible wavelengths to create images of small patches of sky that are the deepest ever obtained at optical wavelengths. The images reveal galaxies billions of light years away, and have generated a wealth of scientific papers, providing a new window on the early Universe. The Wide Field Camera3 improved the view of these fields in the infrared and ultraviolet, supporting the discovery of some of the most distant objects yet discovered, such as MACS0647-JD.
The non-standard object SCP 06F6 was discovered by the Hubble Space Telescope in February 2006.
On March 3, 2016, researchers using Hubble data announced the discovery of the farthest known galaxy to date: GN-z11. The Hubble observations occurred on February 11, 2015, and April 3, 2015, as part of the CANDELS/GOODS-North surveys.
Solar System discoveries
HST has also been used to study objects in the outer reaches of the Solar System, including the dwarf planets Pluto and Eris.
The collision of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 with Jupiter in 1994 was fortuitously timed for astronomers, coming just a few months after Servicing Mission1 had restored Hubble's optical performance. Hubble images of the planet were sharper than any taken since the passage of Voyager 2 in 1979, and were crucial in studying the dynamics of the collision of a comet with Jupiter, an event believed to occur once every few centuries.
During June and July 2012, U.S. astronomers using Hubble discovered Styx, a tiny fifth moon orbiting Pluto.
In March 2015, researchers announced that measurements of aurorae around Ganymede, one of Jupiter's moons, revealed that it has a subsurface ocean. Using Hubble to study the motion of its aurorae, the researchers determined that a large saltwater ocean was helping to suppress the interaction between Jupiter's magnetic field and that of Ganymede. The ocean is estimated to be deep, trapped beneath a ice crust.
From June to August 2015, Hubble was used to search for a Kuiper belt object (KBO) target for the New Horizons Kuiper Belt Extended Mission (KEM) when similar searches with ground telescopes failed to find a suitable target. This resulted in the discovery of at least five new KBOs, including the eventual KEM target, 486958 Arrokoth, that New Horizons performed a close fly-by of on January 1, 2019.
In August 2020, taking advantage of a total lunar eclipse, astronomers using NASA's Hubble Space Telescope have detected Earth's own brand of sunscreen – ozone – in our atmosphere. This method simulates how astronomers and astrobiology researchers will search for evidence of life beyond Earth by observing potential "biosignatures" on exoplanets (planets around other stars).
Supernova reappearance
On December 11, 2015, Hubble captured an image of the first-ever predicted reappearance of a supernova, dubbed "Refsdal", which was calculated using different mass models of a galaxy cluster whose gravity is warping the supernova's light. The supernova was previously seen in November 2014 behind galaxy cluster MACS J1149.5+2223 as part of Hubble's Frontier Fields program. Astronomers spotted four separate images of the supernova in an arrangement known as an Einstein Cross. The light from the cluster has taken about five billion years to reach Earth, though the supernova exploded some 10 billion years ago. Based on early lens models, a fifth image was predicted to reappear by the end of 2015. The detection of Refsdal's reappearance in December 2015 served as a unique opportunity for astronomers to test their models of how mass, especially dark matter, is distributed within this galaxy cluster.
Mass and size of Milky Way
In March 2019, observations from Hubble and data from the European Space Agency's Gaia space observatory were combined to determine that the Milky Way Galaxy weighs approximately 1.5 trillion solar units within a radius of 129,000 light years.
Other discoveries
Other discoveries made with Hubble data include proto-planetary disks (proplyds) in the Orion Nebula; evidence for the presence of extrasolar planets around Sun-like stars; and the optical counterparts of the still-mysterious gamma-ray bursts.
Impact on astronomy
Many objective measures show the positive impact of Hubble data on astronomy. Over 15,000 papers based on Hubble data have been published in peer-reviewed journals, and countless more have appeared in conference proceedings. Looking at papers several years after their publication, about one-third of all astronomy papers have no citations, while only two percent of papers based on Hubble data have no citations. On average, a paper based on Hubble data receives about twice as many citations as papers based on non-Hubble data. Of the 200 papers published each year that receive the most citations, about 10% are based on Hubble data.
Although the HST has clearly helped astronomical research, its financial cost has been large. A study on the relative astronomical benefits of different sizes of telescopes found that while papers based on HST data generate 15 times as many citations as a ground-based telescope such as the William Herschel Telescope, the HST costs about 100 times as much to build and maintain.
Deciding between building ground- versus space-based telescopes is complex. Even before Hubble was launched, specialized ground-based techniques such as aperture masking interferometry had obtained higher-resolution optical and infrared images than Hubble would achieve, though restricted to targets about 108 times brighter than the faintest targets observed by Hubble. Since then, advances in adaptive optics have extended the high-resolution imaging capabilities of ground-based telescopes to the infrared imaging of faint objects. The usefulness of adaptive optics versus HST observations depends strongly on the particular details of the research questions being asked. In the visible bands, adaptive optics can correct only a relatively small field of view, whereas HST can conduct high-resolution optical imaging over a wide field. Only a small fraction of astronomical objects are accessible to high-resolution ground-based imaging; in contrast Hubble can perform high-resolution observations of any part of the night sky, and on objects that are extremely faint.
Impact on aerospace engineering
In addition to its scientific results, Hubble has also made significant contributions to aerospace engineering, in particular the performance of systems in low Earth orbit (LEO). These insights result from Hubble's long lifetime on orbit, extensive instrumentation, and return of assemblies to the Earth where they can be studied in detail. In particular, Hubble has contributed to studies of the behavior of graphite composite structures in vacuum, optical contamination from residual gas and human servicing, radiation damage to electronics and sensors, and the long term behavior of multi-layer insulation. One lesson learned was that gyroscopes assembled using pressurized oxygen to deliver suspension fluid were prone to failure due to electric wire corrosion. Gyroscopes are now assembled using pressurized nitrogen. Another is that optical surfaces in LEO can have surprisingly long lifetimes; Hubble was only expected to last 15 years before the mirror became unusable, but after 14 years there was no measureable degradation. Finally, Hubble servicing missions, particularly those that serviced components not designed for in-space maintenance, have contributed towards the development of new tools and techniques for on-orbit repair.
Hubble data
Transmission to Earth
Hubble data was initially stored on the spacecraft. When launched, the storage facilities were old-fashioned reel-to-reel tape drives, but these were replaced by solid state data storage facilities during servicing missions2 and 3A. About twice daily, the Hubble Space Telescope radios data to a satellite in the geosynchronous Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS), which then downlinks the science data to one of two 60-foot (18-meter) diameter high-gain microwave antennas located at the White Sands Test Facility in White Sands, New Mexico. From there they are sent to the Space Telescope Operations Control Center at Goddard Space Flight Center, and finally to the Space Telescope Science Institute for archiving. Each week, HST downlinks approximately 140 gigabits of data.
Color images
All images from Hubble are monochromatic grayscale, taken through a variety of filters, each passing specific wavelengths of light, and incorporated in each camera. Color images are created by combining separate monochrome images taken through different filters. This process can also create false-color versions of images including infrared and ultraviolet channels, where infrared is typically rendered as a deep red and ultraviolet is rendered as a deep blue.
Archives
All Hubble data is eventually made available via the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes at STScI, CADC and ESA/ESAC. Data is usually proprietary—available only to the principal investigator (PI) and astronomers designated by the PI—for twelve months after being taken. The PI can apply to the director of the STScI to extend or reduce the proprietary period in some circumstances.
Observations made on Director's Discretionary Time are exempt from the proprietary period, and are released to the public immediately. Calibration data such as flat fields and dark frames are also publicly available straight away. All data in the archive is in the FITS format, which is suitable for astronomical analysis but not for public use. The Hubble Heritage Project processes and releases to the public a small selection of the most striking images in JPEG and TIFF formats.
Pipeline reduction
Astronomical data taken with CCDs must undergo several calibration steps before they are suitable for astronomical analysis. STScI has developed sophisticated software that automatically calibrates data when they are requested from the archive using the best calibration files available. This 'on-the-fly' processing means large data requests can take a day or more to be processed and returned. The process by which data is calibrated automatically is known as 'pipeline reduction', and is increasingly common at major observatories. Astronomers may if they wish retrieve the calibration files themselves and run the pipeline reduction software locally. This may be desirable when calibration files other than those selected automatically need to be used.
Data analysis
Hubble data can be analyzed using many different packages. STScI maintains the custom-made Space Telescope Science Data Analysis System (STSDAS) software, which contains all the programs needed to run pipeline reduction on raw data files, as well as many other astronomical image processing tools, tailored to the requirements of Hubble data. The software runs as a module of IRAF, a popular astronomical data reduction program.
Outreach activities
It has always been important for the Space Telescope to capture the public's imagination, given the considerable contribution of taxpayers to its construction and operational costs. After the difficult early years when the faulty mirror severely dented Hubble's reputation with the public, the first servicing mission allowed its rehabilitation as the corrected optics produced numerous remarkable images.
Several initiatives have helped to keep the public informed about Hubble activities.
In the United States, outreach efforts are coordinated by the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) Office for Public Outreach, which was established in 2000 to ensure that U.S. taxpayers saw the benefits of their investment in the space telescope program. To that end, STScI operates the HubbleSite.org website. The Hubble Heritage Project, operating out of the STScI, provides the public with high-quality images of the most interesting and striking objects observed. The Heritage team is composed of amateur and professional astronomers, as well as people with backgrounds outside astronomy, and emphasizes the aesthetic nature of Hubble images. The Heritage Project is granted a small amount of time to observe objects which, for scientific reasons, may not have images taken at enough wavelengths to construct a full-color image.
Since 1999, the leading Hubble outreach group in Europe has been the Hubble European Space Agency Information Centre (HEIC). This office was established at the Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility in Munich, Germany. HEIC's mission is to fulfill HST outreach and education tasks for the European Space Agency. The work is centered on the production of news and photo releases that highlight interesting Hubble results and images. These are often European in origin, and so increase awareness of both ESA's Hubble share (15%) and the contribution of European scientists to the observatory. ESA produces educational material, including a videocast series called Hubblecast designed to share world-class scientific news with the public.
The Hubble Space Telescope has won two Space Achievement Awards from the Space Foundation, for its outreach activities, in 2001 and 2010.
A replica of the Hubble Space Telescope is on the courthouse lawn in Marshfield, Missouri, the hometown of namesake Edwin P. Hubble.
Celebration images
The Hubble Space Telescope celebrated its 20th anniversary in space on April 24, 2010. To commemorate the occasion, NASA, ESA, and the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) released an image from the Carina Nebula.
To commemorate Hubble's 25th anniversary in space on April 24, 2015, STScI released images of the Westerlund 2 cluster, located about away in the constellation Carina, through its Hubble 25 website. The European Space Agency created a dedicated 25th anniversary page on its website. In April 2016, a special celebratory image of the Bubble Nebula was released for Hubble's 26th "birthday".
Equipment failures
Current status
It is operating with 3 new-style gyros (the 3 older gyros have failed)
STIS is operational
WFC3 is operational
COS is operational
ACS Wide Field Channel is operating (High Resolution Channel has failed)
NICMOS is offline, but perhaps could be reactivated if other instruments fail
Gyroscope rotation sensors
HST uses gyroscopes to detect and measure any rotations so it can stabilize itself in orbit and point accurately and steadily at astronomical targets. Three gyroscopes are normally required for operation; observations are still possible with two or one, but the area of sky that can be viewed would be somewhat restricted, and observations requiring very accurate pointing are more difficult. In 2018, the plan was to drop into one-gyroscope mode if less than three working gyroscopes were operational. The gyroscopes are part of the Pointing Control System, which uses five types of sensors (magnetic sensors, optical sensors, and the gyroscopes) and two types of actuators (reaction wheels and magnetic torquers).
After the Columbia disaster in 2003, it was unclear whether another servicing mission would be possible, and gyroscope life became a concern again, so engineers developed new software for two-gyroscope and one-gyroscope modes to maximize the potential lifetime. The development was successful, and in 2005, it was decided to switch to two-gyroscope mode for regular telescope operations as a means of extending the lifetime of the mission. The switch to this mode was made in August 2005, leaving Hubble with two gyroscopes in use, two on backup, and two inoperable. One more gyroscope failed in 2007.
By the time of the final repair mission in May 2009, during which all six gyroscopes were replaced (with two new pairs and one refurbished pair), only three were still working. Engineers determined that the gyroscope failures were caused by corrosion of electric wires powering the motor that was initiated by oxygen-pressurized air used to deliver the thick suspending fluid. The new gyroscope models were assembled using pressurized nitrogen and were expected to be much more reliable. In the 2009 servicing mission all six gyroscopes were replaced, and after almost ten years only three gyroscopes failed, and only after exceeding the average expected run time for the design.
Of the six gyroscopes replaced in 2009, three were of the old design susceptible for flex-lead failure, and three were of the new design with a longer expected lifetime. The first of the old-style gyroscopes failed in March 2014, and the second in April 2018. On October 5, 2018, the last of the old-style gyroscopes failed, and one of the new-style gyroscopes was powered-up from standby state. However, that reserve gyroscope did not immediately perform within operational limits, and so the observatory was placed into "safe" mode while scientists attempted to fix the problem. NASA tweeted on October 22, 2018, that the "rotation rates produced by the backup gyro have reduced and are now within a normal range. Additional tests to be performed to ensure Hubble can return to science operations with this gyro."
The solution that restored the backup new-style gyroscope to operational range was widely reported as "turning it off and on again". A "running restart" of the gyroscope was performed, but this had no effect, and the final resolution to the failure was more complex. The failure was attributed to an inconsistency in the fluid surrounding the float within the gyroscope (e.g., an air bubble). On October 18, 2018, the Hubble Operations Team directed the spacecraft into a series of maneuvers—moving the spacecraft in opposite directions—in order to mitigate the inconsistency. Only after the maneuvers, and a subsequent set of maneuvers on October 19, did the gyroscope truly operate within its normal range.
Instruments and electronics
Past servicing missions have exchanged old instruments for new ones, avoiding failure and making new types of science possible. Without servicing missions, all the instruments will eventually fail. In August 2004, the power system of the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS) failed, rendering the instrument inoperable. The electronics had originally been fully redundant, but the first set of electronics failed in May 2001. This power supply was fixed during Servicing Mission4 in May 2009.
Similarly, the Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS) main camera primary electronics failed in June 2006, and the power supply for the backup electronics failed on January 27, 2007. Only the instrument's Solar Blind Channel (SBC) was operable using the side-1 electronics. A new power supply for the wide angle channel was added during SM 4, but quick tests revealed this did not help the high resolution channel. The Wide Field Channel (WFC) was returned to service by STS-125 in May 2009 but the High Resolution Channel (HRC) remains offline.
On January 8, 2019, Hubble entered a partial safe mode following suspected hardware problems in its most advanced instrument, the Wide Field Camera 3 instrument. NASA later reported that the cause of the safe mode within the instrument was a detection of voltage levels out of a defined range. On January 15, 2019, NASA said the cause of the failure was a software problem. Engineering data within the telemetry circuits were not accurate. In addition, all other telemetry within those circuits also contained erroneous values indicating that this was a telemetry issue and not a power supply issue. After resetting the telemetry circuits and associated boards the instrument began functioning again. On January 17, 2019, the device was returned to normal operation and on the same day it completed its first science observations.
On June 13, 2021, Hubble's payload computer halted due to a suspected issue with a memory module. An attempt to restart the computer on June 14 failed. Further attempts to switch to one of three other backup memory modules on board the spacecraft failed on June 18. On June 23 and June 24, NASA engineers switched Hubble to a backup payload computer, but these operations have failed as well with the same error. On June 28, 2021, NASA announced that it was extending the investigation to other components. Scientific operations were suspended while NASA worked to diagnose and resolve the issue. After identifying a malfunctioning power control unit (PCU) supplying power to one of Hubble's computers, NASA was able to switch to a backup PCU and bring Hubble back to operational mode on July 16. On October 23, 2021, HST instruments reported missing synchronization messages and went into safe mode. By December 8, 2021, NASA had restored full science operations and was developing updates to make instruments more resilient to missing synchronization messages.
Future
Orbital decay and controlled reentry
Hubble orbits the Earth in the extremely tenuous upper atmosphere, and over time its orbit decays due to drag. If not reboosted, it will re-enter the Earth's atmosphere within some decades, with the exact date depending on how active the Sun is and its impact on the upper atmosphere. If Hubble were to descend in a completely uncontrolled re-entry, parts of the main mirror and its support structure would probably survive, leaving the potential for damage or even human fatalities. In 2013, deputy project manager James Jeletic projected that Hubble could survive into the 2020s. Based on solar activity and atmospheric drag, or lack thereof, a natural atmospheric reentry for Hubble will occur between 2028 and 2040. In June 2016, NASA extended the service contract for Hubble until June 2021.
NASA's original plan for safely de-orbiting Hubble was to retrieve it using a Space Shuttle. Hubble would then have most likely been displayed in the Smithsonian Institution. This is no longer possible since the Space Shuttle fleet has been retired, and would have been unlikely in any case due to the cost of the mission and risk to the crew. Instead, NASA considered adding an external propulsion module to allow controlled re-entry. Ultimately, in 2009, as part of Servicing Mission 4, the last servicing mission by the Space Shuttle, NASA installed the Soft Capture Mechanism (SCM), to enable deorbit by either a crewed or robotic mission. The SCM, together with the Relative Navigation System (RNS), mounted on the Shuttle to collect data to "enable NASA to pursue numerous options for the safe de-orbit of Hubble", constitute the Soft Capture and Rendezvous System (SCRS).
Possible service missions
, the Trump Administration was considering a proposal by the Sierra Nevada Corporation to use a crewed version of its Dream Chaser spacecraft to service Hubble some time in the 2020s both as a continuation of its scientific capabilities and as insurance against any malfunctions in the to-be-launched James Webb Space Telescope. In 2020, John Grunsfeld said that SpaceX Crew Dragon or Orion could perform another repair mission within ten years. While robotic technology is not yet sophisticated enough, he said, with another crewed visit "We could keep Hubble going for another few decades" with new gyros and instruments.
Successors
There is no direct replacement to Hubble as an ultraviolet and visible light space telescope, because near-term space telescopes do not duplicate Hubble's wavelength coverage (near-ultraviolet to near-infrared wavelengths), instead concentrating on the further infrared bands. These bands are preferred for studying high redshift and low-temperature objects, objects generally older and farther away in the universe. These wavelengths are also difficult or impossible to study from the ground, justifying the expense of a space-based telescope. Large ground-based telescopes can image some of the same wavelengths as Hubble, sometimes challenge HST in terms of resolution by using adaptive optics (AO), have much larger light-gathering power, and can be upgraded more easily, but cannot yet match Hubble's excellent resolution over a wide field of view with the very dark background of space.
Plans for a Hubble successor materialized as the Next Generation Space Telescope project, which culminated in plans for the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), the formal successor of Hubble. Very different from a scaled-up Hubble, it is designed to operate colder and farther away from the Earth at the L2 Lagrangian point, where thermal and optical interference from the Earth and Moon are lessened. It is not engineered to be fully serviceable (such as replaceable instruments), but the design includes a docking ring to enable visits from other spacecraft. A main scientific goal of JWST is to observe the most distant objects in the universe, beyond the reach of existing instruments. It is expected to detect stars in the early Universe approximately 280 million years older than stars HST now detects. The telescope is an international collaboration between NASA, the European Space Agency, and the Canadian Space Agency since 1996, and was launched on December 25, 2021, on an Ariane 5 rocket. Although JWST is primarily an infrared instrument, its coverage extends down to 600 nm wavelength light, or roughly orange in the visible spectrum. A typical human eye can see to about 750 nm wavelength light, so there is some overlap with the longest visible wavelength bands, including orange and red light.
A complementary telescope, looking at even longer wavelengths than Hubble or JWST, was the European Space Agency's Herschel Space Observatory, launched on May 14, 2009. Like JWST, Herschel was not designed to be serviced after launch, and had a mirror substantially larger than Hubble's, but observed only in the far infrared and submillimeter. It needed helium coolant, of which it ran out on April 29, 2013.
Further concepts for advanced 21st-century space telescopes include the Large Ultraviolet Optical Infrared Surveyor (LUVOIR), a conceptualized optical space telescope that if realized could be a more direct successor to HST, with the ability to observe and photograph astronomical objects in the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with substantially better resolution than Hubble or the Spitzer Space telescope. This effort is being planned for the 2025–2035 time frame.
Existing ground-based telescopes, and various proposed Extremely Large Telescopes, can exceed the HST in terms of sheer light-gathering power and diffraction limit due to larger mirrors, but other factors affect telescopes. In some cases, they may be able to match or exceed Hubble in resolution by using adaptive optics (AO). However, AO on large ground-based reflectors will not make Hubble and other space telescopes obsolete. Most AO systems sharpen the view over a very narrow field—Lucky Cam, for example, produces crisp images just 10 to 20 arcseconds wide, whereas Hubble's cameras produce crisp images across a 150 arcsecond (2½ arcminutes) field. Furthermore, space telescopes can study the universe across the entire electromagnetic spectrum, most of which is blocked by Earth's atmosphere. Finally, the background sky is darker in space than on the ground, because air absorbs solar energy during the day and then releases it at night, producing a faint—but nevertheless discernible—airglow that washes out low-contrast astronomical objects.
See also
Hubble (2010 documentary)
List of largest infrared telescopes
List of largest optical reflecting telescopes
List of space telescopes
References
Bibliography
The definitive report on the error in the Hubble mirror.
Covers the development of the telescope.
Contains many of the primary documents such as Spitzer's 1946 article, the Wood's Hole report on STScI autonomy, and the ESA memorandum of understanding. Also includes other NASA astronomy programs.
Covers the early history of precursors and proposals.
A detailed account of the first servicing mission.
Further reading
External links
Hubble Space Telescope at NASA.gov
Spacetelescope.org, a Hubble outreach site by ESA
The Hubble Heritage Project and Hubble archives by STScI
Hubble archives by ESA
Hubble archives by
Real-time Hubble location and tracking at uphere.space
Articles containing video clips
Edwin Hubble
European Space Agency satellites
Great Observatories program
Lockheed Corporation
NASA satellites
Space accidents and incidents in the United States
Space science experiments
Space telescopes orbiting Earth
Spacecraft launched by the Space Shuttle
Spacecraft launched in 1990
Ultraviolet telescopes
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linuxconf
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Linuxconf
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Linuxconf is a configurator for the Linux operating system. It features different user interfaces: a text interface, a web interface and a GTK+ interface. Most Linux distributions consider it deprecated compared to other tools such as Webmin, the system-config-* tools on Red Hat Enterprise Linux/Fedora, drakconf on Mandriva, YaST on openSUSE and so on. Linuxconf was deprecated from Red Hat Linux in version 7.1 in April 2001.
It was created by Jacques Gélinas of Solucorp, a company based in Québec. It is licensed under the terms of the GNU General Public License.
External links
Linuxconf home page
Free system software
Linux configuration utilities
Unix configuration utilities
Software that uses GTK
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1931%20college%20football%20season
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1931 college football season
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The 1931 college football season saw the USC Trojans win the Knute Rockne Memorial Trophy as national champion under the Dickinson System. Rockne, who had coached Notre Dame to a championship in 1930, had been killed in a plane crash on March 31, 1931. For the first time, the champion under the Dickinson system also played in a postseason game. The Rose Bowl, promoted as an unofficial championship matchup between the best teams of East and West, matched USC and Tulane, No. 1 and No. 2 in the Dickinson ratings. USC won, 21–12. Also for 1931, historian Parke Davis, through research, selected Pittsburgh and Purdue as National Champions and these selections, along with USC, are all recognized by the official NCAA records book. Both USC and Pitt claim national championships for 1931, and both are recognized by College Football Data Warehouse.
Conference and program changes
New conferences
Four conferences began play in 1931:
Border Conference – conference active through the 1962 season
Dixie Conference – conference active through the 1941 season; (the first of three conferences to share this name)
Lone Star Conference – an active NCAA Division II conference
North Dakota College Athletic Conference – an NAIA conference active through the 1999 season
One conference played its final season in 1931:
Texas Intercollegiate Athletic Association – active since the 1909 season
Membership changes
Program changes
Oregon State Agricultural College (Oregon State) Aggies officially changed their nickname to the now-eponymous Beavers.
September
September 26 The season started with an upset. St. Mary's College, a relatively small school in San Francisco, defeated USC 13–7. Tulane beat Ole Miss, 31–0 and Tennessee beat Maryville 33–0, while Pittsburgh beat Miami University, 61–0.
October
October 3 St. Mary's won again, at California, 14–0, and USC won its first game of the season, beating Oregon State 30–0. Tennessee beat Clemson 44–0 and Tulane defeated Texas A&M 7–0. Northwestern beat Nebraska 19–7. Purdue opened its season for the home crowd with a doubleheader, beating Ohio's Western Reserve 28–0, followed by a 19–0 win over Iowa's Coe College
Pittsburgh won at Iowa, 20–0 Georgia beat Virginia Tech 40–0
Harvard defeated Bates College, 28–0 and Yale beat Maine, 19–0
Notre Dame won at Indiana 25–0
October 10 In Chicago, a crowd of 75,000 turned out at Soldier Field to watch Northwestern and Notre Dame played to a 0–0 tie in a driving rain. Tennessee defeated Ole Miss 38–0. USC beat Washington State 38–6. Harvard beat New Hampshire, 39–0. In New Haven, the Georgia Bulldogs handed the Yale Bulldogs their first defeat, 26–7. Purdue beat Illinois 7–0
Pittsburgh beat West Virginia 34–0. Tulane defeated Spring Hill College 40–0 and St. Mary's beat the West Coast Army team, 21–7
October 17 Tulane and Vanderbilt, both 3–0–0, met at Nashville, with Tulane winning 19–0
Tennessee and Alabama, both 3–0–0, met at Knoxville, with UT winning 25–0. USC defeated visiting Oregon 53–0. Northwestern beat visiting UCLA 19–0
Georgia won at North Carolina, 32–7. Yale beat Chicago 27–0 and Harvard got past Army 14–13. Purdue lost at Wisconsin 21–14. Pittsburgh defeated Western Reserve, 32–0. Notre Dame defeated Drake 63–0. St. Mary's beat the University of San Francisco, 14–6. Neither SMC or USF play college football anymore.
October 24 Notre Dame (3–0–0) and Pittsburgh (4–0–0) met at South Bend, with Notre Dame winning 25–12. Tulane beat Georgia Tech 33–0; Tulane had outscored its five opponents 130–0. Tennessee won at North Carolina, 7–0; it had outscored its five foes 147–0. Georgia beat Vanderbilt 9–0. Harvard beat visiting Texas, 35–7 and Yale and Army played to a 6–6 tie, while in Pittsburgh, Purdue defeated Carnegie Tech 13–6. Northwestern defeated Ohio State in Columbus, 10–0. St. Mary's beat visiting Gonzaga University, 13–7. USC won at California 6–0
October 31 Tulane beat Mississippi State, but not without surrendering its first points, in a 59–7 win; likewise, Tennessee beat Duke, but was scored upon for the first time, in its 25–2 win
Georgia won at Florida, 33–6. Northwestern beat visiting Illinois 32–6 and Purdue won at Chicago 14–6. Harvard beat Virginia 19–0 and Yale and Dartmouth played to a 33–33 tie. Pittsburgh won at Penn State, 41–6
Notre Dame defeated Carnegie Tech 19–0. Surprising St. Mary's extended its record to 6–0–0 with a 21–14 win over Santa Clara.
November
November 7 USC (4–1–0) and Stanford (5–0–1) met at Los Angeles, and USC won 19–0.
In Montgomery, Alabama, Tulane shut out Auburn 27–0. Tennessee beat visiting Carson-Newman, 31–0. Northwestern beat Minnesota, 32–14. Purdue beat Centenary College 49–6. Before a crowd of 65,000 at Yankee Stadium, Georgia stayed unbeaten as it defeated New York University 7–6, with the aid of a 97–yard kickoff return by Buster Mott in the third quarter. Harvard beat Dartmouth 7–6 and Yale beat St. John's College of Maryland, 52–0. Pittsburgh beat Carnegie Tech 14–6. Notre Dame beat Pennsylvania 49–0. St. Mary's suffered its first defeat, to the visiting Olympic Club, 10–0
November 11 In an Armistice Day game at Los Angeles, UCLA handed St. Mary's its second straight loss, 12–0
November 14 Tulane (7–0–0) and Georgia (6–0–0) faced off in Athens before a crowd of 36,000 for the rights to best in the South. The Green Wave rolled over Georgia's Bulldogs 20–7. Tennessee defeated Vanderbilt 21–7. USC beat visiting Montana 69–0. Harvard defeated Holy Cross 7–0. Purdue defeated Iowa 22–0 and Northwestern edged Indiana 7–6. Pittsburgh beat visiting Army 26–0. In Baltimore, Notre Dame beat Navy 20–0
November 21 Notre Dame (6–0–1) had not lost a football game in almost three years, its last defeat having been to the USC Trojans on 27–14 on December 1, 1928. A crowd of 52,000 turned out as (5–1–0) USC came to the Notre Dame campus in South Bend for the first time ever. The Trojans trailed 14–0 going into the fourth quarter, and was trailing 14–13 in the final minutes after Johnny Baker's extra point attempt had been blocked. In the final minute, Baker kicked a 34–yard field goal for a 16–14 win, Notre Dame's first loss in 27 starts. Tulane beat Sewanee 40–0. Northwestern won at Iowa 9–0, and Purdue won at Indiana, 19–0. In Columbus, Ga., Georgia beat Auburn 12–6. Yale (3–1–2) hosted Harvard (7–0–0) and won 3–0
November 26 On Thanksgiving Day, Pitt and Nebraska, both 7–1–0, met in Pittsburgh, with the home team winning 40–0. Tennessee and Kentucky played to a 6–6 tie in Lexington. St. Mary's defeated Oregon 16–0.
November 28 In Yankee Stadium, a crowd of 80,000 turned out in spite of a snowstorm, and watched as Notre Dame was beaten by Army, 12–0, for its second consecutive defeat after 26 games without a loss. Meanwhile, 40,000 watched in Chicago as Northwestern (7–0–1) and Purdue (8–1–0) met in a "post-season charity game" on a frozen field in Chicago, with the Boilermakers handing the Wildcats their first defeat, 7–0.
Yale beat Princeton 51–14. Tulane defeated LSU 34–7 and Georgia defeated Georgia Tech 35–6
December
December 5 Tulane beat Washington State 28–14 to close at 11–0–0, unbeaten and untied, while Tennessee played NYU at Yankee Stadium, winning 13–0 to finish at 8–0–1. USC defeated Washington 44–7. St. Mary's closed its season with a 7–2 win over Southern Methodist (SMU).
December 12
USC and Georgia, both 8–1–0, met in Los Angeles, and the visiting Bulldogs were crushed 60–0
1932 Rose Bowl
For the first time, the Rose Bowl matchup included the No. 1 ranked team under the Dickinson ratings. That team, USC, was matched against No. 2 ranked Tulane. A crowd of 83,000 turned out in Pasadena, a Rose Bowl record. Though Tulane had outgained USC in total yards (378 vs. 233) and first downs (18 vs. 11), the USC Trojans made the most of their three scoring opportunities. In the third quarter, Erny Pinckert ran 28 yards for a touchdown, then, after the Trojans recovered a Tulane fumble, scored again. USC went up 21–0 before Tulane fought back with two touchdowns, and only a tough Trojan defense held the Green Wave from scoring more. The final result was USC 21, Tulane 12.
Conference standings
Major conference standings
Independents
Minor conferences
Minor conference standings
Dickinson System
The AP sportswriters' poll would not begin continuously until 1936. (although, the first time was a one instance publishing in 1934) Frank G. Dickinson, an economics professor at the University of Illinois, had invented the Dickinson System to rank colleges based upon their records and the strength of their opposition.
The system was originally designed to rank teams in the Big Nine (later the Big Ten) conference. Chicago clothing manufacturer Jack Rissman then persuaded Dickinson to rank the nation's teams under the system, and awarded the Rissman Trophy to the winning university.
The system awarded 30 points for a win over a "strong team", and 20 for a win over a "weak team". Losses were awarded points (15 for loss to a strong team, 10 for loss to a weak team). Ties were treated as half a win and half a loss (22.5 for a tie with a strong team, 15 for a tie with a weak team). An average was then derived by dividing the points by games played.
Final Dickinson rankings
Although Tulane was unbeaten and untied (11–0), it was second to the USC with a 9–1 record.
Statistical leaders
Player scoring most points: Bob Campiglio, West Liberty, 145
See also
1931 College Football All-America Team
References
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50161921
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirill%20Tatarinov
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Kirill Tatarinov
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Kirill Tatarinov is the Executive Vice Chairman at Acronis. Previously, he held the positions of CEO at Citrix Systems and Executive Vice President of Microsoft Business Solutions.
Background and education
Tatarinov grew up in Moscow. His father was a computer engineer in the former Soviet Union. Tatarinov was interested in technology from an early age and he received a master's diploma of systems engineering from Moscow University of Transport Engineering (MIIT) specializing in computers. During his student years, Tatarinov wrote programs for hardware clones on punch cards.
In 1990, Tatarinov left the Soviet Union for Israel. He then moved to Australia in 1991. In 1994, Tatarinov emigrated to the United States after Patrol Software, the software startup he co-founded, was acquired by Houston-based BMC Software. He received an MBA from Houston Baptist University in 1997.
Career
Tatarinov began his career working for several systems, networking, and consulting companies in the Soviet Union, Israel, and Australia. In 1991, he co-founded Patrol Software in Australia, which made a database and systems management product. Tatarinov served as the company's chief architect and head of research and development.
Houston-based enterprise software maker BMC Software, Inc acquired Patrol Software in 1994. Tatarinov worked for BMC in the U.S. for eight years following the acquisition and became the company's chief technology officer.
Tatarinov joined Microsoft in 2002 to lead the company's Management and Solutions Division. In 2007, he became the executive vice president of Microsoft Business Solutions. overseing Microsoft Dynamics Customer relationship management and Enterprise resource planning software. Under his leadership, the Microsoft Dynamics business doubled in revenue. He also led the division's transition to the cloud. Tatarinov left Microsoft in October 2015 as part of a management overhaul.
In January 2016, Tatarinov was named the CEO of Citrix Systems. He also joined the company board.
In May 2016, at the company's Citrix Synergy customer event, Tatarinov presented a new strategy for the company, which included focusing on growing core products. Later that year,he reorganized Citrix and spun off the company's GoTo line of video conferencing products. Tatarinov left Citrix in July 2017, having served 18 months as CEO.
In February 2019, Tatarinov joined the Acronis Board of Directors to drive the adoption of Acronis Cyber Protection products and services by the enterprise and public sectors. Seven months later, in September 2019, Acronis appointed Tatarinov as Executive Vice Chairman to continue building Acronis' cyber protection strategy across enterprise sector.
References
20th-century births
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
American computer businesspeople
American technology chief executives
Businesspeople in software
People from Moscow
Russian engineers
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58895574
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jelani%20Nelson
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Jelani Nelson
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Jelani Osei Nelson (Amharic: ጄላኒ ኔልሰን) is a Professor of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at the University of California, Berkeley. He won the 2014 Presidential Early Career Award for Scientists and Engineers. Nelson is the creator of AddisCoder, a computer science summer program for Ethiopian high school students in Addis Ababa.
Early life and education
Nelson was born to an Ethiopian mother and an African-American father in Los Angeles, then grew up in St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands. He studied mathematics and computer science at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and remained there to complete his doctoral studies in computer science. His Master's dissertation, External-Memory Search Trees with Fast Insertions, was supervised by Bradley C. Kuszmaul and Charles E. Leiserson. He was a member of the theory of computation group, working on efficient algorithms for massive datasets. His doctoral dissertation, Sketching and Streaming High-Dimensional Vectors, was supervised by Erik Demaine and Piotr Indyk.
After his doctorate, Nelson worked as a postdoctoral scholar at the Mathematical Sciences Research Institute in Berkeley, California, then Princeton University and the Institute for Advanced Study. He specialises in sketching and streaming algorithms.
Career
Nelson is interested in big data and the development of efficient algorithms. He joined the computer science faculty at Harvard University in 2013 and remained there until 2019 before joining UC Berkeley. He is known for his contributions to streaming algorithms and dimensionality reduction, including proving that the Johnson–Lindenstrauss lemma is optimal (with Kasper Green Larsen), developing the Sparse Johnson-Lindenstrauss Transform (with Daniel Kane), and an asymptotically optimal algorithm for the count-distinct problem (with Daniel Kane and David P. Woodruff). He holds two patents related to applications of streaming algorithms to network traffic monitoring applications.
Nelson was the recipient of an Office of Naval Research Young Investigator Award in 2015 and a Director of Research Early Career Award in 2016. He was awarded an Alfred P. Sloan Foundation Fellowship in 2017.
AddisCoder
Nelson founded the AddisCoder program in 2011 whilst finishing his PhD at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, a summer program teaching computer science and algorithms to high schoolers in Ethiopia. The program has trained over 500 alumni, some who have gone on to study at Harvard, MIT, Columbia, Stanford, Cornell, Princeton, KAIST, and Seoul National University.
Awards and honours
2017 Presidential Early Career Award for Scientists and Engineers
2017 Alfred P. Sloan Research Fellowship
2011 George M. Sprowls Award for Outstanding Doctoral Thesis
2010 IBM Research Pat Goldberg Memorial Best Paper Award
References
External links
Personal page
American people of Ethiopian descent
People from Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands
Harvard University faculty
Massachusetts Institute of Technology alumni
Alfred P. Sloan Prize winners
Computer scientists
American computer scientists
African-American computer scientists
1984 births
Living people
University of California, Berkeley faculty
21st-century African-American people
20th-century African-American people
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33193592
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feature%20toggle
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Feature toggle
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A feature toggle in software development provides an alternative to maintaining multiple feature branches in source code. A condition within the code enables or disables a feature during runtime. In agile settings the toggle is used in production, to switch on the feature on demand, for some or all the users. Thus, feature toggles do make it easier to release often. Advanced roll out strategies such as canary roll out and A/B testing are easier to handle.
Even if new releases are not deployed to production continuously, continuous delivery is supported by feature toggles. The feature is integrated into the main branch before it is completed. The version is deployed into a test environment once, the toggle allows to turn the feature on, and test it. Software integration cycles get shorter, and a version ready to go to production can be provided.
The third use of the technique is to allow developers to release a version of a product that has unfinished features. These unfinished features are hidden (toggled) so that they do not appear in the user interface. There is less effort to merge features into and out of the productive branch, and hence allows many small incremental versions of software.
A feature toggle is also called feature switch, feature flag, feature gate, feature flipper, conditional feature.
Implementation
Feature toggles are essentially variables that are used inside conditional statements. Therefore, the blocks inside these conditional statements can be toggled 'on or off' depending on the value of the feature toggle. This allows developers to control the flow of their software and bypass features that are not ready for deployment. A block of code behind a runtime variable is usually still present and can be conditionally executed, sometimes within the same application lifecycle; a block of code behind a preprocessor directive or commented out would not be executable. A feature flag approach could use any of these methods to separate code paths in different phases of development.
The main usage of feature toggles is to avoid conflict that can arise when merging changes in software at the last moment before release, although this can lead to toggle debt. Toggle debt arises due to the dead code present in software after a feature has been toggled on permanently and produces overhead. This portion of the code has to be removed carefully as to not disturb other parts of the code.
There are two main types of feature toggle. One is a release toggle, which the developer determines to either keep or remove before a product release depending on its working. The other is a business toggle, which is kept because it satisfies a different usage compared to that of the older code.
Feature toggles can be used in the following scenarios:
Adding a new feature to an application.
Enhancing an existing feature in an application.
Hiding or disabling a feature.
Extending an interface.
Feature toggles can be stored as:
Row entries in a database.
A property in a configuration file.
An entry in an external feature flag service.
Feature groups
Feature groups consist of feature toggles that work together. This allows the developer to easily manage a set of related toggles.
Canary release
A canary release (or canary launch or canary deployment) allows developers to have features incrementally tested by a small set of users. Feature flags provide an alternate way to do canary launches and allow targeting by geographic locations or even user attributes. If a feature's performance is not satisfactory, then it can be rolled back without any adverse effects.
Martin Fowler states that a feature toggle "should be your last choice when you're dealing with putting features into production". Instead, it is best to break the feature into smaller parts that each can be implemented and safely introduced into the released product without causing other problems.
Feature-toggling is used by many large websites including Flickr, Disqus, Etsy, reddit, Gmail and Netflix, as well as software such as Google Chrome Canary.
See also
Software configuration management
Software product line
Comparison of open-source configuration management software
References
Software development process
Computer programming
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68257808
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322%20USC%20Trojans%20men%27s%20basketball%20team
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2021–22 USC Trojans men's basketball team
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The 2021–22 USC Trojans men's basketball team represents the University of Southern California during the 2021–22 NCAA Division I men's basketball season. The Trojans are led by 9th-year head coach Andy Enfield and play their home games at the Galen Center for the 16th season in Los Angeles, California as members of the Pac-12 Conference.
Previous season
The USC Trojans finished the 2020–21 season with a 25–8 overall record, and a 15–5 conference record. They finished in second place in the Pac-12 Conference. They were a part of the Pac-12 Tournament they played against the Utah in the Quarterfinals and won in 2OT by the score of 91–85, they would move on to the semifinals but would lose to Colorado and would be eliminated from the tournament. They would then be invited to compete in the 2021 NCAA Tournament and would get wins against Drake, Kansas, Oregon, but would then be eliminated by the Gonzaga Bulldogs in the Elite Eight.
Off-season
Departures
Incoming transfers
2021 Recruiting class
2022 Recruiting class
Roster
Schedule and results
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!colspan=9 style=| Regular season
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!colspan=9 style=| Pac-12 Tournament
Source:
Game summaries
Cal State Northridge Matadors vs USC Trojans
USC Trojans vs Temple Owls
No. 25 USC Trojans vs Florida Gulf Coast Eagles
Dicie State Trailblazers vs No. 24 USC Trojans
No.24 USC Trojans vs Saint Joseph's Hawks
No. 24 USC Trojans vs San Diego State Aztecs
Utah Runnin' Utes vs No. 20 USC Trojans
No. 20 USC Trojans vs Washington State Cougars
Eastern Kentucky Colonels vs No. 16 USC Trojans
Long Beach State vs No. 16 USC Trojans
UC Irvine Anteaters vs No. 10 USC Trojans
Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets vs No. 10 USC Trojans
Oklahoma State
Notes: Game with Oklahoma State on December 21st was Canceled due to COVID-19 Issues.
Arizona State and No. 9 Arizona
Notes: Games with Arizona State on December 30th and No. 9 Arizona on January 2nd were postponed due to COVID-19 Issues and will be rescheduled.
No. 7 USC Trojans vs California Golden Bears
No. 5 USC Trojans vs Stanford Cardinal
Oregon State Beavers vs No. 5 USC Trojans
Oregon Ducks vs No. 5 USC Trojans
No. 16 USC Trojans vs Colorado Buffaloes
No. 16 USC Trojans vs Utah Runnin' Utes
Arizona State Sun Devils vs USC Trojans
Stanford Cardinal vs USC Trojans
California Golden Bears vs USC Trojans
USC Trojans vs Arizona State Sun Devils
USC Trojans vs Arizona Wildcats
UCLA Bruins vs USC Trojans
Washington Huskies vs USC Trojans
Washington State Cougars vs USC Trojans
USC Trojans vs Oregon State Beavers
USC Trojans vs Oregon Ducks
USC Trojans vs UCLA Bruins
Pac-12 Conference Tournament Game Summary
TBD
Rankings
*AP does not release post-NCAA Tournament rankings.^Coaches did not release a Week 1 poll.
References
USC Trojans men's basketball seasons
USC
USC Trojans basketball, men
USC Trojans basketball, men
USC Trojans basketball, men
USC Trojans basketball, men
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26030789
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Hive%20Group
|
The Hive Group
|
The Hive Group was a software company that applies visualization technology in operational intelligence (OI), business intelligence (BI), and complex event processing (CEP) contexts. The company primarily develops enterprise treemapping software used by major corporations and public agencies such as Intel Corporation, Procter & Gamble, Sun Microsystems, the United States Army, the United States Marine Corps, and the United States Coast Guard.
On January 26, 2015, The Hive Group announced that it had merged with Visual Action Software.
History
The Hive Group is a privately held company founded in 2000, with headquarters in Richardson, Texas.
The company’s treemapping software is called Honeycomb. Ben Shneiderman, the inventor of the treemap concept, is a member of The Hive Group’s Board of Advisors.
The number of employees is believed to be fewer than 50.
Industry recognition – Early adoption by the United States Marine Corps
A large quantity of information can be found, both in printed form and on the internet, detailing the Honeycomb-based USMC MERIT application. In 2003, the USMC deployed treemaps to all theaters of USMC operation.
This deployment has led to broad adoption of treemaps within the United States Department of Defense and has received the following industry awards and recognition:
US Department of Navy eGov
US Department of Defense CIO (second place, team category)
Excellence.Gov - Federal CIO
Government Computing News
International Society of Logistics Field Award
The Association for Enterprise Information Excellence in Enterprise Integration
Defense Logistics 2008 Technology Implementation of the Year
Public sector
The Hive Group is registered as a small business in Central Contractor Registration (CCR), and in the United Nations Global Marketplace.
Patents
The Hive Group holds several patents around treemapping technology (US Patents 7,027,052; 7,076,742; 7,346,858; and 7,509,591).
Board of directors and advisors
The Hive Group’s board of directors and advisors include:
Bill Jesse: Chairman, Jesse Capital Management
Ben Shneiderman: inventor of treemapping; founding director, Human Computer Interaction Lab at the University of Maryland, College Park
Joseph P. Urso: CEO, Aerus LLC; Chairman, Inthinc
Pierluigi Zappacosta: Chairman, Digital Persona; Chairman, Sierra Sciences; Founder and former CEO, Logitech
External links
Visual Action Software Website
Treemap sample from The Hive Group
Ben Shneiderman at the University of Maryland
The Hive Group Gallery
The Washington Post, The Next Frontier: Decoding the Internet's Raw Data
USMC MERIT Joint Release Announcement
Finding the Needle in the Haystack
A Picture Worth a Thousand Control Loops
London 2012 Olympics – Interactive Medal Standings (by country, sport, event, medal & athlete)
References
Software companies established in 2000
Software companies based in Texas
Privately held companies based in Texas
Companies based in Richardson, Texas
Software companies of the United States
2000 establishments in the United States
2000 establishments in Texas
Companies established in 2000
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2928109
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packet%20loss
|
Packet loss
|
Packet loss occurs when one or more packets of data travelling across a computer network fail to reach their destination. Packet loss is either caused by errors in data transmission, typically across wireless networks, or network congestion. Packet loss is measured as a percentage of packets lost with respect to packets sent.
The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) detects packet loss and performs retransmissions to ensure reliable messaging. Packet loss in a TCP connection is also used to avoid congestion and thus produces an intentionally reduced throughput for the connection.
In real-time applications like streaming media or online games, packet loss can affect a user's quality of experience (QoE).
Causes
The Internet Protocol (IP) is designed according to the end-to-end principle as a best-effort delivery service, with the intention of keeping the logic routers must implement as simple as possible. If the network made reliable delivery guarantees on its own, that would require store and forward infrastructure, where each router devotes a significant amount of storage space to packets while it waits to verify that the next node properly received them. A reliable network would not be able to maintain its delivery guarantees in the event of a router failure. Reliability is also not needed for all applications. For example, with live streaming media, it is more important to deliver recent packets quickly than to ensure that stale packets are eventually delivered. An application or user may also decide to retry an operation that is taking a long time, in which case another set of packets will be added to the burden of delivering the original set. Such a network might also need a command and control protocol for congestion management, adding even more complexity.
To avoid all of these problems, the Internet Protocol allows for routers to simply drop packets if the router or a network segment is too busy to deliver the data in a timely fashion. This is not ideal for speedy and efficient transmission of data, and is not expected to happen in an uncongested network. Dropping of packets acts as an implicit signal that the network is congested, and may cause senders to reduce the amount of bandwidth consumed, or attempt to find another path. For example, using perceived packet loss as feedback to discover congestion, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is designed so that excessive packet loss will cause the sender to throttle back and stop flooding the bottleneck point with data.
Packets may also be dropped if the IPv4 header checksum or the Ethernet frame check sequence indicates the packet has been corrupted. Packet loss can also be caused by a packet drop attack.
Wireless networks
Wireless networks are susceptible to a number of factors that can corrupt or lose packets in transit, such as radio frequency interference (RFI), radio signals that are too weak due to distance or multi-path fading, faulty networking hardware, or faulty network drivers.
Wi-Fi is inherently unreliable and even when two identical Wi-Fi receivers are placed within close proximity of each other, they do not exhibit similar patterns of packet loss, as one might expect.
Cellular networks can experience packet loss caused by, "high bit error rate (BER), unstable channel characteristics, and user mobility." TCP's intentional throttling behavior prevents wireless networks from performing near their theoretical potential transfer rates because unmodified TCP treats all dropped packets as if they were caused by network congestion, and so may throttle wireless networks even when they aren't actually congested.
Network congestion
Network congestion is a cause of packet loss that can affect all types of networks. When content arrives for a sustained period at a given router or network segment at a rate greater than it is possible to send through, there is no other option than to drop packets. If a single router or link is constraining the capacity of the complete travel path or of network travel in general, it is known as a bottleneck. In some cases, packets are intentionally dropped by routing routines, or through network dissuasion technique for operational management purposes.
Effects
Packet loss directly reduces throughput for a given sender as some sent data is never received and can't be counted as throughput. Packet loss indirectly reduces throughput as some transport layer protocols interpret loss as an indication of congestion and adjust their transmission rate to avoid congestive collapse.
When reliable delivery is necessary, packet loss increases latency due to additional time needed for retransmission. Assuming no retransmission, packets experiencing the worst delays might be preferentially dropped (depending on the queuing discipline used), resulting in lower latency overall.
Measurement
Packet loss may be measured as frame loss rate defined as the percentage of frames that should have been forwarded by a network but were not.
Acceptable packet loss
Packet loss is closely associated with quality of service considerations. The amount of packet loss that is acceptable depends on the type of data being sent. For example, for voice over IP traffic, one commentator reckoned that "[m]issing one or two packets every now and then will not affect the quality of the conversation. Losses between 5% and 10% of the total packet stream will affect the quality significantly." Another described less than 1% packet loss as "good" for streaming audio or video, and 1–2.5% as "acceptable".
Diagnosis
Packet loss is detected by reliable protocols such as TCP. Reliable protocols react to packet loss automatically, so when a person such as a network administrator needs to detect and diagnose packet loss, they typically use status information from network equipment or purpose-built tools.
The Internet Control Message Protocol provides an echo functionality, where a special packet is transmitted that always produces a reply. Tools such as ping, traceroute, and MTR use this protocol to provide a visual representation of the path packets are taking, and to measure packet loss at each hop.
Many routers have status pages or logs, where the owner can find the number or percentage of packets dropped over a particular period.
Packet recovery for reliable delivery
Per the end-to-end principle, the Internet Protocol leaves responsibility for packet recovery through the retransmission of dropped packets to the endpoints - the computers sending and receiving the data. They are in the best position to decide whether retransmission is necessary because the application sending the data should know whether a message is best retransmitted in whole or in part, whether or not the need to send the message has passed, and how to control the amount of bandwidth consumed to account for any congestion.
Network transport protocols such as TCP provide endpoints with an easy way to ensure reliable delivery of packets so that individual applications don't need to implement the logic for this themselves. In the event of packet loss, the receiver asks for retransmission or the sender automatically resends any segments that have not been acknowledged. Although TCP can recover from packet loss, retransmitting missing packets reduces the throughput of the connection as receivers wait for retransmissions and additional bandwidth is consumed by them. In certain variants of TCP, if a transmitted packet is lost, it will be re-sent along with every packet that had already been sent after it.
Protocols such as User Datagram Protocol (UDP) provide no recovery for lost packets. Applications that use UDP are expected to implement their own mechanisms for handling packet loss, if needed.
Impact of queuing discipline
There are many queuing disciplines used for determining which packets to drop. Most basic networking equipment will use FIFO queuing for packets waiting to go through the bottleneck and they will drop the packet if the queue is full at the time the packet is received. This type of packet dropping is called tail drop. Other full queue mechanisms include random early drop or weighted random early drop. Dropping packets is undesirable as the packet is either lost or must be retransmitted and this can impact real-time throughput; however, increasing the buffer size can lead to bufferbloat which has its own impact on latency and jitter during congestion.
In cases where quality of service is rate limiting a connection, e.g., using a leaky bucket algorithm, packets may be intentionally dropped in order to slow down specific services to ensure available bandwidth for other services marked with higher importance. For this reason, packet loss is not necessarily an indication of poor connection reliability or signs of a bandwidth bottleneck.
See also
Bit slip
Collision (telecommunications)
Goodput
Packet loss concealment
Traffic shaping
Notes
References
External links
Packet loss test
Loss
|
1618762
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accordion%20%28card%20game%29
|
Accordion (card game)
|
Accordion is a patience or card solitaire using a single deck of playing cards. It is so named because it looks like accordion pleats, which have to be ironed out. The object is to compress the entire deck into one pile like an accordion.
Name
The name Accordion comes from the appearance of the layout as it alternately grows and shrinks during play. It was originally called The Idle Year and alternative names occasionally encountered include Tower of Babel and Methuselah. It is called The Idle Year because "with a well-shuffled pack, it will require about that length of time to accomplish it." Presumably the same logic applies to Methuselah. It may be the same game that the Italians call Qui Sace (Who Knows?).
History
Rules for The Idle Year are published by William Brisbane Dick in 1883 and by "Tarbart" in 1905. Dick's rules are strict: a packet must be moved if possible and, if there is a choice, it must be moved to its nearest neighbour. Tarbart's rules are lax: a packet that can be moved need not be and judgment should be exercised as to whether to play it or not.
The game recorded by Wood & Goddard in 1940 as Tower of Babel allows a player the choice of whether to play an available packet to its left-hand neighbour or to the third packet to the left, but does not say if a player can continue dealing without moving.
The name Accordion appears in the 1950s, Culbertson and Goren allowing a further deal before deciding whether or not to move a packet. Parlett equates Accordion with Idle Year, Methuselah and Tower of Babel, but insists that a packet must be played if it can, leaving any choice between the 1st and 3rd packets to the left to the player. The game has been included in numerous compendia in recent decades, usually under the name Accordion.
Rules
The cards from the entire deck are spread out in a single line.
A pile can be moved on top of another pile immediately to its left or moved three piles to its left if the top cards of each pile have the same suit or rank. Gaps left behind are filled by moving piles to the left. The player is not required to make a particular move if they prefer not to.
Here is an example:
According to this example, either 6♠ or 5♥ can be placed over 5♠. These are the only allowable moves.
The game is won when all cards are compressed into one pile.
Variants
Other eliminator games in the style of Accordion appeared a decade later in the 1890s:
The Queen and Her Lad is first recorded by Mary Whitmore Jones in the 3rd series of her Games of Patience (1892). One pack is used. The Q is laid down as the "commencing card". The J is put at the bottom of the stock which is played singly to the right of the Q. One or two cards may be discarded if they lie between two others of the same suit or rank; however, if two are "pushed out" they must also be of the same suit or rank as one another. If, in adjusting the line, three or four pairs come together in succession between two cards of the same rank or suit, all the intervening cards may be pushed out. The patience is out if the "Queen and Her Lad" can be united at the end, but this is described as "very difficult".
Royal Marriage where the aim is to reduce the entire deck to King and Queen of the same suit, these being placed at the start and end of the layout at the beginning of the game.
Strategy
The odds of winning have been estimated as being around one in a hundred. Given how difficult it is to achieve this when cards are dealt one at a time, Alfred Sheinwold suggests in his book 101 Best Family Card Games () that it may be considered a win when there are five piles or fewer at the end of the game.
The best chance of a successful game comes by identifying 4 cards with the same rank that are close and near the end of the layout at the start of the game, and to try to move these four "sweeper" cards together in a group towards the front of the layout, not covering them with other cards until the end of the game.
See also
Royal Marriage
List of patience games
Glossary of patience terms
Footnotes
References
Literature
Bernard, April (2012). Miss Fuller: A Novel. Hanover, NH: Steerforth.
Culbertson, Ely (1957). Culbertson’s Card Games Complete, ed. Hubert Phillips. Argo.
Dick, William Brisbane (1883). Dick's Games of Patience, Or, Solitaire with Cards. 44 games. NY: Dick & Fitzgerald.
Goren, Charles Henry (1961). Goren’s Hoyle Encyclopedia of Games. NY: Greystone Press.
Professor Hoffmann [Angelo Lewis] (1892). The Illustrated Book of Patience Games. London: Routledge.
Morehead, Albert and Geoffrey Mott-Smith (1949). The Complete Book of Solitaire and Patience. New York: Longmans.
Morehead, Albert and Geoffrey Mott-Smith (2001). The Complete Book of Solitaire and Patience. Foulsham, Slough.
Parlett, David (1979). The Penguin Book of Patience, Penguin, London. {ISBN 0-7139-1193-X
"Tarbart" (1905). Games of Patience. 2nd edn. De La Rue.
Whitmore Jones, Mary (1892). Games of Patience for One or More Players. 3rd Series. London: L. Upcott Gill.
Wood, Clement and Gloria Goddard (1940). The Complete Book of Games. Garden City.
Closed non-builders
Single-deck patience card games
Year of introduction missing
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32690097
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20moths%20of%20Nigeria
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List of moths of Nigeria
|
There are about 1400 known moth species of Nigeria. The moths (mostly nocturnal) and butterflies (mostly diurnal) together make up the taxonomic order Lepidoptera.
This is a list of moth species which have been recorded from Nigeria.
Anomoeotidae
Staphylinochrous pygmaea Bethune-Baker, 1911
Staphylinochrous whytei Butler, 1894
Arctiidae
Acantharctia metaleuca Hampson, 1901
Acantharctia mundata (Walker, 1865)
Acantharctia nivea Aurivillius, 1900
Acanthofrontia anacantha Hampson, 1914
Afraloa bifurca (Walker, 1855)
Afrasura dubitabilis Durante, 2009
Afrasura emma Durante, 2009
Afrasura hieroglyphica (Bethune-Baker, 1911)
Afrasura indecisa (Walker, 1869)
Afrasura numida (Holland, 1893)
Afrasura obliterata (Walker, 1864)
Afrasura rivulosa (Walker, 1854)
Afroarctia sjostedti (Aurivillius, 1900)
Afrospilarctia flavida (Bartel, 1903)
Afrowatsonius marginalis (Walker, 1855)
Aloa moloneyi (Druce, 1887)
Alpenus affiniola (Strand, 1919)
Alpenus intacta (Hampson, 1916)
Alpenus investigatorum (Karsch, 1898)
Alpenus maculosa (Stoll, 1781)
Alpenus microsticta (Hampson, 1920)
Alpenus nigropunctata (Bethune-Baker, 1908)
Alpenus thomasi Watson, 1988
Amata borguensis (Hampson, 1901)
Amata interniplaga (Mabille, 1890)
Amata lagosensis (Hampson, 1907)
Amata tritonia (Hampson, 1911)
Amerila brunnea (Hampson, 1901)
Amerila castanea (Hampson, 1911)
Amerila fennia (Druce, 1887)
Amerila luteibarba (Hampson, 1901)
Amerila metasarca (Hampson, 1911)
Amerila nigroapicalis (Aurivillius, 1900)
Amerila niveivitrea (Bartel, 1903)
Amerila pannosa (Grünberg, 1908)
Amerila puella (Fabricius, 1793)
Amerila roseomarginata (Rothschild, 1910)
Amerila rothi (Rothschild, 1910)
Amerila vidua (Cramer, 1780)
Amerila vitrea Plötz, 1880
Amphicallia pactolicus (Butler, 1888)
Amsacta bicoloria (Gaede, 1916)
Amsacta latimarginalis Rothschild, 1933
Amsacta marginalis Walker, 1855
Anapisa lamborni (Rothschild, 1913)
Anapisa monotica (Holland, 1893)
Archilema cinderella (Kiriakoff, 1958)
Archilema subumbrata (Holland, 1893)
Archilema uelleburgensis (Strand, 1912)
Archilema vilis Birket-Smith, 1965
Archithosia costimacula (Mabille, 1878)
Archithosia duplicata Birket-Smith, 1965
Archithosia flavifrontella (Strand, 1912)
Archithosia makomensis (Strand, 1912)
Argina amanda (Boisduval, 1847)
Argina leonina (Walker, 1865)
Balacra batesi Druce, 1910
Balacra daphaena (Hampson, 1898)
Balacra ehrmanni (Holland, 1893)
Balacra flavimacula Walker, 1856
Balacra herona (Druce, 1887)
Balacra humphreyi Rothschild, 1912
Balacra preussi (Aurivillius, 1904)
Balacra pulchra Aurivillius, 1892
Balacra rubricincta Holland, 1893
Binna penicillata Walker, 1865
Binna scita (Walker, 1865)
Caripodia albescens (Hampson, 1907)
Caryatis hersilia Druce, 1887
Caryatis phileta (Drury, 1782)
Caryatis syntomina Butler, 1878
Cragia distigmata (Hampson, 1901)
Creatonotos leucanioides Holland, 1893
Creatonotos punctivitta (Walker, 1854)
Crocosia phaeocraspis Hampson, 1914
Cyana flammeostrigata Karisch, 2003
Cyana rubritermina (Bethune-Baker, 1911)
Disparctia vittata (Druce, 1898)
Eilema albidula (Walker, 1864)
Eilema leia (Hampson, 1901)
Eilema mesosticta Hampson, 1911
Eilema minutissima Bethune-Baker, 1911
Epilacydes scita (Walker, 1865)
Epitoxis borguensis Hampson, 1901
Estigmene rothi Rothschild, 1910
Estigmene unilinea Rothschild, 1910
Euchromia guineensis (Fabricius, 1775)
Euchromia lethe (Fabricius, 1775)
Logunovium nigricosta (Holland, 1893)
Logunovium scortillum Wallengren, 1875
Meganaclia sippia (Plötz, 1880)
Melisa diptera (Walker, 1854)
Metarctia didyma Kiriakoff, 1957
Metarctia flavivena Hampson, 1901
Metarctia haematica Holland, 1893
Metarctia johanna (Kiriakoff, 1979)
Micralarctia punctulatum (Wallengren, 1860)
Muxta xanthopa (Holland, 1893)
Nanna ceratopygia Birket-Smith, 1965
Nanna diplisticta (Bethune-Baker, 1911)
Nanna eningae (Plötz, 1880)
Neuroxena fulleri (Druce, 1883)
Neuroxena funereus (Rothschild, 1933)
Neuroxena medioflavus (Rothschild, 1935)
Neuroxena obscurascens (Strand, 1909)
Nyctemera acraeina Druce, 1882
Nyctemera apicalis (Walker, 1854)
Nyctemera itokina (Aurivillius, 1904)
Nyctemera restrictum (Butler, 1894)
Nyctemera xanthura (Plötz, 1880)
Ovenna guineacola (Strand, 1912)
Ovenna simplex Birket-Smith, 1965
Ovenna subgriseola (Strand, 1912)
Ovenna vicaria (Walker, 1854)
Paralpenus flavizonata (Hampson, 1911)
Phryganopsis asperatella (Walker, 1864)
Phryganopsis cinerella (Wallengren, 1860)
Poliosia nigrifrons Hampson, 1900
Pseudothyretes perpusilla (Walker, 1856)
Pusiola aureola Birket-Smith, 1965
Pusiola celida (Bethune-Baker, 1911)
Pusiola minutissima (Kiriakoff, 1958)
Radiarctia lutescens (Walker, 1854)
Rhipidarctia conradti (Oberthür, 1911)
Rhipidarctia invaria (Walker, 1856)
Rhipidarctia postrosea (Rothschild, 1913)
Siccia conformis Hampson, 1914
Spilosoma aurantiaca (Holland, 1893)
Spilosoma batesi (Rothschild, 1910)
Spilosoma buryi (Rothschild, 1910)
Spilosoma castelli Rothschild, 1933
Spilosoma crossi (Rothschild, 1910)
Spilosoma curvilinea Walker, 1855
Spilosoma holoxantha (Hampson, 1907)
Spilosoma immaculata Bartel, 1903
Spilosoma karschi Bartel, 1903
Spilosoma metaleuca (Hampson, 1905)
Spilosoma occidens (Rothschild, 1910)
Spilosoma rava (Druce, 1898)
Spilosoma sinefascia (Hampson, 1916)
Spilosoma togoensis Bartel, 1903
Stenarctia griseipennis Hampson, 1911
Stenarctia rothi Rothschild, 1933
Teracotona buryi Rothschild, 1910
Tesma nigrapex (Strand, 1912)
Trichaeta schultzei Aurivillius, 1905
Utetheisa pulchella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Yelva obscura Birket-Smith, 1965
Zobida trinitas (Strand, 1912)
Bombycidae
Ocinara ficicola (Westwood & Ormerod, 1889)
Brahmaeidae
Dactyloceras swanzii (Butler, 1871)
Choreutidae
Brenthia octogemmifera Walsingham, 1897
Choreutis inspirata Meyrick, 1916
Cosmopterigidae
Gisilia sclerodes (Meyrick, 1909)
Cossidae
Azygophleps albovittata Bethune-Baker, 1908
Azygophleps inclusa (Walker, 1856)
Azygophleps melanonephele Hampson, 1910
Eulophonotus myrmeleon Felder, 1874
Phragmataecia fuscifusa Hampson, 1910
Phragmataecia sericeata Hampson, 1910
Phragmataecia pelostema (Hering, 1923)
Xyleutes biatra (Hampson, 1910)
Xyleutes polioplaga (Hampson, 1910)
Crambidae
Adelpherupa flavescens Hampson, 1919
Aethaloessa floridalis (Zeller, 1852)
Ancylolomia chrysargyria Hampson, 1919
Ancylolomia holochrea Hampson, 1919
Ancylolomia irrorata Hampson, 1919
Ancylolomia ophiralis Hampson, 1919
Bissetia poliella (Hampson, 1919)
Bocchoris labarinthalis Hampson, 1912
Cadarena sinuata (Fabricius, 1781)
Calamotropha diodonta (Hampson, 1919)
Charltona actinialis Hampson, 1919
Charltona albimixtalis Hampson, 1919
Charltona interstitalis Hampson, 1919
Chilo costifusalis (Hampson, 1919)
Chilo mesoplagalis (Hampson, 1919)
Chilo perfusalis (Hampson, 1919)
Chilo psammathis (Hampson, 1919)
Cirrhochrista grabczewskyi E. Hering, 1903
Cnaphalocrocis poeyalis (Boisduval, 1833)
Coniesta ignefusalis (Hampson, 1919)
Conotalis aurantifascia (Hampson, 1895)
Cotachena smaragdina (Butler, 1875)
Crambus mesombrellus Hampson, 1919
Desmia incomposita (Bethune-Baker, 1909)
Dichocrocis xanthoplagalis Hampson, 1912
Diploptalis metallescens Hampson, 1919
Filodes normalis Hampson, 1912
Haimbachia proalbivenalis (Błeszyński, 1961)
Heliothela ophideresana (Walker, 1863)
Hyalea africalis Hampson, 1912
Lamprosema acyperalis (Hampson, 1912)
Mesolia albimaculalis Hampson, 1919
Mesolia microdontalis (Hampson, 1919)
Metasia arida Hampson, 1913
Metasia perirrorata Hampson, 1913
Mimudea ignitalis (Hampson, 1913)
Mimudea xanthographa (Hampson, 1913)
Nosophora trogobasalis (Hampson, 1912)
Obtusipalpis brunneata Hampson, 1919
Omiodes indicata (Fabricius, 1775)
Ostrinia erythrialis (Hampson, 1913)
Paratraea plumbipicta Hampson, 1919
Parerupa bipunctalis (Hampson, 1919)
Parerupa distictalis (Hampson, 1919)
Patissa fulvicepsalis Hampson, 1919
Patissa monostidzalis Hampson, 1919
Phostria tetrastictalis (Hampson, 1912)
Pilocrocis cuprealis Hampson, 1912
Prionapteryx rubricalis Hampson, 1919
Prionotalis peracutella Hampson, 1919
Prochoristis calamochroa (Hampson, 1919)
Pseudocatharylla argenticilia (Hampson, 1919)
Pseudocatharylla peralbellus (Hampson, 1919)
Pseudonoorda distigmalis (Hampson, 1913)
Pycnarmon sexpunctalis (Hampson, 1912)
Pyrausta melanocera Hampson, 1913
Spoladea recurvalis (Fabricius, 1775)
Sufetula nigrescens Hampson, 1912
Sufetula sufetuloides (Hampson, 1919)
Ulopeza conigeralis Zeller, 1852
Ulopeza nigricostata Hampson, 1912
Drepanidae
Callidrepana amaura (Warren, 1901)
Callidrepana macnultyi Watson, 1965
Callidrepana serena Watson, 1965
Epicampoptera pallida (Tams, 1925)
Epicampoptera strandi Bryk, 1913
Gonoreta contracta (Warren, 1897)
Gonoreta cymba Watson, 1965
Gonoreta gonioptera (Hampson, 1914)
Gonoreta opacifinis Watson, 1965
Isospidia angustipennis (Warren, 1904)
Negera confusa Walker, 1855
Negera disspinosa Watson, 1965
Negera natalensis (Felder, 1874)
Spidia excentrica Strand, 1912
Spidia fenestrata Butler, 1878
Spidia inangulata Watson, 1965
Spidia subviridis (Warren, 1899)
Uranometra oculata (Holland, 1893)
Eupterotidae
Acrojana salmonea Rothschild, 1932
Drepanojana fasciata Aurivillius, 1893
Jana aurivilliusi Rothschild, 1917
Phiala cunina Cramer, 1780
Stenoglene bipartita (Rothschild, 1917)
Stenoglene citrinus (Druce, 1886)
Stenoglene roseus (Druce, 1886)
Vianga magnifica (Rothschild, 1917)
Gelechiidae
Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders, 1844)
Ptilothyris purpurea Walsingham, 1897
Theatrocopia roseoviridis Walsingham, 1897
Geometridae
Acrostatheusis apicitincta Prout, 1915
Agathia elenaria Swinhoe, 1904
Agathia multiscripta Warren, 1898
Agathia pauper Warren, 1904
Aletis helcita (Linnaeus, 1763)
Aletis vicina Gaede, 1917
Androzeugma tenuis (Warren, 1898)
Anoectomychus pudens (Swinhoe, 1904)
Antharmostes marginata (Warren, 1897)
Antharmostes mesoleuca Warren, 1899
Antitrygodes dysmorpha Prout, 1915
Apatadelpha biocellaria (Walker, 1863)
Aplochlora invisibilis Warren, 1897
Archichlora devoluta (Walker, 1861)
Archichlora marcescens Warren, 1904
Archichlora marginata (Warren, 1902)
Archichlora pulveriplaga (Warren, 1898)
Archichlora viridimacula Warren, 1898
Azyx consocia (Warren, 1899)
Bathycolpodes acoelopa Prout, 1912
Bathycolpodes excavata (Warren, 1898)
Bathycolpodes subfuscata (Warren, 1902)
Bathycolpodes vegeta Prout, 1912
Biston abruptaria (Walker, 1869)
Biston antecreta (Prout, 1938)
Biston subocularia (Mabille, 1893)
Cabera glabra (Warren, 1904)
Cartaletis forbesi (Druce, 1884)
Chiasmia albivia (Prout, 1915)
Chiasmia conturbata (Warren, 1898)
Chiasmia fulvisparsa (Warren, 1897)
Chiasmia impar (Warren, 1897)
Chiasmia majestica (Warren, 1901)
Chiasmia nana (Warren, 1898)
Chiasmia normata (Walker, 1861)
Chiasmia ostentosaria (Möschler, 1887)
Chiasmia streniata (Guenée, 1858)
Chiasmia trirecurvata (Saalmüller, 1891)
Chiasmia umbrata (Warren, 1897)
Chloroclystis consobrina (Warren, 1901)
Chloroctenis similis Warren, 1899
Chlorodrepana rothi Warren, 1899
Chorodnodes rothi Warren, 1897
Chrysocraspeda hilaris (Warren, 1898)
Chrysocraspeda rosina Warren, 1898
Chrysocraspeda rubripennis (Warren, 1898)
Cleora cnephaea Prout, 1915
Cleora derogaria (Snellen, 1872)
Cleora inelegans (Warren, 1905)
Coenina aurivena Butler, 1898
Colocleora divisaria (Walker, 1860)
Colocleora expansa (Warren, 1899)
Colocleora smithi (Warren, 1904)
Colocleora spuria (Prout, 1915)
Comibaena esmeralda (Warren, 1898)
Comibaena flavitaenia (Warren, 1898)
Comibaena longipennis (Warren, 1904)
Comostolopsis rubristicta (Warren, 1899)
Ctenoberta dubia (Warren, 1899)
Cyclophora dewitzi (Prout, 1920)
Cyclophora hirtifemur (Prout, 1932)
Cyclophora leonaria (Walker, 1861)
Cyclophora misella (Prout, 1932)
Cyclophora poeciloptera (Prout, 1920)
Dithecodes ornithospila (Prout, 1911)
Ectropis nigripunctata Warren, 1897
Ectropis subapicata (Warren, 1904)
Eois grataria (Walker, 1861)
Epigynopteryx nigricola (Warren, 1897)
Epigynopteryx straminea (Warren, 1897)
Eucrostes disparata Walker, 1861
Euproutia aggravaria (Guenée, 1858)
Euproutia vernicoma (Prout, 1913)
Exeliopsis ansorgei (Warren, 1905)
Gelasmodes fasciata (Warren, 1899)
Geodena auridisca (Warren, 1904)
Geodena marginalis Walker, 1856
Geodena quadrigutta Walker, 1856
Geodena suffusa Swinhoe, 1904
Geodena surrendra Swinhoe, 1904
Geodena venata Prout, 1915
Gymnoscelis tenera Warren, 1901
Heterocrita bidentata (Bethune-Baker, 1913)
Heterorachis carpenteri Prout, 1915
Heterostegane flavata (Warren, 1905)
Hyalornis docta (Schaus & Clements, 1893)
Hylemeridia majuscula Prout, 1915
Hypocoela subfulva Warren, 1897
Hypocoela turpisaria (Swinhoe, 1904)
Hypomecis intrusilinea (Prout, 1915)
Idaea pulveraria (Snellen, 1872)
Idaea rufimixta (Warren, 1901)
Idaea submaculata (Warren, 1898)
Isturgia catalaunaria (Guenée, 1858)
Isturgia disputaria (Guenée, 1858)
Lathochlora inornata Warren, 1900
Lophorrhachia palliata (Warren, 1898)
Lophorrhachia rubricorpus (Warren, 1898)
Luxiaria ansorgei (Warren, 1903)
Luxiaria curvivena (Warren, 1899)
Melinoessa amplissimata (Walker, 1863)
Melinoessa aureola Prout, 1934
Melinoessa palumbata (Warren, 1894)
Melinoessa perlimbata (Guenée, 1857)
Melinoessa stellata (Butler, 1878)
Melinoessa stramineata (Walker, 1869)
Mesocolpia marmorata (Warren, 1899)
Miantochora incolorata Warren, 1899
Miantochora rufaria (Swinhoe, 1904)
Mixocera albimargo Warren, 1901
Narthecusa tenuiorata Walker, 1862
Neostega flaviguttata Warren, 1903
Omphacodes minima Prout, 1913
Omphalucha brunnea (Warren, 1899)
Omphax rubriceps (Warren, 1904)
Paraptychodes costimaculata Prout, 1913
Perithalera oblongata (Warren, 1898)
Phaiogramma faustinata (Millière, 1868)
Pitthea continua Walker, 1854
Pitthea famula Drury, 1773
Plegapteryx anomalus Herrich-Schäffer, 1856
Plegapteryx sphingata (Warren, 1895)
Prasinocyma congrua (Walker, 1869)
Prasinocyma gemmatimargo Prout, 1915
Prasinocyma pulchraria Swinhoe, 1904
Pycnostega fumosa (Warren, 1897)
Pycnostega obscura Warren, 1905
Racotis squalida (Butler, 1878)
Racotis zebrina Warren, 1899
Rhodometra sacraria (Linnaeus, 1767)
Rhodophthitus myriostictus Prout, 1915
Scopula aphercta Prout, 1932
Scopula elegans (Prout, 1915)
Scopula euphemia Prout, 1920
Scopula flavissima (Warren, 1898)
Scopula habilis (Warren, 1899)
Scopula haemaleata (Warren, 1898)
Scopula inscriptata (Walker, 1863)
Scopula jejuna Prout, 1932
Scopula lactaria (Walker, 1861)
Scopula minorata (Boisduval, 1833)
Scopula ossicolor (Warren, 1897)
Scopula plionocentra Prout, 1920
Scopula proterocelis Prout, 1920
Scopula pyraliata (Warren, 1898)
Scopula serena Prout, 1920
Scopula subperlaria (Warren, 1897)
Scopula supina Prout, 1920
Scopula transsecta (Warren, 1898)
Somatina irregularis (Warren, 1898)
Somatina probleptica Prout, 1917
Sphingomima heterodoxa Warren, 1899
Terina charmione (Fabricius, 1793)
Terina doleris (Plötz, 1880)
Thalassodes opaca Warren, 1898
Thalassodes quadraria Guenée, 1857
Thalassodes unicolor Warren, 1902
Traminda obversata (Walker, 1861)
Unnamed Ennominae genus ansorgeata (Warren, 1903)
Unnamed Ennominae genus rufigrisea (Warren, 1900)
Vaena eacleoides Walker, 1869
Victoria perornata Warren, 1898
Xanthisthisa brunnea (Warren, 1899)
Xanthorhoe euthytoma Prout, 1926
Xenimpia conformis (Warren, 1898)
Xenimpia informis (Swinhoe, 1904)
Xenochroma palimpais Prout, 1934
Xenostega tincta Warren, 1899
Xenostega tyana Swinhoe, 1904
Zamarada acosmeta Prout, 1921
Zamarada acrochra Prout, 1928
Zamarada adumbrata D. S. Fletcher, 1974
Zamarada aerata D. S. Fletcher, 1974
Zamarada aglae Oberthür, 1912
Zamarada anacantha D. S. Fletcher, 1974
Zamarada antimima D. S. Fletcher, 1974
Zamarada auratisquama Warren, 1897
Zamarada bastelbergeri Gaede, 1915
Zamarada bicuspida D. S. Fletcher, 1974
Zamarada catori Bethune-Baker, 1913
Zamarada chrysothyra Hampson, 1909
Zamarada corroborata Herbulot, 1954
Zamarada crystallophana Mabille, 1900
Zamarada cucharita D. S. Fletcher, 1974
Zamarada dentigera Warren, 1909
Zamarada dialitha D. S. Fletcher, 1974
Zamarada dilucida Warren, 1909
Zamarada dolorosa D. S. Fletcher, 1974
Zamarada episema D. S. Fletcher, 1974
Zamarada euerces Prout, 1928
Zamarada euphrosyne Oberthür, 1912
Zamarada excavata Bethune-Baker, 1913
Zamarada flavicosta Warren, 1897
Zamarada fumosa Gaede, 1915
Zamarada griseola D. S. Fletcher, 1974
Zamarada hero D. S. Fletcher, 1974
Zamarada ignicosta Prout, 1912
Zamarada ilaria Swinhoe, 1904
Zamarada intacta Herbulot, 1979
Zamarada ixiaria Swinhoe, 1904
Zamarada labifera Prout, 1915
Zamarada latimargo Warren, 1897
Zamarada lepta D. S. Fletcher, 1974
Zamarada longidens D. S. Fletcher, 1963
Zamarada melanopyga Herbulot, 1954
Zamarada melasma D. S. Fletcher, 1974
Zamarada melpomene Oberthür, 1912
Zamarada mimesis D. S. Fletcher, 1974
Zamarada nasuta Warren, 1897
Zamarada opala Carcasson, 1964
Zamarada paxilla D. S. Fletcher, 1974
Zamarada perlepidata (Walker, 1863)
Zamarada phoenopasta D. S. Fletcher, 1974
Zamarada phrontisaria Swinhoe, 1904
Zamarada pinheyi D. S. Fletcher, 1956
Zamarada polyctemon Prout, 1932
Zamarada protrusa Warren, 1897
Zamarada reflexaria (Walker, 1863)
Zamarada regularis D. S. Fletcher, 1974
Zamarada sagitta D. S. Fletcher, 1974
Zamarada schalida D. S. Fletcher, 1974
Zamarada sicula D. S. Fletcher, 1974
Zamarada sinecalcarata D. S. Fletcher, 1974
Zamarada subincolaris Gaede, 1915
Zamarada subinterrupta Gaede, 1915
Zamarada suda D. S. Fletcher, 1974
Zamarada terpsichore Oberthür, 1912
Zamarada tortura D. S. Fletcher, 1974
Zamarada triangularis Gaede, 1915
Zamarada undimarginata Warren, 1897
Zamarada urania Oberthür, 1912
Zamarada vulpina Warren, 1897
Zamarada xyele D. S. Fletcher, 1974
Zeuctoboarmia pectinata (Warren, 1897)
Zeuctoboarmia sabinei (Prout, 1915)
Gracillariidae
Acrocercops bifasciata (Walsingham, 1891)
Acrocercops fuscapica Bland, 1980
Acrocercops pectinivalva Bland, 1980
Acrocercops rhothiastis Meyrick, 1921
Aristaea onychota (Meyrick, 1908)
Caloptilia fera Triberti, 1989
Caloptilia insolita Triberti, 1989
Caloptilia isotoma (Meyrick, 1914)
Caloptilia leptophanes (Meyrick, 1928)
Caloptilia maynei Ghesquière, 1940
Caloptilia pentaplaca (Meyrick, 1911)
Caloptilia prosticta (Meyrick, 1909)
Caloptilia pseudoaurita Triberti, 1989
Corythoxestis aletreuta (Meyrick, 1936)
Ectropina sclerochitoni Vári, 1961
Ectropina suttoni (Bland, 1980)
Lamprolectica apicistrigata (Walsingham, 1891)
Phyllocnistis citrella Stainton, 1856
Phyllonorycter caudasimplex Bland, 1980
Spulerina quadrifasciata Bland, 1980
Stomphastis adesa Triberti, 1988
Stomphastis conflua (Meyrick, 1914)
Stomphastis thraustica (Meyrick, 1908)
Himantopteridae
Pedoptila catori Bethune-Baker, 1911
Lasiocampidae
Cheligium lineatum (Aurivillius, 1893)
Chrysopsyche albicilia Bethune-Baker, 1911
Chrysopsyche imparilis Aurivillius, 1905
Chrysopsyche mirifica (Butler, 1878)
Cleopatrina bilinea (Walker, 1855)
Euphorea ondulosa (Conte, 1909)
Euwallengrenia reducta (Walker, 1855)
Filiola occidentale (Strand, 1912)
Gastroplakaeis idakum Bethune-Baker, 1913
Gelo anastella Zolotuhin & Prozorov, 2010
Gonometa christyi Sharpe, 1902
Grellada imitans (Aurivillius, 1893)
Hariola haigi (Tams, 1935)
Hypotrabala castanea Holland, 1893
Leipoxais dives Aurivillius, 1915
Leipoxais humfreyi Aurivillius, 1915
Leipoxais marginepunctata Holland, 1893
Leipoxais peraffinis Holland, 1893
Mallocampa audea (Druce, 1887)
Mimopacha cinerascens (Holland, 1893)
Mimopacha gerstaeckerii (Dewitz, 1881)
Mimopacha tripunctata (Aurivillius, 1905)
Morongea cruenta Zolotuhin & Prozorov, 2010
Morongea mastodont Zolotuhin & Prozorov, 2010
Odontocheilopteryx maculata Aurivillius, 1905
Opisthodontia afroio Zolotuhin & Prozorov, 2010
Opisthodontia axividia Zolotuhin & Prozorov, 2010
Opisthodontia pygmy Zolotuhin & Prozorov, 2010
Pachymeta contraria (Walker, 1855)
Pachymetana lamborni (Aurivillius, 1915)
Pachyna subfascia (Walker, 1855)
Pachytrina elygara Zolotuhin & Gurkovich, 2009
Pachytrina gliharta Zolotuhin & Gurkovich, 2009
Pachytrina regeria Zolotuhin & Gurkovich, 2009
Pallastica lateritia (Hering, 1928)
Pallastica mesoleuca (Strand, 1911)
Philotherma sordida Aurivillius, 1905
Pseudometa choba (Druce, 1899)
Pseudometa patagiata Aurivillius, 1905
Pseudometa tenebra (Bethune-Baker, 1911)
Sena punctulata (Aurivillius, 1914)
Streblote splendens (Druce, 1887)
Theophasida cardinalli (Tams, 1926)
Trabala burchardii (Dewitz, 1881)
Trabala lambourni Bethune-Baker, 1911
Limacodidae
Altha ansorgei Bethune-Baker, 1911
Altha rubrifusalis Hampson, 1910
Baria elsa (Druce, 1887)
Casphalia citrimaculata Aurivillius, 1905
Chrysopoloma citrina Druce, 1886
Gavara lamborni (Bethune-Baker, 1915)
Hadraphe aprica Karsch, 1899
Latoia colini Mabille, 1881
Latoia loxotoma (Bethune-Baker, 1911)
Latoia urda (Druce, 1887)
Macroplectra fuscifusa Hampson, 1910
Macroplectra obliquilinea Hampson, 1910
Micraphe lateritia Karsch, 1896
Miresa strigivena Hampson, 1910
Narosa albescens West, 1940
Narosana agbaja Bethune-Baker, 1915
Parasa carnapi Karsch, 1899
Parasa catori Bethune-Baker, 1911
Parasa dentina Hering, 1932
Parasa prussi Karsch, 1896
Parasa serratilinea Bethune-Baker, 1911
Rhypteira sordida Holland, 1893
Stroteroides albitibiata West, 1940
Thosea catori Bethune-Baker, 1908
Trachyptena agbaja (Bethune-Baker, 1915)
Trachyptena rufa Bethune-Baker, 1911
Lymantriidae
Aclonophlebia flaveola Hering, 1926
Batella acronictoides (Collenette, 1937)
Batella muscosa (Holland, 1893)
Bracharoa mixta (Snellen, 1872)
Conigephyra flava (Bethune-Baker, 1911)
Conigephyra unipunctata (Möschler, 1887)
Cropera nigripes (Hampson, 1910)
Crorema mentiens Walker, 1855
Crorema setinoides (Holland, 1893)
Dasychira catori Bethune-Baker, 1911
Dasychira coeruleifascia (Holland, 1893)
Dasychira cromptoni Swinhoe, 1903
Dasychira euproctina (Aurivillius, 1904)
Dasychira griseinubes Hampson, 1910
Dasychira hodoepora Collenette, 1960
Dasychira horrida Swinhoe, 1903
Dasychira ilesha Collenette, 1931
Dasychira magnifica Hampson, 1910
Dasychira melochlora Hering, 1926
Dasychira obliqua (Bethune-Baker, 1911)
Dasychira postalba (Swinhoe, 1906)
Dasychira pulchra Swinhoe, 1906
Dasychira remota Druce, 1887
Dasychira strigidentata Bethune-Baker, 1911
Dasychira umbricolora Hampson, 1910
Dasychirana crenulata Bethune-Baker, 1911
Dasychirana unilineata Bethune-Baker, 1911
Eudasychira anisozyga (Collenette, 1960)
Eudasychira dina (Hering, 1926)
Eudasychira georgiana (Fawcett, 1900)
Eudasychira isozyga (Collenette, 1960)
Eudasychira macnultyi (Collenette, 1957)
Eudasychira quinquepunctata Möschler, 1887
Euproctis aethiopica (Bethune-Baker, 1908)
Euproctis alba Swinhoe, 1903
Euproctis ceramozona Collenette, 1931
Euproctis onii Bethune-Baker, 1911
Euproctis pygmaea (Walker, 1855)
Euproctis quadrifascia Bethune-Baker, 1911
Euproctis tabida (Hering, 1926)
Euproctis utilis Swinhoe, 1903
Euproctoides acrisia Plötz, 1880
Hemerophanes enos (Druce, 1896)
Heteronygmia manicata (Aurivillius, 1892)
Hyaloperina nudiuscula Aurivillius, 1904
Knappetra fasciata (Walker, 1855)
Lacipa argyroleuca Hampson, 1910
Lacipa quadripunctata Dewitz, 1881
Laelia aegra Hering, 1926
Laelia aethiopica Bethune-Baker, 1908
Laelia batoides Plötz, 1880
Laelia fulvicosta Hampson, 1910
Laelia pheosia (Hampson, 1910)
Laelia rocana (Swinhoe, 1906)
Laelia straminea Hampson, 1910
Leucoma gracillima Holland, 1893
Leucoma luteipes (Walker, 1855)
Leucoma ogovensis (Holland, 1893)
Leucoma parva (Plötz, 1880)
Leucoma vata Swinhoe, 1903
Lomadonta saturata Swinhoe, 1904
Marbla affinis (Hering, 1926)
Marbla divisa (Walker, 1855)
Marblepsis flabellaria (Fabricius, 1787)
Marblepsis nyses (Druce, 1887)
Naroma signifera Walker, 1856
Neomardara africana (Holland, 1893)
Olapa tavetensis (Holland, 1892)
Opoboa chrysoparala Collenette, 1932
Opoboa schuetzei Tessmann, 1921
Otroeda cafra (Drury, 1780)
Otroeda nerina (Drury, 1780)
Otroeda vesperina Walker, 1854
Paraproctis osiris Bethune-Baker, 1911
Pseudonotodonta virescens (Möschler, 1887)
Rhypopteryx sordida Aurivillius, 1879
Stracena flavipectus (Swinhoe, 1903)
Stracena fuscivena Swinhoe, 1903
Stracena tottea (Swinhoe, 1903)
Terphothrix callima (Bethune-Baker, 1911)
Metarbelidae
Lebedodes bassa (Bethune-Baker, 1908)
Lebedodes nigeriae Bethune-Baker, 1915
Melisomimas metallica Hampson, 1914
Metarbela bifasciata Gaede, 1929
Metarbela funebris Gaede, 1929
Moyencharia joeli Lehmann, 2013
Moyencharia ochreicosta (Gaede, 1929)
Stenagra multipunctata Hampson, 1920
Micronoctuidae
Micronola yemeni Fibiger, 2011
Noctuidae
Abrostola confusa Dufay, 1958
Aburina phoenocrosmena Hampson, 1926
Aburina tetragramma Hampson, 1926
Acanthodelta janata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Achaea albicilia (Walker, 1858)
Achaea albifimbria (Walker, 1869)
Achaea boris (Geyer, 1837)
Achaea catella Guenée, 1852
Achaea catocaloides Guenée, 1852
Achaea echo (Walker, 1858)
Achaea ezea (Cramer, 1779)
Achaea faber Holland, 1894
Achaea finita (Guenée, 1852)
Achaea indicabilis Walker, 1858
Achaea intercisa Walker, 1865
Achaea lienardi (Boisduval, 1833)
Achaea mormoides Walker, 1858
Achaea obvia Hampson, 1913
Achaea thermopera Hampson, 1913
Achaea xanthodera (Holland, 1894)
Acontia antica Walker, 1862
Acontia citrelinea Bethune-Baker, 1911
Acontia ectorrida (Hampson, 1916)
Acontia fastrei Hacker, Legrain & Fibiger, 2010
Acontia gratiosa Wallengren, 1856
Acontia hemiselenias (Hampson, 1918)
Acontia imitatrix Wallengren, 1856
Acontia insocia (Walker, 1857)
Acontia nigrimacula Hacker, Legrain & Fibiger, 2008
Acontia sphaerophora (Hampson, 1914)
Acontia transfigurata Wallengren, 1856
Acontia vaualbum (Hampson, 1914)
Acontia veroxanthia Hacker, Legrain & Fibiger, 2010
Acontia wahlbergi Wallengren, 1856
Acrapex aenigma (Felder & Rogenhofer, 1874)
Adisura affinis Rothschild, 1921
Aegocera anthina Jordan, 1926
Aegocera humphreyi (Hampson, 1911)
Aegocera obliqua Mabille, 1893
Aegocera rectilinea Boisduval, 1836
Aegocera tigrina (Druce, 1882)
Aethodes angustipennis Hampson, 1918
Agoma trimenii (Felder, 1874)
Agrotis bisignoides Poole, 1989
Agrotis melamesa Hampson, 1913
Amazonides rufescens (Hampson, 1913)
Amyna axis Guenée, 1852
Androlymnia torsivena (Hampson, 1902)
Anigraea siccata (Hampson, 1905)
Anoba microphaea Hampson, 1926
Anomis endochlora Hampson, 1926
Anomis microdonta Hampson, 1926
Anomis pyrocausta Hampson, 1926
Apaegocera argyrogramma Hampson, 1905
Araeopteron canescens (Walker, 1865)
Aspidifrontia berioi Hacker & Hausmann, 2010
Aspidifrontia hemileuca (Hampson, 1909)
Aspidifrontia pulverea Hampson, 1913
Aspidifrontia villiersi (Laporte, 1972)
Athetis magniplagia (Hampson, 1918)
Attatha metaleuca Hampson, 1913
Audea endophaea Hampson, 1913
Audea humeralis Hampson, 1902
Audea kathrina Kühne, 2005
Audea melaleuca Walker, 1865
Audea paulumnodosa Kühne, 2005
Autoba brachygonia (Hampson, 1910)
Avatha ethiopica (Hampson, 1913)
Avitta insignifica Hampson, 1926
Avitta ionomesa Hampson, 1926
Baniana disticta Hampson, 1926
Bocula ichthyuropis Hampson, 1926
Bocula sticticraspis Hampson, 1926
Brevipecten confluens Hampson, 1926
Brevipecten politzari Hacker & Fibiger, 2007
Calesia fulviceps Hampson, 1926
Caligatus angasii Wing, 1850
Callophisma flavicornis Hampson, 1913
Callopistria complicata (Holland, 1894)
Callopistria cyanopera (Hampson, 1911)
Callopistria maillardi (Guenée, 1862)
Callopistria nana (Hampson, 1911)
Callopistria nephrosticta (Hampson, 1908)
Callopistria nigeriensis (Hampson, 1918)
Callopistria occidens (Hampson, 1908)
Callopistria thermochroa (Hampson, 1911)
Callyna holophaea Hampson, 1911
Capnodes albicostata Poole, 1989
Caryonopera triangularis (Bethune-Baker, 1911)
Catada rex Bethune-Baker, 1911
Catephia cryptodisca Hampson, 1926
Catephia holophaea Hampson, 1926
Catephia microcelis Hampson, 1926
Cerocala albicornis Berio, 1966
Cerocala caelata Karsch, 1896
Chalciope pusilla (Holland, 1894)
Chasmina tibialis (Fabricius, 1775)
Chasmina vestae (Guenée, 1852)
Chrysodeixis acuta (Walker, [1858])
Claterna gracillodina Hampson, 1926
Colbusa euclidica Walker, 1865
Colbusa restricta Hampson, 1918
Corgatha porphyrea Hampson, 1910
Crameria amabilis (Drury, 1773)
Cretonia platyphaeella Walker, 1866
Crypsotidia maculifera (Staudinger, 1898)
Crypsotidia mesosema Hampson, 1913
Crypsotidia parva Rothschild, 1921
Ctenoplusia dorfmeisteri (Felder & Rogenhofer, 1874)
Ctenusa pallida (Hampson, 1902)
Cyligramma latona (Cramer, 1775)
Cyligramma limacina (Guérin-Méneville, 1832)
Cyligramma magus (Guérin-Méneville, [1844])
Cyligramma simplex Grünberg, 1910
Deinopa lilacina Hampson, 1926
Diparopsis watersi (Rothschild, 1901)
Drepanopses rufipicta Hampson, 1926
Dysgonia angularis (Boisduval, 1833)
Dysgonia humilis Holland, 1894
Dysgonia palpalis (Walker, 1865)
Dysgonia perexcurvata (Hampson, 1918)
Dysgonia pudica (Möschler, 1887)
Dysgonia torrida (Guenée, 1852)
Dysgonia trogosema (Hampson, 1913)
Egnasia microtype Hampson, 1926
Egnasia scotopasta Hampson, 1926
Egnasia trogocraspia Hampson, 1926
Enispa albipuncta Hampson, 1910
Enispa atriceps Hampson, 1910
Enispa lycaugesia Hampson, 1910
Enmonodiops ochrodiscata Hampson, 1926
Entomogramma pardus Guenée, 1852
Episparis fenestrifera Bryk, 1915
Ercheia subsignata (Walker, 1865)
Erebus walkeri (Butler, 1875)
Ethiopica exolivia Hampson, 1911
Ethiopica melanopa Bethune-Baker, 1911
Ethiopica polyastra Hampson, 1909
Euaethiops cyanopasta Hampson, 1926
Eublemma anachoresis (Wallengren, 1863)
Eublemma bifasciata (Moore, 1881)
Eublemma cochylioides (Guenée, 1852)
Eublemma flaviciliata Hampson, 1910
Eublemma lacteicosta Hampson, 1910
Eublemma phaeapera Hampson, 1910
Eublemma proleuca Hampson, 1910
Eublemma ragusana (Freyer, 1844)
Eublemma robertsi Berio, 1969
Eublemma scotopis Bethune-Baker, 1911
Eublemma staudingeri (Wallengren, 1875)
Eudocima divitiosa (Walker, 1869)
Eudocima materna (Linnaeus, 1767)
Eudrapa lepraota Hampson, 1926
Eudrapa metathermeola Hampson, 1926
Eudrapa mollis Walker, 1857
Eudrapa olivaria Hampson, 1926
Euippodes euprepes Hampson, 1926
Euminucia conflua Hampson, 1913
Euneophlebia acutissima Berio, 1972
Eutelia albiluna Hampson, 1905
Eutelia cautabasis Hampson, 1905
Eutelia chlorobasis Hampson, 1905
Eutelia discitriga Walker, 1865
Eutelia ferridorsata Hampson, 1905
Eutelia holocausta Hampson, 1905
Eutelia leucodelta Hampson, 1905
Eutelia menalcas (Holland, 1894)
Eutelia metasarca Hampson, 1905
Eutelia nigridentula Hampson, 1905
Eutelia ochricostata Hampson, 1905
Eutelia polychorda Hampson, 1902
Eutelia porphyriota (Hampson, 1912)
Eutelia quadriliturata Walker, 1869
Eutelia snelleni Saalmüller, 1881
Eutelia subrubens (Mabille, 1890)
Eutelia violescens (Hampson, 1912)
Facidia luteilinea Hampson, 1926
Feliniopsis medleri (Laporte, 1973)
Feliniopsis nigribarbata (Hampson, 1908)
Feliniopsis wojtusiaki Hacker & Fibiger, 2007
Focillopis eclipsia Hampson, 1926
Fodina oxyprora (Bethune-Baker, 1911)
Geniascota lacteata Hampson, 1926
Geniascota trichoptycha Hampson, 1926
Gesonia obeditalis Walker, 1859
Gesonia stictigramma Hampson, 1926
Gracilodes metopis Hampson, 1926
Gracilodes opisthenops Hampson, 1926
Grammodes congenita Walker, 1858
Grammodes geometrica (Fabricius, 1775)
Grammodes stolida (Fabricius, 1775)
Helicoverpa assulta (Guenée, 1852)
Heliophisma catocalina Holland, 1894
Heliophisma klugii (Boisduval, 1833)
Heraclia geryon (Fabricius, 1781)
Heraclia hornimani (Druce, 1880)
Heraclia longipennis (Walker, 1854)
Heraclia medeba (Druce, 1880)
Heraclia pallida (Walker, 1854)
Heraclia poggei (Dewitz, 1879)
Heraclia terminatis (Walker, 1856)
Herpeperas lavendula Hampson, 1926
Herpeperas phoenopasta Hampson, 1926
Hollandia spurrelli Hampson, 1926
Holocryptis melanosticta Hampson, 1910
Homodina argentifera Hampson, 1926
Hypena conscitalis Walker, 1866
Hypena obacerralis Walker, [1859]
Hypocala deflorata (Fabricius, 1794)
Hypocala rostrata (Fabricius, 1794)
Hypopyra capensis Herrich-Schäffer, 1854
Hyposada melanosticta Hampson, 1910
Hypotacha isthmigera Wiltshire, 1968
Hypotuerta transiens (Hampson, 1901)
Iambia jansei Berio, 1966
Iambia thwaitesi (Moore, 1885)
Isadelphina albistellata Hampson, 1926
Isadelphina cheilosema Hampson, 1926
Isadelphina rufaria Hampson, 1926
Isadelphina xylochroa Hampson, 1926
Leucania fissifascia (Hampson, 1907)
Leucania insulicola Guenée, 1852
Leucania miasticta (Hampson, 1918)
Libystica crenata Hampson, 1926
Lophoptera litigiosa (Boisduval, 1833)
Loxioda ectherma Hampson, 1926
Lycophotia viridis Hampson, 1911
Macella euritiusalis Walker, 1859
Macellopis ustata Hampson, 1926
Marathyssa cuneata (Saalmüller, 1891)
Marcipa apicalis Hampson, 1926
Marcipa dimera Hampson, 1926
Marcipa eucrines (Bethune-Baker, 1911)
Marcipa molybdea Hampson, 1926
Marcipa monosema Hampson, 1926
Marcipa ruptisigna Hampson, 1926
Masalia albiseriata (Druce, 1903)
Masalia bimaculata (Moore, 1888)
Masalia flaviceps (Hampson, 1903)
Masalia flavistrigata (Hampson, 1903)
Masalia galatheae (Wallengren, 1856)
Masalia nubila (Hampson, 1903)
Masalia rubristria (Hampson, 1903)
Masalia transvaalica (Distant, 1902)
Massaga angustifascia Rothschild, 1896
Massaga hesparia (Cramer, 1775)
Massaga maritona Butler, 1868
Massaga virescens Butler, 1874
Matopo selecta (Walker, 1865)
Maxera euryptera Hampson, 1926
Mazuca dulcis Jordan, 1933
Mazuca strigicincta Walker, 1866
Mecodina ochrigrapta Hampson, 1926
Mecodopsis conisema Hampson, 1926
Medlerana nigeriensis Laporte, 1979
Melanephia nigrescens (Wallengren, 1856)
Mesogenea excavata Hampson, 1926
Mesosciera picta Hampson, 1926
Mesosciera rubrinotata Hampson, 1926
Metagarista maenas (Herrich-Schäffer, 1853)
Metagarista triphaenoides Walker, 1854
Mimasura clara (Holland, 1893)
Miniodes discolor Guenée, 1852
Miniodes phaeosoma Hampson, 1913
Misa memnonia Karsch, 1895
Mitrophrys latreillii (Herrich-Schäffer, 1853)
Mitrophrys menete (Cramer, 1775)
Mocis frugalis (Fabricius, 1775)
Mocis mayeri (Boisduval, 1833)
Mocis mutuaria (Walker, 1858)
Mocis proverai Zilli, 2000
Mocis undata (Fabricius, 1775)
Mythimna atritorna (Hampson, 1911)
Mythimna natalensis (Butler, 1875)
Naarda unipunctata Bethune-Baker, 1911
Nagia evanescens Hampson, 1926
Nagia microsema Hampson, 1926
Nephelemorpha semaphora Hampson, 1926
Niphosticta stigmagrapta Hampson, 1926
Nyodes brevicornis (Walker, 1857)
Odontestra goniosema Hampson, 1913
Oglasa atristipata Hampson, 1926
Oglasa aulota Hampson, 1926
Oglasa confluens Hampson, 1926
Oglasa diagonalis Hampson, 1926
Oglasa holophaea Hampson, 1926
Oglasa phaeonephele Hampson, 1926
Oglasa rufimedia Hampson, 1926
Oglasa tessellata Hampson, 1926
Oligia ambigua (Walker, 1858)
Oligia melanodonta Hampson, 1908
Ophisma teterrima Hampson, 1913
Ophiusa conspicienda (Walker, 1858)
Ophiusa david (Holland, 1894)
Ophiusa despecta (Holland, 1894)
Ophiusa dilecta Walker, 1865
Ophiusa selenaris (Guenée, 1852)
Oraesia emarginata (Fabricius, 1794)
Oraesia politzari Behounek, Hacker & Speidel, 2010
Oraesia provocans Walker, [1858]
Oruza divisa (Walker, 1862)
Oruza dolichognatha Hampson, 1918
Oruza latifera (Walker, 1869)
Ozarba domina (Holland, 1894)
Ozarba epimochla Bethune-Baker, 1911
Ozarba rubrivena Hampson, 1910
Pangrapta seriopuncta Hampson, 1926
Panilla xylonea Hampson, 1926
Parachalciope benitensis (Holland, 1894)
Parachalciope binaria (Holland, 1894)
Parachalciope deltifera (Felder & Rogenhofer, 1874)
Parachalciope euclidicola (Walker, 1858)
Parafodina ectrogia (Hampson, 1926)
Paralephana camptocera Hampson, 1926
Paralephana incurvata Hampson, 1926
Paralephana leucopis Hampson, 1926
Paralephana metaphaea Hampson, 1926
Paralephana nigripalpis Hampson, 1926
Paralephana patagiata Hampson, 1926
Parallelura palumbiodes (Hampson, 1902)
Pericyma mendax (Walker, 1858)
Pericyma polygramma Hampson, 1913
Phaegorista similis Walker, 1869
Phaeoscia canipars Hampson, 1926
Phalerodes cauta (Hampson, 1902)
Phlogochroa albiguttula Hampson, 1926
Phlogochroa haemorrhanta (Bethune-Baker, 1911)
Phlogochroa melanomesa Hampson, 1926
Phytometra nyctichroa (Hampson, 1926)
Plecoptera androconiata Hampson, 1926
Plecoptera costisignata Hampson, 1926
Plecoptera geminilinea Hampson, 1926
Plecoptera mesostriga Hampson, 1926
Plecoptera resistens (Walker, 1858)
Plecopterodes melliflua (Holland, 1897)
Plecopterodes moderata (Wallengren, 1860)
Plusia hemichalcea (Hampson, 1913)
Plusiodonta ionochrota Hampson, 1926
Polydesma umbricola Boisduval, 1833
Polytela cliens (Felder & Rogenhofer, 1874)
Polytelodes florifera (Walker, 1858)
Prionofrontia ochrosia Hampson, 1926
Prolymnia atrifera Hampson, 1911
Pseudoarcte melanis (Mabille, 1890)
Pseudogiria hypographa (Hampson, 1926)
Pseudozarba bipartita (Herrich-Schäffer, 1950)
Remigiodes remigina (Mabille, 1884)
Rhabdophera clathrum (Guenée, 1852)
Rhesalides nigeriensis Hampson, 1926
Rhynchina leucodonta Hampson, 1910
Rhynchina paliscia Bethune-Baker, 1911
Rhynchina tinctalis (Zeller, 1852)
Rougeotiana xanthoperas (Hampson, 1926)
Saroba isocyma Hampson, 1926
Sarothroceras banaka (Plötz, 1880)
Schausia leona (Schaus, 1893)
Soloella guttivaga (Walker, 1854)
Sphingomorpha chlorea (Cramer, 1777)
Spodoptera cilium Guenée, 1852
Spodoptera exempta (Walker, 1857)
Spodoptera exigua (Hübner, 1808)
Spodoptera littoralis (Boisduval, 1833)
Spodoptera mauritia (Boisduval, 1833)
Stictoptera confluens (Walker, 1858)
Syngrapha circumflexa (Linnaeus, 1767)
Sypnoides equatorialis (Holland, 1894)
Tachosa acronyctoides Walker, 1869
Tathodelta furvitincta Hampson, 1926
Tatorinia pallidipennis Hampson, 1926
Tatorinia rufipennis Hampson, 1926
Tavia nana Hampson, 1926
Taviodes congenita Hampson, 1926
Taviodes discomma Hampson, 1926
Taviodes excisa Hampson, 1926
Thalatha occidens Hampson, 1911
Thiacidas dukei (Pinhey, 1968)
Thiacidas juvenis Hacker & Zilli, 2007
Thiacidas kanoensis Hacker & Zilli, 2007
Thiacidas meii Hacker & Zilli, 2007
Thiacidas mukim (Berio, 1977)
Thiacidas stassarti Hacker & Zilli, 2007
Thyas metaphaea (Hampson, 1913)
Thyas parallelipipeda (Guenée, 1852)
Thysanoplusia cupreomicans (Hampson, 1909)
Timora umbrifascia Hampson, 1913
Timora unifascia Bethune-Baker, 1911
Tolna sinifera Hampson, 1913
Tolna sypnoides (Butler, 1878)
Tolna versicolor Walker, 1869
Trichopalpina zethesia Hampson, 1926
Trigonodes hyppasia (Cramer, 1779)
Ugia duplicilinea Hampson, 1926
Ugia stigmaphora Hampson, 1926
Ugia straminilinea Hampson, 1926
Ulotrichopus tinctipennis (Hampson, 1902)
Zethesides pusilla Hampson, 1926
Nolidae
Aiteta costiplaga Hampson, 1905
Aiteta escalerai Kheil, 1909
Aiteta gamma (Hampson, 1905)
Aiteta meterythra Hampson, 1905
Aiteta veluta Hampson, 1912
Arcyophora patricula (Hampson, 1902)
Blenina chloromelana (Mabille, 1890)
Blenina chrysochlora (Walker, 1865)
Blenina diagona Hampson, 1912
Bryophilopsis anomoiota (Bethune-Baker, 1911)
Bryophilopsis lunifera Hampson, 1912
Bryophilopsis tarachoides Mabille, 1900
Bryothripa miophaea Hampson, 1912
Earias biplaga Walker, 1866
Earias cupreoviridis (Walker, 1862)
Earias glaucescens (Hampson, 1905)
Earias insulana (Boisduval, 1833)
Earias ogovana Holland, 1893
Eligma hypsoides (Walker, 1869)
Garella nephelota Hampson, 1912
Gigantoceras rectilinea Hampson, 1912
Hypodeva barbata Holland, 1894
Hypodeva nocturna (Hampson, 1905)
Iscadia glaucograpta (Hampson, 1912)
Leocyma camilla (Druce, 1887)
Lophocrama auritincta (Hampson, 1905)
Lophocrama phoenicochlora Hampson, 1912
Maurilia albirivula Hampson, 1905
Maurilia arcuata (Walker, [1858])
Maurilia atrirena Hampson, 1918
Maurilia heterochroa Hampson, 1905
Maurilia phaea Hampson, 1905
Maurilia rufirena Hampson, 1918
Meganola cretacea (Hampson, 1914)
Metaleptina albibasis Holland, 1893
Metaleptina albilinea Hampson, 1912
Metaleptina digramma (Hampson, 1905)
Metaleptina dileuca Hampson, 1912
Metaleptina geminastra (Hampson, 1905)
Metaleptina microcyma (Hampson, 1905)
Metaleptina nigribasis Holland, 1893
Neaxestis piperita (Hampson, 1905)
Negeta approximans Hampson, 1912
Negeta luminosa (Walker, 1858)
Negeta mesoleuca (Holland, 1894)
Negeta phaeopepla (Hampson, 1905)
Negeta stalactitis (Hampson, 1905)
Neonegeta purpurea Hampson, 1912
Neonegeta trigonica (Hampson, 1905)
Neonegeta xanthobasis (Hampson, 1905)
Nola apicalis (Hampson, 1903)
Nola atripuncta (Hampson, 1909)
Nola chionea Hampson, 1911
Nola melanoscelis (Hampson, 1914)
Nola omphalota (Hampson, 1903)
Nola perfusca Hampson, 1911
Nola phaeocraspis (Hampson, 1909)
Odontestis prosticta (Holland, 1894)
Pardoxia graellsii (Feisthamel, 1837)
Periplusia cinerascens Holland, 1894
Periplusia nubilicosta Holland, 1894
Plusiocalpe pallida Holland, 1894
Risoba lunata (Möschler, 1887)
Selepa cumasia Hampson, 1912
Selepa docilis Butler, 1881
Selepa leucograpta Hampson, 1912
Westermannia anchorita Holland, 1893
Westermannia goodi Hampson, 1912
Notodontidae
Acroctena pallida (Butler, 1882)
Afroplitis dierli (Kiriakoff, 1979)
Afroplitis politzaria (Kiriakoff, 1979)
Amphiphalera leuconephra Hampson, 1910
Anaphe subsordida Butler, 1893
Anaphe venata Butler, 1878
Antheua bidentata (Hampson, 1910)
Antheua delicata Bethune-Baker, 1911
Antheua rufovittata (Aurivillius, 1901)
Aprosdocetos inexpectata (Rothschild, 1917)
Arciera lanuginosa (Rothschild, 1917)
Baliopteryx baccata (Hampson, 1910)
Boscawenia polioplaga (Hampson, 1910)
Bostrychogyna bella (Bethune-Baker, 1913)
Brachychira ferruginea Aurivillius, 1905
Catarctia subrosea Bethune-Baker, 1911
Chlorocalliope rivata (Hampson, 1910)
Chlorochadisra pinheyi Kiriakoff, 1975
Crestonica incisus (Rothschild, 1917)
Desmeocraera ardalio Kiriakoff, 1958
Desmeocraera dicax Kiriakoff, 1958
Desmeocraera formosa Kiriakoff, 1958
Desmeocraera glauca Gaede, 1928
Desmeocraera imploratrix Kiriakoff, 1958
Desmeocraera latex (Druce, 1901)
Desmeocraera latifasciata Gaede, 1928
Desmeocraera leucosticta (Hampson, 1910)
Desmeocraera mawa Kiriakoff, 1979
Desmeocraera mkabi Kiriakoff, 1979
Desmeocraera olivina Kiriakoff, 1958
Desmeocraera sincera Kiriakoff, 1958
Desmeocraera vicaria Kiriakoff, 1979
Desmeocraerula pallida Kiriakoff, 1963
Enomotarcha chloana (Holland, 1893)
Enomotarcha metaphaea Kiriakoff, 1979
Epicerura catori (Bethune-Baker, 1911)
Epicerura tamsi Kiriakoff, 1963
Janthinisca badia Kiriakoff, 1979
Janthinisca gerda Kiriakoff, 1979
Janthinisca linda Kiriakoff, 1979
Janthinisca politzari Kiriakoff, 1979
Mainiella subterminalis Kiriakoff, 1962
Odontoperas obliqualinea (Bethune-Baker, 1911)
Odontoperas rosacea Kiriakoff, 1959
Paradiastema monotonia Kiriakoff, 1979
Paradiastema nitens Bethune-Baker, 1911
Paradiastema pulverea Hampson, 1910
Phalera atrata (Grünberg, 1907)
Psalisodes bistriata (Kiriakoff, 1962)
Quista citrina Kiriakoff, 1979
Quista niveiplaga (Hampson, 1910)
Roppa rhabdophora (Hampson, 1910)
Scalmicauda ectoleuca Hampson, 1910
Scalmicauda macrosema Kiriakoff, 1959
Scalmicauda rubrolineata Kiriakoff, 1959
Scalmicauda vinacea Kiriakoff, 1959
Scalmicauda xanthogyna Hampson, 1910
Scrancia astur Kiriakoff, 1962
Scrancia cupreitincta Kiriakoff, 1962
Scrancia expleta Kiriakoff, 1962
Scrancia leucopera Hampson, 1910
Scrancia rothschildi Kiriakoff, 1965
Scrancia tephraea (Bethune-Baker, 1911)
Scranciola rufula (Hampson, 1910)
Stauropussa chloe (Holland, 1893)
Stenostaura vittata Kiriakoff, 1965
Synete parallelis Kiriakoff, 1979
Synete subcaeca Kiriakoff, 1959
Tmetopteryx bisecta (Rothschild, 1917)
Tricholoba minuta Kiriakoff, 1979
Tricholoba unicolor Kiriakoff, 1979
Xanthodonta argyllacea Kiriakoff, 1961
Xanthodonta minima (Hampson, 1910)
Oecophoridae
Stathmopoda ficivora Kasy, 1973
Pantheidae
Raphia buchanani Rothschild, 1921
Psychidae
Eumeta cervina Druce, 1887
Eumeta rotunda Bourgogne, 1965
Eumeta rougeoti Bourgogne, 1955
Melasina immanis Meyrick, 1908
Melasina trichodyta Meyrick, 1924
Pterophoridae
Crocydoscelus ferrugineum Walsingham, 1897
Exelastis vuattouxi Bigot, 1970
Hellinsia aethiopicus (Amsel, 1963)
Hepalastis pumilio (Zeller, 1873)
Lantanophaga pusillidactylus (Walker, 1864)
Megalorhipida leucodactylus (Fabricius, 1794)
Platyptilia molopias Meyrick, 1906
Pterophorus albidus (Zeller, 1852)
Pterophorus spissa (Bigot, 1969)
Sphenarches anisodactylus (Walker, 1864)
Stenoptilodes taprobanes (Felder & Rogenhofer, 1875)
Pyralidae
Acracona remipedalis (Karsch, 1900)
Lamoria imbella (Walker, 1864)
Palmia adustalis (Hampson, 1917)
Saturniidae
Bunaeopsis hersilia (Westwood, 1849)
Decachorda fletcheri Rougeot, 1970
Epiphora perspicuus (Butler, 1878)
Epiphora rectifascia Rothschild, 1907
Goodia hierax Jordan, 1922
Gynanisa maja (Klug, 1836)
Holocerina angulata (Aurivillius, 1893)
Holocerina smilax (Westwood, 1849)
Imbrasia obscura (Butler, 1878)
Lobobunaea acetes (Westwood, 1849)
Lobobunaea phaedusa (Drury, 1782)
Ludia hansali Felder, 1874
Ludia obscura Aurivillius, 1893
Nudaurelia alopia Westwood, 1849
Orthogonioptilum adiegetum Karsch, 1892
Orthogonioptilum prox Karsch, 1892
Pseudantheraea discrepans (Butler, 1878)
Pseudantheraea imperator Rougeot, 1962
Rohaniella pygmaea (Maassen & Weymer, 1885)
Sesiidae
Melittia chalconota Hampson, 1910
Pseudomelittia cingulata Gaede, 1929
Sura rufitibia Hampson, 1919
Tipulamima sexualis (Hampson, 1910)
Trichocerata lambornella (Durrant, 1913)
Sphingidae
Acherontia atropos (Linnaeus, 1758)
Andriasa contraria Walker, 1856
Antinephele anomala (Butler, 1882)
Cephonodes hylas (Linnaeus, 1771)
Falcatula cymatodes (Rothschild & Jordan, 1912)
Hippotion irregularis (Walker, 1856)
Leucophlebia afra Karsch, 1891
Lophostethus dumolinii (Angas, 1849)
Neopolyptychus ancylus (Rothschild & Jordan, 1916)
Neopolyptychus consimilis (Rothschild & Jordan, 1903)
Neopolyptychus prionites (Rothschild & Jordan, 1916)
Neopolyptychus pygarga (Karsch, 1891)
Nephele bipartita Butler, 1878
Nephele maculosa Rothschild & Jordan, 1903
Nephele peneus (Cramer, 1776)
Phylloxiphia bicolor (Rothschild, 1894)
Phylloxiphia vicina (Rothschild & Jordan, 1915)
Platysphinx constrigilis (Walker, 1869)
Platysphinx phyllis Rothschild & Jordan, 1903
Platysphinx stigmatica (Mabille, 1878)
Platysphinx vicaria Jordan, 1920
Polyptychoides digitatus (Karsch, 1891)
Polyptychus andosa Walker, 1856
Polyptychus anochus Rothschild & Jordan, 1906
Polyptychus carteri (Butler, 1882)
Polyptychus coryndoni Rothschild & Jordan, 1903
Polyptychus hollandi Rothschild & Jordan, 1903
Polyptychus orthographus Rothschild & Jordan, 1903
Polyptychus wojtusiaki Pierre, 2001
Pseudenyo benitensis Holland, 1889
Pseudoclanis molitor (Rothschild & Jordan, 1912)
Pseudoclanis rhadamistus (Fabricius, 1781)
Pseudopolyptychus foliaceus (Rothschild & Jordan, 1903)
Sphingonaepiopsis nana (Walker, 1856)
Temnora angulosa Rothschild & Jordan, 1906
Temnora avinoffi Clark, 1919
Temnora camerounensis Clark, 1923
Temnora griseata Rothschild & Jordan, 1903
Temnora hollandi Clark, 1920
Temnora reutlingeri (Holland, 1889)
Temnora stevensi Rothschild & Jordan, 1903
Theretra orpheus (Herrich-Schäffer, 1854)
Theretra perkeo Rothschild & Jordan, 1903
Theretra tessmanni Gehlen, 1927
Thyrididae
Amalthocera tiphys Boisduval, 1836
Byblisia albaproxima Bethune-Baker, 1911
Byblisia latipes Walker, 1865
Byblisia ochracea Jordan, 1907
Collinsa subscripta (Warren, 1899)
Cornuterus palairanta (Bethune-Baker, 1911)
Dysodia collinsi Whalley, 1968
Dysodia intermedia (Walker, 1865)
Dysodia vitrina (Boisduval, 1829)
Dysodia zelleri (Dewitz, 1881)
Epaena trijuncta (Warren, 1898)
Hapana verticalis (Warren, 1899)
Heteroschista nigranalis Warren, 1903
Hypolamprus curviflua (Warren, 1898)
Kalenga ansorgei (Warren, 1899)
Kuja fractifascia (Warren, 1908)
Kuja gemmata (Hampson, 1906)
Marmax hyparchus (Cramer, 1779)
Marmax semiaurata (Walker, 1854)
Nemea eugrapha (Hampson, 1906)
Ninia plumipes (Drury, 1782)
Opula spilotata (Warren, 1898)
Rhodoneura serraticornis (Warren, 1899)
Sijua latizonalis (Hampson, 1897)
Sijua sigillata (Warren, 1898)
Striglina rothi Warren, 1898
Symphleps suffusa Warren, 1898
Trichobaptes auristrigata (Plötz, 1880)
Tineidae
Acridotarsa melipecta (Meyrick, 1915)
Ceratophaga vastellus (Zeller, 1852)
Dasyses nigerica Gozmány, 1968
Edosa nigralba (Gozmány, 1968)
Edosa phlegethon (Gozmány, 1968)
Erechthias travestita (Gozmány, 1968)
Hyperbola pastoralis (Meyrick, 1931)
Monopis jacobsi Gozmány, 1967
Monopis megalodelta Meyrick, 1908
Perissomastix nigerica Gozmány, 1967
Perissomastix sericea Gozmány, 1966
Perissomastix similatrix Gozmány, 1968
Perissomastix stibarodes (Meyrick, 1908)
Phalloscardia semiumbrata (Meyrick, 1920)
Phereoeca praecox Gozmány & Vári, 1973
Phereoeca proletaria (Meyrick, 1921)
Phthoropoea oenochares (Meyrick, 1920)
Pitharcha chalinaea Meyrick, 1908
Sphallestasis cristata (Gozmány, 1967)
Syncalipsis optania (Meyrick, 1908)
Syncalipsis typhodes (Meyrick, 1917)
Tinemelitta ceriaula (Meyrick, 1914)
Tiquadra cultrifera Meyrick, 1914
Wegneria speciosa (Meyrick, 1914)
Tortricidae
Accra rubrothicta Razowski, 1986
Accra viridis (Walsingham, 1891)
Apotoforma fustigera Razowski, 1986
Basigonia anisoscia Diakonoff, 1983
Brachiolia wojtusiaki Razowski, 1986
Cornesia ormoperla Razowski, 1981
Ebodina lagoana Razowski & Tuck, 2000
Eccopsis incultana (Walker, 1863)
Eccopsis praecedens Walsingham, 1897
Eccopsis wahlbergiana Zeller, 1852
Nephograptis necropina Razowski, 1981
Panegyra sectatrix (Razowski, 1981)
Paraeccopsis insellata (Meyrick, 1920)
Plinthograptis clostos Razowski, 1990
Plinthograptis clyster Razowski, 1990
Plinthograptis pleroma Razowski, 1981
Plinthograptis rhytisma Razowski, 1981
Plinthograptis seladonia (Razowski, 1981)
Plinthograptis sipalia Razowski, 1981
Rubidograptis regulus Razowski, 1981
Rubrograptis recrudescentia Razowski, 1981
Russograptis callopista (Durrant, 1913)
Russograptis medleri Razowski, 1981
Russograptis solaris Razowski, 1981
Rutilograptis cornesi Razowski, 1981
Sanguinograptis obtrecator Razowski, 1981
Sanguinograptis ochrolegnia Razowski, 1986
Uraniidae
Acropteris nigrisquama Warren, 1897
Epiplema inelegans Warren, 1898
Zygaenidae
Astyloneura esmeralda (Hampson, 1920)
Tasema unxia (Druce, 1896)
References
External links
Nigeria
Moths
Nigeria
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8198356
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meriones%20%28mythology%29
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Meriones (mythology)
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In Greek mythology, Meriones () was a son of Molus and Melphis or Euippe. Molus was a half-brother of Idomeneus. Like other heroes of mythology, Meriones was said to be a descendant of gods. As a grandson of Deucalion (son of Minos), Meriones's ancestors include Zeus, Europa, Helios, and Pasiphae, the sister of Circe. Meriones possessed the helmet of Amyntor, which Autolycus had stolen. He inherited the helmet from his father Molus and later gave it to Odysseus. Meriones killed seven men at Troy.
Prior to The Iliad
Hyginus lists Meriones as one of the suitors of Helen. This would have made him oath bound to participate in the Trojan War. Other ancient authorities, however, do not include him in the list. Among these are the Bibliotheca and Hesiod.
The Iliad
Though not usually numbered among the major characters, Meriones is a prominent character in Homer's Iliad. Meriones is mentioned in Books II, IV, V, VII, VIII, IX, X, XIII, XIV, XV, XVI, XVII. He is recorded to have killed Phereclus the son of Tecton (Book V), Adamas the son of Asius (Book XIII), Harpalion son of King Pylaemenes (Book XIII), Morys (Book XIV), Hippotion (Book XIV), Acamas (Book XVI), Laogonus son of Onetor (Book XVI), and wounded Deiphobus son of Priam (Book XIII).
Book II
The first reference to Meriones in the Iliad is in the Catalog of Ships in Book II. There he is listed alongside Idomeneus as one of the leaders of the eighty ships from Crete. He is described here and in Books VIII and XIII as a "peer of murderous Ares".
Book VII
Meriones is among those who volunteered to fight Hector in single combat. The others were Agamemnon, Diomedes, Telamonian Ajax, Ajax the Lesser, Idomeneus, Eurypylus (son of Euaemon), Thoas, and Odysseus. Lots were cast to determine who among these would fight and Telamonian Ajax was chosen.
Books IX and X
Meriones, along with Nestor's son Thrasymedes, were charged to serve as sentinels for the Achaean army during a period of Trojan advance. Later that night, Nestor called for a volunteer spy among the captains and Diomedes stepped forward. A volunteer was then requested to join Diomedes and Meriones was among the volunteers. The two Ajaxes, Thrasymedes, Menelaus, and Odysseus also volunteered. Diomedes chose Odysseus. As Odysseus was inadequately armed, Meriones acquired a bow and arrows for him and gave him the helm of Amyntor.
Book XIII
After casting his spear at Deiphobus, but failing to pierce his shield, Meriones returned to his tent to get a new spear. He met Idomeneus there:
Meriones grabbed a bronze spear and followed Idomeneus:
The two then went to reinforce the left flank where they perceived the Achaeans to be weakest, Meriones leading the way. The two battled against the Trojans, particularly Deiphobus and Aeneas. In retaliation for the death of Ascalaphus, Meriones pierced Deiphobus in the shoulder with his spear. Gravely injured, Deiphobus was carried from the battlefield by his brother Polites. Meriones then killed Adamas son of Asius and Harpalion son of King Pylaemenes.
Books XVII and XXIII
After the death of Patroclus, Menelaus called on Meriones and the two Ajaxes to defend the body while he sought Antilochus to act as a messenger of the news to Achilles. Upon returning, Menelaus and Meriones carried Patroclus's body off the battlefield while the Ajaxes guarded them against further attack.
When the funeral pyre for Patroclus was built, Meriones was given charge over the men sent by Agamemnon to all parts of the camp to get wood. They felled timber and brought it to the place where Achilles would later build the structure.
Meriones competed in chariot racing at the funeral games. At the start he was fourth in line behind Antilochus, Eumelus, and Menelaus. Diomedes was fifth in line. Meriones placed fourth behind Diomedes, Antilochus, and Menelaus. He is described as having the slowest horses and being the worst driver of the lot. His prize was two talents of gold.
Meriones fared considerably better in the archery contest:
Agamemnon and Meriones both stood for the javelin throw competition, but Achilles declared Agamemnon to be the greatest among javelin throwers. He proposed that Agamemnon take the cauldron prize and give Meriones the bronze spear. Agamemnon agreed.
Posthomerica
Meriones is also a prominent character in Quintus Smyrnaeus' Posthomerica, his epic poem, telling the story of the Trojan War, from the death of Hector to the fall of Troy. In Book 1, Meriones kills the Amazons, Evandre and Thermodosa. In Book 6, with Teucer, Idomeneus, Thoas and Thrasymedes, he comes to the rescue of Agamemnon and Menelaus and kills the Paeonian warrior, Laophoon. in Book 8, Meriones kills Chlemus, the son of Peisenor, and kills Phylodamas with an arrow, and in Book 11 he kills Lycon. In Book 12, Meriones is one of the Greeks to enter Troy inside the Trojan Horse.
In Gluck's opera
Christoph Willibald Gluck gave Meriones a role in his 1765 opera Telemaco, making this character involved in Odysseus' wanderings after the Trojan War (which is not attested in Homer's original Odyssey on which the opera was based).
Notes
References
Homer. The Iliad (Samuel Butler Translation - 1898), Wikisource.
Quintus Smyrnaeus, The Trojan Epic: Posthomerica, JHU Press, 2007. .
Achaean Leaders
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High%20availability
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High availability
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High availability (HA) is a characteristic of a system which aims to ensure an agreed level of operational performance, usually uptime, for a higher than normal period.
Modernization has resulted in an increased reliance on these systems. For example, hospitals and data centers require high availability of their systems to perform routine daily activities. Availability refers to the ability of the user community to obtain a service or good, access the system, whether to submit new work, update or alter existing work, or collect the results of previous work. If a user cannot access the system, it is – from the user's point of view – unavailable. Generally, the term downtime is used to refer to periods when a system is unavailable.
Principles
There are three principles of systems design in reliability engineering which can help achieve high availability.
Elimination of single points of failure. This means adding or building redundancy into the system so that failure of a component does not mean failure of the entire system.
Reliable crossover. In redundant systems, the crossover point itself tends to become a single point of failure. Reliable systems must provide for reliable crossover.
Detection of failures as they occur. If the two principles above are observed, then a user may never see a failure – but the maintenance activity must.
Scheduled and unscheduled downtime
A distinction can be made between scheduled and unscheduled downtime. Typically, scheduled downtime is a result of maintenance that is disruptive to system operation and usually cannot be avoided with a currently installed system design. Scheduled downtime events might include patches to system software that require a reboot or system configuration changes that only take effect upon a reboot. In general, scheduled downtime is usually the result of some logical, management-initiated event. Unscheduled downtime events typically arise from some physical event, such as a hardware or software failure or environmental anomaly. Examples of unscheduled downtime events include power outages, failed CPU or RAM components (or possibly other failed hardware components), an over-temperature related shutdown, logically or physically severed network connections, security breaches, or various application, middleware, and operating system failures.
If users can be warned away from scheduled downtimes, then the distinction is useful. But if the requirement is for true high availability, then downtime is downtime whether or not it is scheduled.
Many computing sites exclude scheduled downtime from availability calculations, assuming that it has little or no impact upon the computing user community. By doing this, they can claim to have phenomenally high availability, which might give the illusion of continuous availability. Systems that exhibit truly continuous availability are comparatively rare and higher priced, and most have carefully implemented specialty designs that eliminate any single point of failure and allow online hardware, network, operating system, middleware, and application upgrades, patches, and replacements. For certain systems, scheduled downtime does not matter, for example system downtime at an office building after everybody has gone home for the night.
Percentage calculation
Availability is usually expressed as a percentage of uptime in a given year. The following table shows the downtime that will be allowed for a particular percentage of availability, presuming that the system is required to operate continuously. Service level agreements often refer to monthly downtime or availability in order to calculate service credits to match monthly billing cycles. The following table shows the translation from a given availability percentage to the corresponding amount of time a system would be unavailable.
Uptime and availability can be used synonymously as long as the items being discussed are kept consistent. That is, a system can be up, but its services are not available, as in the case of a network outage. This can also be viewed as a system that is available to be worked on, but its services are not up from a functional perspective (as opposed to software service/process perspective). The perspective is important here - whether the item being discussed is the server hardware, server OS, functional service, software service/process...etc. Keep the perspective consistent throughout a discussion, then uptime and availability can be used synonymously.
"Nines"
Percentages of a particular order of magnitude are sometimes referred to by the number of nines or "class of nines" in the digits. For example, electricity that is delivered without interruptions (blackouts, brownouts or surges) 99.999% of the time would have 5 nines reliability, or class five. In particular, the term is used in connection with mainframes or enterprise computing, often as part of a service-level agreement.
Similarly, percentages ending in a 5 have conventional names, traditionally the number of nines, then "five", so 99.95% is "three nines five", abbreviated 3N5. This is casually referred to as "three and a half nines", but this is incorrect: a 5 is only a factor of 2, while a 9 is a factor of 10, so a 5 is 0.3 nines (per below formula: ): 99.95% availability is 3.3 nines, not 3.5 nines. More simply, going from 99.9% availability to 99.95% availability is a factor of 2 (0.1% to 0.05% unavailability), but going from 99.95% to 99.99% availability is a factor of 5 (0.05% to 0.01% unavailability), over twice as much.
A formulation of the class of 9s based on a system's unavailability would be
(cf. Floor and ceiling functions).
A similar measurement is sometimes used to describe the purity of substances.
In general, the number of nines is not often used by a network engineer when modeling and measuring availability because it is hard to apply in formula. More often, the unavailability expressed as a probability (like 0.00001), or a downtime per year is quoted. Availability specified as a number of nines is often seen in marketing documents. The use of the "nines" has been called into question, since it does not appropriately reflect that the impact of unavailability varies with its time of occurrence. For large amounts of 9s, the "unavailability" index (measure of downtime rather than uptime) is easier to handle. For example, this is why an "unavailability" rather than availability metric is used in hard disk or data link bit error rates.
Sometimes the humorous term "nine fives" (55.5555555%) is used to contrast with "five nines" (99.999%), though this is not an actual goal, but rather a sarcastic reference to totally failing to meet any reasonable target.
Measurement and interpretation
Availability measurement is subject to some degree of interpretation. A system that has been up for 365 days in a non-leap year might have been eclipsed by a network failure that lasted for 9 hours during a peak usage period; the user community will see the system as unavailable, whereas the system administrator will claim 100% uptime. However, given the true definition of availability, the system will be approximately 99.9% available, or three nines (8751 hours of available time out of 8760 hours per non-leap year). Also, systems experiencing performance problems are often deemed partially or entirely unavailable by users, even when the systems are continuing to function. Similarly, unavailability of select application functions might go unnoticed by administrators yet be devastating to users — a true availability measure is holistic.
Availability must be measured to be determined, ideally with comprehensive monitoring tools ("instrumentation") that are themselves highly available. If there is a lack of instrumentation, systems supporting high volume transaction processing throughout the day and night, such as credit card processing systems or telephone switches, are often inherently better monitored, at least by the users themselves, than systems which experience periodic lulls in demand.
An alternative metric is mean time between failures (MTBF).
Closely related concepts
Recovery time (or estimated time of repair (ETR), also known as recovery time objective (RTO) is closely related to availability, that is the total time required for a planned outage or the time required to fully recover from an unplanned outage. Another metric is mean time to recovery (MTTR). Recovery time could be infinite with certain system designs and failures, i.e. full recovery is impossible. One such example is a fire or flood that destroys a data center and its systems when there is no secondary disaster recovery data center.
Another related concept is data availability, that is the degree to which databases and other information storage systems faithfully record and report system transactions. Information management often focuses separately on data availability, or Recovery Point Objective, in order to determine acceptable (or actual) data loss with various failure events. Some users can tolerate application service interruptions but cannot tolerate data loss.
A service level agreement ("SLA") formalizes an organization's availability objectives and requirements.
Military control systems
High availability is one of the primary requirements of the control systems in unmanned vehicles and autonomous maritime vessels. If the controlling system becomes unavailable, the Ground Combat Vehicle (GCV) or ASW Continuous Trail Unmanned Vessel (ACTUV) would be lost.
System design
Adding more components to an overall system design can undermine efforts to achieve high availability because complex systems inherently have more potential failure points and are more difficult to implement correctly. While some analysts would put forth the theory that the most highly available systems adhere to a simple architecture (a single, high quality, multi-purpose physical system with comprehensive internal hardware redundancy), this architecture suffers from the requirement that the entire system must be brought down for patching and operating system upgrades. More advanced system designs allow for systems to be patched and upgraded without compromising service availability (see load balancing and failover).
High availability requires less human intervention to restore operation in complex systems; the reason for this being that the most common cause for outages is human error.
Redundancy is used to create systems with high levels of availability (e.g. aircraft flight computers). In this case it is required to have high levels of failure detectability and avoidance of common cause failures. Two kinds of redundancy are passive redundancy and active redundancy.
Passive redundancy is used to achieve high availability by including enough excess capacity in the design to accommodate a performance decline. The simplest example is a boat with two separate engines driving two separate propellers. The boat continues toward its destination despite failure of a single engine or propeller. A more complex example is multiple redundant power generation facilities within a large system involving electric power transmission. Malfunction of single components is not considered to be a failure unless the resulting performance decline exceeds the specification limits for the entire system.
Active redundancy is used in complex systems to achieve high availability with no performance decline. Multiple items of the same kind are incorporated into a design that includes a method to detect failure and automatically reconfigure the system to bypass failed items using a voting scheme. This is used with complex computing systems that are linked. Internet routing is derived from early work by Birman and Joseph in this area. Active redundancy may introduce more complex failure modes into a system, such as continuous system reconfiguration due to faulty voting logic.
Zero downtime system design means that modeling and simulation indicates mean time between failures significantly exceeds the period of time between planned maintenance, upgrade events, or system lifetime. Zero downtime involves massive redundancy, which is needed for some types of aircraft and for most kinds of communications satellites. Global Positioning System is an example of a zero downtime system.
Fault instrumentation can be used in systems with limited redundancy to achieve high availability. Maintenance actions occur during brief periods of down-time only after a fault indicator activates. Failure is only significant if this occurs during a mission critical period.
Modeling and simulation is used to evaluate the theoretical reliability for large systems. The outcome of this kind of model is used to evaluate different design options. A model of the entire system is created, and the model is stressed by removing components. Redundancy simulation involves the N-x criteria. N represents the total number of components in the system. x is the number of components used to stress the system. N-1 means the model is stressed by evaluating performance with all possible combinations where one component is faulted. N-2 means the model is stressed by evaluating performance with all possible combinations where two component are faulted simultaneously.
Reasons for unavailability
A survey among academic availability experts in 2010 ranked reasons for unavailability of enterprise IT systems. All reasons refer to not following best practice in each of the following areas (in order of importance):
Monitoring of the relevant components
Requirements and procurement
Operations
Avoidance of network failures
Avoidance of internal application failures
Avoidance of external services that fail
Physical environment
Network redundancy
Technical solution of backup
Process solution of backup
Physical location
Infrastructure redundancy
Storage architecture redundancy
A book on the factors themselves was published in 2003.
Costs of unavailability
In a 1998 report from IBM Global Services, unavailable systems were estimated to have cost American businesses $4.54 billion in 1996, due to lost productivity and revenues.
See also
Disaster recovery
Fault-tolerance
High-availability cluster
Overall equipment effectiveness
Reliability, availability and serviceability (computing)
Reliability engineering
Resilience (network)
Ubiquitous computing
Notes
References
External links
Lecture Notes on Enterprise Computing University of Tübingen
Lecture notes on Embedded Systems Engineering by Prof. Phil Koopman
Uptime Calculator (SLA)
System administration
Quality control
Applied probability
Reliability engineering
Measurement
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campaign%20Cartographer
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Campaign Cartographer
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Campaign Cartographer is a Windows program created by ProFantasy Software originally in 1993.
Description
The program is designed to draw maps for role playing and miniature war games. The CAD engine is based on FastCAD, although most of code is written by the publishers. It includes a variety of add-ons for different genres, including fantasy, modern and science fiction. Campaign Cartographer 3, was released on 30 June 2006 and has since been updated 9 times. There are currently 9 add-ons for Campaign Cartographer; 6 drawing add-ons that add tools, templates, and symbol catalogs and 3 symbol set add-ons consisting of thousands of symbols. Campaign Cartographer has been used to illustrate novels such as Shades of Gray by Lisanne Norman, Le Temple Des Eaux-Mortes by Eric Ferris, and Johannes Cabal the Detective by Jonathan L. Howard. The Forgotten Realms Interactive Atlas, published by TSR, Inc. in 1999, was likewise constructed using Campaign Cartographer.
Add ons
The following are commercial add-ons available for the Campaign Cartographer tool.
Reception
In the September 1994 edition of Dragon (Issue 209), Lester W. Smith found Campaign Cartographer almost too good, and the 334-page manual almost too much, saying, "For those who like to invest multiple hours into creating detailed maps for their campaigns, and who have the hardware to take advantage of the program, the Campaign Cartographer software allows them to create, store, modify, and copy maps more beautiful than they could have hoped before. But for GMs with limited time to spend, the program may just be too much." However, Smith concluded that too much program was better than too little program, and gave this an above average rating of 5 out of 6, saying, "The Campaign Cartographer software is sort of like a limousine of mapping programs, and some people might be better served with a rough-and-ready truck. On the other hand, this limousine isn't that expensive, and playing with its multitude of 'buttons' and 'switches' is a lot of fun."
In the December 1995 edition of Arcane (Issue 1), Andy Butcher reviewed both Campaign Cartographer and Dungeon Designer.
Butcher admired Campaign Cartographer, giving it an above average rating of 8 out of 10 and saying, "Campaign Cartographer is an incredible program. It really does make it easy to create highly detailed maps of anything from a planet to a small forest."
He was even more enthusiastic about Dungeon Designer, giving it an excellent rating of 9 out of 10 and commenting, "Considering how often these kind of maps are needed in most games, this makes Dungeon Designer even more useful than Campaign Cartographer for most gamers, which is high praise indeed."
Two issues later, in the February 1996 edition of Arcane (Issue 3), Butcher gave City Designer an average rating of 7 out of 10, saying "If you're lucky enough to [have access to your computer during your game] then City Designer'''s very handy indeed. On the other hand, if all you want to do is create maps to print out, Dungeon Designer is far more useful overall."
ReviewsShadis #14Shadis #24 (Feb., 1996)Arcane #14 (Christmas 1996) - Campaign Cartographer Pro / Campaign Cartographer PerspectivesRollespilsmagasinet Fønix'' (Danish) (Issue 11 - Dec/Jan 1995)
See also
List of role-playing game software
References
External links
ProFantasy website
Video Tutorials on using Campaign Cartographer
Review of Campaign Cartographer at RPG.net
Free Maps of Fantasy Worlds created with CC3
Computer-aided design software
Role-playing game software
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object%20language
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Object language
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An object language is a language which is the "object" of study in various fields including logic (or metalogic), linguistics, mathematics (or metamathematics), and theoretical computer science. The language being used to talk about an object language is called a metalanguage. An object language may be a formal or natural language.
Forms of object language
Formal languages
Mathematical logic and linguistics make use of metalanguages, which are languages for describing the nature of other languages. In mathematical logic, the object language is usually a formal language. The language which a metalanguage is used to describe is the object language. It is called that because that language is the object under discussion using the metalanguage.
For instance, someone who says "In French, you say Bonjour to greet someone" uses English as a metalanguage to describe the object language French.
Computer languages
There are two ways the term object language can be used in computing: a language which is the object of formal specification, and a language which is the object (goal) of a compiler or interpreter.
Formal specification
Computer languages are object languages of the metalanguage in which their specification is written. In computer science this is referred to as the specification language. Backus–Naur form was one of the earliest used specification languages.
When compilers are written using systems like lex and yacc, the rules the programmer writes look much like a formal specification, but it is considered an implementation instead. Many programming language implementations are not strictly the same as their specifications, adding features or making implementation-dependent design decisions.
Object code
At their basic level, computers act on what is given to them through a limited set of instructions which are understood by their CPUs. In the earliest computers, that meant programmers sometimes composed actual 1's and 0's to program. Since this requires considerable programmer training (and patience) to create instructions, later computer languages have gone to great lengths to simplify the programmer's task. For example, a high level programming language may allow a programmer to assign a value to a variable without specifying a memory location or a CPU instruction.
In this context, the high level programming language is the source language, which is then translated by a compiler into object code that the CPU can read directly. This object code is the object language, and varies depending on what CPU is being given the instructions.
Object language in this context means something akin to "the object of what the programmer is trying to achieve". If the source language and object languages are viewed as formal (logical) languages, what the compiler does is interpret the source into the target language (this is different from the computer science use of interpreted language meaning one which is not compiled).
Object language in this context is synonymous with target language. The object language of a translation most often is a machine language, but can be some other kind of language, such as assembly language.
Because the object language of compilation has usually been machine language, the term object file has come to mean a file containing machine instructions, and sometimes the translated program itself is simply called an object.
Object language should also not be confused with object-oriented language, which is a type of computer programming language which changes the programmer's environment into convenient objects which can be used in something similar to a drag-and-drop fashion.
Expressions in an object language
Symbols
A symbol is an idea, abstraction or concept, tokens of which may be marks or a configuration of marks which form a particular pattern. Although the term "symbol" in common use refers at some times to the idea being symbolized, and at other times to the marks on a piece of paper or chalkboard which are being used to express that idea; in the formal languages studied in mathematics and logic, the term "symbol" refers to the idea, and the marks are considered to be a token instance of the symbol.
Formulas
In the formal languages used in mathematical logic and computer science, a well-formed formula or simply formula is an idea, abstraction or concept which is expressed using the symbols and formation rules (also called the formal grammar) of a particular formal language. To say that a string of symbols is a well-formed formula with respect to a given formal grammar is equivalent to saying that belongs to the language generated by .
Formal systems
A formal system is a formal language together with a deductive system which consists of a set of inference rules and/or axioms. A formal system is used to derive one expression from one or more other expressions previously expressed in the system. These expressions are called axioms, in the case of those previously supposed to be true, or theorems, in the case of those derived. A formal system may be formulated and studied for its intrinsic properties, or it may be intended as a description (i.e. a model) of external phenomena.
Theorems
A theorem is a symbol or string of symbols which is derived by using a formal system. The string of symbols is a logical consequence of the axioms and rules of the system.
Formal proofs
A formal proof or derivation is a finite sequence of propositions (called well-formed formulas in the case of a formal language) each of which is an axiom or follows from the preceding sentences in the sequence by a rule of inference. The last sentence in the sequence is a theorem of a formal system. The concept of natural deduction is a generalization of the concept of proof.
Theories
A theory is a set of sentences in a formal language.
See also
Object theory
References
Programming language implementation
Linguistics
Mathematical logic
Metalogic
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French%20brig%20Speedy%20%281782%29
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French brig Speedy (1782)
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Speedy was a brig of 130 tons (bm) belonging to the British Post Office Packet Service that the French Navy captured off Barbados in July 1782 and took into service at Martinique. The Royal Navy recaptured her in December. She subsequently became a merchant vessel.
On 15 July, after having cruised for 50 days, the French 32-gun frigates Friponne, Lieutenant le Chevalier de Blachon, and Résolue, captain de Saint-Jean, captured Speedy, , the four merchant vessels Spy, Adventure, Peggy, and Success, and the 10-gun privateer cutter Queen. The British ships were on their way to the Windward Islands.
Speedy, Captain Sampson Spargo, and Swift, both of 16 guns and 80 men, were Post Office packet boats. They were carrying despatches for Barbadoes, St Lucia, Antigua and Jamaica. Speedy, which had left Falmouth on 18 June, was the packet that the government was expecting to arrive in Britain with the news of the departure of the homeward-bound fleet from Jamaica. The French took Speedy and Swift into Martinique, and the rest of the prizes into Guadeloupe. At Martinique the French Navy took Speedy into service.
There is reason to believe that Speedy and Swift mistook the two French frigates for Virginia tobacco boats and chased them. (The frigates may have "marked their ports" to disguise themselves.) It is clear that if the packets had realized the two frigates were enemy frigates the packets might easily have escaped. There is also reason to believe that the packets were not in their proper latitude and were too long in company, given their destinations. Still, the government did compensate masters, owners, and crew for losses experienced as a result of enemy action.
On 6 December, however, the British recaptured Speedy off Barbados. Speedy was part of a squadron that comprised 64-gun Solitaire, Triton, Résolue, and Nymphe. The French squadron sailed on 24 November from Saint-Pierre, Martinique.
After a dark night, Solitaire, Captain Jean-Charles de Borda, found herself in the morning close to a squadron of eight British ships under the command of Rear-Admiral Sir Richard Hughes, which was on its way from Gibraltar. The English gave chase and Solitaire sailed to delay them and give the rest of the French squadron a chance to escape.
At 12:30 an engagement developed between Solitaire and . As another British vessel approached Solitaire had to strike. Speedy was captured in the same action, after a vigorous defense. In the action, her captain, Ribiers, was killed, together with a large part of her crew.
Lloyd's Register for 1789 lists the brig Speedy, of 130 tons (bm), as being of French origin, and with records dating to 1782. It lists her master as W. Messer, her owner as Passmore, and her trade as London-Lisbon. She is no longer listed in Lloyd's Register for 1789, the next issue that is available online.
Notes, citations and references
Notes
Citations
References
Arnell, J.C., and K. S. Mackenzie (1980) Atlantic mails: a history of the mail service between Great Britain and Canada to 1889. (National Postal Museum (Canada)).
Austen, Harold Chomley Mansfield (1935) Sea Fights and Corsairs of the Indian Ocean: Being the Naval History of Mauritius from 1715 to 1810. (Port Louis, Mauritius:R.W. Brooks).
Demerliac, Alain (1996) La Marine De Louis XVI: Nomenclature Des Navires Français De 1774 À 1792. (Nice: Éditions OMEGA).
Journals of the House of Commons (1803), Vol. 42. (Great Britain. Parliament. House of Commons).
Winfield, Rif & Stephen S Roberts (2015) French Warships in the Age of Sail 1786 - 1861: Design Construction, Careers and Fates. (Seaforth Publishing).
1770s ships
Packet (sea transport)
Captured ships
Brigs of the French Navy
Age of Sail merchant ships
Merchant ships of the United Kingdom
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11920671
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine%20perception
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Machine perception
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Machine perception is the capability of a computer system to interpret data in a manner that is similar to the way humans use their senses to relate to the world around them. The basic method that the computers take in and respond to their environment is through the attached hardware. Until recently input was limited to a keyboard, or a mouse, but advances in technology, both in hardware and software, have allowed computers to take in sensory input in a way similar to humans.
Machine perception allows the computer to use this sensory input, as well as conventional computational means of gathering information, to gather information with greater accuracy and to present it in a way that is more comfortable for the user. These include computer vision, machine hearing, machine touch, and machine smelling.
The end goal of machine perception is to give machines the ability to see, feel and perceive the world as humans do and therefore for them to be able to explain in a human way why they are making their decisions, to warn us when it is failing and more importantly, the reason why it is failing. This purpose is very similar to the proposed purposes for artificial intelligence generally, except that machine perception would only grant machines limited sentience, rather than bestow upon machines full consciousness, self-awareness, and intentionality. Present day technology, scientists, and researchers though still have a ways to go before they accomplish this goal.
Machine vision
Computer vision is a field that includes methods for acquiring, processing, analyzing, and understanding images and high-dimensional data from the real world to produce numerical or symbolic information, e.g., in the forms of decisions. Computer vision has many applications already in use today such as facial recognition, geographical modeling, and even aesthetic judgment.
However, machines still struggle to interpret visual impute accurately if said impute is blurry, and if the viewpoint at which stimulus are viewed varies often. Computers also struggle to determine the proper nature of some stimulus if overlapped by or seamlessly touching another stimulus. This refers to The Principle of Good Continuation. Machines also struggle to perceive and record stimulus functioning according to the Apparent Movement principle which Gestalt psychologists researched.
Machine hearing
Machine hearing, also known as machine listening or computer audition, is the ability of a computer or machine to take in and process sound data such as speech or music.
This area has a wide range of application including music recording and compression, speech synthesis, and speech recognition.
Moreover, this technology allows the machine to replicate the human brain's ability to selectively focus on a specific sound against many other competing sounds and background noise. This particular ability is called “auditory scene analysis”. The technology enables the machine to segment several streams occurring at the same time.
Many commonly used devices such as a smartphones, voice translators, and cars make use of some form of machine hearing. Present technology still occasionally struggles with speech segmentation though. This means hearing words within sentences, especially when human accents are accounted for.
Machine touch
Machine touch is an area of machine perception where tactile information is processed by a machine or computer. Applications include tactile perception of surface properties and dexterity whereby tactile information can enable intelligent reflexes and interaction with the environment. (This could possibly be done through measuring when and where friction occurs, and of what nature and intensity the friction is). Machines however still do not have any way of measuring some physical human experiences we consider ordinary, including physical pain. For example, scientists have yet to invent a mechanical substitute for the Nociceptors in the body and brain that are responsible for noticing and measuring physical human discomfort and suffering.
Machine olfaction
Scientists are also developing computers known as machine olfaction which can recognize and measure smells as well. Airborne chemicals can be sensed and classified with a device sometimes known as an electronic nose. While the present prototypes to this technology are still elementary, the possible future uses for such machines are staggeringly impressive.
The Future
Other than those listed above, some of the future hurdles that the science of machine perception still has to overcome include, but are not limited to:
- Embodied Cognition - The theory that cognition is a full body experience, and therefore can only exist, and therefore be measure and analyzed, in fullness if all required human abilities and processes are working together through a mutually aware and supportive systems network.
- The Moravec's paradox (see the link)
- The Principle of Similarity - The ability young children develop to determine what family a newly introduced stimulus falls under even when the said stimulus is different from the members with which the child usually associates said family with. (An example could be a child figuring that a chihuahua is a dog and house pet rather than vermin.)
- The Unconscious Inference: The natural human behavior of determining if a new stimulus is dangerous or not, what it is, and then how to relate to it without ever requiring any new conscious effort.
- The innate human ability to follow the Likelihood Principle in order to learn from circumstances and others over time.
- The Recognition-by-components theory - being able to mentally analyze and break even complicated mechanisms into manageable parts with which to interact with. For example: A person seeing both the cup and the handle parts that make up a mug full of hot cocoa, in order to use the handle to hold the mug so as to avoid being burned.
- The Free energy principle - determining long before hand how much energy one can safely delegate to being aware of things outside one's self without the loss of the needed energy one requires for sustaining their life and function satisfactorily. This allows one to become both optimally aware of the world around them self without depleting their energy so much that they experience damaging stress, decision fatigue, and/or exhaustion.
See also
Robotic sensing
Sensors
SLAM
History of Artificial Intelligence
References
Artificial intelligence
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RSA%20%28cryptosystem%29
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RSA (cryptosystem)
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RSA (Rivest–Shamir–Adleman) is a public-key cryptosystem that is widely used for secure data transmission. It is also one of the oldest. The acronym "RSA" comes from the surnames of Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir and Leonard Adleman, who publicly described the algorithm in 1977. An equivalent system was developed secretly in 1973 at GCHQ (the British signals intelligence agency) by the English mathematician Clifford Cocks. That system was declassified in 1997.
In a public-key cryptosystem, the encryption key is public and distinct from the decryption key, which is kept secret (private).
An RSA user creates and publishes a public key based on two large prime numbers, along with an auxiliary value. The prime numbers are kept secret. Messages can be encrypted by anyone, via the public key, but can only be decoded by someone who knows the prime numbers.
The security of RSA relies on the practical difficulty of factoring the product of two large prime numbers, the "factoring problem". Breaking RSA encryption is known as the RSA problem. Whether it is as difficult as the factoring problem is an open question. There are no published methods to defeat the system if a large enough key is used.
RSA is a relatively slow algorithm. Because of this, it is not commonly used to directly encrypt user data. More often, RSA is used to transmit shared keys for symmetric-key cryptography, which are then used for bulk encryption–decryption.
History
The idea of an asymmetric public-private key cryptosystem is attributed to Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman, who published this concept in 1976. They also introduced digital signatures and attempted to apply number theory. Their formulation used a shared-secret-key created from exponentiation of some number, modulo a prime number. However, they left open the problem of realizing a one-way function, possibly because the difficulty of factoring was not well-studied at the time.
Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir, and Leonard Adleman at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology made several attempts over the course of a year to create a one-way function that was hard to invert. Rivest and Shamir, as computer scientists, proposed many potential functions, while Adleman, as a mathematician, was responsible for finding their weaknesses. They tried many approaches, including "knapsack-based" and "permutation polynomials". For a time, they thought what they wanted to achieve was impossible due to contradictory requirements. In April 1977, they spent Passover at the house of a student and drank a good deal of Manischewitz wine before returning to their homes at around midnight. Rivest, unable to sleep, lay on the couch with a math textbook and started thinking about their one-way function. He spent the rest of the night formalizing his idea, and he had much of the paper ready by daybreak. The algorithm is now known as RSA the initials of their surnames in same order as their paper.
Clifford Cocks, an English mathematician working for the British intelligence agency Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ), described an equivalent system in an internal document in 1973. However, given the relatively expensive computers needed to implement it at the time, it was considered to be mostly a curiosity and, as far as is publicly known, was never deployed. His discovery, however, was not revealed until 1997 due to its top-secret classification.
Kid-RSA (KRSA) is a simplified public-key cipher published in 1997, designed for educational purposes. Some people feel that learning Kid-RSA gives insight into RSA and other public-key ciphers, analogous to simplified DES.
Patent
A patent describing the RSA algorithm was granted to MIT on 20 September 1983: "Cryptographic communications system and method". From DWPI's abstract of the patent:
A detailed description of the algorithm was published in August 1977, in Scientific American's Mathematical Games column. This preceded the patent's filing date of December 1977. Consequently, the patent had no legal standing outside the United States. Had Cocks's work been publicly known, a patent in the United States would not have been legal either.
When the patent was issued, terms of patent were 17 years. The patent was about to expire on 21 September 2000, but RSA Security released the algorithm to the public domain on 6 September 2000.
Operation
The RSA algorithm involves four steps: key generation, key distribution, encryption, and decryption.
A basic principle behind RSA is the observation that it is practical to find three very large positive integers , , and , such that with modular exponentiation for all integers (with ):
and that knowing and , or even , it can be extremely difficult to find . The triple bar (≡) here denotes modular congruence.
In addition, for some operations it is convenient that the order of the two exponentiations can be changed and that this relation also implies
RSA involves a public key and a private key. The public key can be known by everyone and is used for encrypting messages. The intention is that messages encrypted with the public key can only be decrypted in a reasonable amount of time by using the private key. The public key is represented by the integers and , and the private key by the integer (although is also used during the decryption process, so it might be considered to be a part of the private key too). represents the message (previously prepared with a certain technique explained below).
Key generation
The keys for the RSA algorithm are generated in the following way:
Choose two distinct prime numbers p and q.
For security purposes, the integers p and q should be chosen at random and should be similar in magnitude but differ in length by a few digits to make factoring harder. Prime integers can be efficiently found using a primality test.
p and q are kept secret.
Compute .
n is used as the modulus for both the public and private keys. Its length, usually expressed in bits, is the key length.
n is released as part of the public key.
Compute λ(n), where λ is Carmichael's totient function. Since n = pq, λ(n) = lcm(λ(p), λ(q)), and since p and q are prime, λ(p) = φ(p) = p − 1, and likewise λ(q) = q − 1. Hence λ(n) = lcm(p − 1, q − 1).
λ(n) is kept secret.
The lcm may be calculated through the Euclidean algorithm, since lcm(a, b) = |ab|/gcd(a, b).
Choose an integer e such that and ; that is, e and λ(n) are coprime.
e having a short bit-length and small Hamming weight results in more efficient encryption the most commonly chosen value for e is . The smallest (and fastest) possible value for e is 3, but such a small value for e has been shown to be less secure in some settings.
e is released as part of the public key.
Determine d as ; that is, d is the modular multiplicative inverse of e modulo λ(n).
This means: solve for d the equation ; d can be computed efficiently by using the extended Euclidean algorithm, since, thanks to e and λ(n) being coprime, said equation is a form of Bézout's identity, where d is one of the coefficients.
d is kept secret as the private key exponent.
The public key consists of the modulus n and the public (or encryption) exponent e. The private key consists of the private (or decryption) exponent d, which must be kept secret. p, q, and λ(n) must also be kept secret because they can be used to calculate d. In fact, they can all be discarded after d has been computed.
In the original RSA paper, the Euler totient function is used instead of λ(n) for calculating the private exponent d. Since φ(n) is always divisible by λ(n), the algorithm works as well. The possibility of using Euler totient function results also from Lagrange's theorem applied to the multiplicative group of integers modulo pq. Thus any d satisfying also satisfies . However, computing d modulo φ(n) will sometimes yield a result that is larger than necessary (i.e. ). Most of the implementations of RSA will accept exponents generated using either method (if they use the private exponent d at all, rather than using the optimized decryption method based on the Chinese remainder theorem described below), but some standards such as FIPS 186-4 may require that . Any "oversized" private exponents not meeting this criterion may always be reduced modulo λ(n) to obtain a smaller equivalent exponent.
Since any common factors of and are present in the factorisation of = = , it is recommended that and have only very small common factors, if any, besides the necessary 2.
Note: The authors of the original RSA paper carry out the key generation by choosing d and then computing e as the modular multiplicative inverse of d modulo φ(n), whereas most current implementations of RSA, such as those following PKCS#1, do the reverse (choose e and compute d). Since the chosen key can be small, whereas the computed key normally is not, the RSA paper's algorithm optimizes decryption compared to encryption, while the modern algorithm optimizes encryption instead.
Key distribution
Suppose that Bob wants to send information to Alice. If they decide to use RSA, Bob must know Alice's public key to encrypt the message, and Alice must use her private key to decrypt the message.
To enable Bob to send his encrypted messages, Alice transmits her public key to Bob via a reliable, but not necessarily secret, route. Alice's private key is never distributed.
Encryption
After Bob obtains Alice's public key, he can send a message to Alice.
To do it, he first turns (strictly speaking, the un-padded plaintext) into an integer (strictly speaking, the padded plaintext), such that by using an agreed-upon reversible protocol known as a padding scheme. He then computes the ciphertext , using Alice's public key , corresponding to
This can be done reasonably quickly, even for very large numbers, using modular exponentiation. Bob then transmits to Alice. Note that at least nine values of m will yield a ciphertext equal to
m,
but this is very unlikely to occur in practice.
Decryption
Alice can recover from by using her private key exponent by computing
Given , she can recover the original message by reversing the padding scheme.
Example
Here is an example of RSA encryption and decryption. The parameters used here are artificially small, but one can also use OpenSSL to generate and examine a real keypair.
Choose two distinct prime numbers, such as
and
Compute giving
Compute the Carmichael's totient function of the product as giving
Choose any number that is coprime to 780. Choosing a prime number for e leaves us only to check that e is not a divisor of 780.
Let .
Compute d, the modular multiplicative inverse of , yielding as
The public key is (, ). For a padded plaintext message m, the encryption function is
The private key is (, ). For an encrypted ciphertext c, the decryption function is
For instance, in order to encrypt , we calculate
To decrypt , we calculate
Both of these calculations can be computed efficiently using the square-and-multiply algorithm for modular exponentiation. In real-life situations the primes selected would be much larger; in our example it would be trivial to factor n = 3233 (obtained from the freely available public key) back to the primes p and q. e, also from the public key, is then inverted to get d, thus acquiring the private key.
Practical implementations use the Chinese remainder theorem to speed up the calculation using modulus of factors (mod pq using mod p and mod q).
The values dp, dq and qinv, which are part of the private key are computed as follows:
Here is how dp, dq and qinv are used for efficient decryption (encryption is efficient by choice of a suitable d and e pair):
Signing messages
Suppose Alice uses Bob's public key to send him an encrypted message. In the message, she can claim to be Alice, but Bob has no way of verifying that the message was from Alice, since anyone can use Bob's public key to send him encrypted messages. In order to verify the origin of a message, RSA can also be used to sign a message.
Suppose Alice wishes to send a signed message to Bob. She can use her own private key to do so. She produces a hash value of the message, raises it to the power of d (modulo n) (as she does when decrypting a message), and attaches it as a "signature" to the message. When Bob receives the signed message, he uses the same hash algorithm in conjunction with Alice's public key. He raises the signature to the power of e (modulo n) (as he does when encrypting a message), and compares the resulting hash value with the message's hash value. If the two agree, he knows that the author of the message was in possession of Alice's private key and that the message has not been tampered with since being sent.
This works because of exponentiation rules:
Thus the keys may be swapped without loss of generality, that is, a private key of a key pair may be used either to:
Decrypt a message only intended for the recipient, which may be encrypted by anyone having the public key (asymmetric encrypted transport).
Encrypt a message which may be decrypted by anyone, but which can only be encrypted by one person; this provides a digital signature.
Proofs of correctness
Proof using Fermat's little theorem
The proof of the correctness of RSA is based on Fermat's little theorem, stating that for any integer a and prime p, not dividing a.
We want to show that
for every integer m when p and q are distinct prime numbers and e and d are positive integers satisfying .
Since is, by construction, divisible by both and , we can write
for some nonnegative integers h and k.
To check whether two numbers, such as med and m, are congruent mod pq, it suffices (and in fact is equivalent) to check that they are congruent mod p and mod q separately.
To show , we consider two cases:
If , m is a multiple of p. Thus med is a multiple of p. So .
If ,
where we used Fermat's little theorem to replace with 1.
The verification that proceeds in a completely analogous way:
If , med is a multiple of q. So .
If ,
This completes the proof that, for any integer m, and integers e, d such that ,
Notes:
Proof using Euler's theorem
Although the original paper of Rivest, Shamir, and Adleman used Fermat's little theorem to explain why RSA works, it is common to find proofs that rely instead on Euler's theorem.
We want to show that , where is a product of two different prime numbers, and e and d are positive integers satisfying . Since e and d are positive, we can write for some non-negative integer h. Assuming that m is relatively prime to n, we have
where the second-last congruence follows from Euler's theorem.
More generally, for any e and d satisfying , the same conclusion follows from Carmichael's generalization of Euler's theorem, which states that for all m relatively prime to n.
When m is not relatively prime to n, the argument just given is invalid. This is highly improbable (only a proportion of numbers have this property), but even in this case, the desired congruence is still true. Either or , and these cases can be treated using the previous proof.
Padding
Attacks against plain RSA
There are a number of attacks against plain RSA as described below.
When encrypting with low encryption exponents (e.g., ) and small values of the m (i.e., ), the result of is strictly less than the modulus n. In this case, ciphertexts can be decrypted easily by taking the eth root of the ciphertext over the integers.
If the same clear-text message is sent to e or more recipients in an encrypted way, and the receivers share the same exponent e, but different p, q, and therefore n, then it is easy to decrypt the original clear-text message via the Chinese remainder theorem. Johan Håstad noticed that this attack is possible even if the clear texts are not equal, but the attacker knows a linear relation between them. This attack was later improved by Don Coppersmith (see Coppersmith's attack).
Because RSA encryption is a deterministic encryption algorithm (i.e., has no random component) an attacker can successfully launch a chosen plaintext attack against the cryptosystem, by encrypting likely plaintexts under the public key and test whether they are equal to the ciphertext. A cryptosystem is called semantically secure if an attacker cannot distinguish two encryptions from each other, even if the attacker knows (or has chosen) the corresponding plaintexts. RSA without padding is not semantically secure.
RSA has the property that the product of two ciphertexts is equal to the encryption of the product of the respective plaintexts. That is, . Because of this multiplicative property, a chosen-ciphertext attack is possible. E.g., an attacker who wants to know the decryption of a ciphertext may ask the holder of the private key d to decrypt an unsuspicious-looking ciphertext for some value r chosen by the attacker. Because of the multiplicative property, c′ is the encryption of . Hence, if the attacker is successful with the attack, they will learn from which they can derive the message m by multiplying mr with the modular inverse of r modulo n.
Given the private exponent d, one can efficiently factor the modulus n = pq. And given factorization of the modulus n = pq, one can obtain any private key (d′, n) generated against a public key (e′, n).
Padding schemes
To avoid these problems, practical RSA implementations typically embed some form of structured, randomized padding into the value m before encrypting it. This padding ensures that m does not fall into the range of insecure plaintexts, and that a given message, once padded, will encrypt to one of a large number of different possible ciphertexts.
Standards such as PKCS#1 have been carefully designed to securely pad messages prior to RSA encryption. Because these schemes pad the plaintext m with some number of additional bits, the size of the un-padded message M must be somewhat smaller. RSA padding schemes must be carefully designed so as to prevent sophisticated attacks that may be facilitated by a predictable message structure. Early versions of the PKCS#1 standard (up to version 1.5) used a construction that appears to make RSA semantically secure. However, at Crypto 1998, Bleichenbacher showed that this version is vulnerable to a practical adaptive chosen-ciphertext attack. Furthermore, at Eurocrypt 2000, Coron et al. showed that for some types of messages, this padding does not provide a high enough level of security. Later versions of the standard include Optimal Asymmetric Encryption Padding (OAEP), which prevents these attacks. As such, OAEP should be used in any new application, and PKCS#1 v1.5 padding should be replaced wherever possible. The PKCS#1 standard also incorporates processing schemes designed to provide additional security for RSA signatures, e.g. the Probabilistic Signature Scheme for RSA (RSA-PSS).
Secure padding schemes such as RSA-PSS are as essential for the security of message signing as they are for message encryption. Two USA patents on PSS were granted ( and ); however, these patents expired on 24 July 2009 and 25 April 2010 respectively. Use of PSS no longer seems to be encumbered by patents. Note that using different RSA key pairs for encryption and signing is potentially more secure.
Security and practical considerations
Using the Chinese remainder algorithm
For efficiency, many popular crypto libraries (such as OpenSSL, Java and .NET) use for decryption and signing the following optimization based on the Chinese remainder theorem. The following values are precomputed and stored as part of the private key:
and the primes from the key generation,
These values allow the recipient to compute the exponentiation more efficiently as follows:
,
This is more efficient than computing exponentiation by squaring, even though two modular exponentiations have to be computed. The reason is that these two modular exponentiations both use a smaller exponent and a smaller modulus.
Integer factorization and RSA problem
The security of the RSA cryptosystem is based on two mathematical problems: the problem of factoring large numbers and the RSA problem. Full decryption of an RSA ciphertext is thought to be infeasible on the assumption that both of these problems are hard, i.e., no efficient algorithm exists for solving them. Providing security against partial decryption may require the addition of a secure padding scheme.
The RSA problem is defined as the task of taking eth roots modulo a composite n: recovering a value m such that , where is an RSA public key, and c is an RSA ciphertext. Currently the most promising approach to solving the RSA problem is to factor the modulus n. With the ability to recover prime factors, an attacker can compute the secret exponent d from a public key , then decrypt c using the standard procedure. To accomplish this, an attacker factors n into p and q, and computes that allows the determination of d from e. No polynomial-time method for factoring large integers on a classical computer has yet been found, but it has not been proven that none exists; see integer factorization for a discussion of this problem.
Multiple polynomial quadratic sieve (MPQS) can be used to factor the public modulus n.
The first RSA-512 factorization in 1999 used hundreds of computers and required the equivalent of 8,400 MIPS years, over an elapsed time of approximately seven months. By 2009, Benjamin Moody could factor an 512-bit RSA key in 73 days using only public software (GGNFS) and his desktop computer (a dual-core Athlon64 with a 1,900 MHz CPU). Just less than 5 gigabytes of disk storage was required and about 2.5 gigabytes of RAM for the sieving process.
Rivest, Shamir, and Adleman noted that Miller has shown that – assuming the truth of the extended Riemann hypothesis – finding d from n and e is as hard as factoring n into p and q (up to a polynomial time difference). However, Rivest, Shamir, and Adleman noted, in section IX/D of their paper, that they had not found a proof that inverting RSA is as hard as factoring.
, the largest publicly known factored RSA number had 829 bits (250 decimal digits, RSA-250). Its factorization, by a state-of-the-art distributed implementation, took approximately 2700 CPU years. In practice, RSA keys are typically 1024 to 4096 bits long. In 2003, RSA Security estimated that 1024-bit keys were likely to become crackable by 2010. As of 2020, it is not known whether such keys can be cracked, but minimum recommendations have moved to at least 2048 bits. It is generally presumed that RSA is secure if n is sufficiently large, outside of quantum computing.
If n is 300 bits or shorter, it can be factored in a few hours in a personal computer, using software already freely available. Keys of 512 bits have been shown to be practically breakable in 1999, when RSA-155 was factored by using several hundred computers, and these are now factored in a few weeks using common hardware. Exploits using 512-bit code-signing certificates that may have been factored were reported in 2011. A theoretical hardware device named TWIRL, described by Shamir and Tromer in 2003, called into question the security of 1024-bit keys.
In 1994, Peter Shor showed that a quantum computer – if one could ever be practically created for the purpose – would be able to factor in polynomial time, breaking RSA; see Shor's algorithm.
Faulty key generation
Finding the large primes p and q is usually done by testing random numbers of the correct size with probabilistic primality tests that quickly eliminate virtually all of the nonprimes.
The numbers p and q should not be "too close", lest the Fermat factorization for n be successful. If p − q is less than 2n1/4 (n = p⋅q, which even for "small" 1024-bit values of n is ), solving for p and q is trivial. Furthermore, if either p − 1 or q − 1 has only small prime factors, n can be factored quickly by Pollard's p − 1 algorithm, and hence such values of p or q should be discarded.
It is important that the private exponent d be large enough. Michael J. Wiener showed that if p is between q and 2q (which is quite typical) and , then d can be computed efficiently from n and e.
There is no known attack against small public exponents such as , provided that the proper padding is used. Coppersmith's attack has many applications in attacking RSA specifically if the public exponent e is small and if the encrypted message is short and not padded. 65537 is a commonly used value for e; this value can be regarded as a compromise between avoiding potential small-exponent attacks and still allowing efficient encryptions (or signature verification). The NIST Special Publication on Computer Security (SP 800-78 Rev. 1 of August 2007) does not allow public exponents e smaller than 65537, but does not state a reason for this restriction.
In October 2017, a team of researchers from Masaryk University announced the ROCA vulnerability, which affects RSA keys generated by an algorithm embodied in a library from Infineon known as RSALib. A large number of smart cards and trusted platform modules (TPM) were shown to be affected. Vulnerable RSA keys are easily identified using a test program the team released.
Importance of strong random number generation
A cryptographically strong random number generator, which has been properly seeded with adequate entropy, must be used to generate the primes p and q. An analysis comparing millions of public keys gathered from the Internet was carried out in early 2012 by Arjen K. Lenstra, James P. Hughes, Maxime Augier, Joppe W. Bos, Thorsten Kleinjung and Christophe Wachter. They were able to factor 0.2% of the keys using only Euclid's algorithm.
They exploited a weakness unique to cryptosystems based on integer factorization. If is one public key, and is another, then if by chance (but q is not equal to q′), then a simple computation of factors both n and n′, totally compromising both keys. Lenstra et al. note that this problem can be minimized by using a strong random seed of bit length twice the intended security level, or by employing a deterministic function to choose q given p, instead of choosing p and q independently.
Nadia Heninger was part of a group that did a similar experiment. They used an idea of Daniel J. Bernstein to compute the GCD of each RSA key n against the product of all the other keys n′ they had found (a 729-million-digit number), instead of computing each gcd(n, n′) separately, thereby achieving a very significant speedup, since after one large division, the GCD problem is of normal size.
Heninger says in her blog that the bad keys occurred almost entirely in embedded applications, including "firewalls, routers, VPN devices, remote server administration devices, printers, projectors, and VOIP phones" from more than 30 manufacturers. Heninger explains that the one-shared-prime problem uncovered by the two groups results from situations where the pseudorandom number generator is poorly seeded initially, and then is reseeded between the generation of the first and second primes. Using seeds of sufficiently high entropy obtained from key stroke timings or electronic diode noise or atmospheric noise from a radio receiver tuned between stations should solve the problem.
Strong random number generation is important throughout every phase of public-key cryptography. For instance, if a weak generator is used for the symmetric keys that are being distributed by RSA, then an eavesdropper could bypass RSA and guess the symmetric keys directly.
Timing attacks
Kocher described a new attack on RSA in 1995: if the attacker Eve knows Alice's hardware in sufficient detail and is able to measure the decryption times for several known ciphertexts, Eve can deduce the decryption key d quickly. This attack can also be applied against the RSA signature scheme. In 2003, Boneh and Brumley demonstrated a more practical attack capable of recovering RSA factorizations over a network connection (e.g., from a Secure Sockets Layer (SSL)-enabled webserver). This attack takes advantage of information leaked by the Chinese remainder theorem optimization used by many RSA implementations.
One way to thwart these attacks is to ensure that the decryption operation takes a constant amount of time for every ciphertext. However, this approach can significantly reduce performance. Instead, most RSA implementations use an alternate technique known as cryptographic blinding. RSA blinding makes use of the multiplicative property of RSA. Instead of computing , Alice first chooses a secret random value r and computes . The result of this computation, after applying Euler's theorem, is , and so the effect of r can be removed by multiplying by its inverse. A new value of r is chosen for each ciphertext. With blinding applied, the decryption time is no longer correlated to the value of the input ciphertext, and so the timing attack fails.
Adaptive chosen-ciphertext attacks
In 1998, Daniel Bleichenbacher described the first practical adaptive chosen-ciphertext attack against RSA-encrypted messages using the PKCS #1 v1 padding scheme (a padding scheme randomizes and adds structure to an RSA-encrypted message, so it is possible to determine whether a decrypted message is valid). Due to flaws with the PKCS #1 scheme, Bleichenbacher was able to mount a practical attack against RSA implementations of the Secure Sockets Layer protocol and to recover session keys. As a result of this work, cryptographers now recommend the use of provably secure padding schemes such as Optimal Asymmetric Encryption Padding, and RSA Laboratories has released new versions of PKCS #1 that are not vulnerable to these attacks.
A variant of this attack, dubbed "BERserk", came back in 2014. It impacted the Mozilla NSS Crypto Library, which was used notably by Firefox and Chrome.
Side-channel analysis attacks
A side-channel attack using branch-prediction analysis (BPA) has been described. Many processors use a branch predictor to determine whether a conditional branch in the instruction flow of a program is likely to be taken or not. Often these processors also implement simultaneous multithreading (SMT). Branch-prediction analysis attacks use a spy process to discover (statistically) the private key when processed with these processors.
Simple Branch Prediction Analysis (SBPA) claims to improve BPA in a non-statistical way. In their paper, "On the Power of Simple Branch Prediction Analysis", the authors of SBPA (Onur Aciicmez and Cetin Kaya Koc) claim to have discovered 508 out of 512 bits of an RSA key in 10 iterations.
A power-fault attack on RSA implementations was described in 2010. The author recovered the key by varying the CPU power voltage outside limits; this caused multiple power faults on the server.
Tricky implementation
There are many details to keep in mind in order to implement RSA securely (strong PRNG, acceptable public exponent...) . This makes the implementation challenging, to the point the book Practical Cryptography With Go suggest to avoid RSA if possible.
Implementations
Some cryptography libraries that provide support for RSA include:
Botan
Bouncy Castle
cryptlib
Crypto++
Libgcrypt
Nettle
OpenSSL
wolfCrypt
GnuTLS
mbed TLS
LibreSSL
See also
Acoustic cryptanalysis
Computational complexity theory
Cryptographic key length
Diffie–Hellman key exchange
Key exchange
Key management
Elliptic-curve cryptography
Public-key cryptography
Trapdoor function
References
Further reading
External links
The Original RSA Patent as filed with the U.S. Patent Office by Rivest; Ronald L. (Belmont, MA), Shamir; Adi (Cambridge, MA), Adleman; Leonard M. (Arlington, MA), December 14, 1977, .
PKCS #1: RSA Cryptography Standard (RSA Laboratories website)
The PKCS #1 standard "provides recommendations for the implementation of public-key cryptography based on the RSA algorithm, covering the following aspects: cryptographic primitives; encryption schemes; signature schemes with appendix; ASN.1 syntax for representing keys and for identifying the schemes".
Thorough walk through of RSA
Prime Number Hide-And-Seek: How the RSA Cipher Works
Onur Aciicmez, Cetin Kaya Koc, Jean-Pierre Seifert: On the Power of Simple Branch Prediction Analysis
Example of an RSA implementation with PKCS#1 padding (GPL source code)
Kocher's article about timing attacks
An animated explanation of RSA with its mathematical background by CrypTool
How RSA Key used for Encryption in real world
Public-key encryption schemes
Digital signature schemes
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49465983
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STELLA%20%28programming%20language%29
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STELLA (programming language)
|
STELLA (short for Systems Thinking, Experimental Learning Laboratory with Animation; also marketed as iThink) is a visual programming language for system dynamics modeling introduced by Barry Richmond in 1985. The program, distributed by isee systems (formerly High Performance Systems) allows users to run models created as graphical representations of a system using four fundamental building blocks. STELLA has been used in academia as a teaching tool and has been utilized in a variety of research and business applications. The program has received positive reviews, being praised in particular for its ease of use and low cost.
History
While working at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the 1960s, Jay Wright Forrester developed the earliest understanding of system dynamics which he argued could only be understood using models. Dartmouth College systems science professor Barry Richmond founded High Performance Systems in 1984. With financial support of Analog Devices, Inc. and technical support from Apple Computer, he developed STELLA (short for Structural Thinking, Experimental Learning Laboratory with Animation) at his company. He presented the prototype for the visual programming language in 1985 at the System Dynamics Society's annual conference in a paper entitled "STELLA: Software for Bringing System Dynamics to the Other 98%".
Within that paper, Richmond mused on the study of system dynamics: "If this stuff really is so great, then why hasn't the field 'taken off'?" Steve Peterson, a colleague of Richmond's, reflected after his death in 2002 that Richmond held the belief that modeling was a tool everyone should be using and that that notion was reflected in Richmond's work. He quoted a 1994 paper in which Richmond described STELLA as "quite unique, quite powerful, and quite broadly useful as a way of thinking and or learning. It's also capable of being quite transparent–leveraging the way we learn biology, manage our businesses, or run our personal lives".
Functionality and features
STELLA's approach to modeling systems shares some similarities with a precursor, the DYNAMO simulation language. DYNAMO explicitly defined "stocks" (reservoirs) and "flows" (inputs and outputs) as key variables in a system, a vocabulary which STELLA shares. Within STELLA, users are presented with a graphical user interface in which they may create graphical models of a system using four fundamentals: stocks, flows, converters, and connectors. Relationships between converters (which convey transforming variables) and other elements may be drawn with converters. Users are able to input values for stocks, flows, and converters (including with a variety of builtin functions). STELLA does not differentiate between external and intermediate variables within a system; all of them are represented with converters.
The software produces finite difference equations that describe the graphical model and allows users to select a numerical analysis method to apply to the system, either the Euler method or various Runge–Kutta methods (either second or fourth order). Before running a model, users may also specify a time step and runtime for the simulation. STELLA can output data in graphical or tabular forms.
STELLA runs one window at a time, meaning that only one model can be run at any given moment. The program's native file formats are denoted either by an .stm, .stmx, .itm, or .itmx filename extension. STELLA also uses the emerging XML-based standard for storing models, XMILE. In 2012, two researchers released StellaR, software which can translate STELLA models into the R programming language.
Applications
Education
Because of its simplicity relative to more complex modeling languages, STELLA has been cited as a useful tool in educational settings. Richmond derisively viewed most education as "assimilating content" and proposed systems thinking as a remedy to this. In 1987, High Performance Systems released a guide to STELLA encouraging its use in academic settings and numerous textbooks have been published that teach modeling and systems thinking using the software. Sample exercises with STELLA include recreating the Daisyworld model, simulating the Easter Island population crash, and modeling the protagonist's motivation throughout William Shakespeare's Hamlet. A 2010 study of the efficacy of project-based learning upon a watershed-modeling project undertaken by 72 middle schoolers found that the addition of a STELLA modeling component in the project improved overall comprehension of the material over traditional methods, especially among female students who outperformed their male counterparts with the addition of STELLA.
Academia and commerce
The software is also used in research settings. Among other projects, researchers have used STELLA to apply Hubbert peak theory to the Chinese coal supply, to model atrazine dynamics within agricultural lands, and to simulate the interactions between marine macroinvertebrates.
isee systems markets an identical software targeted at business consumers under the name iThink (previously STELLA for Business). iThink models have been applied to a variety of systems including manufacturing lines, hospital waste in developing nations, and competition in the home video market.
Reception
In a 1987 review of the program in BioScience, Robert Costanza wrote that "STELLA is a solid program–well planned and executed–that breaks new ground." He praised its ease of use as beneficial both to beginners interested in learning how to build models and experts who could use it to test components of more complex models. A 1998 review of the program in the Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America concurred that the program was easy to use, especially for beginning modelers, but noted its lack of model optimization tools and the ability to run only one window at a time as drawbacks. Writing for Complexity in 1997, Benedikt Hallgrímsson found the program's accompanying manual to be overzealous in its promotion of systems theory but cautioned that "the manual need not detract from what is otherwise a very well-thought-out and constructed program."
A 1991 review of iThink in Planning Review noted that the software's strength was in its low cost (the program retailed at around $450 at the time) and the vast number of possibilities allowed by its open-ended form.
See also
Comparison of system dynamics software
Notes
References
Cited
External links
Visual programming languages
Systems thinking
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3838745
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solaris%20IP%20network%20multipathing
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Solaris IP network multipathing
|
The IP network multipathing or IPMP is a facility provided by Solaris to provide fault-tolerance and load spreading for network interface cards (NICs). With IPMP, two or more NICs are dedicated for each network to which the host connects. Each interface can be assigned a static "test" IP address, which is used to assess the operational state of the interface. Each virtual IP address is assigned to an interface, though there may be more interfaces than virtual IP addresses, some of the interfaces being purely for standby purposes. When the failure of an interface is detected its virtual IP addresses are swapped to an operational interface in the group.
The IPMP load spreading feature increases the machine's bandwidth by spreading the outbound load between all the cards in the same IPMP group.
in.mpathd is the daemon in the Solaris OS responsible for IPMP functionality.
See also
Multihoming
Multipath routing
Multipath TCP
Common Address Redundancy Protocol
External links
Enterprise Networking Article, February 2, 2006
Introducing IPMP - Oracle Solaris 11
IPMP section from Sun Solaris 10 System Administration Guide
Networking standards
Sun Microsystems software
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9404615
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisco%20Catalyst%201900
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Cisco Catalyst 1900
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The Cisco Catalyst 1900 is a 19" rack mountable, managed (configurable) 10baseT Ethernet switch with 100BASE-TX/100BASE-FX uplink ports. This product was popular in small office networks because of its features and price.
This switch was sold until 2002, reaching end of life (EOL) in 2007 and is no longer supported by Cisco.
Models
The switch was available in 12-port and 24-port models with either two 100BASE-TX uplink ports or one fibre and one copper 100 Mbit/s uplink ports. In addition to this, one AUI port was available on the rear panel for connecting to fiber or legacy 10Base2 or 10Base5 networks.
This switch is closely related to the Cisco Catalyst 2820 series, which uses the same software, and shares many of the same features
Software
The 1900 series software was available in two editions. Whilst the enterprise edition's Command Line Interface (CLI) had a strong similarity to IOS, the switches ran a unique software which was neither IOS or CatOS.
Standard Edition - Menu based configuration. No CLI access available. Could be software upgraded to Enterprise Edition.
Enterprise Edition - Same as standard but with extra features enabled. CLI access is possible.
The last software version released was 9.00.07 (2003).
Features
ISL trunking on fast Ethernet ports
VLANS (4 can be configured)
SNMP
Optional web based configuration
IEEE 802.1D Spanning-Tree Protocol support.
Support for 1024 MAC Addresses.
Up to 320-Mbit/s maximum forwarding bandwidth.
Up to 450,000 packets per second aggregate packet-forwarding rate.
Hardware
Processor: Intel 80486
RAM: 2 MB
FLASH: 1 MB
Backplane: 1 Gbit/s
MAC Address table size: 1024
10BaseT ports 12 or 24 Full Duplex
100BASE-TX ports 1 or 2 Full Duplex
100BASE-FX ports 1 (on 1924F) Full Duplex
AUI port
Internal AC power supply
DC connector for external DC power (Cisco RPS)
History
The switch is based on a design purchased from Grand Junction Networks
Original pricing approx US$900 for a WS-1912-C to approx US$1700 for a WS-1924-EN
References
Cisco products
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711396
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Love
|
Robert Love
|
Robert M. Love (born c. 1981) is an American author, speaker, Google engineer, and open source software developer.
Love is best known for his contributions to the Linux kernel, with notable work including the preemptive kernel, process scheduler, kernel event layer, virtual memory subsystem, and inotify. At Google, he was a member of the Android team and helped launch the first version of the platform. Love is also active in the GNOME community, working on NetworkManager, GNOME Volume Manager, Project Utopia and Beagle.
Biography
Love was born in 1981 in south Florida. He attended and graduated from Charles W. Flanagan High School. For his undergraduate studies, he attended the University of Florida, where he graduated with both a Bachelor of Arts in Mathematics and a Bachelor of Science in Computer Science.
While still in college, Love was employed as a kernel hacker at MontaVista Software. At MontaVista, he worked on procps and several kernel-related projects, including one of his most notable, the preemptive kernel.
Love began work at Ximian on December 15, 2003, where he first served as Senior Engineer in the Linux Desktop Group. At Ximian, he spearheaded an effort, named Project Utopia, to better integrate hardware management into the Linux desktop. After Ximian's acquisition by Novell, Love rose to the position of Chief Architect of SUSE Linux Enterprise Desktop. At Novell, he worked on various kernel and GNOME projects, including inotify and Beagle.
Love resigned from Novell on May 4, 2007, to work at Google on their mobile device platform, Android. Joining the project before it was announced, he engineered several kernel and system-level solutions for Android, including its novel shared memory subsystem, ashmem. Love worked at Google as Director of Engineering for Search Infrastructure through May 2021. Love now works as VP of Engineering at Toast where he builds cloud platforms to help restaurants thrive.
Love lives in Boston, Massachusetts.
Writing and speaking
Love is the author of Linux Kernel Development, now in its third edition, a book on understanding and developing code for the Linux kernel. The book is widely regarded as approachable and well written and has been translated into several languages. All three editions are published by imprints of Pearson Education.
He also wrote Linux System Programming, now in its second edition, subtitled Talking Directly to the Kernel and C Library, and published by O'Reilly Media. This work documents Linux's system call and C library API.
Love is also a coauthor of Linux in a Nutshell, a comprehensive Linux command reference also published by O'Reilly Media. "Linux in a Nutshell" was awarded "Favorite Linux Book of All Time" by Linux Journal.
Love is Contributing Editor for Linux Journal and author of articles for the magazine.
Love has been invited to speak around the world, including linux.conf.au in Australia, FOSDEM in Belgium, and GUADEC in England, where he was a keynote speaker.
Bibliography
Love has written and co-written several books on the Linux operating system:
References
External links
Robert Love's Homepage
Article on his Novell resignation
Historical context on kernel patches
1981 births
Living people
Linux kernel programmers
American bloggers
People from Florida
University of Florida College of Liberal Arts and Sciences alumni
GNOME developers
Google employees
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291807
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand%20Meyer
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Bertrand Meyer
|
Bertrand Meyer (; ; born 21 November 1950) is a French academic, author, and consultant in the field of computer languages. He created the Eiffel programming language and the idea of design by contract.
Education and academic career
Bertrand Meyer received a master's degree in engineering from the École Polytechnique in Paris, a second master's degree from Stanford University, and a PhD from the Université de Nancy. He had a technical and managerial career for nine years at Électricité de France, and for three years was a member of the faculty of the University of California, Santa Barbara.
From 2001 to 2016, he was professor of software engineering at ETH Zürich, the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, where he pursued research on building trusted components (reusable software elements) with a guaranteed level of quality. He was Chair of the ETH Computer Science department from 2004 to 2006 and for 13 years (2003–2015) taught the Introduction to Programming course taken by all ETH computer science students, resulting in a widely disseminated programming textbook, Touch of Class (Springer).
He remains Professor emeritus of Software Engineering at ETH Zurich and is currently Professor of Software Engineering and Provost at the Schaffhausen Institute of Technology (SIT), a new research university in Schaffhausen, Switzerland.
He has held visiting positions at the University of Toulouse (Chair of Excllence, 2015–16), Politecnico di Milano, Innopolis University, Monash University and University of Technology Sydney. He is also active as a consultant (object-oriented system design, architectural reviews, technology assessment), trainer in object technology and other software topics, and conference speaker. For many years Meyer has been active in issues of research and education policy and was the founding president (2006–2011) of Informatics Europe, the association of European computer science departments.
Computer languages
Meyer pursues the ideal of simple, elegant and user-friendly computer languages and is one of the earliest and most vocal proponents of object-oriented programming (OOP). His book Object-Oriented Software Construction is one of the earliest and most comprehensive works presenting the case for OOP. Other books he has written include Eiffel: The Language (a description of the Eiffel language), Object Success (a discussion of object technology for managers), Reusable Software (a discussion of reuse issues and solutions), Introduction to the Theory of Programming Languages, Touch of Class (an introduction to programming and software engineering) and Agile! The Good, the Hype and the Ugly (a tutorial and critical analysis of agile methods). He has authored numerous articles and edited over 60 conference proceedings, many of them in the Springer LNCS (Lecture Notes in Computer Science) series.
He is the initial designer of the Eiffel method and language and has continued to participate in its evolution, and is the originator of the Design by Contract development method.
His experiences with object technology through the Simula language, as well as early work on abstract data types and formal specification (including the Z notation), provided some of the background for the development of Eiffel.
Contributions
Meyer is known among other contributions for the following:
The concept of Design by Contract, highly influential as a design and programming methodology concept and a language mechanism present in such languages as the Java Modeling Language, Spec#, the UML's Object Constraint Language and Microsoft's Code Contracts.
The design of the Eiffel language, applicable to programming as well as design and requirements.
The early publication (in the first, 1988 edition of his Object-Oriented Software Construction book) of such widely used design patterns as the command pattern (the basis for undo-redo mechanisms, i.e. CTRL-Z/CTRL-Y, in interactive systems) and the bridge pattern.
The original design (in collaboration with Jean-Raymond Abrial and Steven Schuman) of the Z specification language.
His establishment of the connection between object-oriented programming and the concept of software reusability (in his 1987 paper ``Reusability: the Case for Object-Oriented Design''.
His critical analysis of the pros and cons of agile development and his development of software lifecycle and management models.
Awards
Meyer is a member of Academia Europaea and the French Academy of Technologies and a Fellow of the ACM. He has received honorary doctorates from ITMO University in Saint Petersburg, Russia (2004) and the University of York, UK (2015).
He was the first "senior award" winner of the AITO Dahl-Nygaard award in 2005. This prize, named after the two founders of object-oriented programming, is awarded annually to a senior and a junior researcher who has made significant technical contributions to the field of OOP.
He is the 2009 recipient of the IEEE Computer Society Harlan Mills award.
In 2006, Meyer received the Software System Award of the ACM for "impact on software quality" in recognition of the design of Eiffel.
Wikipedia hoax
On 28 December 2005, an anonymous user falsely announced Meyer's death on the German Wikipedia's biography of Meyer. The hoax was reported five days later by the Heise News Ticker and the article was immediately corrected. Many major news media outlets in Germany and Switzerland picked up the story. Meyer went on to publish a positive evaluation of Wikipedia, concluding "The system succumbed to one of its potential flaws, and quickly healed itself. This doesn't affect the big picture. Just like those about me, rumors about Wikipedia's downfall have been grossly exaggerated."
See also
Open–closed principle
Uniform access principle
References
External links
Bertrand Meyer home page
1950 births
Living people
École Polytechnique alumni
ETH Zurich faculty
Formal methods people
Monash University faculty
French computer scientists
Software engineering researchers
Programming language designers
Programming language researchers
Stanford University alumni
University of California, Santa Barbara faculty
Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery
Members of Academia Europaea
Computer science writers
Nancy-Université alumni
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21295680
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics%20middleware
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Robotics middleware
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Robotics middleware is middleware to be used in complex robot control software systems.
"...robotic middleware is designed to manage the complexity and heterogeneity of the hardware and applications, promote the integration of new technologies, simplify software design, hide the complexity of low-level communication and the sensor heterogeneity of the sensors, improve software quality, reuse robotic software infrastructure across multiple research efforts, and to reduce production costs."
It can be described as "software glue" to make it easier for robot builders focus on their specific problem area.
Robotics middleware projects
A wide variety of projects for robotics middleware exist, but no one of these dominates - and in fact many robotic systems do not use any middleware. Middleware products rely on a wide range of different standards, technologies, and approaches that make their use and interoperation difficult, and some developers may prefer to integrate their system themselves.
Player Project
The Player Project (formerly the Player/Stage Project) is a project to create free software for research into robotics and sensor systems. Its components include the Player network server and the Stage robot platform simulators. Although accurate statistics are hard to obtain, Player is one of the most popular open-source robot interfaces in research and post-secondary education. Most of the major intelligent robotics journals and conferences regularly publish papers featuring real and simulated robot experiments using Player and Stage.
RT-middleware
RT-middleware is a common platform standards for Robots based on distributed object technology. RT-middleware supports the construction of various networked robotic systems by the integration of various network-enabled robotic elements called RT-Components. The specification standard of RT-components is discussed and defined by the Object Management Group (OMG).
Urbi
Urbi is an open source cross-platform software platform in C++ used to develop applications for robotics and complex systems. It is based on the UObject distributed C++ component architecture. It also includes the urbiscript orchestration language which is a parallel and event-driven script language. UObject components can be plugged into urbiscript and appear as native objects that can be scripted to specify their interactions and data exchanges. UObjects can be linked to the urbiscript interpreter, or executed as autonomous processes in "remote" mode, either in another thread, another process, a machine on the local network, or a machine on a distant network.
MIRO
Miro is a distributed object oriented framework for mobile robot control, based on CORBA (Common Object Request Broker Architecture) technology.
The Miro core components have been developed under the aid of ACE (Adaptive Communications Environment), an object oriented multi-platform framework for OS-independent interprocess, network and real time communication. They use TAO (The ACE ORB) as their ORB (Object Request Broker), a CORBA implementation designed for high performance and real time applications.
Currently supported platforms include Pioneers, the B21, some robot soccer robots and various robotic sensors.
Orca
Orca describes its goals as:
to enable software reuse by defining a set of commonly-used interfaces;
to simplify software reuse by providing libraries with a high-level convenient API; and
to encourage software reuse by maintaining a repository of components.
They also state: "To be successful, we think that a framework with such objectives must be: general, flexible and extensible; sufficiently robust, high-performance and full-featured for use in commercial applications, yet sufficiently simple for experimentation in university research environments."
They describe their approach as:
adopts a Component-Based Software Engineering approach without applying any additional architectural constraints
uses a commercial open-source library for communication and interface definition
provides tools to simplify component development but makes them strictly optional to maintain full access to the underlying communication engine and services
uses cross-platform development tools
Orca software is released under LGPL and GPL licenses.
OpenRDK
OpenRDK is an open-source software framework for robotics for developing loosely coupled modules. It provides transparent concurrency management, inter-process (via sockets) and intra-process (via shared memory) blackboard-based communication and a linking technique that allows for input/output data ports conceptual system design. Modules for connecting to simulators and generic robot drivers are provided.
Rock
Rock (Robot Construction Kit), is a software framework for the development of robotic systems. The underlying component model is based on the Orocos RTT (Real Time Toolkit). Rock provides all the tools required to set up and run high-performance and reliable robotic systems for wide variety of applications in research and industry. It contains a rich collection of ready to use drivers and modules for use in your own system, and can easily be extended by adding new components.
ISAAC SDK / Simulation
ISAAC, The NVIDIA® Isaac Software Development Kit (SDK) is a developer toolbox for accelerating the development and deployment of Artificial Intelligence-powered robots. The SDK includes the Isaac Robot Engine, packages with high-performance robotics algorithms (to perform perception and navigation), and hardware reference applications. Isaac Sim is a virtual robotics laboratory and a high-fidelity 3D world simulator. It accelerates research, design, and development in robotics by reducing cost and risk. Developers can quickly and easily train and test their robots in detailed, highly realistic scenarios. There is an open source community version available at GitHub with supported hardware platform includes BOM details, refer kaya-robot
ROS
ROS, (Robot Operating System), is a collection of software frameworks for robot software development on a heterogeneous computer cluster. ROS provides standard operating system services such as hardware abstraction, low-level device control, implementation of commonly used functionality, message-passing between processes, and package management.
YARP
YARP is an open-source software package, written in C++ for interconnecting sensors, processors, and actuators in robots.
See also
RoSta: a European project reaching out to the robotics community to get clearer insights into robotics middleware and architectures.
BRICs: a European project that attempts to establish best practices in robot development
References
Robot operating systems
Robotics suites
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37324611
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth%20C.%20Smith
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Kenneth C. Smith
|
Kenneth C. Smith is a Canadian electrical engineer and professor. He is
currently Professor Emeritus, University of Toronto.
Academic career
Smith received the Bachelor of Applied Science degree
from the Division of Engineering Physics (now Division of Engineering Science)
in 1954, the M.A.Sc in electrical engineering in 1956, and the Ph.D. in Physics
in 1960, all from the University of Toronto.
From 1954 to 1955 he served with Canadian National Telegraphs as a Transmission
Engineer. In 1956, Smith joined the Computation Centre, University of Toronto,
as Research Engineer assigned to assist in the development of high-speed
computers at the Digital Computer Laboratory, University of Illinois, Urbana. In
1960, he joined the faculty at the Department of Electrical Engineering at the
University of Toronto as an Assistant Professor. In 1961 he returned the
University of Illinois as an Assistant Professor of Electrical Engineering
where he became Chief Engineer of Illiac II, and of the Illiac III, and
attained the rank of Associate Professor of Computer Science. In 1965 he
returned to the University of Toronto where he attained the rank of full
Professor. He served as Chair of the Department of Electrical Engineering at
the University of Toronto from 1976 to 1981.
Smith's publications are in the areas of electronic circuits, computer architecture,
multiple-valued logic, instrumentation, sensors, machine vision, neural
networks, computer music, human factors and human-computer interfaces,
and databases.
Smith has published over 150 scholarly papers.
Smith is the co-author of Microelectronic Circuits (with A.S. Sedra).
Two of his former graduate students are Adel S. Sedra and Bill Buxton.
Smith and Sedra notably invented the current conveyor, a general circuit component similar to an operational amplifier. They also co-wrote
the undergraduate microelectronics textbook Microelectronic Circuits, originally published in 1982 and now in its eighth edition (2020). The textbook has over one million copies in print as of June 1988.
Smith was appointed an advisory professor in communications at Shanghai Tiedao University, Shanghai,
China in 1989. From 1993 to 1998, Smith was a visiting professor of electrical and electronic engineering at the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, where he was founding director of its computer engineering department.
Publications
Books
A. Sedra and K.C. Smith, Microelectronic Circuits, 6th ed. London, U.K.: Oxford Univ. Press, 2009.
K.C. Smith, KCs Problems and Solutions to Microelectronic Circuits, 4th ed. London, U.K.: Oxford Univ. Press, 1998.
K.C. Smith, Laboratory Explorations to Microelectronic Circuits, 4th ed. London, U.K.: Oxford Univ. Press, 1998.
Articles, selected
K.C. Smith, A. Sedra, The current conveyor—A new circuit building block, Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 56, no. 8, pp. 1368–1369, August 1968.
A. Sedra, K.C. Smith, A second-generation current conveyor and its applications, IEEE Transactions on Circuit Theory, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 132–134, February 1970.
Zvonko G. Vranesic, E. Stewart Lee, Kenneth C. Smith, A many-valued algebra for switching systems, IEEE Transactions on Computers, vol. 19, no. 10, pp. 964–971, October 1970.
E.A. Ozkarahan, S.A. Schuster, K.C. Smith, RAP—An associative processor for data base management, Proceedings of the National Computer Conference, pp. 379–387, May 1975.
W. Buxton, M.R. Lamb, D. Sherman, K.C. Smith, Towards a comprehensive user interface management system, Computer Graphics, vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 35–42, July 1983.
S.K. Lee, W. Buxton, K.C. Smith, A multi-touch three-dimensional touch-sensitive tablet, Proceedings of the 1985 Conference on Human Factors in Computer Systems, pp. 21–25, April 1985.
K.C. Smith, Multiple-valued logic: A tutorial and appreciation, Computer, vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 17–27, April 1988.
R. Safaee-Rad, I. Tchoukanov, K.C. Smith, B. Benhabib, Three-dimensional location estimation of circular features for machine vision, IEEE Transactions on Robotics and Automation, vol. 8, no. 5, pp. 624–640, October 1992.
Service
Smith was the general Chairman of the 1973 IEEE International Symposium for Circuits and Systems. He has
also contributed to the IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference as member of the Program Committee and member of the Executive Committee and Awards Chairman. He was also the Chairman of the Publications Council of the Canadian Society of Electrical Engineering
(CSEE), and a Director of the Canadian Society for Professional Engineers (CSPE).
Industry
Smith co-founded and was principal scientist at Z-Tech, a medical-instrumentation company that
developed bio-impedance measurement devices for the detection of breast cancer.
Awards and honors
Smith was elected fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (1978) "for contributions to digital circuit design" and became a Life Fellow in 1996.
In 1984, he received the IEEE Computer Society Certificate of Appreciation "for contributions to multiple-valued circuit and device technology".
In 2009, he received the IEEE Canada Computer Medal "for lasting technical and educational contributions to electronics for computing".
An anonymous former student donated $75,000 to establish the
Kenneth Carless Smith Engineering Science Research Fellowship, which is awarded
yearly to a student or students in the Engineering Science program at the University of
Toronto.
In 2011, he received the Lifetime Achievement Award from Information Technology Association of Canada (ITAC). He also received University of Toronto Faculty of Applied Science and Engineering Alumni Medal in 2011.
In 2012, the "Kenneth C. Smith Early Career Award for Microelectronics
Research" was created by the International Symposium on Multiple-Valued Logic
to honor Smith for his contribution to the field of multiple-valued logic.
In 2014, Kenneth C. Smith and Laura Fujino were presented with the Annual Creativity in Electronics (ACE) Award, selected by a panel of EDN and EE Times editors.
Other awards include:
IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Service Award, 2000
Special Issue of the Journal of Multiple-Valued Logic (MVL) and Soft Computing, in recognition of Smith’s 70th year and 30 years of contributions to MVL, 2003
IEEE Computer Society Service Award, 2004
References
1932 births
Living people
University of Toronto faculty
Canadian electrical engineers
Fellow Members of the IEEE
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51641443
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reader%20Rabbit%20Kindergarten
|
Reader Rabbit Kindergarten
|
Reader Rabbit Kindergarten is a video game within the edutainment series Reader Rabbit, published by The Learning Company in June 1997. A new version of the game was developed in-house by Graffiti Entertainment, and was released in 2009.
Gameplay
Designed for ages 4–6, the plot of the game sees the player help Reader Rabbit and Mat the Mouse collect resources for a large campfire party at Camp Happy Tails. The game is designed to teach children skills such as mathematics, phonics, reading, and listening. The press release said the game "incorporates lively music, vivid graphics and charming characters to encourage imaginative learning". The game featured 16-bit color and sound.
Commercial performance
The game was the 8th top-selling educational software across nine retail chains (representing more than 40 percent of the U.S. market) in the week ending January 10. A March 15, 1998 article said the game finished at number 14 in a ranking of the ranking of best-selling educational software. The game was the 6th op-selling home-education software across 13 software retail chains (representing more than 57 percent of the U.S. market) for the week ending May 1, 1998. The game was the 4th top-selling educational title across 13 computer software retail chains (representing 53 percent of the U.S. market) for the week that ending October 31, 1998. Across October 1998, the game was the second top educational software programs for PCs, after The American Girls Premiere. The game was the 4th best-selling product by dollars in the education category across November 1998, and the 5th in December 1998.
Critical reception
Computer Shopper praised the graphics, animation, and characters, and compared the "entertaining and compelling" game to Creative Wonders title Get Set for Kindergarten Deluxe. Superkids said the game had "engaging animation" and "structured yet entertaining activities".
References
External links
The Learning Company games
Children's educational video games
1997 video games
MacOS games
Reader Rabbit
Video games developed in the United States
Wii games
Windows games
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3996419
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20California%20Television
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University of California Television
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University of California Television (known simply as UCTV) is a 24-hour television channel presenting educational and enrichment programming from the campuses, national laboratories, and affiliated institutions of the University of California system. UCTV's non-commercial programming delivers science, health and medicine, public affairs, humanities, and the arts to a general audience, as well as specialized programming for health care professionals and teachers. Programming includes documentaries, lectures, debates, interviews, performances and more.
UCTV is an Educational-access television cable TV channel. See "Where to watch" below. UCTV can also be seen worldwide via live webstream, video-on-demand archives (Flash files), and offers both audio and video podcasts for downloading. UCTV programs are also available on YouTube, Apple podcast, Roku and Amazon Fire. UCTV was available nationwide on Dish Network (channel 9412) (service terminated by Dish as of March 1, 2012).
UCTV launched in January 2000 on the Dish Network and is based on the UC San Diego campus where UCSD-TV is also located. UCTV collects programming from each of the ten University of California campuses (UC Berkeley, UC Davis, UC Irvine, UC Los Angeles, UC Merced, UC Riverside, UC San Diego, UC San Francisco, UC Santa Barbara, UC Santa Cruz) and affiliated institutions (Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Los Alamos National Laboratory, UC Agriculture & Natural Resources, UC Office of the President, UC Sacramento Center, UC Washington DC Center).
Thematic programming
UCTV airs 25 hours of original programming per week on a rotating 24-hour schedule of three-hour thematic blocks in the areas of science, health and medicine, public affairs, humanities, and arts and music
UCTV offers a one-hour program block for health care professionals called The Med Ed Hour (Tuesday through Thursday at noon Pacific), featuring medical programs for physicians, nurses and other health care professionals.
UCTV series
UCTV series include:
Brain Channel: Explore the world of neuroscience and the secrets of the brain.
Career Channel: Information and tools to help college graduates with their careers.
Computer Science Channel: All that is new in the world of computer science from UC San Diego Computer Science and Engineering.
Library Channel: Interviews, author talks, mini-documentaries and other programs that will inspire you to Read, Write, Think and Dream.
Public Policy Channel: Policy makers, policy critics, and innovative policy thinkers.
STEAM Channel: The value of adding Arts to STEM Education.
Sustainable California: Real-world solutions for all Californians.
Wellbeing Channel: Integrative and whole-systems healthcare.
Burke Lectureship on Religion and Society : Scholars and theologians explore religion in modern society.
CARTA - Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny: Exploring and explaining the origins of the human phenomenon.
Conversations with History: Interviews and discussion of political, economic, military, legal, cultural, and social issues from UC Berkeley's Institute of International Studies.
Ethics, Religion and Public Life: Walter H. Capps Center Series: Presentations on ethics, religion and public life.
Exploring Ethics: Experts discuss ethical implications of new science and technology.
Field Trip at the Lab: Science on Saturday: Science lectures for middle and high school students.
GRIT Talks: Innovative research at UCSB.
Health Matters: Current and valuable information to improve your health.
Helen Edison Lecture Series: Lectures that advance humanitarian purposes and objectives.
Herman P. and Sophia Taubman Endowed Symposia in Jewish Studies: Prominent figures share their work related to the Jewish experience.
Innovator Stories: Creating Something from Nothing: Candid conversations with distinguished industry leaders.
Perspectives on Ocean Science Lecture Series: Engaging marine science lectures from Birch Aquarium at Scripps.
Kavli Institute for Brain and Mind: Bridging disciplinary boundaries to further our understanding of the origins, evolution and mechanisms of human cognition.
La Jolla Symphony & Chorus: Presenting ground-breaking, traditional and contemporary music.
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory: Cutting-edge research explained in everyday language.
Mini Medical School for the Public: Learn about health and the health sciences directly from the experts.
Osher UC San Diego Distinguished Lecture Series: Prestigious guest speakers on newsworthy topics.
Philip R. Lee Institute for Health Policy Studies: Searching for solutions to challenging health policy problems.
Qualcomm Thinkabit Lab Presents: Hands-on lessons in engineering, careers, and more.
Saturday Science at The Scripps Research Institute: Cutting-edge research occurring at The Scripps Research Institute.
Science at the Theater: Explore cutting-edge science with leading scientists.
Script to Screen: Screenwriting and how the screenplay is translated into film.
Soundscape: Musical performances from UCSB.
UC Berkeley Graduate Lectures: Distinguished visitors to Berkeley speak on a wide range of topics.
UC Davis Graduate School of Management's Dean's Distinguished Speaker Series: Business leaders share their wisdom, insights and experience.
UC San Diego Jazz Camp: Annual program for intermediate to advanced level musicians.
UCLA Faculty Research Lectures: Special lectures given by distinguished UCLA scholars.
UCSF Center for Obesity Assessment, Study and Treatment: A look at the factors that contribute to obesity.
UCSF Transplant Update: Treatment of transplant patients for health care professionals.
Voices: UCSB faculty and guests talk about issues and their impact.
Writer's Symposium By The Sea: Conversations with best-selling authors.
See also
UCSD-TV
External links
UCTV
Message about Dish dropping UCTV and other viewing options
UCSD-TV Creators Had Big Dreams For Small Screen
UCTV Launching Science-Heavy YouTube Channel
UC's Ivory Tower Beaming Out a New Television Signal
UC San Diego Department and UCTV Launch ‘The Computer Science Channel’
‘The Brain Channel’ Program on UCTV Features Hearing Researchers
Neanderthal genome research featured in UCTV report
UCTV Documentary Features UCSF in "A Dose of Hope" for Parkinson's Patients
'Science on Saturday' gains a following on UCTV
Honoring Sally on UCTV
Jiyo, The Chopra Center for Wellbeing, and the University of California San Diego School of Medicine Launch New UC Wellbeing Channel on UCTV
University of California
Internet television channels
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32683147
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolmogorov%E2%80%93Zurbenko%20filter
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Kolmogorov–Zurbenko filter
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Within statistics, the Kolmogorov–Zurbenko (KZ) filter was first proposed by A. N. Kolmogorov and formally defined by Zurbenko. It is a series of iterations of a moving average filter of length m, where m is a positive, odd integer. The KZ filter belongs to the class of low-pass filters. The KZ filter has two parameters, the length m of the moving average window and the number of iterations k of the moving average itself. It also can be considered as a special window function designed to eliminate spectral leakage.
Background
A. N. Kolmogorov had the original idea for the KZ filter during a study of turbulence in the Pacific Ocean. Kolmogorov had just received the International Balzan Prize for his law of 5/3 in the energy spectra of turbulence. Surprisingly the 5/3 law was not obeyed in the Pacific Ocean, causing great concern. Standard fast Fourier transform (FFT) was completely fooled by the noisy and non-stationary ocean environment. KZ filtration resolved the problem and enabled proof of Kolmogorov's law in that domain. Filter construction relied on the main concepts of the continuous Fourier transform and their discrete analogues. The algorithm of the KZ filter came from the definition of higher-order derivatives for discrete functions as higher-order differences. Believing that infinite smoothness in the Gaussian window was a beautiful but unrealistic approximation of a truly discrete world, Kolmogorov chose a finitely differentiable tapering window with finite support, and created this mathematical construction for the discrete case. The KZ filter is robust and nearly optimal. Because its operation is a simple Moving Average (MA), the KZ filter performs well in a missing data environment, especially in multidimensional time series where missing data problem arises from spatial sparseness. Another nice feature of the KZ filter is that the two parameters have clear interpretation so that it can be easily adopted by specialists in different areas. A few software packages for time series, longitudinal and spatial data have been developed in the popular statistical software R, which facilitate the use of the KZ filter and its extensions in different areas. I.Zurbenko Postdoctoral position at UC Berkeley with Jerzy Neyman and Elizabeth Scott provided a lot of ideas of applications supported in contacts with Murray Rosenblatt, Robert Shumway, Harald Cramér, David Brillinger, Herbert Robbins, Wilfrid Dixon, Emanuel Parzen.
Definition
KZ Filter
Let be a real-valued time series, the KZ filter with parameters and is defined as
where coefficients
are given by the polynomial coefficients obtained from equation
From another point of view, the KZ filter with parameters and can be defined as time iterations of a moving average (MA) filter of points. It can be obtained through iterations.
First iteration is to apply a MA filter over process
The second iteration is to apply the MA operation to the result of the first iteration,
Generally the kth iteration is an application of the MA filter to the (k − 1)th iteration. The iteration process of a simple operation of MA is very convenient computationally.
Properties
The impulse response function of the product of filters is the convolution of impulse responses. The coefficients of the KZ filter , can be interpreted as a distribution obtained by the convolution of k uniform discrete distributions on the interval where m is an odd integer. Therefore, the coefficient forms a tapering window which has finite support . The KZ filter has main weight concentrated on a length of with weights vanishing to zero outside. The impulse response function of the KZ filter has continuous derivatives and is asymptotically Gaussian distributed. Zero derivatives at the edges for the impulse response function make from it a sharply declining function, what is resolving in high frequency resolution. The energy transfer function of the KZ filter is
It is a low-pass filter with a cut-off frequency of
Compared to a MA filter, the KZ filter has much better performance in terms of attenuating the frequency components above the cutoff frequency. The KZ filter is essentially a repetitive MA filter. It is easy to compute and allows for a straightforward way to deal with missing data. The main piece of this procedure is a simple average of available information within the interval of m points disregarding the missing observations within the interval. The same idea can be easily extended to spatial data analysis. It has been shown that missing values have very little effect on the transfer function of the KZ filter.
Arbitrary k will provide k power of this transfer function and will reduce side lobe value to . It will be a perfect low pass filter. For practical purposes a choice of k within a range 3 to 5 is usually sufficient, when regular MA (k = 1) is providing strong spectral leakage of about 5%.
Optimality
The KZ filter is robust and nearly optimal. Because its operation is a simple moving average, the KZ filter performs well in a missing data environment, especially in multidimensional time and space where missing data can cause problems arising from spatial sparseness. Another nice feature of the KZ filter is that the two parameters each have clear interpretations so that it can be easily adopted by specialists in different areas. Software implementations for time series, longitudinal and spatial data have been developed in the popular statistical package R, which facilitate the use of the KZ filter and its extensions in different areas.
KZ filter can be used to smooth the periodogram. For a class of stochastic processes, Zurbenko considered the worst-case scenario where the only information available about a process is its spectral density and smoothness quantified by Hölder condition. He derived the optimal bandwidth of the spectral window, which is dependent upon the underlying smoothness of the spectral density. Zurbenko compared the performance of Kolmogorov–Zurbenko (KZ) window to the other typically used spectral windows including Bartlett window, Parzen window, Tukey–Hamming window and uniform window and showed that the result from KZ window is closest to optimum.
Developed as an abstract discrete construction, KZ filtration is robust and statistically nearly optimal. At the same time, because of its natural form, it has computational advantages, permitting analysis of space/time problems with data that has much as 90% of observations missing, and which represent a messy combination of several different physical phenomena. Clear answers can often be found for "unsolvable" problems. Unlike some mathematical developments, KZ is adaptable by specialists in different areas because it has a clear physical interpretation behind it.
Extensions
Extensions of KZ filter include KZ adaptive (KZA) filter, spatial KZ filter and KZ Fourier transform (KZFT). Yang and Zurbenko provided a detailed review of KZ filter and its extensions. R packages are also available to implement KZ filtration
KZFT
KZFT filter is design for a reconstruction of periodic signals or seasonality covered by heavy noise. Seasonality is one of the key forms of nonstationarity that is often seen in time series. It is usually defined as the periodic components within the time series. Spectral analysis is a powerful tool to analyze time series with seasonality. If a process is stationary, its spectrum is a continuous form as well. It can be treated parametrically for simplicity of prediction. If a spectrum contains lines, it indicates that the process is not stationary and contains periodicities. In this situation, parametric fitting generally results in seasonal residuals with reduced energies. This is due to the season to season variations. To avoid this problem, nonparametric approaches including band pass filters are recommended. Kolmogorov–Zurbenko Fourier Transform (KZFT) is one of such filters. The purpose of many applications is to reconstruct high resolution wavelet from the noisy environment. It was proven that KZFT provides the best possible resolution in spectral domain. It permits the separation of two signals on the edge of a theoretically smallest distance, or reconstruct periodic signals covered by heavy noise and irregularly observed in time. Because of this, KZFT provides a unique opportunity for various applications. A computer algorithm to implement the KZFT has been provided in the R software. The KZFT is essentially a band pass filter that belongs to the category of short-time Fourier transform (STFT) with a unique time window.
KZFT readily uncovers small deviations from a constant spectral density of white noise resulting from computer random numbers generator. Such computer random number generations become predictable in the long run. Kolmogorov complexity provides the opportunity to generate unpredictable sequences of random numbers.
Formally, we have a process ,, the KZFT filter with parameters m and k, computed at frequency ν0, produces an output process, which is defined as following:
where is defined as: , ,..., and the polynomial coefficients is given by . Apparently filter is equivalent to the application of filter to the process . Similarly, the KZFT filter can be obtained through iterations in the same way as KZ filter.
The average of the square of KZFT in time over S periods of will provide an estimate of the square amplitude of the wave at frequency ν0 or KZ periodogram (KZP) based on 2Sρ0 observations around moment t:
Transfer function of KZFT is provided in Figure 2 has a very sharp frequency resolution with bandwidth limited by . For a complex-valued process , the outcome is unchanged. For a real-valued process, it distributes energy evenly over the real and complex domains. In other words, reconstructs a cosine or sine wave at the same frequency ν0. It follows that correctly reconstructs the amplitude and phase of an unknown wave with frequency ν0. Figure below is providing power transfer function of KZFT filtration. It clearly display that it perfectly captured frequency of interest ν0 = 0.4 and provide practically no spectral leakage from a side lobes which control by parameter k of filtration. For practical purposes choice of k within range 3–5 is usually sufficient, when regular FFT (k = 1) is providing strong leakage of about 5%.
Example: Simulated signal
normal random noise N(0,16) was used to test the KZFT algorithm’s ability to accurately determine spectra of datasets with missing values. For practical considerations, the percentage of missing values was used at p=70% to determine if the spectrum could continue to capture the dominant frequencies. Using a wider window length of m=600 and k=3 iterations, adaptively smoothed KZP algorithm was used to determine the spectrum for the simulated longitudinal dataset. It is apparent in Figure 3 that the dominant frequencies of 0.08 and 0.10 cycles per unit time are identifiable as the signal’s inherent frequencies.
KZFT reconstruction of original signal embedded in the high noise of longitudinal observations ( missing rate 60%.) The KZFT filter in the KZA package of R-software has a parameter f = frequency. By defining this parameter for each of the known dominant frequencies found in the spectrum, KZFT filter with parameters m=300 and k=3 to reconstruct the signal about each frequency (0.08 and 0.10 cycles per unit time). The reconstructed signal was determined by applying the KZFT filter twice (once about each dominant frequency) and then the summing the results of each filter. The correlation between the true signal and the reconstructed signal was 96.4%; displayed in figure 4. The original observations provide no guess of the complex, hidden periodicity, which was perfectly reconstructed by the algorithm.
Raw data frequently contain hidden frequencies. Combinations of a few fixed frequency waves can complicate the recognition of the mixture of signals, but still remain predictable over time. Publications show that atmospheric pressure contains hidden periodicities resulting from the gravitational force of the moon and the daily period of the sun. The reconstruction of these periodic signals of atmospheric tidal waves allows for an explanation and prediction of many anomalies present in extreme weather. Similar tidal waves must exist on the sun resulting from the gravitational force of planets. The rotation of the sun around its axes will cause a current, similar to the equatorial current on the earth. Perturbations or eddies around the current will cause anomalies on the surface of the sun. Horizontal rotational eddies in highly magnetic plasma will create a vertical explosion which will transport deeper, hotter plasma to above the surface of the sun. Each planet creates a tidal wave with a specific frequency on the sun. At times any two of the waves will occur in phase and other times will be out of phase. The resulting amplitude will oscillate with a difference frequency. The estimation of the spectra of sunspot data using the DZ algorithm provides two sharp frequency lines with periodicities close to 9.9 and 11.7 years. These frequency lines can be considered as difference frequencies caused by Jupiter and Saturn (9.9) and Venus and Earth (11.7). The difference frequency between 9.9 and 11.7 yields a frequency with a 64-year period. All of these periods are identifiable in sunspot data. The 64-year period component is currently in a declining mode. This decline may cause a cooling effect on the earth in the near future. An examination of the joint effect of multiple planets may reveal some long periods in sun activity and help explain climate fluctuations on earth.
KZA
Adaptive version of KZ filter, called KZ adaptive (KZA) filter, was developed for a search of breaks in nonparametric signals covered by heavy noise.. The KZA filter first identifies potential time intervals when a break occurs. It then examines these time intervals more carefully by reducing the window size so that the resolution of the smoothed outcome increases.
As an example of break point detection, we simulate a long-term trend containing a break buried in seasonality and noise. Figure 2 is a plot of a seasonal sine wave with amplitude of 1 unit, normally distributed noise (), and a base signal with a break. To make things more challenging, the base signal contains an overall downward trend of 1 unit and an upward break of 0.5 units. The downward trend and break are hardly visible in the original data.
The base signal is a step function , with and with . The application of a low-pass smoothing filter to the original data results in an over smoothing of the break as shown in Figure 6. The position of the break is no longer obvious. The application of an adaptive version of the KZ filter (KZA) finds the break as shown in Figure 5b. The construction of KZA is based on an adaptive version of the iterated smoothing filter KZ. The idea is to change the size of the filtering window based on the trends found with KZ. This will cause the filter to zoom in on the areas where the data is changing; the more rapid the change, the tighter the zoom will be. The first step in constructing KZA is to use KZ; where k is iterations and q is the filter length, where is an iterated moving average where are the original data and are the filtered data. This result is used to build an adaptive version of the filter. The filter is composed of a head and tail (qf and qb) respectively, with f = head and b = tail) that adjust in size in response to the data, effectively zooming in on regions where the data are changing rapidly. The head qf shrinks in response to the break in the data. The difference vector built from KZ; is used to find the discrete equivalent of the derivative '. This result determines the sizes of the head and the tail (qf and qb respectively) of the filtering window. If the slope is positive the head will shrink and the tail will expand to full size ('(, then and ) with . If the slope is negative the head of the window will be full sized while the tail will shrink (', then and . Detailed code of KZA is available.
The KZA algorithm has all of the typical advantages of a nonparametric approach; it does not require any specific model of the time series under investigation. It searches for sudden changes over a low frequency signal of any nature covered by heavy noise. KZA shows very high sensitivity for break detection, even with a very low signal-to-noise ratio; the accuracy of the detection of the time of the break is also very high.
The KZA algorithm can be applied to restore noisy two-dimensional images. This could be a two-level function f(x,y) as a black-and-white picture damaged by strong noise, or a multilevel color picture. KZA can be applied line by line to detect the break (change of color), then the break points at different lines would be smoothed by the regular KZ filter. Demonstration of spatial KZA is provided in Figure 7.
Determinations of sharp frequency lines in the spectra can be determine by adaptively smoothed periodogram. The central idea of the algorithm is adaptively smoothing the logarithm of a KZ periodogram. The range of smoothing is provided by some fixed percentage of conditional entropy from total entropy. Roughly speaking, the algorithm operates uniformly on an information scale rather than a frequency scale. This algorithm is also known for parameter k=1 in KZP as Dirienzo-Zurbenko algorithm and provided in software.
Spatial KZ filter
Spatial KZ filter can be applied to the variable recorded in time and space. Parameters of the filter can be chosen separately in time and space. Usually physical sense can be applied what scale of averaging is reasonable in space and what scale of averaging is reasonable in time. Parameter k is controlling sharpness of resolution of the filter or suppression of leak of frequencies. An algorithms for spatial KZ filter are available in R software. Outcome time parameter can be treated as virtual
time, then images of results of filtration in space can be displayed as "movie" in virtual time. We may demonstrate application of 3D spatial KZ filter applied to the world records of temperature T(t, x, y) as a function of time t, longitude x and latitude y. To select global climate fluctuations component parameters 25 month for time t, 3° for longitude and latitude were chosen for KZ filtration. Parameter k were chosen equal 5 to accommodate resolutions of scales. Single slide of outcome "movie" is provided in Figure 8 below. Standard average cosine square temperature distribution low along latitudes were subtracted to identify fluctuations of climate in time and space.
We can see anomalies of temperature fluctuations from cosine square law over globe for 2007. Temperature anomalies are displayed over globe in the provided in figure scale on the right. It displays very high positive anomaly over Europe and North Africa, which were extending over last 100 years. Absolute humidity variable is keeping responsibility for major regional climate changings as it was displayed recently by Zurbenko Igor and Smith Devin in Kolmogorov–Zurbenko filters in spatiotemporal analysis. Those anomalies are slowly changing in time in the outcome "movie" of KZ filtration, slow intensification of observed anomalies were identified in time. Different scales fluctuations like El Niño scale and others are also can be identified by spatial KZ filtration. High definition "movie" of those scales are provided in over North America. Different scales can be selected by KZ filtration for a different variable and corresponding multivariate analysis can provide high efficiency results for investigating outcome variable over other covariates. KZ filter resolution performs exceptionally well compare to conventional methods and in fact is computationally optimal. Igor Zurbenko, Devin Smith, Amy Potrzeba-Macrina, Barry Loneck, Edward Valachovic and Mingzeng Sun, High-Resolution Noisy Signal and Image Processing, Cambridge Scholars Publishing 2021, 375 pages.
https://www.cambridgescholars.com/product/978-1-5275-6293-6
Implementations
W. Yang and I. Zurbenko. kzft: Kolmogorov–Zurbenko Fourier transform and application. R package, 2006.
B. Close and I. Zurbenko. kza: Kolmogorov–Zurbenko adaptive algorithm for the image detection. R package, 2016 (https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/kza/)
KZ and KZA Java implementation for 1-dimensional arrays of Andreas Weiler and Michael Grossniklaus (University of Konstanz, Germany) (https://web.archive.org/web/20140914054417/http://dbis.uni-konstanz.de/research/social-media-stream-analysis/)
Python implementation of KZ, KZFT and KZP of Mathieu Schopfer (University of Lausanne, Switzerland) (https://github.com/MathieuSchopfer/kolmogorov-zurbenko-filter)
References
Statistical signal processing
Filter theory
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60493695
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El%20Pitazo
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El Pitazo
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El Pitazo is an independent Venezuelan multimedia franchise. The name "pitazo" refers to whistleblowing. It is part of the Latin American media Rebel Alliance, with Tal Cual and Runrunes. They also collaborate with NGOs to be more informed on diverse groups of people in the nation. According to El País, the aims of El Pitazo are to bring news to the most isolated areas. The company director is César Batiz.
In 2019 it won the Ortega y Gasset Award for Best Multimedia Coverage, for a report on starving children, "La generación del hambre". According to Batiz, this is the first time a Venezuelan media outlet has won the award.
Censorship
Reporters on an El Pitazo press pass have been denied access to events, particularly covering government activities and elections; a security guard told one reporter he barred from the National Electoral Council that the order "came from above". Actions like this are in violation of Article 58 of the constitution of Venezuela. In this instance, during the campaigns for the 2018 presidential election, opposition candidate Henri Falcón tried to intervene to bring the reporters, among press personnel from multiple other media, into the building; several were allowed in but the security said the bar on El Pitazo was too strict to allow them through.
Blocking of website
The El Pitazo website has been blocked on multiple occasions. Batiz said in August 2018 that none of the blocks thus far had been given an explanation, and that there had also been no reports against the website that would justify blocking it.
The first block to website was implemented in early September 2017, by CANTV and Digitel, followed by Movistar in early November. Because of the decline in viewership the web address was changed from .com to .info on 15 January 2018.
The new web address was then blocked in early April 2018 by CANTV, but the directors had been prepared and already set-up a web address hosted in Malaysia, .ml, which they switched to the same day.
In early August 2018, the website was blocked by more providers than ever before; all of the previous ISPs as well as Inter and . The Press and Society Institute, Venezuela (IPYS) reported that this block was intermittent throughout the day and targeted different states at different times, making it a more complex "attack" on the website that was more difficult to circumvent and also harder to justify creating a new web address, even though the effect on readership was the same. For several weeks, other news websites—both in the Rebel Alliance and not—published El Pitazo reports in solidarity; El Pitazo also used Facebook as a platform to host their reports and encouraged people to use VPNs to access their website. IPYS mentioned that they had developed some offline methods of communication in response, like holding informal public meetings in parks across the country and in bookshops to spread news. In an interview with Caracas Chronicles, Batiz said that he could guess the blocks were because he published reports that made the government "uncomfortable", like one in late July 2018 exposing corruption in PdVSA.
, the 2018 President of the in the National Assembly (AN), presented a report to the AN in August 2018 that concluded that CANTV and the government agency Conatel were responsible for the blocks. Batiz planned to take the report to international human rights groups.
Cyber attacks
The website suffered several cyber attacks in June and July 2018. These came in the form of DDoS (a kind of denial of service attack), with over 1800 IPs targeting El Pitazo's current and past web addresses. Though still able to publish on social media during the denial of access, the attacks are characterized as a refusal of the right to free speech.
During the August 2018 website blocks, the writers also received DDoS reports when trying to publish content, which is a targeted cyber attack not allowing them to access their own website.
Notable reports and investigations
In 2016, the El Pitazo editorial board contributed to Univision's coverage of the Narcosobrinos affair.
Huérfanos de la Salud
El Pitazo co-created with IPYS the multimedia report on children who suffer due to poor health services in Venezuela. It won the 2018 Roche Health Journalism prize for Internet reports. It was also nominated in the Best Coverage category of the 2018 Gabriel García Márquez Journalism Awards.
La generación del hambre
Throughout 2018 for eight months, fourteen journalists led by Johanna Osorio Herrera followed the lives of eight children all born in 2013, chosen because nutrition in the first 5 years of life is the most important. The report won the 2019 Ortega y Gasset Award for Best Multimedia Coverage, to be presented at the CaixaForum Madrid on 9 May 2019; for winning, they receive 15,000 euro and a sculpture by Eduardo Chillida. On announcing the award, the jury commended the journalists, saying that "They are a group of young and admirable journalists who take risks and who go to the places where things happen, to find the facts and report them".
The aims of the investigation were to expose the effects of the economic policy of the Nicolás Maduro administration on young children growing up under it, particularly on hunger and starvation as these are "the most intimate in human lives". El País reported that the results were "saddening" because of the clear irreversible damage suffered by the infants, one of whom died during the process.
References
Venezuelan news websites
Media of the Crisis in Venezuela
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2646593
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NDISwrapper
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NDISwrapper
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NDISwrapper is a free software driver wrapper that enables the use of Windows XP network device drivers (for devices such as PCI cards, USB modems, and routers) on Linux operating systems. NDISwrapper works by implementing the Windows kernel and NDIS APIs and dynamically linking Windows network drivers to this implementation. As a result, it only works on systems based on the instruction set architectures supported by Windows, namely IA-32 and x86-64.
Native drivers for some network adapters are not available on Linux as some manufacturers maintain proprietary interfaces and do not write cross-platform drivers. NDISwrapper allows the use of Windows drivers, which are available for virtually all modern PC network adapters.
Use
There are three steps: Creating a Linux driver, installing it, and using it. NDISwrapper is composed of two main parts, a command-line tool used at installation time and a Windows subsystem used when an application calls the Wi-Fi subsystem.
As the outcome of an NDISwrapper installation should be some sort of Linux driver to be able to work with Linux applications, the first action the user does is to "compile" a couple or more of Windows files, and the NDISwrapper's version of Windows DDK into a Linux Kernel Module. This is done with a tool named "ndiswrapper". The resultant linux driver is then installed (often manually) in the OS. A Linux application can then send request to this Linux driver that automatically does the needed adaptations to call its—now—internal Windows driver and DDK.
To achieve this "compilation" NDISwrapper requires at least the ".inf" and the ".sys" files invariably supplied as parts of the Windows driver. For example, if the driver is called "mydriver", with the files mydriver.inf and mydriver.sys and vendorid:productid 0000:0000, then NDISwrapper installs the driver to /etc/ndiswrapper/mydriver/. This directory contains three files:
0000:0000.conf, which contains information extracted from the inf file
mydriver.inf (the original inf file)
mydriver.sys (the driver file)
Graphical frontends
There are graphical frontends to NDISwrapper, such as Ndisgtk and NdisConfig, which allow NDISwrapper to be installed using a graphical user interface rather than console commands.
Architecture
NDISwrapper enables a Unix-like system to use Windows drivers of type NDIS and WIFI.
It was useful at a time where there were no Linux Wi-Fi drivers for common Wi-Fi cards.
It is composed of:
An NDIS driver, which is a kind of overlay for Ethernet device drivers.
A Wi-Fi manager, to control the radio and security part of the Wi-Fi card. It exposes a "wireless extension" interface.
A USB manager and a PnP manager to make it possible to use Wi-Fi card embedded in USB sticks. The USB manager is composed of two parts, first a tiny USBD implementation (USB stack) then a simple Windows Driver Model (WDM) USB driver that is itself composed of two parts: The front part will receive calls from the NDISwrapper USB stack (in fact from calls coming from the original Windows driver that were normally intended to go to the Windows USB stack) and the rear part is using Linux USB stack.
A minimal Ntoskrnl simulating the DDK for:
managing calls from the Windows driver.
managing IRP to the Windows driver (WDM only at the moment)
managing filter drivers in a simplistic way
loading/unloading Windows drivers
A wrapper converting Linux calls to Windows and the other way round, also managing results and error codes
How it works
Ndiswrapper uses Windows INF files.
When a Linux application calls a device which is registered on Linux as an NDISwrapper device, the NDISwrapper determines which Windows driver is targeted. It then converts the Linux query into Windows parlance, it calls the Windows driver, waits for the result and translates it into Linux parlance then sends the result back to the Linux application.
It's possible from a Linux driver (NDISwrapper is a Linux driver) to call a Windows driver because they both execute in the same address space (the same as the Linux kernel).
If the Windows driver is composed of layered drivers (for example one for Ethernet above one for USB) it's the upper layer driver which is called, and this upper layer will create new calls (IRP in Windows parlance) by calling the "mini ntoskrnl". So the "mini ntoskrnl" must know there are other drivers, it must have registered them in its internal database a priori by reading the Windows ".inf" files.
Similar programs
DriverLoader is a commercial tool produced by Linuxant for Linux which seems to provide the same functionality as NDISwrapper.
Independently of but roughly simultaneously with the NDISwrapper project, Bill Paul of Wind River Systems developed a similar system, known as Project Evil or The NDISulator, for FreeBSD. It has since been ported to DragonFly BSD and NetBSD.
Limitations
NDISwrapper relies on the elderly "wireless-extensions" to enable applications to access Wi-Fi.
As NDISwrapper relies on Windows drivers; it only supports i386 and x86_64 architectures.
NDISwrapper does not implement NDIS 6 (Windows Vista version) yet, limiting drivers to Windows XP. , a code branch at the project site has been under development since 2006, but a feature request from 2009 has been left unassigned.
While it is not a major problem for the x86 architecture because of the popularity of Windows XP x86-32, many vendors choose to make 64-bit driver versions only for Windows Vistawhich means that Linux systems using the x86-64 architecture are unable to use such networking devices (they can neither use XP x86-32 NDIS5 because they are 64bits systems nor NDIS6 64bit drivers because they can't use NDIS6). It's still possible to use Windows XP 64 bit drivers which implement NDIS5, however, there are fewer available drivers for xp64 (NDIS5/64 bit) than for XP32 (NDIS5/32 bit).
Since 2006, most Windows drivers are compliant with Windows Driver Foundation (WDF) which NDISWrapper can't use. It renders NDISWrapper obsolete, as it only supports the previous WDM driver framework.
See also
List of wireless router firmware projects
cabextract
DebWRT
INF file
LibreWRT
Linux Unified Kernel
ReactOS
References
External links
NDISwrapper Wiki
NDISwrapper Download Area
NDISwrapper Installation – An easy to follow video showing how to install NDISwrapper and get started with it.
Ndisgtk
NdisConfig
Project Evil: The Evil Continues, 2004-01-24, Bill Paul on a FreeBSD mailing list
Too Evil, Too Furious, 2005-04-25, Bill Paul on a FreeBSD mailing list
NetBSD NDIS Driver Port
Device drivers
Compatibility layers
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13220574
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20Army%20Sniper%20School
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United States Army Sniper School
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The U.S. Army Sniper Course trains selected military members assigned to sniper positions in the skills necessary to deliver long-range precision fire and the collection of battlefield information. Students will receive training in fieldcraft skills, advanced camouflage techniques, concealed movement, target detection, range estimation, terrain utilization, intelligence preparation of the battlefield (IPB), relevant reporting procedures, sniper tactics, advanced marksmanship, and staff subjects (intelligence, mission, training, combat orders, command and control, and training management).
History
Although the US Army set up an advanced marksmanship course at Camp Perry, Ohio, the Army had no official sniper course during WWII. Between wars, the USMC sustained limited sniper training but not enough to compete with other countries during WWII.
During 1955-1956, the Army Marksmanship Training Unit operated the first US Army Sniper School at Camp Perry, Ohio. Unfortunately a lack of understanding, and appreciation for the effectiveness and potential that snipers could add to the fight, caused sniper training to be abandoned after this short training period.
During the Korean War, Snipers were used during the first recapture of Inchon, Seoul, and the Battle of Chosin. When the war went into its static period in 1951 the Army and Marines as in WW I and WW II were deadly, especially during this static defense period of the war. Fifty (.50) caliber weapons with scopes were also used for sniping purposes by the U.S. The favorite was a M2 .50 caliber machine gun with a target scope attached; due to the weight, this system was not very mobile. Major advances were implemented in sniper tactical mission planning, information gathering, harassing and delaying the enemy. The top sniper of Korea was Sgt Boindot from the U.S. Army with 70 confirmed kills. After the Korean War, the U.S. sniper program was again discontinued.
In Viet Nam, on July 1968, the US Army began centralized training in-country. The 9th Infantry Division established one of the first in-country Sniper Schools. The course, run by Major Willis Powell, lasted 18 days with the failure rate being 50%. In December 1968, a full complement of seventy-two snipers were ready for action.
The US Army Sniper School was established in 1987, at the Infantry Center at Fort Benning, GA, and continues to produce top-notch snipers today. Its continuous existence reflects the longest sniper training course in the history of the US Army and is a testament to the high priority sniper training now enjoys among the Army’s leadership. Following the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center buildings, the U.S. military entered into combat operations in Afghanistan under Operation Enduring Freedom. Snipers proved themselves as an invaluable asset due to their ability to engage targets at great distances in a mountainous battlefield.
Purpose
The Army Sniper Course trains selected individuals in the skills necessary to deliver long range precision fire and the collection of battlefield information. During the 7 week course, Soldiers will receive training in the application of fieldcraft; advanced camouflage techniques, concealed movement, target detection, range estimation, and terrain utilization (Macro and Micro), intelligence preparation of the battlefield (IPB), relevant reporting procedures, sniper tactics, advanced marksmanship; known and unknown distance firing, at stationary and moving targets during daylight and limited visibility in varying weather conditions, and staff subjects (intelligence, mission, training, combat orders, command and control, and training management) to ensure mission accomplishment without compromise in accordance with the supported unit Commanders intent in all operational venues.
The US Army’s Maneuver Center of Excellence has released an updated Training Circular 3-22.10, Sniper, dated December 2017. The sniper training circular has been completely revised and updated in various topics to include; sniper planning, employment, field craft, marksmanship, ballistic programs, and complex engagements. The intent of this training circular was to create uniformity within the sniper community, and to align sniper training and employment with current U.S. Army doctrine.
In 2018, the United States Army Sniper Course changed their course Program of Instruction (POI) to focus on how the sniper can be utilized in large scale, ground combat warfare. After a course revision, the cadre and leadership concluded that Army snipers need to focus on acting as sensors, communicators and human weapons systems, supporting enhanced multi-domain command and control from the ground in anti-access area denial environments.
See also
United States Marine Corps Scout Sniper
Marksmanship badges (United States)
References
External links
United States Army Sniper School
Army Sniper School at About.com.
Sniper students make the grade – The Bayonet
Snipers Bring School to Iraqi Desert – DefenseLink
Sniper warfare
United States Army schools
Sniper Course
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56418106
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyline%20%28software%29
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Skyline (software)
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Skyline is an open source software for targeted proteomics and metabolomics data analysis. It runs on Microsoft Windows and supports the raw data formats from multiple mass spectrometric vendors. It contains a graphical user interface to display chromatographic data for individual peptide or small molecule analytes.
Skyline supports multiple workflows including selected reaction monitoring (SRM) / multiple reaction monitoring (MRM), parallel reaction monitoring (PRM), data-independent acquisition (DIA/SWATH) and targeted data-dependent acquisition.
See also
ProteoWizard
OpenMS
Trans-Proteomic Pipeline
Mass spectrometry software
References
External links
Free science software
Bioinformatics software
Mass spectrometry software
Proteomics
Software using the Apache license
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43821733
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PrivatOS
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PrivatOS
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PrivatOS was an operating system used in the Blackphone from June 1, 2014, to June 30, 2016. It was targeted at users who sought improved privacy and security. It provided encryption for phone calls, emails, texts, and internet browsing. PrivatOS was a modified version of Android, forked from Android 4.4.2, that came with a bundle of security-minded tools. However, in contrast to Android, PrivatOS was not open source. The company that shipped PrivatOS, SGP Technologies is a joint venture between the makers of GeeksPhone, and Silent Circle.
Background
The concept of an encrypted phone had long been an interest of Silent Circle founder and PGP creator, Phil Zimmerman. In a video on Blackphone's website, Zimmerman said,
Features
The company stated its operating system was able to “close all backdoors” which were usually found on major mobile operating systems. Some major features of PrivatOS were anonymous search, privacy-enabled bundled apps, smart disabling of Wi-Fi except trusted hotspots, more control in app permissions, private communication (calling, texting, video chat, browsing, file sharing and conference calls). Geeksphone also claimed the phone would receive frequent secure updates from Blackphone directly.
Reception
Ars Technica praised that the Blackphone's Security Center in PrivatOS gave control over app permissions and liked that PrivatOS came the bundled with the Silent Phone, Silent Text, Disconnect VPN and Disconnect Search services. Ars did not like that the phone’s performance was mediocre, using a custom OS meant no Google Play or any of the other benefits of the Google ecosystem, spotty support for sideloaded apps, and reliance on Amazon or other third-party app stores. After a month of using the device, Joshua Drake from Accuvant concluded that Blackphone's security claims were overstated, criticizing the closed-source nature of the OS and a lack of OS or kernel hardening features, but praising its fast patching and added features.
References
Android (operating system) devices
Proprietary operating systems
Secure telephones
Android forks
2014 software
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1545854
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kid%20Pix
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Kid Pix
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Kid Pix is a bitmap drawing program designed for children. Originally created by Craig Hickman, it was first released for the Macintosh in 1989 and subsequently published in 1991 by Broderbund. Hickman was inspired to create Kid Pix after watching his son Ben struggle with MacPaint, and thus the main idea behind its development was to create a drawing program that would be very simple to use.
The application is now developed by Software MacKiev, who had been involved in development of the Macintosh version of Kid Pix Deluxe 3 and has been the sole developer of the Kid Pix series since the initial release of Kid Pix Deluxe 3X prior to acquiring the brand from Houghton Mifflin Harcourt in October 2011.
History
Craig Hickman was studying photography at Evergreen State College in 1972 with the aim of taking a career in fine art photography when he encountered a friend entering code into a teletype in the college's terminal room. This impressed upon Hickman a desire to learn how to program. After leaving college he continued to write programs for his own education, and by 1988 owned an Apple Macintosh and had begun distributing software in the public domain.
While using MacPaint that year, his then-3-year-old son expressed a desire to use the application. Hickman noted how quickly he adapted to the use of the mouse and keyboard, but also that he inadvertently activated pop-up menus and other user interface elements. It was this experience that encouraged Hickman to write a simple paint program for his son to use; he also decided to make this freely available.
The Color Macintosh was released before Hickman's first launch of his program, which he had named Kid Pix. Encouraged by a friend to sell his software rather than give it away, Hickman began working on a commercial enhanced version of the original monochrome Kid Pix freeware release, called Kid Pix Professional, which would retail for (). An advertisement for Kid Pix Professional was bundled with Kid Pix when he released it in November 1989. By June 1990 Kid Pix Professional had been released, and Hickman estimates that around 100 copies were sold in total.
Hickman sent a copy of the application to Broderbund Software in the Summer of 1990 on the encouragement of friends, and having been given details for a contact within the company. He did not anticipate the application being adopted, but received a call within a week indicating that Broderbund would like to publish it. Broderbund's release of Kid Pix was demonstrated during the MacWorld keynote in 1991 and Kid Pix 1.0 was released in March 1991 to very positive feedback. By this point Broderbund had also begun developing a version of Kid Pix for MS-DOS. Kid Pix 1.0 received several industry awards, including the 1991 MacUser Eddi for best Children's Program, the 1991 Software Publishers Association Awards for Best User Interface in a New Program and Best Early Learning Program, and the MacWorld World-Class award for Best Education Program.
The latest Mac and Windows versions of the product were developed by the current owner and publisher of Kid Pix, Software MacKiev, who had been involved in development of the Macintosh version of Kid Pix Deluxe 3 and has been the sole developer of the Kid Pix series since the initial release of Kid Pix Deluxe 3X prior to acquiring the brand from Houghton Mifflin Harcourt in October 2011. Hickman had no involvement with the development of Kid Pix from 1996 until late 2011 when he began consulting with Software MacKiev on the development of future editions.
Timeline
1989 - Kid Pix Public Domain Version is released for free in November, 1989
1990 - Kid Pix Professional is released at a price of $25 () with sound, color, the mixer tool, more stamps and bilingual menus in English and Spanish
Broderbund offers to publish Kid Pix
March 1991 - Kid Pix 1.0 is released at a price of $59.95 () with impressive sales and reviews
1992 - Kid Pix Companion is released at a price of $39.95 () adds new features and QuickTime videos.
1993 - Kid Cuts, a derivative of Kid Pix that allows for creation of special projects, is released at a price of $59.95 ()
1994 - Kid Pix 2 distributes both Kid Pix and the Companion together
1994 - Kid Pix Fun Pack adds new stamps and hidden pictures
1995 - Kid Pix Studio is released by Broderbund
1998 - Kid Pix Studio Deluxe is released by Broderbund
1999 - Kid Pix Studio Deluxe is re-released by The Learning Company a year after its acquisition of Broderbund
2000 - Kid Pix Deluxe 3 is released by Broderbund/Riverdeep
2004 - Kid Pix Deluxe 4 is released by The Learning Company/Riverdeep
2004 - Kid Pix Deluxe 3X (Mac OS X Edition 1.0) is released by Software MacKiev
2006 - Kid Pix Deluxe 3X (Mac OS X Edition 1.1) by Software MacKiev adds iPod movies export and enhanced integration with iTunes, iPhoto, iMovie and GarageBand, applications from the Apple's iLife application suite.
2008 - Kid Pix Deluxe 3X (Mac OS X Edition 1.2.3) by Software MacKiev fixes compatibility with a new version of QuickTime and adds compatibility with Mac OS X 10.5 "Leopard"
2008 - Kid Pix Deluxe 4 is re-released on DVD-ROM by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt two years after Riverdeep's merge with Houghton Mifflin
2010 - Kid Pix Deluxe 3D (Mac OS X Edition 2.0) by Software MacKiev is a major upgrade, with path animation, 3D characters, movie backgrounds, and video narration
2011 - Kid Pix Deluxe 3D (Windows Edition) is released by Software MacKiev
2018 - Kid Pix 5: The S.T.E.A.M. Edition is released by Software MacKiev
Kid Pix 2
Kid Pix 2 added new features to the original. These features were originally available in an add-on known as Kid Pix Companion.
"SlideShow" is a program allowing the creation of a slide show of Kid Pix images with transitions and custom recorded sounds. By setting the time delay between slides to the lowest possible setting animations can be created using multiple Kid Pix images acting as each of the frames of animation.
The "Wacky TV" allows the user to watch video clips in common media formats such as MOV or AVI. The picture can then be distorted using various buttons. The CD came with various sample clips to watch. If a movie contained sound, there was also an option to speed up the audio by 50%, or play it in reverse.
Kid Pix Studio
Kid Pix Studio offered a complement of programs to the original Kid Pix. It opened up the ability for children to create not only static images but animated creations as well.
SlideShow was extended to allow the use of any Kid Pix, Moopie, Stampimator and Digital Puppet files in the slide show.
"Moopies" is very similar to the standard Kid Pix program except with a reduced canvas size and the ability to add several animated rubber stamps and wacky brush items. Music and sounds can also be chosen to play in the background of the "moopie."
"Stampimator" is again similar to the standard Kid Pix program and "Moopies", except the animated rubber stamps can be dragged across the canvas recording a path which they would then repetitively follow.
Several pre-made computer puppets are provided in this program. The user can animate them like a real puppet including choosing facial expressions by hitting various keys on the keyboard. Sound and music, and a background can be added to go along with the movement of the puppet.
The "Moopies," "Digital Puppets," "Stampimator" and "Slideshow" creations can be saved as a standalone executable that enables them to be viewed by others regardless of them owning a copy of Kid Pix Studio. "Slideshows" also have the added possibility of being exported to a video file, although this functionality is limited to slide shows that contain only Kid Pix drawings.
The "Wacky TV" feature allowed users to watch movies and animations made in Moopies, and Slideshow, and even any movies the user may have on their computer. Several buttons are available for use in this feature, which allows users to watch the movies in several different ways, like in reverse or flipped screen. This was also available on the previous version of Kid Pix.
Kid Pix Studio Deluxe
A later version, titled Kid Pix Studio Deluxe, featured an updated picker screen and allowed editing text items after they have been placed down, which was not possible in prior versions of Kid Pix. It was also possible in this version to have the computer read the text aloud, and, exclusive to the Macintosh version, add some music to play in the background during a SlideShow.
Kid Pix Deluxe 3
Kid Pix received a significant makeover with Kid Pix Deluxe 3. It was updated with a new 3D looking interface and new sound effects which makes it almost unrecognizable from the older versions. The only surviving new feature inherited from Kid Pix Studio was the SlideShow. This is possibly because the others were rendered unnecessary with the addition of clip art pictures and animations to the basic Kid Pix program.
Added tools include:
Background, to select a premade background from a large library.
Static Clip Art, a large library of premade static clip art.
Animated Clip Art.
Sound Tool, used to select sounds for the image from the provided library or to record your own.
Play Button, upon being clicked, the animated clip art on the page would animate, the selected sound (if any) would begin to play and text typed would be spoken by the selected voice.
Kid Pix Deluxe 4
Kid Pix Deluxe 4 was released in 2004 and saw several improvements over Kid Pix Deluxe 3, including an updated interface whose layout is more faithful to the original Kid Pix (thus causing the canvas to be larger), the Text tool having a WYSIWYG font menu, the Idea Machine being accessible from the user interface instead of simply from the program's menu, a leaner and more organized Background library, a bilingual Undo Guy that can yap out both English and Spanish phrases, and video tutorials on how to use the program and each of its individual tools. For Macintosh users, this was the first version of Kid Pix to be compatible with Mac OS X, the last version to be compatible with the "Classic" Mac OS (in this case, Mac OS 8 and 9), and the only version to utilize Apple's Carbon API.
Kid Pix Deluxe 3X
A new version of Kid Pix Deluxe 3, which was initially released in 2004, featured Mac OS X compatibility, increased canvas size and integration with applications from the Apple's iLife application suite, such as iMovie, iTunes, iPhoto and GarageBand. Also, it features export of Kid Pix projects to iPod video format, giving kids a head start in creating their own podcasts. Further, the exploding screen eraser from the previous Kid Pix Deluxe 3 Edition was replaced with a fire hose, which was less destructive and noisy.
Kid Pix Deluxe 3D
A significant upgrade from Kid Pix Deluxe 3X, the 3D edition was published for the Mac by Software MacKiev in October 2010 and for Windows in October 2011. While retaining the features of the previous "3X" edition, Kid Pix Deluxe 3D emphasizes digital storytelling with video narration and export to YouTube. The "3D" part of the name comes from the newly added 3D animations and backgrounds, and an export to 3D feature that creates anaglyph video images that can be viewed using red/blue 3D glasses (included in the package).
Kid Pix 5: The S.T.E.A.M. Edition
Kid Pix 5: The S.T.E.A.M. Edition is the newest version of Kid Pix by Software MacKiev, available for Mac, Windows, and iPad. It is the first version to have iPad support and 64-bit compatibility, and has a new Steam age interface. Currently, it is only available as an upgrade or for educational institutions.
Features
The canvas occupies most of the available screen face, and the entire canvas is visible at all times. The drawing tools available to the user are placed in a column of buttons down the left edge of the screen. Instead of using menus to access the different options that each tool has, they are displayed in a row of icons along the bottom of the screen. Selecting a new tool presents a new set of options, such as different styles for the Wacky Brush. The color palette is situated below the list of tools and consists of a collection of colored squares for each of the available colors. Files with the KPX extension can be converted to the more accessible PCX format by renaming the extension.
Here are the drawing tools used in Kid Pix:
Pencil Tool, the tool that draws free lines onto the picture. Six line thicknesses are provided.
Line Tool, used to create perfectly straight lines. Like the Pencil Tool, six line thicknesses are provided.
Paint Bucket, used to fill an area with a solid color or pattern.
Square Tool, used to create perfect square or rectangular shapes. By changing the line thickness in the line tool you could change the thickness of the square.
Circle Tool, similar to the Square Tool. It is used to create perfect circles, and the thickness can be changed using the line tool.
Kid Pix includes a selection of tools that go beyond drawing simple lines and shapes. These include:
Wacky Brush, contains an array of options to paint various effects onto the image, such as a line of dripping paint, a line of shapes or a random leafless tree.
Mixer Tool, provides various options to affect the entire image with distortion, blurring and fading effects. Starting from Kid Pix Deluxe 3, an example of the effects would be shown on a butterfly.
Rubber Stamps, a collection of small icons that can be added to the picture in a way similar to the use of clip art. The original stamps were taken from the Apple Computer font Cairo. From Kid Pix Professional onwards the size of the stamp on the canvas could be enlarged. Eventually transformed into 8-Bit like images that could be edited by the user.
Selection and erasing tools include:
Erasing Tools, these provide several different ways to erase various parts, or all, of your drawing. For example, the popular stick of dynamite would cause the entire image to explode in alternating black and white concentric circles.
Moving Truck, allows various parts of the image to be selected and moved around the canvas. There are different shapes and sizes that the selections can be, such as circles or rectangles.
Dye Tool, used to pick out colors already used somewhere in the canvas.
Text tools include:
Text tool, includes "rubber stamps" of the letters of the alphabet which speak the name of the letter when selected.
Typing tool, includes basic abilities to add text to the image in different fonts and various sizes.
Other tools include:
Sound tool, allows you to record your own sounds to add to your pictures (e.g. little pug noises, with a bark at the end).
The "Undo Guy" acts as a standard undo button, undoing the last change made to the image. When clicked, the Undo Guy says comical phrases in different voices. Starting with Kid Pix Deluxe 3D, the Undo Guy could undo and redo several times, but in all versions of Kid Pix prior to that version, the Undo Guy could only undo and redo once.
The "Pick a Draw Me" addition (located under the 'Goodies' Section) gives you three random phrases for a drawing idea. Each phrase is said by a different person to inspire the user to draw something unconventional. This feature was absent in Kid Pix Deluxe 3 and all versions that succeeded it.
Reception
KidPix was given a blue chip award at the 1994 Oppenheim Toy Portfolio Awards. The judges described it as "a fun-filled multimedia art exploration program with a sense of humor" and "chockful of clever goodies that invite computer and artistic exploration", however they noted that the DOS and Mac versions were superior to the Windows version. KidPix Companion was reviewed in the Oppenheim Guide Book where it was described as a program that "make[s] a good thing better", alongside a review for KidCuts which was described as "a 21st-century evolution of an old kids' favorite" and "a springboard for off-line creative play".
See also
Tux Paint
Mario Paint
References
External links
Kid Pix Deluxe 3 Online Training Videos
Official Kid Pix Site at Software MacKiev
Kid Pix 1.0 web app
Software for children
Raster graphics editors
Products introduced in 1989
1989 software
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6760494
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore%20Cooperation%20Programme
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Singapore Cooperation Programme
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The Singapore Cooperation Programme (SCP) is a series of programmes conducted by the Government of Singapore to facilitate the sharing with other developing countries the technical and systems skills that Singapore has learned and acquired over the years. Technical assistance focuses on training and increasing the skills of a nation. As a country whose only resource is its people, Singapore believes human resource development is vital for economic and social progress. Singapore had benefited from technical assistance from other countries and international organizations.
Beginnings
In the 1970s, Singapore started to exchange its experiences with friends around the world through various programmes. These programmes were brought under a single framework when the Singapore Cooperation Programme (SCP) was established in 1992 under the Technical Cooperation Directorate (TCD) of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Through the SCP, Singapore has been sharing its development experience through courses, seminars, workshops, consultancy as well as hosting study visits in a range of fields.
Areas of interest
The main fields of training include Education, Law and Judiciary, Sustainable Development, Communications and Transport, Economic Development and Trade Promotion, Healthcare, Public Administration and Digital Government.
As of Jan 2017, more than 112,000 officials from 170 countries have been trained. As we continue with our efforts to share experience with our friends, the alumni of SCP participants will continue to increase.
Types of assistance
To ensure recipients receive the best training possible, the SCP training programmes are divided into two types of assistance:
Bilateral Training Programmes
Bilateral training programmes are offered directly to a developing country on a government-to-government basis. Technical assistance programmes are designed to meet the needs of the recipient country.
The training programmes under this arrangement include the Asean Training Awards, the Singapore Cooperation Programme Training Awards and the Small Island Developing States Technical Cooperation Programme.
Joint Training Programmes
Joint training programmes are provided in collaboration with other countries, international organisations and non-government organisations. Training provided under such an arrangement is known as a Third Country Training Programme (TCTP). Harnessing the joint expertise of both Singapore and its partner countries and organisations, training programmes are customised to suit the needs of developing countries.
Some of the TCTP partners include Australia, Canada, European Commission, France, Germany, Japan, The Holy See, the Republic of Korea, Luxembourg, New Zealand, Norway, Thailand, the Asia Development Bank, Commonwealth of Learning, Colombo Plan Secretariat, Commonwealth Secretariat, Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, Hanns Seidel Foundation, International Atomic Energy Agency, International Civil Aviation Organisation, International Maritime Organisation, International Monetary Fund, United Nations Children's Fund, United Nations Development Programme, US Vietnam Trade Council, World Bank, World Health Organisation, World Intellectual Property Organisation and World Trade Organisation. More Information on collaborations with TCTP Partners can be found from Pages XXX.
Initiative For ASEAN Integration
At the Fourth ASEAN Informal Summit held in Singapore in November 2000, then Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong launched the “Initiative for ASEAN Integration” (IAI). This framework encompasses a variety of human resource development programmes and aims to assist the integration of the new member countries (Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar and Vietnam) into ASEAN. Singapore has made four pledges to the IAI totalling about S$170 million.
More than 30,000 government officials have participated in IAI programmes. Since 2002, the four IAI training centres in Cambodia, Laos, Burma and Vietnam have been offering in-country training courses for government officials in a wide variety of fields, including English Language, Economic Development, Public Administration, Trade and Tourism.
Small Island Developing States Technical Cooperation Programme
At the UN General Assembly 22nd special session in 1999, Singapore launched the Small Island Developing States Technical Cooperation Programme (SIDSTEC). This five-year programme was part of Singapore's contributions to sustainable development of Small Island Developing States (SIDS). SIDSTEC covered topics such as urban development and environmental management, which were in close alignment to the 1994 Barbados Programme of Action. In 2005, Singapore's Minister for Environment and Water Resources Dr Yaacob Ibrahim announced the indefinite extension of SIDSTEC at the International Meeting to Review the Implementation of the Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of SIDS. Through SIDSTEC and its extension, SIDSTEC II, have seen more than 700 officials from 41 SIDS attend more than 150 courses.
About Singapore's Third Country Training Programme Partners
Third Country Training Programme with Developed Countries
Singapore – Australia Trilateral Cooperation Programme
Established in 1996, the Singapore – Australia Trilateral Cooperation Programme (SATCP) focuses on providing training to help close the developmental gap in Asean. To date, Singapore and Australia (administered by the Australian Agency for International Development or AusAID) have jointly conducted 11 courses for 218 Asean government officials, in areas such as customs training, civil aviation, international trade law, disaster response and maritime security. In 2007, the SATCP will be opened to participants from the Pacific region.
Singapore – Canada Third Country Training Programme
Although the Memorandum of Understanding for the Singapore – Canada Third Country Training Programme was signed in 1998, technical cooperation between Singapore and Canada dates back to 1995, when both countries launched an English Language Training Project for Cambodia, Lao PDR and Vietnam. Singapore and Canada (administered by the Canadian International Development Agency or CIDA) have jointly conducted more than 60 activities for 1,355 participants from 16 countries. Besides language training, courses have covered a wide variety of other areas including governance, trade and finance.
Singapore – European Commission Trilateral Cooperation Programme
Singapore is the first Southeast Asian country to work with the European Commission (EC) on a technical assistance programme for developing countries. The agreement between Singapore and the EC covers Cambodia, Lao PDR and Vietnam. Since the establishment of the Trilateral Cooperation Programme (TCP) in 2004, a total of 114 officials have been trained in areas such as finance, trade promotion, WTO matters and information technology.
Singapore – France Third Country Training Programme
Singapore and France have been cooperating to provide training to third countries since 2001. Four joint activities have been conducted to date for ASEAN countries in areas such as public finance management, tax policy and the prevention and management of contagious diseases.
Singapore – Germany Third Country Training Programme
Established in 1993 with the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), the Singapore – Germany Third Country Training Programme has provided 26 courses to date for 370 participants from the Asia-Pacific region. Training has been provided in areas such as the management of technical and vocational training institutions, multimedia development, manufacturing and automation, information technology and enterprise management.
Japan – Singapore Partnership Programme for the 21st Century
Since 1994, Singapore and Japan have been co-operating in human resource development for third countries under the Japan – Singapore Partnership Programme for the 21st Century. To date, Singapore and Japan (administered by the Japan International Cooperation Agency or JICA) have jointly trained more than 3,000 officials from all major regions of the world. Singapore and JICA have jointly organised 186 courses covering diverse areas like information technology, trade promotion, industrial development, healthcare, education, urban planning and the environment.
Singapore – Republic of Korea Third Country Training Programme
The Memorandum of Understanding for the Singapore –Republic of Korea Third Country Training Programme was signed in 1993. Singapore and Korea (administered by the Korea International Cooperation Agency or KOICA) have jointly conducted 46 courses for 768 participants from the Asia-Pacific region. Our joint training courses cover areas such as tourism, trade, information technology, environment, port management and the protection of intellectual property.
Singapore – Luxembourg Third Country Training Programme
The Singapore – Luxembourg Third Country Training Programme was launched in 1997 to provide joint technical assistance to countries from the Asia-Pacific region. To date, 5 courses have been conducted for 83 participants, covering the areas of healthcare, tourism and public administration.
Singapore – New Zealand Third Country Training Programme
Joint Training with New Zealand was launched in 2003 under the framework of the Initiative for Asean Integration (IAI). Singapore and New Zealand (administered by the New Zealand Agency for International Development or NZAID) have conducted a series of 4 training courses on various aspects of WTO Accession at the IAI Training Centres in Cambodia, Lao PDR and Vietnam. Most recently, Singapore and NZAID have jointly sponsored a feasibility study for an English Language Training pilot project in these countries.
Singapore – Norway Third Country Training Programme
Launched in 1996, the Singapore - Norway Third Country Training Programme has provided 15 training activities for 287 participants from 14 countries. Administered by Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Singapore and the Royal Norwegian Embassy in Singapore, two courses are conducted each year in areas such as environmental management, utility management, information technology, English Language and healthcare.
Thailand – Singapore Third Country Training Programme
Since 1997, Thailand and Singapore have been cooperating to provide technical assistance under the Thailand - Singapore Third Country Training Programme (TCTP). The TCTP was Singapore's first formalised partnership with a fellow ASEAN country in extending technical assistance to developing countries namely, Cambodia, Lao PDR and Myanmar. Singapore and Thailand (administered by the Thailand International Development Cooperation Agency, Ministry of Foreign Affairs) have jointly trained participants in the areas of the English language, healthcare, information technology and public administration.
Singapore – Vatican Third Country Training Programme
Singapore and the Holy See began cooperation in 1996 on a pilot project to provide English language training to third countries. Following the success of this project, a Memorandum of Understanding was signed in 1998 to provide human resource training to countries in the Asia-Pacific region. To date, Singapore and the Holy See (administered by the Apostolic Nunciature based in Bangkok) have jointly sponsored 13 training courses for 126 participants from Cambodia, Lao PDR, Mongolia, East Timor and Vietnam.
Third Country Training Programme with International Organisations/Non-Government Organisations
Singapore – ADB Technical Cooperation Programme
Singapore and the Asian Development Bank (ADB) have been conducting joint training courses for developing countries under the Singapore – ADB Technical Co-operation Programme since 1991. To date, 21 joint training courses had been conducted for 515 participants in the areas of tourism, road safety management, port/airport management, water and solid waste management, technology transfer, border management and trade facilitation.
Singapore – CoL Third Country Training Programme
Singapore has been collaborating with the Commonwealth Of Learning (COL) since 2000 under the Third Country Training Programme framework to conduct one training visit per year for five consecutive years for CEOs of training institutes from Commonwealth African countries. We have jointly conducted 7 Management Development Workshop for 168 participants from the African countries and the small states of the Commonwealth. The joint training with COL in 2007 will focus on the ICT sector.
Singapore – Colombo Plan Third Country Training Programme
Since 1961, we have been providing technical assistance to member countries under the Singapore-Colombo Plan (CP) Training Award Scheme. Our collaboration with the CP Secretariat was formalised in November 1996. We have jointly provided training courses for CP member countries in the fields of public administration and economic development for senior government officials. From 1997 to 2004, a total of 389 participants from 20 countries had participated in our programmes.
Singapore – Commonwealth Secretariat Third Country Training Programme
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Singapore and the Commonwealth Secretariat (Comsec) signed a Memorandum of Understanding in 1994 to conduct joint courses under the Third Country Training Programme for Commonwealth countries. About 11 joint courses are conducted each year in areas such as economic development, information technology, productivity management, public administration and trade promotion. To date, they have jointly trained 2,397 participants from 62 Commonwealth countries.
Singapore – ESCAP Third Country Training Programme
The Singapore – ESCAP Third Country Training Programme Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) was signed on 28 April 1997 during the 53rd Ministerial Meeting of ESCAP. Under the MOU, Singapore and ESCAP would co-share all training expenses equally. The training focus is on tourism, trade promotion, port management, project planning and other fields mutually agreed upon for countries in the Asia Pacific region. To date, 10 training programmes for 133 participants from 29 countries have been jointly conducted.
Singapore – HSF Third Country Training Programme
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Singapore and the Hanns Seidel Foundation (HSF) have been conducting joint training programmes for developing countries since 2001. Since then, we have jointly conducted 8 courses in human resource development for a total of 135 government officials. For 2007, Singapore and HSF will be conducting a joint course at the Vietnam – Singapore Training Centre in Hanoi.
Singapore – IAEA Third Country Training Programme
Singapore concluded a Memorandum of Understanding with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) on 22 March 2000 to jointly train participants from IAEA member states in the areas of health, radiation protection and environment. To date, we have conducted 75 joint programmes for 113 officials from IAEA member countries under the Singapore – IAEA Third Country Training Programme. These programmes are largely fellowship attachments and visits to Singapore hospitals and universities.
Singapore – ICAO Third Country Training Programme
In August 2001, Singapore concluded a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) to promote the safety and development of civil aviation through human capacity building. The MOU was renewed twice in January 2004 and in December 2006. To date, more than 220 fellowships have been awarded to 65 ICAO contracting states to attend specialised training programmes at the Singapore Aviation Academy.
Singapore – IMO Third Country Training Programme
Singapore and International Maritime Organisation (IMO) signed a Third Country Training Programme Memorandum of Understanding on 1 Sep 1998 to provide training and technical assistance to member countries on matters relating to maritime safety and prevention and control of marine pollution. To date we have conducted 19 training programmes for 346 participants.
Singapore – IMF Third Country Training Programme
Singapore and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) signed a Memorandum of Understanding on 22 Sept 1997 on the establishment of the IMF-Singapore Regional Training Institute (IMF-STI) in Singapore. The IMF-STI provides training for government officials from the Asia-Pacific region in the areas of macroeconomic and financial management, as well as legal and statistical subjects. Since 1998, IMF-STI has conducted 184 programmes for more than 5,186 officials from the Asia-Pacific region.
Singapore – UNICEF Third Country Training Programme
Singapore and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) have provided joint training programmes under our Third Country Training Programme (TCTP) framework established in 1991. The Singapore – UNICEF TCTP has provided a total of 9 joint courses on Early Childhood Education to 211 participants from 19 countries. Singapore and UNICEF will expand their cooperation to help Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar and Vietnam in human resource development and capacity building.
Singapore – UNDP Third Country Training Programme
Singapore's collaboration with the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) began in 1992 under the framework of the Singapore – UNDP Third Country Training Programme. Since 1992, 1,215 government officials from 86 countries, including countries from the Caribbean and Sub-Saharan African, have participated in our joint training programmes, in areas such as civil aviation management and environmental health.
Singapore - US Vietnam Trade Council
Singapore - US Vietnam Trade Council (USVTC) started joint training collaboration in 2003 focusing on trade, tariff and WTO accession. To date, a total of 35 Vietnamese officials from various ministries and departments have attended the workshops.
Singapore – World Bank Third Country Training Programme
Singapore's collaboration with the World Bank began in 1996 when both parties signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) establishing a Third Country Training Programme. The joint programme allows Singapore and the World Bank to pool resources and share expertise with developing countries in areas such as environmental management, finance and banking, urban development, information technology, hospital reform and education. Since 1996, Singapore and the World Bank have jointly conducted 21 courses for 563 officials. In December 2006, Singapore and the World Bank (Africa Region) signed an MOU to conduct collaborative activities in the Africa region.
Singapore – WIPO Third Country Training Programme
Singapore and the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) signed a Memorandum of Understanding in February 1997 to conduct joint training courses for developing countries. The courses were aimed at enhancing their capacity to implement and develop international Intellectual Property (IP) standards. Last year, Singapore and WIPO renewed their partnership to expand collaborative activities. To date, Singapore and WIPO have jointly trained 224 officials from 24 countries in the Asia- Pacific region.
Singapore – WHO Third Country Training Programme
Singapore's collaboration with the World Health Organisation (WHO) began in 2002 with the launch of the Regional Quality Management Training (QMT) course in Blood Transfusion Services. For 2007, collaboration with the WHO will be focusing on Management of National Blood Programmes. To date, we have trained a total of 70 health officials from other countries.
Singapore – WTO Third Country Training Programme
In 1996, Singapore signed a Memorandum of Understanding with the WTO to provide joint trade-related courses to developing countries. Since then, we have jointly organised 12 workshops and seminars for 257 government officials from WTO member countries. From 2007, Singapore will host the WTO's Regional Trade Policy Training Course (RTPC) till 2010. The first run of this RTPC course will be attended by 33 participants from the Asia-Pacific region.
See also
Singapore Scholarship for ASEAN
External links
Singapore Cooperation Programme - official website
Singapore government policies
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6701208
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven%20Salzberg
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Steven Salzberg
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Steven Lloyd Salzberg (born 1960) is an American computational biologist and computer scientist who is a Bloomberg Distinguished Professor of Biomedical Engineering, Computer Science, and Biostatistics at Johns Hopkins University. He is a member of the Institute of Genetic Medicine at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, where he is also Director of the Center for Computational Biology.
Early life and education
Salzberg was born in 1960 as one of four children to Herman Salzberg, a Distinguished Professor Emeritus of Psychology, and Adele Salzberg, a retired school teacher. Salzberg did his undergraduate studies at Yale University where he received his Bachelor of Arts degree in English in 1980. In 1981 he returned to Yale, and he received his Master of Science and Master of Philosophy degrees in Computer Science in 1982 and 1984, respectively. After several years in a startup company, he enrolled at Harvard University, where he earned a Ph.D. in Computer Science in 1989.
Career
After earning his Ph.D., Salzberg joined Johns Hopkins University as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Computer Science, and was promoted to Associate Professor in 1997. From 1998–2005, he was the head of the Bioinformatics department at The Institute for Genomic Research, one of the world's largest genome sequencing centers. Salzberg then joined the Department of Computer Science at the University of Maryland, College Park, where he was the Horvitz Professor of Computer Science as well as the Director of the Center for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology. In 2011, Salzberg returned to Johns Hopkins University as a Professor in the Department of Medicine. From 2014, he was a Professor in the Department of Biomedical Engineering in the School of Medicine; the Department of Computer Science in the Whiting School of Engineering; and in the Department of Biostatistics in the Bloomberg School of Public Health.
In 2013, Salzberg won the Benjamin Franklin award in bioinformatics.
In March 2015, he was named a Bloomberg Distinguished Professor at Johns Hopkins University for his accomplishments as an interdisciplinary researcher and excellence in teaching the next generation of scholars. The Bloomberg Distinguished Professorships were established in 2013 by a gift from Michael Bloomberg. Salzberg holds joint appointments in the Johns Hopkins Whiting School of Engineering, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, and the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health.
Research
Salzberg has been a prominent scientist in the field of bioinformatics and computational biology since the 1990s. He has made many contributions to gene finding algorithms, notably the GLIMMER program for bacterial gene finding as well as several related programs for finding genes in animals, plants, and other organisms. He has also been a leader in genome assembly research and is one of the initiators of the open source AMOS project. He was a participant in the human genome project as well as many other genome projects, including the malaria genome (Plasmodium falciparum) and the genome of the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. In 2001–2002, he and his colleagues sequenced the anthrax that was used in the 2001 anthrax attacks. They published their results in the journal Science in 2002. These findings helped the FBI track the source of the attacks to a single vial at Ft. Detrick in Frederick, Maryland.
Salzberg together with David Lipman and Lone Simonsen started the Influenza Genome Sequencing Project in 2003, a project to sequence and make available the genomes of thousands of influenza virus isolates.
Soon after the advent of next-generation sequencing (NGS) in the mid-2000s, Salzberg's research lab and his collaborators developed a suite of highly efficient, accurate programs for alignment of NGS sequences to large genomes and for assembly of sequences from RNA-Seq experiments. These include the "Tuxedo" suite, comprising the Bowtie, TopHat, and Cufflinks programs, which have been cited tens of thousands of times in the years since their publication.
Salzberg has also been a vocal advocate against pseudoscience and in favor of the teaching of evolution in schools, and has authored editorials and appeared in print media on this topic. He writes a widely read column at Forbes magazine on science, medicine, and pseudoscience. His work at Forbes won the 2012 Robert P. Balles Prize in Critical Thinking.
The subject was a charter member of the Cambridge Working Group in 2014 that signaled alarm in the scientific community over the creation of highly transmissible and contagious viruses and the likelihood of an accidental lab release.
His doctoral students and postdoctoral researchers include Cole Trapnell, Ben Langmead, and Olga Troyanskaya.
Publications
Salzberg has authored or co-authored over 250 scientific publications. He has more than 244,000 citations in Google Scholar and an h-index of 147. In 2014, 2015, 2016, and 2017, Salzberg was selected for inclusion in HighlyCited.com, a ranking compiled by the Institute for Scientific Information of scientists who are among the top 1% most cited for their subject field during the previous ten years. He was also chosen for this list when it was first created in 2001. This list of highly cited researchers continues under Clarivate, and Salzberg was also included in the list in 2018, 2019, and 2020.
Highly Cited Articles (more than 10,000 citations)
2012 with B Langmead, Fast gapped-read alignment with Bowtie 2, in: Nature Methods. Vol. 9, nº 4; 357.
2009 With B Langmead, C Trapnell, M Pop, Ultrafast and memory-efficient alignment of short DNA sequences to the human genome, in: Genome Biology. Vol. 10, nº 3; 1-10.
2001 with JC Venter, EW Adams, MD MYers, PW Li, RJ Mural, et al, The sequence of the human genome, in: Science. Vol. 291, nº 5507; 1304-1351.
2010 with C Trapnell, BA Williams, G Pertea, A Mortazavi, G Kwan, MJ Van Baren, BJ Wold, L Pachter, Transcript assembly and quantification by RNA-Seq reveals unannotated transcripts and isoform switching during cell differentiation, in: Nature Biotechnology. Vol. 28, nº 5; 511-515.
2009 with C Trapnell, L Pachter, TopHat: discovering splice junctions with RNA-Seq, in: Bioinformatics. Vol. 25, nº 9; 1105-1111.
2013 with D Kim, G Pertea, C Trapnell, H Pimentel, R Kelley, TopHat2: accurate alignment of transcriptomes in the presence of insertions, deletions and gene fusions, in: Genome Biology. Vol. 14, nº 4; 1-13.
Awards
2020 Accomplishments by a Senior Scientist Award, International Society for Computational Biology
2014-2020 Named Highly Cited Researcher, Thomson Reuters/Clarivate
2018 Elected member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
2013 Named Fellow, International Society for Computational Biology
2013 Robert G. Balles Prize in Critical Thinking
2009 Genome Biology Award
2007 Hot 100 Authors, BioMed Central
2004 Fellow, American Association for the Advancement of Science
1996 NIH Career Award
References
External links
genome.fieldofscience.com Salzberg's science blog
Salzberg's column at Forbes magazine
cs.duke.edu Duke Computer Science Colloquia Steven Salzberg - includes biography
Open source software from the Salzberg lab and other groups in the Hopkins Center for Computational Biology
Living people
Yale University alumni
Harvard School of Engineering and Applied Sciences alumni
Johns Hopkins Biomedical Engineering faculty
University of Maryland, College Park faculty
21st-century American biologists
American bioinformaticians
Influenza researchers
Jewish scientists
1960 births
Fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
Fellows of the International Society for Computational Biology
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395243
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steinberg%20Cubase
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Steinberg Cubase
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Cubase is a digital audio workstation (DAW) developed by Steinberg for music and MIDI recording, arranging and editing. The first version, which was originally only a MIDI sequencer and ran on the Atari ST computer, was released in 1989. Cut-down versions of Cubase are included with almost all Yamaha audio and MIDI hardware, as well as hardware from other manufacturers. These versions can be upgraded to a more advanced version at a discount.
Operation
Cubase can be used to edit and sequence audio signals coming from an external sound source and MIDI, and can host VST instruments and effects. It has a number of features designed to aid in composition, such as:
Chord Tracks: Helps the user keep track of chord changes, and can optionally be used to harmonize audio and MIDI tracks automatically, as well as trigger arpeggios and chords with basic voicings or voicings for piano and guitar. Chords can be either entered manually or detected automatically.
Expression Maps: Adds a lane to the Key Editor (Cubase's piano roll) that allows the user to define changes to the instrument's articulations and dynamics. In other DAWs, this requires the use of complicated MIDI program changes and key switches.
Note Expression: Allows MIDI controllers such as pitch bend, volume, pan, and filters to be applied only to the selected notes. This overcomes one of the limitations of MIDI, where such controllers normally affect the entire channel (For example, all notes of a chord are equally affected by a pitch bend message).
Key Editor Inspector: Provides precise control over chord drawing, chord inversions, quantization, transpositions, scale correction, note lengths, and legato. Changes can be applied either to only the selected notes or the entire MIDI part being edited.
Audio Warp Quantize: Create warp markers straight from hitpoints, both single audio loops as well as the entire arrangement can be non-destructively quantized.
MIDI parts can be edited using a piano roll, a dedicated drum editor, a score editor, or as a filterable complete list of MIDI events.
The user can also mix the various tracks down into a stereo .wav file ready to be burned to a compact disc (CD) in Red Book format, or .mp3 burned to CD or DVD as files, or to be published on the Web.
VST instruments
Cubase VST 3.7 in 1999 introduced a virtual instrument interface for software synthesizers known as VSTi. This made it possible for third-party software programmers to create and sell virtual instruments for Cubase. This technology has become the de facto standard for other DAW software, when integrating software based instruments on the Macintosh and Windows platforms. A new version of VST, VST3, was introduced with Steinberg's Cubase 4 which introduced improved handling of automation and audio output, native sidechaining, and many other features. Cubase 6 included VSTs such as HALion Sonic SE, Groove Agent ONE, LoopMash 2 and VST Amp Rack.
Editions
When Cubase 6 was released in 2011, Steinberg introduced 5 different editions for different levels of use. From highest to lowest they are: Cubase (now known as Cubase Pro), Cubase Artist, Cubase Elements, Cubase AI and Cubase LE. They have all been updated as new versions come out. While they all run on the same audio engine, the lower tiers have limits on the number of certain types of tracks. The number of audio tracks allowed in Cubase Pro is unlimited, Artist: 64, Elements: 48, AI: 32, LE: 16.
History
Cubase has existed in three main incarnations. Initially Cubase, which featured only MIDI, and which was available on the Atari ST, Macintosh and Windows.
After a brief period with audio integration, the next version, Cubase VST, featured fully integrated audio recording and mixing along with effects. It added Virtual Studio Technology (VST) support, a standard for audio plug-ins, which led to a plethora of third-party effects, both freeware and commercial. Cubase VST was only for Macintosh and Windows; Atari support had been effectively dropped by this time, despite such hardware still being a mainstay in many studios. Cubase VST was offering a tremendous amount of power to the home user, but computer hardware took some time to catch up. By the time it did, VST's audio editing ability was found to be lacking, when compared with competitors such as Pro Tools DAE and Digital Performer MAS.
To address this, a new version of the program, Cubase SX (based on Steinberg's flagship post-production software Nuendo) was introduced, which dramatically altered the way the program ran. This version required much relearning for users of older Cubase versions. However, once the new methods of working were learned, the improvements in handling of audio and automation made for a more professional sequencer and audio editor.
A notable improvement with the introduction of Cubase SX was the advanced audio editing, especially the ability to 'undo' audio edits. Early versions of Cubase VST did not have this ability. Cubase SX also featured real-time time-stretching and adjustment of audio tempo, much like Sonic Foundry's ground-breaking ACID.
In January 2003, Steinberg was acquired by Pinnacle Systems, within which it operated as an independent company before being sold to Yamaha Corporation in December, 2004.
In September 2006 Steinberg announced Cubase 4 - the successor to Cubase SX3. Notable new features include 'control room', a feature designed to help create monitor mixes, and a new set of VST3 plug-ins and instruments.
There are also lighter economic alternatives by Steinberg, originally named Cubasis, later becoming Cubase SE and then Cubase Essential at version 4. For its sixth generation, the program was renamed Cubase Elements 6. The name change was done presumably, because its rival Cakewalk had taken the Essential branding for its own entry-level DAW software, Sonar X1 Essential.
While the full version of Cubase features unlimited audio and MIDI tracks, lesser versions have limits. For instance, Cubase Elements 6 has a maximum of 48 audio track and 64 MIDI tracks and Cubase Artist 6 offer 64 audio and 128 MIDI tracks.
In 2013, Steinberg introduced Cubasis for iPad, a Cubase for iOS. This version was a full rewrite and supports MIDI and audio tracks, audiobus and virtual MIDI to work with external music apps from the first versions. In 2016, Cubasis 2 was released as a free update with new features such as real-time time-stretching, pitch-shifting for changing the key, a "channel strip" effects suite, and new plug-ins and sounds. In 2017, Steinberg received the MIPA (Musikmesse International Press Award) for Cubasis 2 in the Mobile Music App category at the Musikmesse in Frankfurt. In late 2019, Cubasis 3 followed as a new app and included group tracks, a "Master Strip" effects suite, a revamped MediaBay, more effects and many more features in addition to iPhone support. In mid-2020, Cubasis 3 was released for Android tablets and smartphones.
Notable users
Some notable users include:
Versions
See also
References
External links
Atari ST software
MacOS audio editors
Digital audio workstation software
Music production software
Music software
Electronic music software
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477148
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topologika
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Topologika
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Topologika Software Ltd was an independent British publisher of educational software. Established in Stilton, Cambridgeshire in 1983, the company spent most of its life in Penryn, Cornwall before moving to Brighton, Sussex. The company was dissolved at the end of June 2013. Its educational software continues to be sold by distributors REM via , and is still supported by Topologika's founder Brian Kerslake.
Many of its early products were interactive fiction adventure games taken on after Acornsoft was sold to Superior Software who only continued to release their arcade games. Two of its first releases were Countdown to Doom and Philosopher's Quest, written by Peter Killworth. The versions produced by Topologika were large scale improvements upon the originals.
The complete list of adventure games produced by Topologika was as follows:
Acheton
Avon
Countdown to Doom
Giant Killer
Hezarin
Kingdom of Hamil
Monsters of Murdac
Philosopher's Quest
Return to Doom
Sellardore Tales
Spy Snatcher
Stig of the Dump
The Last Days of Doom
Topologika has itself now ceased publishing interactive fiction other than as an element of its ongoing and growing range of educational software which now includes Marshal Anderson's interactive fiction on CD and for VLEs (Sellardore Tales and Stig of the Dump) and Peter Killworth's maths adventure GiantKiller which is now available as a free download - see below.
External links
Topologika's website
List Of Topologika Adventures For The PC
The classic (Maths-based) adventure GIANTKILLER by Peter Killworth - FREE download
Info on Sellardore Tales
Info on Stig of the Dump
Stig and Sellardore's author
Computer companies of the United Kingdom
Educational software companies
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14936484
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948%20Rose%20Bowl
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1948 Rose Bowl
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The 1948 Rose Bowl was the 34th edition of the college football bowl game, played at the Rose Bowl in Pasadena, California on Thursday, January 1. The second-ranked and undefeated Michigan Wolverines of the Big Nine Conference routed the #8 USC Trojans, champions of the Pacific Coast Conference, 49–0.
It was the second year of the initial five-year agreement between the conferences to match their champions each New Year's Day in Pasadena. Michigan halfback Bob Chappuis was named the Player of the Game when the award was created in 1953 and selections were made retroactively.
Michigan tied the record for the most points scored by a team in the Rose Bowl, first set by the 1901 Wolverines in the first Rose Bowl and later matched by USC in 2008. Oregon supplanted the record in 2015. Michigan also tied the game's record for largest margin of victory also set by the 1901 Michigan team that defeated Stanford by an identical 49–0 score. The record of seven PATs converted by Michigan kicker Jim Brieske remains unbroken, but was tied in 2008 by USC's David Buehler.
The game was aired by local station KTLA in the first telecast of a bowl game in the Greater Los Angeles Area. It was also the first time a U.S. motion picture newsreel was taken in color. In a special unofficial AP Poll following the game, Michigan replaced Notre Dame as the 1947 national champion by a vote of 226 to 119.
Teams
USC Trojans
In October, USC tied Rice 7–7 and defeated #4 California 39–14 in Berkeley. The Trojans' rivalry matchup with defending PCC champion UCLA saw USC win 6–0. The game against Notre Dame had 104,953 on hand, the highest attendance for a football game in the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, to see 7–0–1 Rose Bowl-bound USC fall to the 8–0 Fighting Irish, 38–7. USC dropped from third to eighth in the final AP Poll in early December, and Notre Dame did not play in a bowl.
Michigan Wolverines
The 1947 Wolverines, known as the "Mad Magicians," won the Big Nine title on the strength of strong offense and defense. They shut out four opponents, including Ohio State, 21–0. Their close game was a 14–7 win at #11 Illinois, the reigning Big Nine and Rose Bowl champion.
Game summary
Bob Chappuis and Bump Elliott were the stars for the Wolverines. Jack Weisenburger scored three touchdowns. Nine Rose Bowl records were set.
Scoring
First quarter
Michigan - Jack Weisenburger, 1-yard run (Jim Brieske kick)
Second quarter
Michigan - Jack Weisenburger, 1-yard run (Jim Brieske kick)
Michigan - Bump Elliott, 11-yard pass from Bob Chappuis (Jim Brieske kick)
Third quarter
Michigan - Howard Yerges, 18-yard pass from Bob Chappuis (Jim Brieske kick)
Fourth quarter
Michigan - Jack Weisenburger, 1-yard run (Jim Brieske kick)
Michigan - Gene Derricotte, 45-yard pass from Hank Fonde (Jim Brieske kick)
Michigan - Dick Rifenberg, 29-yard pass from Howard Yerges (Jim Brieske kick)
Aftermath
The final regular season AP Poll, taken before the bowls, had Notre Dame #1 (107 first place votes) and Michigan #2 (25 first place votes). Notre Dame did not play in a bowl game. After urging from Detroit Free Press sports editor Lyall Smith, the Associated Press conducted its first ever post-bowl poll; Michigan won that unofficial final poll, 266–119.
The Wolverines continued their winning streak through the next season, winning all nine games. Because of the no-repeat rule for the Rose Bowl, runner-up Northwestern represented the Big Nine in the 1949 Rose Bowl. Michigan's 1,788 passing yards in 1947 was a school record that stood for 32 years, until 1979.
Legacy
In Super Bowl LIV, the Kansas City Chiefs offense lined up for a 4th & 1 conversion attempt during the first quarter. The offense attempted a running back direct snap, converting the run for a first down. After the game, Chiefs' offensive coordinator Eric Bieniemy told the media he discovered the trick play from watching Michigan run the play on the goal line in the 1948 Rose Bowl, adding it to the team's repertoire. Kansas City went on to win the game. The play was even named shift right to Rose Bowl parade.
References
External links
Summary at Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan Athletics History
1948 Tournament of Roses Parade and Rose Bowl, Warner Pathe News, 1948. —Color newsreel
Michigan Leaves Rose Bowl Scene; Praises of Writers, Coaches Heard as Conquerors of Trojans Return Home (New York Times)
Rose Bowl
Rose Bowl Game
Michigan Wolverines football bowl games
USC Trojans football bowl games
Rose Bowl
January 1948 sports events
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36657841
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifeboat%20Distribution
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Lifeboat Distribution
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Lifeboat Distribution is an international value-added distributor. Their customers are vendors who specialize in virtualization/cloud computing, security, application and network infrastructure, business continuity/disaster recovery, database infrastructure and management, application lifecycle management, science/engineering, and other technical products.
Lifeboat is headquartered in Eatontown, New Jersey, and also has offices in Arizona, Ontario, and Amsterdam.
Lifeboat Distribution is a subsidiary of Wayside Technology Group, Inc. (NASDAQ: WSTG), which has been a publicly traded company since 1995.
History
Early Years
In June 1986, Lifeboat Associates was acquired by Voyager Software Corp. By 1988, Voyager was a three-division company; Lifeboat was the software distributor, Corsoft the corporate reseller, and Programmer's Paradise a mail-order operation.
The 1990s and 2000s
In May 1995, Voyager Software Corp changed its name to Programmer's Paradise, Inc. and at that time, changed Lifeboat Associates' name to Lifeboat Distribution. In July 1995, Programmer's Paradise completed an initial public offering of its common stock.
On January 9, 2001, Lifeboat's European operations were sold along with all other Programmer's Paradise European operations to PC-Ware (now known as the Comparex Group).
Through the 2000s, Lifeboat expanded its vendor line card with established and emerging vendors such as InstallShield (later to become Flexera Software), Intel Software, TechSmith, GFI, and VMware.
Lifeboat developed a reputation for helping companies enter the two-tier (vendor-distributor-reseller) distribution model. For example, Lifeboat was VMware's first U.S. software distributor helping introduce that company’s nascent virtualization software to the channel.
In 2004, Lifeboat Distribution was appointed as Intel's Software Authorized Distributor in order to make that company's internally developed high-performance software development tools available to customers worldwide.
Present Day
Lifeboat specializes in technology domains that include not only virtualization/cloud computing, but also security, application and network infrastructure, database modeling, application lifecycle management, and business productivity.
Lifeboat recently added companies like Veeam Software, SolarWinds, and StorageCraft to its line card. The company now represents an extensive set of software for the now mainstream virtualization space – products that are marketed to resellers through Lifeboat’s Virtualization World View portfolio.
In 2010, Lifeboat opened an office in Almere, Netherlands in order to better serve the company’s European resellers.
Lifeboat competes against much larger "broad line" distributors and must provide service differentiators to both its software vendors and its reseller customers. One way it has done this is through the deployment of innovative technologies, such as an electronic license key stocking system, EDI–based (Electronic Data Interchange) order processing, and data warehousing systems.
References
Companies based in Monmouth County, New Jersey
Companies based in Mississauga
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43803454
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danielle%20Lao
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Danielle Lao
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Danielle Marie Lao (born May 28, 1991, in Pasadena, California) is an American professional tennis player.
She achieved a career-high WTA singles ranking of 152 on April 1, 2019, and has won two ITF singles titles and three doubles titles.
Junior and college career
Lao won the 2008 USTA National Open.
She competed for the USC Trojans where she was a two-time All-American and team captain.
Professional career
Lao plays primarily on the ITF Women's Circuit. In 2013, she co-authored a top-selling tennis book with Rick Limpert called The Invaluable Experience. In the book, Lao takes readers through her college tennis career and shows why playing a sport in college might be the best decision you could ever make.
Performance timeline
Only main-draw results in WTA Tour, Grand Slam tournaments and Olympic Games are included in win–loss records.
Singles
ITF Circuit finals
Singles: 6 (3 titles, 3 runner–ups)
Doubles: 10 (3 titles, 7 runner–ups)
References
External links
Official Website
USC Trojans profile
1991 births
Living people
American female tennis players
People from Pasadena, California
People from Arcadia, California
USC Trojans women's tennis players
Tennis people from California
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Cyber%20Security%20Division
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National Cyber Security Division
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The National Cyber Security Division (NCSD) is a division of the Office of Cyber Security & Communications, within the United States Department of Homeland Security's Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency. Formed from the Critical Infrastructure Assurance Office, the National Infrastructure Protection Center, the Federal Computer Incident Response Center, and the National Communications System, NCSD opened on June 6, 2003. The NCSD mission is to collaborate with the private sector, government, military, and intelligence stakeholders to conduct risk assessments and mitigate vulnerabilities and threats to information technology assets and activities affecting the operation of the civilian government and private sector critical cyber infrastructures. NCSD also provides cyber threat and vulnerability analysis, early warning, and incident response assistance for public and private sector constituents. NCSD carries out the majority of DHS’ responsibilities under the Comprehensive National Cybersecurity Initiative. The FY 2011 budget request for NCSD is $378.744 million and includes 342 federal positions. The current director of the NCSD is John Streufert, former chief information security officer (CISO) for the United States Department of State, who assumed the position in January 2012.
Strategic objectives and priorities
Strategic Objectives
To protect the cyber infrastructure, NCSD has identified two overarching objectives:
To build and maintain an effective national cyberspace response system.
To implement a cyber-risk management program for protection of critical infrastructure.
Priorities
Continued development of the EINSTEIN system’s capabilities as a critical tool in protecting the Federal Executive Branch civilian departments and agencies.
Development of the National Cyber Incident Response Plan (NCIRP) in full collaboration with the private sector and other key stakeholders. NCIRP ensures that all national cybersecurity partners understand their roles in cyber incident response and are prepared to participate in a coordinated and managed process.
Increase the security of automated control systems that operate elements of the national critical infrastructure.
Organization
NCSD is funded through the following three Congressionally appropriated Programs, Projects and Activities (PPA): United States Computer Emergency Readiness Team (US-CERT), Strategic Initiatives, and Outreach and Programs:
US-CERT leverages technical competencies in federal network operations and threat analysis centers to develop knowledge and knowledge management practices. US-CERT provides a single, accountable focal point to support federal stakeholders as they make key operational and implementation decisions and secure the Federal Executive Branch civilian networks. It does so through a holistic approach that enables federal stakeholders to address cybersecurity challenges in a manner that maximizes value while minimizing risks associated with technology and security investments. Further, US-CERT analyzes threats and vulnerabilities, disseminates cyber threat warning information, and coordinates with partners and customers to achieve shared situational awareness related to the Nation’s cyber infrastructure. US-CERT funds also support the development, acquisition, deployment, and personnel required to implement the National Cybersecurity Protection System (NCPS), operationally known as EINSTEIN. The EINSTEIN Program is an automated intrusion detection system for collecting, correlating, analyzing, and sharing computer security information across the federal government to improve our Nation’s situational awareness. EINSTEIN is an early warning system that monitors the network gateways of Federal Executive Branch civilian departments and agencies for malicious cyber activity. DHS is deploying EINSTEIN 1 and 2 systems in conjunction with the federal TIC initiative, which optimizes network security capabilities into a common solution for the Federal Executive Branch and facilitates the reduction and consolidation of external connections, including Internet points of presence, through approved access points. As of March 2012, EINSTEIN 3 is currently being staged for roll-out to federal agencies for those that have reached a high TIC compliance.
The National Cybersecurity Center (NCSC) is a component of US-CERT’s budget. The NCSC fulfills its presidential mandate as outlined in National Security Presidential Directive 54/Homeland Security Presidential Directive 23 in ensuring that federal agencies can access and receive information and intelligence needed to execute their respective 7 cybersecurity missions. The NCSC accomplishes this through the following six mission areas: Mission Integration, Collaboration and Coordination, Situational Awareness and Cyber Incident Response, Analysis and Reporting, Knowledge Management, and Technology Development and Management, each supported by developing NCSC programs and capabilities.
Strategic Initiatives enables NCSD to establish mechanisms for federal partners to deploy standardized tools and services at a reduced cost, paving the way for a collaborative environment that enables the sharing of best practices and common security challenges and shortfalls. In addition, Strategic Initiatives enables NPPD to develop and promulgate sound practices for software developers, IT security professionals, and other CIKR stakeholders; it also enables collaboration with the public and private sectors to assess and mitigate risk to the nation’s cyber CIKR.
Outreach and Programs promotes opportunities to leverage the cybersecurity investments of public and private industry partners. This PPA encourages cybersecurity awareness among the 8 general public and within key communities, maintains relationships with government cybersecurity professionals to share information about cybersecurity initiatives, and develops partnerships to promote collaboration on cybersecurity issues. Outreach and Programs enables governance and assistance in setting policy direction and establishes resource requirements for NCSD’s complex activities.
Early leadership turnover
NCSD has been plagued by leadership problems, having had multiple directors that resign after serving only short terms, or potential candidates for the position of director who refuse the position. As chair of the pre-existing Counter-terrorism Security Group, Richard Clarke was initially offered the position of director of the NCSD, but refused citing concerns that there would be too many bureaucratic layers between him and Homeland Security director Tom Ridge. Robert Liscouski ran the division initially while a permanent director was sought and continued on as Assistant Director until February 2005. Amit Yoran became director of NCSD in September 2003 and helped set up the division, but after only a year in the job, left abruptly in October 2004. One of the division's deputy directors, Andy Purdy, assumed the position of interim director within a week of Yoran's departure. In 2006 upon Andy Purdy's departure Jerry Dixon took on the role as acting director in December 2006 until officially appointed to the position as executive director in January 2007. Upon Dixon's departure in September 2007 Mcguire took on the role of acting director until March 2008 which the USSS assigned Cornelius Tate to be the current director of NCSD.
An audit of the division, conducted by DHS's inspector general Clark Kent Ervin, cast a negative view on the division's first year. Although the report praised the formation of the U.S. Computer Emergency Readiness Team (US-CERT) and the National Cyber Alert System, the division received criticism for failing to set priorities, develop strategic plans and provide effective leadership in cyber security issues.
References
External links
National Cybersecurity Division webpage
Cyberwarfare
United States
United States Department of Homeland Security
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felicity%20Smoak
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Felicity Smoak
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Felicity Smoak is a fictional character appearing in comics published by DC Comics. Her first appearance was in The Fury of Firestorm #23 (May 1984), created by writer Gerry Conway and artist Rafael Kayanan. She was originally the manager of a computer software firm who opposed the superhero Firestorm because of his recklessness, eventually becoming the second wife of Edward Raymond and stepmother to Ronnie Raymond, one-half of the integrated dual identity of the superhero.
A re-imagined Felicity Smoak, portrayed by Emily Bett Rickards, featured in the television series Arrow and its extended universe of shows, collectively known as the Arrowverse. An I.T. genius and graduate from MIT, Felicity works alongside vigilante Oliver Queen/Green Arrow to help protect Star City (formerly Starling City), later operating under the alias Overwatch. The pair also become romantically involved, and eventually marry with Felicity giving birth to their daughter Mia Smoak. This interpretation of the character was placed at number 15 in a list of 50 Favorite Female Characters, in a poll of Hollywood professionals conducted by The Hollywood Reporter in 2016.
A similar version of Felicity was introduced as the New 52 incarnation of the character in Green Arrow (vol. 5) #35.
Fictional character biography
The Fury of Firestorm
Portrayed as the supervisor of a New York computer software firm in her 1984 debut appearance, Felicity first meets Firestorm in the course of one of his battles with a villain, where he inadvertently magnetizes and effectively destroys several of the computers storing the software programs in development. This results in millions of dollars in property damage, which threatens to ruin the software firm and leads to a heated confrontation between Felicity and Firestorm where she threatened to organize a class action lawsuit against him. Felicity would make recurring appearance, often taking an adversarial role against Firestorm and making a point of explaining what the collateral damage of his battles cost her and other civilians. On one occasion, a frustrated Firestorm lashes out against Felicity's confrontational behavior by using his molecular transmutation powers to transform her clothes to soap suds, a tactic he previously used on the supervillain Plastique. Humiliated from being rendered nude in public, Felicity retaliates by filing a lawsuit against him.
At some point, Felicity develops a romantic relationship with Ed Raymond. She has no idea that Ed's son Ronnie is the other half of Firestorm. When Ronald discovers that Felicity is seeing his father, he is uncertain how to treat her due to their past interactions. Over time, Felicity and Ed fall deeply in love and are married. After the wedding Felicity learns the truth about Ronnie's secret dual identity, but by this point she had forgiven him for his past transgressions, although she would still insist on reminding him about the importance of using his superpowers in a responsible manner.
The New 52
DC Comics rebooted its comic properties in 2011 as part of a relaunch entitled The New 52, which led to the character of Felicity Smoak being brought back in a fashion similar to the version seen on Arrow. The New 52 version of Felicity Smoak is introduced in 2014 in Green Arrow #35, the first issue of that book to be written by Arrow showrunner Andrew Kreisberg. In #35, she is introduced in an end-of-issue cliffhanger as an assassin out to kill Oliver, but quickly explains that while she is a hacker-for-hire who has "done questionable things" in her past, "leading a hero to his death isn't one of them", explaining she did not know her target was the Green Arrow when she accepted the job. After proving her hacker credentials by explaining to him that she knows his secret identity, as well as highly specific details from his superhero, personal, professional and family lives, she offers to become a part of his team out of a desire to help him save the city. Surmising that whoever hired her to kill Oliver has extremely evil plans, she teams up with Green Arrow to track down her client's other target, a woman named Mia Dearden, who they soon discover is being pursued by the deadly archer Merlyn.
Later in the same storyline, Felicity is arrested and placed in a Supermax facility for her many cybercrimes, where she shares a cell with Cheetah; it is established that Felicity had once been hired to dox Cheetah, putting the villain and her loved ones in added danger. Oliver saves her from Cheetah with some help from Steve Trevor of A.R.G.U.S. Ultimately, Oliver saves Mia from the man pursuing her and her father John King. Oliver also exposes him as a murderer who used bribery and corruption to control Seattle. Felicity is then invited by Trevor to join A.R.G.U.S., but appears to reject his offer in favor of working with Oliver.
Alternate versions
DC Bombshells
In an alternate history version of World War II depicted in DC Comics Bombshells, a young Felicity and her family were evicted from their house in Gotham City by their landlord because they violated the law by taking care of some relatives, who have fled the horrors of Europe. The landlord tries to take some of their personal belongings, justifying as taking back rent. Felicity argues with him, saying she won't turn her back to her own family. Fortunately, a team of Batgirls come to the rescue, saving the Smoak family and all their belongings. Felicity and her family are later moved to a safe house by the young heroines. Smoak eventually joins the Batgirls and dons a costume herself.
Felicity also appears in the continuation series Bombshells:United set in the United States in 1943. Now thirteen years old, she travels with fellow Batgirl Alysia Yeoh to Hawaii, where the pair discover Black Canary. Felicity uses her technical skills and knowledge to help trace the source of mysterious radio signals that are acting as a means of mind control. In order to fully analyze the source of the signal, Felicity locks herself in the radio tower, exposing her to the mind control. She is able to write the location down and show it to the waiting Frankie Charles before succumbing to its effects. Felicity and the other victims of the mind control signal are freed by Black Canary and Bumblebee following the defeat of Granny Goodness.
In other media
Arrowverse
Live-action
A reimagined Felicity Smoak appears in the television series Arrow, itself a reimagining of the Green Arrow mythos, portrayed by Emily Bett Rickards. The character is introduced as an I.T. genius, being a skilled hacker and computer expert, with a degree from M.I.T. She joins Oliver Queen on his vigilante mission, and later founds her own company "Smoak Technologies". Oliver and Felicity begin a romantic relationship which eventually leads to their marriage and the birth of their daughter Mia Smoak. The character was originally introduced in the third episode of season one, "Lone Gunmen", as a one-off character. Due to the positive reaction both from Stephen Amell and from Warner Brothers producer Peter Roth, the character was made recurring in season one and from season two onwards, became part of the main cast. The character also makes appearances in Arrow spin-offs The Flash, Legends of Tomorrow and Vixen as well as appearings in a season three episode of the Earth-38 set series Supergirl, during the Arrowverse crossover event "Crisis on Earth-X". Rickards left Arrow at the end of its seventh season but returned as a guest star for the series finale, "Fadeout" which aired in January 2020.
Print media
Felicity features in the digital tie-in comics to the Arrowverse series, Arrow Season 2.5, Flash Season Zero and in "Smoak Signals" parts 1 and 2. She is one of the four protagonists of the two tie-in comics produced to accompany the Arrowverse crossover event Crisis on Infinite Earths, released in December 2019 and January 2020 respectively. She is also one of the protagonists in the Arrowverse tie-in novels, Arrow: Vengeance, written by Oscar Balderrama and Lauren Certo, The Flash: The Haunting of Barry Allen written by Susan and Clay Griffith, and its sequel Arrow: A Generation of Vipers as well as Arrow: Fatal Legacies, co-authored by Marc Guggenheim and James R. Tuck.
Web series
Felicity (again portrayed by Rickards) features in the promotional tie-in web series for Arrow, entitled Blood Rush. Rickards also provided the voice for the character on seasons one and two of the Arrowverse web-series Vixen, which debuted in 2015 and 2016 respectively, on CW Seed.
Video games
The character appears in Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham as part of the Arrow DLC pack.
In the 2017 game Injustice 2, Felicity is referenced in an easter egg. When facing each other in combat, if the Flash manages to take out the first bar of Green Arrow's health, he states; "That's for breaking Felicity's heart".
References
Comics characters introduced in 1984
Characters created by Gerry Conway
Green Arrow characters
Fictional characters from Las Vegas
Fictional activists
Fictional American Jews
Fictional information brokers
Fictional hackers
Fictional managers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Putra%20Malaysia
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University of Putra Malaysia
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The University of Putra Malaysia (Malay: Universiti Putra Malaysia), abbreviated as UPM, is a Malaysian research university which focuses on agricultural sciences but since the year 1997, expanded to wide range of scientific research and education including medicine, engineering, computer science, biotechnology and so on. Moreover, Universiti Putra Malaysia is offering courses in veterinary medicine. Although, it was founded as a university on 29 October 1971, Universiti Putra Malaysia could trace back it's history all the way from the year 1931 when it was just a small agricultural school. Currently, UPM has a main campus in Serdang, Selangor which is south of Kuala Lumpur and a branch campus in Bintulu, Sarawak.
The university offers a wide range of undergraduate and postgraduate programmes in the fields of agriculture, engineering, medicine, veterinary medicine, business, languages and social sciences. It was ranked as the 143rd best university in the world in 2021 by Quacquarelli Symonds and it was ranked 27th among Asian universities and the 2nd best university in Malaysia. In the Integrated Rating of Malaysian Institutions of Higher Education (SETARA), UPM maintain its six stars rating, which is "Highly Competitive".
History
Early Years 1930s-1970s (School of Agriculture and College of Agriculture Malaya)
On 21 May 1931, UPM was established as School of Agriculture, it is located on Serdang with 22 acre (9 hectares) land. The only two programmes offered were three-year diploma programme and one-year certificate course in agriculture. On 23 June 1947, the school was upgraded as College of Agriculture Malaya by Sir Edward Gent, the then Governor of Malayan Union.
University Status Establishment Years 1970s (University Of Agriculture Malaysia)
On 29 October 1971, Universiti Pertanian Malaysia (Agricultural University of Malaysia) is officially established through the merger of College of Agriculture Malaya and the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Malaya. UPM began with three faculties which are in the field of agriculture, forestry and veterinary medicine. On 23 July 1973, UPM had its first academic session with intake of 1,559 students. On 30 July 1977, UPM held the first convocation ceremony, it is also the ceremony that declaring the appointment of UPM's first Chancellor, Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah.
Towards Modern Science and Technological Advancement 1990s - Present (Universiti Putra Malaysia)
On 3 April 1997, UPM has changed the name to Universiti Putra Malaysia, declared by Dr. Mahathir Mohamad, the then Prime Minister of Malaysia. The reason of changing name is to indicate UPM has diversified the fields of study especially in Science and Technology. The word "Putra" is taken from Tunku Abdul Rahman Putra Al-Haj, the first Prime Minister of Malaysia. One of the reasons the word "Putra" was chosen is because the location of UPM near to Putrajaya. As the name has been changed, UPM changed the logo as well.
In 2006, UPM is recognised as a Research University in Malaysia. The autonomy university status was given by Ministry of Higher Education in 2012.
Chancellors
Vice Chancellors
The list of the Vice Chancellors of Universiti Putra Malaysia.
Campuses
The university since its inception as Universiti Pertanian Malaysia, has had two branch campuses apart from the main campus at Serdang, Selangor. The UPM branch campuses were in Bintulu, Sarawak and Mengabang Telipot, Terengganu.
The background of Bintulu campus can be traced back to 10 August 1974, it was a temporary campus under the National Resources Training Centre in Semenggok, Kuching and relocated to Bintulu in June 1987. On 27 August 1987, Universiti Pertanian Malaysia Sarawak was officially established as a branch campus and offered three diploma programmes. The Bintulu campus was once closed down in 1994 and converted into a temporary site for a teacher’s training college. On 5 November 2001, it become UPM's branch campus again until now.
The branch campus in Terengganu began as UPM's Centre for Fisheries and Marine Science. When the Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science transferred to there, the centre transformed into a branch campus in June 1996, named Universiti Pertanian Malaysia Terengganu.
With the approval from Cabinet of Malaysia, Terengganu University College (KUT) was established on 5 May 1999 as an associate campus of UPM. However, it was given autonomy on 1 May 2001 and renamed as Malaysian Science and Technology University College (KUSTEM) on 20 June 2001. On 1 February 2007, KUSTEM was upgraded into a full-fledged university and renamed again as Universiti Malaysia Terengganu.
Academic profile
UPM began its academic life in 1973 with three founding Faculties and a Division of Basic Sciences. The first intake of 1,559 students were for the bachelor's degree in Agricultural Science, Forestry Science, Doctor of Veterinary Medicine, Diploma in Home Technology, Diploma in Animal Health and Production, Diploma in Science with Education, and Preliminary Programme. As of 2021, UPM has 15 faculties, eleven institutes, two schools, offers 8 diploma programmes, 80 bachelor programmes, 66 Masters programmes by coursework and more than 300 fields of study in Master and Doctoral programmes by research. The Doctor of Medicine program provided by the Medical and Health Science division of the university was fully recognised by the Malaysia Medical Council on 5 June 2001.
Faculties and Schools
As of 2020, UPM has 13 faculties and two schools at Serdang campus, and two faculties at Bintulu campus. In Serdang campus, most of the faculties are located on academic zone (northern part of UPM), except Faculty of Agriculture on the southeast, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences on the south.
In Bintulu campus, there is only one faculty before the restructuring, which is Faculty of Agriculture and Food Sciences, consists of five departments. Starting from 1 July 2020, the only faculty is split into two different faculties and the campus is offering more diploma and bachelor programmes than before.
The diagram below shows the formation and development of faculties in Serdang campus. Solid lines denote succession of an institution, either rename or upgrade; dashed lines denote detachment of a department from its original faculty whereas dotted lines denote inclusion to another faculty.
Faculty of Agriculture
The Faculty of Agriculture (Malay: Fakulti Pertanian, abbreviation: FP) is one of the three founding faculties as the establishment of UPM in 1971. The faculty of agriculture was originally a faculty of Universiti Malaya, it then merge with the College of Agriculture and formed Universiti Pertanian Malaysia in 1971. The first dean of the faculty is Prof. Dr. Mohd Zain bin Karim. In Julai 1973, together with another two founding faculties, which are Faculty of Forestry and Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Husbandry Sciences, and the Division of Basic Sciences, UPM began its first academic session with intake of 1,559 students.
As of 2021, the faculty comprises seven departments:
Department of Aquaculture
Department of Agribusiness and Bioresource Economics
Department of Animal Science
Department of Crop Science
Department of Plant Protection
Department of Land Management
Department of Agricultural Technology
Agrobio Complex
With the expansion of faculty, more buildings were built in UPM to suit the need of faculty including a multi-purpose hall (Dewan Pertanian). In 2000s, the faculty was separated into Complex 1 where four departments were situated and Complex 2 which houses the administrative office and three departments, both complexes are 3 kilometres apart.
In the 9th Malaysia Plan, fund was allocated to build a new complex on a pasture land beside Equine Unit UPM. The construction began in 2009 and completed in early 2011, named as Agrobio Complex. The complex consisting of five blocks for the departments, a gallery which houses two lecture theaters, nine lecture rooms, canteen, surau and a multipurpose hall. From 25 July 2011, the staff moved to new complex gradually whereas the administrative office moved into the gallery building in December 2011.
Faculty of Forestry and Environment
Faculty of Forestry and Environment (Malay: Fakulti Perhutanan dan Alam Sekitar, abbreviation: FHAS) is one of the three founding faculties as the establishment of UPM in 1971. Prof. Dr. Abdul Manap bin Ahmad is the first dean who led the faculty from 1972 until 1982.
In August 1976, the Department of Environmental Sciences was formed under the Faculty of Science and Environmental Studies. The department then separated from its faculty (which renamed again as Faculty of Science) on 1 September 2004 and became an independent faculty, namely Faculty of Environmental Studies.
The Faculty of Forestry and Environment was established on 1 March 2020 as a result of the transformation of governance between the faculties. The faculty works closely with other faculties in UPM as well as other forestry related or environmental agencies and institutions.
As of 2021, the faculty comprises four departments and one section:
Department of Forestry Science and Biodiversity
Department of Natural Resource Industry
Department of Natural Parks and Recreation
Department of Environment
Natural Resources Section
Sultan Idris Shah Forestry Education Centre
Sultan Idris Shah Forestry Education Centre (Malay: Pusat Pendidikan Perhutanan Sultan Idris Shah, abbreviation: SISFEC) was inaugurated on 21 March 2012 by the Chancellor of UPM, Sultan Sharafuddin Idris Shah, located at Ayer Hitam Forest Reserve, approximately 20 kilometres from the campus. The construction began in October 2009 and completed in September 2011. SISFEC consists of four blocks which include administrative offices, lecture halls and laboratories for the purposes of teaching, training and researching. It is administrative by Natural Resources Section, all activities held at SISFEC are planning by the section too.
Ayer Hitam Forest Reserve is a permanent forest reserve in Puchong which was awarded to UPM through a long-term agreement with the Selangor state government. UPM is granted a permission to manage and conduct activities related to education, research and forestry development for 99 years (1996 until 2095).
In 1906, the total gazetted area of the forest reserve was originally covered 4,270.7 hectares. However, due to urban development and industrialisation in Klang Valley, the forest's area has dropped to 1,176.1 hectares.
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine (Malay: Fakulti Perubatan Veterinar, abbreviation: FPV) is one of the three founding faculties as the establishment of UPM in 1973. The faculty was formerly known as Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Husbandry Sciences. The first dean of faculty is Prof. Emeritus Dr. Omar Abdul Rahman who led the faculty from 1972 until 1978.
The formation of the faculty began in the 1960s, a number of students were selected for veterinary studies (with scholarships) in foreign countries. The Department of Veterinary Services perceived the need for veterinary education in Malaya, and submitted a memorandum to the Higher Education Planning Committee.
In 1968, the first annual conference of the Association of Veterinary Surgeons Malaysia-Singapore was held. Sir William Weipers, a faculty from Veterinary School of Glasgow University has been invited by the Department of Veterinary Services and the Association of Veterinary Surgeons Malaysia-Singapore to present a paper on veterinary education: A study of the needs of Malaysia and Singapore. Since the issue was again discussed publicly, the Prime Minister of the time, Tunku Abdul Rahman has promised to probe the need of the establishment of the veterinary faculty if the proposal is submitted.
The proposal has been made and recommended the establishment of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine at the University of Malaya, it has been submitted to the Higher Education Planning Committee but no action was taken.
However, the first faculty of veterinary education in Malaysia, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Husbandry Sciences is successfully founded in October 1971, and establishing UPM with the another two faculties.
As of 2021, the faculty comprises six departments:
Department of Veterinary Preclinical Sciences
Department of Veterinary Pathology and Microbiology
Department of Veterinary Clinical Studies
Department of Veterinary Laboratory Diagnosis
Department of Companion Animal Medicine and Surgery
Department of Farm and Exotic Animal Medicine and Surgery
University Veterinary Hospital
University Veterinary Hospital (Malay: Hospital Veterinar Universiti, abbreviation: UVH) is a veterinary hospital which was established by the faculty in 1975, it is the first public university veterinary hospital. UVH began as a pet clinics and large animal ambulatory clinics as well as laboratory services, and developed into well-equipped hospital, offering diagnostic, treatment, surgical and care services for various animal species. As a teaching hospital, UVH equipped with diagnostic and laboratory equipment which are designed for training the students, the cases referred to UVH are also sources of teaching material.
School of Business and Economics
School of Business and Economics (Malay: Sekolah Perniagaan dan Ekonomi, abbreviation: SPE), was established in January 1974 as Faculty of Resource Economics and Agribusiness, it is the fourth faculty in UPM after the three founding faculties. On 11 February 2020, the 140th meeting of board of directors of UPM has approved the restructure of the faculty and renamed as School of Business and Economics starting from 1 Mac 2020. Before the restructuring in 2020, the faculty had been renamed and known as Faculty of Economics and Management for many years.
Besides the Master and PhD programmes, SPE offering also 3 undergraduate programmes which are Bachelor of Economics, Bachelor of Accounting and Bachelor of Business Administration.
SPE has been accredited by AACSB for business programme. It is an accreditation that recognised an institution is providing quality education to students.
Faculty of Engineering
Faculty of Engineering (Malay: Fakulti Kejuruteraan, abbreviation: FK) was established in 1975 as Faculty of Agricultural Engineering which comprised only four departments, the first dean of faculty is Ir. Abdul Rahman Yaacob.
Starting from 2001, the faculty has moved to the new engineering complex, which is located on northeast of UPM, close to the Faculty of Design and Architecture. The students from both faculties are live at the 10th College of UPM (including the past 11th college).
As of 2021, the faculty comprises eight departments:
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering
Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering
Department of Computer and Communication Systems Engineering
Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering
Department of Process and Food Engineering
Faculty of Educational Studies
Faculty of Educational Studies (Malay: Fakulti Pengajian Pendidikan, abbreviation: FPP) was established on 15 January 1975 as the Faculty of Educational Services. The faculty originally offered courses to students who pursuing the Diploma in Science with Education and the Bachelor of Science with Education, both programmes were offered by the Faculty of Science before FPP is founded. The faculty also offered elective and general courses which were taken by students from various faculties in UPM at that time. Currently the faculty offers bachelor of education in languages, counselling, physical, agricultural science and home science. Besides the Bachelor of Education degree, the faculty also offers Bachelor of Science in Human Resource Development, Bachelor of Counselling, and a diploma programme.
In the early years of establishment, FPP consisted three departments. A structural reorganisation in 1989 has detached the Department of Social Science and merged with Department of Human Development Studies from Faculty of Agriculture, formed Faculty of Human Ecology. In 1995, the Department of Language was upgraded to the Faculty of Modern Language Studies. At that time, the Department of Education is the only department under FPP.
The inclusion of Department of Extension Education into FPP occurred in 1996 and it has renamed as Department of Professional Development and Continuing Education in 1997. FPP once again underwent a structural reorganisation in 2002, the Department of Education was reorganised into four new departments. One of a department, the Department of Human Movement and Behavioural Studies were split into two departments in 2004.
As of 2021, the faculty comprises six departments:
Department of Professional Development and Continuing Education
Department of Counsellor Education and Counselling Psychology
Department of Language and Humanities Education
Department of Sports Studies
Department of Science and Technical Education
Department of Foundations of Education
Faculty of Science
Faculty of Science (Malay: Fakulti Sains, abbreviation: FS) was established as the Division of Basic Sciences in 1972. Its objective was to offer basic science courses required by students from other faculties. In 1975, the division's status was upgraded to be a faculty and named as Faculty of Science and Environmental Studies. The first dean of faculty, Prof. Dato’ Dr. Ariffin Suhaimi served as dean until 1982.
The faculty has gone through several restructuring processes, the then Department of Environmental Sciences and Department of Computer Sciences were upgraded into two new faculties. In 2004, The Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology merged with the Department of Biotechnology from Faculty of Food Science and Biotechnology, formed a new faculty known as Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences. Ever since the restructuring, it was renamed again as Faculty of Science.
As a faculty that achieved five star rating in the Ministry of Higher Education’s Malaysia Research Assessment Instrument (MyRA), currently the faculty has three RCoE and eleven nanotechnology research labs.
As of 2021, the faculty comprises four departments:
Department of Biology
Department of Physics
Department of Chemistry
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
Faculty of Food Science and Technology
Faculty of Food Science and Technology (Malay: Fakulti Sains dan Teknologi Makanan, abbreviation: FSTM) was established in 1976 as a department under Faculty of Agriculture, namely Department of Food Science and Technology. On 1 March 1982, it was detached from its faculty and upgraded into Faculty of Food Science and Technology that consisting of two departments, which are Department of Food Science and Department of Food Technology. With the establishment of the Department of Biotechnology, the faculty was renamed to Faculty of Food Science and Biotechnology in 1986. However, the faculty renamed to its former name because the Department of Biotechnology was detached and merge with another department to form Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences on 1 August 2004.
The Department of Food Service and Management was founded on 16 January 2005 and offer the food service and food management courses. In 2005, the Food Service Complex (also known as Food 6) was built to accommodate the teaching and learning process. Besides the practical operation and research activity at Food 6, it also performs commercialization activities through L’apprenti Café, L’apprenti Dèli and L’apprenti@Putra Restaurant.
As of 2021, the faculty comprises three departments:
Department of Food Science
Department of Food Technology
Department of Food Service and Management
Faculty of Human Ecology
Faculty of Human Ecology (Malay: Fakulti Ekologi Manusia, abbreviation: FEM) was established on 1 April 1992 through the merger of the Department of Human Development Studies from the Faculty of Agriculture with the Department of Social Sciences from the Faculty of Educational Studies. The faculty is located at the historical building of UPM where the building was the administrative office before the formation of Universiti Pertanian Malaysia, it also become the office of Vice-Chancellor in the early years of UPM era. The historical and iconic building is built in 1931, it had been extended to accommodate the needs of faculty.
As of 2021, the faculty comprises five departments:
Department of Human Development and Family Studies
Department of Social and Developmental Sciences
Department of Resource Management and Consumer Studies
Department of Music
Department of Nationhood and Civilization Studies
Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication
Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication (Malay: Fakulti Bahasa Moden dan Komunikasi, abbreviation: FBMK) has a history started from the college era. The College of Agriculture Malaya founded Division of National Language and Division of English Language when the enactment of Language Act, 1967 took effect. In 1971, both divisions were combined to form one division, namely Division of Language which encompassed the National and English Languages. The division was upgraded to status of department in 1972 and placed under Faculty of Agriculture.
On 15 January 1975, the Department of Language was transferred to the Faculty of Educational Studies (FPP) until 4 January 1995, the department itself was detached from FPP and upgraded to the Faculty of Modern Language Studies. On 1 January 1999, the Department of Development Comminication detached from Faculty of Human Ecology and merged with this faculty. Due to the inclusion of the department, department renamed as Department of Communication while the Faculty of Modern Language Studies renamed to the current name, Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication.
As of 2021, the faculty comprises four departments:
Department of Malay Language
Department of English
Department of Foreign Languages
Department of Communication
Faculty of Design and Architecture
Faculty of Design and Architecture (Malay: Fakulti Rekabentuk dan Senibina, abbreviation: FRSB) was founded on 26 June 1996 and began with the Department of Landscape Architecture, offering Bachelor of Landscape Architecture and Master of Landscape Architecture programmes. The Department of Architecture and Department of Industrial Design were established in 1999 and 2002 respectively.
The idea to establish such a faculty began with a proposal paper entitled "Proposed Establishment of the Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture.", which was submitted to the Faculty Agriculture in 1976. However, the faculty didn't take further action. In 1991, the Faculty of Engineering of UPM proposed to offer the Architecture programme. A committee was formed in the Faculty of Agriculture in 1994 to survey the feasibility of offering both landscape architecture and architecture in UPM. In 1995, a report was sent to the Vice Chancellor, proposing to set up a faculty offering courses in design and the creative arts. With the approval from UPM's Senate, Board of Directors and Ministry of Education, a new faculty named Faculty of Design and Architecture was established in 1996.
As of 2021, the faculty comprises three departments:
Department of Landscape Architecture
Department of Architecture
Department of Industrial Design
Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences
Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences (Malay: Fakulti Perubatan dan Sains Kesihatan, abbreviation: FPSK) was established on 1 August 1996 through the merger of the Department of Biomedical Sciences from Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Husbandry Sciences and the Department of Nutrition and Community Health from Faculty of Human Ecology, the faculty began with these two departments and a newly created department, the Department of Medical Sciences. On 18 June 2006, the faculty moved to a new complex on UPM's southern part, adjacent to the newly built Serdang Hospital and the Seventeen College, a residential college of UPM. As of 2021, the faculty comprises 18 departments in various field including medicine, nursing, psychiatry, nutrition and occupational health. Besides Serdang Hospital, the Universiti Putra Malaysia Teaching Hospital (HPUPM) also serves as a teaching hospital for students from FPSK.
Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology
Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology (Malay: Fakulti Sains Komputer dan Teknologi Maklumat, abbreviation: FSKTM) was established on 1 October 1998. It was originally the Department of Computer Science under the Faculty of Science and Environmental Studies from 1992 to 1998. When it was detached and upgraded as a faculty, other departments were formed as well and developing until today.
As of 2021, the faculty comprises four departments:
Department of Computer Science
Department of Multimedia
Department of Software Engineering and Information System
Department of Communication Technology and Network
Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences
Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences (Malay: Fakulti Bioteknologi dan Sains Biomolekul, abbreviation: FBSB) was established on 1 August 2004 when two departments detached and merged to become a faculty. The two involved departments are the Department of Biotechnology from Faculty of Food Science and Biotechnology and the Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology from Faculty of Science and Environmental Studies. Since the inception of FBSB, all activities related to biotechnology at UPM are coordinated under one administration.
As of 2021, the faculty comprises four departments:
Department of Biochemistry
Department of Microbiology
Department of Bioprocess Technology
Department of Cell and Molecular Biology
Faculty of Agricultural Science and Forestry
Faculty of Agricultural Science and Forestry (Malay: Fakulti Sains Pertanian dan Perhutanan, abbreviation: FSPH) was established on 1 July 2020, as a result of restructuring in UPMKB. Before the restructuring, the only faculty at Bintulu campus is the Faculty of Agriculture and Food Sciences (FSPM) that consists of five departments, three are inherited by FSPH; another two has been reorganised and placed under FKPS.
As of 2021, the faculty comprises three departments:
Department of Crop Science
Department of Forestry Science
Department of Animal Science and Fishery
Faculty of Humanities, Management and Science
Faculty of Humanities, Management and Science (Malay: Fakulti Kemanusiaan, Pengurusan dan Sains, abbreviation: FKPS) was established on 1 July 2020. The restructuring of UPMKB began in 2018, five main thrusts have been identified, which are agriculture, forestry, industrial chemistry, renewable energy and ethnic study. The five main thrusts help Bintulu campus positioning itself and restructure the FSPM to become two faculties.
As of 2021, the faculty comprises two departments:
Department of Science and Technology
Department of Social Science and Management
School of Graduate Studies
School of Graduate Studies (Malay: Sekolah Pengajian Siswazah, abbreviation: SGS or SPS) is a service and administrative centre which had a status that equivalent as other UPM's faculty, its role is to assist postgraduate students in the processes involved from their registration at UPM up to their completion of studies. Not only connecting the relationship between UPM and graduates, SGS also strengthening UPM's status as a research university. SGS is founded in 1978, named as Graduate Study Unit and later become Graduate School Office in February 1993. In March 2002, it was finally renamed as School of Graduate Studies.
Institutes
Institute of Bioscience
The Institute of Bioscience (IBS), Universiti Putra Malaysia was established on 1 August 1996 and was the first research institute founded in UPM. IBS was established to boost research and development (R&D) and postgraduate training in fields of biological sciences. The emphasis on research was given to strengthen the scientific and technological capabilities of the country as well as to develop relevant human capital to support the Industrial and Agricultural Master Plan.
Over the past 17 years, the Institute of Bioscience has rearranged and developed the existing units into five laboratories. Each laboratory has two main functions, i.e., doing research and providing the Service and Facility Unit. The five laboratories are
Laboratory of Natural Products
Laboratory of Vaccines and Immunotherapeutics
Laboratory of Molecular Biomedicine
Laboratory of Biotechnology Marine
Laboratory of Cancer Research UPM-MAKNA
Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology
Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (abbreviation: ION2) was established on 1 November 1999 as Institute of Advanced Technology to lead research and development on areas of physical sciences, information technology and engineering. On 1 November 2021, the institute has been rebranded to ION2 that focus the niche area on Nanoscale "Green Synthesis" and applications. In line with the rebranding, the laboratories are:
Nanomaterials Synthesis and Characterization Laboratory (NSCL)
Nanomaterials Processing and Technology Laboratory (NPTL)
Functional Nanotechnology Devices Laboratory (FNDL)
Institute for Mathematical Research
The Institute for Mathematical Research (abbreviation: INSPEM) is a research institute specialising in research in mathematics and other areas whose major components are areas in mathematics.
The institute was established to fill the need for such a research centre in the country. It began operating on 1 April 2002 after its establishment was approved by the Division of Higher Education in November 2001. The institute is under the administration of UPM and is subjected to the regulations and stipulated in the statute on the establishment of institutes in UPM.
The main activities of INSPEM include planning, identifying and implementing research in Theoretical Studies, Applied and Computational Statistics, areas of Computational Sciences and Informatics and Innovational Methods in Education. The institute also serves as two-way channel between it and the public and private agencies through which research products can be channelled and problem requiring mathematical treatment can be received and examined at the institute.
At the same time it provides opportunities for collaborative research with agencies from inside and outside UPM. It is also a primary function of INSPEM to invite potential young researchers to carry out research that leads to postgraduate degrees.
Four research laboratories have been formed, each led by a head of laboratory:
Laboratory of Theoretical Mathematics
Laboratory of Statistics and Applied Mathematics
Laboratory of Mathematical Sciences and Applications
Laboratory of Education and Mathematics Literacy
Halal Products Research Institute
This establishment has submitted proposals to the management of the University in 2003 and was approved at the Management Committee Meeting University 110th on 26 and 31 March 2003. However, the establishment of this institute can not be implemented because of financial problems the university at the time. Therefore, Faculty of Food Science and Technology has taken the initiative to establish the Halal Food Unit in June 2003.
In August 2004, the Halal Food Unit in collaboration with Yayasan Dakwah Islamiah Malaysia (YADIM) has organised a "Workshop on Global Halal Hub Development Malaysia" in conjunction with the 1st Malaysian International Halal Showcase (Mihas) 2004. Resolution of the workshop titled "Proposed Development of Halal Food Hub Global Malaysia" was presented to the Honorable Prime Minister of Malaysia by Y.Bhg. Vice-Chancellor of the university in the opening MIHAS 2004 on 16 August 2004. Following this development, the Ministry of Higher Education has approved and agreed that UPM lead the national agricultural education center on 30 August 2004. To support this initiative, UPM has proposed the establishment of Halal Food Institute and has received approval from the Ministry of Higher Education on 1 June 2005. this initiative was implemented to help Malaysia to realise the aspiration to emerge as a global hub for halal food.
Following the change in administration policy UPM, several workshops were held to address the future direction related issues RMK9 and strengthen the position of UPM as a research university.
Thus, on 1 July 2006, after UPM implement changes Basically, the name Halal Food Institute (IMH) was converted to Halal Products Research Institute (IPPH). This amendment is to broaden the scope of research IPPH beyond the scope of food and put some new research scope of consumables Muslims and Islamic business.
Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products
The Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP) was established on 1 October 2006 by merging the Institute of Biocomposite and the Rain Forest Academy. It was a very timely merger and it consolidated UPM's expertise and resources to provide solutions to current issues such as the dwindling supply of natural resources and the optimisation of bioresources.
INTROP's activities focus on forest canopy management, bioresources valuation and sustainability, sustainable utilisation of biocomposite products, product development and innovation and also market exploration and competitiveness.
Malaysian Research Institute on Ageing
Malaysian Research Institute on Ageing (abbreviation: MyAgeing™) was founded on 1 April 2002 as Institute of Gerontology, and then rebranded in 2015. The fields of study are including social gerontology, medical gerontology and gerontechnology.
Institute of Plantation Studies
Institute of Plantation Studies (abbreviation: IKP) is an institute that focus on assisting the Malaysian plantation sector. The research activities and professional services will be enhanced while strengthening the collaboration with the government and private agencies in the plantation sector.
Institute for Social Science Studies
Institute for Social Science Studies (IPSAS) was established as a center of excellence for research and development (R & D) in the field of social sciences. It examines and analyses current social questions and provides answers and solutions. Along with this focus study focuses on youth development issues of the country.
The journey from its early formation as an Institute Community and Peace Studies (PEKKA) in 2001 to its current name of Institute for Social Science Studies. A transition of change in the research focus towards Youth Development and efforts into making the institute as a regional centre of reference in this field.
Institute of Tropical Agriculture and Food Security
The Institute of Tropical Agriculture (ITA) was established on 1 January 2007 through merging of various institutes including the Institute of Plantation Studies. The establishment of this institute was the outcome of the restructuring and rationalisation process of institutes, academy, and centres in Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM). This rationalisation process was implemented as a proactive and integrated effort taken to strengthen UPM status as a Research University (RU) and to become the center of excellence in agriculture education in Malaysia.
The University has identified six new research clusters: Agriculture, Food, Forestry and Environment, Health, Social Science and Science, and Engineering and Technology to enhance research activities in UPM. In addition, UPM has identified eight specific research thrusts for each cluster, in line with the government's emphasis on the country's agriculture development agenda.
In 2005, Institut Kajian Dasar Pertanian dan Makanan (IKDPM), or Agricultural and Food Policy Studies Institute (AFPSI) was established in response to the increased government emphasis on agriculture in the Malaysian economy.
ITA has been rebranded as the Institute of Tropical Agriculture and Food Security (abbreviation: ITAFoS) in 2016. In 2020, it has merged with the IKDPM.
International Institute of Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences
The International Institute of Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences (abbreviation: I-AQUAS) was originally established as Centre of Mariculture Studies in 1991 under Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science, and operate in 1993. It had renamed to Marine Science Centre in 1996, and then upgraded into an international institute in 2017, named as I-AQUAS.
Institute of Ecosystem Science Borneo
This is the only research institute in the Bintulu campus.
Putra Business School
Putra Business School (abbreviation: PBS) is an autonomous business school in UPM. It is founded in 1997 as Graduate School of Management (GSM). On 6 July 2011, the UPM's Board of Directors decided to reorganise the GSM in response to a Cabinet Memorandum in 2007. Thus, the Yayasan Putra Business School (YPBS) was formed on 23 August 2011 to manage the reorganised institution.
On 12 October 2012, Putra Business School was established officially as a private business school with full-fledged university status. UPM and YPBS has signed a Memorandum of Agreement on 31 December 2012, wherein UPM grants YPBS the licence to offer and conduct academic programmes by the standard of UPM and to use UPM's facilities.
PBS offers business and management related postgraduate programmes, all programmes are accredited by the Malaysian Qualifications Agency (MQA). Besides local accreditation, PBS also receive accreditation by AACSB and ABEST21. Currently PBS is located at the Deputy Vice Chancellor (Research and Innovation)'s office building (nicknamed "White House UPM").
Campus life
Residential Colleges
The accommodation units in UPM are called as "college", however, the colleges are not related with education, they are built to provide accommodation for students, known as "residential college" or kolej kediaman. Before the UPM's Governance Transformation Plan, there are 17 residential colleges in Serdang campus and one in Bintulu campus. The residential colleges in Serdang campus can be divided into four zone, which are lembah, pinggiran, bukit and serumpun.
The Mohamad Rashid College (KMR) is the first residential college in UPM, originally named as First Residence College. In May 1995, the college was renamed again, named after Mohd Rashid Ahmad (also known as Cikgu Rashid or Pak Rashid), the founder and pioneer of the establishment of Universiti Pertanian Malaysia. The restructure in 2019 has moved KMR to the Block P1 and P2 in zon serumpun, adjacent to K13. The KMR's original site is transformed into KMR OnePUTRA Residence that managed by UPM Holdings.
There are three residential colleges providing accommodation specialised for students who join uniformed unit (but still available for ordinary students). The Sultan Alaeddin Suleiman Shah College (KOSASS) accommodates Reserved Officer Training Unit (ROTU); the Pendeta Za'ba College (KPZ) accommodates Student Police Volunteer Corps (SUKSIS); the Chancellor College (KC) accommodates Civil Defense Student Corps (SISPA). Students who join the uniformed unit will live at the particular colleges, except students from K10, K11 and K17 will stay at their original college.
The Tenth College (K10) and Eleventh College (K11) are both adjacent to the Engineering Complex of UPM, accommodate the students from Faculty of Engineering and Faculty of Design and Architecture. Another college at zon pinggiran is Seventeenth College (K17), it specialised accommodates the students from Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Faculty of Medicine and Health Science.
The Twelfth College (K12), Fourteenth College (K14), Fifteenth College (K15) and Sixteenth College (K16) are located at zon serumpun and known as "Serumpun Colleges". They are built by PJS Development, a private construction company through the form of BOT. The BOT agreement stated that PJS Development are responsible to monitoring security and maintaining the colleges for 25 years.
The Sri Rajang College (KSR) is the only residential college in Bintulu campus, consists of 10 blocks that could accommodate up to 1,770 students.
The Governance Transformation Plan in 2019 has restructured the residential colleges in Serdang campus. Most of them has been merged with another college to save costs and improve administrative efficiency.
The table below shows the situation of 18 residential colleges before and after 15 June 2019, which is the date that colleges merged officially.
Main hall
The Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah Cultural and Arts Centre (Malay: Pusat Kebudayaan dan Kesenian Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah, abbreviation: PKKSSAAS) is the main hall in Serdang campus. It was completed in 1978 and known as the Great Hall of UPM (Dewan Besar UPM) before change the name. On 25 April 1996, the hall was inaugurated by Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah, the eighth Sultan of Selangor. Since then, UPM renamed the Great Hall to its current name. PKKSSAAS is the place held the orientation, convocation, and even the examination.
The Experimental Theatre (Panggung Percubaan) is part of PKKSSAAS. It is a place for workshops on culture and arts, suitable for theatre performances and debate competition. It could also be used as a platform for the trial of performances.
Libraries
UPM has one main library and three branch libraries in Serdang campus, and one library in Bintulu campus.
The Sultan Abdul Samad Library (Malay: Perpustakaan Sultan Abdul Samad, abbreviation: PSAS) is the main library of UPM. It is actually exists before the establishment of UPM in 1971. The library is renamed as Sultan Abdul Samad Library and inaugurated on 23 May 2002, named after Sultan Abdul Samad, the fourth Sultan of Selangor. PSAS consists of block A and B (completed in 1982 and 1969 respectively), with total floor area of 19,007 square metres.
Another three branch libraries in Serdang are Medicine and Health Sciences Library (1998), Veterinary Medicine Library (1999), and Engineering and Architecture Library (2008). The library in Bintulu start operating when the campus was reopened in 2001.
Mosque
The UPM's Mosque (Malay: Masjid UPM) is the university's mosque that built to fulfill the needs of UPM's and Taman Sri Serdang's Muslims community to perform prayers. The construction started in 1987 and completed in 1989, the exterior design of the mosque is inspired by Saladin's war helmet. The Islamic Centre is founded on 1 October 1988 that responsible to manage the mosque and Islamic affairs of UPM.
Expo Hill
The Expo Hill (Malay: Bukit Ekspo) is a recreational place in UPM, close to the office of University Agricultural Park (TPU) and managed by it. Expo Hill is located at between Thirteenth College and UniPutra Golf Club, with the area approximately 13 hectares that divided into five zones. The Expo Hill was used as the site of the Agricultural Expo and Convocation Festival for the first time during the first convocation of UPM in 1977.
Universiti Putra Malaysia Teaching Hospital
Universiti Putra Malaysia Teaching Hospital (Malay: Hospital Pengajar Universiti Putra Malaysia, abbreviation: HPUPM) is a teaching hospital that managed and operated by UPM. The location is adjacent to UPM's Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences and the Serdang Hospital. The construction of HPUPM started on 27 October 2014 and completed on 15 March 2019, with contract price of as much RM 582,227,497.73 (original contract price is RM 488 millions). Besides being a teaching hospital, HPUPM also share the burden borne by Serdang Hospital since it has started operate in 2019.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, HPUPM is chosen as one of the PPV in Selangor.
UPM Press
UPM Press (Malay: Penerbit UPM) is an entity placed under the Office of Deputy Vice Chancellor of Research and Innovation. Founded in 1977, it is a self-sufficient entity that generating income by providing publication services and selling published books. UPM Press has upgraded on 1 February 2020, now comprises five sections to operate, which are Administration Section, Editorial and Production Section, Design and Creative Media Section, Sales and Marketing Section, and Pertanika Journal Section. The publication services are not limited to staff and student within UPM, but provided to agencies outside UPM also. On average, UPM Press had published 50 book titles annually in the past ten years.
The Pertanika Journal Section under UPM Press is responsible to publish official journals of UPM. In 1978, Pertanika Journal began publication as the Pertanika Journal of Tropical Agricultural Science (JTAS). Since 1992, Pertanika Journal of Science & Technology (JST) and Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities (JSSH) are included in Pertanika series. Currently the Pertanika Journal is an international peer-reviewed journals and has been indexed in Scopus (Elsevier), ESCI (WoS), BIOSIS, National Agricultural Science (NAL), Google Scholar, MyCite and ISC.
On 27 September 2019, the UPM Press Bookshop was inaugurated by Dr. Aini Ideris, the Vice Chancellor of UPM. The bookshop's location is near to the main library and selling the published books.
UPM Holdings
UPM Holdings Sdn. Bhd. (abbreviation: UPMH) is a company wholly owned by UPM which was incorporated since 2009. The history of UPMH could be traced back in 1980 when it began as the Consultancy Unit in UPM, it then upgraded into University Business Center in 1996. The asset based business scopes such as UniPutra Golf Club, KMR OnePUTRA Residence, Banquet Hall of UPM and OnePutraMart are managed by UPMH. As of 2021, there are five subsidiaries under UPMH:
UPM Consultancy & Services Sdn. Bhd. (UPMCS)
UPM Education & Training Sdn. Bhd. (UPMET)
UPM Innovation Sdn. Bhd. (UPM Inno)
UPM International Sdn. Bhd.
UPM Business Management Sdn. Bhd.
Putra Science Park
Putra Science Park (abbreviation: PSP) is the centre for innovation management or technology transfer office (TTO) in UPM. It was established on 1 April 2006, originally named as Innovation and Commercialization Center (ICC) and has been rebranded as UPM technology transfer center in 2010. PSP responsible to transfer the latest research or potential technologies from laboratory to market, through various channels such as exhibition, publication, press conferences, and business matching programmes with industry. Besides, PSP also protect UPM’s innovation through Intellectual Property protection.
The eDU-PARK is an edu-tourism programme managed by PSP, the locations including:
Malay Heritage Museum
Animal Anatomy Museum
Human Anatomy Museum
Ladang 16 - Dairy and Deer
Serdang Gallery
UPM Conservatory Park
UPM Equine Centre
Putra FM
Putra FM (also known as Campus Radio Station) is the first digital campus radio station among the public universities in Malaysia. Since 1998, UPM offers Bachelor of Communication, a unit called Radio Production Unit was built to fulfill the needs of a broadcasting laboratory for the programme offered. The unit was later upgraded and named as Campus Radio Station. Although the Putra FM is built for academic purpose, however it is available for community either within or outside UPM, at FM 90.7.
The designing of studio, and selection of appropriate equipment for studio was assisted by Radio Televisyen Malaysia (RTM). Putra FM has been operating under the auspices of the RTM (or specifically Selangor FM). As there is a MoU signed, the cooperation between Putra FM and RTM has been continued.
University Agricultural Park
University Agricultural Park (Malay: Taman Pertanian Universiti, abbreviation: TPU) was established on 1 December 2001 to facilitate in the teaching and research in agricultural related fields, and also provide services for the students, staffs and the community. The farming lands in Serdang campus (407 hectares) and Ladang Puchong (162 hectares) are under TPU's management. The farming lands in Bintulu campus (more than 700 hectares) are managed by the campus' TPU (not Serdang's TPU).
TPU was originally known as Plantation Division in 1971, as a platform to provide practical training in agriculture, and the services to campus. In 1998, Plantation Division was restructured and became University Research Park to provide research facilities and services in agricultural field. It was then renamed as University Agricultural Park to uphold the agricultural sector in line with the desire of government and UPM itself.
Ayer Hitam UPM Research Forest
The research forest is at the Ayer Hitam Reserved Forest, Puchong, with a space of 1,248 hectares. The forest is 20 km from the capital city Kuala Lumpur and 10 km from the main campus of Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) Serdang. The Selangor State Government gave the research forest in a long term agreement for 80 years beginning 1996 for the purpose of education and research. The forest is managed by the Selangor Forestry Department and Faculty of Forestry UPM based on sustainable forest management. The Forest Management Plan for Ayer Hitam Forest Reserve is prepared by the faculty.
The forest area is the only well-managed Lowland Dipterocarp Forest in the Klang Valley. The facilities include a partially enclosed multipurpose hall, prayer room, kitchen, bathrooms, toilets and a playing field. The base camp can accommodate around 100 to 150 person at a time.
The forest is also used for teaching purposes in the field of forestry, wood science, and park and recreation management. There are field plots for research activities in silviculture, wildlife management, forest ecology, forest survey, forest engineering, and hydrology. The extension programmes include forestry, science, motivation, interpretation and ecological camps.
UPM – Mitsubishi Corporation Forest Restoration Project
The Joint Research Project on Rehabilitation of Tropical Rainforest Ecosystem was initiated in July 1991 by Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) and Yokohama National University, Japan (YNU) with sponsorship from Mitsubishi Corporation. The project is based on the success of restoration of native forest land in Japan and results of some field surveys conducted in the forests of South East Asian countries since 1978. The scientific basis of the project is based on the concept of vegetation association by Prof. Akira Miyawaki from Yokohama National University.
The objectives of the project are to assess the health of rehabilitated forest through measuring the indicators of forest health and the sustainability of forest resources. The project conducts research in soil science, plant physiology, water science, biodiversity (terrestrial floral, wildlife, aquatic flora and fauna, insect and microbes) and in microclimatic conditions that indicate the health of the rehabilitated forest.
The project was initiated in UPM Bintulu campus Sarawak (Phase 1) at a 47.5 ha site. In 2010, 350,000 seedlings were planted representing 128 species native to Sarawak. In addition, 100 research plots were established in the rehabilitated area.
In July 2008, a new agreement between UPM and Mitsubishi Corporation was signed to establish a model planted forest of indigenous tree species in an urban setting at UPM main campus Serdang, Selangor. The second phase of the project was launched on 26 November 2008 covering an area of 27 hectares. To date 1,350,000 seedlings representing 136 species have been planted.
Rankings
Quacquarelli Symonds
Times Higher Education
Impact rankings
Times Higher Education Impact Rankings are the only global performance tables that assess universities against the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
UI GreenMetric
In 2020, Universiti Putra Malaysia is ranked 28th in the world. The ranking of UI GreenMetric is based on:
Setting & infrastructure (SI)
Energy & climate change (EC)
Waste (WS)
Water (WR)
Transportation (TR)
Education & research (ED)
The ranking also placed UPM third in Asia, second in Southeast Asia and maintains first position within the country for 11 consecutive years since the ranking was introduced in 2010.
Notable alumni
Politicians
Datuk Seri Ronald Kiandee, Minister of Agriculture and Food Industries
Dato' Seri Dr Ahmad Zahid Hamidi, former Deputy Prime Minister of Malaysia
Datuk Seri Wilfred Madius Tangau, former Deputy Chief Minister of Sabah
Datuk Seri Haji Salahuddin Ayub, former Minister of Agriculture and Agro-based Industry
Datuk Seri Saifuddin Nasution Ismail, former Minister of Domestic Trade and Consumer Affairs
Dato' Sri Hajah Rohani Abdul Karim, former Minister of Women, Family and Community Development
Datuk Seri Dr Mujahid Yusof Rawa, former Minister in the Prime Minister's Department (Religious Affairs)
Dato' Seri Amirudin Shari, Menteri Besar of Selangor
Chang Lih Kang, member of the Parliament of Malaysia for Tanjong Malim
Dato' Ahmad Nazlan Idris, member of the Parliament of Malaysia for Jerantut
Noor Amin Ahmad, member of the Parliament of Malaysia for Kangar
Chong Eng, member of the Penang State Legislative Assembly for Padang Lalang
Najwan Halimi, member of the Selangor State Assembly for Kota Anggerik
Athletes
Cheah Liek Hou, badminton player
Leong Mun Yee, diver
Cheong Jun Hoong, diver
Roslinda Samsu, pole vaulter
Bibiana Ng, shooter
Johnathan Wong, shooter
Zaidatul Husniah Zulkifli, sprinter
Welson Sim, swimmer
Hakimi Ismail, triple jumper
Diana Bong Siong Lin, wushu athlete
Academics
Moi Meng Ling, Professor, the University of Tokyo, virologist
Poets
Raja Rajeswari Setha Raman, poet
Businesspeople
Ebit Lew, founder of Elewsmart
Dato’ Seri Ibrahim Ahmad, founder of Brahim's
Wen Shin Chia, founder of cooking oil recycling company Green Yards
See also
Universiti Putra Malaysia Bintulu Campus
Education in Malaysia
Ministry of Higher Education
List of universities in Malaysia
List of forestry universities and colleges
References
University of Putra Malaysia
Universities and colleges in Selangor
Business schools in Malaysia
Agricultural universities and colleges in Malaysia
Educational institutions established in 1931
Veterinary schools in Malaysia
Design schools in Malaysia
Engineering universities and colleges in Malaysia
Information technology schools in Malaysia
Medical schools in Malaysia
Nursing schools in Malaysia
1931 establishments in British Malaya
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information%20Networking%20Institute
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Information Networking Institute
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The Information Networking Institute (INI) was established by Carnegie Mellon in 1989 as the nation’s first research and education center devoted to information networking.
As an integral department of the College of Engineering and a collaboration of the School of Computer Science, the Tepper School of Business, and the Heinz College, the INI’s professional graduate degree programs represent a fusion of technologies, economics and policies of secure communication networks, systems and services.
The INI also partners with research and outreach entities to extend educational and training programs to the broad audience of people using information networking as part of their daily lives. The INI is the educational partner of Carnegie Mellon CyLab, a university-wide, multidisciplinary research center involving more than 50 faculty and 100 graduate students.
Center of Academic Excellence Designations
Through the work of the INI and CyLab, Carnegie Mellon University has been designated by the National Security Agency and the Department of Homeland Security as a National Center of Academic Excellence in Information Assurance/Cyber Defense Education (CAE-IA/CD) and a National Center of Academic Excellence in Information Assurance/Cyber Defense Research (CAE-R). It has also been designated by the NSA and the U.S. Cyber Command as a National Center of Academic Excellence in Cyber Operations (CAE-Cyber Ops). Through these designations, the INI and CyLab participate in the:
Federal CyberCorps Scholarship for Service (SFS) Program - Students pursuing graduate degrees in information security (MSIS or MSISPM) are eligible for scholarships under the SFS program.
Information Assurance Scholarship Program (IASP) - Students pursuing graduate degrees in information security and are seeking careers with the Department of Defense may be eligible for scholarships under the IASP.
Capacity Building Program for Faculty from Historically Black and Hispanic Serving Institutions - The INI and CyLab developed a month-long, in-residence summer program to help build information assurance education and research capacity at colleges and universities designated as Minority Serving Institutions – specifically, Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) and Hispanic Serving Institutions (HSIs). This program is supported through a grant from the National Science Foundation.
Interdisciplinary culture
The INI teaching faculty are drawn from:
The College of Engineering, (Electrical and Computer Engineering, Engineering and Public Policy)
The School of Computer Science
The Tepper School of Business
H. John Heinz III College
Software Engineering Institute (SEI)
Carnegie Mellon Silicon Valley
The INI also has an ongoing partnership with the University of Hyogo, Graduate School of Applied Informatics.
Faculty and researchers
Faculty involved in teaching and advising in the INI programs are conducting research in all aspects of information networking and information security. Affiliated research centers are:
Carnegie Mellon CyLab
SEI's CERT Division
Alumni
The INI has graduated over 1,400 alumni who currently occupy positions in a variety of sectors across industry, government and academia.
References
External links
Carnegie Mellon CyLab
Schools and departments of Carnegie Mellon
Computer networks
Computer security organizations
1989 establishments in Pennsylvania
Educational institutions established in 1989
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30560888
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNSS%20software-defined%20receiver
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GNSS software-defined receiver
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A software GNSS receiver is a Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) receiver that has been designed and implemented using software-defined radio.
A GNSS receiver, in general, is an electronic device that receives and digitally processes the signals from a navigation satellite constellation in order to provide position, velocity and time (of the receiver).
GNSS receivers have been traditionally implemented in hardware: a hardware GNSS receiver is conceived as a dedicated chip that have been designed and built (from the very beginning) with the only purpose of being a GNSS receiver.
In a software GNSS receiver, all digital processing is performed by a general purpose microprocessor. In this approach, a small amount of inexpensive hardware is still needed, known as the frontend, that digitizes the signal from the satellites. The microprocessor can then work on this raw digital stream to implement the GNSS functionality.
Hardware vs. software GNSS receivers
When comparing hardware vs software GNSS receivers, a number of pros and cons can be found for each approach:
Hardware GNSS receivers are in general more efficient from the point of view of both computational load and power consumption since they have been designed in a highly specialized way with the only purpose of implementing the GNSS processing.
Software GNSS receivers allow a huge flexibility: many features of the receiver can be modified just through software. This provides the receiver with adaptive capabilities, depending on the user's needs and working conditions. In addition, the receiver can be easily upgraded via software.
Under some assumptions, Software GNSS receivers can be more profitable for some applications, as long as sufficient computational power is available (and can be shared among multiple applications). For example, the microprocessor of a smartphone can be used to provide GNSS navigation with the only need of including a frontend (instead of a full, more expensive, hardware receiver).
Currently, most of the GNSS receiver market is still hardware. However, there already exist operational solutions based on the software approach able to run on low-cost microprocessors. Software GNSS receivers are expected to increase their market share or even take over in the near future, following the development of the computational capabilities of the microprocessors (Moore's law).
Comparison of implementations
This comparison is strictly about GNSS SDR; please do not include general GNSS positioning and mapping software.
Galileo Satellite Navigation LTD.- GSN:
Business Model - IP core license + royalties
Development
Programming language: C
User interface - NMEA
Hardware support:
Platforms
PC - windows
PC - Linux
CEVA - XC family
CEVA - TL3/4
Cadence (Tensilica) - BBE16/32
RF FE
MAXIM
NEC
GNSS/SBAS signals support:
GPS: L1/CA,
GLONASS: G1
Galileo: E1,
BeiDou: B1
SBAS
QZSS: L1/CA
Features:
Acquisition: yes
Tracking: yes
Generating pseudo-range observable: yes
Decoding navigation data: yes
Position estimation: yes
Maximum number of real-time channels demonstrated: 16/system
Multi-correlator: yes
Sample data recording: yes
SX3 (formerly SX-NSR)
General information:
Publication: http://gpsworld.com/software-gnss-receiver-an-answer-for-precise-positioning-research
Development:
Programming language: C++
User interface (none, CLI, GUI): CLI, GUI
Under active development (as-of date): yes (2016-Mar-17)
Creator/sponsor organization: IfEN GmbH, Germany
Latest release (version and date): v3.2.1, March 2016
First release (version and date): v1.0, March 2007
Hardware support:
Front-ends: NavPort, NavPort-4, SX3 frontend
Host computer special hardware supported: SIMD (SSE2, SSSE3), CUDA
Multicore supported: yes
GNSS/SBAS signals support:
GPS: L1CA, L2C, L2P (codeless), L5
GLONASS: G1, G2
Galileo: E1, E5a, E5b, E5ab (AltBOC), E6
BeiDou: B1, B2
SBAS: EGNOS
QZSS: L110CAdieyure
IRNSS: L5, S-Band
Features:
Acquisition: yes (several algorithms)
Tracking: yes (several algorithms)
Generating pseudo-range observable: yes
Generating carrier-phase observable: yes
Decoding navigation data: yes
Spectrum analyzer: yes
Position estimation: yes
Maximum number of real-time channels demonstrated: 490 (GPS L1 C/A channels @20 MHz sample rate, 3 correlators per channel, INTEL Core i7-4970K processor (not over clocked) )
Application programming interface: yes
Dual antenna support: yes
Scintillation monitoring: yes
Multi-correlator: yes
Sample data recording: yes
Multipath mitigation: yes (several algorithms)
GNSS-SDRLIB
General information:
Publication:
Software licence: GNU General Public License 2+
Development:
Programming language: C
User interface (none, CLI, GUI): CLI, GUI.
Number of developers: 1?
Under active development (as-of date): yes (2013-Sep-25)
Creator/sponsor organization: Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Japan
Latest release (version and date):
First release (version and date):
Hardware support:
Front-ends: NSL STEREO v2 and SiGe GN3S Sampler v3
Host computer special hardware supported: SIMD (SSE2 and AVX)
Multicore supported?:
GNSS/SBAS signals support:
GPS: L1CA, L1C, L2C, L5
GLONASS: G1, G2
Galileo: E1, E5a, E5b
BeiDou: B1
QZSS: LEX
Features:
Acquisition: yes
Tracking: yes
Generating pseudo-range: yes
Decoding navigation data: yes
Spectrum analysis: yes
Position estimation: yes (through RTKLIB)
Maximum number of real-time channels demonstrated: ?
ARAMIS (formerly iPRx)
Versions:
Free academic version
Ionospheric Scintillation Monitor receiver
R&D version
General information:
Publication: http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/engineering/communications-and-signal-processing/digital-satellite-navigation-and-geophysics-practical-guide-gnss-signal-simulator-and-receiver-laboratory
Development:
Programming language: C++
User interface : GUI
Under active development (as-of date): yes (2014-Nov)
Creator/sponsor organization: iP-Solutions, Japan, JAXA, Japan
Latest release (version and date): February 2018
First release (version and date): April 2008
Hardware support:
Front-ends: Eagle, FEM, Simceiver
Multicore supported: yes
GNSS/SBAS signals support:
GPS: L1CA, L2C
BeiDou B1, B2
GLONASS: G1, G2, G3
Galileo: E1
IRNSS: L5, S
QZSS: L1CA
SBAS
Features:
Acquisition: yes
Tracking: yes
Generating pseudo-range observable: yes
Generating carrier-phase observable: yes
Decoding navigation data: yes
Position estimation: yes
Maximum number of real-time channels : 60 (5 correlators per channel)
Application programming interface: yes
Dual antenna support: yes, for FEM front end
Multi-correlator: yes
Sample data recording: yes
SoftGNSS v3.0 (also known as SoftGPS)
General information:
Publication: https://www.springer.com/birkhauser/engineering/book/978-0-8176-4390-4
Source code: included with the book
Software licence: GPL v2
Non real-time (post-processing) GNSS software receiver
Development:
Programming language: MATLAB
User interface (none, CLI, GUI): CLI and GUI
Number of developers: 4 (along the project)
Under active development (as-of date): public version - no, non-public versions - yes (2013-Sep-30)
Hardware support:
Front-ends: SiGe GN3S Sampler v1 (in the original SDR and driver release). Signal records originating from other Sampler versions or other front-ends require configuration changes and in some cases also minor code changes.
Host computer special hardware supported: no
Multicore supported?: no
GNSS/SBAS signals support (separate version for each band of each GNSS):
GPS: L1CA
Features:
Acquisition: yes
Tracking: yes
Generating pseudo-range observable: yes
Generating carrier-phase observable: no
Decoding navigation data: yes
Position estimation: yes
GNSS-SDR, An open source GNSS Software Defined Receiver
General information:
Software licence: GPL v3
Development:
Programming language: C++
User interface (none, CLI, GUI): CLI.
Number of developers: 26 (along the project)
Under active development (as-of date): yes (2021-Jan-08)
Creator/sponsor organization: Centre Tecnològic de Telecomunicacions de Catalunya
Latest release (version and date): 0.0.14 (as Jan 2021)
First release (version and date): 2011-Mar-11 first svn commit
Hardware support:
Front-ends: UHD-compatible (USRP family), OsmoSDR-compatible (RTL2832-based USB dongles, bladeRF, HackRF One), SiGe GN3S Sampler v2, AD-FMCOMMS2-EBZ
Host computer special hardware supported: SIMD (via VOLK and VOLK_GNSSSDR), CUDA
Multicore supported?: Yes
GNSS/SBAS signals support:
GPS: L1CA, L2C, L5
GLONASS: L1SP, L2SP
Galileo: E1b, E1c, E5a
BeiDou: B1I, B3I
SBAS: EGNOS
Features:
Acquisition: yes (several algorithms)
Tracking: yes (several algorithms)
Generating pseudo-range observable: yes
Generating carrier-phase observable: yes
Decoding navigation data: yes
Position estimation: yes
Maximum number of real-time channels demonstrated: > 100
Output formats: RINEX, KML, GPX, GeoJSON, NMEA, RTCM, intermediate results stored in binary .mat files readable from MATLAB and Octave, and from Python via h5py.
References
Further reading
External links
Software GPS has many advantages
A starting point for learning about GPS with Open Source Software
Computing comparisons
Software-defined radio
Navigational equipment
Satellite navigation
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31164905
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet%20Security%20Essentials
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Internet Security Essentials
|
Internet Security Essentials, also InternetSecurityEssentials, is rogue security software pretending to protect the computer against malware and viruses. It is one of several clones belonging to the "FakeVimes" family of fake antivirus malware.
Similarly named utilities
The malware is deliberately named so as a subterfuge, because there are several legitimate security utilities with similar names, specifically:
Internet Security Essentials by Comodo Group
Microsoft Security Essentials
Webroot Internet Security Essentials
Operation
As a fake antivirus program affecting Microsoft operating systems (Windows 9x, 2000, XP, Vista, Windows 7 and Windows 8) it installs itself through the use of a trojan horse. Once downloaded and operating, it claims to find various viruses and malware on the computer that pose imminent danger scaring the user through pop-ups to buy its protection (scareware), while in reality the program itself is the malware.
See also
List of rogue security software
References
External links
Scan results of a FakeVimes malware sample on the website VirusTotal
Scan results of a FakeVimes malware sample
Scan results of a FakeVimes malware sample
Rogue software
Scareware
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2752572
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice%20%28Resident%20Evil%29
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Alice (Resident Evil)
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Alice is a fictional character and the main protagonist of the Resident Evil film series, which is loosely based on the video game series of the same name. Though she is not a character in the games, she has interacted with game characters such as Jill Valentine, Claire Redfield, Carlos Olivera, Chris Redfield, and Leon S. Kennedy. Alice, portrayed by Milla Jovovich, plays the principal role in each film, with the storylines mostly revolving around her campaign to bring down the Umbrella Corporation.
History
In film
Resident Evil
In Resident Evil, Alice is a security officer working for the Umbrella Corporation. She and Spence Parks, posing as a married couple for cover, were placed at a mansion outside raccoon city that is an entrance to The Hive, a functional large top secret underground laboratory owned and operated by the Umbrella Corporation, built a half mile underground. Some time before the events of the first film, Alice betrays her employers and begins to secretly work to expose them to the world, after learning of their dangerous and unethical experiments.
Waking up with amnesia, she recalls nothing of this and joins Matt Addison, an environmentalist posing as a police officer, and a team of commandos who take them and venture into the Hive to investigate why the artificial intelligence computer, the Red Queen, killed all the employees. Spence is found, appearing to suffer from amnesia like Alice, and it is revealed that the memory loss was caused when a nerve gas was released into the mansion by the Red Queen, one of its countermeasures to prevent a viral outbreak from spreading. Despite working for Umbrella, it is revealed Alice was willing to expose Umbrella's dangerous and illegal experiments in order to bring the company down. She is shown to be the contact of Matt's sister, Lisa Addison, who was trying to smuggle out a sample of the T-virus; Alice tells this to Matt. However, at the end of the film, Spence, who was having a real relationship with Alice while playing the part of her husband, is revealed to have found out about her plans. Misinterpreting Alice's intention to bring Umbrella down, Spence had stolen T-virus samples with the intent to sell them on the black market for both of them, releasing the virus in the Hive to cover their tracks. Upon abandoning the remaining survivors and getting on the train with the anti-virus, Spence is killed by the Licker which the Red Queen released from captivity. Kaplan, who disables the Red Queen and escapes with the team, is also killed by the Licker. Rain, despite being given the anti-virus had turned anyway due to her prolonged state of infection and she is eventually killed by Matt as they battle the Licker on the moving train. Alice and Matt are the only survivors to escape the Hive. Upon returning to the mansion, both are seized by Umbrella scientists and taken into quarantine at the Raccoon City Hospital. Alice awakens on an operating table in a white room with no knowledge of what has happened, heading outside, she sees the infection has ravaged Raccoon City.
Resident Evil: Apocalypse
In Resident Evil: Apocalypse, taking place sometime after the T-virus outbreak in the Hive, Umbrella reopens the facility to find out exactly what happened to the commando team they sent in the previous film, only to unleash the infected undead and viral experiments on Raccoon City, forcing the company to quarantine the city and slowly evacuate its non-infected citizens after extracting nearly all essential company personnel and their families. They also reawaken Alice, whom they had experimented on with the T-virus after capturing her (its later revealed that she had bonded with the virus on a cellular level), and let her loose in the city to observe her. Alice soon meets with Raccoon Police Department STARS officers Jill Valentine and Payton Wells and reporter Terri Morales, and saves them from attacking Lickers in a church. The group is then recruited by Umbrella researcher Dr. Charles Ashford, who offers them safe passage out of the city in exchange for locating and retrieving his daughter Angela, who went missing during the extraction of Umbrella's vital employees and their families after her security car was involved in a collision.
Alice subsequently explains that Umbrella (who has since sealed the city's last exit after the virus reached it) plans to nuke Raccoon City to destroy the infection and all remaining evidence of it, while blaming the whole thing on a meltdown of the city's nuclear power plant. Shortly afterwards, Nemesis, a heavily mutated experimental supersoldier sent by Umbrella to eliminate all remaining STARS members, appears and kills Wells, and Alice is forced to break away from the group to lure it away from them. She later makes it to Angela's school and rendezvous with the group, which now includes civilian L.J. Wayne and abandoned Umbrella soldiers Carlos Olivera and Nicholai Ginovaef, the latter two of whom were also recruited by Dr. Ashford. They manage to find and rescue Angela, although Ginovaef and Morales are killed in the process. The group then makes it to Dr. Ashford's extraction point, only to be ambushed and taken captive by Umbrella forces led by Major Timothy Cain. When Nemesis shows up, Cain forces Alice to fight it by coldly executing Dr. Ashford and threatening to do the same to the others. As they fight, Alice comes to recognize Nemesis as Matt Addison, who was also experimented on following their capture by Umbrella after having been mutated by an injury he sustained from the Licker; in turn, Nemesis regains his memories and, upon recognizing Alice, turns against Umbrella and helps her fight Cain's forces. They and the group succeed in taking down said forces and seizing the helicopter, but Nemesis is killed protecting Alice.
As the survivors make their escape, Alice throws Cain from the helicopter, leaving him to be killed and devoured by the approaching zombie horde, including a now-zombified Dr. Ashford. As the survivors reach the outskirts of Raccoon City, the nuclear bomb detonates over the city, and the resulting blast wave causes the helicopter to crash. The turbulence causes a metal pole to be thrown towards Angela, but Alice takes the blow and is impaled, and then killed in the crash. Her body is later retrieved by Umbrella researcher Dr. Alexander Isaacs, who takes her to a research facility in Detroit. Three weeks later, Alice wakes up in the facility and escapes with help from Olivera, Valentine, L.J., and Angela. As they escape, Dr. Alexander Isaacs, a high-ranking Umbrella employee, reveals that Alice's escape is part of Umbrella's plan for her.
Resident Evil: Extinction
In Resident Evil: Extinction, five years after the incident of the Hive, the world has succumbed to the T-virus. Alice stays on the move to avoid capture by the Umbrella Corporation after she learned Umbrella could track and control her through satellites. She left the group to protect them, using the satellites trajectories to stay off the grid. On her travels she finds a journal detailing the possibility of Alaska as a sanctuary, isolated from the rest of the T-virus infested world. However, the Umbrella Corporation is utilizing the White Queen, a more advanced artificial intelligence computer that is able to find Alice. Early in the film, she uses her mental powers to save Claire Redfield's Convoy — the convoy which L.J. and Carlos have since joined. However, in doing so, the massive psionic activity produced by Alice is detected by the White Queen through their Umbrella satellites, and Isaacs is then made aware of her location. The leaders of the convoy decide to make the trip to Alaska, but first refuel in Las Vegas. Isaacs decides to go after Alice, defying orders from Umbrella Chairman Albert Wesker.
During a battle between the zombies and survivors, Isaacs attempts to shut down Alice, causing the Umbrella logo to flash in her eyes again as the satellite network requires her. As Alice is frozen in place, she is able to overcome the control by "frying" the satellite's processor through her advanced mental powers. She then goes after Isaacs, but he manages to escape, however, not before being bitten by an advanced version of a zombie which he had tried to domesticate using blood samples from Alice's clones (which Isaacs, as seen at the beginning of the film, had been testing for any similarities to the authentic Alice's physical and mental capabilities). Those left head to the Umbrella base and the now-infected Carlos briefly kisses Alice before driving an oil truck loaded with dynamite into a horde of zombies to clear the way. The convoy leaves on helicopter while Alice stays behind. She meets with the White Queen who informs her that the cure to the infection would lie in Alice's blood. Alice pursues Isaacs into the lower levels, even seeing a clone of herself, but is soon attacked by Isaacs, who has since mutated into a monster called "the Tyrant". The clone awakens, seemingly dying soon after. Alice follows Isaacs into a replica of the mansion from the first film. The two fight, both using telekinesis, and eventually make their way into the laser room, also from the first film. The lasers cut Isaacs into pieces and just as Alice is going to meet the same fate, the lasers dissipate, turned off by Alice's clone.
Afterwards Alice, via holographic technology, interrupts a meeting between Wesker and the other Umbrella executives. She tells them that she is coming after them and will bring "a few friends." Standing beside the awakened clone, they look out into a room filled with hundreds more, and as other clones begin to wake, the film ends.
Resident Evil: Afterlife
In Resident Evil: Afterlife, taking place 18 months after Resident Evil: Extinction, Alice and her clones invade an Umbrella underground facility located in Tokyo, Japan, in order to eliminate the corporation and Albert Wesker. Wesker gets injured by grenades released by an Alice clone, but is immediately healed after and then he escapes and activates a bomb that destroys the facility and all of the clones. The real Alice escapes from the Tokyo facility by hiding on the helicopter that Wesker is on. Wesker injects Alice with a serum that seemingly deprives her of all her superhuman powers, including her telekinesis, while demonstrating that he has developed similar abilities due to exposure to the T-virus. Alice thanks him for this, as she is now fully human again. Just right before Wesker shoots the now defenseless Alice, the helicopter crashes into a mountain. Thanks to her not-yet-fully-disappeared superhuman powers, Alice survives the crash.
After barely escaping with her life, six months pass. Alice flies to Alaska to find the chopper from Umbrella completely deserted, and the book that she gave K-Mart in Resident Evil: Extinction.
She then finds Claire Redfield beaten up in the woods, wearing a mind control apparatus called a Scarab, that Umbrella forced onto her chest. Alice removes the Scarab and finds out that Claire has lost all of her memory due to a drug it was injecting her with. They then fly together to Los Angeles Prison, where they stumble upon Claire's brother Chris Redfield and other survivors: Bennett, Angel, Wendell, Kim Young, Crystal, and Luther West. As they try to get out of the prison when the zombies invade, Bennett kills Angel out of frustration, then escapes by himself with Alice's plane. Crystal and Wendell get killed by zombies, and an Axeman (The Executioner from the fifth video game) chops Kim Young in half, leaving only Chris, Claire, Alice, and Luther in the prison. Claire and Alice kills Axeman and then escapes with Chris and Luther, using the prison's sewer systems.
On the way, Luther is attacked and presumably killed by a zombie. Alice travels with Chris and Claire to an abandoned oil tanker, the "Arcadia", that is broadcasting a message stating that it's infection free. This is, however, revealed to be a trap by Umbrella to lure in survivors so that they can be experimented on, with K-Mart being among these captives. They find Albert Wesker waiting for them, who reveals that he has been periodically consuming humans to stabilize the T-virus’s effects on him. In the final battle, Alice, along with Claire and Chris, face Wesker, whose powers prove too much for Claire and Chris and he locks them up. However, Alice, with the help of a recently freed K-Mart, defeats Wesker and apparently kills him with a shot to the head.
Wesker somehow survives even though his head is blown open and Claire and Chris unload their pistols into him. Later, Wesker completely regenerates from his wounds by consuming Bennett and escapes on a helicopter, then activates a bomb. However, Alice has placed the bomb on Wesker's chopper and it explodes. Afterward, a parachute is seen in the air after its explosion. Unbeknownst to the group, Luther survives his zombie attack in the tunnel, and staggers out from a massive drainage pipe.
After releasing all of the survivors on the Arcadia, Alice decides to turn it into a real sanctuary and broadcasts a message giving the ship's location and that it's infection-free before spotting a massive fleet of Umbrella helicopters heading their way loaded with soldiers. The fleet is revealed to be led by her former comrade and fellow Raccoon City survivor Jill Valentine, who is under the control of a Scarab.
Resident Evil: Retribution
In Resident Evil: Retribution, Umbrella forces reach Arcadia and open fire on the survivors. Alice fights in the battle aboard Arcadia and was injured in the destruction of an Umbrella osprey, leaving her thrown overboard. The fates of Claire, Chris and K-Mart remain unknown. Recovered from the waters by the Umbrella Corporation, Alice is taken to a bio weapons testing facility known as Umbrella Prime. When Alice wakes, Jill Valentine begins an interrogation. After several unsuccessful attempts, the power unexpectedly goes out, allowing Alice to escape from her cell. After escaping a laser grid defense measure, Alice finds herself in a simulation of Tokyo, where she battles a horde of zombies that include Japan's patient zero. About to be overwhelmed, Alice flees through a door that leads back into the facility and enters the Operations Center only to find the personnel dead. Alice encounters Ada Wong - immediately recognizing her as the associate of Wesker. Wesker appears on a monitor and Ada explains that she and Wesker no longer work for Umbrella as the supercomputer Red Queen has taken over the Umbrella Corporation.
While Alice wants to blast her way out of a window to escape, Ada reveals to her that they are located beneath an ice field. Wesker informs Alice that he has sent her help in the form of a team led by Leon Kennedy. They set out to reach the suburban recreation of Raccoon City after a brief conversation with the Red Queen, who promptly threatens them that they are going to die.
Alice and Ada are able to reach the simulation of Raccoon City after a brief battle in the New York simulation against two Axemen. During their trip, Alice locates a young girl named Becky who believes Alice is her mother. Alice recognizes the girl from her memories of the clone's experience and vows to protect her. While trying to escape the house, the group encounters Jill and a group of soldiers, including Alice's clones and clones of Alice's former allies: Rain Ocampo, Carlos Olivera, and James 'One' Sharpe. A shootout occurs, resulting in Ada's capture and Alice and Becky's escape. Entering the Moscow simulation, they encounter a second clone of Rain, who Alice asks to look after Becky as she goes forward to meet the rescue team. Alice enters the Moscow environment and rescues the group from a collection of Las Plagas undead and a Licker. They return to Becky and Rain to escape.
With time to spare the team reaches the elevators; however, the Licker captures Becky while Jill and the clones return and open fire. Alice pursues the Licker to rescue Becky, finding her in a cocoon with the Licker. Alice disables the Licker and rescues Becky. After she recovers explosives, Alice and Becky travel through a tunnel and find the cloning chamber, where they find hundreds of clones of themselves. Alice reassures the girl that she is her mother and they are again attacked by the Licker. Using the explosives from earlier, Alice destroys the Licker and escapes with the child. They reach the surface and reunite with the rescue team while Umbrella Prime floods beneath them when the explosives go off.
Shortly afterward the rescue team is intercepted by a surviving Jill and her enforcer, the clone of Rain. While Rain fights Leon and Luther, Jill and Alice fight. Despite being severely injured, Alice manages to break the Scarab free from Jill's chest and frees her from the Red Queen's influence. Alice joins Leon in fighting Rain - who has injected herself with a Las Plagas parasite - but both are overpowered by the enhanced clone. After being severely injured by a hit to her chest, Alice notices a collection of Plaga undead beneath the ice. With the help of the freed Jill, Alice stops Rain by breaking the ice beneath her feet. A rescue vehicle arrives to save them, but Alice collapses from her injuries.
When she awakens, Alice is taken to the Oval Office in the White House. Escorted into the room alone, Alice finds herself facing Wesker. He immediately injects her with a serum seemingly returns her superhuman abilities. He informs her he has returned her gift in exchange for her help in defeating the Red Queen, who is set on destroying all that remains of humanity. She vows to kill him for what he's done to her and he taunts her by showing her the waves of undead that wait outside the White House barricades, claiming she is the weapon to prevent impending extinction at the hands of Umbrella and the Red Queen.
Resident Evil: The Final Chapter
In Resident Evil: The Final Chapter, flashbacks reveal that Dr. James Marcus, the original founder of the Umbrella Corporation, had a daughter who was dying of premature aging. Desperate to save her, Marcus developed the T-virus as a way to cure all diseases on Earth. After having had his creation taken away from him, Marcus' business partner Dr. Alexander Isaacs tried to convince Marcus to use the T-virus for military purposes. When he refused, Isaacs ordered Albert Wesker to kill Marcus.
Alice awakens in the now-ruined White House, after being betrayed once again by Wesker. While searching for survivors, the Red Queen (Ever Gabo Anderson) appears and tells Alice that she must return to the Hive in Raccoon City within 48 hours, where the Umbrella Corporation has developed an airborne antivirus, which will kill every organism infected by the T-virus, before the remainder of humankind is wiped out. When asked why she is betraying her creators, the Red Queen simply says that she will tell Alice once she arrives at The Hive.
On her way to Raccoon City, Alice is captured by Isaacs, whose clone Alice previously killed, but she manages to escape his convoy. Alice later arrives in the now-destroyed Raccoon City and is captured by a group of survivors, consisting of Doc, Abigail, Christian, Cobalt, Razor, and Claire Redfield, who is revealed to be alive after the attack on Arcadia. After learning that a group of armored vehicles and a horde of zombies is coming their way, the group prepares to make their last stand. They manage to defeat the enemy forces, although Cobalt is killed in the process. The group later realizes that a second horde is coming in their direction.
With no defenses left, Alice and the crew decide to get to the Hive entrance, located at the bottom of the atomic bomb crater which destroyed the city. However, Wesker, having taken control of the Hive, releases mutated guard dogs, killing Christian. Upon arriving at the Hive, the Red Queen appears to Alice and explains the reason for her betrayal. She reveals that a video was uploaded to her program which contained the recording of the Umbrella executives, including Isaacs, having a meeting regarding the world, formulating a plan to release the T-virus in order to cleanse the world, save the rich and powerful with cryogenic capsules hidden in the Hive, and later rebuild the world in their image. The Red Queen, although programmed to never hurt an Umbrella employee, was also programmed to value human life, which is why she enlisted Alice's help to stop Isaacs. The Red Queen warns Alice about one of the group being a spy for Umbrella.
Entering the Hive, the group encounters several obstacles, and Abigail and Razor are killed. After planting bombs around the Hive, Alice confronts the real Isaacs, while she and Claire are captured by Wesker and Doc, Umbrella's spy. A cryogenic capsule opens, revealing Alicia Marcus, Umbrella's co-leader and Marcus' daughter; Alice is revealed to be a clone of Alicia. Isaacs plans to eliminate Alicia and gain full control of Umbrella, but Alicia "fires" Wesker, which signals the Red Queen to crush his legs with a security door. Doc tries to shoot Alice, but his gun is empty – as Alice had deduced his treachery earlier – and he is killed by Claire.
Encouraged by Alicia's words, Alice and Claire fight Isaacs, who is eventually killed by his own clone – the one Alice had encountered en route to the city – and Alice releases the antivirus, killing the undead. The bombs planted within the Hive explode, killing everyone inside, including Alicia, all the frozen Umbrella employees, and Wesker. Claire later wakes Alice, who survived as the antivirus killed the T-virus within Alice's body. The Red Queen gives Alice an upload of all of Alicia's memories of childhood. Some time later, Alice travels to Manhattan, stating that the antivirus may take several years to reach all corners of the globe and until then, her mission is not finished.
In literature
Alice appears in the three novelizations of the films. The novels, for the most part, retell the events of the films in greater detail and provide some additional information. In the novels, such concepts as Alice's surname and her real name, Janus Prospero, are presented. In the films it is never revealed if Alice remembers any of her past beyond the flashbacks seen in Resident Evil. The novels explain in greater detail her relationships. The first focuses on her relationship with Spence while the third mentions her possible relationship with ex-U.B.C.S soldier, Carlos Olivera. In the third novel it is revealed that Carlos does have feelings for her and that some of Alice's thoughts rest on him while she is away from him.
Concept and creation
Alice was an original character created for the films, although writer Paul W.S. Anderson noted that Alice was based on the strong women in the Resident Evil games. Anderson initially toyed with the idea of the film being an allegory to Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, but the idea was not followed through completely. Despite this, the film contains various references to the work, which included Alice's name. Milla Jovovich has stated she wanted the character to be "the female Dirty Harry."
Although the name Alice was given as the character's name prior to Resident Evil'''s release and is listed in the credits, her name is not actually spoken in the first film, it is first spoken in Resident Evil: Apocalypse. Also in Apocalypse, at the end of the film, Jill Valentine and Carlos Olivera, posing as Umbrella personnel, produce an identification document in which Alice is called Janus Prospero. A promotional document released by Screen Gems called The Raccoon City Times further confirm that Alice is a nickname and Janus Prospero is the character's real name. However, in the novelization of Resident Evil: Apocalypse, her name is Alice Abernathy.
Characterization
In Resident Evil, Alice is depicted as suffering from amnesia. In Resident Evil: Apocalypse, her character is portrayed as tough and rugged, as she is more familiar with the situation surrounding her. She plays a similar role in Resident Evil: Extinction. Since then she has been an "iconic figure and is closely associated with the series," becoming far more skilled and rugged since her first appearance. She is primarily portrayed in Apocalypse and Extinction as "a supremely efficient killing machine" and bio-weapon, while in the first film, she is shown first recognizing her abilities as a highly trained yet human security operative. Alice's superhuman abilities, as well as the use of various styles of martial arts and gun play have made her an almost super hero style of character and has one "cheering for her instead of wondering how the hell she managed to suddenly become Spider-Man." For example, in Apocalypse, after her exposure to the T-virus, she displayed psychic powers and was able to use those powers to kill a security guard with a glance (through a monitor he was watching her on). She also had the ability to jump long distances, as seen in her initial confrontation with Nemesis. In Extinction, her powers, especially her telekinetic powers, had developed further, (however, she still experiences blackouts and massive headaches if she pushes her powers too far). As of Resident Evil: Afterlife, Alice has had all of her superhuman abilities taken away from her by the T-virus via the serum Chairman Wesker injected her with by disabling her T-virus cells, though her military like training still gives her a combat edge when dealing with bioweapons.
Weapons
Alice has shown a supreme level of ability with all sorts of weapons. In each film she is shown using a number of weapons, but only a few function as her principal tools of death. The first film was the only one where she only used what weapons she could salvage, as she had amnesia and wasn't armed properly. In Apocalypse, she used a Mossberg 500 shotgun and a pair of Heckler & Koch MP5K submachine guns and Para-Ordnance P-14 pistols as her main weapons. In Extinction, she carried two Para-Ordnance Nite-Tac pistols, Mossberg 500 shotgun and a pair of Kukri knives, and used them to great effect. They were shown but never used in Afterlife, where Alice had many clones besides herself. The Alice clones in the beginning mainly used straight-bladed odachi blades and Brügger & Thomet MP-9's. The original Alice preferred to use a pair of 10-gauge double-barrelled shotguns (oddly loaded with quarters, killing zombies with American currency in Afterlife'') and a pair of Smith & Wesson Model 460V revolvers.
See also
List of female action heroes
References
External links
Female horror film characters
Fictional activists
Fictional aviators
Fictional characters who can move at superhuman speeds
Fictional characters who have mental powers
Fictional characters with accelerated healing
Fictional characters with superhuman strength
Fictional clones
Fictional genetically engineered characters
Fictional knife-fighters
Fictional private military members
Fictional psychics
Fictional revolutionaries
Fictional super soldiers
Fictional swordfighters
Fictional telepaths
Fictional women soldiers and warriors
Film characters introduced in 2002
Martial artist characters in films
Resident Evil characters
Science fiction film characters
Sony Pictures characters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed%20Martin%20F-35%20Lightning%20II
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Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II
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The Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II is an American family of single-seat, single-engine, all-weather stealth multirole combat aircraft that is intended to perform both air superiority and strike missions. It is also able to provide electronic warfare and intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance capabilities. Lockheed Martin is the prime F-35 contractor, with principal partners Northrop Grumman and BAE Systems. The aircraft has three main variants: the conventional takeoff and landing (CTOL) F-35A, the short take-off and vertical-landing (STOVL) F-35B, and the carrier-based (CV/CATOBAR) F-35C.
The aircraft descends from the Lockheed Martin X-35, which in 2001 beat the Boeing X-32 to win the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program. Its development is principally funded by the United States, with additional funding from program partner countries from NATO and close U.S. allies, including the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, Italy, Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands, and formerly Turkey. Several other countries have ordered, or are considering ordering, the aircraft. The program has drawn much scrutiny and criticism for its unprecedented size, complexity, ballooning costs, and much-delayed deliveries, with numerous technical flaws still being corrected. The acquisition strategy of concurrent production of the aircraft while it was still in development and testing led to expensive design changes and retrofits.
The F-35B entered service with the U.S. Marine Corps in July 2015, followed by the U.S. Air Force F-35A in August 2016 and the U.S. Navy F-35C in February 2019. The F-35 was first used in combat in 2018 by the Israeli Air Force. The U.S. plans to buy 2,456 F-35s through 2044, which will represent the bulk of the crewed tactical airpower of the U.S. Air Force, Navy, and Marine Corps for several decades. The aircraft is projected to operate until 2070.
Development
Program origins
The F-35 was the product of the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program, which was the merger of various combat aircraft programs from the 1980s and 1990s. One progenitor program was the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) Advanced Short Take-Off/Vertical Landing (ASTOVL) which ran from 1983 to 1994; ASTOVL aimed to develop a Harrier Jump Jet replacement for the U.S. Marine Corps (USMC) and the U.K. Royal Navy. Under one of ASTOVL's classified programs, the Supersonic STOVL Fighter (SSF), Lockheed Skunk Works conducted research for a stealthy supersonic STOVL fighter intended for both U.S. Air Force (USAF) and USMC; a key technology explored was the shaft-driven lift fan (SDLF) system. Lockheed's concept was a single-engine canard delta aircraft weighing about empty. ASTOVL was rechristened as the Common Affordable Lightweight Fighter (CALF) in 1993 and involved Lockheed, McDonnell Douglas, and Boeing.
In 1993, the Joint Advanced Strike Technology (JAST) program emerged following the cancellation of the USAF's Multi-Role Fighter (MRF) and U.S. Navy's (USN) Advanced Fighter-Attack (A/F-X) programs. MRF, a program for a relatively affordable F-16 replacement, was scaled back and delayed due to post–Cold War defense posture easing F-16 fleet usage and thus extending its service life as well as increasing budget pressure from the F-22 program. The A/F-X, initially known as the Advanced-Attack (A-X), began in 1991 as the USN's follow-on to the Advanced Tactical Aircraft (ATA) program for an A-6 replacement; the ATA's resulting A-12 Avenger II had been canceled due to technical problems and cost overruns in 1991. In the same year, the termination of the Naval Advanced Tactical Fighter (NATF), an offshoot of USAF's Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) program to replace the F-14, resulted in additional fighter capability being added to A-X, which was then renamed A/F-X. Amid increased budget pressure, the Department of Defense's (DoD) Bottom-Up Review (BUR) in September 1993 announced MRF's and A/F-X's cancellations, with applicable experience brought to the emerging JAST program. JAST was not meant to develop a new aircraft, but rather to develop requirements, maturing technologies, and demonstrating concepts for advanced strike warfare.
As JAST progressed, the need for concept demonstrator aircraft by 1996 emerged, which would coincide with the full-scale flight demonstrator phase of ASTOVL/CALF. Because the ASTOVL/CALF concept appeared to align with the JAST charter, the two programs were eventually merged in 1994 under the JAST name, with the program now serving the USAF, USMC, and USN. JAST was subsequently renamed to Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) in 1995, with STOVL submissions by McDonnell Douglas, Northrop Grumman, Lockheed Martin, and Boeing. The JSF was expected to eventually replace large numbers of multi-role and strike fighters in the inventories of the US and its allies, including the Harrier, F-16, F/A-18, A-10, and F-117.
International participation is a key aspect of the JSF program, starting with United Kingdom participation in the ASTOVL program. Many international partners requiring modernization of their air forces were interested in the JSF. The United Kingdom joined JAST/JSF as a founding member in 1995 and thus became the only Tier 1 partner of the JSF program; Italy, the Netherlands, Denmark, Norway, Canada, Australia, and Turkey joined the program during the Concept Demonstration Phase (CDP), with Italy and the Netherlands being Tier 2 partners and the rest Tier 3. Consequently, the aircraft was developed in cooperation with international partners and available for export.
JSF competition
Boeing and Lockheed Martin were selected in early 1997 for CDP, with their concept demonstrator aircraft designated X-32 and X-35 respectively; the McDonnell Douglas team was eliminated and Northrop Grumman and British Aerospace joined the Lockheed Martin team. Each firm would produce two prototype air vehicles to demonstrate conventional takeoff and landing (CTOL), carrier takeoff and landing (CV), and STOVL. Lockheed Martin's design would make use of the work on the SDLF system conducted under the ASTOVL/CALF program. The key aspect of the X-35 that enabled STOVL operation, the SDLF system consists of the lift fan in the forward center fuselage that could be activated by engaging a clutch that connects the driveshaft to the turbines and thus augmenting the thrust from the engine's swivel nozzle. Research from prior aircraft incorporating similar systems, such as the Convair Model 200, Rockwell XFV-12, and Yakovlev Yak-141, were also taken into consideration. By contrast, Boeing's X-32 employed direct lift system that the augmented turbofan would be reconfigured to when engaging in STOVL operation.
Lockheed Martin's commonality strategy was to replace the STOVL variant's SDLF with a fuel tank and the aft swivel nozzle with a two-dimensional thrust vectoring nozzle for the CTOL variant. This would enable identical aerodynamic configuration for the STOVL and CTOL variants, while the CV variant would have an enlarged wing in order to reduce landing speed for carrier recovery. Due to aerodynamic characteristics and carrier recovery requirements from the JAST merger, the design configuration settled on a conventional tail compared to the canard delta design from the ASTOVL/CALF; notably, the conventional tail configuration offers much lower risk for carrier recovery compared to the ASTOVL/CALF canard configuration, which was designed without carrier compatibility in mind. This enabled greater commonality between all three variants, as the commonality goal was important at this design stage. Lockheed Martin's prototypes would consist of the X-35A for demonstrating CTOL before converting it to the X-35B for STOVL demonstration and the larger-winged X-35C for CV compatibility demonstration.
The X-35A first flew on 24 October 2000 and conducted flight tests for subsonic and supersonic flying qualities, handling, range, and maneuver performance. After 28 flights, the aircraft was then converted into the X-35B for STOVL testing, with key changes including the addition of the SDLF, the three-bearing swivel module (3BSM), and roll-control ducts. The X-35B would successfully demonstrate the SDLF system by performing stable hover, vertical landing, and short takeoff in less than . The X-35C first flew on 16 December 2000 and conducted field landing carrier practice tests.
On 26 October 2001, Lockheed Martin was declared the winner and was awarded the System Development and Demonstration (SDD) contract; Pratt & Whitney was separately awarded a development contract for the F135 engine for the JSF. The F-35 designation, which was out of sequence with standard DoD numbering, was allegedly determined on the spot by program manager Major General Mike Hough; this came as a surprise even to Lockheed Martin, which had expected the "F-24" designation for the JSF.
Design and production
As the JSF program moved into the System Development and Demonstration phase, the X-35 demonstrator design was modified to create the F-35 combat aircraft. The forward fuselage was lengthened by to make room for mission avionics, while the horizontal stabilizers were moved aft to retain balance and control. The diverterless supersonic inlet changed from a four-sided to a three-sided cowl shape and was moved aft. The fuselage section was fuller, the top surface raised by along the centerline to accommodate weapons bays. Following the designation of the X-35 prototypes, the three variants were designated F-35A (CTOL), F-35B (STOVL), and F-35C (CV). Prime contractor Lockheed Martin performs overall systems integration and final assembly and checkout (FACO), while Northrop Grumman and BAE Systems supply components for mission systems and airframe.
Adding the systems of a fighter aircraft added weight. The F-35B gained the most, largely due to a 2003 decision to enlarge the weapons bays for commonality between variants; the total weight growth was reportedly up to , over 8%, causing all STOVL key performance parameter (KPP) thresholds to be missed. In December 2003, the STOVL Weight Attack Team (SWAT) was formed to reduce the weight increase; changes included more engine thrust, thinned airframe members, smaller weapons bays and vertical stabilizers, less thrust fed to the roll-post outlets, and redesigning the wing-mate joint, electrical elements, and the airframe immediately aft of the cockpit. Many changes from the SWAT effort were applied to all three variants for commonality. By September 2004, these efforts had reduced the F-35B's weight by over , while the F-35A and F-35C were reduced in weight by and respectively. The weight reduction work cost $6.2 billion and caused an 18-month delay.
The first F-35A, designated AA-1, was rolled out in Fort Worth, Texas, on 19 February 2006 and first flew on 15 December 2006. In 2006, the F-35 was given the name "Lightning II" after the Lockheed P-38 Lightning of World War II. Some USAF pilots have nicknamed the aircraft "Panther" instead.
The aircraft's software was developed as six releases, or Blocks, for SDD. The first two Blocks, 1A and 1B, readied the F-35 for initial pilot training and multi-level security. Block 2A improved the training capabilities, while 2B was the first combat-ready release planned for the USMC's Initial Operating Capability (IOC). Block 3i retains the capabilities of 2B while having new hardware and was planned for the USAF's IOC. The final release for SDD, Block 3F, would have full flight envelope and all baseline combat capabilities. Alongside software releases, each block also incorporates avionics hardware updates and air vehicle improvements from flight and structural testing. In what is known as "concurrency", some low rate initial production (LRIP) aircraft lots would be delivered in early Block configurations and eventually upgraded to Block 3F once development is complete. After 17,000 flight test hours, the final flight for the SDD phase was completed in April 2018. Like the F-22, the F-35 has been targeted by cyberattacks and technology theft efforts, as well as potential vulnerabilities in the integrity of the supply chain.
Testing found several major problems: early F-35B airframes had premature cracking, the F-35C arrestor hook design was unreliable, fuel tanks were too vulnerable to lightning strikes, the helmet display had problems, and more. Software was repeatedly delayed due to its unprecedented scope and complexity. In 2009, the DoD Joint Estimate Team (JET) estimated that the program was 30 months behind the public schedule. In 2011, the program was "re-baselined"; that is, its cost and schedule goals were changed, pushing the IOC from the planned 2010 to July 2015. The decision to simultaneously test, fix defects, and begin production was criticized as inefficient; in 2014, Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition Frank Kendall called it "acquisition malpractice". The three variants shared just 25% of their parts, far below the anticipated commonality of 70%. The program received considerable criticism for cost overruns and for the total projected lifetime cost, as well as quality management shortcomings by contractors.
The JSF program was expected to cost about $200 billion for acquisition in base-year 2002 dollars when SDD was awarded in 2001. As early as 2005, the Government Accountability Office (GAO) had identified major program risks in cost and schedule. The costly delays strained the relationship between the Pentagon and contractors. By 2017, delays and cost overruns had pushed the F-35 program's expected acquisition costs to $406.5 billion, with total lifetime cost (i.e., to 2070) to $1.5 trillion in then-year dollars which also includes operations and maintenance. The unit cost of LRIP lot 13 F-35A was $79.2 million. Delays in development and operational test and evaluation pushed full-rate production to 2021.
Upgrades and further development
The first combat-capable Block 2B configuration, which had basic air-to-air and strike capabilities, was declared ready by the USMC in July 2015. The Block 3F configuration began operational test and evaluation (OT&E) in December 2018, the completion of which will conclude SDD. The F-35 program is also conducting sustainment and upgrade development, with early LRIP aircraft gradually upgraded to the baseline Block 3F standard by 2021.
The F-35 is expected to be continually upgraded over its lifetime. The first upgrade program, called Continuous Capability Development and Delivery (C2D2) began in 2019 and is currently planned to run to 2024. The near-term development priority of C2D2 is Block 4, which would integrate additional weapons, including those unique to international customers, refresh the avionics, improve ESM capabilities, and add Remotely Operated Video Enhanced Receiver (ROVER) support. C2D2 also places greater emphasis on agile software development to enable quicker releases. In 2018, the Air Force Life Cycle Management Center (AFLCMC) awarded contracts to General Electric and Pratt & Whitney to develop more powerful and efficient adaptive cycle engines for potential application in the F-35, leveraging the research done under the Adaptive Engine Transition Program (AETP); in 2022, the F-35 Adaptive Engine Replacement (FAER) program was launched to integrate adaptive cycle engines into the aircraft by 2028.
Defense contractors have offered upgrades to the F-35 outside of official program contracts. In 2013, Northrop Grumman disclosed its development of a directional infrared countermeasures suite, named Threat Nullification Defensive Resource (ThNDR). The countermeasure system would share the same space as the Distributed Aperture System (DAS) sensors and acts as a laser missile jammer to protect against infrared-homing missiles.
Israel wants more access to the core avionics to include their own equipment.
Procurement and international participation
The United States is the primary customer and financial backer, with planned procurement of 1,763 F-35As for the USAF, 353 F-35Bs and 67 F-35Cs for the USMC, and 273 F-35Cs for the USN. Additionally, the United Kingdom, Italy, the Netherlands, Turkey, Australia, Norway, Denmark and Canada have agreed to contribute US$4.375 billion towards development costs, with the United Kingdom contributing about 10% of the planned development costs as the sole Tier 1 partner. The initial plan was that the U.S. and eight major partner nations would acquire over 3,100 F-35s through 2035. The three tiers of international participation generally reflect financial stake in the program, the amount of technology transfer and subcontracts open for bid by national companies, and the order in which countries can obtain production aircraft. Alongside program partner countries, Israel and Singapore have joined as Security Cooperative Participants (SCP). Sales to SCP and non-partner nations, including Belgium, Japan, and South Korea, are made through the Pentagon's Foreign Military Sales program. Turkey was removed from the F-35 program in July 2019 over security concerns.
In December 2011 Japan announced its intention to purchase 42 F-35s to replace the F-4 Phantom II, with 38 to be assembled domestically and deliveries beginning in 2016. Due to delays in development and testing, many initial orders have been postponed. Italy reduced its order from 131 to 90 F-35s in 2012. Australia decided to buy the F/A-18F Super Hornet in 2006 and the EA-18G Growler in 2013 as interim measures.
On 3 April 2012, the Auditor General of Canada published a report outlining problems with Canada's F-35 procurement; the report states that the government knowingly understated the final cost of 65 F-35s by $10 billion. Following the 2015 Federal Election, the Canadian government under the Liberal Party decided not to proceed with a sole-sourced purchase and launched a competition to choose an aircraft.
In January 2019, Singapore announced its plan to buy a small number of F-35s for an evaluation of capabilities and suitability before deciding on more to replace its F-16 fleet. In May 2019, Poland announced plans to buy 32 F-35As to replace its Soviet-era jets; the contract was signed in January 2020. In June 2021, the Swiss government decided to propose to Parliament to buy 36 F-35As for $5.4 billion. The Swiss anti-military group GSoA, supported by the Greens and Social Democrats, intends to contest the purchase through a peoples initiative that would constitutionally prohibit the deal. In December 2021, Finland announced its decision to buy 64 F-35As.
Design
Overview
The F-35 is a family of single-engine, supersonic, stealth multirole fighters. The second fifth generation fighter to enter US service and the first operational supersonic STOVL stealth fighter, the F-35 emphasizes low observables, advanced avionics and sensor fusion that enable a high level of situational awareness and long range lethality; the USAF considers the aircraft its primary strike fighter for conducting suppression of enemy air defense (SEAD) missions, owing to the advanced sensors and mission systems.
The F-35 has a wing-tail configuration with two vertical stabilizers canted for stealth. Flight control surfaces include leading-edge flaps, flaperons, rudders, and all-moving horizontal tails (stabilators); leading edge root extensions also run forwards to the inlets. The relatively short 35-foot wingspan of the F-35A and F-35B is set by the requirement to fit inside USN amphibious assault ship parking areas and elevators; the F-35C's larger wing is more fuel efficient. The fixed diverterless supersonic inlets (DSI) use a bumped compression surface and forward-swept cowl to shed the boundary layer of the forebody away from the inlets, which form a Y-duct for the engine. Structurally, the F-35 drew upon lessons from the F-22; composites comprise 35% of airframe weight, with the majority being bismaleimide and composite epoxy materials as well as some carbon nanotube-reinforced epoxy in later production lots. The F-35 is considerably heavier than the lightweight fighters it replaces, with the lightest variant having an empty weight of ; much of the weight can be attributed to the internal weapons bays and the extensive avionics carried.
While lacking the raw performance of the larger twin-engine F-22, the F-35 has kinematics competitive with fourth generation fighters such as the F-16 and F/A-18, especially with ordnance mounted because the F-35's internal weapons carriage eliminates parasitic drag from external stores. All variants have a top speed of Mach 1.6, attainable with full internal payload. The powerful F135 engine gives good subsonic acceleration and energy, with supersonic dash in afterburner. The large stabilitors, leading edge extensions and flaps, and canted rudders provide excellent high alpha (angle-of-attack) characteristics, with a trimmed alpha of 50°. Relaxed stability and fly-by-wire controls provide excellent handling qualities and departure resistance. Having over double the F-16's internal fuel, the F-35 has considerably greater combat radius, while stealth also enables a more efficient mission flight profile.
Sensors and avionics
The F-35's mission systems are among the most complex aspects of the aircraft. The avionics and sensor fusion are designed to enhance the pilot's situational awareness and command and control capabilities and facilitate network-centric warfare. Key sensors include the Northrop Grumman AN/APG-81 active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar, BAE Systems AN/ASQ-239 Barracuda electronic warfare system, Northrop Grumman/Raytheon AN/AAQ-37 Distributed Aperture System (DAS), Lockheed Martin AN/AAQ-40 Electro-Optical Targeting System (EOTS) and Northrop Grumman AN/ASQ-242 Communications, Navigation, and Identification (CNI) suite. The F-35 was designed with sensor intercommunication to provide a cohesive image of the local battlespace and availability for any possible use and combination with one another; for example, the APG-81 radar also acts as a part of the electronic warfare system.
Much of the F-35's software was developed in C and C++ programming languages, while Ada83 code from the F-22 was also used; the Block 3F software has 8.6 million lines of code. The Green Hills Software Integrity DO-178B real-time operating system (RTOS) runs on integrated core processors (ICPs); data networking includes the IEEE 1394b and Fibre Channel buses. To enable fleet software upgrades for the software-defined radio systems and greater upgrade flexibility and affordability, the avionics leverage commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) components when practical. The mission systems software, particularly for sensor fusion, was one of the program's most difficult parts and responsible for substantial program delays.
The APG-81 radar uses electronic scanning for rapid beam agility and incorporates passive and active air-to-air modes, strike modes, and synthetic aperture radar (SAR) capability, with multiple target track-while-scan at ranges in excess of . The antenna is tilted backwards for stealth. Complementing the radar is the AAQ-37 DAS, which consists of six infrared sensors that provide all-aspect missile launch warning and target tracking; the DAS acts as a situational awareness infrared search-and-track (SAIRST) and gives the pilot spherical infrared and night-vision imagery on the helmet visor. The ASQ-239 Barracuda electronic warfare system has ten radio frequency antennas embedded into the edges of the wing and tail for all-aspect radar warning receiver (RWR). It also provides sensor fusion of radio frequency and infrared tracking functions, geolocation threat targeting, and multispectral image countermeasures for self-defense against missiles. The electronic warfare system is capable of detecting and jamming hostile radars. The AAQ-40 EOTS is mounted internally behind a faceted low-observable window under the nose and performs laser targeting, forward-looking infrared (FLIR), and long range IRST functions. The ASQ-242 CNI suite uses a half dozen different physical links, including the Multifunction Advanced Data Link (MADL), for covert CNI functions. Through sensor fusion, information from radio frequency receivers and infrared sensors are combined to form a single tactical picture for the pilot. The all-aspect target direction and identification can be shared via MADL to other platforms without compromising low observability, while Link 16 is present for communication with legacy systems.
The F-35 was designed from the outset to incorporate improved processors, sensors, and software enhancements over its lifespan. Technology Refresh 3, which includes a new core processor and a new cockpit display, is planned for Lot 15 aircraft. Lockheed Martin has offered the Advanced EOTS for the Block 4 configuration; the improved sensor fits into the same area as the baseline EOTS with minimal changes. In June 2018, Lockheed Martin picked Raytheon for improved DAS. The USAF has studied the potential for the F-35 to orchestrate attacks by unmanned combat aerial vehicles (UCAVs) via its sensors and communications equipment.
Stealth and signatures
Stealth is a key aspect of the F-35s design, and radar cross-section (RCS) is minimized through careful shaping of the airframe and the use of radar-absorbent materials (RAM); visible measures to reduce RCS include alignment of edges, serration of skin panels, and the masking of the engine face and turbine. Additionally, the F-35's diverterless supersonic inlet (DSI) uses a compression bump and forward-swept cowl rather than a splitter gap or bleed system to divert the boundary layer away from the inlet duct, eliminating the diverter cavity and further reducing radar signature. The RCS of the F-35 has been characterized as lower than a metal golf ball at certain frequencies and angles; in some conditions, the F-35 compares favorably to the F-22 in stealth. For maintainability, the F-35's stealth design took lessons learned from prior stealth aircraft such as the F-22; the F-35's radar-absorbent fibermat skin is more durable and requires less maintenance than older topcoats. The aircraft also has reduced infrared and visual signatures as well as strict controls of radio frequency emitters to prevent their detection. The F-35's stealth design is primarily focused on high-frequency X-band wavelengths; low-frequency radars can spot stealthy aircraft due to Rayleigh scattering, but such radars are also conspicuous, susceptible to clutter, and lack precision. To disguise its RCS, the aircraft can mount four Luneburg lens reflectors.
Noise from the F-35 caused concerns in residential areas near potential bases for the aircraft, and residents near two such bases—Luke Air Force Base, Arizona, and Eglin Air Force Base (AFB), Florida—requested environmental impact studies in 2008 and 2009 respectively. Although the noise level in decibels were comparable to those of prior fighters such as the F-16, the sound power of the F-35 is stronger particularly at lower frequencies. Subsequent surveys and studies have indicated that the noise of the F-35 was not perceptibly different from the F-16 and F/A-18E/F, though the greater low-frequency noise was noticeable for some observers.
Cockpit
The glass cockpit was designed to give the pilot good situational awareness. The main display is a 20- by 8-inch (50 by 20 cm) panoramic touchscreen, which shows flight instruments, stores management, CNI information, and integrated caution and warnings; the pilot can customize the arrangement of the information. Below the main display is a smaller stand-by display. The cockpit has a speech-recognition system developed by Adacel. The F-35 does not have a head-up display; instead, flight and combat information is displayed on the visor of the pilot's helmet in a helmet-mounted display system (HMDS). The one-piece tinted canopy is hinged at the front and has an internal frame for structural strength. The Martin-Baker US16E ejection seat is launched by a twin-catapult system housed on side rails. There is a right-hand side stick and throttle hands-on throttle-and-stick system. For life support, an onboard oxygen-generation system (OBOGS) is fitted and powered by the Integrated Power Package (IPP), with an auxiliary oxygen bottle and backup oxygen system for emergencies.
The Vision Systems International helmet display is a key piece of the F-35's human-machine interface. Instead of the head-up display mounted atop the dashboard of earlier fighters, the HMDS puts flight and combat information on the helmet visor, allowing the pilot to see it no matter which way he or she is facing. Infrared and night vision imagery from the Distributed Aperture System can be displayed directly on the HMDS and enables the pilot to "see through" the aircraft. The HMDS allows an F-35 pilot to fire missiles at targets even when the nose of the aircraft is pointing elsewhere by cuing missile seekers at high angles off-boresight. Each helmet costs $400,000. The HMDS weighs more than traditional helmets, and there is concern that it can endanger lightweight pilots during ejection.
Due to the HMDS's vibration, jitter, night-vision and sensor display problems during development, Lockheed Martin and Elbit issued a draft specification in 2011 for an alternative HMDS based on the AN/AVS-9 night vision goggles as backup, with BAE Systems chosen later that year. A cockpit redesign would be needed to adopt an alternative HMDS. Following progress on the baseline helmet, development on the alternative HMDS was halted in October 2013. In 2016, the Gen 3 helmet with improved night vision camera, new liquid crystal displays, automated alignment and software enhancements was introduced with LRIP lot 7.
Armament
To preserve its stealth shaping, the F-35 has two internal weapons bays with four weapons stations. The two outboard weapon stations each can carry ordnance up to , or for F-35B, while the two inboard stations carry air-to-air missiles. Air-to-surface weapons for the outboard station include the Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM), Paveway series of bombs, Joint Standoff Weapon (JSOW), and cluster munitions (Wind Corrected Munitions Dispenser). The station can also carry multiple smaller munitions such as the GBU-39 Small Diameter Bombs (SDB), GBU-53/B SDB II, and SPEAR 3 anti-tank missiles; up to four SDBs can be carried per station for the F-35A and F-35C, and three for the F-35B. The inboard station can carry the AIM-120 AMRAAM. Two compartments behind the weapons bays contain flares, chaff, and towed decoys.
The aircraft can use six external weapons stations for missions that do not require stealth. The wingtip pylons each can carry an AIM-9X or AIM-132 ASRAAM and are canted outwards to reduce their radar cross-section. Additionally, each wing has a inboard station and a middle station, or for F-35B. The external wing stations can carry large air-to-surface weapons that would not fit inside the weapons bays such as the AGM-158 Joint Air to Surface Stand-off Missile (JASSM) cruise missile. An air-to-air missile load of eight AIM-120s and two AIM-9s is possible using internal and external weapons stations; a configuration of six bombs, two AIM-120s and two AIM-9s can also be arranged. The F-35A is armed with a 25 mm GAU-22/A rotary cannon mounted internally near the left wing root with 182 rounds carried; the gun is more effective against ground targets than the 20 mm cannon carried by other USAF fighters. The F-35B and F-35C have no internal gun and instead can use a Terma A/S multi-mission pod (MMP) carrying the GAU-22/A and 220 rounds; the pod is mounted on the centerline of the aircraft and shaped to reduce its radar cross-section. In lieu of the gun, the pod can also be used for different equipment and purposes, such as electronic warfare, aerial reconnaissance, or rear-facing tactical radar.
Lockheed Martin is developing a weapon rack called Sidekick that would enable the internal outboard station to carry two AIM-120s, thus increasing the internal air-to-air payload to six missiles, currently offered for Block 4. Block 4 will also have a rearranged hydraulic line and bracket to allow the F-35B to carry four SDBs per internal outboard station; integration of the MBDA Meteor is also planned. The USAF and USN are planning to integrate the AGM-88G AARGM-ER internally in the F-35A and F-35C. Norway and Australia are funding an adaptation of the Naval Strike Missile (NSM) for the F-35; designated Joint Strike Missile (JSM), two missiles can be carried internally with an additional four externally. Nuclear weapons delivery via internal carriage of the B61 nuclear bomb is planned for Block 4B in 2024. Both hypersonic missiles and direct energy weapons such as solid-state laser are currently being considered as future upgrades. Lockheed Martin is studying integrating a fiber laser that uses spectral beam combining multiple individual laser modules into a single high-power beam, which can be scaled to various levels.
The USAF plans for the F-35A to take up the close air support (CAS) mission in contested environments; amid criticism that it is not as well suited as a dedicated attack platform, USAF chief of staff Mark Welsh placed a focus on weapons for CAS sorties, including guided rockets, fragmentation rockets that shatter into individual projectiles before impact, and more compact ammunition for higher capacity gun pods. Fragmentary rocket warheads create greater effects than cannon shells as each rocket creates a "thousand-round burst", delivering more projectiles than a strafing run.
Engine
The single-engine aircraft is powered by the Pratt & Whitney F135 low-bypass augmented turbofan with rated thrust of . Derived from the Pratt & Whitney F119 used by the F-22, the F135 has a larger fan and higher bypass ratio to increase subsonic fuel efficiency, and unlike the F119, is not optimized for supercruise. The engine contributes to the F-35's stealth by having a low-observable augmenter, or afterburner, that incorporates fuel injectors into thick curved vanes; these vanes are covered by ceramic radar-absorbent materials and mask the turbine. The stealthy augmenter had problems with pressure pulsations, or "screech", at low altitude and high speed early in its development. The low-observable axisymmetric nozzle consists of 15 partially overlapping flaps that create a sawtooth pattern at the trailing edge, which reduces radar signature and creates shed vortices that reduce the infrared signature of the exhaust plume. Due to the engines large dimensions, the USN had to modify its underway replenishment system to facilitate at-sea logistics support. The F-35's Integrated Power Package (IPP) performs power and thermal management and integrates environment control, auxiliary power unit, engine starting, and other functions into a single system.
The F135-PW-600 variant for the F-35B incorporates the SDLF to allow STOVL operations. Designed by Lockheed Martin and developed by Rolls-Royce, the SDLF, also known as the Rolls-Royce LiftSystem, consists of the lift fan, drive shaft, two roll posts, and a "three-bearing swivel module" (3BSM). The thrust vectoring 3BSM nozzle allows the main engine exhaust to be deflected downward at the tail of the aircraft and is moved by a "fueldraulic" actuator that uses pressurized fuel as the working fluid. Unlike the Harriers Pegasus engine that entirely uses direct engine thrust for lift, the F-35B's system augments the swivel nozzle's thrust with the lift fan; the fan is powered by the low-pressure turbine through a drive shaft when engaged with a clutch and placed near the front of the aircraft to provide a counterbalancing thrust. Roll control during slow flight is achieved by diverting unheated engine bypass air through wing-mounted thrust nozzles called roll posts.
An alternative engine, the General Electric/Rolls-Royce F136, was being developed in the 2000s; originally, F-35 engines from Lot 6 onward were competitively tendered. Using technology from the General Electric YF120, the F136 was claimed to have a greater temperature margin than the F135. The F136 was canceled in December 2011 due to lack of funding.
The F-35 is expected to receive propulsion upgrades over its lifecycle in order to adapt to emerging threats and enable additional capabilities. In 2016, the Adaptive Engine Transition Program (AETP) was launched to develop and test adaptive cycle engines, with one major potential application being the re-engining of the F-35; in 2018, both GE and P&W were awarded contracts to develop thrust class demonstrators, with the designations XA100 and XA101 respectively. In addition to potential re-engining, P&W also plans to improve the baseline F135; in 2017, P&W announced the F135 Growth Option 1.0 and 2.0; Growth Option 1.0 was a drop-in power module upgrade that offered 6–10% thrust improvement and 5–6% fuel burn reduction, while Growth Option 2.0 would be the adaptive cycle XA101. In 2020, P&W shifted its F135 upgrade plan from the Growth Options to a series of Engine Enhancement Packages along with some additional capabilities, while the XA101 became a separate clean-sheet design. The capability packages are planned to be incorporated in two-year increments starting in the mid-2020s.
Maintenance and logistics
The F-35 is designed to require less maintenance than earlier stealth aircraft. Some 95% of all field-replaceable parts are "one deep"—that is, nothing else need be removed to reach the desired part; for instance, the ejection seat can be replaced without removing the canopy. The F-35 has a fibermat radar-absorbent material (RAM) baked into the skin, which is more durable, easier to work with, and faster to cure than older RAM coatings; similar coatings are currently being considered for application on older stealth aircraft such as the F-22. Skin corrosion on the F-22 led the F-35's designers to use a less galvanic corrosion-inducing skin gap filler and to use fewer gaps in the airframe skin needing filler and better drainage. The flight control system uses electro-hydrostatic actuators rather than traditional hydraulic systems; these controls can be powered by lithium-ion batteries in case of emergency. Commonality between the different variants allowed the USMC to create their first aircraft maintenance Field Training Detachment to apply the USAF's lessons to their F-35 operations.
The F-35 was intended to be supported by a computerized maintenance management system named Autonomic Logistics Information System (ALIS). In concept, any aircraft can be serviced at any F-35 maintenance facility and for all parts to be globally tracked and shared as needed. Due to numerous problems, such as unreliable diagnoses, excessive connectivity requirements, and security vulnerabilities, program officials plan to replace ALIS with the cloud-based Operational Data Integrated Network (ODIN) by 2022.
ODIN base kits (OBKs)— OBKs are new computer hardware which replace ALIS's Standard Operating Unit unclassified (SOU-U) server hardware. Beginning in September 2020 OBKs were running ALIS software, as well as ODIN software, first at Marine Corps Air Station (MCAS) Yuma, Arizona, then at Naval Air Station Lemoore, California, in support of Strike Fighter Squadron (VFA) 125 on 16 July 2021, and then Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada, in support of the 422nd Test and Evaluation Squadron (TES) on 6 August 2021. In 2022, over a dozen more OBK server installation sites will replace the ALIS SOU-U servers, which will be able to run the legacy ALIS software as well as its replacement ODIN software. The performance on the OBK has doubled so far, compared to ALIS.
Operational history
Testing
The first F-35A, AA-1, conducted its engine run in September 2006 and first flew on 15 December 2006. Unlike all subsequent aircraft, AA-1 did not have the weight optimization from SWAT; consequently, it mainly tested subsystems common to subsequent aircraft, such as the propulsion, electrical system, and cockpit displays. This aircraft was retired from flight testing in December 2009 and was used for live-fire testing at NAS China Lake.
The first F-35B, BF-1, flew on 11 June 2008, while the first weight-optimized F-35A and F-35C, AF-1 and CF-1, flew on 14 November 2009 and 6 June 2010 respectively. The F-35B's first hover was on 17 March 2010, followed by its first vertical landing the next day. The F-35 Integrated Test Force (ITF) consisted of 18 aircraft at Edwards Air Force Base and Naval Air Station Patuxent River. Nine aircraft at Edwards, five F-35As, three F-35Bs, and one F-35C, performed flight sciences testing such as F-35A envelope expansion, flight loads, stores separation, as well as mission systems testing. The other nine aircraft at Patuxent River, five F-35Bs and four F-35Cs, were responsible for F-35B and C envelope expansion and STOVL and CV suitability testing. Additional carrier suitability testing was conducted at Naval Air Warfare Center Aircraft Division at Lakehurst, New Jersey. Two non-flying aircraft of each variant were used to test static loads and fatigue. For testing avionics and mission systems, a modified Boeing 737-300 with a duplication of the cockpit, the Lockheed Martin CATBird has been used. Field testing of the F-35's sensors were conducted during Exercise Northern Edge 2009 and 2011, serving as significant risk-reduction steps.
Flight tests revealed several serious deficiencies that required costly redesigns, caused delays, and resulted in several fleet-wide groundings. In 2011, the F-35C failed to catch the arresting wire in all eight landing tests; a redesigned tail hook was delivered two years later. By June 2009, many of the initial flight test targets had been accomplished but the program was behind schedule. Software and mission systems were among the biggest sources of delays for the program, with sensor fusion proving especially challenging. In fatigue testing, the F-35B suffered several premature cracks, requiring a redesign of the structure. A third non-flying F-35B is currently planned to test the redesigned structure. The F-35B and C also had problems with the horizontal tails suffering heat damage from prolonged afterburner use. Early flight control laws had problems with "wing drop" and also made the airplane sluggish, with high angles-of-attack tests in 2015 against an F-16 showing a lack of energy.
At-sea testing of the F-35B was first conducted aboard . In October 2011, two F-35Bs conducted three weeks of initial sea trials, called Development Test I. The second F-35B sea trials, Development Test II, began in August 2013, with tests including nighttime operations; two aircraft completed 19 nighttime vertical landings using DAS imagery. The first operational testing involving six F-35Bs was done on the Wasp in May 2015. The final Development Test III on involving operations in high sea states was completed in late 2016. A Royal Navy F-35 conducted the first "rolling" landing on board in October 2018.
After the redesigned tail hook arrived, the F-35C's carrier-based Development Test I began in November 2014 aboard and focused on basic day carrier operations and establishing launch and recovery handling procedures. Development Test II, which focused on night operations, weapons loading, and full power launches, took place in October 2015. The final Development Test III was completed in August 2016, and included tests of asymmetric loads and certifying systems for landing qualifications and interoperability. Operational test of the F-35C began in 2018.
The F-35's reliability and availability have fallen short of requirements, especially in the early years of testing. The ALIS maintenance and logistics system was plagued by excessive connectivity requirements and faulty diagnoses. In late 2017, the GAO reported the time needed to repair an F-35 part averaged 172 days, which was "twice the program's objective," and that shortage of spare parts was degrading readiness. In 2019, while individual F-35 units have achieved mission-capable rates of over the target of 80% for short periods during deployed operations, fleet-wide rates remained below target. The fleet availability goal of 65% was also not met, although the trend shows improvement. Gun accuracy of the F-35A remains unacceptable. As of 2020, the number of the program's most serious issues have been decreased by half.
Operational test and evaluation (OT&E) with Block 3F, the final configuration for SDD, began in December 2018.
United States
The F-35A and F-35B were cleared for basic flight training in early 2012. However, lack of system maturity at the time led to concerns over safety as well as concerns by the Director of Operational Test & Evaluation (DOT&E) over electronic warfare testing, budget, and concurrency for the Operational Test and Evaluation master plan. Nevertheless, on 10 September 2012, the USAF began an operational utility evaluation (OUE) of the F-35A, including logistical support, maintenance, personnel training, and pilot execution. OUE flights began on 26 October and were completed on 14 November after 24 flights, each pilot having completed six flights. On 16 November 2012, the USMC received the first F-35B at MCAS Yuma, although Marine pilots had several flight restrictions. During the Low Rate Initial Production (LRIP) phase, the three U.S. military services jointly developed tactics and procedures using flight simulators, testing effectiveness, discovering problems and refining design. In January 2013, training began at Eglin AFB with capacity for 100 pilots and 2,100 maintainers at once. On 8 January 2015, RAF Lakenheath in the UK was chosen as the first base in Europe to station two USAF F-35 squadrons, with 48 aircraft adding to the 48th Fighter Wing's existing F-15C and F-15E squadrons.
The USMC declared Initial Operational Capability (IOC) for the F-35B in the Block 2B configuration on 31 July 2015 after operational trials. However, limitations remained in night operations, communications, software and weapons carriage capabilities. USMC F-35Bs participated in their first Red Flag exercise in July 2016 with 67 sorties conducted. USAF F-35A in the Block 3i configuration achieved IOC with the USAF's 34th Fighter Squadron at Hill Air Force Base, Utah on 2 August 2016. The USN achieved operational status with the F-35C in Block 3F on 28 February 2019. USAF F-35As conducted their first Red Flag exercise in 2017; system maturity had improved and the aircraft scored a kill ratio of 15:1 against an F-16 aggressor squadron in a high-threat environment.
The F-35's operating cost is higher than some older fighters. In fiscal year 2018, the F-35A's cost per flight hour (CPFH) was $44,000, a number that was reduced to $35,000 in 2019. For comparison, in 2015 the CPFH of the A-10 was $17,716; the F-15C, $41,921; and the F-16C, $22,514. Lockheed Martin hopes to reduce it to $25,000 by 2025 through performance-based logistics and other measures.
The USMC plans to disperse its F-35Bs among forward-deployed bases to enhance survivability while remaining close to a battlespace, similar to RAF Harrier deployment in the Cold War, which relied on the use of off-base locations that offered short runways, shelter, and concealment. Known as distributed STOVL operations (DSO), F-35Bs would operate from temporary bases in allied territory within range of hostile missiles and move between temporary locations inside the enemy's 24- to 48-hour targeting cycle; this strategy accounts for the F-35B's short range, the shortest of the three variants, with mobile forward arming and refueling points (M-Farps) accommodating KC-130 and MV-22 Osprey aircraft to rearm and refuel the jets, as well as littoral areas for sea links of mobile distribution sites. M-Farps can be based on small airfields, multi-lane roads, or damaged main bases, while F-35Bs return to rear-area friendly bases or ships for scheduled maintenance. Helicopter-portable metal planking is needed to protect unprepared roads from the F-35B's exhaust; the USMC are studying lighter heat-resistant options.
The first U.S. combat employment began in July 2018 with USMC F-35Bs from the amphibious assault ship , with the first combat strike on 27 September 2018 against a Taliban target in Afghanistan. This was followed by a USAF deployment to Al Dhafra Air Base, UAE on 15 April 2019. On 27 April 2019, USAF F-35As were first used in combat in an airstrike on an Islamic State tunnel network in northern Iraq.
On 2 August 2021, the F-35C embarked on its maiden deployment on board the USS Carl Vinson with another aircraft making its debut deployment being the CMV-22 Osprey.
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom's Royal Air Force and Royal Navy both operate the F-35B, known simply as the Lightning in British service; it has replaced the Harrier GR9, which was retired in 2010, and Tornado GR4, which was retired in 2019. The F-35 is to be Britain's primary strike aircraft for the next three decades. One of the Royal Navy's requirements for the F-35B was a Shipborne Rolling and Vertical Landing (SRVL) mode to increase maximum landing weight by using wing lift during landing. In July 2013, Chief of the Air Staff, Air Chief Marshal Sir Stephen Dalton announced that No. 617 (The Dambusters) Squadron would be the RAF's first operational F-35 squadron. The second operational squadron will be the Fleet Air Arm's 809 Naval Air Squadron which will stand up in April 2023 or later.
No. 17 (Reserve) Test and Evaluation Squadron (TES) stood-up on 12 April 2013 as the Operational Evaluation Unit for the Lightning, becoming the first British squadron to operate the type. By June 2013, the RAF had received three F-35s of the 48 on order, all initially based at Eglin Air Force Base. In June 2015, the F-35B undertook its first launches from a ski-jump at NAS Patuxent River. When operating at sea, British F-35Bs use ski-jumps fitted to the flight decks of aircraft carriers HMS Queen Elizabeth (R08) and HMS Prince of Wales (R09). The Italian Navy will use the same process. British F-35Bs are not intended to receive the Brimstone 2 missile. On 5 July 2017, it was announced the second UK-based RAF squadron would be No. 207 Squadron, which reformed on 1 August 2019 as the Lightning Operational Conversion Unit. No. 617 Squadron reformed on 18 April 2018 during a ceremony in Washington, D.C., US, becoming the first RAF front-line squadron to operate the type; receiving its first four F-35Bs on 6 June, flying from MCAS Beaufort to RAF Marham. Both No. 617 Squadron and its F-35s were declared combat ready on 10 January 2019.
In April 2019, No. 617 Squadron deployed to RAF Akrotiri, Cyprus, the type's first overseas deployment. On 25 June 2019, the first combat use of an RAF F-35B was reportedly undertaken as armed reconnaissance flights searching for Islamic State targets in Iraq and Syria. In October 2019, the Dambusters and No. 17 TES F-35s were embarked on HMS Queen Elizabeth for the first time. No. 617 Squadron departed RAF Marham on 22 January 2020 for their first Exercise Red Flag with the Lightning.
Australia
Australia’s first F-35, designated A35-001, was manufactured in 2014, with flight training provided through international Pilot Training Centre (PTC) at Luke Air Force Base in Arizona. The first two F-35s were unveiled to the Australian public on 3 March 2017 at the Avalon Airshow. By 2021, the Royal Australian Air Force had accepted 26 F-35A aircraft, with nine in the US and 17 operating at No 3 Squadron and No 2 Operational Conversion Unit at RAAF Base Williamtown. With 41 trained RAAF pilots and 225 trained technicians for maintenance, the fleet was declared ready to deploy on operations. It is expected that Australia will receive all 72 of the F-35s by 2023.
Israel
The Israeli Air Force (IAF) declared the F-35 operationally capable on 6 December 2017. According to Kuwaiti newspaper Al Jarida, in July 2018, a test mission of at least three IAF F-35s flew to Iran's capital Tehran and back from Tel Aviv. While publicly unconfirmed, regional leaders acted on the report; Iran's supreme leader Ali Khamenei reportedly fired the air force chief and commander of Iran's Revolutionary Guard Corps over the mission.
On 22 May 2018, IAF chief Amikam Norkin said that the service had employed their F-35Is in two attacks on two battle fronts, marking the first combat operation of an F-35 by any country. Norkin said it had been flown "all over the Middle East", and showed photos of an F-35I flying over Beirut in daylight. In July 2019, Israel expanded its strikes against Iranian missile shipments; IAF F-35Is allegedly struck Iranian targets in Iraq twice.
In November 2020, the IAF announced the delivery of an F-35I Testbed aircraft amongst a delivery of four aircraft received in August. This example will be used to test and integrate Israeli-produced weapons and electronic systems on future F-35s received. This is the only example of a testbed F-35 delivered to an air force outside of the United States.
On 11 May 2021, eight IAF F-35Is took part in an attack on 150 terrorist targets in Hamas' rocket array, including 50-70 launch pits in the northern Gaza Strip, as part of Operation Guardian of the Walls.
Italy
Italy's F-35As were declared to have reached initial operational capability (IOC) on 30 November 2018. At the time Italy had taken delivery of 10 F-35As and one F-35B, with 2 F-35As and the one F-35B being stationed in the U.S. for training, the remaining 8 F-35As were stationed in Amendola.
Norway
On 6 November 2019 Norway declared initial operational capability (IOC) for its fleet of 15 F-35As out of a planned 52 F-35As. On January 6, 2022 Norway's F-35As replaced its F-16s for the NATO quick reaction alert mission in the high north.
Netherlands
On 27 December 2021 the Netherlands declared initial operational capability (IOC) for its fleet of 24 F-35As that it has received to date from its order for 46 F-35As.
Variants
The F-35 was designed with three initial variants - the F-35A, a CTOL land-based version; the F-35B, a STOVL version capable of use either on land or on aircraft carriers; and the F-35C, a CATOBAR carrier-based version. Since then, there has been work on the design of nationally specific versions for Israel and Canada, as well as initial concept design work for an updated version of the F-35A, which would become the F-35D.
F-35A
The F-35A is the conventional takeoff and landing (CTOL) variant intended for the USAF and other air forces. It is the smallest, lightest version and capable of 9 g, the highest of all variants.
Although the F-35A currently conducts aerial refueling via boom and receptacle method, the aircraft can be modified for probe-and-drogue refueling if needed by the customer. A drag chute pod can be installed on the F-35A, with the Royal Norwegian Air Force being the first operator to adopt it.
F-35B
The F-35B is the short takeoff and vertical landing (STOVL) variant of the aircraft. Similar in size to the A variant, the B sacrifices about a third of the A variant's fuel volume to accommodate the SDLF. This variant is limited to 7 g. Unlike other variants, the F-35B has no landing hook. The "STOVL/HOOK" control instead engages conversion between normal and vertical flight. The F-35B can also perform vertical and/or short take-off and landing (V/STOL).
F-35C
The F-35C variant is designed for catapult-assisted take-off but arrested recovery operations from aircraft carriers. Compared to the F-35A, the F-35C features larger wings with foldable wingtip sections, larger control surfaces for improved low-speed control, stronger landing gear for the stresses of carrier arrested landings, a twin-wheel nose gear, and a stronger tailhook for use with carrier arrestor cables. The larger wing area allows for decreased landing speed while increasing both range and payload. The F-35C is limited to 7.5 g.
F-35I "Adir"
The F-35I Adir (, meaning "Awesome", or "Mighty One") is an F-35A with unique Israeli modifications. The US initially refused to allow such changes before permitting Israel to integrate its own electronic warfare systems, including sensors and countermeasures. The main computer has a plug-and-play function for add-on systems; proposals include an external jamming pod, and new Israeli air-to-air missiles and guided bombs in the internal weapon bays. A senior IAF official said that the F-35's stealth may be partly overcome within 10 years despite a 30 to 40 year service life, thus Israel's insistence on using their own electronic warfare systems. Israel Aerospace Industries (IAI) has considered a two-seat F-35 concept; an IAI executive noted: "There is a known demand for two seats not only from Israel but from other air forces". IAI plans to produce conformal fuel tanks.
Proposed variants
F-35D
A study for a possible upgrade of the F-35A to be fielded by the 2035 target date of the USAF's Future Operating Concept.
CF-35
The Canadian CF-35 is a proposed variant that would differ from the F-35A through the addition of a drogue parachute and may include an F-35B/C-style refueling probe. In 2012, it was revealed that the CF-35 would employ the same boom refueling system as the F-35A. One alternative proposal would have been the adoption of the F-35C for its probe refueling and lower landing speed; however, the Parliamentary Budget Officer's report cited the F-35C's limited performance and payload as being too high a price to pay. Following the 2015 Federal Election the Liberal Party, whose campaign had included a pledge to cancel the F-35 procurement, formed a new government and commenced an open competition to replace the existing CF-18 Hornet.
New Export variant
In December 2021, it was reported that Lockheed Martin was developing a new variant for a unspecified foreign customer. The Department of Defense released US$49 million in funding for this work.
Operators
Royal Australian Air Force – 44 F-35A delivered as of November 2021, of 72 ordered.
Belgian Air Component – 34 F-35A planned.
Royal Danish Air Force – 4 F-35A delivered of the 27 planned.
Finnish Air Force – F-35A Block 4 selected via the HX fighter program to replace the current F/A-18 Hornets. 64 F-35As on order.
Israeli Air Force – 30 delivered as of September 2021 (F-35I "Adir"). Includes one F-35 testbed aircraft for indigenous Israeli weapons, electronics and structural upgrades, designated (AS-15). A total of 75 ordered with 75 planned.
Italian Air Force – 12 F-35As delivered as of May 2020. 1 F-35B delivered as of October 2020, at which point Italy planned to order 60 F-35As and 15 F-35Bs for the Italian Air Force.
Italian Navy – 2 had been delivered as of October 2020. 15 F-35Bs planned for the Italian Navy.
Japan Air Self-Defense Force – 23 F-35As operational as of December 2021 with a total order of 147, including 42 F-35Bs.
Royal Netherlands Air Force – 24 F-35As delivered and operational out of 46 ordered
Royal Norwegian Air Force – 31 F-35As delivered and operational, of which 21 are in Norway and 10 are based in the US for training as of August 11th 2021 of 52 F-35As planned in total. They differ from other F-35A through the addition of a drogue parachute.
Polish Air Force – 32 F-35As on order. Option for additional 16.
Republic of Korea Air Force – 40 F-35A delivered as of January 2022, with 20 more on order.
Republic of Korea Navy – about 20 F-35Bs planned
Republic of Singapore Air Force – four F-35Bs to be ordered with option to order eight more as of March 2019.
Royal Air Force and Royal Navy (owned by the RAF but jointly operated) – 27 F-35Bs received with 23 in the UK after the loss of one aircraft in November 2021; the other three are in the US where they are used for testing and training. 42 (24 FOC fighters and 18 training aircraft) to be fast-tracked by 2023; A total of 48 ordered as of 2021; a total of 60 to 80 F-35Bs are planned to be ordered.
United States Air Force – 1,763 F-35As planned
United States Marine Corps – 353 F-35Bs and 67 F-35Cs planned
United States Navy – 273 F-35Cs planned
Order and approval cancellations
Turkish Air Force – Four F-35As delivered to Luke Air Force Base for training in July 2018. 30 were ordered, of up to 120 total planned. Future purchases have been banned by the U.S. with contracts canceled by early 2020. All four F-35A have been withheld at Luke Air Force Base and not sent to Turkey.
Accidents and notable incidents
On 23 June 2014, an F-35A's engine caught fire at Eglin AFB. The pilot escaped unharmed, while the aircraft sustained an estimated US$50 million in damage. The accident caused all flights to be halted on 3 July. The fleet returned to flight on 15 July with flight envelope restrictions. In June 2015, the USAF Air Education and Training Command (AETC) issued its official report, which blamed the failure on the third stage rotor of the engine's fan module, pieces of which cut through the fan case and upper fuselage. Pratt & Whitney applied an extended "rub-in" to increase the gap between the second stator and the third rotor integral arm seal, as well as design alterations to pre-trench the stator by early 2016.
On 28 September 2018, the first crash occurred involving a USMC F-35B near Marine Corps Air Station Beaufort, South Carolina; the pilot ejected safely. The crash was attributed to a faulty fuel tube; all F-35s were grounded on 11 October pending a fleet-wide inspection of the tubes. The next day, most USAF and USN F-35s returned to flight status following the inspection.
On 9 April 2019, a JASDF F-35A attached to Misawa Air Base disappeared from radar about 84 miles (135 km) east of the Aomori Prefecture during a training mission over the Pacific Ocean. The pilot, Major Akinori Hosomi, had radioed his intention to abort the drill before disappearing. The US and Japanese navies searched for the missing aircraft and pilot, finding debris on the water that confirmed its crash; Hosomi's remains were recovered in June. In response, Japan grounded its 12 F-35As. There was speculation that China or Russia might attempt to salvage it; the Japanese Defense Ministry announced there had been no "reported activities" from either country. The F-35 reportedly did not send a distress signal nor did the pilot attempt any recovery maneuvers as it descended at a rapid rate. The accident report attributed the cause to the pilot's spatial disorientation.
On 19 May 2020, a USAF F-35A from the 58th Fighter Squadron crashed while landing at Eglin AFB. The pilot ejected and was in stable condition. The accident was attributed to a combination of pilot error induced by fatigue, an design issue with the oxygen system and the aircraft's more complex nature being distracting, as well as a malfunctioning head-mounted display and an unresponsive flight control system.
On 29 September 2020, a USMC F-35B crashed in Imperial County, California, after colliding with a Marine Corps KC-130 during air-to-air refuelling. The F-35B pilot was injured in the ejection, and the KC-130 crash-landed gear up in a field.
On 17 November 2021, a Royal Air Force F-35B crashed during routine operations in the Mediterranean. The pilot was safely recovered to . Early reports suggested some of "the covers and engine blanks" had not been removed before takeoff. The wreckage, including all security sensitive equipment, was largely recovered with the assistance of U.S. and Italian forces.
On 4 January 2022, a South Korean Air Force F-35A made a belly landing after all systems failed except the flight controls and the engine. The pilot heard a series of bangs during low altitude flight, and various systems stopped working. The control tower suggested that the pilot eject, but he managed to land the plane without deploying the landing gear, walking away uninjured.
On 24 January 2022, a USN F-35C with VFA-147 suffered a ramp strike while landing on the and was lost overboard in the South China Sea, injuring seven crew members. The pilot ejected safely and was recovered from the water. Plans to recover the fighter are underway.
Specifications (F-35A)
Differences between variants
Appearances in media
See also
Notes
References
Bibliography
Lake, Jon. "The West's Great Hope". AirForces Monthly, December 2010.
Further reading
External links
Official JSF web site, Official JSF videos
Official F-35 Team web site
F-35 page on U.S. Naval Air Systems Command site
F-35 – Royal Air Force
F-035 Lightning II
2000s United States fighter aircraft
Single-engined jet aircraft
Lift fan
Carrier-based aircraft
Stealth aircraft
Mid-wing aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 2006
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29550075
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feature%20Selection%20Toolbox
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Feature Selection Toolbox
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Feature Selection Toolbox (FST) is software primarily for feature selection in the machine learning domain, written in C++, developed at the Institute of Information Theory and Automation (UTIA), of the Czech Academy of Sciences.
Version 1
The first generation of Feature Selection Toolbox (FST1) was a Windows application with user interface allowing users to apply several sub-optimal, optimal and mixture-based feature selection methods on data stored in a trivial proprietary textual flat file format.
Version 3
The third generation of Feature Selection Toolbox (FST3) was a library without user interface, written to be more efficient and versatile than the original FST1.
FST3 supports several standard data mining tasks, more specifically, data preprocessing and classification, but its main focus is on feature selection. In feature selection context, it implements several common as well as less usual techniques, with particular emphasis put on threaded implementation of various sequential search methods (a form of hill-climbing). Implemented methods include individual feature ranking, floating search, oscillating search (suitable for very high-dimension problems) in randomized or deterministic form, optimal methods of branch and bound type, probabilistic class distance criteria, various classifier accuracy estimators, feature subset size optimization, feature selection with pre-specified feature weights, criteria ensembles, hybrid methods, detection of all equivalent solutions, or two-criterion optimization. FST3 is more narrowly specialized than popular software like the Waikato Environment for Knowledge Analysis Weka, RapidMiner or PRTools.
By default, techniques implemented in the toolbox are predicated on the assumption that the data is available as a single flat file in a simple proprietary format or in Weka format ARFF, where each data point is described by a fixed number of numeric attributes. FST3 is provided without user interface, and is meant to be used by users familiar both with machine learning and C++ programming. The older FST1 software is more suitable for simple experimenting or educational purposes because it can be used with no need to code in C++.
History
In 1999, development of the first Feature Selection Toolbox version started at UTIA as part of a PhD thesis. It was originally developed in Optima++ (later renamed Power++) RAD C++ environment.
In 2002, the development of the first FST generation has been suspended, mainly due to end of Sybase's support of the then used development environment.
In 2002–2008, FST kernel was recoded and used for research experimentation within UTIA only.
In 2009, 3rd FST kernel recoding from scratch begun.
In 2010, FST3 was made publicly available in form of a C++ library without GUI. The accompanying webpage collects feature selection related links, references, documentation and the original FST1 available for download.
In 2011, an update of FST3 to version 3.1 included new methods (particularly a novel dependency-aware feature ranking suitable for very-high-dimension recognition problems) and core code improvements.
See also
Feature selection
Pattern recognition
Machine learning
Data mining
OpenNN, Open neural networks library for predictive analytics
Weka, comprehensive and popular Java open-source software from University of Waikato
RapidMiner, formerly Yet Another Learning Environment (YALE) a commercial machine learning framework
PRTools of the Delft University of Technology
Infosel++ specialized in information theory based feature selection
Tooldiag a C++ pattern recognition toolbox
List of numerical analysis software
References
External links
Classification algorithms
Data mining and machine learning software
C++ software
Data modeling tools
Computer libraries
Cross-platform software
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laoco%C3%B6n%20%28El%20Greco%29
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Laocoön (El Greco)
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The Laocoön is an oil painting created between 1610 and 1614 by Greek painter El Greco. It is part of a collection at the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C.
The painting depicts the Greek and Roman mythological story of the deaths of Laocoön, a Trojan priest of Poseidon, and his two sons Antiphantes and Thymbraeus. Laocoön and his sons were strangled by sea serpents, a punishment sent by the gods after Laocoön attempted to warn his countrymen about the Trojan horse. Although inspired by the recently discovered monumental Hellenistic sculpture Laocoön and His Sons in Rome, Laocoön is a product of Mannerism, an artistic movement originating in Italy during the 16th century that countered the artistic ideals of the Renaissance. El Greco's painting deliberately breaks away from the balance and harmony of Renaissance art with its strong emotional atmosphere and distorted figures.
Inspiration
El Greco's oil painting of Laocoön represents the influence of both classical mythology and artistry.
Classical Mythology
According to Greco-Roman mythology, Laocoön was a figure in the Trojan War waged between the Achaeans (Greeks) and Trojans. Laocoön's tale appears in many of the numerous classical texts concerning the Trojan War. In particular, Laocoön is a minor character in the Aeneid by Roman poet Virgil and the Epic Cycle, a distinct collection of Ancient Greek epic poems.
Laocoön became involved in the war after Greek soldiers, frustrated by their unsuccessful ten-year siege of the city, devised a ruse to end the war: the hollow Trojan Horse filled with Greek soldiers. Laocoön attempted to warn his compatriots that the horse was a "deadly fraud" instead of a gift, but the Trojans did not heed the warning. Believing that the war was over, the Trojans triumphantly brought the horse within their city walls and initiated a catastrophic series of events that brought about the sack of Troy.
Classical Sculpture
Laocoön was killed by divine execution from the gods, who supported the Greeks in the Trojan War and sent the sea serpents as punishment. Laocoön's death is the subject of a famous monumental Hellenistic sculpture, known as Laocoön and His Sons. The 1st-century BCE marble sculpture was created by Athenadoros, Agesander, and Polydoros of Rhodes. The Laocoön group captures a climactic moment, as Laocoön lets out an anguished yell and struggles beside his sons against Athena's sea serpents. Unearthed in Rome in 1506, the sculpture enamored Renaissance artists with its idealized proportions and graceful, muscular figures. Laocoön and his Sons most likely served as artistic inspiration for El Greco, who would depict the subject during his "Spanish Period".
Description
Foreground
El Greco's version of the classical subject captures the last dying struggle of Laocoön and his sons. Laocoön, the central figure of the painting, lies down in agony on the undulating, dark rocks of the foreground. Sprawled against the foreshortened, dead body of one of his sons, Laocoön clings to life as a serpent bites his head. On the left, Laocoön's standing son contorts in pain, writhing as a serpent swoops in towards his abdomen. Flanking the scene on the right are Apollo and Artemis, who watch the grisly scene unfold. An unfinished figure consisting only of a head and leg also appears on the right.
El Greco distorted the rules of proportion by portraying the mythological characters as elongated, contorted figures. Laocoön sprawls in a strange position, unnaturally stretching out his leg in agony toward the arched, straining body of his son. The distorted figures, with their murky yellow and green coloration, infuse the scene with a sense of suffering and turmoil. The dark, sinister rocks of the foreground add to the intense emotional atmosphere.
Background
El Greco places the classical subject against a gloomy view of Toledo. El Greco's use of Toledo as the backdrop for his depiction of Laocoön's death may be based on local folklore that the people of Toledo descended from the Trojans. In the painting, the Trojan horse moves towards the city, a reminder of Laocoön's failed attempt to convince his countrymen of the trap. El Greco portrays the city Toledo as a world of suffering, using color to create a sense of doom. The high horizon line and the standing figures at the ends of the painting create a vertical composition. Dominated by turbulent shades of grey and swirling clouds, the threatening sky looms over Toledo and creates an eerie background that adds to the suffering of the foreground.
Style
After his initial training as a Byzantine icon painter in his homeland Crete, El Greco studied in Venice and Rome, where he experimented with the Venetian "colorito" and Renaissance compositional techniques. However, El Greco moved to Spain in 1576, and he settled in Toledo in 1577 as a church painter. In Toledo, El Greco honed his eclectic style, becoming a leading artist in the Mannerist movement and inaugurating the Spanish artistic Renaissance. Both of these styles are evident within Laocoön, El Greco's sole painting of a mythological subject. While classical in subject, Laocoön reflects the political, religious, and artistic transformations of post-Renaissance society.
Although El Greco's intention and message are debated, Laocoön reflects a clear Mannerist influence. Mannerism, which emerged in Italy during the 1520s, reflected the religious turmoil of the Protestant Reformation. The chaos and spiritual uncertainty of the era caused Mannerist painters to reject the balance and proportionality of High Renaissance artists like Michelangelo and instead portray elongated figures. Mannerism reached its height with El Greco, as seen in the distorted, contorted figures of Laocoön and his sons and the hyper elegance of the gods on the right.
The infusion of intense religious themes, characteristic of El Greco's work during his Spanish Period, can be seen in Laocoön. While the painting may be an allusion to local tradition or a commentary on the Reformation, Laocoön contains an undeniable spiritual atmosphere. The torturous figures against the terrifying background convey an intense emotional atmosphere. The pairing of profound religious themes with Mannerist features would become a defining part of Spanish Renaissance art.
See also
Mannerism
Spanish Renaissance
Notes
References
"El Greco Biography." Web Gallery of Art. Web. 28 March 2010. <http://www.wga.hu/frames-e.html?/bio/g/greco_el/biograph.html>.
Kleiner, Fred S., and Helen Gardner. Gardner's Art through the Ages: a Global History. Boston, MA: Thomson/Wadsworth, 2009. Print.
Laocoön. National Gallery of Art. Web. 28 March 2010. <https://web.archive.org/web/20150905221554/http://www.nga.gov/collection/gallery/gg29/gg29-33253.html>.
Laocoön. Web Gallery of Art. Web. 28 March 2010. <http://www.wga.hu/frames-e.html?/html/g/greco_el/19/1908grec.html>.
Spielvogel, Jackson J. Western Civilization. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth, 2009. Print.
External links
Provenance, National Gallery of Art
Lacoon – Analysis and Critical Reception
from the National Gallery of Art
from the Web Gallery of Art
from The Met Museum
Paintings by El Greco
1610s paintings
Collections of the National Gallery of Art
Trojans
Nude art
Snakes in art
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport%20Layer%20Security
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Transport Layer Security
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Transport Layer Security (TLS), the successor of the now-deprecated Secure Sockets Layer (SSL), is a cryptographic protocol designed to provide communications security over a computer network. The protocol is widely used in applications such as email, instant messaging, and voice over IP, but its use in securing HTTPS remains the most publicly visible.
The TLS protocol aims primarily to provide cryptography, including privacy (confidentiality), integrity, and authenticity through the use of certificates, between two or more communicating computer applications. It runs in the application layer and is itself composed of two layers: the TLS record and the TLS handshake protocols.
TLS is a proposed Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) standard, first defined in 1999, and the current version is TLS 1.3 defined in August 2018. TLS builds on the earlier SSL specifications (1994, 1995, 1996) developed by Netscape Communications for adding the HTTPS protocol to their Navigator web browser.
Description
Client-server applications use the TLS protocol to communicate across a network in a way designed to prevent eavesdropping and tampering.
Since applications can communicate either with or without TLS (or SSL), it is necessary for the client to request that the server sets up a TLS connection. One of the main ways of achieving this is to use a different port number for TLS connections. For example, port 80 is typically used for unencrypted HTTP traffic while port 443 is the common port used for encrypted HTTPS traffic. Another mechanism is for the client to make a protocol-specific request to the server to switch the connection to TLS; for example, by making a STARTTLS request when using the mail and news protocols.
Once the client and server have agreed to use TLS, they negotiate a stateful connection by using a handshaking procedure. The protocols use a handshake with an asymmetric cipher to establish not only cipher settings but also a session-specific shared key with which further communication is encrypted using a symmetric cipher. During this handshake, the client and server agree on various parameters used to establish the connection's security:
The handshake begins when a client connects to a TLS-enabled server requesting a secure connection and the client presents a list of supported cipher suites (ciphers and hash functions).
From this list, the server picks a cipher and hash function that it also supports and notifies the client of the decision.
The server usually then provides identification in the form of a digital certificate. The certificate contains the server name, the trusted certificate authority (CA) that vouches for the authenticity of the certificate, and the server's public encryption key.
The client confirms the validity of the certificate before proceeding.
To generate the session keys used for the secure connection, the client either:
encrypts a random number (PreMasterSecret) with the server's public key and sends the result to the server (which only the server should be able to decrypt with its private key); both parties then use the random number to generate a unique session key for subsequent encryption and decryption of data during the session
uses Diffie–Hellman key exchange to securely generate a random and unique session key for encryption and decryption that has the additional property of forward secrecy: if the server's private key is disclosed in future, it cannot be used to decrypt the current session, even if the session is intercepted and recorded by a third party.
This concludes the handshake and begins the secured connection, which is encrypted and decrypted with the session key until the connection closes. If any one of the above steps fails, then the TLS handshake fails and the connection is not created.
TLS and SSL do not fit neatly into any single layer of the OSI model or the TCP/IP model. TLS runs "on top of some reliable transport protocol (e.g., TCP)," which would imply that it is above the transport layer. It serves encryption to higher layers, which is normally the function of the presentation layer. However, applications generally use TLS as if it were a transport layer, even though applications using TLS must actively control initiating TLS handshakes and handling of exchanged authentication certificates.
When secured by TLS, connections between a client (e.g., a web browser) and a server (e.g., wikipedia.org) should have one or more of the following properties:
The connection is private (or secure) because a symmetric-key algorithm is used to encrypt the data transmitted. The keys for this symmetric encryption are generated uniquely for each connection and are based on a shared secret that was negotiated at the start of the session. The server and client negotiate the details of which encryption algorithm and cryptographic keys to use before the first byte of data is transmitted (see below). The negotiation of a shared secret is both secure (the negotiated secret is unavailable to eavesdroppers and cannot be obtained, even by an attacker who places themself in the middle of the connection) and reliable (no attacker can modify the communications during the negotiation without being detected).
The identity of the communicating parties can be authenticated using public-key cryptography. This authentication is required for the server and optional for the client.
The connection is reliable because each message transmitted includes a message integrity check using a message authentication code to prevent undetected loss or alteration of the data during transmission.
In addition to the above, careful configuration of TLS can provide additional privacy-related properties such as forward secrecy, ensuring that any future disclosure of encryption keys cannot be used to decrypt any TLS communications recorded in the past.
TLS supports many different methods for exchanging keys, encrypting data, and authenticating message integrity. As a result, secure configuration of TLS involves many configurable parameters, and not all choices provide all of the privacy-related properties described in the list above (see the tables below § Key exchange, , and ).
Attempts have been made to subvert aspects of the communications security that TLS seeks to provide, and the protocol has been revised several times to address these security threats. Developers of web browsers have repeatedly revised their products to defend against potential security weaknesses after these were discovered (see TLS/SSL support history of web browsers).
History and development
Secure Data Network System
The Transport Layer Security Protocol (TLS), together with several other basic network security platforms, was developed through a joint initiative begun in August 1986, among the National Security Agency, the National Bureau of Standards, the Defense Communications Agency, and twelve communications and computer corporations who initiated a special project called the Secure Data Network System (SDNS). The program was described in September 1987 at the 10th National Computer Security Conference in an extensive set of published papers. The innovative research program focused on designing the next generation of secure computer communications network and product specifications to be implemented for applications on public and private internets. It was intended to complement the rapidly emerging new OSI internet standards moving forward both in the U.S. government's GOSIP Profiles and in the huge ITU-ISO JTC1 internet effort internationally. Originally known as the SP4 protocol, it was renamed TLS and subsequently published in 1995 as international standard ITU-T X.274| ISO/IEC 10736:1995.
Secure Network Programming
Early research efforts towards transport layer security included the Secure Network Programming (SNP) application programming interface (API), which in 1993 explored the approach of having a secure transport layer API closely resembling Berkeley sockets, to facilitate retrofitting pre-existing network applications with security measures.
SSL 1.0, 2.0, and 3.0
Netscape developed the original SSL protocols, and Taher Elgamal, chief scientist at Netscape Communications from 1995 to 1998, has been described as the "father of SSL". SSL version 1.0 was never publicly released because of serious security flaws in the protocol. Version 2.0, after being released in February 1995 was quickly discovered to contain a number of security and usability flaws. It used the same cryptographic keys for message authentication and encryption. It had a weak MAC construction that used the MD5 hash function with a secret prefix, making it vulnerable to length extension attacks. And it provided no protection for either the opening handshake or an explicit message close, both of which meant man-in-the-middle attacks could go undetected. Moreover, SSL 2.0 assumed a single service and a fixed domain certificate, conflicting with the widely used feature of virtual hosting in Web servers, so most websites were effectively impaired from using SSL.
These flaws necessitated the complete redesign of the protocol to SSL version 3.0. Released in 1996, it was produced by Paul Kocher working with Netscape engineers Phil Karlton and Alan Freier, with a reference implementation by Christopher Allen and Tim Dierks of Consensus Development. Newer versions of SSL/TLS are based on SSL 3.0. The 1996 draft of SSL 3.0 was published by IETF as a historical document in .
SSL 2.0 was deprecated in 2011 by . In 2014, SSL 3.0 was found to be vulnerable to the POODLE attack that affects all block ciphers in SSL; RC4, the only non-block cipher supported by SSL 3.0, is also feasibly broken as used in SSL 3.0. SSL 3.0 was deprecated in June 2015 by .
TLS 1.0
TLS 1.0 was first defined in in January 1999 as an upgrade of SSL Version 3.0, and written by Christopher Allen and Tim Dierks of Consensus Development. As stated in the RFC, "the differences between this protocol and SSL 3.0 are not dramatic, but they are significant enough to preclude interoperability between TLS 1.0 and SSL 3.0". Tim Dierks later wrote that these changes, and the renaming from "SSL" to "TLS", were a face-saving gesture to Microsoft, "so it wouldn't look [like] the IETF was just rubberstamping Netscape's protocol".
The PCI Council suggested that organizations migrate from TLS 1.0 to TLS 1.1 or higher before June 30, 2018. In October 2018, Apple, Google, Microsoft, and Mozilla jointly announced they would deprecate TLS 1.0 and 1.1 in March 2020.
TLS 1.1
TLS 1.1 was defined in in April 2006. It is an update from TLS version 1.0. Significant differences in this version include:
Added protection against cipher-block chaining (CBC) attacks.
The implicit initialization vector (IV) was replaced with an explicit IV.
Change in handling of padding errors.
Support for IANA registration of parameters.
Support for TLS versions 1.0 and 1.1 was widely deprecated by web sites around 2020, disabling access to Firefox versions before 24 and Chromium-based browsers before 29.
TLS 1.2
TLS 1.2 was defined in in August 2008. It is based on the earlier TLS 1.1 specification. Major differences include:
The MD5–SHA-1 combination in the pseudorandom function (PRF) was replaced with SHA-256, with an option to use cipher suite specified PRFs.
The MD5–SHA-1 combination in the finished message hash was replaced with SHA-256, with an option to use cipher suite specific hash algorithms. However, the size of the hash in the finished message must still be at least 96 bits.
The MD5–SHA-1 combination in the digitally signed element was replaced with a single hash negotiated during handshake, which defaults to SHA-1.
Enhancement in the client's and server's ability to specify which hashes and signature algorithms they accept.
Expansion of support for authenticated encryption ciphers, used mainly for Galois/Counter Mode (GCM) and CCM mode of Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) encryption.
TLS Extensions definition and AES cipher suites were added.
All TLS versions were further refined in in March 2011, removing their backward compatibility with SSL such that TLS sessions never negotiate the use of Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) version 2.0.
TLS 1.3
TLS 1.3 was defined in in August 2018. It is based on the earlier TLS 1.2 specification. Major differences from TLS 1.2 include:
Separating key agreement and authentication algorithms from the cipher suites
Removing support for weak and less-used named elliptic curves
Removing support for MD5 and SHA-224 cryptographic hash functions
Requiring digital signatures even when a previous configuration is used
Integrating HKDF and the semi-ephemeral DH proposal
Replacing resumption with PSK and tickets
Supporting 1-RTT handshakes and initial support for 0-RTT
Mandating perfect forward secrecy, by means of using ephemeral keys during the (EC)DH key agreement
Dropping support for many insecure or obsolete features including compression, renegotiation, non-AEAD ciphers, non-PFS key exchange (among which are static RSA and static DH key exchanges), custom DHE groups, EC point format negotiation, Change Cipher Spec protocol, Hello message UNIX time, and the length field AD input to AEAD ciphers
Prohibiting SSL or RC4 negotiation for backwards compatibility
Integrating use of session hash
Deprecating use of the record layer version number and freezing the number for improved backwards compatibility
Moving some security-related algorithm details from an appendix to the specification and relegating ClientKeyShare to an appendix
Adding the ChaCha20 stream cipher with the Poly1305 message authentication code
Adding the Ed25519 and Ed448 digital signature algorithms
Adding the x25519 and x448 key exchange protocols
Adding support for sending multiple OCSP responses
Encrypting all handshake messages after the ServerHello
Network Security Services (NSS), the cryptography library developed by Mozilla and used by its web browser Firefox, enabled TLS 1.3 by default in February 2017. TLS 1.3 support was subsequently added — but due to compatibility issues for a small number of users, not automatically enabled — to Firefox 52.0, which was released in March 2017. TLS 1.3 was enabled by default in May 2018 with the release of Firefox 60.0.
Google Chrome set TLS 1.3 as the default version for a short time in 2017. It then removed it as the default, due to incompatible middleboxes such as Blue Coat web proxies.
During the IETF 100 Hackathon which took place in Singapore in 2017, The TLS Group worked on adapting open-source applications to use TLS 1.3. The TLS group was made up of individuals from Japan, United Kingdom, and Mauritius via the cyberstorm.mu team. This work was continued in the IETF 101 Hackathon in London, and the IETF 102 Hackathon in Montreal.
wolfSSL enabled the use of TLS 1.3 as of version 3.11.1, released in May 2017. As the first commercial TLS 1.3 implementation, wolfSSL 3.11.1 supported Draft 18 and now supports Draft 28, the final version, as well as many older versions. A series of blogs were published on the performance difference between TLS 1.2 and 1.3.
In September 2018, the popular OpenSSL project released version 1.1.1 of its library, in which support for TLS 1.3 was "the headline new feature".
Support for TLS 1.3 was first added to SChannel with Windows 11 and Windows Server 2022.
Enterprise Transport Security
The Electronic Frontier Foundation praised TLS 1.3 and expressed concern about the variant protocol Enterprise Transport Security (ETS) that intentionally disables important security measures in TLS 1.3. Originally called Enterprise TLS (eTLS), ETS is a published standard known as the 'ETSI TS103523-3', "Middlebox Security Protocol, Part3: Enterprise Transport Security". It is intended for use entirely within proprietary networks such as banking systems. ETS does not support forward secrecy so as to allow third-party organizations connected to the proprietary networks to be able to use their private key to monitor network traffic for the detection of malware and to make it easier to conduct audits. Despite the claimed benefits, the EFF warned that the loss of forward secrecy could make it easier for data to be exposed along with saying that there are better ways to analyze traffic.
Digital certificates
A digital certificate certifies the ownership of a public key by the named subject of the certificate, and indicates certain expected usages of that key. This allows others (relying parties) to rely upon signatures or on assertions made by the private key that corresponds to the certified public key. Keystores and trust stores can be in various formats, such as .pem, .crt, .pfx, and .jks.
Certificate authorities
TLS typically relies on a set of trusted third-party certificate authorities to establish the authenticity of certificates. Trust is usually anchored in a list of certificates distributed with user agent software, and can be modified by the relying party.
According to Netcraft, who monitors active TLS certificates, the market-leading certificate authority (CA) has been Symantec since the beginning of their survey (or VeriSign before the authentication services business unit was purchased by Symantec). As of 2015, Symantec accounted for just under a third of all certificates and 44% of the valid certificates used by the 1 million busiest websites, as counted by Netcraft. In 2017, Symantec sold its TLS/SSL business to DigiCert. In an updated report, it was shown that IdenTrust, DigiCert, and Sectigo are the top 3 certificate authorities in terms of market share since May 2019.
As a consequence of choosing X.509 certificates, certificate authorities and a public key infrastructure are necessary to verify the relation between a certificate and its owner, as well as to generate, sign, and administer the validity of certificates. While this can be more convenient than verifying the identities via a web of trust, the 2013 mass surveillance disclosures made it more widely known that certificate authorities are a weak point from a security standpoint, allowing man-in-the-middle attacks (MITM) if the certificate authority cooperates (or is compromised).
Algorithms
Key exchange or key agreement
Before a client and server can begin to exchange information protected by TLS, they must securely exchange or agree upon an encryption key and a cipher to use when encrypting data (see ). Among the methods used for key exchange/agreement are: public and private keys generated with RSA (denoted TLS_RSA in the TLS handshake protocol), Diffie–Hellman (TLS_DH), ephemeral Diffie–Hellman (TLS_DHE), elliptic-curve Diffie–Hellman (TLS_ECDH), ephemeral elliptic-curve Diffie–Hellman (TLS_ECDHE), anonymous Diffie–Hellman (TLS_DH_anon), pre-shared key (TLS_PSK) and Secure Remote Password (TLS_SRP).
The TLS_DH_anon and TLS_ECDH_anon key agreement methods do not authenticate the server or the user and hence are rarely used because those are vulnerable to man-in-the-middle attacks. Only TLS_DHE and TLS_ECDHE provide forward secrecy.
Public key certificates used during exchange/agreement also vary in the size of the public/private encryption keys used during the exchange and hence the robustness of the security provided. In July 2013, Google announced that it would no longer use 1024-bit public keys and would switch instead to 2048-bit keys to increase the security of the TLS encryption it provides to its users because the encryption strength is directly related to the key size.
Cipher
Notes
Data integrity
A message authentication code (MAC) is used for data integrity. HMAC is used for CBC mode of block ciphers. Authenticated encryption (AEAD) such as GCM mode and CCM mode uses AEAD-integrated MAC and doesn't use HMAC. HMAC-based PRF, or HKDF is used for TLS handshake.
Applications and adoption
In applications design, TLS is usually implemented on top of Transport Layer protocols, encrypting all of the protocol-related data of protocols such as HTTP, FTP, SMTP, NNTP and XMPP.
Historically, TLS has been used primarily with reliable transport protocols such as the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). However, it has also been implemented with datagram-oriented transport protocols, such as the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) and the Datagram Congestion Control Protocol (DCCP), usage of which has been standardized independently using the term Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS).
Websites
A primary use of TLS is to secure World Wide Web traffic between a website and a web browser encoded with the HTTP protocol. This use of TLS to secure HTTP traffic constitutes the HTTPS protocol.
Notes
Web browsers
, the latest versions of all major web browsers support TLS 1.0, 1.1, and 1.2, and have them enabled by default. However, not all supported Microsoft operating systems support the latest version of IE. Additionally, many Microsoft operating systems currently support multiple versions of IE, but this has changed according to Microsoft's Internet Explorer Support Lifecycle Policy FAQ, "beginning January 12, 2016, only the most current version of Internet Explorer available for a supported operating system will receive technical support and security updates." The page then goes on to list the latest supported version of IE at that date for each operating system. The next critical date would be when an operating system reaches the end of life stage, which is in Microsoft's Windows lifecycle fact sheet.
Mitigations against known attacks are not enough yet:
Mitigations against POODLE attack: some browsers already prevent fallback to SSL 3.0; however, this mitigation needs to be supported by not only clients but also servers. Disabling SSL 3.0 itself, implementation of "anti-POODLE record splitting", or denying CBC ciphers in SSL 3.0 is required.
Google Chrome: complete (TLS_FALLBACK_SCSV is implemented since version 33, fallback to SSL 3.0 is disabled since version 39, SSL 3.0 itself is disabled by default since version 40. Support of SSL 3.0 itself was dropped since version 44.)
Mozilla Firefox: complete (support of SSL 3.0 itself is dropped since version 39. SSL 3.0 itself is disabled by default and fallback to SSL 3.0 are disabled since version 34, TLS_FALLBACK_SCSV is implemented since version 35. In ESR, SSL 3.0 itself is disabled by default and TLS_FALLBACK_SCSV is implemented since ESR 31.3.)
Internet Explorer: partial (only in version 11, SSL 3.0 is disabled by default since April 2015. Version 10 and older are still vulnerable against POODLE.)
Opera: complete (TLS_FALLBACK_SCSV is implemented since version 20, "anti-POODLE record splitting", which is effective only with client-side implementation, is implemented since version 25, SSL 3.0 itself is disabled by default since version 27. Support of SSL 3.0 itself will be dropped since version 31.)
Safari: complete (only on OS X 10.8 and later and iOS 8, CBC ciphers during fallback to SSL 3.0 is denied, but this means it will use RC4, which is not recommended as well. Support of SSL 3.0 itself is dropped on OS X 10.11 and later and iOS 9.)
Mitigation against RC4 attacks:
Google Chrome disabled RC4 except as a fallback since version 43. RC4 is disabled since Chrome 48.
Firefox disabled RC4 except as a fallback since version 36. Firefox 44 disabled RC4 by default.
Opera disabled RC4 except as a fallback since version 30. RC4 is disabled since Opera 35.
Internet Explorer for Windows 7 / Server 2008 R2 and for Windows 8 / Server 2012 have set the priority of RC4 to lowest and can also disable RC4 except as a fallback through registry settings. Internet Explorer 11 Mobile 11 for Windows Phone 8.1 disable RC4 except as a fallback if no other enabled algorithm works. Edge and IE 11 disable RC4 completely in August 2016.
Mitigation against FREAK attack:
The Android Browser included with Android 4.0 and older is still vulnerable to the FREAK attack.
Internet Explorer 11 Mobile is still vulnerable to the FREAK attack.
Google Chrome, Internet Explorer (desktop), Safari (desktop & mobile), and Opera (mobile) have FREAK mitigations in place.
Mozilla Firefox on all platforms and Google Chrome on Windows were not affected by FREAK.
Notes
Libraries
Most SSL and TLS programming libraries are free and open source software.
BoringSSL, a fork of OpenSSL for Chrome/Chromium and Android as well as other Google applications.
Botan, a BSD-licensed cryptographic library written in C++.
BSAFE Micro Edition Suite: a multi-platform implementation of TLS written in C using a FIPS-validated cryptographic module
BSAFE SSL-J: a TLS library providing both a proprietary API and JSSE API, using FIPS-validated cryptographic module
cryptlib: a portable open source cryptography library (includes TLS/SSL implementation)
Delphi programmers may use a library called Indy which utilizes OpenSSL or alternatively ICS which supports TLS 1.3 now.
GnuTLS: a free implementation (LGPL licensed)
Java Secure Socket Extension (JSSE): the Java API and provider implementation (named SunJSSE)
LibreSSL: a fork of OpenSSL by OpenBSD project.
MatrixSSL: a dual licensed implementation
mbed TLS (previously PolarSSL): A tiny SSL library implementation for embedded devices that is designed for ease of use
Network Security Services: FIPS 140 validated open source library
OpenSSL: a free implementation (BSD license with some extensions)
SChannel: an implementation of SSL and TLS Microsoft Windows as part of its package.
Secure Transport: an implementation of SSL and TLS used in OS X and iOS as part of their packages.
wolfSSL (previously CyaSSL): Embedded SSL/TLS Library with a strong focus on speed and size.
A paper presented at the 2012 ACM conference on computer and communications security showed that few applications used some of these SSL libraries correctly, leading to vulnerabilities. According to the authors
"the root cause of most of these vulnerabilities is the terrible design of the APIs to the underlying SSL libraries. Instead of expressing high-level security properties of network tunnels such as confidentiality and authentication, these APIs expose low-level details of the SSL protocol to application developers. As a consequence, developers often use SSL APIs incorrectly, misinterpreting and misunderstanding their manifold parameters, options, side effects, and return values."
Other uses
The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) can also be protected by TLS. These applications use public key certificates to verify the identity of endpoints.
TLS can also be used for tunnelling an entire network stack to create a VPN, which is the case with OpenVPN and OpenConnect. Many vendors have by now married TLS's encryption and authentication capabilities with authorization. There has also been substantial development since the late 1990s in creating client technology outside of Web-browsers, in order to enable support for client/server applications. Compared to traditional IPsec VPN technologies, TLS has some inherent advantages in firewall and NAT traversal that make it easier to administer for large remote-access populations.
TLS is also a standard method for protecting Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) application signaling. TLS can be used for providing authentication and encryption of the SIP signalling associated with VoIP and other SIP-based applications.
Security
Attacks against TLS/SSL
Significant attacks against TLS/SSL are listed below.
In February 2015, IETF issued an informational RFC summarizing the various known attacks against TLS/SSL.
Renegotiation attack
A vulnerability of the renegotiation procedure was discovered in August 2009 that can lead to plaintext injection attacks against SSL 3.0 and all current versions of TLS. For example, it allows an attacker who can hijack an https connection to splice their own requests into the beginning of the conversation the client has with the web server. The attacker can't actually decrypt the client–server communication, so it is different from a typical man-in-the-middle attack. A short-term fix is for web servers to stop allowing renegotiation, which typically will not require other changes unless client certificate authentication is used. To fix the vulnerability, a renegotiation indication extension was proposed for TLS. It will require the client and server to include and verify information about previous handshakes in any renegotiation handshakes. This extension has become a proposed standard and has been assigned the number . The RFC has been implemented by several libraries.
Downgrade attacks: FREAK attack and Logjam attack
A protocol downgrade attack (also called a version rollback attack) tricks a web server into negotiating connections with previous versions of TLS (such as SSLv2) that have long since been abandoned as insecure.
Previous modifications to the original protocols, like False Start (adopted and enabled by Google Chrome) or Snap Start, reportedly introduced limited TLS protocol downgrade attacks or allowed modifications to the cipher suite list sent by the client to the server. In doing so, an attacker might succeed in influencing the cipher suite selection in an attempt to downgrade the cipher suite negotiated to use either a weaker symmetric encryption algorithm or a weaker key exchange. A paper presented at an ACM conference on computer and communications security in 2012 demonstrated that the False Start extension was at risk: in certain circumstances it could allow an attacker to recover the encryption keys offline and to access the encrypted data.
Encryption downgrade attacks can force servers and clients to negotiate a connection using cryptographically weak keys. In 2014, a man-in-the-middle attack called FREAK was discovered affecting the OpenSSL stack, the default Android web browser, and some Safari browsers. The attack involved tricking servers into negotiating a TLS connection using cryptographically weak 512 bit encryption keys.
Logjam is a security exploit discovered in May 2015 that exploits the option of using legacy "export-grade" 512-bit Diffie–Hellman groups dating back to the 1990s. It forces susceptible servers to downgrade to cryptographically weak 512-bit Diffie–Hellman groups. An attacker can then deduce the keys the client and server determine using the Diffie–Hellman key exchange.
Cross-protocol attacks: DROWN
The DROWN attack is an exploit that attacks servers supporting contemporary SSL/TLS protocol suites by exploiting their support for the obsolete, insecure, SSLv2 protocol to leverage an attack on connections using up-to-date protocols that would otherwise be secure. DROWN exploits a vulnerability in the protocols used and the configuration of the server, rather than any specific implementation error. Full details of DROWN were announced in March 2016, together with a patch for the exploit. At that time, more than 81,000 of the top 1 million most popular websites were among the TLS protected websites that were vulnerable to the DROWN attack.
BEAST attack
On September 23, 2011 researchers Thai Duong and Juliano Rizzo demonstrated a proof of concept called BEAST (Browser Exploit Against SSL/TLS) using a Java applet to violate same origin policy constraints, for a long-known cipher block chaining (CBC) vulnerability in TLS 1.0: an attacker observing 2 consecutive ciphertext blocks C0, C1 can test if the plaintext block P1 is equal to x by choosing the next plaintext block P2 = x C0 C1; as per CBC operation, C2 = E(C1 P2) = E(C1 x C0 C1) = E(C0 x), which will be equal to C1 if x = P1. Practical exploits had not been previously demonstrated for this vulnerability, which was originally discovered by Phillip Rogaway in 2002. The vulnerability of the attack had been fixed with TLS 1.1 in 2006, but TLS 1.1 had not seen wide adoption prior to this attack demonstration.
RC4 as a stream cipher is immune to BEAST attack. Therefore, RC4 was widely used as a way to mitigate BEAST attack on the server side. However, in 2013, researchers found more weaknesses in RC4. Thereafter enabling RC4 on server side was no longer recommended.
Chrome and Firefox themselves are not vulnerable to BEAST attack, however, Mozilla updated their NSS libraries to mitigate BEAST-like attacks. NSS is used by Mozilla Firefox and Google Chrome to implement SSL. Some web servers that have a broken implementation of the SSL specification may stop working as a result.
Microsoft released Security Bulletin MS12-006 on January 10, 2012, which fixed the BEAST vulnerability by changing the way that the Windows Secure Channel (SChannel) component transmits encrypted network packets from the server end. Users of Internet Explorer (prior to version 11) that run on older versions of Windows (Windows 7, Windows 8 and Windows Server 2008 R2) can restrict use of TLS to 1.1 or higher.
Apple fixed BEAST vulnerability by implementing 1/n-1 split and turning it on by default in OS X Mavericks, released on October 22, 2013.
CRIME and BREACH attacks
The authors of the BEAST attack are also the creators of the later CRIME attack, which can allow an attacker to recover the content of web cookies when data compression is used along with TLS. When used to recover the content of secret authentication cookies, it allows an attacker to perform session hijacking on an authenticated web session.
While the CRIME attack was presented as a general attack that could work effectively against a large number of protocols, including but not limited to TLS, and application-layer protocols such as SPDY or HTTP, only exploits against TLS and SPDY were demonstrated and largely mitigated in browsers and servers. The CRIME exploit against HTTP compression has not been mitigated at all, even though the authors of CRIME have warned that this vulnerability might be even more widespread than SPDY and TLS compression combined. In 2013 a new instance of the CRIME attack against HTTP compression, dubbed BREACH, was announced. Based on the CRIME attack a BREACH attack can extract login tokens, email addresses or other sensitive information from TLS encrypted web traffic in as little as 30 seconds (depending on the number of bytes to be extracted), provided the attacker tricks the victim into visiting a malicious web link or is able to inject content into valid pages the user is visiting (ex: a wireless network under the control of the attacker). All versions of TLS and SSL are at risk from BREACH regardless of the encryption algorithm or cipher used. Unlike previous instances of CRIME, which can be successfully defended against by turning off TLS compression or SPDY header compression, BREACH exploits HTTP compression which cannot realistically be turned off, as virtually all web servers rely upon it to improve data transmission speeds for users. This is a known limitation of TLS as it is susceptible to chosen-plaintext attack against the application-layer data it was meant to protect.
Timing attacks on padding
Earlier TLS versions were vulnerable against the padding oracle attack discovered in 2002. A novel variant, called the Lucky Thirteen attack, was published in 2013.
Some experts also recommended avoiding Triple-DES CBC. Since the last supported ciphers developed to support any program using Windows XP's SSL/TLS library like Internet Explorer on Windows XP are RC4 and Triple-DES, and since RC4 is now deprecated (see discussion of RC4 attacks), this makes it difficult to support any version of SSL for any program using this library on XP.
A fix was released as the Encrypt-then-MAC extension to the TLS specification, released as . The Lucky Thirteen attack can be mitigated in TLS 1.2 by using only AES_GCM ciphers; AES_CBC remains vulnerable.
POODLE attack
On October 14, 2014, Google researchers published a vulnerability in the design of SSL 3.0, which makes CBC mode of operation with SSL 3.0 vulnerable to a padding attack (). They named this attack POODLE (Padding Oracle On Downgraded Legacy Encryption). On average, attackers only need to make 256 SSL 3.0 requests to reveal one byte of encrypted messages.
Although this vulnerability only exists in SSL 3.0 and most clients and servers support TLS 1.0 and above, all major browsers voluntarily downgrade to SSL 3.0 if the handshakes with newer versions of TLS fail unless they provide the option for a user or administrator to disable SSL 3.0 and the user or administrator does so. Therefore, the man-in-the-middle can first conduct a version rollback attack and then exploit this vulnerability.
On December 8, 2014, a variant of POODLE was announced that impacts TLS implementations that do not properly enforce padding byte requirements.
RC4 attacks
Despite the existence of attacks on RC4 that broke its security, cipher suites in SSL and TLS that were based on RC4 were still considered secure prior to 2013 based on the way in which they were used in SSL and TLS. In 2011, the RC4 suite was actually recommended as a work around for the BEAST attack. New forms of attack disclosed in March 2013 conclusively demonstrated the feasibility of breaking RC4 in TLS, suggesting it was not a good workaround for BEAST. An attack scenario was proposed by AlFardan, Bernstein, Paterson, Poettering and Schuldt that used newly discovered statistical biases in the RC4 key table to recover parts of the plaintext with a large number of TLS encryptions. An attack on RC4 in TLS and SSL that requires 13 × 220 encryptions to break RC4 was unveiled on 8 July 2013 and later described as "feasible" in the accompanying presentation at a USENIX Security Symposium in August 2013. In July 2015, subsequent improvements in the attack make it increasingly practical to defeat the security of RC4-encrypted TLS.
As many modern browsers have been designed to defeat BEAST attacks (except Safari for Mac OS X 10.7 or earlier, for iOS 6 or earlier, and for Windows; see ), RC4 is no longer a good choice for TLS 1.0. The CBC ciphers which were affected by the BEAST attack in the past have become a more popular choice for protection. Mozilla and Microsoft recommend disabling RC4 where possible. prohibits the use of RC4 cipher suites in all versions of TLS.
On September 1, 2015, Microsoft, Google and Mozilla announced that RC4 cipher suites would be disabled by default in their browsers (Microsoft Edge, Internet Explorer 11 on Windows 7/8.1/10, Firefox, and Chrome) in early 2016.
Truncation attack
A TLS (logout) truncation attack blocks a victim's account logout requests so that the user unknowingly remains logged into a web service. When the request to sign out is sent, the attacker injects an unencrypted TCP FIN message (no more data from sender) to close the connection. The server therefore doesn't receive the logout request and is unaware of the abnormal termination.
Published in July 2013, the attack causes web services such as Gmail and Hotmail to display a page that informs the user that they have successfully signed-out, while ensuring that the user's browser maintains authorization with the service, allowing an attacker with subsequent access to the browser to access and take over control of the user's logged-in account. The attack does not rely on installing malware on the victim's computer; attackers need only place themselves between the victim and the web server (e.g., by setting up a rogue wireless hotspot). This vulnerability also requires access to the victim's computer.
Another possibility is when using FTP the data connection can have a false FIN in the data stream, and if the protocol rules for exchanging close_notify alerts is not adhered to a file can be truncated.
Unholy PAC attack
This attack, discovered in mid-2016, exploits weaknesses in the Web Proxy Autodiscovery Protocol (WPAD) to expose the URL that a web user is attempting to reach via a TLS-enabled web link. Disclosure of a URL can violate a user's privacy, not only because of the website accessed, but also because URLs are sometimes used to authenticate users. Document sharing services, such as those offered by Google and Dropbox, also work by sending a user a security token that's included in the URL. An attacker who obtains such URLs may be able to gain full access to a victim's account or data.
The exploit works against almost all browsers and operating systems.
Sweet32 attack
The Sweet32 attack breaks all 64-bit block ciphers used in CBC mode as used in TLS by exploiting a birthday attack and either a man-in-the-middle attack or injection of a malicious JavaScript into a web page. The purpose of the man-in-the-middle attack or the JavaScript injection is to allow the attacker to capture enough traffic to mount a birthday attack.
Implementation errors: Heartbleed bug, BERserk attack, Cloudflare bug
The Heartbleed bug is a serious vulnerability specific to the implementation of SSL/TLS in the popular OpenSSL cryptographic software library, affecting versions 1.0.1 to 1.0.1f. This weakness, reported in April 2014, allows attackers to steal private keys from servers that should normally be protected. The Heartbleed bug allows anyone on the Internet to read the memory of the systems protected by the vulnerable versions of the OpenSSL software. This compromises the secret private keys associated with the public certificates used to identify the service providers and to encrypt the traffic, the names and passwords of the users and the actual content. This allows attackers to eavesdrop on communications, steal data directly from the services and users and to impersonate services and users. The vulnerability is caused by a buffer over-read bug in the OpenSSL software, rather than a defect in the SSL or TLS protocol specification.
In September 2014, a variant of Daniel Bleichenbacher's PKCS#1 v1.5 RSA Signature Forgery vulnerability was announced by Intel Security Advanced Threat Research. This attack, dubbed BERserk, is a result of incomplete ASN.1 length decoding of public key signatures in some SSL implementations, and allows a man-in-the-middle attack by forging a public key signature.
In February 2015, after media reported the hidden pre-installation of Superfish adware on some Lenovo notebooks, a researcher found a trusted root certificate on affected Lenovo machines to be insecure, as the keys could easily be accessed using the company name, Komodia, as a passphrase. The Komodia library was designed to intercept client-side TLS/SSL traffic for parental control and surveillance, but it was also used in numerous adware programs, including Superfish, that were often surreptitiously installed unbeknownst to the computer user. In turn, these potentially unwanted programs installed the corrupt root certificate, allowing attackers to completely control web traffic and confirm false websites as authentic.
In May 2016, it was reported that dozens of Danish HTTPS-protected websites belonging to Visa Inc. were vulnerable to attacks allowing hackers to inject malicious code and forged content into the browsers of visitors. The attacks worked because the TLS implementation used on the affected servers incorrectly reused random numbers (nonces) that are intended to be used only once, ensuring that each TLS handshake is unique.
In February 2017, an implementation error caused by a single mistyped character in code used to parse HTML created a buffer overflow error on Cloudflare servers. Similar in its effects to the Heartbleed bug discovered in 2014, this overflow error, widely known as Cloudbleed, allowed unauthorized third parties to read data in the memory of programs running on the servers—data that should otherwise have been protected by TLS.
Survey of websites vulnerable to attacks
, the Trustworthy Internet Movement estimated the ratio of websites that are vulnerable to TLS attacks.
Forward secrecy
Forward secrecy is a property of cryptographic systems which ensures that a session key derived from a set of public and private keys will not be compromised if one of the private keys is compromised in the future. Without forward secrecy, if the server's private key is compromised, not only will all future TLS-encrypted sessions using that server certificate be compromised, but also any past sessions that used it as well (provided of course that these past sessions were intercepted and stored at the time of transmission). An implementation of TLS can provide forward secrecy by requiring the use of ephemeral Diffie–Hellman key exchange to establish session keys, and some notable TLS implementations do so exclusively: e.g., Gmail and other Google HTTPS services that use OpenSSL. However, many clients and servers supporting TLS (including browsers and web servers) are not configured to implement such restrictions. In practice, unless a web service uses Diffie–Hellman key exchange to implement forward secrecy, all of the encrypted web traffic to and from that service can be decrypted by a third party if it obtains the server's master (private) key; e.g., by means of a court order.
Even where Diffie–Hellman key exchange is implemented, server-side session management mechanisms can impact forward secrecy. The use of TLS session tickets (a TLS extension) causes the session to be protected by AES128-CBC-SHA256 regardless of any other negotiated TLS parameters, including forward secrecy ciphersuites, and the long-lived TLS session ticket keys defeat the attempt to implement forward secrecy. Stanford University research in 2014 also found that of 473,802 TLS servers surveyed, 82.9% of the servers deploying ephemeral Diffie–Hellman (DHE) key exchange to support forward secrecy were using weak Diffie–Hellman parameters. These weak parameter choices could potentially compromise the effectiveness of the forward secrecy that the servers sought to provide.
Since late 2011, Google has provided forward secrecy with TLS by default to users of its Gmail service, along with Google Docs and encrypted search, among other services.
Since November 2013, Twitter has provided forward secrecy with TLS to users of its service. , about 80% of TLS-enabled websites are configured to use cipher suites that provide forward secrecy to most web browsers.
TLS interception
TLS interception (or HTTPS interception if applied particularly to that protocol) is the practice of intercepting an encrypted data stream in order to decrypt it, read and possibly manipulate it, and then re-encrypt it and send the data on its way again. This is done by way of a "transparent proxy": the interception software terminates the incoming TLS connection, inspects the HTTP plaintext, and then creates a new TLS connection to the destination.
TLS / HTTPS interception is used as an information security measure by network operators in order to be able to scan for and protect against the intrusion of malicious content into the network, such as computer viruses and other malware. Such content could otherwise not be detected as long as it is protected by encryption, which is increasingly the case as a result of the routine use of HTTPS and other secure protocols.
A significant drawback of TLS / HTTPS interception is that it introduces new security risks of its own. One notable limitation is that it provides a point where network traffic is available unencrypted thus giving attackers an incentive to attack this point in particular in order to gain access to otherwise secure content. The interception also allows the network operator, or persons who gain access to its interception system, to perform man-in-the-middle attacks against network users. A 2017 study found that "HTTPS interception has become startlingly widespread, and that interception products as a class have a dramatically negative impact on connection security".
Protocol details
The TLS protocol exchanges records, which encapsulate the data to be exchanged in a specific format (see below). Each record can be compressed, padded, appended with a message authentication code (MAC), or encrypted, all depending on the state of the connection. Each record has a content type field that designates the type of data encapsulated, a length field and a TLS version field. The data encapsulated may be control or procedural messages of the TLS itself, or simply the application data needed to be transferred by TLS. The specifications (cipher suite, keys etc.) required to exchange application data by TLS, are agreed upon in the "TLS handshake" between the client requesting the data and the server responding to requests. The protocol therefore defines both the structure of payloads transferred in TLS and the procedure to establish and monitor the transfer.
TLS handshake
When the connection starts, the record encapsulates a "control" protocol – the handshake messaging protocol (content type 22). This protocol is used to exchange all the information required by both sides for the exchange of the actual application data by TLS. It defines the format of messages and the order of their exchange. These may vary according to the demands of the client and server – i.e., there are several possible procedures to set up the connection. This initial exchange results in a successful TLS connection (both parties ready to transfer application data with TLS) or an alert message (as specified below).
Basic TLS handshake
A typical connection example follows, illustrating a handshake where the server (but not the client) is authenticated by its certificate:
Negotiation phase:
A client sends a ClientHello message specifying the highest TLS protocol version it supports, a random number, a list of suggested cipher suites and suggested compression methods. If the client is attempting to perform a resumed handshake, it may send a session ID. If the client can use Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation, it may include a list of supported application protocols, such as HTTP/2.
The server responds with a ServerHello message, containing the chosen protocol version, a random number, cipher suite and compression method from the choices offered by the client. To confirm or allow resumed handshakes the server may send a session ID. The chosen protocol version should be the highest that both the client and server support. For example, if the client supports TLS version 1.1 and the server supports version 1.2, version 1.1 should be selected; version 1.2 should not be selected.
The server sends its Certificate message (depending on the selected cipher suite, this may be omitted by the server).
The server sends its ServerKeyExchange message (depending on the selected cipher suite, this may be omitted by the server). This message is sent for all DHE, ECDHE and DH_anon cipher suites.
The server sends a ServerHelloDone message, indicating it is done with handshake negotiation.
The client responds with a ClientKeyExchange message, which may contain a PreMasterSecret, public key, or nothing. (Again, this depends on the selected cipher.) This PreMasterSecret is encrypted using the public key of the server certificate.
The client and server then use the random numbers and PreMasterSecret to compute a common secret, called the "master secret". All other key data (session keys such as IV, symmetric encryption key, MAC key) for this connection is derived from this master secret (and the client- and server-generated random values), which is passed through a carefully designed pseudorandom function.
The client now sends a ChangeCipherSpec record, essentially telling the server, "Everything I tell you from now on will be authenticated (and encrypted if encryption parameters were present in the server certificate)." The ChangeCipherSpec is itself a record-level protocol with content type of 20.
The client sends an authenticated and encrypted Finished message, containing a hash and MAC over the previous handshake messages.
The server will attempt to decrypt the client's Finished message and verify the hash and MAC. If the decryption or verification fails, the handshake is considered to have failed and the connection should be torn down.
Finally, the server sends a ChangeCipherSpec, telling the client, "Everything I tell you from now on will be authenticated (and encrypted, if encryption was negotiated)."
The server sends its authenticated and encrypted Finished message.
The client performs the same decryption and verification procedure as the server did in the previous step.
Application phase: at this point, the "handshake" is complete and the application protocol is enabled, with content type of 23. Application messages exchanged between client and server will also be authenticated and optionally encrypted exactly like in their Finished message. Otherwise, the content type will return 25 and the client will not authenticate.
Client-authenticated TLS handshake
The following full example shows a client being authenticated (in addition to the server as in the example above; see mutual authentication) via TLS using certificates exchanged between both peers.
Negotiation Phase:
A client sends a ClientHello message specifying the highest TLS protocol version it supports, a random number, a list of suggested cipher suites and compression methods.
The server responds with a ServerHello message, containing the chosen protocol version, a random number, cipher suite and compression method from the choices offered by the client. The server may also send a session id as part of the message to perform a resumed handshake.
The server sends its Certificate message (depending on the selected cipher suite, this may be omitted by the server).
The server sends its ServerKeyExchange message (depending on the selected cipher suite, this may be omitted by the server). This message is sent for all DHE, ECDHE and DH_anon ciphersuites.
The server sends a CertificateRequest message, to request a certificate from the client.
The server sends a ServerHelloDone message, indicating it is done with handshake negotiation.
The client responds with a Certificate message, which contains the client's certificate.
The client sends a ClientKeyExchange message, which may contain a PreMasterSecret, public key, or nothing. (Again, this depends on the selected cipher.) This PreMasterSecret is encrypted using the public key of the server certificate.
The client sends a CertificateVerify message, which is a signature over the previous handshake messages using the client's certificate's private key. This signature can be verified by using the client's certificate's public key. This lets the server know that the client has access to the private key of the certificate and thus owns the certificate.
The client and server then use the random numbers and PreMasterSecret to compute a common secret, called the "master secret". All other key data ("session keys") for this connection is derived from this master secret (and the client- and server-generated random values), which is passed through a carefully designed pseudorandom function.
The client now sends a ChangeCipherSpec record, essentially telling the server, "Everything I tell you from now on will be authenticated (and encrypted if encryption was negotiated). " The ChangeCipherSpec is itself a record-level protocol and has type 20 and not 22.
Finally, the client sends an encrypted Finished message, containing a hash and MAC over the previous handshake messages.
The server will attempt to decrypt the client's Finished message and verify the hash and MAC. If the decryption or verification fails, the handshake is considered to have failed and the connection should be torn down.
Finally, the server sends a ChangeCipherSpec, telling the client, "Everything I tell you from now on will be authenticated (and encrypted if encryption was negotiated). "
The server sends its own encrypted Finished message.
The client performs the same decryption and verification procedure as the server did in the previous step.
Application phase: at this point, the "handshake" is complete and the application protocol is enabled, with content type of 23. Application messages exchanged between client and server will also be encrypted exactly like in their Finished message.
Resumed TLS handshake
Public key operations (e.g., RSA) are relatively expensive in terms of computational power. TLS provides a secure shortcut in the handshake mechanism to avoid these operations: resumed sessions. Resumed sessions are implemented using session IDs or session tickets.
Apart from the performance benefit, resumed sessions can also be used for single sign-on, as it guarantees that both the original session and any resumed session originate from the same client. This is of particular importance for the FTP over TLS/SSL protocol, which would otherwise suffer from a man-in-the-middle attack in which an attacker could intercept the contents of the secondary data connections.
TLS 1.3 handshake
The TLS 1.3 handshake was condensed to only one round trip compared to the two round trips required in previous versions of TLS/SSL.
First the client sends a clientHello message to the server that contains a list of supported ciphers in order of the client's preference and makes a guess on what key algorithm will be used so that it can send a secret key to share if needed. By making a guess at what key algorithm will be used, the server eliminates a round trip. After receiving the clientHello, the server sends a serverHello with its key, a certificate, the chosen cipher suite and the finished message.
After the client receives the server's finished message, it now is coordinated with the server on which cipher suite to use.
Session IDs
In an ordinary full handshake, the server sends a session id as part of the ServerHello message. The client associates this session id with the server's IP address and TCP port, so that when the client connects again to that server, it can use the session id to shortcut the handshake. In the server, the session id maps to the cryptographic parameters previously negotiated, specifically the "master secret". Both sides must have the same "master secret" or the resumed handshake will fail (this prevents an eavesdropper from using a session id). The random data in the ClientHello and ServerHello messages virtually guarantee that the generated connection keys will be different from in the previous connection. In the RFCs, this type of handshake is called an abbreviated handshake. It is also described in the literature as a restart handshake.
Negotiation phase:
A client sends a ClientHello message specifying the highest TLS protocol version it supports, a random number, a list of suggested cipher suites and compression methods. Included in the message is the session id from the previous TLS connection.
The server responds with a ServerHello message, containing the chosen protocol version, a random number, cipher suite and compression method from the choices offered by the client. If the server recognizes the session id sent by the client, it responds with the same session id. The client uses this to recognize that a resumed handshake is being performed. If the server does not recognize the session id sent by the client, it sends a different value for its session id. This tells the client that a resumed handshake will not be performed. At this point, both the client and server have the "master secret" and random data to generate the key data to be used for this connection.
The server now sends a ChangeCipherSpec record, essentially telling the client, "Everything I tell you from now on will be encrypted." The ChangeCipherSpec is itself a record-level protocol and has type 20 and not 22.
Finally, the server sends an encrypted Finished message, containing a hash and MAC over the previous handshake messages.
The client will attempt to decrypt the server's Finished message and verify the hash and MAC. If the decryption or verification fails, the handshake is considered to have failed and the connection should be torn down.
Finally, the client sends a ChangeCipherSpec, telling the server, "Everything I tell you from now on will be encrypted. "
The client sends its own encrypted Finished message.
The server performs the same decryption and verification procedure as the client did in the previous step.
Application phase: at this point, the "handshake" is complete and the application protocol is enabled, with content type of 23. Application messages exchanged between client and server will also be encrypted exactly like in their Finished message.
Session tickets
extends TLS via use of session tickets, instead of session IDs. It defines a way to resume a TLS session without requiring that session-specific state is stored at the TLS server.
When using session tickets, the TLS server stores its session-specific state in a session ticket and sends the session ticket to the TLS client for storing. The client resumes a TLS session by sending the session ticket to the server, and the server resumes the TLS session according to the session-specific state in the ticket. The session ticket is encrypted and authenticated by the server, and the server verifies its validity before using its contents.
One particular weakness of this method with OpenSSL is that it always limits encryption and authentication security of the transmitted TLS session ticket to AES128-CBC-SHA256, no matter what other TLS parameters were negotiated for the actual TLS session. This means that the state information (the TLS session ticket) is not as well protected as the TLS session itself. Of particular concern is OpenSSL's storage of the keys in an application-wide context (SSL_CTX), i.e. for the life of the application, and not allowing for re-keying of the AES128-CBC-SHA256 TLS session tickets without resetting the application-wide OpenSSL context (which is uncommon, error-prone and often requires manual administrative intervention).
TLS record
This is the general format of all TLS records.
Content type
This field identifies the Record Layer Protocol Type contained in this record.
Legacy version
This field identifies the major and minor version of TLS prior to TLS 1.3 for the contained message. For a ClientHello message, this need not be the highest version supported by the client. For TLS 1.3 and later, this must to be set 0x0303 and application must send supported versions in an extra message extension block.
Length
The length of "protocol message(s)", "MAC" and "padding" fields combined (i.e. q−5), not to exceed 214 bytes (16 KiB).
Protocol message(s)
One or more messages identified by the Protocol field. Note that this field may be encrypted depending on the state of the connection.
MAC and padding
A message authentication code computed over the "protocol message(s)" field, with additional key material included. Note that this field may be encrypted, or not included entirely, depending on the state of the connection.
No "MAC" or "padding" fields can be present at end of TLS records before all cipher algorithms and parameters have been negotiated and handshaked and then confirmed by sending a CipherStateChange record (see below) for signalling that these parameters will take effect in all further records sent by the same peer.
Handshake protocol
Most messages exchanged during the setup of the TLS session are based on this record, unless an error or warning occurs and needs to be signaled by an Alert protocol record (see below), or the encryption mode of the session is modified by another record (see ChangeCipherSpec protocol below).
Message type This field identifies the handshake message type.
Handshake message data length
This is a 3-byte field indicating the length of the handshake data, not including the header.
Note that multiple handshake messages may be combined within one record.
Alert protocol
This record should normally not be sent during normal handshaking or application exchanges. However, this message can be sent at any time during the handshake and up to the closure of the session. If this is used to signal a fatal error, the session will be closed immediately after sending this record, so this record is used to give a reason for this closure. If the alert level is flagged as a warning, the remote can decide to close the session if it decides that the session is not reliable enough for its needs (before doing so, the remote may also send its own signal).
Level
This field identifies the level of alert. If the level is fatal, the sender should close the session immediately. Otherwise, the recipient may decide to terminate the session itself, by sending its own fatal alert and closing the session itself immediately after sending it. The use of Alert records is optional, however if it is missing before the session closure, the session may be resumed automatically (with its handshakes).
Normal closure of a session after termination of the transported application should preferably be alerted with at least the Close notify Alert type (with a simple warning level) to prevent such automatic resume of a new session. Signalling explicitly the normal closure of a secure session before effectively closing its transport layer is useful to prevent or detect attacks (like attempts to truncate the securely transported data, if it intrinsically does not have a predetermined length or duration that the recipient of the secured data may expect).
Description
This field identifies which type of alert is being sent.
ChangeCipherSpec protocol
CCS protocol type
Currently only 1.
Application protocol
Length
Length of application data (excluding the protocol header and including the MAC and padding trailers)
MAC
32 bytes for the SHA-256-based HMAC, 20 bytes for the SHA-1-based HMAC, 16 bytes for the MD5-based HMAC.
Padding
Variable length; last byte contains the padding length.
Support for name-based virtual servers
From the application protocol point of view, TLS belongs to a lower layer, although the TCP/IP model is too coarse to show it. This means that the TLS handshake is usually (except in the STARTTLS case) performed before the application protocol can start. In the name-based virtual server feature being provided by the application layer, all co-hosted virtual servers share the same certificate because the server has to select and send a certificate immediately after the ClientHello message. This is a big problem in hosting environments because it means either sharing the same certificate among all customers or using a different IP address for each of them.
There are two known workarounds provided by X.509:
If all virtual servers belong to the same domain, a wildcard certificate can be used. Besides the loose host name selection that might be a problem or not, there is no common agreement about how to match wildcard certificates. Different rules are applied depending on the application protocol or software used.
Add every virtual host name in the subjectAltName extension. The major problem being that the certificate needs to be reissued whenever a new virtual server is added.
To provide the server name, Transport Layer Security (TLS) Extensions allow clients to include a Server Name Indication extension (SNI) in the extended ClientHello message. This extension hints to the server immediately which name the client wishes to connect to, so the server
can select the appropriate certificate to send to the clients.
also documents a method to implement name-based virtual hosting by upgrading HTTP to TLS via an HTTP/1.1 Upgrade header. Normally this is to securely implement HTTP over TLS within the main "http" URI scheme (which avoids forking the URI space and reduces the number of used ports), however, few implementations currently support this.
Standards
Primary standards
The current approved version of TLS is version 1.3, which is specified in:
: "The Transport Layer Security (TLS) Protocol Version 1.3".
The current standard replaces these former versions, which are now considered obsolete:
: "The TLS Protocol Version 1.0".
: "The Transport Layer Security (TLS) Protocol Version 1.1".
: "The Transport Layer Security (TLS) Protocol Version 1.2".
As well as the never standardized SSL 2.0 and 3.0, which are considered obsolete:
Internet Draft (1995), SSL Version 2.0
: "The Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) Protocol Version 3.0".
Extensions
Other RFCs subsequently extended TLS.
Extensions to TLS 1.0 include:
: "Using TLS with IMAP, POP3 and ACAP". Specifies an extension to the IMAP, POP3 and ACAP services that allow the server and client to use transport-layer security to provide private, authenticated communication over the Internet.
: "Addition of Kerberos Cipher Suites to Transport Layer Security (TLS)". The 40-bit cipher suites defined in this memo appear only for the purpose of documenting the fact that those cipher suite codes have already been assigned.
: "Upgrading to TLS Within HTTP/1.1", explains how to use the Upgrade mechanism in HTTP/1.1 to initiate Transport Layer Security (TLS) over an existing TCP connection. This allows unsecured and secured HTTP traffic to share the same well known port (in this case, http: at 80 rather than https: at 443).
: "HTTP Over TLS", distinguishes secured traffic from insecure traffic by the use of a different 'server port'.
: "SMTP Service Extension for Secure SMTP over Transport Layer Security". Specifies an extension to the SMTP service that allows an SMTP server and client to use transport-layer security to provide private, authenticated communication over the Internet.
: "AES Ciphersuites for TLS". Adds Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) cipher suites to the previously existing symmetric ciphers.
: "Transport Layer Security (TLS) Extensions", adds a mechanism for negotiating protocol extensions during session initialisation and defines some extensions. Made obsolete by .
: "Transport Layer Security Protocol Compression Methods", specifies the framework for compression methods and the DEFLATE compression method.
: "Transport Layer Security (TLS) Protocol Compression Using Lempel-Ziv-Stac (LZS)".
: "Addition of Camellia Cipher Suites to Transport Layer Security (TLS)".
: "Addition of SEED Cipher Suites to Transport Layer Security (TLS)".
: "Securing FTP with TLS".
: "Pre-Shared Key Ciphersuites for Transport Layer Security (TLS)", adds three sets of new cipher suites for the TLS protocol to support authentication based on pre-shared keys.
Extensions to TLS 1.1 include:
: "Datagram Transport Layer Security" specifies a TLS variant that works over datagram protocols (such as UDP).
: "Transport Layer Security (TLS) Extensions" describes both a set of specific extensions and a generic extension mechanism.
: "Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) Cipher Suites for Transport Layer Security (TLS)".
: "TLS Handshake Message for Supplemental Data".
: "TLS User Mapping Extension".
: "Pre-Shared Key (PSK) Ciphersuites with NULL Encryption for Transport Layer Security (TLS)".
: "Using the Secure Remote Password (SRP) Protocol for TLS Authentication". Defines the TLS-SRP ciphersuites.
: "Transport Layer Security (TLS) Session Resumption without Server-Side State".
: "Using OpenPGP Keys for Transport Layer Security (TLS) Authentication", obsoleted by .
Extensions to TLS 1.2 include:
: "AES Galois Counter Mode (GCM) Cipher Suites for TLS".
: "TLS Elliptic Curve Cipher Suites with SHA-256/384 and AES Galois Counter Mode (GCM)".
: "Transport Layer Security (TLS) Renegotiation Indication Extension".
: "Transport Layer Security (TLS) Authorization Extensions".
: "Camellia Cipher Suites for TLS"
: "Transport Layer Security (TLS) Extensions: Extension Definitions", includes Server Name Indication and OCSP stapling.
: "Using OpenPGP Keys for Transport Layer Security (TLS) Authentication".
: "Prohibiting Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) Version 2.0".
: "Addition of the ARIA Cipher Suites to Transport Layer Security (TLS)".
: "Datagram Transport Layer Security Version 1.2".
: "Addition of the Camellia Cipher Suites to Transport Layer Security (TLS)".
: "Suite B Profile for Transport Layer Security (TLS)".
: "AES-CCM Cipher Suites for Transport Layer Security (TLS)".
: "Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) Brainpool Curves for Transport Layer Security (TLS)".
: "AES-CCM Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) Cipher Suites for TLS".
: "Transport Layer Security (TLS) Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Extension".
: "Encrypt-then-MAC for Transport Layer Security (TLS) and Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS)".
: "Prohibiting RC4 Cipher Suites".
: "TLS Fallback Signaling Cipher Suite Value (SCSV) for Preventing Protocol Downgrade Attacks".
: "Deprecating Secure Sockets Layer Version 3.0".
: "Transport Layer Security (TLS) Session Hash and Extended Master Secret Extension".
: "A Transport Layer Security (TLS) ClientHello Padding Extension".
Encapsulations of TLS include:
: "The EAP-TLS Authentication Protocol"
Informational RFCs
: "Summarizing Known Attacks on Transport Layer Security (TLS) and Datagram TLS (DTLS)"
: "Recommendations for Secure Use of Transport Layer Security (TLS) and Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS)"
See also
Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation – a TLS extension used for SPDY and TLS False Start
Bullrun (decryption program) – a secret anti-encryption program run by the U.S. National Security Agency
Certificate authority
Certificate Transparency
HTTP Strict Transport Security – HSTS
Key ring file
Private Communications Technology (PCT) – a historic Microsoft competitor to SSL 2.0
QUIC (Quick UDP Internet Connections) – "...was designed to provide security protection equivalent to TLS/SSL"; QUIC's main goal is to improve perceived performance of connection-oriented web applications that are currently using TCP
Server-Gated Cryptography
tcpcrypt
DTLS
TLS acceleration
References
Further reading
Creating VPNs with IPsec and SSL/TLS Linux Journal article by Rami Rosen
External links
IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force) TLS Workgroup
Computer-related introductions in 1999
Cryptographic protocols
Presentation layer protocols
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7750796
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opportunistic%20TLS
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Opportunistic TLS
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Opportunistic TLS (Transport Layer Security) refers to extensions in plain text communication protocols, which offer a way to upgrade a plain text connection to an encrypted (TLS or SSL) connection instead of using a separate port for encrypted communication. Several protocols use a command named "STARTTLS" for this purpose. It is a form of opportunistic encryption and is primarily intended as a countermeasure to passive monitoring.
The STARTTLS command for IMAP and POP3 is defined in , for SMTP in , for XMPP in and for NNTP in . For IRC, the IRCv3 Working Group has defined the STARTTLS extension. FTP uses the command "AUTH TLS" defined in and LDAP defines a protocol extension OID in . HTTP uses upgrade header.
Layering
TLS is application-neutral; in the words of :
One advantage of TLS is that it is application protocol independent. Higher-level protocols can layer on top of the TLS protocol transparently. The TLS standard, however, does not specify how protocols add security with TLS; the decisions on how to initiate TLS handshaking and how to interpret the authentication certificates exchanged are left to the judgment of the designers and implementors of protocols that run on top of TLS.
The style used to specify how to use TLS matches the same layer distinction that is also conveniently supported by several library implementations of TLS. E.g., the SMTP extension illustrates with the following dialog how a client and server can start a secure session:
S: <waits for connection on TCP port 25>
C: <opens connection>
S: 220 mail.example.org ESMTP service ready
C: EHLO client.example.org
S: 250-mail.example.org offers a warm hug of welcome
S: 250 STARTTLS
C: STARTTLS
S: 220 Go ahead
C: <starts TLS negotiation>
C & S: <negotiate a TLS session>
C & S: <check result of negotiation>
C: EHLO client.example.org
. . .
The last EHLO command above is issued over a secure channel. Note that authentication is optional in SMTP, and the omitted server reply may now safely advertise an AUTH PLAIN SMTP extension, which is not present in the plain-text reply.
SSL ports
Besides the use of opportunistic TLS, a number of TCP ports were defined for SSL-secured versions of well-known protocols. These establish secure communications and then present a communication stream identical to the old un-encrypted protocol. Separate SSL ports have the advantage of fewer round-trips; also less meta-data is transmitted in unencrypted form. Some examples include:
At least for the email related protocols, favors separate SSL ports instead of STARTTLS.
Weaknesses and mitigations
Opportunistic TLS is an opportunistic encryption mechanism. Because the initial handshake takes place in plain text, an attacker in control of the network can modify the server messages via a man-in-the-middle attack to make it appear that TLS is unavailable (called a STRIPTLS attack). Most SMTP clients will then send the email and possibly passwords in plain text, often with no notification to the user. In particular, many SMTP connections occur between mail servers, where user notification is not practical.
In September 2014, two ISPs in Thailand were found to be doing this to their own customers. In October 2014, Cricket Wireless, a subsidiary of AT&T, was revealed to be doing this to their customers. This behavior started as early as September 2013 by Aio Wireless, who later merged with Cricket where the practice continued.
STRIPTLS attacks can be blocked by configuring SMTP clients to require TLS for outgoing connections (for example, the Exim Message transfer agent can require TLS via the directive "hosts_require_tls"). However, since not every mail server supports TLS, it is not practical to simply require TLS for all connections.
An example of a STRIPTLS attack of the type used in Thai mass surveillance technology:
220 smtp.gmail.com ESMTP mail.redacted.com - gsmtp
ehlo a
250-smtp.gmail.com at your service, [REDACTED SERVICE]
250-SIZE 35882577
250-8BITMIME
# The STARTTLS command is stripped here
250-ENHANCEDSTATUSCODES
250-PIPELINING
250 SMTPUTF8
220 smtp.gmail.com ESMTP - gsmtp
ehlo a
250-smtp.gmail.com at your service
250-SIZE 35882577
250-8BITMIME
250-STARTTLS
250-ENHANCEDSTATUSCODES
250-PIPELINING
250 SMTPUTF8
This problem is addressed by DNS-based Authentication of Named Entities (DANE), a part of DNSSEC, and in particular by for SMTP. DANE allows to advertise support for secure SMTP via a TLSA record. This tells connecting clients they should require TLS, thus preventing STRIPTLS attacks. The STARTTLS Everywhere project from the Electronic Frontier Foundation works in a similar way. However, DNSSEC, due to deployment complexities and peculiar criticism, faced a low adoption rate and a new protocol called SMTP MTA Strict Transport Security or MTA-STS has been drafted by a group of major email service providers including Microsoft, Google and Yahoo. MTA-STS does not require the use of DNSSEC to authenticate DANE TLSA records but relies on the certificate authority (CA) system and a trust-on-first-use (TOFU) approach to avoid interceptions. The TOFU model reduces complexity but without the guarantees on first use offered by DNSSEC. In addition, MTA-STS introduces a mechanism for failure reporting and a report-only mode, enabling progressive roll-out and auditing for compliance.
Popularity
Following the revelations made by Edward Snowden in light of the global mass surveillance scandal, popular email providers have bettered their email security by enabling STARTTLS. Facebook reported that after enabling STARTTLS and encouraging other providers to do the same, until Facebook discontinued its email service in February 2014, 95% of outbound email was encrypted with both Perfect Forward Secrecy and strict certificate validation.
References
External links
Secure Email Tests and Tools verify STARTTLS in real-time dialog like example above
Verify if a receiving domain has STARTTLS enabled for email and with which security level
A mechanism enabling mail service providers to declare their ability to receive Transport Layer Security (TLS) secure SMTP connections.
Internet mail protocols
Transport Layer Security
fr:StartTLS
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65419900
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wladek%20Minor
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Wladek Minor
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Władysław Minor also known as Wladek Minor (born 1946) is a Polish-American biophysicist, a specialist in structural biology and protein crystallography. He is a Harrison Distinguished Professor of Molecular Physiology and Biological Physics at the University of Virginia. Minor is a co-author of HKL2000/HKL3000 – crystallographic data processing and structure solution software used to process data and solve structures of macromolecules, as well as small molecules. He is a co-founder of HKL Research, a company that distributes the software. He is also a co-author of a public repository of diffraction images (proteindiffraction.org) for some of the protein structures available in the Protein Data Bank and other software tools for structural biology.
Early life and education
Władysław Minor was born in Poland in May 1946. He obtained his M.Sc. degree in 1969 (supervisor - Bronisław Buras) and his Ph.D. degree in 1977 (supervisor - Izabela Sosnowska) from the Physics Department at the University of Warsaw. He moved to the United States in 1985 at the age of 39.
Career and research
Minor's main focus of interest during the Ph.D. studies was solid-state physics. For several years after receiving his Ph.D. from the University of Warsaw, he continued to work in this area of research.
After moving to the United States in 1985 and working with Michael Rossmann at Purdue University, he gradually switched into the field of macromolecular crystallography. While at Purdue, Minor started a collaboration with , with whom they developed software for processing X-ray diffraction data (Denzo, Scalepack, XDisplayF). Their paper “Processing of X-ray diffraction data collected in oscillation mode” published in 1997 was listed as number 23 in the list of 100 most-cited research papers of all times. As of 2021, this paper has been cited over 41000 times (according to Google Scholar).
In 1995, Minor joined the University of Virginia as a faculty member. Around the same time, he and Zbyszek Otwinowski founded HKL Research.
Starting from 2000, his lab was a part of two Protein Structure Initiative centers: the Midwest Center for Structural Genomic (MSCG) and the New York Structural Genomics Research Consortium (NYSGRC). The lab was also a part of the Center for Structural Genomics of Infectious Diseases (CSGID) and the Enzyme Function Initiative. The Minor lab developed and maintained data management and structure solution tools, as well as performed quality control of the crystal structures and conducted determination of some of the structures.
The Minor lab has developed many other software tools for structural biology, including proteindiffraction.org (a public repository of diffraction images), CMM (a server for validation of metal-binding sites in macromolecular structures), CheckMyBlob (a machine learning system that automatically detects and validates ligands in X-ray electron density map), and LabDB (a laboratory information management system for structural biology).
During the COVID-19 pandemic, Wladek Minor became involved in the improvement of SARS-Cov-2 macromolecular crystal structures and published several scientific publications on the subject, as well as a publication on molecular determinants of vascular transport of dexamethasone in COVID-19 therapy. His research on COVID-19 has been reported by multiple media outlets.
Minor's lab has produced over 240 scientific publications and over 450 crystal structures of proteins. As of 2021, his papers were cited over 55000 times (according to Google Scholar).
Awards and honors
The Tadeusz Sendzimir Applied Sciences Award – 2020
Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science – 2018
Fellow of the American Crystallographic Association – 2018
American Friends of UW joint award - University of Warsaw - 2018
Inventor of the Year Award - University of Virginia - 2007
Personal life
Wladek Minor is married to Iwona Minor. They have two sons.
References
External links
Examples of software tools developed by Minor and his lab:
HKL Research (an official site of the company that distributes HKL2000/HKL3000)
proteindiffraction.org (a public repository of diffraction images)
CMM (a server for validation of metal-binding sites in macromolecular structures)
CheckMyBlob (a machine learning system that automatically detects and validates ligands in X-ray electron density maps)
Molstack (an online platform for sharing electron density maps and their interpretations)
Fitmunk (a server for a framework for fitting side-chain conformations on a fixed backbone into electron density)
MgRNA (a server for classification of Mg binding sites in RNA crystal structures)
2HADH Knowledgebase (a server for 2HADH enzymes classification and structural and enzymatic data)
LabDB (an instance of a laboratory information management system for structural biology)
Validated SARS-CoV-2 related structural models (a repository for validated SARS-CoV-2 related structural models of potential drug targets)
20th-century Polish physicists
University of Virginia School of Medicine faculty
21st-century American physicists
Polish emigrants to the United States
University of Warsaw alumni
1946 births
Living people
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24050869
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertial%20navigation%20system
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Inertial navigation system
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An inertial navigation system (INS) is a navigation device that uses a computer, motion sensors (accelerometers) and rotation sensors (gyroscopes) to continuously calculate by dead reckoning the position, the orientation, and the velocity (direction and speed of movement) of a moving object without the need for external references. Often the inertial sensors are supplemented by a barometric altimeter and sometimes by magnetic sensors (magnetometers) and/or speed measuring devices. INSs are used on mobile robots and on vehicles such as ships, aircraft, submarines, guided missiles, and spacecraft. Other terms used to refer to inertial navigation systems or closely related devices include inertial guidance system, inertial instrument, inertial measurement unit (IMU) and many other variations. Older INS systems generally used an inertial platform as their mounting point to the vehicle and the terms are sometimes considered synonymous.
Overview
Inertial navigation is a self-contained navigation technique in which measurements provided by accelerometers and gyroscopes are used to track the position and orientation of an object relative to a known starting point, orientation and velocity. Inertial measurement units (IMUs) typically contain three orthogonal rate-gyroscopes and three orthogonal accelerometers, measuring angular velocity and linear acceleration respectively. By processing signals from these devices it is possible to track the position and orientation of a device.
Inertial navigation is used in a wide range of applications including the navigation of aircraft, tactical and strategic missiles, spacecraft, submarines and ships. It is also embedded in some mobile phones for purposes of mobile phone location and tracking. Recent advances in the construction of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) have made it possible to manufacture small and light inertial navigation systems. These advances have widened the range of possible applications to include areas such as human and animal motion capture.
An inertial navigation system includes at least a computer and a platform or module containing accelerometers, gyroscopes, or other motion-sensing devices. The INS is initially provided with its position and velocity from another source (a human operator, a GPS satellite receiver, etc.) accompanied with the initial orientation and thereafter computes its own updated position and velocity by integrating information received from the motion sensors. The advantage of an INS is that it requires no external references in order to determine its position, orientation, or velocity once it has been initialized.
An INS can detect a change in its geographic position (a move east or north, for example), a change in its velocity (speed and direction of movement) and a change in its orientation (rotation about an axis). It does this by measuring the linear acceleration and angular velocity applied to the system. Since it requires no external reference (after initialization), it is immune to jamming and deception.
Inertial navigation systems are used in many different moving objects. However, their cost and complexity place constraints on the environments in which they are practical for use.
Gyroscopes measure the angular velocity of the sensor frame with respect to the inertial reference frame. By using the original orientation of the system in the inertial reference frame as the initial condition and integrating the angular velocity, the system's current orientation is known at all times. This can be thought of as the ability of a blindfolded passenger in a car to feel the car turn left and right or tilt up and down as the car ascends or descends hills. Based on this information alone, the passenger knows what direction the car is facing, but not how fast or slow it is moving, or whether it is sliding sideways.
Accelerometers measure the linear acceleration of the moving vehicle in the sensor or body frame, but in directions that can only be measured relative to the moving system (since the accelerometers are fixed to the system and rotate with the system, but are not aware of their own orientation). This can be thought of as the ability of a blindfolded passenger in a car to feel themself pressed back into their seat as the vehicle accelerates forward or pulled forward as it slows down; and feel themself pressed down into their seat as the vehicle accelerates up a hill or rise up out of their seat as the car passes over the crest of a hill and begins to descend. Based on this information alone, they know how the vehicle is accelerating relative to itself; that is, whether it is accelerating forward, backward, left, right, up (toward the car's ceiling), or down (toward the car's floor), measured relative to the car, but not the direction relative to the Earth, since they did not know what direction the car was facing relative to the Earth when they felt the accelerations.
However, by tracking both the current angular velocity of the system and the current linear acceleration of the system measured relative to the moving system, it is possible to determine the linear acceleration of the system in the inertial reference frame. Performing integration on the inertial accelerations (using the original velocity as the initial conditions) using the correct kinematic equations yields the inertial velocities of the system and integration again (using the original position as the initial condition) yields the inertial position. In our example, if the blindfolded passenger knew how the car was pointed and what its velocity was before they were blindfolded, and if they are able to keep track of both how the car has turned and how it has accelerated and decelerated since, then they can accurately know the current orientation, position, and velocity of the car at any time.
Drift rate
All inertial navigation systems suffer from integration drift: small errors in the measurement of acceleration and angular velocity are integrated into progressively larger errors in velocity, which are compounded into still greater errors in position.
Since the new position is calculated from the previous calculated position and the measured acceleration and angular velocity, these errors accumulate roughly proportionally to the time since the initial position was input. Even the best accelerometers, with a standard error of 10 micro-g, would accumulate a 50-meter error within 17 minutes. Therefore, the position must be periodically corrected by input from some other type of navigation system.
Accordingly, inertial navigation is usually used to supplement other navigation systems, providing a higher degree of accuracy than is possible with the use of any single system. For example, if, in terrestrial use, the inertially tracked velocity is intermittently updated to zero by stopping, the position will remain precise for a much longer time, a so-called zero velocity update. In aerospace particularly, other measurement systems are used to determine INS inaccuracies, e.g. the Honeywell LaseRefV inertial navigation systems uses GPS and air data computer outputs to maintain required navigation performance. The navigation error rises with the lower sensitivity of the sensors used. Currently, devices combining different sensors are being developed, e.g. attitude and heading reference system. Because the navigation error is mainly influenced by the numerical integration of angular rates and accelerations, the Pressure Reference System was developed to use one numerical integration of the angular rate measurements.
Estimation theory in general and Kalman filtering in particular, provide a theoretical framework for combining information from various sensors. One of the most common alternative sensors is a satellite navigation radio such as GPS, which can be used for all kinds of vehicles with direct sky visibility. Indoor applications can use pedometers, distance measurement equipment, or other kinds of position sensors. By properly combining the information from an INS and other systems (GPS/INS), the errors in position and velocity are stable. Furthermore, INS can be used as a short-term fallback while GPS signals are unavailable, for example when a vehicle passes through a tunnel.
In 2011, GPS jamming at the civilian level became a governmental concern. The relative ease in ability to jam these systems has motivated the military to reduce navigation dependence on GPS technology. Because inertial navigation sensors do not depend on radio signals unlike GPS, they cannot be jammed.
In 2012, researchers at the U.S. Army Research Laboratory reported an inertial measurement unit consisting of micro-electromechanical system triaxial accelerometers and tri-axial gyroscopes with an array size of 10 that had a Kalman filter algorithm to estimate sensor nuisance parameters (errors) and munition position and velocity. Each array measures six data points and the system coordinates the data together to deliver a navigation solution. If one sensor consistently over or underestimates distance, the system can adjust, adjusting the corrupted sensor's contributions to the final calculation.
The addition of the heuristic algorithm reduced a flight's calculated distance error from 120m to 40m from the designated target. The researchers coupled the algorithm with GPS or radar technology to initial and aid the navigation algorithm. At various points during the munition's flight they would cut off tracking and estimate the accuracy of the munition's landing. In a forty-second flight, 10s and 20s availability of aiding demonstrated little difference in error as both were approximately 35m off target. No noticeable difference was observed when experimentation took place with 100 sensor arrays rather than ten. The researchers indicate this limited experimental data signifies an optimization of navigation technology and a potential reduction in cost of military systems.
History
Inertial navigation systems were originally developed for rockets. American rocketry pioneer Robert Goddard experimented with rudimentary gyroscopic systems. Goddard's systems were of great interest to contemporary German pioneers including Wernher von Braun. The systems entered more widespread use with the advent of spacecraft, guided missiles, and commercial airliners.
Early German World War II V2 guidance systems combined two gyroscopes and a lateral accelerometer with a simple analog computer to adjust the azimuth for the rocket in flight. Analog computer signals were used to drive four graphite rudders in the rocket exhaust for flight control. The GN&C (Guidance, Navigation, and Control) system for the V2 provided many innovations as an integrated platform with closed loop guidance. At the end of the war von Braun engineered the surrender of 500 of his top rocket scientists, along with plans and test vehicles, to the Americans. They arrived at Fort Bliss, Texas in 1945 under the provisions of Operation Paperclip and were subsequently moved to Huntsville, Alabama, in 1950 where they worked for U.S. Army rocket research programs.
In the early 1950s, the US government wanted to insulate itself against over dependency on the German team for military applications, including the development of a fully domestic missile guidance program. The MIT Instrumentation Laboratory (later to become the Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc.) was chosen by the Air Force Western Development Division to provide a self-contained guidance system backup to Convair in San Diego for the new Atlas intercontinental ballistic missile (Construction and testing were completed by Arma Division of AmBosch Arma). The technical monitor for the MIT task was a young engineer named Jim Fletcher who later served as the NASA Administrator. The Atlas guidance system was to be a combination of an on-board autonomous system and a ground-based tracking and command system. The self-contained system finally prevailed in ballistic missile applications for obvious reasons. In space exploration, a mixture of the two remains.
In the summer of 1952, Dr. Richard Battin and Dr. J. Halcombe "Hal" Laning, Jr., researched computational based solutions to guidance and undertook the initial analytical work on the Atlas inertial guidance in 1954. Other key figures at Convair were Charlie Bossart, the Chief Engineer, and Walter Schweidetzky, head of the guidance group. Schweidetzky had worked with von Braun at Peenemünde during World War II.
The initial Delta guidance system assessed the difference in position from a reference trajectory. A velocity to be gained (VGO) calculation is made to correct the current trajectory with the objective of driving VGO to zero. The mathematics of this approach were fundamentally valid, but dropped because of the challenges in accurate inertial guidance and analog computing power. The challenges faced by the Delta efforts were overcome by the Q system (see Q-guidance) of guidance. The Q system's revolution was to bind the challenges of missile guidance (and associated equations of motion) in the matrix Q. The Q matrix represents the partial derivatives of the velocity with respect to the position vector. A key feature of this approach allowed for the components of the vector cross product (v, xdv, /dt) to be used as the basic autopilot rate signals—a technique that became known as cross-product steering. The Q-system was presented at the first Technical Symposium on Ballistic Missiles held at the Ramo-Wooldridge Corporation in Los Angeles on June 21 and 22, 1956. The Q system was classified information through the 1960s. Derivations of this guidance are used for today's missiles.
Guidance in human spaceflight
In February 1961 NASA awarded MIT a contract for preliminary design study of a guidance and navigation system for the Apollo program. MIT and the Delco Electronics Div. of General Motors Corp. were awarded the joint contract for design and production of the Apollo Guidance and Navigation systems for the Command Module and the Lunar Module. Delco produced the IMUs (Inertial Measurement Units) for these systems, Kollsman Instrument Corp. produced the Optical Systems, and the Apollo Guidance Computer was built by Raytheon under subcontract.
For the Space Shuttle, open loop (no feedback) guidance was used to guide the Shuttle from lift-off until Solid Rocket Booster (SRB) separation. After SRB separation the primary Space Shuttle guidance is named PEG (Powered Explicit Guidance). PEG takes into account both the Q system and the predictor-corrector attributes of the original "Delta" System (PEG Guidance). Although many updates to the Shuttle's navigation system had taken place over the last 30 years (ex. GPS in the OI-22 build), the guidance core of the Shuttle GN&C system had evolved little. Within a manned system, there is a human interface needed for the guidance system. As astronauts are the customer for the system, many new teams were formed that touch GN&C as it is a primary interface to "fly" the vehicle.
Aircraft inertial guidance
One example of a popular INS for commercial aircraft was the Delco Carousel, which provided partial automation of navigation in the days before complete flight management systems became commonplace. The Carousel allowed pilots to enter 9 waypoints at a time and then guided the aircraft from one waypoint to the next using an INS to determine aircraft position and velocity. Boeing Corporation subcontracted the Delco Electronics Div. of General Motors to design and build the first production Carousel systems for the early models (-100, -200 and -300) of the 747 aircraft. The 747 utilized three Carousel systems operating in concert for reliability purposes. The Carousel system and derivatives thereof were subsequently adopted for use in many other commercial and military aircraft. The USAF C-141 was the first military aircraft to utilize the Carousel in a dual system configuration, followed by the C-5A which utilized the triple INS configuration, similar to the 747. The KC-135A fleet was fitted with a single Carousel IV-E system that could operate as a stand-alone INS or can be aided by the AN/APN-218 Doppler radar. Some special-mission variants of the C-135 were fitted with dual Carousel IV-E INSs. ARINC Characteristic 704 defines the INS used in commercial air transport.
Inertial navigation systems in detail
INSs contain Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs) which have angular and linear accelerometers (for changes in position); some IMUs include a gyroscopic element (for maintaining an absolute angular reference).
Angular accelerometers measure how the vehicle is rotating in space. Generally, there is at least one sensor for each of the three axes: pitch (nose up and down), yaw (nose left and right) and roll (clockwise or counter-clockwise from the cockpit).
Linear accelerometers measure non-gravitational accelerations of the vehicle. Since it can move in three axes (up & down, left & right, forward & back), there is a linear accelerometer for each axis.
A computer continually calculates the vehicle's current position. First, for each of the six degrees of freedom (x,y,z and θx, θy and θz), it integrates over time the sensed acceleration, together with an estimate of gravity, to calculate the current velocity. Then it integrates the velocity to calculate the current position.
Inertial guidance is difficult without computers. The desire to use inertial guidance in the Minuteman missile and Project Apollo drove early attempts to miniaturize computers.
Inertial guidance systems are now usually combined with satellite navigation systems through a digital filtering system. The inertial system provides short term data, while the satellite system corrects accumulated errors of the inertial system.
An inertial guidance system that will operate near the surface
of the earth must incorporate Schuler tuning so that its
platform will continue pointing towards the center of the earth
as a vehicle moves from place to place.
Basic schemes
Gimballed gyrostabilized platforms
Some systems place the linear accelerometers on a gimballed gyrostabilized platform. The gimbals are a set of three rings, each with a pair of bearings initially at right angles. They let the platform twist about any rotational axis (or, rather, they let the platform keep the same orientation while the vehicle rotates around it). There are two gyroscopes (usually) on the platform.
Two gyroscopes are used to cancel gyroscopic precession, the tendency of a gyroscope to twist at right angles to an input torque. By mounting a pair of gyroscopes (of the same rotational inertia and spinning at the same speed in opposite directions) at right angles the precessions are cancelled and the platform will resist twisting.
This system allows a vehicle's roll, pitch and yaw angles to be measured directly at the bearings of the gimbals. Relatively simple electronic circuits can be used to add up the linear accelerations, because the directions of the linear accelerometers do not change.
The big disadvantage of this scheme is that it uses many expensive precision mechanical parts. It also has moving parts that can wear out or jam and is vulnerable to gimbal lock. The primary guidance system of the Apollo spacecraft used a three-axis gyrostabilized platform, feeding data to the Apollo Guidance Computer. Maneuvers had to be carefully planned to avoid gimbal lock.
Fluid-suspended gyrostabilized platforms
Gimbal lock constrains maneuvering and it would be beneficial to eliminate the slip rings and bearings of the gimbals. Therefore, some systems use fluid bearings or a flotation chamber to mount a gyrostabilized platform. These systems can have very high precisions (e.g., Advanced Inertial Reference Sphere). Like all gyrostabilized platforms, this system runs well with relatively slow, low-power computers.
The fluid bearings are pads with holes through which pressurized inert gas (such as helium) or oil presses against the spherical shell of the platform. The fluid bearings are very slippery and the spherical platform can turn freely. There are usually four bearing pads, mounted in a tetrahedral arrangement to support the platform.
In premium systems, the angular sensors are usually specialized transformer coils made in a strip on a flexible printed circuit board. Several coil strips are mounted on great circles around the spherical shell of the gyrostabilized platform. Electronics outside the platform uses similar strip-shaped transformers to read the varying magnetic fields produced by the transformers wrapped around the spherical platform. Whenever a magnetic field changes shape, or moves, it will cut the wires of the coils on the external transformer strips. The cutting generates an electric current in the external strip-shaped coils and electronics can measure that current to derive angles.
Cheap systems sometimes use bar codes to sense orientations and use solar cells or a single transformer to power the platform. Some small missiles have powered the platform with light from a window or optic fibers to the motor. A research topic is to suspend the platform with pressure from exhaust gases. Data is returned to the outside world via the transformers, or sometimes LEDs communicating with external photodiodes.
Strapdown systems
Lightweight digital computers permit the system to eliminate the gimbals, creating strapdown systems, so called because their sensors are simply strapped to the vehicle. This reduces the cost, eliminates gimbal lock, removes the need for some calibrations and increases the reliability by eliminating some of the moving parts. Angular rate sensors called rate gyros measure the angular velocity of the vehicle.
A strapdown system needs a dynamic measurement range several hundred times that required by a gimballed system. That is, it must integrate the vehicle's attitude changes in pitch, roll and yaw, as well as gross movements. Gimballed systems could usually do well with update rates of 50–60 Hz. However, strapdown systems normally update about 2000 Hz. The higher rate is needed to let the navigation system integrate the angular rate into an attitude accurately.
The data updating algorithms (direction cosines or quaternions) involved are too complex to be accurately performed except by digital electronics. However, digital computers are now so inexpensive and fast that rate gyro systems can now be practically used and mass-produced. The Apollo lunar module used a strapdown system in its backup Abort Guidance System (AGS).
Strapdown systems are nowadays commonly used in commercial and military applications (aircraft, ships, ROVs, missiles, etc.). State-of-the-art strapdown systems are based upon Ring Laser Gyroscopes, Fibre Optic Gyrocopes or Hemispherical Resonator Gyroscopes. They are using digital electronics and advanced digital filtering techniques such as Kalman filter.
Motion-based alignment
The orientation of a gyroscope system can sometimes also be inferred simply from its position history (e.g., GPS). This is, in particular, the case with planes and cars, where the velocity vector usually implies the orientation of the vehicle body.
For example, Honeywell's Align in Motion is an initialization process where the initialization occurs while the aircraft is moving, in the air or on the ground. This is accomplished using GPS and an inertial reasonableness test, thereby allowing commercial data integrity requirements to be met. This process has been FAA certified to recover pure INS performance equivalent to stationary alignment procedures for civilian flight times up to 18 hours.
It avoids the need for gyroscope batteries on aircraft.
Vibrating gyros
Less-expensive navigation systems, intended for use in automobiles, may use a vibrating structure gyroscope to detect changes in heading and the odometer pickup to measure distance covered along the vehicle's track. This type of system is much less accurate than a higher-end INS, but it is adequate for the typical automobile application where GPS is the primary navigation system and dead reckoning is only needed to fill gaps in GPS coverage when buildings or terrain block the satellite signals.
Hemispherical resonator gyros (wine glass or mushroom gyros)
If a standing wave is induced in a hemispheric resonant structure and then the resonant structure is rotated, the spherical harmonic standing wave rotates through an angle different from the quartz resonator structure due to the Coriolis force. The movement of the outer case with respect to the standing wave pattern is proportional to the total rotation angle and can be sensed by appropriate electronics. The system resonators are machined from fused quartz due to its excellent mechanical properties. The electrodes that drive and sense the standing waves are deposited directly onto separate quartz structures that surround the resonator. These gyros can operate in either a whole angle mode (which gives them nearly unlimited rate capability) or a force rebalance mode that holds the standing wave in a fixed orientation with respect to the gyro housing (which gives them much better accuracy).
This system has almost no moving parts and is very accurate. However it is still relatively expensive due to the cost of the precision ground and polished hollow quartz hemispheres. Northrop Grumman currently manufactures IMUs (inertial measurement units) for spacecraft that use HRGs. These IMUs have demonstrated extremely high reliability since their initial use in 1996. Safran manufactures large numbers of HRG based inertial systems dedicated to a wide range of applications.
Quartz rate sensors
These products include "tuning fork gyros". Here, the gyro is designed as an electronically driven tuning fork, often fabricated out of a single piece of quartz or silicon. Such gyros operate in accordance with the dynamic theory that when an angle rate is applied to a translating body, a Coriolis force is generated.
This system is usually integrated on a silicon chip. It has two mass-balanced quartz tuning forks, arranged "handle-to-handle" so forces cancel. Aluminum electrodes evaporated onto the forks and the underlying chip both drive and sense the motion. The system is both manufacturable and inexpensive. Since quartz is dimensionally stable, the system can be accurate.
As the forks are twisted about the axis of the handle, the vibration of the tines tends to continue in the same plane of motion. This motion has to be resisted by electrostatic forces from the electrodes under the tines. By measuring the difference in capacitance between the two tines of a fork, the system can determine the rate of angular motion.
Current state-of-the-art non-military technology () can build small solid-state sensors that can measure human body movements. These devices have no moving parts and weigh about .
Solid-state devices using the same physical principles are used for image stabilization in small cameras or camcorders. These can be extremely small, around and are built with microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) technologies.
MHD sensor
Sensors based on magnetohydrodynamic principles can be used to measure angular velocities.
MEMS gyroscope
MEMS gyroscopes typically rely on the Coriolis effect to measure angular velocity. It consists of a resonating proof mass mounted in silicon. The gyroscope is, unlike an accelerometer, an active sensor. The proof mass is pushed back and forth by driving combs. A rotation of the gyroscope generates a Coriolis force that is acting on the mass which results in a motion in a different direction. The motion in this direction is measured by electrodes and represents the rate of turn.
Ring Laser Gyros (RLG)
A ring laser gyro splits a beam of laser light into two beams in opposite directions through narrow tunnels in a closed circular optical path around the perimeter of a triangular block of temperature-stable Cervit glass with reflecting mirrors placed in each corner. When the gyro is rotating at some angular rate, the distance traveled by each beam will differ—the shorter path being opposite to the rotation. The phase shift between the two beams can be measured by an interferometer and is proportional to the rate of rotation (Sagnac effect).
In practice, at low rotation rates the output frequency can drop to zero as the result of backscattering causing the beams to synchronise and lock together. This is known as a lock-in, or laser-lock. The result is that there is no change in the interference pattern and therefore no measurement change.
To unlock the counter-rotating light beams, laser gyros either have independent light paths for the two directions (usually in fiber optic gyros), or the laser gyro is mounted on a piezo-electric dither motor that rapidly vibrates the laser ring back and forth about its input axis through the lock-in region to decouple the light waves.
The shaker is the most accurate, because both light beams use exactly the same path. Thus laser gyros retain moving parts, but they do not move as far.
Fiber optic gyros (FOG)
A more recent variation on the optical gyroscope, the fiber optic gyroscope, uses an external laser and two beams going opposite directions (counter-propagating) in long spools (several kilometers) of fiber optic filament, with the phase difference of the two beams compared after their travel through the spools of fiber.
The basic mechanism, monochromatic laser light travelling in opposite paths and the Sagnac effect, is the same in a FOG and a RLG, but the engineering details are substantially different in the FOG compared to earlier laser gyros.
Precise winding of the fiber-optic coil is required to ensure the paths taken by the light in opposite directions are as similar as possible. The FOG requires more complex calibrations than a laser ring gyro making the development and manufacture of FOG's more technically challenging that for a RLG. However FOG's do not suffer from laser lock at low speeds and do not need to contain any moving parts, increasing the maximum potential accuracy and lifespan of a FOG over an equivalent RLG.
Pendular accelerometers
The basic, open-loop accelerometer consists of a mass attached to a spring. The mass is constrained to move only in line with the spring. Acceleration causes deflection of the mass and the offset distance is measured. The acceleration is derived from the values of deflection distance, mass and the spring constant. The system must also be damped to avoid oscillation.
A closed-loop accelerometer achieves higher performance by using a feedback loop to cancel the deflection, thus keeping the mass nearly stationary. Whenever the mass deflects, the feedback loop causes an electric coil to apply an equally negative force on the mass, canceling the motion. Acceleration is derived from the amount of negative force applied. Because the mass barely moves, the effects of non-linearities of the spring and damping system are greatly reduced. In addition, this accelerometer provides for increased bandwidth beyond the natural frequency of the sensing element.
Both types of accelerometers have been manufactured as integrated micro-machinery on silicon chips.
TIMU (Timing & Inertial Measurement Unit) sensors
DARPA's Microsystems Technology Office (MTO) department is working on a Micro-PNT (Micro-Technology for Positioning, Navigation and Timing) program to design Timing & Inertial Measurement Unit (TIMU) chips that do absolute position tracking on a single chip without GPS-aided navigation.
Micro-PNT adds a highly accurate master timing clock integrated into an IMU (Inertial Measurement Unit) chip, making it a Timing & Inertial Measurement Unit chip. A TIMU chip integrates 3-axis gyroscope, 3-axis accelerometer and 3-axis magnetometer together with a highly accurate master timing clock, so that it can simultaneously measure the motion tracked and combine that with timing from the synchronized clock.
Method
In one form, the navigational system of equations acquires linear and angular measurements from the inertial and body frame, respectively and calculates the final attitude and position in the NED frame of reference.
Where:
f is specific force, is angular rate, a is acceleration, R is position, and V are velocity, is the angular velocity of the earth, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and h are the NED location parameters. Also, super/subscripts of E, I and B are representing variables in the Earth centered, Inertial or Body reference frame, respectively and C is a transformation of reference frames.
See also
Adam Air Flight 574
Attitude control
Dead reckoning
Fibre-optic gyroscope
Globus navigation system
Guidance system
Hemispherical resonator gyroscope
Kalman filter
Korean Air Lines Flight 007
LN-3 inertial navigation system
PIGA accelerometer
Quantum compass
Rate integrating gyroscope
Ring laser gyroscope
Schuler tuning
Spacecraft
References
Further reading
External links
Principle of operation of an accelerometer
Overview of inertial instrument types
Oxford Technical Solutions Inertial Navigation Guide
Listing of open-source Inertial Navigation system
Impact of inertial sensor errors on Inertial Navigation System position and attitude errors
Introduction to Inertial Navigation Systems in UAV/Drone Applications
Aircraft instruments
Aerospace engineering
Avionics
Spacecraft components
Missile guidance
Navigational equipment
Technology systems
Navigational aids
Inertial navigation
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klaus%20Tochtermann
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Klaus Tochtermann
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Klaus Tochtermann (* 22. August 1964 in Heidelberg) is a professor in the Institute for Computer Science at Kiel University and also the director of the ZBW – German National Library of Economics – Leibniz Information Centre for Economics.
Education and career
Klaus Tochtermann is the son of Werner Tochtermann. He graduated from the Kieler Gelehrtenschule in 1983. From 1985 to 1991 he studied computer science at the Kiel University and Dortmund University. At Dortmund University he received his doctorate in computer science with a thesis on A model for hypermedia: description and integrated formalisation of essential hypermedia concepts. Klaus Tochtermann spent the following year as a post-doc at Texas A&M University, Center for the Studies of Digital Libraries, USA with a grant from the Max-Kade-Foundation. His key activities in this time were in the field of web-based tools and services for digital libraries. From 1997 until 2000 he was division head at the FAW Ulm (Research Institute for Application-oriented Knowledge Processing at Ulm University).
From 2001 until 2010 he was the scientific director of the research institute Know-Center, a competence center for information technology-based knowledge management located in Austria. In 2001 founded the I-KNOW conference series in cooperation with Hermann Maurer. In 2002 he received his habilitation in the field of Applied information processing with the thesis Personalisation in the Context of Digital Libraries and Knowledge Management. From 2004 until 2010 he held the chair for Knowledge Management, at the TU Graz (Austria). From 2007 until 2010, he was also head of the Institute for Networked Media at Joanneum Research, an application-oriented research institution located in Graz.
Since 2010, Klaus Tochtermann has been the director of the ZBW – Leibniz Information Centre for Economics and has held a chair for Digital Information Infrastructures at Kiel University.
In 2012, Klaus Tochtermann initiated the Leibniz Research Alliance Science 2.0. This research alliance addresses the question of how the participatory Internet (e.g. Social Media) changes research and publishing processes, and how information infrastructure institutions can participate in the shaping of these changes.
In 2014, the ZBW – Leibniz Information Centre for Economics headed by Klaus Tochtermann received the national “Library of the Year 2014” award from the German Library Association (dbv).
Main research focus
Science 2.0, Open Science, European Open Science Cloud
Knowledge management and knowledge provision
Semantic technologies
Selected professional activities
Member of the High Level Expert Group "European Open Science Cloud" of the European Commission (until 2018)
Member of the Council for Information-Infrastructures
Member of the board of the Know-Center – Graz (Austria)
Visiting Professor at the Universiti Teknologi MARA (until 2016) (Malaysia)
Visiting Professor for Digital Infrastructure at St. Gallen University (Switzerland) (2016)
Member of the Working Group Sustainability for the European Open Science Cloud
Member of the Research Infrastructure Advisory Council at Hamburg University
Chair of the Advisory Council for Digitalisation at Graz University of Technology
Member of the Advisory Board at numerous institutes of the Leibniz Association
Selected publications
co-authored with Arben Hajra: Enriching Scientific Publications from LOD Repositories through World Embeddings Approach. - In: Metadata and Semantics Research : 10th International Conference, MTSR 2016, Göttingen, Germany, November 22–25, 2016. Proceedings / edited by Emmanouel Garoufallou (et.al). - Cham : Springer International Publishing ; Imprint : Springer, 2016, S. 278-290. – . – URL: https://www.springer.com/de/book/9783319491561#
co-authored with Fidan Limani and Atif Latif: Scientific Social Publications for Digital Libraries. - In: Research and Advanced Technology for Digital Libraries : 20th International Conference on Theory and Practice of Digital Libraries, TPDL 2016, Hannover, Germany, September 5–9, 2016 : Proceedings. - Cham : Springer International Publishing ; Imprint : Springer, 2016, S. 373-378. – . – (Lecture notes in computer science ; 9819). - doi:10.1007/978-3-319-43997-6, Handle: http://hdl.handle.net/11108/297
co-authored with Arben Hajra and Vladimir Radevski: Author Profile Enrichment for Cross-linking Digital Libraries. - In: Research and Advanced Technology for Digital Libraries : Proceedings /19th International Conference on Theory and Practice of Digital Libraries, TPDL 2015, Poznań, Poland, September 14–18, 2015. – Cham : Springer International Publishing, 2015, pp. 124–136. – , 978-3-319-24592-8. – (Series Lecture Notes in Computer Science; 9316). - doi:10.1007/978-3-319-24592-8_10
co-authored with Atif Latif and Ansgar Scherp: LOD for Library Science : Benefits of Applying Linked Open Data in the Digital Library Setting. – In: Künstliche Intelligenz : KI. – Berlin : Springer, 2015, pp. 1–9. - ISSN 1610-1987. - doi:10.1007/s13218-015-0420-x, Handle: http://hdl.handle.net/11108/225
How Science 2.0 will impact on Scientific Libraries. In: it-information Technology, Volume 56, Number 5 (2014), pp. 224–229, ISSN (Online) 2196-7032, ISSN (Print) 1611-2776; DOI: 10.1515/itit-2014-1050, September 2014
co-authored with Atif Latif and Timo Borst: Exposing data from an Open Access Repository for economics as linked data. D-Lib Magazine, September/October 2014, Volume 20, Number 9/10; DOI: 10.1045/september2014-latif
co-authored with Atif Latif: Exploring Scientific Publication and Cross-domain Linked Dataset for Similarity – A Case Study. International Journal of Advancements in Computing Technology, ISSN 2005-8039, Vol. 5, No. 11, pp. 179–187, 2013
co-authored with Atif Latif: Finding Resources in Scholarly Communication and Cross-domain Linked Dataset. – In: Proceedings ICIPM2013: 8th International Conference on Information Processing and Management will be held in Seoul, Republic of Korea from April 1–3, 2013. - Seoul: AICIT, 2013. - . – Handle: http://hdl.handle.net/11108/127
co-authored with Joachim Neubert: Linked Library Data: Offering a Backbone for the Semantic Web. In: Communications in Computer and Information Sciences; Semantic Technology and Knowledge Engineering Conference (STAKE 2011), Conference Proceedings Springer, Berlin, 2011
co-authored with Michael Granitzer, Vedran Sabol, Kow Weng Onn, Dickson Lukose: Ontology Alignment – A Survey with Focus on Visually Supported Semi-Automatic Techniques. - In: Future Internet / Molecular Diversity Preservation International (MDPI). - Basel : MDPI, Vol. 2 (2010), Iss. 3, 238-258. - doi:10.3390/fi2030238, Handle: http://hdl.handle.net/11108/17
External links
CV
References
German computer scientists
1964 births
Living people
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Component-oriented%20database
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Component-oriented database
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Component-oriented database (CODB) is a way of data administration and programming DBMS's using the paradigm of the component-orientation.
Concepts
The paradigm of component-orientation (CO) is a development of the object-orientation (OO) in programming and data modeling, leading toward the extreme the possibilities of reuse. In this model type, classes are aggregate in cells called components, that execute a role similar to the function in the structured programming, a way of processing information contemporary to the relational database model.
So the component-orientation mixes a set of features of its predecessor models. Understanding it is simpler while thinking of the visual component, that is an application which not being deployed into an executable or bytecode but otherwise turned to be linked by an icon inside another application, icon when one clicks on it implements certain tasks. Then this concepts can be extended to non-visual components.
In database activities, the component, visual or not, is an aggragate of classes, in the sense of OO, that can be linked to other ones by adapters.
As after the OO model conception data and code programming code are mixed in a cohesive body, there are some difficulties in conceiving where the CODB and CO programming are separate one from the other. Although this enigma is important in conceptual epistemological area, in practical data processing there isn't so importance in this question because of usage of mapping models to large scale used software, like the mappings called ORDBMS and CRDB (component-relational database), in which the separation of data and code are still well defined.
Implementation
In programming activity, the CO is often taken place with large-scale used OO languages (like C++, Java) with mapping adaptation. In designing the paradigm is supported by UML. In data modeling, data administration and database administration, the mapping adaptation is alike the ORDBMS paradigm. The adapted paradigm to component-based models is known as component-relational database (CRDB).
Advantages
The main advantage of the component-oriented thinking, as seen in early chapters, is the optimization of reusability of work. Going far away from the uses of OO models, the CO paradigm allows the use of ready to use applications as modules to new and bigger projects.
It is necessary to regard that these technical features are not achieved in traditional OO models, although the idea of component came up naturally from OO thinking. The basis support notions of OO like encapsulation, inheritance and polymorphism not necessarily leads to the idea of reusing applications as modules of new works. The CO thinking also assures that components are fully tested, as a real application, and thus there is in this model the paroxism of reuse, as well as the feature of understanability to end users, as corollary of the app->comp way of realizing the IT works.
Even using the same software that are present in OO paradigm, there are many specific consequences in the world of data-oriented activities. In analogous way, whole models composed of classes can be treated as a part (component) of a new more comprehensive model.
Bibliography
Buschmann, Frank; Meunier, Regine; Rohnert, Hans; Sommerlad, peter. Pattern-Oriented Software Architecture, Volume 1. John Wiley & Sons, 1996, .
Cho, Eun-Sun ; Han, Sang-Yong; Kim, Hyoung-Joo. A New Data Abstraction Layer Required For OODBMS, Proceedings of 1997 International Database engineering and Applications Symposium (IDEAS’97).
Clemente, Pedro J.; Hernandez, Juan. Aspect Component Based Software Engineering, Proceedings of the Second AOSD Workshop on Aspects, Components, and Patterns for Infrastructure Software (ACP4IS), March 2003.
Clements, Paul. From subroutines to subsystems: Component-Based Software Development. Brown, Allen. Component-Based Software Engineering: Selected Papers from Software Institute, 1996.
Erich Gamma, Erich; Helm, Richerd; Johnson, Ralph; Vilssides, John. Design Patterns. Elements of Reusable Object-Oriented Software. Addison-Wesley, 1995, .
Garcia-Molina, Hector; Ulman, Jeffrey D.; Widom, Jennifer, Database Systems – A complete book. Prentice Hall, 2002, .
Pfister, C.;Szyperski, C.. Why Objects Are Not Enough, Proceedings of Component Users Conference, Munich, Germany, 1996.
Rotaru, Octavian Paul;Dobre, Marian;Petrescu, Mircea. Integrity and Consistency Aspects in Component-Oriented Databases, Proceedings of the International Symposium on Innovation in Information.
Stroustrup, Bjarne. Why C++ is not just an Object-Oriented Programming Language, Addendum to OOPSLA95 Proceedings, ACM OOPS Messenger, October 1995.
See also
Object Database
Relational model
References
Object-oriented programming
Database models
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gmina%20Trojan%C3%B3w
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Gmina Trojanów
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Gmina Trojanów is a rural gmina (administrative district) in Garwolin County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. Its seat is the village of Trojanów, which lies approximately 27 kilometres (16 mi) south-east of Garwolin and 81 km (50 mi) south-east of Warsaw.
The gmina covers an area of , and as of 2006 its total population is 7,757.
Villages
Gmina Trojanów contains the villages and settlements of Babice, Budziska, Damianów, Dębówka, Derlatka, Dudki, Elżbietów, Jabłonowiec, Korytnica, Kozice, Kruszyna, Majdan, Mika, Mościska, Mroków, Ochodne, Piotrówek, Podebłocie, Prandocin, Ruda, Skruda, Trojanów, Więcków, Wola Korycka Dolna, Wola Korycka Górna, Wola Życka, Żabianka and Życzyn.
Neighbouring gminas
Gmina Trojanów is bordered by the gminas of Kłoczew, Maciejowice, Ryki, Sobolew, Stężyca and Żelechów.
External links
Polish official population figures 2006
Trojanow
Garwolin County
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365802
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob%20Kahn
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Bob Kahn
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Robert Elliot Kahn (born December 23, 1938) is an American electrical engineer, who, along with Vint Cerf, first proposed the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP), the fundamental communication protocols at the heart of the Internet.
In 2004, Kahn won the Turing Award with Vint Cerf for their work on TCP/IP.
Background information
Kahn was born in New York to parents Beatrice Pauline (née Tashker) and Lawrence Kahn in a Jewish family of unknown European descent. Through his father, he is related to futurist Herman Kahn. After receiving a B.E.E. degree in electrical engineering from the City College of New York in 1960, Kahn went on to Princeton University where he earned a M.A. in 1962 and Ph.D. in 1964, both in electrical engineering. At Princeton, he was advised by Bede Liu and completed a doctoral dissertation titled "Some problems in the sampling and modulation of signals." He first worked at Bolt Beranek and Newman Inc., then in 1972 joined the Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO) within DARPA. In the fall of 1972, he demonstrated the ARPANET by connecting 20 different computers at the International Computer Communication Conference, "the watershed event that made people suddenly realize that packet switching was a real technology." He then helped develop the TCP/IP protocols for connecting diverse computer networks. After he became director of IPTO, he started the United States government's billion dollar Strategic Computing Initiative, the largest computer research and development program ever undertaken by the U.S. federal government.
After thirteen years with DARPA, he left to found the Corporation for National Research Initiatives (CNRI) in 1986, and as of 2015 is the chairman, CEO and president.
The Internet
While working on the SATNET satellite packet network project, he came up with the initial ideas for what later became the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which was intended as a replacement for an earlier network protocol, NCP, used in the ARPANET. TCP played a major role in forming the basis of open-architecture networking, which would allow computers and networks all over the world to communicate with each other, regardless of what hardware or software the computers on each network used. To reach this goal, TCP was designed to have the following features:
Small sub-sections of the whole network would be able to talk to each other through a specialized computer that only forwarded packets (first called a gateway, and now called a router).
No portion of the network would be the single point of failure, or would be able to control the whole network.
Each piece of information sent through the network would be given a sequence number, to ensure that they were dealt with in the right order at the destination computer, and to detect the loss of any of them.
A computer which sent information to another computer would know that it was successfully received when the destination computer sent back a special packet, called an acknowledgement (ACK), for that particular piece of information.
If information sent from one computer to another was lost, the information would be retransmitted, after the loss was detected by a timeout, which would recognize that the expected acknowledgement had not been received.
Each piece of information sent through the network would be accompanied by a checksum, calculated by the original sender, and checked by the ultimate receiver, to ensure that it was not damaged in any way en route.
Vint Cerf joined him on the project in the spring of 1973, and together they completed an early version of TCP. Later, the protocol was separated into two separate layers: host-to-host communication would be handled by TCP, with Internet Protocol (IP) handling internetwork communication. The two together are usually referred to as TCP/IP, and form part of the basis for the modern Internet.
In 1992 he co-founded with Vint Cerf the Internet Society, to provide leadership in Internet related standards, education, and policy.
Awards
He was elected as a member to the National Academy of Engineering in 1987 for research contributions in computer networks and packet switching, and for creative management contributions to research efforts in computers and communications.
He was awarded the SIGCOMM Award in 1993 for "visionary technical contributions and leadership in the development of information systems technology", and shared the 2004 Turing Award with Vint Cerf, for "pioneering work on internetworking, including .. the Internet's basic communications protocols .. and for inspired leadership in networking."
He is a recipient of the AFIPS Harry Goode Memorial Award, the Marconi Award, the ACM SIGCOMM Award, the President's Award from ACM, the IEEE Koji Kobayashi Computer and Communications Award, the IEEE Alexander Graham Bell Medal, the IEEE Third Millennium Medal, the ACM Software Systems Award, the Computerworld/Smithsonian Award, the ASIS Special Award and the Public Service Award from the Computing Research Board. He has twice received the Secretary of Defense Civilian Service Award.
He was awarded an honorary degree by the University of Pavia in 1998.
He is a recipient of the 1997 National Medal of Technology, the 2001 Charles Stark Draper Prize from the National Academy of Engineering, the 2002 Prince of Asturias Award, and the 2004 A. M. Turing Award from the Association for Computing Machinery. Kahn received the 2003 Digital ID World award for the Digital Object Architecture as a significant contribution (technology, policy or social) to the digital identity industry.
In 2005 he was awarded the Townsend Harris Medal from the Alumni Association of the City College of New York, the Presidential Medal of Freedom, and the C & C Prize in Tokyo, Japan.
He was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in May 2006.
He was inducted as a Fellow of the Computer History Museum in 2006 "for pioneering technical contributions to internetworking and for leadership in the application of networks to scientific research."
He was awarded the 2008 Japan Prize for his work in "Information Communication Theory and Technology" (together with Vinton Cerf).
In 2001 he was inducted as a Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery.
Robert Kahn and Vinton Cerf were each inducted as an Honorary Fellow of the Society for Technical Communication (STC) in May 2006.
The duo were also awarded with the Harold Pender Award, the highest honor awarded by the University of Pennsylvania School Engineering and Applied Sciences, in February 2010.
He has also served on the board of directors for Qualcomm.
In 2012, Kahn was inducted into the Internet Hall of Fame by the Internet Society.
In 2013 Kahn was one of five Internet and Web pioneers awarded the inaugural Queen Elizabeth Prize for Engineering.
Honorary degrees
Kahn has received honorary degrees from Princeton University, University of Pavia, ETH Zurich, University of Maryland, George Mason University, the University of Central Florida and the University of Pisa, and an honorary fellowship from University College, London.
In 2012 he was also recognized as honorary doctor of Saint Petersburg National Research University of Information Technologies, Mechanics and Optics.
Articles
Vint Cerf & Bob Kahn, Al Gore and the Internet, 2000-09-28
See also
List of Internet pioneers
List of pioneers in computer science
Paul Baran and Donald Davies, independently invented packet-switched networks
References
External links
Biography of Kahn from IEEE
Oral history interview with Robert E. Kahn, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. Focuses on Kahn's role in the development of computer networking from 1967 through the early 1980s. Beginning with his work at Bolt Beranek and Newman (BBN), Kahn discusses his involvement as the ARPANET proposal was being written, his decision to become active in its implementation, and his role in the public demonstration of the ARPANET. The interview continues into Kahn's involvement with networking when he moves to IPTO in 1972, where he was responsible for the administrative and technical evolution of the ARPANET, including programs in packet radio, the development of a new network protocol (TCP/IP), and the switch to TCP/IP to connect multiple networks.
Bio of Robert E. Kahn from the Living Internet.
"Morning Edition" interview (NPR)
"Nerd TV" interview (with Robert X. Cringley) - Requires QuickTime (transcript)
Computer Networks: The Heralds of Resource Sharing, documentary ca. 1972 about the ARPANET. Includes footage of Robert E. Kahn.
A short history of Bob (story/slideshow) in computing, from Bob Kahn to Bob Metcalfe to Microsoft Bob and Alice & Bob
"An Evening with Robert Kahn in conversation with Ed Feigenbaum" - Requires WMV player
C-SPAN Q&A interview with Kahn, August 14, 2005
American computer scientists
American software engineers
1938 births
Living people
Internet pioneers
Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery
Members of the United States National Academy of Engineering
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
National Medal of Technology recipients
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
Turing Award laureates
Draper Prize winners
MIT School of Engineering faculty
City College of New York alumni
ITMO University
Princeton University School of Engineering and Applied Science alumni
Jewish American scientists
20th-century American engineers
21st-century American engineers
20th-century American scientists
21st-century American scientists
Center for a New American Security
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69170
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pocket%20PC
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Pocket PC
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A Pocket PC (P/PC, PPC) is a class of personal digital assistant (PDA) that runs the Windows Mobile or Windows Embedded Compact operating system that has some of the abilities of modern desktop PCs. The name was introduced by Microsoft in 2000 as a rebranding of the Palm-size PC category. Some of these devices also had integrated phone and data capabilities, which were called Pocket PC Phone Edition or simply "Smartphone".
As of 2010, thousands of applications existed for handhelds adhering to the Microsoft Pocket PC specification, many of which were freeware. Microsoft-compliant Pocket PCs can be used with many add-ons such as GPS receivers, barcode readers, RFID readers, and cameras.
In 2007, with the advent of Windows Mobile 6.0, Microsoft dropped the name Pocket PC in favor of a new naming scheme:
Windows Mobile Classic (formerly Pocket PC): devices without an integrated phone;
Windows Mobile Professional (formerly Pocket PC Phone Edition): devices with an integrated phone and a touch screen;
Windows Mobile Standard (formerly Smartphone): devices with an integrated phone but without a touch screen.
History
The Pocket PC was an evolution from prior calculator-sized computers. Keystroke-programmable calculators which could do simple business and scientific applications were available by the 1970s. In 1982, Hewlett Packard's HP-75 incorporated a 1-line text display, an alphanumeric keyboard, HP BASIC language and some basic PDA abilities. The HP 95LX, HP 100LX and HP 200LX series packed a PC-compatible MS-DOS computer with graphics display and QWERTY keyboard into a palmtop format. The HP OmniGo 100 and 120 used a pen and graphics interface on DOS-based PC/GEOS, but was not widely sold in the United States. The HP 300LX built a palmtop computer on the Windows CE operating system.
Palm-size PC (PsPC) was Microsoft's official name for Windows CE PDAs that were smaller than Handheld PCs by the lack of a physical keyboard. The class was announced in January 1998 originally as "Palm PC" which provoked a lawsuit by Palm Inc., and the name changed soon afterwards to Palm-size PC before release. These devices were similar to the Handheld PC and also ran Windows CE, however this version was more limited and lacked Pocket Microsoft Office, Pocket Internet Explorer, ActiveX and some other tools. Its main competitor was the PalmPilot and Palm III. According to the specification, Palm-size PCs use SuperH SH3 processors and MIPS architecture. The term "palm-sized PC" was also used as a generic term of similar such devices that are not necessary connected to Microsoft, such as the PalmPilot.
Microsoft's Handheld PCs and Palm-size PCs did not gain much success in the markets compared to Palm, with users complaining the Windows CE software were hard to use and the devices themselves were thick. On April 19, 2000, Microsoft introduced Pocket PC with a revamped interface and to better compete against the popular Palm devices. The Pocket PC was based on the all new version 3.0 of Windows CE. HP, Casio and Compaq were the first OEMs with Pocket PC devices in 2000. The familiar desktop Windows UI from Palm-size PCs was removed in favor of a more tailored interface on Pocket PCs.
According to Microsoft, the Pocket PC is "a handheld device that enables users to store and retrieve e-mail, contacts, appointments, tasks, play multimedia files, games, exchange text messages with Windows Live Messenger (formerly known as MSN Messenger), browse the Web, and more."
Prior to the release of Windows Mobile 2003, third-party software was developed using Microsoft's eMbedded Visual Tools, eMbedded Visual Basic (eVB) and eMbedded Visual C (eVC). eVB programs can usually be converted fairly easily to NS Basic/CE. or to Basic4ppc.
In 2007 the Pocket PC name was dropped altogether. The Pocket PC Phone Edition became Windows Mobile Professional; the Smartphone became Windows Mobile Standard; and the classic phone-less Pocket PC (which by now had become a niche) became Windows Mobile Classic.
The Pocket PC/Windows Mobile OS was superseded by Windows Phone on February 15, 2010, when the latter was announced at Mobile World Congress that year. No existing hardware was officially supported for a Windows Phone 7 upgrade. Additionally, not a single one of the thousands of apps available for Windows Mobile would run unaltered on Windows Phone.
Specification
From a technical standpoint, "Pocket PC" is a Microsoft specification that sets various hardware and software requirements for mobile devices bearing the "Pocket PC" label.
For instance, any device which is to be classified as a Pocket PC must:
Run Microsoft's Windows Mobile, Pocket PC edition
Come bundled with a specific suite of applications in ROM
Note: the name Windows Mobile includes both the Windows CE operating system and a suite of basic applications along with a specified user interface
Include a touchscreen
Include a directional pad or touchpad
Include a set of hardware application buttons
Be based on an ARM version 4 compatible CPU, Intel XScale CPU, MIPS CPU or SH3 CPU. (As of the Pocket PC 2002 specification, ARM-based CPUs are required.)
Operating system versions
Windows Mobile 6.5
The first Windows Mobile 6.5 device was first shown in September 2009. Leaked ROMs surfaced in July 2009 for specific devices. The generic ROM images for Mobile 6.5 are also available as part of the officially distributed and freely downloadable development kit.
Several phones running Windows Mobile 6.1 can be updated to Windows Mobile 6.5.
Windows Mobile 6.1
Microsoft's Windows Mobile 6.1 was announced on April 1, 2008, and introduced instant messaging-like texting. Windows Mobile 6.1 was built upon Windows CE 5.
Windows Mobile 6
Microsoft's Windows Mobile 6, internally code-named 'Crossbow', was officially released by Microsoft on February 12, 2007. Mobile 6 was still based on Windows CE 5 and was effectively just a face-lift of Windows Mobile 5. With Mobile 6 also came Microsoft's new naming conventions and devices were no longer called Pocket PCs: devices with no phone abilities were named Windows Mobile Classic, and devices with phone abilities were named Windows Mobile Professional.
Windows Mobile 5
Windows Mobile 5 for Pocket PC was based on Windows CE 5 and contained many fixes and improvements over Windows Mobile 2003.
Pocket PCs running prior versions of the operating system generally stored user-installed applications and data in RAM, which meant that if the battery was depleted the device would lose all of its data. Windows Mobile 5.0 solved this problem by storing all user data in persistent (flash) memory, leaving the RAM to be used only for running applications, as it would be on a desktop computer. As a result, Windows Mobile 5.0 Pocket PCs generally had more flash memory, and less RAM, compared to earlier devices.
Windows Mobile 2003
Windows Mobile 2003 consisted of the Windows CE.NET 4.2 operating system bundled with scaled-down versions of many popular desktop applications, including Microsoft Outlook, Internet Explorer, Word, Excel, Windows Media Player, and others.
Windows Mobile 2003 Second Edition added native landscape, square screen and VGA support as well as other fixes and changes to those features already present in the original release of Windows Mobile 2003.
Windows CE 3.0
Pocket PC 2000
Pocket PC 2000 was launched April 2000, and ran Windows CE 3.0. Pocket PC 2000 featured a mobile version of Microsoft Office, a chief feature being the ability to password-protect Excel files.
Pocket PC 2002
Pocket PC 2002 was launched October 2001, and was powered by Windows CE 3.0, as with its predecessor. Some Pocket PC 2002 devices were also sold as "Phone Editions", which included cell phone functionality in addition to the PDA abilities.
Vendors
Before the Pocket PC brand was launched, there were other Windows-based machines of the same form factor called Palm-size PCs. These devices ran Windows CE 2.0–2.11 and had an interface that was similar to the then-current desktop versions of Windows like Windows 95. The first of these was the Everex Freestyle, also known as HTC Kangaroo, from 1998. Other examples include Casio Cassiopeia E-10/E-11, Compaq Aero 1500/1520, Philips Nino and HP Jornada 420/430.
Pocket PCs were manufactured and sold by several different companies; the major manufacturers include HP (under the iPAQ and now defunct Jornada brands), Toshiba, Acer, Asus, Dell (under the now defunct Axim brand), Fujitsu Siemens, E-TEN, HTC, and ViewSonic. In mid-2003, Gateway Computers and JVC announced they would release Pocket PCs, but the projects were discontinued before a product was released. Prices in 2003 ranged from around for the high-end models, some of which are combined with cell phones, to $200 for low-end models. A $100–$200 model was rumored to be released within 2004 or early 2005, although the lowest price for a just-released Pocket PC never went under $300. Many companies ceased to sell PDA's by 2003–2004 because of a declining market. Major companies such as Viewsonic and Toshiba stopped producing new Pocket PCs.
Companies like O2, T-Mobile and Orange were marketing Pocket PCs that have integrated mobile telephony (smartphones). All users have to do is put in the SIM card and follow the wizard, to put their SIM contacts in the address book. An example is O2's Xda, or T-Mobile's MDA Compact. Both of these devices, while bearing the phone operator's logo, are manufactured by the dominant Pocket PC manufacturer HTC.
One of the more popular high-end consumer-market Pocket PCs was the Dell Axim x51v, which was discontinued in 2007. Hardware specs included 3.7" color TFT VGA display with 640x480 resolution, Intel XScaleTM PXA270 processor at 624 MHz, 336 MB of memory (256 MB flash, 64 MB SDRAM), integrated 802.11b and Bluetooth 1.2, integrated Intel 2700G multimedia accelerator with 16 MB video memory. Expansion was possible via CompactFlash Type II and SD slots (supporting SDIO Now!, SDIO and MMC cards). Included is a 1,100 mAh user replaceable battery (est. 4–6.5 hours, 2200 mAh also available).
Some Pocket PCs featured integrated GPS often combined with mobile phone functionality. Pocket PCs with built-in telephony differ from Windows Mobile Smartphone Edition devices in several respects, including the lack of a touchscreen on the latter. Some examples of current Pocket PCs with GPS integrated are the Fujitsu Siemens Pocket Loox N560, a high-end Pocket PC with a VGA screen and an integrated SiRF Star III GPS; the HTC TyTN, a small communicator with integrated slide in keyboard; the HP hw6945 and HP iPAQ hw6515 with integrated thumb-board, GPS and GSM/GPRS telephony; the HTC top-of-the-line Universal, branded as the QTek 9000 (also branded by various telecommunications companies as the Orange SPV M5000, T-mobile MDA Pro, Vodafone VPA IV, O2 Xda Exec, i-Mate JasJar, Dopod 900).
A newer entrant into the Pocket PC market was its rival Palm, which sold devices like the Treo 700w/wx based on Windows Mobile 5.0 and featuring integrated telephony. Previous to this, Palm only produced PDAs running its own Palm OS (as did the first versions of the Palm Treo) before it was losing popularity to Pocket PC's Windows Mobile.
HTC manufactured up to 80% of all phone enabled Windows Mobile devices for other companies (including HP and O2), as well as many non-phone Pocket PCs (for companies such as Dell, HP and Fujitsu Siemens) as of 2006. HTC was by now marketing Windows Mobile devices under their own brand, as well as that of Dopod.
See also
List of Pocket PC Devices
List of Windows Mobile Professional games
ActiveSync
Windows CE
Windows CE 3.0
Windows Mobile
Smartphone
HTC HD2
References
External links
Radio-frequency identification
Personal computers
tr:Cep bilgisayarı#Pocket PC
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41883152
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20moths%20of%20Turkey%20%28Noctuidae%29
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List of moths of Turkey (Noctuidae)
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This is a list of moths of the family Noctuidae that are found in Turkey. It also acts as an index to the species articles and forms part of the full List of moths of Turkey.
Abrostola agnorista Dufay, 1956
Abrostola asclepiadis Lang, 1789
Abrostola clarissa Staudinger, 1900
Abrostola trigemina Werneburg, 1864
Abrostola triplasia (Linnaeus, 1758)
Acantholeucania loreyi Duponchel, 1827
Acantholipes regularis (Hübner, [1813])
Acontia lucida (Hufnagel, 1766)
Acontia titania (Esper, [1798])
Acontia urania Frivaldsky, 1835
Acrapex taurica Staudinger, 1900
Acronicta aceris (Linnaeus, 1758)
Acronicta alni (Linnaeus, 1758)
Acronicta leporina (Linnaeus, 1758)
Acronicta pasiphae Draudt, 1936
Acronicta psi (Linnaeus, 1758)
Acronicta tridens ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Actebia praecox (Linnaeus, 1758)
Actinotia hypericii (Fabricius, 1787)
Actinotia polyodon Clerck, 1759
Actinotia radiosa (Esper, [1804])
Aedia funesta (Esper, [1786])
Aedia leucomelas (Linnaeus, 1758)
Aedophron phlebophora Lederer, 1858
Aedophron rhodites Eversmann, 1851
Agrapha accentifera Lefebvre, 1827
Agrochola pistacina Goeze, 1781
Agrotis biconica Kollar, 1844
Agrotis cinerea ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Agrotis clavis (Hufnagel, 1766)
Agrotis desertorum Boisduval, 1840
Agrotis exclamationis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Agrotis grossi Hacker & Kuhna, 1986
Agrotis haifae Staudinger, 1897
Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagel, 1766)
Agrotis ripae (Hübner, [1813])
Agrotis scruposa Draudt, 1936
Agrotis segetum ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Agrotis trux (Hübner, [1824])
Aletia albipuncta (Fabricius, 1787)
Aletia alopecuri Boisduval, 1840
Aletia congrua (Hübner, [1817])
Aletia conigera ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Aletia deserticola Bartel, 1903
Aletia ferrago (Fabricius, 1787)
Aletia flavostigma Bremer, 1861
Aletia impura (Hübner, [1808])
Aletia l-album (Linnaeus, 1767)
Aletia languida Walker, 1858
Aletia pallens (Linnaeus, 1758)
Aletia prominens Walker, 1856
Aletia pudorina ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Aletia sassanidica Hacker, 1986
Aletia scirpi Duponchel, 1836
Aletia sicula Treitschke, 1835
Aletia straminea Treitschke, 1825
Aletia vitellina (Hübner, [1808])
Allophyes asiatica Staudinger, 1892
Allophyes benedictina Staudinger, 1892
Allophyes metaxys Boursin, 1953
Allophyes oxyacanthae (Linnaeus, 1758)
Allophyes renalis Wiltshire, 1941
Alpichola egorovi Bang-Haas, 1934
Alpichola janhillmanni Hacker & Moberg, 1989
Alpichola lactiflora Draudt, 1934
Amephana dalmatica Rebel, 1919
Ammoconia caecimacula (Fabricius, 1787)
Ammoconia senex Geyer, [1828]
Amphidrina agrotina Staudinger, 1892
Amphipoea oculea (Linnaeus, 1761)
Amphipyra berbera Rungs, 1949
Amphipyra livida ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Amphipyra micans Lederer, 1857
Amphipyra molybdea Christoph, 1867
Amphipyra perflua (Fabricius, 1787)
Amphipyra pyramidea (Linnaeus, 1758)
Amphipyra stix Herrich-Schäffer, [1850]
Amphipyra tetra (Fabricius, 1787)
Amphipyra tragopoginis Clerck, 1759
Amphipyra turcomana Staudinger, 1888
Anaplectoides prasina Goeze, 1781
Anchoscelis deleta Staudinger, 1881
Anchoscelis gratiosa Staudinger, 1881
Anchoscelis helvola (Linnaeus, 1758)
Anchoscelis humilis (Fabricius, 1787)
Anchoscelis imitata Ronkay, 1984
Anchoscelis kindermannii F.R., 1838
Anchoscelis litura (Linnaeus, 1761)
Anchoscelis lota Clerck, 1759
Anchoscelis macilenta (Hübner, [1809])
Anchoscelis nitida (Fabricius, 1787)
Anchoscelis oropotamica Wiltshire, 1941
Anchoscelis osthelderi Boursin, 1951
Anchoscelis rupicapra Staudinger, 1879
Anchoscelis saitana Derra, 1990
Aneda rivularis (Fabricius, 1775)
Anepia esperi Hacker, 1992
Anepia irregularis (Hufnagel, 1766)
Anepia musculina Staudinger, 1892
Anepia neglecta Hacker, 1992
Anepia pumila Staudinger, 1879
Anepia wolfi Hacker, 1992
Anopoma riparia Rambur, 1829
Antarchaea conicephala Staudinger, 1870
Antarchaea numisma (Hübner, [1803])
Antennola impura Mann, 1862
Antholopha gloriosa Staudinger, 1892
Antholopha ionodoxa Ronkay, 1990
Anthracia eriopoda Herrich-Schäffer, [1851]
Antitype chi (Linnaeus, 1758)
Antitype chionodes Boursin, 1968
Antitype jonis Lederer, 1865
Anua bimaculata Osthelder, 1933
Anua lunaris Goeze, 1781
Anumeta arax Fibiger, 1995
Apamea anceps ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Apamea aquila Donzel, 1837
Apamea crenata (Hufnagel, 1766)
Apamea epomidion Haworth, [1809]
Apamea euxinia Hacker, 1985
Apamea ferrago Eversmann, 1837
Apamea furva Goeze, 1781
Apamea illyria Freyer, 1846
Apamea indiges Turati, 1926
Apamea lateritia (Hufnagel, 1766)
Apamea leucodon Eversmann, 1837
Apamea lithoxylaea (Fabricius, 1787)
Apamea maraschi Draudt, 1934
Apamea monoglypha (Hufnagel, 1766)
Apamea oblonga Haworth, [1809]
Apamea platinea Treitschke, 1825
Apamea pyxina Bang-Haas, 1910
Apamea remissa (Hübner, [1809])
Apamea scolopacina (Esper, [1788])
Apamea sicula Treitschke, 1835
Apamea sordens (Hufnagel, 1766)
Apamea sublustris (Esper, [1788])
Apamea unanimis (Hübner, [1813])
Apamea zeta Treitschke, 1825
Apaustis rupicola ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Apaustis theophila Staudinger, 1866
Apopestes noe Ronkay, 1990
Apopestes phantasma Eversmann, 1843
Apopestes spectrum (Esper, [1787])
Aporophyla australis Boisduval, 1829
Aporophyla canescens Duponchel, 1826
Aporophyla lutulenta ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Aporophyla nigra Haworth, [1809]
Archanara algae (Esper, [1789])
Archanara geminipuncta Haworth, [1809]
Archanara sparganii (Esper, [1790])
Arcyophora dentula Lederer, 1870
Arenostola semicana (Esper, [1798])
Argyrospila succinea (Esper, [1798])
Armada panaceorum Ménétriés, 1849
Atethmia ambusta (Fabricius, 1787)
Atethmia centrago Haworth, [1809]
Atethmia obscura Osthelder, 1933
Atethmia pinkeri Hacker, [1987]
Athetis furvula (Hübner, [1808])
Athetis gluteosa Treitschke, 1835
Athetis hospes Freyer, 1831
Athetis pallustris (Hübner, [1808])
Atypha pulmonaris (Esper, [1790])
Auchmis detersa (Esper, [1791])
Autographa aemula ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Autographa gamma (Linnaeus, 1758)
Autographa jota (Linnaeus, 1758)
Autographa messmeri Schadewald, 1993
Autophila asiatica Staudinger, 1888
Autophila banghaasi Boursin, 1940
Autophila cerealis Staudinger, 1871
Autophila depressa Püngeler, 1914
Autophila dilucida (Hübner, [1808])
Autophila einsleri Amsel, 1935
Autophila hirsuta Staudinger, 1870
Autophila iranica Ronkay, 1989
Autophila libanotica Staudinger, 1901
Autophila limbata Staudinger, 1871
Autophila sinesafida Wiltshire, 1952
Axylia putris (Linnaeus, 1761)
Behounekia freyeri Frivaldsky, 1835
Bena prasinana (Linnaeus, 1758)
Brachionycha sphinx (Hufnagel, 1766)
Brachionycha syriaca Warren, 1910
Brachylomia uralensis Warren, 1910
Brachylomia viminalis (Fabricius, 1777)
Brandticola dubiosa Brandt, 1938
Bryoleuca dolopsis Hampson, 1908
Bryoleuca labecula Lederer, 1855
Bryoleuca microphysa Boursin, 1952
Bryoleuca petrea Guenée, 1852
Bryoleuca petricolor Lederer, 1870
Bryoleuca raddei Boursin, 1963
Bryoleuca raptricula ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Bryoleuca rectilinea Warren, 1909
Bryoleuca remanei Heydemann & Schulte, 1963
Bryoleuca seladona Christoph, 1885
Bryoleuca tephrocharis Boursin, 1953
Bryomima carducha Staudinger, 1900
Bryomima defreina Hacker, 1986
Bryomima hakkariensis Freina, & Hacker, 1985
Bryomima luteosordida Osthelder, 1933
Bryophila eucharista Boursin, 1960
Bryophila maeonis Lederer, 1865
Bryophila occidentalis Osthelder, 1933
Bryophilopsis roederi Standfuss, 1892
Bryopsis amasina Draudt, 1931
Bryopsis muralis Forster, 1771
Caeshadena caesia ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Calamia staudingeri Warnecke, 1941
Calliergis ramosa (Esper, [1786])
Callistege mi Clerck, 1759
Callopistria juventina Stoll, [1782]
Calocucullia celsiae Herrich-Schäffer, [1850]
Calophasia acuta Freyer, [1838]
Calophasia barthae Wagner, 1929
Calophasia lunula (Hufnagel, 1766)
Calophasia opalina (Esper, [1796])
Calophasia platyptera (Esper, [1788])
Calymma communimacula ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Calymnia trapezina (Linnaeus, 1758)
Calyptra thalictri Borkhausen, 1790
Caradrina morpheus (Hufnagel, 1766)
Cardepia arenbergeri Pinker, 1974
Cardepia hartigi Parenzan, 1981
Cardepia sociabilis Graslin, 1850
Catephia alchymista ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Catocala abacta Staudinger, 1900
Catocala conjuncta (Esper, [1787])
Catocala conversa (Esper, [1787])
Catocala dilecta (Hübner, [1808])
Catocala elocata (Esper, [1787])
Catocala fraxini (Linnaeus, 1758)
Catocala hymenaea Goeze, 1781
Catocala lesbia Christoph, 1887
Catocala lupina Herrich-Schäffer, [1851]
Catocala mesopotamica Kuznesov, 1903
Catocala neonympha (Esper, [1796])
Catocala nupta (Linnaeus, 1767)
Catocala nymphagoga (Esper, [1787])
Catocala promissa Goeze, 1781
Catocala puerpera Giorna, 1791
Catocala sponsa (Linnaeus, 1767)
Ceramica pisi (Linnaeus, 1758)
Cerapteryx graminis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Cerapteryx megala Alpheraky, 1882
Cerastis rubricosa (Fabricius, 1787)
Cerocala sana Staudinger, 1901
Charanyca trigrammica (Hufnagel, 1766)
Chazaria incarnata Freyer, 1838
Cheirophanes anaphanes Boursin, 1940
Cheirophanes ligaminosa Eversmann, 1851
Cheirophanes plattneri Boursin, 1955
Chersotis adili Koçak, 1987
Chersotis alpestris Boisduval, 1834
Chersotis anachoreta Herrich-Schäffer, [1851]
Chersotis anatolica Draudt, 1936
Chersotis andereggii Boisduval, 1832
Chersotis capnistis Lederer, 1872
Chersotis cuprea ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Chersotis ebertorum Koçak, 1980
Chersotis elegans Eversmann, 1837
Chersotis fimbriola (Esper, [1798])
Chersotis firdussi Schwingenschuss, 1937
Chersotis friedeli Pinker, 1974
Chersotis glebosa Staudinger, 1900
Chersotis gratissima Corti, 1932
Chersotis illauta Draudt, 1936
Chersotis juvenis Staudinger, 1901
Chersotis laeta Rebel, 1904
Chersotis larixia Guenée, 1852
Chersotis luperinoides Guenée, 1852
Chersotis margaritacea Villers, 1789
Chersotis multangula (Hübner, [1803])
Chersotis rectangula (Fabricius, 1787)
Chersotis ronkayorum Fibiger, Hacker & Varga, 1992
Chersotis sarhada Brandt, 1941
Chersotis semna Püngeler, 1906
Chersotis stenographa Varga, 1979
Chersotis zukowskyi Draudt, 1936
Chilodes maritimus Tauscher, 1806
Chionoxantha staudingeri Standfuss, 1892
Chrysodeixis chalcites (Esper, [1789])
Cirrhia gilvago ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Cirrhia icteritia (Hufnagel, 1766)
Cirrhia ocellaris Borkhausen, 1792
Cleoceris scoriacea (Esper, [1789])
Cleonymia baetica Rambur, [1837]
Cleonymia opposita Lederer, 1870
Clytie distincta Bang-Haas, 1907
Clytie syriaca Bugnion, 1837
Clytie terrulenta Christoph, 1893
Coccidiphaga scitula Rambur, 1833
Colobochyla platyzona Lederer, 1870
Colobochyla salicalis ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Colocasia coryli (Linnaeus, 1758)
Colonsideridis albicolon (Hübner, [1809])
Conisania capsivora Draudt, 1933
Conistra acutula Staudinger, 1892
Conistra asiatica Pinker, 1980
Conistra erythrocephala (Fabricius, 1787)
Conistra kasyi Boursin, 1963
Conistra ligula (Esper, [1791])
Conistra metria Boursin, 1940
Conistra rubiginea (Fabricius, 1787)
Conistra torrida Lederer, 1857
Conistra vaccinii (Linnaeus, 1761)
Conistra veronicae (Hübner, [1813])
Copiphana oliva Staudinger, 1895
Copiphana olivina Herrich-Schäffer, [1852]
Cornutiplusia circumflexa (Linnaeus, 1767)
Cosmia affinis (Linnaeus, 1767)
Cosmia confinis Herrich-Schäffer, [1849]
Cosmia diffinis (Linnaeus, 1767)
Craniophora ligustri (Fabricius, 1787)
Craniophora pontica Staudinger, 1879
Crassagrotis crassa (Hübner, [1803])
Crassagrotis obesa Boisduval, 1829
Cryphia receptricula (Hübner, [1803])
Cucullia absinthii (Linnaeus, 1761)
Cucullia anifurca Goeze, 1781
Cucullia argentina (Fabricius, 1787)
Cucullia artemisiae ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Cucullia behouneki Hacker & Ronkay, 1988
Cucullia boryphora Fischer de Waldheim, 1840
Cucullia calendulae Treitschke, 1835
Cucullia chamomillae ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Cucullia citella Ronkay & Ronkay, 1987
Cucullia dracunculi (Hübner, [1813])
Cucullia gnaphalii (Hübner, [1813])
Cucullia lucifuga (Hübner, [1803])
Cucullia mixta Freyer, 1842
Cucullia santolinae Rambur, 1834
Cucullia santonici (Hübner, [1813])
Cucullia syrtana Mabille, 1888
Cucullia tanaceti Goeze, 1781
Cucullia tecca Püngeler, 1906
Cucullia umbratica (Linnaeus, 1758)
Cucullia xeranthemi Boisduval, 1840
Dasymixis diva Ronkay & Varga, 1990
Dasypolia altissima Hacker & Moberg, 1988
Dasypolia dichroa Ronkay & Varga, 1985
Dasypolia ferdinandi Rühl, 1892
Dasypolia fibigeri Hacker & Moberg, 1988
Dasypolia templi Thunberg, 1792
Desertoplusia bella Christoph, 1887
Desertoplusia colornata Varga & Ronkay, 1991
Diachrysia chrysitis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Diachrysia chryson (Esper, [1789])
Diachrysia tutti Kostrowicki, 1961
Diachrysia Hübner, [1821]
Dianthivora implexa (Hübner, [1809])
Diarsia brunnea Goeze, 1781
Diarsia florida Schmidt, 1859
Diarsia mendica (Fabricius, 1775)
Diarsia rubi Vieweg, 1790
Dichagyris achtalensis Kozhantshikov, 1929
Dichagyris amoena Staudinger, 1892
Dichagyris anastasia Draudt, 1936
Dichagyris cataleipa Varga, 1993
Dichagyris celebrata Alpheraky, 1897
Dichagyris elbursica Draudt, 1937
Dichagyris eremicola Standfuss, 1888
Dichagyris erubescens Staudinger, 1892
Dichagyris eureteocles Boursin, 1940
Dichagyris forficula Eversmann, 1851
Dichagyris fredi Brandt, 1938
Dichagyris griseotincta Wagner, 1931
Dichagyris grisescens Staudinger, 1879
Dichagyris leucomelas Brandt, 1941
Dichagyris melanura Kollar, 1846
Dichagyris pfeifferi Corti & Draudt, 1933
Dichagyris psammochroa Boursin, 1940
Dichagyris renigera (Hübner, [1808])
Dichagyris singularis Staudinger, 1877
Dichagyris squalidior Staudinger, 1901
Dichagyris squalorum Eversmann, 1856
Dichagyris terminicincta Corti, 1933
Dichagyris vallesiaca Boisduval, 1832
Dichagyris wolfi Hacker, 1985
Dichonia aeruginea (Hübner, [1803])
Dichonia convergens ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Dichonioxa tenebrosa (Esper, [1789])
Dichromia munitalis Mann, 1861
Dicycla oo (Linnaeus, 1758)
Diloba caeruleocephala (Linnaeus, 1758)
Discestra baksana Schintlmeister, 1986
Discestra dianthi Tauscher, 1809
Discestra furca Eversmann, 1852
Discestra latemarginata Wiltshire, 1976
Discestra loeffleri Reisser, 1958
Discestra mendax Staudinger, 1879
Discestra mendica Staudinger, 1895
Discestra stigmosa Christoph, 1887
Discestra trifolii (Hufnagel, 1766)
Divaena haywardi Tams, 1926
Drasteria cailino Lefebvre, 1827
Drasteria caucasica Kolenati, 1846
Drasteria flexuosa Ménétriés, 1847
Drasteria herzi Alpheraky, 1895
Drasteria picta Christoph, 1877
Drasteria rada Boisduval, 1848
Drasteria saisani Staudinger, 1882
Drasteria sequax Staudinger, 1901
Drasteria sesquilina Staudinger, 1888
Dryobota labecula (Esper, [1788])
Dryobotodes eremita (Fabricius, 1775)
Dryobotodes servadeii Parenzan, 1982
Dypterygia scabriuscula (Linnaeus, 1758)
Dysgonia algira (Linnaeus, 1767)
Dysgonia torrida Guenée, 1852
Earias chlorophyllana Staudinger, 1892
Earias clorana (Linnaeus, 1761)
Earias insulana Boisduval, 1833
Earias syriacana Bartel, 1903
Earias vernana (Fabricius, 1787)
Ecbolemia misella Püngeler, 1907
Egira anatolica Hering, 1933
Egira conspicillaris (Linnaeus, 1758)
Egira fatima Hreblay, 1994
Egira tibori Hreblay, 1994
Eicomorpha antiqua Staudinger, 1888
Eicomorpha kurdestanica Freina, & Hacker, 1985
Elaphria venustula (Hübner, 1790)
Emmelia trabealis Scopoli, 1763
Enargia paleacea (Esper, [1788])
Enargia pinkeri Freina, & Hacker, 1985
Ephesia disjuncta Geyer, [1828]
Ephesia diversa Geyer, [1828]
Ephesia eutychea Treitschke, 1835
Ephesia fulminea Scopoli, 1763
Ephesia nymphaea (Esper, [1787])
Epilecta linogrisea ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Epipsilia latens (Hübner, [1809])
Episema amasina Hampson, 1906
Episema didymogramma Boursin, 1955
Episema glaucina (Esper, [1789])
Episema korsakovi Christoph, 1885
Episema lederi Christoph, 1885
Episema tersa ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Eremobia ochroleuca ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Eremodrina agenjoi Boursin, 1936
Eremodrina avis Pinker, 1980
Eremodrina belucha Swinhoe, 1885
Eremodrina bodenheimeri Draudt, 1934
Eremodrina draudti Boursin, 1936
Eremodrina gilva Donzel, 1837
Eremodrina inumbrata Staudinger, 1900
Eremodrina inumbratella Pinker, 1980
Eremodrina pertinax Staudinger, 1879
Eremodrina salzi Boursin, 1936
Eremodrina vicina Staudinger, 1870
Eremodrina zernyi Boursin, 1936
Eremophysa apotheina Brandt, 1938
Eremophysa discordans Boursin, 1940
Eriopygodes imbecilla (Fabricius, 1794)
Eublemma albivestalis Hampson, 1910
Eublemma caelestis Brandt, 1938
Eublemma candidana (Fabricius, 1794)
Eublemma chlorotica Lederer, 1858
Eublemma cochylioides Guenée, 1852
Eublemma gratissima Staudinger, 1892
Eublemma hansa Herrich-Schäffer, [1851]
Eublemma minutata (Fabricius, 1794)
Eublemma ochreola Staudinger, 1900
Eublemma ostrina (Hübner, [1808])
Eublemma pallidula Herrich-Schäffer, 1856
Eublemma panonica Freyer, 1840
Eublemma parallela Freyer, 1842
Eublemma parva (Hübner, [1808])
Eublemma polygramma Duponchel, 1836
Eublemma purpurina ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Eublemma pusilla Eversmann, 1837
Eublemma ragusana Freyer, 1844
Eublemma respersa (Hübner, 1790)
Eublemma rosina (Hübner, [1803])
Eublemma siticulosa Lederer, 1858
Eublemma straminea Staudinger, 1892
Eublemma substrigula Staudinger, 1892
Eublemma suppuncta Staudinger, 1892
Eublemma suppura Staudinger, 1892
Eublemma transmittens Christoph, 1893
Eublemma viridula Guenée, 1841
Eublemma wagneri Herrich-Schäffer, 1851
Euchalcia annemaria Freina, & Hacker, 1985
Euchalcia armeniae Dufay, 1966
Euchalcia augusta Staudinger, 1892
Euchalcia biezanskoi Alberti, 1965
Euchalcia cuprescens Dufay, 1966
Euchalcia dorsiflava Standfuss, 1892
Euchalcia emichi Rogenhofer, 1873
Euchalcia hedeja Dufay, 1978
Euchalcia kautti Hacker, 1992
Euchalcia kitchingi Hacker & Ronkay, 1992
Euchalcia maria Staudinger, 1892
Euchalcia paulina Staudinger, 1892
Euchalcia siderifera Eversmann, 1846
Euchalcia taurica Osthelder, 1933
Euchalcia variabilis Piller & Mitterbacher, 1783
Euchalcia viridis Staudinger, 1901
Euclidia glyphica (Linnaeus, 1758)
Eugnorisma chaldaica Boisduval, 1840
Eugnorisma eminens Lederer, 1855
Eugnorisma enargialis Draudt, 1936
Eugnorisma insignata Lederer, 1853
Eugnorisma kurdistana Hacker et al., 1986
Eugnorisma leuconeura Hampson, 1918
Eugnorisma semiramis Boursin, 1940
Euplexia lucipara (Linnaeus, 1758)
Eupsilia transversa (Hufnagel, 1766)
Eurois occulta (Linnaeus, 1758)
Euschesis interjecta (Hübner, [1803])
Euschesis janthina ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Euschesis tertia Mentzer Moberg & Fibiger, 1991
Eutelia adoratrix Staudinger, 1892
Eutelia adulatrix (Hübner, [1813])
Euthales algae (Fabricius, 1775)
Euthales ochsi Boursin, 1941
Euxoa adjemi Brandt, 1941
Euxoa agricola Boisduval, 1829
Euxoa anaemica Draudt, 1936
Euxoa anatolica Draudt, 1936
Euxoa aquilina ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Euxoa basigramma Staudinger, 1870
Euxoa birivia ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Euxoa christophi Staudinger, 1870
Euxoa conifera Christoph, 1877
Euxoa cos (Hübner, [1824])
Euxoa deserta Staudinger, 1870
Euxoa difficillima Draudt, 1937
Euxoa distinguenda Lederer, 1857
Euxoa emolliens Warren, 1909
Euxoa enitens Corti, 1926
Euxoa friedeli Pinker, 1980
Euxoa glabella Wagner, 1930
Euxoa hastifera Donzel, 1847
Euxoa heringi Christoph, 1877
Euxoa hilaris Freyer, 1838
Euxoa homicida Staudinger, 1900
Euxoa inclusa Corti, 1931
Euxoa lidia Cramer, [1782]
Euxoa luteomixta Wagner, 1932
Euxoa mobergi Fibiger, 1990
Euxoa mustelina Christoph, 1877
Euxoa nigricans (Linnaeus, 1761)
Euxoa obelisca ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Euxoa ochrogaster Guenée, 1852
Euxoa perierga Brandt, 1938
Euxoa recussa (Hübner, [1817])
Euxoa robiginosa Staudinger, 1895
Euxoa rubrior Pinker, 1980
Euxoa scurrilis Draudt, 1937
Euxoa segnilis Duponchel, 1836
Euxoa subdecora Hampson, 1903
Euxoa sulcifera Christoph, 1893
Euxoa temera (Hübner, [1808])
Euxoa tritici (Linnaeus, 1758)
Euxoa vanensis Draudt, 1937
Euxoa vitta (Esper, [1789])
Euxoa waltharii Corti, 1931
Euxoa zernyi Boursin, 1944
Evisa schawerdae Reisser, 1930
Exophila rectangularis (Hübner, [1828])
Frivaldskyola mansueta Herrich-Schäffer, [1850]
Gonospileia munita (Hübner, [1813])
Gonospileia triquetra ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Gortyna cervago Eversmann, 1844
Gortyna flavago (Esper, [1791])
Gortyna hethitica Hacker et al., 1986
Gortyna moesiaca Herrich-Schäffer, [1849]
Gortyna osmana Hacker et al., 1986
Grammodes bifasciata Petagna, 1788
Griposia aprilina (Linnaeus, 1758)
Griposia pinkeri Kobes, 1973
Grisyigoga candelisequa ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Guselderia mitis Püngeler, 1906
Hada nana (Hufnagel, 1766)
Hada persa Alpheraky, 1897
Hadena armeriae Guenée, 1852
Hadena bicruris (Hufnagel, 1766)
Hadena canescens Brandt, 1947
Hadena cavalla Pinker, 1980
Hadena defreinai Hacker et al., 1986
Hadena drenowskii Rebel, 1930
Hadena gueneei Staudinger, 1901
Hadena literata Fischer de Waldheim, 1840
Hadena luteocincta Rambur, 1834
Hadena melanochroa Staudinger, 1892
Hadena pfeifferi Draudt, 1934
Hadena pseudodealbata Freina, & Hacker, 1985
Hadena pseudohyrcana Freina, & Hacker, 1985
Hadena staudingeri Wagner, 1931
Hadena stenoptera Rebel, 1933
Hadena vulcanica Turati, 1907
Hadjina lutosa Staudinger, 1892
Haemerosia renalis (Hübner, [1813])
Haemerosia vassilininei Bang-Haas, 1912
Hakkaria varga Hacker, [1987]
Hecatera bicolorata (Hufnagel, 1766)
Hecatera cappa (Hübner, [1809])
Hecatera rhodocharis Brandt, 1938
Hecatera spinaciae Vieweg, 1790
Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner, [1808])
Heliophobus reticulata Goeze, 1781
Heliophobus texturata Alpheraky, 1892
Heliothis maritima Graslin, 1855
Heliothis nubigera Herrich-Schäffer, [1851]
Heliothis ononis (Fabricius, 1787)
Heliothis peltigera ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Heliothis viriplaca (Hufnagel, 1766)
Herminia grisealis ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Herminia nigricaria Osthelder, 1933
Herminia proxima Christoph, 1893
Herminia tarsicrinalis Knoch, 1782
Herminia tarsipennalis Treitschke, 1835
Herminia tenuialis Rebel, 1899
Heteropalpia vetusta Walker, 1865
Heterophysa dumetorum Geyer, [1834]
Himalistra tahiricola Ronkay & Hreblay, 1994
Hoplodrina ambigua ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Hoplodrina blanda ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Hoplodrina levis Staudinger, 1888
Hoplodrina octogenaria Goeze, 1781
Hoplodrina pfeifferi Boursin, 1932
Hoplodrina respersa ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Hoplodrina superstes Ochsenheimer, 1816
Hoplotarache sordescens Staudinger, 1895
Hypena amica Butler, 1878
Hypena obesalis Treitschke, 1829
Hypena obsitalis (Hübner, [1813])
Hypena palpalis (Hübner, 1796)
Hypena proboscidalis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Hypena rostralis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Hypenodes anatolica Schwingenschuss, 1938
Hypenodes kalchbergi Staudinger, 1876
Hypenodes orientalis Staudinger, 1901
Hypeuthina fulgurita Lederer, 1855
Hyppa rectilinea (Esper, [1788])
Hyssia cavernosa Eversmann, 1852
Idia calvaria ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Ipimorpha retusa (Linnaeus, 1761)
Ipimorpha subtusa (Fabricius, 1787)
Iranada tarachoides Bytinski-Salz & Brandt, 1937
Janthinea divalis Staudinger, 1892
Janthinea frivaldszkii Duponchel, 1835
Jodia croceago (Fabricius, 1787)
Lacanobia blenna (Hübner, [1824])
Lacanobia dissimilis Knoch, 1781
Lacanobia histrio Goeze, 1781
Lacanobia oleracea (Linnaeus, 1758)
Lacanobia praedita (Hübner, [1813])
Lacanobia thalassina (Hufnagel, 1766)
Lacanobia w-latinum (Hufnagel, 1766)
Lampra fimbriata Schreber, 1759
Lampra tirennica Biebinger, 1983
Lamprosticta culta Goeze, 1781
Lasionycta draudti Wagner, 1936
Lasionycta proxima (Hübner, [1809])
Laspeyria flexula ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Latanoctua orbona (Hufnagel, 1766)
Ledereragrotis multifida Lederer, 1870
Leucania comma (Linnaeus, 1761)
Leucania herrichi Herrich-Schäffer, [1849]
Leucania obsoleta (Hübner, [1803])
Leucania palaestinae Staudinger, 1897
Leucania punctosa Treitschke, 1825
Leucania putrescens (Hübner, [1824])
Leucania zeae Duponchel, 1827
Leucochlaena hirsutus Staudinger, 1892
Leucochlaena hoerhammeri Wagner, 1931
Leucochlaena jordana Draudt, 1934
Leucochlaena muscosa Staudinger, 1892
Leucochlaena rosinae Bohatsch, 1908
Lithophane hepatica Clerck, 1759
Lithophane lapidea (Hübner, [1808])
Lithophane ledereri Staudinger, 1892
Lithophane merckii Rambur, 1832
Lithophane ornitopus (Hufnagel, 1766)
Lithophane semibrunnea Haworth, [1809]
Lophoterges hoerhammeri Wagner, 1931
Luperina diversa Staudinger, 1892
Luperina dumerilii Duponchel, 1826
Luperina koshantschikovi Püngeler, 1914
Luperina rjabovi Kljutschko, 1967
Luperina rubella Duponchel, 1835
Luperina testacea ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Luteohadena luteago ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Lygephila craccae (Fabricius, 1787)
Lygephila ludicra (Hübner, 1790)
Lygephila lusoria (Linnaeus, 1758)
Lygephila pallida Bang-Haas, 1907
Lygephila pastinum Treitschke, 1826
Lygephila procax (Hübner, [1813])
Lygephila schachti Behounek & Hacker, 1986
Lygephila viciae (Hübner, [1822])
Macdunnoughia confusa Stephens, 1850
Maghadena magnolii Boisduval, 1828
Mamestra brassicae (Linnaeus, 1758)
Maraschia grisescens Osthelder, 1933
Margelana flavidior Wagner, 1931
Margelana versicolor Staudinger, 1888
Megalodes eximia Freyer, 1845
Meganephria bimaculosa (Linnaeus, 1767)
Meganola albula (Hübner, 1793)
Meganola asperalis Villers, 1789
Meganola togatulalis (Hübner, 1796)
Melanchra persicariae (Linnaeus, 1761)
Mesapamea didyma (Esper, [1788])
Mesapamea secalis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Mesogona acetosellae Goeze, 1781
Mesogona oxalina (Hübner, [1803])
Mesoligia furuncula ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Mesoligia literosa Haworth, [1809]
Metachrostis dardouini Boisduval, 1840
Metachrostis sefidi Brandt, 1938
Metachrostis velocior Staudinger, 1892
Metachrostis velox (Hübner, [1813])
Metaegle diatemna Boursin, 1962
Metaegle exquisita Boursin, 1969
Metaegle gratiosa Staudinger, 1892
Metaegle kaekeritziana (Hübner, [1799])
Metaegle nubila Staudinger, 1892
Metaegle ottoi Schawerda, 1923
Metaegle pallida Staudinger, 1892
Metaegle vespertalis (Hübner, [1813])
Metagnorisma depuncta (Linnaeus, 1761)
Metagnorisma heuristica Varga & Ronkay, 1987
Metagnorisma pontica Staudinger, 1892
Metagnorisma rafidain Boursin, 1936
Metalopha liturata Christoph, 1887
Methorasa latreillei Duponchel, 1827
Metopoceras beata Staudinger, 1892
Metopoceras delicata Staudinger, 1898
Metopoceras omar Oberthür, 1887
Metopodicha ernesti Draudt, 1936
Metoponrhis albirena Christoph, 1887
Metopoplus boursini Brandt, 1938
Metopoplus excelsa Christoph, 1885
Micriantha decorata Frivaldsky, 1845
Miselia albimacula Borkhausen, 1792
Miselia clara Staudinger, 1901
Miselia compta ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Miselia confusa (Hufnagel, 1766)
Miselia filograna (Esper, [1788])
Mniotype adusta (Esper, [1790])
Mniotype crinomima Wiltshire, 1946
Mniotype rjabovi Boursin, 1944
Moma alpium Osbeck, 1778
Monobotodes monochroma (Esper, [1790])
Mormo maura (Linnaeus, 1758)
Mythimna noacki Boursin, 1967
Myxinia atossa Wiltshire, 1941
Myxinia chrysographa Wagner, 1931
Myxinia perchrysa Hacker & Ronkay, 1992
Myxinia philippsi Püngeler, 1911
Myxinia rufocincta Geyer, [1828]
Naenia typica (Linnaeus, 1758)
Netrocerocora quadrangula Eversmann, 1844
Nezonycta obtusa Varga & Ronkay, 1991
Nezonycta pusilla Püngeler, 1900
Noctua pronuba (Linnaeus, 1758)
Nodaria nodosalis Herrich-Schäffer, [1851]
Nola carelica Tengström, 1869
Nola chlamytulalis (Hübner, [1813])
Nola cicatricalis Treitschke, 1835
Nola cucullatella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Nola gigantula Staudinger, 1879
Nola harouni Wiltshire, 1951
Nola subchlamydula Staudinger, 1870
Nola taurica Daniel, 1935
Nonargia typhae Thunberg, 1784
Nycteola asiatica Krulikovsky, 1904
Nycteola columbana Turner, 1925
Nycteola eremostola Dufay, 1961
Nycteola revayana Scopoli, 1772
Nycteola siculana Fuchs, 1899
Ochropleura leucogaster Freyer, 1831
Ochropleura plecta (Linnaeus, 1761)
Odice arcuinna (Hübner, 1790)
Odice kuelekana Staudinger, 1871
Odice suava (Hübner, [1813])
Oligia latruncula ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Oligia strigilis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Omphalophana anatolica Lederer, 1857
Omphalophana antirrhinii (Hübner, [1803])
Omphalophana durnalayana Osthelder, 1933
Omphalophana pauli Staudinger, 1892
Oncocnemis arenbergeri Hacker & Lödl, 1989
Oncocnemis confusa Freyer, 1842
Oncocnemis fuscopicta Wiltshire, 1976
Oncocnemis iranica Schwingenschuss, 1937
Oncocnemis nigricula Eversmann, 1847
Oncocnemis strioligera Lederer, 1853
Ophiuche lividalis (Hübner, 1790)
Ophiusa tirhaca Cramer, [1777]
Opigena polygona (Fabricius, 1787)
Orectis proboscidalis Herrich-Schäffer, [1851]
Oria musculosa (Hübner, [1808])
Orrhodiella chaijami Hacker & Weigert, 1986
Orrhodiella ragusae Failla-Tedaldi, 1890
Orthosia cerasi (Fabricius, 1775)
Orthosia dalmatica Wagner, 1909
Orthosia gothica (Linnaeus, 1758)
Orthosia gracilis (Fabricius, 1787)
Orthosia incerta (Hufnagel, 1766)
Orthosia populeti (Fabricius, 1781)
Orthosia pulverulenta (Esper, [1786])
Orthosia rorida Frivaldsky, 1835
Orthosia rubricosa (Esper, [1786])
Orthosia schmidtii Dioszeghy, 1935
Orthosia wolfi Hacker, 1988
Ostheldera arne Ronkay & Varga, 1994
Ostheldera gracilis Osthelder, 1933
Oxytrypia orbiculosa (Esper, [1799])
Oxytrypia stephania Sutton, [1964]
Ozarba lascivalis Lederer, 1855
Ozarba moldavicola Herrich-Schäffer, [1851]
Pachetra sagittigera (Hufnagel, 1766)
Pachyagrotis ankarensis Rebel, 1931
Pachyagrotis benigna Corti, 1926
Pachyagrotis tischendorfi Püngeler, 1915
Pachyagrotis wichgrafi Corti & Draudt, 1933
Palaeographa interrogationis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Panchrysia deaurata (Esper, [1787])
Panolis flammea ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Panthea coenobita (Esper, [1785])
Papestra biren Goeze, 1781
Paracolax tristalis (Fabricius, 1794)
Paradrina atriluna Guenée, 1852
Paradrina boursini Wagner, 1936
Paradrina cilicia Hacker, 1992
Paradrina clavipalpis Scopoli, 1763
Paradrina flavirena Guenée, 1852
Paradrina muricolor Boursin, 1933
Paradrina poecila Boursin, 1939
Paradrina scotoptera Püngeler, 1914
Paradrina selini Boisduval, 1840
Paradrina wullschlegeli Püngeler, 1902
Paraegle ochracea Erschoff, 1874
Paraegle subochracea Staudinger, 1892
Paranoctua comes (Hübner, [1813])
Paranoctua interposita (Hübner, 1790)
Paranoctua warreni Lödl, 1987
Paraperplexia silenes (Hübner, [1822])
Parascotia detersa Staudinger, 1892
Parascotia fuliginaria (Linnaeus, 1761)
Parascotia robiginosa Staudinger, 1892
Parastichtis corticea (Esper, [1800])
Parastichtis suspecta (Hübner, [1817])
Pardoxia graellsi Feisthamel, 1837
Parexarnis ala Staudinger, 1881
Parexarnis damnata Draudt, 1937
Parexarnis figulina Draudt, 1936
Parexarnis pseudosollers Boursin, 1940
Parexarnis taurica Staudinger, 1879
Pericyma albidentaria Freyer, 1842
Pericyma squalens Lederer, 1855
Peridroma saucia (Hübner, [1808])
Perigrapha cilissa Püngeler, 1917
Perigrapha i-cinctum ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Periphanes delphinii (Linnaeus, 1758)
Periphanes treitschkii Frivaldsky, 1835
Periphanes victorina Sodoffsky, 1849
Perplexhadena perplexa ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Perplexhadena syriaca Osthelder, 1933
Phleboeis sureyae Rebel, 1931
Phlogophora meticulosa (Linnaeus, 1758)
Phlogophora scita (Hübner, 1790)
Photedes apameaoides Hacker 1989
Photedes captiuncula Treitschke, 1825
Photedes fluxa (Hübner, [1809])
Phyllophila melacheila Staudinger, 1896
Phyllophila obliterata Rambur, 1833
Phytometra viridaria Clerck, 1759
Pinkericola cappadocia Hacker, 1987
Pinkericola inexpectata Varga, 1979
Pinkericola pygmaea Boursin, 1962
Pinkericola tephroleuca Boisduval, 1833
Platyperigea albina Eversmann, 1848
Platyperigea aspera Rambur, 1834
Platyperigea cinerascens Tengström, 1870
Platyperigea kadenii Freyer, 1836
Platyperigea rjabovi Boursin, 1936
Platyperigea syriaca Staudinger, 1892
Platyperigea terrea Freyer, [1840]
Platysenta viscosa Freyer, 1831
Plecoptera amanica Osthelder, 1933
Plecoptera inquinata Lederer, 1857
Plusia festucae (Linnaeus, 1758)
Plusidia cheiranthi Tauscher, 1809
Polia bombycina (Hufnagel, 1766)
Polia nebulosa (Hufnagel, 1766)
Polia serratilinea Ochsenheimer, 1816
Polia tincta Brahm, 1791
Polymixis bischoffi Herrich-Schäffer, [1850]
Polymixis manisadjiani Staudinger, 1881
Polymixis paradisiaca Boursin, 1944
Polymixis paravarga Ronkay et al., 1990
Polymixis polymita (Linnaeus, 1761)
Polyphaenis monophaenis Brandt, 1938
Polyphaenis propinqua Staudinger, 1895
Polyphaenis subsericata Herrich-Schäffer, 1861
Polyphaenis viridis Villers, 1789
Polypogon lunalis Scopoli, 1763
Polypogon plumigeralis (Hübner, [1825])
Polypogon strigilata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Polypogon tentacularia (Linnaeus, 1758)
Polypogon zelleralis Wocke, 1850
Powellinia lasserei Oberthür, 1881
Praestilbia armeniaca Staudinger, 1892
Prodotis stolida (Fabricius, 1775)
Propenistra laevis (Hübner, [1803])
Protexarnis confinis Staudinger, 1881
Protexarnis opisoleuca Staudinger, 1881
Protexarnis squalidiformis Corti & Draudt, 1933
Protodeltote pyrarga (Hufnagel, 1766)
Protoschinia scutosa Goeze, 1781
Protoschinia umbra (Hufnagel, 1766)
Pseudaletia unipuncta Haworth, [1809]
Pseudenargia deleta Osthelder, 1933
Pseudenargia regina Staudinger, 1892
Pseudeustrotia candidula ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Pseudeustrotia deceptoria Scopoli, 1763
Pseudochropleura flammatra ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Pseudochropleura musiva (Hübner, [1803])
Pseudohadena chenopodiphaga Rambur, 1832
Pseudohadena commoda Staudinger, 1889
Pseudohadena impedita Christoph, 1887
Pseudohadena laciniosa Christoph, 1887
Pseudoips fagana (Fabricius, 1781)
Pseudomniotype leuconota H.-Schäffer, [1850]
Pseudomniotype solieri Boisduval, 1840
Pseudozarba bipartita Herrich-Schäffer, [1850]
Putagrotis herzogi Rebel, 1911
Putagrotis puta (Hübner, [1803])
Putagrotis syricola Berio, 1936
Pyrocleptria cora Eversmann, 1837
Pyrois cinnamomea Goeze, 1781
Pyrois effusa Boisduval, 1829
Rasihia boursini Draudt, 1936
Rasihia duelduelica Osthelder, 1932
Rasihia hackeri Varga & Ronkay, 1991
Rasihia tabora Staudinger, 1892
Resapamea hedeni Graeser, 1888
Resapamea vaskeni Varga, 1979
Rhizedra lutosa (Hübner, [1803])
Rhyacia arenacea Hampson, 1907
Rhyacia helvetina Boisduval, 1833
Rhyacia lucipeta ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Rhyacia nyctymerides Bang-Haas, 1922
Rhyacia simulans (Hufnagel, 1766)
Rhynchodontodes antiqualis (Hübner, [1809])
Rhynchodontodes mardinalis Staudinger, 1892
Rhynchodontodes ravalis Herrich-Schäffer, [1852]
Rhynchodontodes revolutalis Zeller, 1852
Rhypagla lacernaria (Hübner, [1813])
Rileyana fovea Treitschke, 1825
Rivula sericealis Scopoli, 1763
Rivula tanitalis Rebel, 1912
Roborbotodes carbonis Wagner, 1931
Rusina ferruginea (Esper, [1785])
Saragossa siccanorum Staudinger, 1870
Schinia cardui (Hübner, 1790)
Schinia cognata Freyer, [1833]
Schinia imperialis Staudinger, 1871
Schinia purpurascens Tauscher, 1809
Schrankia costaestrigalis Stephens, 1834
Schrankia taenialis (Hübner, [1809])
Scoliopteryx libatrix (Linnaeus, 1758)
Scotochrosta pulla Illiger, 1801
Serpmyxis serpentina Treitschke, 1825
Sesamia cretica Lederer, 1857
Sesamia lacteola Christoph, 1893
Sesamia nonagrioides Lefebvre, 1827
Shargacucullia anceps Staudinger, 1881
Shargacucullia armena Ronkay & Ronkay, 1986
Shargacucullia barthae Boursin, 1933
Shargacucullia blattariae (Esper, [1790])
Shargacucullia lychnitis Rambur, 1833
Shargacucullia osthelderi Boursin, 1933
Shargacucullia prenanthis Boisduval, 1840
Shargacucullia scrophulariae ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Shargacucullia thapsiphaga Treitschke, 1826
Shargacucullia verbasci (Linnaeus, 1758)
Sideridis egena Lederer, 1853
Sideridis lampra Schawerda, 1913
Simplicia rectalis Eversmann, 1842
Simyra albovenosa Goeze, 1781
Simyra dentinosa Freyer, 1839
Simyra nervosa ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Simyra renimaculata Osthelder, 1932
Spaelotis degeniata Christoph, 1877
Spaelotis demavendi Wagner, 1937
Spaelotis ravida ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Spaelotis senna Freyer, 1829
Spodoptera abyssinia Guenée, 1852
Spodoptera exigua (Hübner, [1808])
Spodoptera littoralis Boisduval, 1833
Spudaea pontica Kljutshko, 1968
Standfussiana defessa Lederer, 1858
Standfussiana lucernea (Linnaeus, 1758)
Standfussiana nictymera Boisduval, 1934
Stenodrina aeschista Boursin, 1937
Stenoecia dos Freyer, [1838]
Stilbina hypaenides Staudinger, 1892
Subacronicta megacephala (Fabricius, 1787)
Sunira circellaris (Hufnagel, 1766)
Tarachephia hueberi Erschoff, 1874
Tathorhynchus excissata Lederer, 1855
Thalerastria diaphora Staudinger, 1879
Thalpophila matura (Hufnagel, 1766)
Tholera cespitis Goeze, 1781
Tholera decimalis (Poda, 1761)
Tholera hilaris Staudinger, 1901
Thria robusta Walker, [1858]
Thysanoplusia daubei Boisduval, 1840
Thysanoplusia orichalcea (Fabricius, 1775)
Tiliacea aurago ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Tiliacea cypreago Hampson, 1906
Tiliacea fulvago Clerck, 1759
Trachea atriplicis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Trichoplusia circumscripta Freyer, 1831
Trichoplusia ni (Hübner, [1803])
Tristateles emortualis ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Tyta luctuosa ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Ulochlaena hirta (Hübner, [1813])
Valeria oleagina (Esper, [1786])
Valerietta boursini Freina, & Hacker, 1985
Valerietta niphopasta Hampson, 1906
Victrix artaxias Varga & Ronkay, 1989
Victrix gracilis Wagner, 1931
Victrix karsiana Staudinger, 1879
Victrix pinkeri Hacker & Lödl, 1989
Viminia auricoma (Fabricius, 1787)
Viminia euphorbiae Denis, 1785
Viminia orientalis Mann, 1862
Viminia rumicis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Xanthia togata (Esper, [1788])
Xanthodes albago (Fabricius, 1794)
Xanthothrix callicore Staudinger, 1871
Xenophysa huberi Varga, 1989
Xestia ashworthii Doubleday, 1855
Xestia baja Schrank, 1784
Xestia castanea (Esper, [1798])
Xestia c-nigrum (Linnaeus, 1758)
Xestia cohaesa Herrich-Schäffer, [1849]
Xestia ditrapezium (Fabricius, 1787)
Xestia miniago Freyer, 1840
Xestia ochreago (Hübner, [1809])
Xestia palaestinensis Kalchberg, 1897
Xestia pallidago Staudinger, 1900
Xestia rhomboidea (Esper, [1790])
Xestia sareptana Herrich-Schäffer, [1851]
Xestia triangulum (Hufnagel, 1766)
Xestia trifida Fischer v.Waldheim, 1820
Xestia xanthographa ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Xylena exsoleta (Linnaeus, 1758)
Xylena lunifera Warren, 1910
Xylena vetusta (Hübner, [1813])
Xylocampa mustapha Oberthür, 1919
Yigoga amasicola Koçak, 1980
Yigoga celsicola Bellier, 1858
Yigoga flavina Herrich-Schäffer, [1852]
Yigoga forcipula ([Denis & Schiffermüller], 1775)
Yigoga gracilis Wagner, 1929
Yigoga hackeri Fibiger, 1992
Yigoga latipennis Püngeler, 1909
Yigoga libanicola Corti & Draudt, 1933
Yigoga nachadira Brandt, 1941
Yigoga nigrescens Höfner, 1888
Yigoga occidentalis Hacker, [1987]
Yigoga orientis Alpheraky, 1882
Yigoga romanovi Christoph, 1885
Yigoga serraticornis Staudinger, 1898
Yigoga signifera Schrank, 1782
Yigoga stigmatula Kozhantshikov, 1937
Yigoga truculenta Lederer, 1853
Yigoga weigerti Hacker & Varga, 1990
Yigoga wiltshirei Boursin, 1940
Zebeeba falsalis Herrich-Schäffer, [1851]
Zethes brandti Janson, 1977
Zethes insularis Rambur, 1833
Zethes narghisa Brandt, 1938
Unplaced carthalina Christoph, 1893
External links
Tentative Checklist of the Turkish Lepidoptera part 1
Tentative Checklist of the Turkish Lepidoptera part 2
Tentative Checklist of the Turkish Lepidoptera part 3
Fauna Europaea (European part of Turkey)
Turkey
Moths
Moths
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Gridman%20the%20Hyper%20Agent%20characters
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List of Gridman the Hyper Agent characters
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The characters in this list are from the 1993–1994 tokusatsu series Denkou Choujin Gridman.
Main characters
Naoto Sho
, a kind-hearted boy who loves computers, is the main protagonist of the series. After the attacks by Kahn Digifer begin to occur, he is contacted by Gridman and merges with him to fight against Kahn and Takeshi's monsters. Using the wrist-worn , Naoto slams his fist on a special button of the Acceptor (accompanied by using the call "!") so that he transforms into a special suit that allows him to enter the Computer World and merge with Gridman.
Naoto Sho is portrayed by .
Yuka Inoue
is a young girl who excels in studies and programs. She helps maintain Junk and provides the team spirit and constantly encourages her friends to do their best. Despite being the target of Takeshi's one-sided crush, Yuka developed feelings for Naoto.
Yuka Inoue is portrayed by .
Ippei Baba
is Naoto's other friend. Cheerful, he also helps monitor the computer when Naoto/Gridman fights. When Junk was first brought online, he used the painting program to design a superhero that would eventually become Gridman's body. With his skills as an artist, he would develop various Assist Weapons for Gridman's use.
Ippei Baba is portrayed by .
Junk
is a homebuilt computer built from used computers and other junk. Whenever Gridman fights in a gigantic form, this would risk Junk from overloading.
Junk is voiced by .
Takeshi Todo
is classmate of Naoto and his friends who spent most of his free time in an eerie room with his personal computer. As his parents were away, this formed his behavior towards one that is introvert and self-centered, causing Kahn Digifier to take interest in him. In every episodes, Takeshi would create monsters based on daily frustrations, mostly for getting revenge on misfortune, petty grudges, or punishing humanity. Takeshi also develops an unhealthy crush on Yuka, having some of his creations targeted her specifically. After Naoto saved him from Kahn, Takeshi developed Grid Hyper Beam, which was used to decimate both Kahn and his home's computer.
22 years later in the event anime Denkou Choujin Gridman: boys invent great heroes, Takeshi bonds with Gridman Sigma, transforming with the Acceptor to fight against real life monsters.
Takeshi Todo is portrayed by and is voiced by in the event anime.
Heroes
Gridman
is a of the alternate dimension . While tracking down Kahn Digifer he encounters Naoto and, seeing as Naoto had a good heart, chooses him to merge with whenever battle must be done within the . To fight against larger monsters and resolve situations that are massive in size, Gridman receives the upgrade program P-L6806OX (the downside of this program is that it lasts for 10 minutes as it could overload Junk's system - when the power up begins to fade, a blue light on Gridman's head begins to blink as a warning) for the purpose of enlargement. Naoto, Yuuka, and Ippei usually socialize with Gridman over their computer by sending computer-written messages to him.
Lacking a physical body, he receives one based on Ippei's drawing of a superhero and can only move from Junk when the "GRIDMAN" is entered. His left hand is armed with the , through which he can fire , conjure the energy sword and execute his finisher, . Aside from that, he can perform the (a flying kick) and its stronger variant, . The from his chest repairs the damages done by monsters created by Takeshi and Kahn Digifier. In the series' finale, Gridman executes which was created by Takeshi to put an end to Kahn and simultaneously destroy his personal computer.
Aside from that, Gridman can access different forms when several Assist Weapons form an exosuit:
: The result of combination with God Zenon's components. Sacrificing his agility for brute strength, Gridman receives additional padding and armor that allows him to be impervious to attacks. The twin drills from his shoulders can be used as , while his main finishing move is .
: The result of combination with King Jet. Whereas Thunder Gridman focuses on strength, King Gridman fights with full use of speed and agility. He is armed with a pair of on his arms and has an oxygen filter that prevents suffocation from toxic gases. His main finishing move is the
Gridman is voiced by .
Assist Weapons
In order to assist Naoto and Gridman from the Computer World, Ippei and Yuka can manipulate the Assist Weapons to support Gridman. These programs were created by Ippei designing them before Gridman materializes the concepts with his powers. In order to deploy them towards Gridman, Ippei or/and Yuka would be required to type his/her/their name/names in the Access Code. When not in use, the Assist Weapons were stored in the cache. In the series' final episode, Kahn Digifer's intrusion into Junk's Computer World causes all of the Assist Weapons to be destroyed. In Gridman the Hyper Agent: The Overlord's Counterattack photo novel, components of God Zenon and Dyna Dragon were restored for the battle against Neo Kahn Digifer and his monsters.
: The first Assist Weapon to be made, it is durable enough to sustain most of the monster attacks with super high electromagnetic waves. Yuka creates this program based on the CG produced by Ippei under his hunger, with the Barrier Shield inspired by his desire for hot dog.
: A sword (sheathed in the Barrier Shield) which utilizes the to cut through monsters.
: The combination of Plasma Blade and Barrier Shield, allowing Gridman to execute the .
: This combat axe is a reconfiguration of the Gridman Sword in which the Plasma Blade's blade section disappears and the Barrier Shield is instead serving as a blade section via closing in a butterfly-like fashion. The Barrier Shield closes into a blade-shaped handle when the Gridman Sword is formed, but when the Thunder Axe is formed, the Barrier Shield itself acts as a blade section.
: The combination of Thunder Jet, Twin Driller and God Tank. Ippei receives the inspiration to create Gridman's first support robot based on his little sister, Kana's robot toy. By itself, God Zenon can perform uppercut punch and rocket punch. God Zenon's components are:
: A Mach-5 aircraft armed with Thunder Missiles. Forms the upper body, arms and head of God Zenon or the torso and head of Thunder Gridman.
: A two-drill tank armed with Twin Lasers. Forms the lower torso of God Zenon or Thunder Gridman's forearms and shoulder armors.
: An armored, tracked vehicle armed with God Cannon. Forms the legs of either God Zenon or Thunder Gridman.
is a tyrannosaurus formed by Dyna Fighter and King Jet and fights with its burning breath. It is the robot form of Dyna Fighter and King Jet's combined form, (a larger aircraft armed with Fortress Missiles) and Gridman's second support robot. It was created based on the excavated tyrannosaurus remains. After the King Gridman combination code is created, Dyna Dragon remains in this form instead of its original components:
: An aircraft armed with Dyna Missiles and Dyna Laser. It forms the head, central torso and tail of Dyna Dragon. It was originally the shoulder mounted , created based on the design of Asian lung found in one of the remains of Chinese mummy. It unleashes the attack.
: A larger aircraft created as a support for Dyna Fighter. Its main armaments are King Missiles and the King Laser. Despite the entire Dyna Dragon is needed to form King Gridman, only parts from the King Jet that were accommodated.
Gridman Sigma
is a Hyper World agent who is Gridman's successor and was originally planned to appear in a scrapped sequel of the television series. The character however appears in the event anime Denkou Choujin Gridman: boys invent great heroes, taking place where digital monsters that Takeshi and Kahn previously created were brought to life as illusions that wreak havoc upon the real world. Using the Acceptor, Takeshi transforms into Gridman Sigma as he faced against the monster threats.
Antagonists
Kahn Digifier
is the series' main antagonist. The dark lord of the Hyper World, he escapes to the Computer World and prepares to conquer Earth. Putting Takeshi Todo as his servant, he uses him to create monsters which he brings to life in order for them to attack the Computer World. He later upgrades himself into for his final battle with Gridman, most of the Assist Weapons and overwhelming him. Kahn Digifer is ultimately destroyed by the Grid Hyper Beam.
Aside from the ability to create monsters, Khan Digifier's gigantic form can launch and summons the .
Kahn Digifer is voiced by .
Monsters
Most are virus monsters created by Takeshi and brought to life by Kahn Digifier to act under his bidding, serving their creator's petty grudges to the catastrophic extremes that Kahn Digifer intends to have an effect on the human world.
: A dinosaur-like monster with a diamond-covered back, Gilarus was originally designed by Takeshi as part of his monster design programming. When Kahn introduced himself, Takeshi decided to go along with the dark ruler's plan and sent Gilarus to the Inoue Hospital as a revenge for Yuka turning down his love letter. It crashed the hospital's computer system and caused havoc in the operating room where Daichi was undergoing surgery at, until Gridman interfered with the process. Gilarus became Gridman's first kill and undo the damages on the hotel's computer system, allowing Daichi's operation to continue unharmed.
: Gilarus's data was upgraded and redesigned by Takeshi with body armor and steel claws, and was used to tamper with time all around the world and the internal clocks of every human; Yuka and Naoto were in the basement at the time and therefore were unaffected. The upgraded monster was destroyed by Thunder Gridman's Thunder Grid Beam.
: An orange dinosaur-like monster with six long spike-like appendages. Instead of being driven by Takeshi's grudge, it was created by Kahn when the boy was under his brainwashing. Rampaging in an information center's mainframe, sealing Gridman off, Bamora creates a satellite tower that could tear a hole into reality. But Gridman manages to keep Bamora from leaving the Computer World once the portal opened and deletes it with his Grid Beam.
: Bamora's data is later upgraded with armor and a mace on both its left hand and tail, used by Takeshi to get revenge on the police by disabling police communications and jail cells. Though it overpowered Gridman, Bamora is destroyed by Thunder Gridman.
: A turtle-like quadruped virus with two volcano holes built into its shell that launch powerful fireballs. Volcadon was created to disrupt cell phone frequencies due to Takeshi becoming fed up with his parents' constant phone calls. It was destroyed by Gridman.
: A blue Pterodactylus-like virus that can turn invisible. It was created by Takeshi when a genius creator named Hosono challenged the monsters' constant hacking incidents with his modernized car, sending said vehicle into a rampage in the streets. Though Stealgan overwhelmed Gridman, Yuka sends him a paint program to disable Stealgan's cloaking so he can blast the virus's wings off and finally destroyed it with the Grid Beam.
: Stealgan's data was upgraded by Takeshi to get even with a CG art company and stealing color from the city. It was destroyed by Gridman after the Dina Fighter and the King Jet disable its cloaking.
: An aardvark/dinosaur monster with a long-horned nose and blades on each of its arms. In the beginning of the episode, Takeshi was humiliated when a delivery man with fruit crashed into him. As revenge, Takeshi created Bagira to shut down and lock up all the food plants in the city. The sudden food shortage was causing mayhem among housewives and Ippei's hunger was getting troublesome. Unlike previous monsters, Bagira had a major advantage with its blades and was able to deflect Gridman's fireballs and even the Grid Beam. Ippei quickly constructed the Barrier Shield to even the battle; the Barrier Shield's shape and design was inspired by a special hotdog Ippei had been craving. Using his new sword, Gridman severed Bagira's arms, but Takeshi withdrew Bagira from battle.
: After repairing Bagira with new pair of arms, Takeshi sent it to the Sakuragaoka music shop after causing a ruckus earlier. Despite its intention to create a terrifying music, Bagira was killed by Anosillus in the keyboard's computer world.
: Takeshi upgraded Bagira's data, transforming it into Mecha Bagira and used it to reanimate an ancient cadaver that was discovered by a research facility. The corpse went on a rampage throughout the facility and went after Yuka, Daichi, and Kanna, who were visiting at the time. Mecha Bagira's new arsenal included a boomerang on its tail and a robotic eye that allowed Mecha Bagira to target and aim its weapon with accuracy. To win the battle, Gridman used the flamethrower attack from Ippei's new Dragonic Cannon followed by the Grid Beam.
: A hunchbacked reptilian creature with a neck frill and two long spikes on its shoulders that resides within a digital piano. Alongside a Compoid named Unison, Anosillus converts the noises it absorbs into music. But Takeshi uses a melody infused with Kahn Digifer's power to corrupt Anosillus into , who begins produces ear-piercing sound waves from the keyboard that slowly spread throughout Sakuragaoka. Unison convinces Gridman to destroy Anosillus, able to restore Anosillus with Yuka's help. Anosillus makes a cameo appearance in the SSSS.Gridman series finale.
: A replica of Anosillus's corrupted form which Takeshi created, given the added ability to encase Gridman in circuit chips. Starting at his feet, Gridman's speed and mobility were greatly diminished. By the time the chips covered his lower half, all Gridman could do was helplessly swing his sword. Unfortunately, God Zenon did not fair any better as the clone blasted both God Zenon's arms off, forcing the robot to withdraw from the battle. Yuka uploaded a program that freed Gridman from the chips, and Imit Anosillus was destroyed by Gridman's Grid Beam as the monster was tossed in midair.
: A red dinosaur-like fire virus, it was created by Takeshi to exact revenge, blaming Yuka for his inappropriate timing to give his love letter. Flamelar was sent into Yuka's microwave to overheat its generator into a timebomb when Kahn was convinced said device would reveal his identity. With only three minutes left on the microwave's timer, Gridman made haste to stop Flamelar before Yuka can be killed in the explosion. Using the Plasma Sword, Gridman severed Flamelar's tail and head, but Khan Digifer recalled the monster before it could be destroyed. With the Fixer Beam, Gridman cooled the microwave's generator. Flamerlar returned and this time was sent into Yuka's air conditioner, heating her home at an unbearable temperature. The monster teamed up with Blizzalar to battle Gridman. But it was by turning the two monsters against with each other that Gridman defeated them with his Gridman Sword.
: An upgraded version of Flamelar. After designs of Takeshi's monsters were confiscated by a policewoman due to his act of voyeurism, Takeshi sent Mecha Flamelar into the salon blowdryer to kill said officer and protect his secret. Mecha Flamelar's fire breath was stronger and its armor could emit jets of hot steam. Instead of bad hair days, Mecha Flamelar was overheating the salon's equipment that would eventually kill the customers. Ippei modified the Dragonic Cannon into the DinaFighter and blasted missiles at Mecha Flamelar's mouth, destroying its flame power. The monster was destroyed by Gridman's Grid Beam, while Takeshi's monster sketches were unknowingly disposed in a trashcan.
: A blue dinosaur-like ice virus with ice breath and able to shoot ice missile from its fingers, it was created as an older brother to Flamelar and the pair were sent to hack various air conditioners. After setting Ippei's house at sub-zero levels, Blizzalar did the same to Naoto's house where Daichi was restrained. During the battle by Khan Digifer's orders, Flamelar joined its brother, but Gridman was able to turn the two monsters against each others. Blizzalar was then destroyed by Gridman's Gridman Sword.
: A ninja virus with Auto Intelligence; in his first appearance, Shinobilar can shoot sparks, carry two katanas, and create multiple illusion clones of himself. His mission was to brainwash the students and faculty at Takeshi's cram school after he received a failing grade. Some of the students were classmates with Naoto and the gang, when Ippei and Yuka noticed their aggressive behavior, they went to the cram school only to chased away by the enslaved students. Shinobilar had Gridman at his mercy with his clone technique; but Gridman was able to claim victory by hurling the Thunder Axe the real Shinobilar. He is voiced by .
: Shinobilar's data was reformed, given the ability to initiate and and wields a kusarigama. This time, Takeshi was playing a virtual shooting game, but was taking too long that the arcade staff forced him off. Angered, Takeshi used Shinobilar to infect the game. The headset took over the player's mind and turned the virtual gun into a real lasergun. Yuka was the unfortunate player; under Shinobilar's control, she went around town shooting everything in sight. The battle seem too easy for Gridman at first, but Shinobilar revealed his ability to make himself incorporeal; all Gridman's attacks passed right through the ninja. After Twin Drill broke Shinobilar's weapon, Thunder Gridman was formed and performed the Thunder Grid Beam. He is voiced by .
: An upgraded version of Shinobilar, armed with a nunchaku that can transform into a bō. Its additional abilities are and . He fell to Gridman's King Grid Beam. He is voiced by Hisao Egawa.
: A Hercules beetle/dinosaur-like beast that walked on four legs and sprayed white acidic gas from its mouth. Angered by the foul taste in the park's water dispenser, Takeshi had Terragaia go into a city water plant to turn the water supply into hydrochloric acid. With its gas, Terragaia could melt circuit panels and burrow underground in the computer world. However, Gridman walked into a trap when he entered the plant's computers. His ankles were shackled and was being asphyxiated by Terragaia's gas. Luckily, Ippei had finished designing Thunder Jet and Twin Driller; using the new mecha, Twin Driller broke the shackles and Thunder Jet used the Thunder Ring to muzzle Terragaia. Unable to spray its gas, Terragaia was destroyed by Gridman's Grid Beam.
: A metal virus with a bladed left arm and a pincer right arm. On its chest was a red jewel that unleashed a barrier when attacked by beam weapons. After being sent into the city's cash registers, Metallus gave anyone with a credit card 100,000 yen. With their newfound wealth, everyone went on major shopping sprees, especially Daichi. However, little did the populace know, they were actually playing Takeshi's . Whenever a credit card reached zero yen, the register that scanned it would detonate. In battle, Gridman was severely damaged when Metallus reflected his own beam fire back at him. Using the new God Tank, God Tank's cannons blasted the red jewel on Metallus, disabling its barrier. Without the protection of the barrier, Metallus was destroyed by Gridman's Grid Beam. Daichi left his parents with 100,000 yen bills to pay.
: An upgraded version of Metallus with a blue jewel on its chest and able fire from its mouth to stun Gridman. Neo Metallus took control of a computer operated backhoe at a dinosaur excavation site and caused the machine to run out of control. Drawing inspiration from dinosaurs, Ippei converted the Dragon Fortress in the Dina Dragon to help the losing Gridman. Neo Metallus was destroyed by the Grid Beam just before the backhoe could destroy the dinosaur bones.
: A quadrupedal reptilian-like monster covered with magnetic plates with two tails. From its shoulders were two appendages that fired flashes of blinding light. When Marty initiated multiple burglaries just to commercialize his home security system at a convenient time, Takeshi discover the scam earlier and sent Magnegauss to infect the Cat Eye System, trapping their users in their homes. Gridman could not defeat the monster alone; Magnegauss used its magnetic powers to deflect many of Gridman's attacks and drain his power as well. Ippei modified the vehicles to combine into God Zenon giving Gridman the chance to use the Grid Beam to destroy Magnegauss.
: A spike-adorned dinosaur-like monster that can shake and tremble itself wildly, creating tremors within the computer world. Generadon was sent into a local gym, causing the computerized gym equipment to run wild. Takeshi's intended target was a muscled athlete, but instead put Soichiro, Hideyo, and Hiroshi through a deadly workout. In battle, Gridman could not keep his balance due to Generadon's trembling; like recent monsters, Generadon could also syphon Gridman's energy. With Ippei's quick thinking, God Zenon was modified to form Thunder Gridman and destroyed the monster with the Drill Break.
: An upgraded version of Generadon. It was given power sucking armor but could no longer tremble. Mecha Generadon was put into the city's power plant to cut off the electricity. Prior to the battle, Naoto had injured his arm while testing Ippei's electricity generating bicycle. The injury affected Gridman's performance and Mecha Generadon kept biting and attacking Gridman's injured arm. Meanwhile, Ippei had to keep the basement sustained with power by pedaling his bike while Yuka assisted Gridman with Dina Dragon. Mecha Generadon was destroyed by the Grid Beam.
: A silver stag beetle/dinosaur-like monster with jagged fangs and two long powerful tentacles for arms. The monster could also emit disorienting waves from its mouth. Takeshi had awoken from a nightmare about Gridman; he then saw an advert for a new electronic pillow and implanted Dazzlba into the device so others would suffer from nightmares too. Coincidentally, the gang's families all purchased these pillows and were thrust into a dream world. In the dream world, they were greeted by clowns handling out flyers announcing the execution of Gridman! Meanwhile, the real Gridman was able to awaken the trio from their dream state and combat Dazzlba. With help of Dragon Fortress, Dazzlba was destroyed by Gridman's Grid Beam.
: A pinkish-colored plant/dinosaur monster with leaf veins patterned throughout its body. Plandon was sent into a greenhouse that was conducting experiments on flowers. The flowers were altered and began spraying deadly pollen that was spreading throughout the city. With Dina Dragon holding the monster at bay, Gridman destroyed Plandon with Grid Light Saber, slicing the beast into four pieces.
: A monster with spikes on its back, porcupine spines on its belly, and four channels at the base of its neck that sprayed white smoke. Angered by air pollution, Takeshi used Venora to take control of a factory to pollute the city with smog. To add insult to injury, the battle was broadcast in the sky for the world to see. Even with Dina Dragon's help on the battlefield, Gridman was overtaken by Venora's smoke and passed out, ending the episode in a cliffhanger. Venora was destroyed in the following episode by King Gridman's King Grid Beam.
: A robotic dinosaur-like monster. Destroyed by King Gridman's King Grid Beam.
: A rehashed version of Magnegauss with a chestplate and a camera head. Eyeganger was placed in Takeshi's camcorder which he used to kidnap Yuka. Using video editing software, he subjected her to his perverse fantasies. To cover Yuka's disappearance, Takeshi forged a videotape of Yuka bidding farewell to her friends and family. But Naoto and Ippei had their suspicions and quickly analyzed the tape and learned it was a fake. In battle with Eyegangar, the monster had the ability to increase its bodyheat, making it difficult for Gridman to attack. Ippei analyzed Eyegangar and learned its weak point was its camera head and used God Zenon to destroy it. Eyeganger was destroyed by Gridman's Grid Light Saber.
: A dragon-like monster placed inside a fortune telling machine that altered people's personalities, and even turned Naoto into an insecure coward. Destroyed by Gridman's Neo Superconductivity Kick.
: Created by someone else instead of Takeshi, Teleboze is nothing more than a peach-colored, timid creature with a childish innocent. When Gridman stops it, the monster apologized for the rampage. However, Takeshi rewrites the Kaijuu's data, resulting with Teleboze becoming a mindless monster and had to deleted by King Gridman's King Grid Beam.
: A dinosaur-like monster with a large mouth that has coils in it. He was placed in a robot vacuum cleaner to target people who littered in retaliation for stepping on a discarded gum. Gyurunba would control the vacuum cleaner into shrinking people and sucking them up. Destroyed by Thunder Gridman's Thunder Grid Beam.
: A Ceratopsian-headed dinosaur-type skeleton monster. Destroyed by Thunder Gridman's Thunder Grid Fire.
: An armored cycloptic virus. Destroyed by King Gridman's King Grid Fire.
: A musical delinquent-themed dinosaur-like monster who can make anyone act like a punk. Next to Shinobilar, Goromaking is one of a few monsters to have dialogue and speak to Gridman. Destroyed by Thunder Gridman's Thunder Grid Beam.
: A black dinosaur-like monster that was similar to Chidogerah. Destroyed by Gridman's Grid Beam.
: A dinosaur/spider-like monster. Destroyed by King Gridman's King Grid Fire.
: A tall, black dinosaur-like virus had two tails from which he could emit deadly red smog from its tail. Destroyed by King Gridman's King Grid Beam.
Other characters
: Naoto's younger brother. He is portrayed by .
: Ippei's younger sister. She is portrayed by .
: Naoto's father. He is portrayed by .
: Naoto's mother. She is portrayed by .
: Yuka's father. He is portrayed by .
: Yuka's mother. She is portrayed by .
: Yuka's elder brother. He is portrayed by .
: Ippei's father. He is portrayed by .
: Ippei's mother. She is portrayed by .
: The police officer of the town in which Naoto lives. He is portrayed by .
: The police officer who appeared instead of Koganemura. He is portrayed by .
: A Chinese mummy who was later revealed in the sequel series SSSS.Dynazenon as the remains of , a Kaiju Eugenicist who died killing his former comrades when they turned on their country. Brought to the Sakuragaoka museum for display, the mummy was revived by Mecha Bagira when Kahn Digifer sensed his lingering resentment. The mummy went on a rampage while mistaking Yuka for the princess he swore loyalty and love towards before returning to his slumber when Gridman destroyed Mecha Bagira.
References
Gridman the Hyper Agent
Television characters introduced in 1993
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew%20Thomson%20%28Canadian%20politician%29
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Andrew Thomson (Canadian politician)
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Andrew Thomson (born July 16, 1967) is a Canadian politician, who was a member of the NDP caucus in the Legislative Assembly of Saskatchewan from 1995 to 2007. While in government, he held several cabinet posts, including Minister of Finance, Learning, Corrections and Public Safety, Energy and Mines, and Minister Responsible for Information Technology, SaskEnergy, and SaskPower.
Background
Thomson was born in Kindersley, Saskatchewan, and raised in Kindersley and Prince Albert. He has a bachelor's degree in political studies from the University of Saskatchewan, and worked in the government of Roy Romanow as a ministerial assistant after graduating.
Political career
He was first elected to the Legislative Assembly of Saskatchewan in 1995, and was re-elected with increased pluralities in 1999 and 2003 representing the riding of Regina South.
Thomson was brought into cabinet by Lorne Calvert as Minister of Energy and Mines in 2001. In this portfolio, he proposed the reduction of oil and gas royalties to stimulate drilling in the Souris Basin that was being effected by low oil prices, introduced the greenprint for ethanol production for the province, and handled Saskatchewan's approach to the Kyoto Accord implementation. The department was abolished in the government restructuring of March 2002, at which time Thomson was assigned the newly created Corrections and Public Safety portfolio as well as the newly created Ministry of Information Technology.
Despite controversy related to proposed outsourcing of the government's information technology operations, as Minister of Information Technology, Thomson pursued the consolidation of government IT services and advocated large scale broadband connectivity across the province for program delivery. His work to advance the CommunityNet program provided the foundation for commercial high-speed broadband services across rural and urban communities that reach 86% of the population. In 2007 he introduced a program to bring free Wi-Fi to university and college campuses and select urban areas. As a result of the work, the province has now pushed for full connectivity, further bolstering its recognition in the sector as being a leader for broadband connectivity in North America.
As Minister of Learning, he introduced changes to reduce by two-thirds the number of elected school boards in the province while creating new school councils to better involve parents in the education process. The NDP's finance and governance reforms also included changes to the Foundation Operating Grant formulae to put greater emphasis on equity of per-pupil funding. To assist in implementing these large reforms and in response to public criticism that the reforms would result in an acceleration of small rural school closures, he ordered a moratorium on all school closures for a three-year period. The reforms were criticised by the opposition but have remained in place despite the change in government following the 2007 general election.
At the post-secondary level Thomson commissioned changes to the community college structure to improve their ability to meet Saskatchewan's labour market needs. He introduced a new graduate tax credit that would allow recent graduates to earn up to $100,000 over a five-year period tax free if they started their careers in Saskatchewan. He also introduced a four-year freeze on university tuitions, despite initially opposing the idea.
Minister of Finance
As the rookie Minister of Finance during a period of rising resource revenues, including $1 billion in oil revenue alone, Thomson announced a then record $7.7 billion budget, and introduced several large tax cuts. These cuts included cutting the corporate form 17% to 14% and cutting the 0.6% capital gains tax in half, while promising the further lower the former to 12% and eliminate the latter altogether. The budget also expanded health funding by $200 million, including $4.9 million to the University of Saskatchewan's College of Medicine, an increase in education spending, as well as an increase in welfare rates. The budget's financial projection were based on a $60 barrel of oil.
This was followed in 2007 by introduction of the graduate tax credit and a cap on prescription drug costs for seniors. Despite concerns by the opposition that the cuts were too deep and unsustainable, the province posted a $2 billion surplus that year and remained in a strong financial position. This budget was balanced by taking just over $500 million from the Fiscal Stabilization Fund, the province's emergency contingency fund, an act criticized, but continued, by SaskParty Leader Brad Wall.
In 2013, six years after Thomson left office, Saskatchewan's then auditor and current auditor general for Ontario, Bonnie Lysyk said that if Saskatchewan had used the same accounting standards as the federal government and all other Canadian provinces, nine out of ten budgets, should have been presented as deficit, not surplus. However, she also notes that both of Thomson's budgets achieved actual surpluses of $575M and $1.9B using her preferred accounting standards.
Thomson's time in finance was also marked by an ongoing battle with the federal government over the impact Saskatchewan's growing oil wealth had on equalization payments. On May 11, 2007, Thomson announced he would not seek re-election. Premier Lorne Calvert shuffled his cabinet on May 31, 2007, replacing Thomson as finance minister with Pat Atkinson.
Leaving provincial politics, entering federal politics
After his departure from provincial politics, Thomson worked in the private sector and moved to Toronto. In 2015, he returned to politics as the federal NDP's candidate in the Toronto riding of Eglinton—Lawrence for the 2015 federal election finishing third.
Thomson is the first known LGBT provincial legislator in Saskatchewan, although it wasn't made public during his tenure as an MLA in that province.
In November 2016, Thomson was hired as the chief of government relations at the University of Toronto.
Electoral record
Provincial
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| style="width: 130px" |NDP
|Andrew Thomson
|align="right"|3,324
|align="right"|38.99%
|align="right"|-9.12
|- bgcolor="white"
!align="left" colspan=3|Total
!align="right"|8,525
!align="right"|100.00%
!align="right"|
|-
| style="width: 130px" |NDP
|Andrew Thomson
|align="right"|4,139
|align="right"|48.11%
|align="right"|+1.68
|John Weir
|align="right"|643
|align="right"|7.47%
|align="right"|-11.39
|- bgcolor="white"
!align="left" colspan=3|Total
!align="right"|8,603
!align="right"|100.00%
!align="right"|
Federal
References
External links
NDP Website
Canadian people of Swedish descent
Saskatchewan New Democratic Party MLAs
University of Saskatchewan alumni
1967 births
Canadian LGBT people in provincial and territorial legislatures
Gay politicians
Living people
New Democratic Party candidates for the Canadian House of Commons
Ontario candidates for Member of Parliament
21st-century Canadian politicians
Finance ministers of Saskatchewan
Members of the Executive Council of Saskatchewan
21st-century LGBT people
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy%20modeling
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Energy modeling
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Energy modeling or energy system modeling is the process of building computer models of energy systems in order to analyze them. Such models often employ scenario analysis to investigate different assumptions about the technical and economic conditions at play. Outputs may include the system feasibility, greenhouse gas emissions, cumulative financial costs, natural resource use, and energy efficiency of the system under investigation. A wide range of techniques are employed, ranging from broadly economic to broadly engineering. Mathematical optimization is often used to determine the least-cost in some sense. Models can be international, regional, national, municipal, or stand-alone in scope. Governments maintain national energy models for energy policy development.
Energy models are usually intended to contribute variously to system operations, engineering design, or energy policy development. This page concentrates on policy models. Individual building energy simulations are explicitly excluded, although they too are sometimes called energy models. IPCC-style integrated assessment models, which also contain a representation of the world energy system and are used to examine global transformation pathways through to 2050 or 2100 are not considered here in detail.
Energy modeling has increased in importance as the need for climate change mitigation has grown in importance. The energy supply sector is the largest contributor to global greenhouse gas emissions. The IPCC reports that climate change mitigation will require a fundamental transformation of the energy supply system, including the substitution of unabated (not captured by CCS) fossil fuel conversion technologies by low-GHG alternatives.
Model types
A wide variety of model types are in use. This section attempts to categorize the key types and their usage. The divisions provided are not hard and fast and mixed-paradigm models exist. In addition, the results from more general models can be used to inform the specification of more detailed models, and vice versa, thereby creating a hierarchy of models. Models may, in general, need to capture "complex dynamics such as:
energy system operation
technology stock turnover
technology innovation
firm and household behaviour
energy and non-energy capital investment and labour market adjustment dynamics leading to economic restructuring
infrastructure deployment and urban planning"
Models may be limited in scope to the electricity sector or they may attempt to cover an energy system in its entirety (see below).
Most energy models are used for scenario analysis. A scenario is a coherent set of assumptions about a possible system. New scenarios are tested against a baseline scenario – normally business-as-usual (BAU) – and the differences in outcome noted.
The time horizon of the model is an important consideration. Single-year models – set in either the present or the future (say 2050) – assume a non-evolving capital structure and focus instead on the operational dynamics of the system. Single-year models normally embed considerable temporal (typically hourly resolution) and technical detail (such as individual generation plant and transmissions lines). Long-range models – cast over one or more decades (from the present until say 2050) – attempt to encapsulate the structural evolution of the system and are used to investigate capacity expansion and energy system transition issues.
Models often use mathematical optimization to solve for redundancy in the specification of the system. Some of the techniques used derive from operations research. Most rely on linear programming (including mixed-integer programming), although some use nonlinear programming. Solvers may use classical or genetic optimisation, such as CMA-ES. Models may be recursive-dynamic, solving sequentially for each time interval, and thus evolving through time. Or they may be framed as a single forward-looking intertemporal problem, and thereby assume perfect foresight. Single-year engineering-based models usually attempt to minimize the short-run financial cost, while single-year market-based models use optimization to determine market clearing. Long-range models, usually spanning decades, attempt to minimize both the short and long-run costs as a single intertemporal problem.
The demand-side (or end-user domain) has historically received relatively scant attention, often modeled by just a simple demand curve. End-user energy demand curves, in the short-run at least, are normally found to be highly inelastic.
As intermittent energy sources and energy demand management grow in importance, models have needed to adopt an hourly temporal resolution in order to better capture their real-time dynamics. Long-range models are often limited to calculations at yearly intervals, based on typical day profiles, and are hence less suited to systems with significant variable renewable energy. Day-ahead dispatching optimization is used to aid in the planning of systems with a significant portion of intermittent energy production in which uncertainty around future energy predictions is accounted for using stochastic optimization.
Implementing languages include GAMS, MathProg, MATLAB, Mathematica, Python, Pyomo, R, Fortran, Java, C, C++, and Vensim. Occasionally spreadsheets are used.
As noted, IPCC-style integrated models (also known as integrated assessment models or IAM) are not considered here in any detail. Integrated models combine simplified sub-models of the world economy, agriculture and land-use, and the global climate system in addition to the world energy system. Examples include GCAM, MESSAGE, and REMIND.
Published surveys on energy system modeling have focused on techniques, general classification, an overview, decentralized planning, modeling methods, renewables integration, energy efficiency policies, electric vehicle integration, international development, and the use of layered models to support climate protection policy. Deep Decarbonization Pathways Project researchers have also analyzed model typologies. A 2014 paper outlines the modeling challenges ahead as energy systems become more complex and human and social factors become increasingly relevant.
Electricity sector models
Electricity sector models are used to model electricity systems. The scope may be national or regional, depending on circumstances. For instance, given the presence of national interconnectors, the western European electricity system may be modeled in its entirety.
Engineering-based models usually contain a good characterization of the technologies involved, including the high-voltage AC transmission grid where appropriate. Some models (for instance, models for Germany) may assume a single common bus or "copper plate" where the grid is strong. The demand-side in electricity sector models is typically represented by a fixed load profile.
Market-based models, in addition, represent the prevailing electricity market, which may include nodal pricing.
Game theory and agent-based models are used to capture and study strategic behavior within electricity markets.
Energy system models
In addition to the electricity sector, energy system models include the heat, gas, mobility, and other sectors as appropriate. Energy system models are often national in scope, but may be municipal or international.
So-called top-down models are broadly economic in nature and based on either partial equilibrium or general equilibrium. General equilibrium models represent a specialized activity and require dedicated algorithms. Partial equilibrium models are more common.
So-called bottom-up models capture the engineering well and often rely on techniques from operations research. Individual plants are characterized by their efficiency curves (also known as input/output relations), nameplate capacities, investment costs (capex), and operating costs (opex). Some models allow for these parameters to depend on external conditions, such as ambient temperature.
Producing hybrid top-down/bottom-up models to capture both the economics and the engineering has proved challenging.
Established models
This section lists some of the major models in use. These are typically run by national governments.
In a community effort, a large number of existing energy system models were collected in model fact sheets on the Open Energy Platform.
LEAP
LEAP, the Low Emissions Analysis Platform (formerly known as the Long-range Energy Alternatives Planning System) is a software tool for energy policy analysis, air pollution abatement planning and climate change mitigation assessment.
LEAP was developed at the Stockholm Environment Institute's (SEI) US Center. LEAP can be used to examine city, statewide, national, and regional energy systems. LEAP is normally used for studies of between 20–50 years. Most of its calculations occur at yearly intervals. LEAP allows policy analysts to create and evaluate alternative scenarios and to compare their energy requirements, social costs and benefits, and environmental impacts. As of June 2021, LEAP has over 6000 users in 200 countries and territories
Power system simulation
General Electric's MAPS (Multi-Area Production Simulation) is a production simulation model used by various Regional Transmission Organizations and Independent System Operators in the United States to plan for the economic impact of proposed electric transmission and generation facilities in FERC-regulated electric wholesale markets. Portions of the model may also be used for the commitment and dispatch phase (updated on 5 minute intervals) in operation of wholesale electric markets for RTO and ISO regions. ABB's PROMOD is a similar software package. These ISO and RTO regions also utilize a GE software package called MARS (Multi-Area Reliability Simulation) to ensure the power system meets reliability criteria (a loss-of-load-expectation (LOLE) of no greater than 0.1 days per year). Further, a GE software package called PSLF (Positive Sequence Load Flow) and a Siemens software package called PSSE (Power System Simulation for Engineering) analyzes load flow on the power system for short-circuits and stability during preliminary planning studies by RTOs and ISOs.
MARKAL/TIMES
MARKAL (MARKet ALlocation) is an integrated energy systems modeling platform, used to analyze energy, economic, and environmental issues at the global, national, and municipal level over time-frames of up to several decades. MARKAL can be used to quantify the impacts of policy options on technology development and natural resource depletion. The software was developed by the Energy Technology Systems Analysis Programme (ETSAP) of the International Energy Agency (IEA) over a period of almost two decades.
TIMES (The Integrated MARKAL-EFOM System) is an evolution of MARKAL – both energy models have many similarities. TIMES succeeded MARKAL in 2008. Both models are technology explicit, dynamic partial equilibrium models of energy markets. In both cases, the equilibrium is determined by maximizing the total consumer and producer surplus via linear programming. Both MARKAL and TIMES are written in GAMS.
The TIMES model generator was also developed under the Energy Technology Systems Analysis Program (ETSAP). TIMES combines two different, but complementary, systematic approaches to modeling energy – a technical engineering approach and an economic approach. TIMES is a technology rich, bottom-up model generator, which uses linear programming to produce a least-cost energy system, optimized according to a number of user-specified constraints, over the medium to long-term. It is used for "the exploration of possible energy futures based on contrasted scenarios".
, the MARKAL and TIMES model generators are in use in 177 institutions spread over 70 countries.
NEMS
NEMS (National Energy Modeling System) is a long-standing United States government policy model, run by the Department of Energy (DOE). NEMS computes equilibrium fuel prices and quantities for the US energy sector. To do so, the software iteratively solves a sequence of linear programs and nonlinear equations. NEMS has been used to explicitly model the demand-side, in particular to determine consumer technology choices in the residential and commercial building sectors.
NEMS is used to produce the Annual Energy Outlook each year – for instance in 2015.
Criticisms
Public policy energy models have been criticized for being insufficiently transparent. The source code and data sets should at least be available for peer review, if not explicitly published. To improve transparency and public acceptance, some models are undertaken as open-source software projects, often developing a diverse community as they proceed. OSeMOSYS is one such example.
See also
General
Climate change mitigation – actions to limit long-term climate change
Climate change mitigation scenarios – possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions
Economic model
Energy system – the interpretation of the energy sector in system terms
Energy Modeling Forum – a Stanford University-based modeling forum
Open Energy Modelling Initiative – an open source energy modeling initiative, centered on Europe
Open energy system databases – database projects which collect, clean, and republish energy-related datasets
Open energy system models – a review of energy system models that are also open source
Power system simulation
Models
ACEGES – a global agent-based computational economics model
iNEMS (Integrated National Energy Modeling System) – a national energy model for China
MARKAL – an energy model
NEMS – the US government national energy model
Prospective Outlook on Long-term Energy Systems (POLES) – an energy sector world simulation model
KAPSARC Energy Model - an energy sector model for Saudi Arabia
Further reading
Introductory video on open energy system modeling with python language example
Introductory video with reference to public policy
References
External links
COST TD1207 Mathematical Optimization in the Decision Support Systems for Efficient and Robust Energy Networks wiki – a typology for optimization models
EnergyPLAN — a freeware energy model from the Department of Development and Planning, Aalborg University, Denmark
Open Energy Modelling Initiative open models page – a list of open energy models
model.energy — an online "toy" model utilizing the PyPSA framework that allows the public to experiment
Climate change policy
Computational science
Computer programming
Economics models
Energy models
Energy policy
Mathematical modeling
Mathematical optimization
Simulation
Systems theory
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60486121
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratis%20%28configuration%20daemon%29
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Stratis (configuration daemon)
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Stratis is a user-space configuration daemon that configures and monitors existing components from Linux's underlying storage components of logical volume management (LVM) and XFS filesystem via D-Bus.
Details
Stratis is not a user-level filesystem like the Filesystem in Userspace (FUSE) system. Stratis configuration daemon was originally developed by Red Hat to have feature parity with ZFS and Btrfs. The hope was due to Stratis configuration daemon being in userland, it would more quickly reach maturity versus the years of kernel level development of file systems ZFS and Btrfs. As it is built upon enterprise-tested components LVM and XFS with over a decade of enterprise deployments and the lessons learned from System Storage Manager in Red Hat Enterprise Linux 7.
Stratis provides ZFS/Btrfs-style features by integrating layers of existing technology: Linux's device mapper subsystem, and the XFS filesystem. The stratisd daemon manages collections of block devices, and provides a D-Bus API. The stratis-cli DNF package provides a command-line tool stratis, which itself uses the D-Bus API to communicate with stratisd.
See also
Comparison of file systems
List of file systems
APFS – a copy-on-write file system for macOS, iOS, tvOS, and watchOS
HAMMER – DragonFly BSD's file system that uses B-trees, paired with checksums as a countermeasure for data corruption
ReFS – a copy-on-write file system for Windows Server 2012
References
External links
Linux software
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42005868
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziv%20Bar-Joseph
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Ziv Bar-Joseph
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Ziv Bar-Joseph is an Israeli computational biologist and Professor in the Computational Biology Department and the Machine Learning Department at the Carnegie Mellon School of Computer Science.
Education
Bar-Joseph studied computer science at Bachelor of Science (1997) and Master of Science (1999) level, both at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. He gained his PhD from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in computer science in 2003, under the supervision of David K. Gifford and Tommi S. Jaakkola. Following this, he was a postdoctoral associate at the MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL) and the Whitehead Institute.
Research
Bar-Joseph's research at Carnegie Mellon is primarily focused on developing computational methods to allow greater understanding of the interactions and dynamics of complex biological systems, particularly systems that change with time, such as the cell cycle.
At MIT, Bar-Joseph's group developed a novel algorithm to discover regulatory networks of gene modules in yeast. These modules are groups of genes that work together to perform tasks such as respiration, protein synthesis and response to external stress.
He is also interested in how insights from both computer science and biology can be used to affect the other field, in particular how algorithms from nature can be used in order to improve algorithms in distributed computing.
Awards and honours
Bar-Joseph has been awarded the DIMACS-Celera Genomics Graduate Student Award in Computational Molecular Biology and the NSF CAREER award. He was awarded the ISCB Overton Prize in 2012 in recognition of his significant and lasting impact in computational biology.
He co-chaired the Research in Computational Molecular Biology (RECOMB) conference in 2009 and 2010 and joined the board of the journal Bioinformatics as an Associate Editor in 2013.
Personal life
Bar-Joseph is a keen runner and has run several sub-3 hour marathons. He lives in Pittsburgh and Shoham with his wife and three children.
See also
Michal Linial
References
Israeli bioinformaticians
Living people
Hebrew University of Jerusalem alumni
MIT School of Engineering alumni
Carnegie Mellon University faculty
Overton Prize winners
1971 births
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1199029
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMC%20Software
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BMC Software
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BMC Software, Inc. is an American multinational information technology (IT) services and consulting company based in Houston, Texas. Its international headquarters is located in Houston, Texas, United States.
Gartner has positioned BMC as a Leader for the eighth consecutive year in Gartner's 2021 Magic Quadrant for IT Service Management Tools for its BMC Helix ITSM solution.
History
The company was founded in Houston, Texas, by former Shell Oil employees Scott Boulette, John J. Moores, and Dan Cloer, whose surname initials were adopted as the company name BMC Software. Moores served as the company's first CEO. The firm primarily wrote software for IBM mainframe computers, the industry standard at the time, but since the mid-1990s has been developing software to monitor, manage and automate both distributed and mainframe systems.
In 1987, Moores was succeeded by Richard A. Hosley II as CEO and President. In July 1988, BMC was re-incorporated in Delaware and went public with an initial public offering for BMC stock. The first day of trading was August 12, 1988. BMC stock was originally traded on NASDAQ under the symbol BMCS and on the New York Stock Exchange with symbol BMC.
Acquisition and privatization by private equity firms
In May 2013, BMC announced that it was being acquired by a group of major private equity investment groups for $6.9 billion. The process was completed in September 2013 and the company is no longer publicly traded.
It was announced on October 2, 2018 that BMC was acquired by KKR, a leading global investment firm. The company was acquired from a private investor group led by Bain Capital Private Equity and Golden Gate Capital together with GIC, Insight Venture Partners, and Elliott Management.
Notable acquisitions
Products and services
BMC Software specializes in software designed to enable an autonomous digital enterprise, developing products used for multiple functions including automation, service management, DevOps, workflow orchestration, AIOps, and security.
The company supports enterprises using mainframes with its Automated Mainframe Intelligence (AMI) product line, which enables self-managing mainframe systems. Self-managing mainframes use machine learning to improve efficiency by anticipating needs, sending alarms, and taking actions without the need for manual actions.
BMC's Control-M software is an application workflow orchestration platform that allows businesses to run hundreds of thousands of batch jobs daily and use the data to optimize complex business operations, such as supply chain management. Users can access all enterprise batch jobs through a single graphical interface. Control-M integrates with distributed storage systems such as HDFS, YARN, MapReduce, and Apache Spark. In 2019, the firm made the program available in a Docker container, allowing easy deployment to the public cloud or on-premises. The software has been named the overall leader in workload automation by Enterprise Management Associates in each report since 2010. In 2020, the firm announced the launch of SaaS-based BMC Helix Control-M application workflow orchestration.
The TrueSight suite utilizes AI and machine learning to provide insights and network automation capabilities, and includes TrueSight Operations Management, TrueSight Automation for Networks, TrueSight Automation for Servers, and TrueSight Orchestration.
Directors and staff
The company was founded by John J. Moores in 1980; Moores was a "former Shell Oil computer specialist ... whose software made Shell's computers more efficient." Richard A. Hosley II was president and chief executive officer of BMC Software, Inc. from October 1987 until April 1990. Shortly after becoming president, Hosley took the company public in 1988. Hosley was succeeded by Max Watson Jr. in April 1990. Max Watson Jr. was chairman and chief executive officer of BMC Software from April 1990 to January 2001.
In 2001, BMC appointed the company director, Garland Cupp, as chairman, succeeding Max Watson, who quit the post in January 2001. Watson was succeeded as chairman and CEO by BMC's former senior vice president of product management and development, Robert Beauchamp.
In December 2016, Peter Leav succeeded Bob Beauchamp as president and chief executive officer. In October 2019, Ayman Sayed was named as President and CEO of BMC Software.
See also
List of companies in Houston
Remedy Corp
ServiceNow
References
External links
Orchestration software
Job scheduling
Software companies based in Texas
Information technology consulting firms of the United States
International information technology consulting firms
Privately held companies based in Texas
Companies based in Houston
Software companies established in 1980
American companies established in 1980
Business software companies
Companies formerly listed on the Nasdaq
1980s initial public offerings
2018 mergers and acquisitions
Kohlberg Kravis Roberts companies
Software companies of the United States
Software performance management
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