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It also incorporates the Good-Turing methodin estimating the likelihoods of previously unseen constructions, including morphological derivatives and personal names. | 0 | With regard to purely morphological phenomena, certain processes are not han dled elegantly within the current framework Any process involving reduplication, for instance, does not lend itself to modeling by finite-state techniques, since there is no way that finite-state networks can directly implement the copying operations required. |
They showed the efficacy of graph-based label propagation for projecting part-of-speech information across languages. | 0 | Altun et al. (2005) proposed a technique that uses graph based similarity between labeled and unlabeled parts of structured data in a discriminative framework for semi-supervised learning. |
Bean and Riloff also used bootstrapping to extend their semantic compatibility model, proposed using caseframe network for anaphora resolution, information extraction patterns to identify contextual clues for determining compatibility between NPs. | 0 | We present a coreference resolver called BABAR that uses contextual role knowledge to evaluate possible antecedents for an anaphor. |
Their empirical results demonstrate that the type-based tagger rivals state-of-the-art tag-level taggers which employ more sophisticated learning mechanisms to exploit similar constraints. | 0 | to represent the ith word type emitted by the HMM: P (t(i)|Ti, t(âi), w, α) â n P (w|Ti, t(âi), w(âi), α) (tb ,ta ) P (Ti, t(i)|T , W , t(âi), w, α, β) = P (T |tb, t(âi), α)P (ta|T , t(âi), α) âi (i) i i (âi) P (Ti|W , T âi, β)P (t |Ti, t , w, α) All terms are Dirichlet distributions and parameters can be analytically computed from counts in t(âi)where T âi denotes all type-level tag assignment ex cept Ti and t(âi) denotes all token-level tags except and w (âi) (Johnson, 2007). |
Their results show that their high performance NER use less training data than other systems. | 0 | Multiple features can be used for the same token. |
Vijay-Shankar et all considered the structural descriptions produced by various grammatical formalisms in terms of the complexity of the paths and the relationship between paths in the sets of structural descriptions that each system can generate. | 0 | M works in space S(n) if for every string that M accepts no configuration exceeds space S(n). |
There are clustering approaches that assign a single POS tag to each word type. | 0 | The P (T |Ï) distribution, in English for instance, should have very low mass for the DT (determiner) tag, since determiners are a very small portion of the vocabulary. |
This paper discusses the Potsdam Commentary Corpus, a corpus of german assembeled by potsdam university. | 0 | 3.4 Salience-based text generation. |
This paper talks about KenLM: Faster and Smaller Language Model Queries. | 0 | The 1-bit sign is almost always negative and the 8-bit exponent is not fully used on the range of values, so in practice this corresponds to quantization ranging from 17 to 20 total bits. |
Their work is closely related to recent approaches that incorporate the sparsity constraint into the POS induction process. | 0 | The original tag set for the CoNLL-X Dutch data set consists of compounded tags that are used to tag multi-word units (MWUs) resulting in a tag set of over 300 tags. |
Evaluation was done automatically using the BLEU score and manually on fluency and adequacy. | 0 | was done by the participants. |
Each out-of-domain phrase pair was characterized by a set of simple features intended to reflect how useful it would be. | 0 | This has solutions: where pI(s|t) is derived from the IN corpus using relative-frequency estimates, and po(s|t) is an instance-weighted model derived from the OUT corpus. |
they evaluate various specific aspects of the segmentation, as well as the overall segmentation performance. | 0 | Several papers report the use of part-of-speech information to rank segmentations (Lin, Chiang, and Su 1993; Peng and Chang 1993; Chang and Chen 1993); typically, the probability of a segmentation is multiplied by the probability of the tagging(s) for that segmentation to yield an estimate of the total probability for the analysis. |
This assumption, however, is not inherent to type-based tagging models. | 0 | Their best model yields 44.5% one-to-one accuracy, compared to our best median 56.5% result. |
The resulting model is compact, efficiently learnable and linguistically expressive. | 0 | In practice, this sparsity constraint is difficult to incorporate in a traditional POS induction system (Me´rialdo, 1994; Johnson, 2007; Gao and Johnson, 2008; Grac¸a et al., 2009; Berg-Kirkpatrick et al., 2010). |
Nevertheless, only a part of this corpus (10 texts), which the authors name "core corpus", is annotated with all this information. | 0 | In the small window on the left, search queries can be entered, here one for an NP that has been annotated on the co-reference layer as bridging. |
This paper offers a broad insight into of Arabic constituency parsing by analyzing the interplay of linguistic phenomena, annotation choices, and model design. | 0 | 36 79. |
They have made use of local and global features to deal with the instances of same token in a document. | 0 | In the maximum entropy framework, there is no such constraint. |
The use of global features has shown excellent result in the performance on MUC-6 and MUC-7 test data. | 0 | Case and Zone: If the token starts with a capital letter (initCaps), then an additional feature (init- Caps, zone) is set to 1. |
This topic has been getting more attention, driven by the needs of various NLP applications. | 0 | Using structural information As was explained in the results section, we extracted examples like âSmith estimates Lotusâ, from a sentence like âMr. |
Their results suggested that it was possible to learn accurate POS taggers for languages which did not have any annotated data, but have translations into a resource-rich language. | 0 | Because we are interested in applying our techniques to languages for which no labeled resources are available, we paid particular attention to minimize the number of free parameters and used the same hyperparameters for all language pairs. |
they showed that the average agreement among the human judges is .76, and the average agreement between ST(system) and the humans is .75, or about 99% of the interhuman agreement. | 0 | These are shown, with their associated costs, as follows: ABj nc 4.0 AB C/jj 6.0 CD /vb 5. |
Instance-weighting approach improved over a wide range of baselines, giving gains of over 2 BLEU points over the best non-adapted baseline. | 0 | We describe a new approach to SMT adaptation that weights out-of-domain phrase pairs according to their relevance to the target domain, determined by both how similar to it they appear to be, and whether they belong to general language or not. |
The manual evaluation of scoring translation on a graded scale from 1â5 seems to be very hard to perform. | 0 | While many systems had similar performance, the results offer interesting insights, especially about the relative performance of statistical and rule-based systems. |
They proposed a single joint model for performing both morphological segmentation and syntactic disambiguation which bypasses the associated circularity. | 0 | We claim that no particular morphological segmentation is a-priory more likely for surface forms before exploring the compositional nature of syntactic structures, including manifestations of various long-distance dependencies. |
These clusters are computed using an SVD variant without relying on transitional structure. | 0 | (2009) on Portuguese (Grac¸a et al. |
BABAR's performance in both domains of terrorism and natural disaster, and the contextual-role knowledge in pronouns have shown successful results. | 0 | Training examples are generated automatically by identifying noun phrases that can be easily resolved with their antecedents using lexical and syntactic heuristics. |
In this paper, the authors are of the opinion that the sequence models-based approaches usually treat token-level tag assignment as the primary latent variable. | 0 | 36. |
Evaluation was done automatically using the BLEU score and manually on fluency and adequacy. | 0 | It is well know that language pairs such as EnglishGerman pose more challenges to machine translation systems than language pairs such as FrenchEnglish. |
In order to create good-sized vectors for similarity calculation, they had to set a high frequency threshold. | 0 | Evaluation results within sets Table 1 shows the evaluation result based on the number of phrases in a set. |
On the basis of that observation, they described a class of formalisms which they called Linear Context- Free Rewriting Systems (LCFRs), and showed they were recognizable in polynomial time and generated only semilinear languages. | 0 | We can define derivation trees inductively on the length of the derivation of a tree 1. |
There are clustering approaches that assign a single POS tag to each word type. | 0 | encodes the one tag per word constraint and is uni form over type-level tag assignments. |
The approach has been successfully tested on the 8 000-word Verbmobil task. | 0 | A summary of the corpus used in the experiments is given in Table 3. |
They plan on extending instance-weighting to other standard SMT components and capture the degree of generality of phrase pairs. | 0 | There is a fairly large body of work on SMT adaptation. |
The approach assumes that the word reordering is restricted to a few positions in the source sentence. | 0 | A procedural definition to restrict1In the approach described in (Berger et al., 1996), a mor phological analysis is carried out and word morphemes rather than full-form words are used during the search. |
This assumption, however, is not inherent to type-based tagging models. | 0 | â similar results have been observed across multiple languages. |
This architecture provides a uniform framework in which it is easy to incorporate not only listed dictionary entries but also morphological derivatives, and models for personal names and foreign names in transliteration. | 0 | Finally, this effort is part of a much larger program that we are undertaking to develop stochastic finite-state methods for text analysis with applications to TIS and other areas; in the final section of this paper we will briefly discuss this larger program so as to situate the work discussed here in a broader context. |
All the texts were annotated by two people. | 0 | Trying to integrate constituent ordering and choice of referring expressions, (Chiarcos 2003) developed a numerical model of salience propagation that captures various factors of authorâs intentions and of information structure for ordering sentences as well as smaller constituents, and picking appropriate referring expressions.10 Chiarcos used the PCC annotations of co-reference and information structure to compute his numerical models for salience projection across the generated texts. |
The departure from the traditional token-based tagging approach allow them to explicitly capture type-level distributional properties of valid POS tag assignments as part of the model. | 0 | β is the shared hyperparameter for the tag assignment prior and word feature multinomials. |
The authors use linguistic and annotation insights to develop a manually annotated grammar and evaluate it and finally provide a realistic evaluation in which segmentation is performed in a pipeline jointly with parsing. | 0 | In these experiments, the input lacks segmentation markers, hence the slightly different dev set baseline than in Table 6. |
They incorporated instance-weighting into a mixture-model framework, and found that it yielded consistent improvements over a wide range of baselines. | 0 | We used it to score all phrase pairs in the OUT table, in order to provide a feature for the instance-weighting model. |
The use of global features has shown excellent result in the performance on MUC-6 and MUC-7 test data. | 0 | If is unique, then a feature (Unique, Zone) is set to 1, where Zone is the document zone where appears. |
Bean and Riloff also used bootstrapping to extend their semantic compatibility model, proposed using caseframe network for anaphora resolution, information extraction patterns to identify contextual clues for determining compatibility between NPs. | 0 | For pronouns, however, all of the knowledge sources increased recall, often substantially, and with little if any decrease in precision. |
From a DP-based solution to the traveling salesman problem, they present a novel technique to restrict the possible word reordering between source and target language in order to achieve an eÃcient search algorithm. | 0 | A modified language model probability pÃ(eje0; e00) is defined as follows: pÃ(eje0; e00) = 1:0 if à = 0 p(eje0; e00) if à = 1 : We associate a distribution p(Ã) with the two cases à = 0 and à = 1 and set p(à = 1) = 0:7. |
The problem of coreference resolution has received considerable attention, including theoretical discourse models and supervised machine learning systems. | 0 | Each pattern represents the role that a noun phrase plays in the surrounding context. |
In this paper the authors present a stochastic finite-state model for segmenting Chinese text into words. | 0 | Mandarin exhibits several such processes, including A-not-A question formation, il lustrated in (3a), and adverbial reduplication, illustrated in (3b): 3. |
the "Potsdam Commentary Corpus" or PCC consists of 170 commentaries from Ma¨rkische Allgemeine Zeitung, a German regional daily. | 0 | rently, some annotations (in particular the connectives and scopes) have already moved beyond the core corpus; the others will grow step by step. |
Human judges also pointed out difficulties with the evaluation of long sentences. | 0 | Many human evaluation metrics have been proposed. |
In this work, they take a more direct approach and treat a word type and its allowed POS tags as a primary element of the model. | 0 | Overall, the difference between our most basic model (1TW) and our full model (+FEATS) is 21.2% and 13.1% for the best and median settings respectively. |
They plan on extending instance-weighting to other standard SMT components and capture the degree of generality of phrase pairs. | 0 | We obtained positive results using a very simple phrase-based system in two different adaptation settings: using English/French Europarl to improve a performance on a small, specialized medical domain; and using non-news portions of the NIST09 training material to improve performance on the news-related corpora. |
They incorporated instance-weighting into a mixture-model framework, and found that it yielded consistent improvements over a wide range of baselines. | 0 | ), which precludes a single universal approach to adaptation. |
The problem of coreference resolution has received considerable attention, including theoretical discourse models and supervised machine learning systems. | 0 | We do not attempt to identify the types of relationships that are found. |
Nevertheless, only a part of this corpus (10 texts), which the authors name "core corpus", is annotated with all this information. | 0 | 3.4 Salience-based text generation. |
Vijay-Shankar et all considered the structural descriptions produced by various grammatical formalisms in terms of the complexity of the paths and the relationship between paths in the sets of structural descriptions that each system can generate. | 0 | LCFRS's share several properties possessed by the class of mildly context-sensitive formalisms discussed by Joshi (1983/85). |
However, using the top-level semantic classes of WordNet proved to be problematic as the class distinctions are too coarse. | 0 | In this section, we describe how contextual role knowledge is represented and learned. |
Replacing this with a ranked evaluation seems to be more suitable. | 0 | For some language pairs (such as GermanEnglish) system performance is more divergent than for others (such as English-French), at least as measured by BLEU. |
This paper presents methods to query N-gram language models, minimizing time and space costs. | 0 | For RandLM, we used the settings in the documentation: 8 bits per value and false positive probability 1 256. |
The authors show that PATB is similar to other tree-banks but that annotation consistency remains low. | 0 | Figure 2: An ATB sample from the human evaluation. |
they showed that the average agreement among the human judges is .76, and the average agreement between ST(system) and the humans is .75, or about 99% of the interhuman agreement. | 0 | The dictionary sizes reported in the literature range from 17,000 to 125,000 entries, and it seems reasonable to assume that the coverage of the base dictionary constitutes a major factor in the performance of the various approaches, possibly more important than the particular set of methods used in the segmentation. |
The model incorporates various recent techniques for incorporating and manipulating linguistic knowledge using finite-state transducers. | 0 | handled given appropriate models. |
Their empirical results demonstrate that the type-based tagger rivals state-of-the-art tag-level taggers which employ more sophisticated learning mechanisms to exploit similar constraints. | 0 | encodes the one tag per word constraint and is uni form over type-level tag assignments. |
The PROBING data structure uses linear probing hash tables and is designed for speed. | 0 | We used this data to build an unpruned ARPA file with IRSTLM’s improved-kneser-ney option and the default three pieces. |
The resulting model is compact, efficiently learnable and linguistically expressive. | 0 | We report results for the best and median hyperparameter settings obtained in this way. |
The AdaBoost algorithm was developed for supervised learning. | 0 | Assume that the two classifiers are "rote learners": that is, 1.1 and 12 are defined through look-up tables that list a label for each member of X1 or X2. |
This paper conducted research in the area of automatic paraphrase discovery. | 0 | So, we set a threshold that at least two examples are required to build a link. |
Other kinds of productive word classes, such as company names, abbreviations,and place names can easily be handled given appropriate models. | 0 | 42 nator, the N31s can be measured well by counting, and we replace the expectation by the observation. |
NER is useful in many NLP applications such as information extraction, question answering, etc .Chieu and Ng have shown that the maximum entropy framework is able to use global information directly from various sources. | 0 | Case and Zone of and : Similarly, if (or ) is initCaps, a feature (initCaps, zone) (or (initCaps, zone) ) is set to 1, etc. Token Information: This group consists of 10 features based on the string , as listed in Table 1. |
This architecture provides a uniform framework in which it is easy to incorporate not only listed dictionary entries but also morphological derivatives, and models for personal names and foreign names in transliteration. | 0 | Other kinds of productive word classes, such as company names, abbreviations (termed fijsuolxie3 in Mandarin), and place names can easily be 20 Note that 7 in E 7 is normally pronounced as leO, but as part of a resultative it is liao3.. |
These clusters are computed using an SVD variant without relying on transitional structure. | 0 | 1 74.5 56. |
The authors in this paper describe a search procedure for statistical machine translation (MT) based on dynamic programming (DP). | 0 | 3.1 Word ReOrdering with Verbgroup. |
In this work, they take a more direct approach and treat a word type and its allowed POS tags as a primary element of the model. | 0 | 36. |
The second algorithm builds on a boosting algorithm called AdaBoost. | 0 | The approach builds from an initial seed set for a category, and is quite similar to the decision list approach described in (Yarowsky 95). |
They proposed an unsupervised method to discover paraphrases from a large untagged corpus. | 0 | There has also been work using a bootstrap- ping approach [Brin 98; Agichtein and Gravano 00; Ravichandran and Hovy 02]. |
They plan on extending instance-weighting to other standard SMT components and capture the degree of generality of phrase pairs. | 0 | We have already mentioned the closely related work by Matsoukas et al (2009) on discriminative corpus weighting, and Jiang and Zhai (2007) on (nondiscriminative) instance weighting. |
In this paper, Ben and Riloff present a coreference resolver called BABAR that focuses on the use of contextual-role knowledge for coreference resolution. | 0 | Contextual role knowledge provides evidence as to whether a candidate is a plausible antecedent for an anaphor. |
The fact that projective dependency parsers can never exactly reproduce the analyses found in non-projective tree banks is often neglected because of the relative scarcity of problematic constructions. | 0 | On the other hand, given that all schemes have similar parsing accuracy overall, this means that the Path scheme is the least likely to introduce errors on projective arcs. |
The use of global features has shown excellent result in the performance on MUC-6 and MUC-7 test data. | 0 | In MUC6, the best result is achieved by SRA (Krupka, 1995). |
In order to create good-sized vectors for similarity calculation, they had to set a high frequency threshold. | 0 | buy - acquire (5) buy - agree (2) buy - purchase (5) buy - acquisition (7) buy - pay (2)* buy - buyout (3) buy - bid (2) acquire - purchase (2) acquire - acquisition (2) acquire - pay (2)* purchase - acquisition (4) purchase - stake (2)* acquisition - stake (2)* unit - subsidiary (2) unit - parent (5) It is clear that these links form two clusters which are mostly correct. |
The authors use linguistic and annotation insights to develop a manually annotated grammar and evaluate it and finally provide a realistic evaluation in which segmentation is performed in a pipeline jointly with parsing. | 0 | 31 75. |
These clusters are computed using an SVD variant without relying on transitional structure. | 0 | (2010)âs richest model: optimized via either EM or LBFGS, as their relative performance depends on the language. |
In this paper, the authors are of the opinion that the sequence models-based approaches usually treat token-level tag assignment as the primary latent variable. | 0 | Another thread of relevant research has explored the use of features in unsupervised POS induction (Smith and Eisner, 2005; Berg-Kirkpatrick et al., 2010; Hasan and Ng, 2009). |
Combining multiple highly-accurate independent parsers yields promising results. | 0 | The counts represent portions of the approximately 44000 constituents hypothesized by the parsers in the development set. |
The first method builds on results from (Yarowsky 95) and (Blum and Mitchell 98). | 0 | The method uses a "soft" measure of the agreement between two classifiers as an objective function; we described an algorithm which directly optimizes this function. |
they evaluate various specific aspects of the segmentation, as well as the overall segmentation performance. | 0 | That is, given a choice between segmenting a sequence abc into abc and ab, c, the former will always be picked so long as its cost does not exceed the summed costs of ab and c: while; it is possible for abc to be so costly as to preclude the larger grouping, this will certainly not usually be the case. |
An extended lexicon model is defined, and its likelihood is compared to a baseline lexicon model, which takes only single-word dependencies into account. | 0 | Restrictions: Quasi-monotone Search The above search space is still too large to allow the translation of a medium length input sentence. |
The first method builds on results from (Yarowsky 95) and (Blum and Mitchell 98). | 0 | The likelihood of the observed data under the model is where P(yi, xi) is defined as in (9). |
The contextual rules are restricted and may not be applicable to every example, but the spelling rules are generally applicable and should have good coverage. | 0 | The following algorithm was then used to induce new rules: Let Count' (x) be the number of times feature x is seen with some known label in the training data. |
The authors use linguistic and annotation insights to develop a manually annotated grammar and evaluate it and finally provide a realistic evaluation in which segmentation is performed in a pipeline jointly with parsing. | 0 | Segmentation errors cascade into the parsing phase, placing an artificial limit on parsing performance. |
Das and Petrov, in this paper, approached inducing unsupervised part-of-speech taggers for languages that had no labeled training data, but had translated text in a resource-rich language. | 0 | This stage of label propagation results in a tag distribution ri over labels y, which encodes the proportion of times the middle word of ui E Vf aligns to English words vy tagged with label y: The second stage consists of running traditional label propagation to propagate labels from these peripheral vertices Vf� to all foreign language vertices in the graph, optimizing the following objective: 5 POS Induction After running label propagation (LP), we compute tag probabilities for foreign word types x by marginalizing the POS tag distributions of foreign trigrams ui = x− x x+ over the left and right context words: where the qi (i = 1, ... , |Vf|) are the label distributions over the foreign language vertices and µ and ν are hyperparameters that we discuss in §6.4. |
Due to many similarly performing systems, the author was not able to draw strong conclusions on the question of correlation of manual and automatic evaluation metrics. | 0 | Surprisingly, this effect is much less obvious for out-of-domain test data. |
This paper presents methods to query N-gram language models, minimizing time and space costs. | 0 | Further, the special hash 0 suffices to flag empty buckets. |
The experimental tests are carried out on the Verbmobil task which is a limited-domain spoken-language task. | 0 | This work has been supported as part of the Verbmobil project (contract number 01 IV 601 A) by the German Federal Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Technology and as part of the Eutrans project (ESPRIT project number 30268) by the European Community. |
It outperformed strong unsupervised baselines as well as approaches that relied on direct projections, and bridged the gap between purely supervised and unsupervised POS tagging models. | 0 | Our results suggest that it is possible to learn accurate POS taggers for languages which do not have any annotated data, but have translations into a resource-rich language. |
Due to many similarly performing systems, they are not able to draw strong conclusions on the question of correlation of manual and automatic evaluation metrics. | 0 | The development of automatic scoring methods is an open field of research. |
They showed that it was useful to abstract away from the details of the formalism, and examine the nature of their derivation process as reflected by properties their trees, find that several of the formalisms considered can be seen as being closely related since they have derivation tree sets with the same structure as those produced by Context-Free Grammars. | 0 | In a grammar which generates independent paths the derivations of sibling constituents can not share an unbounded amount of information. |
they evaluate various specific aspects of the segmentation, as well as the overall segmentation performance. | 0 | Note also that the costs currently used in the system are actually string costs, rather than word costs. |
This architecture provides a uniform framework in which it is easy to incorporate not only listed dictionary entries but also morphological derivatives, and models for personal names and foreign names in transliteration. | 0 | Papers that use this method or minor variants thereof include Liang (1986), Li et al. |
Their results show that their high performance NER use less training data than other systems. | 0 | As we will see from Table 3, not much improvement is derived from this feature. |
It is annotated with several data: morphology, syntax, rhetorical structure, connectors, correference and informative structure. | 0 | Assigning rhetorical relations thus poses questions that can often be answered only subjectively. |
Each out-of-domain phrase pair was characterized by a set of simple features intended to reflect how useful it would be. | 0 | We introduce several new ideas. |
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