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The model incorporates various recent techniques for incorporating and manipulating linguistic knowledge using finite-state transducers. | 0 | Several systems propose statistical methods for handling unknown words (Chang et al. 1992; Lin, Chiang, and Su 1993; Peng and Chang 1993). |
BABAR's performance in both domains of terrorism and natural disaster, and the contextual-role knowledge in pronouns have shown successful results. | 0 | BABAR uses information extraction patterns to identify contextual roles and creates four contextual role knowledge sources using unsupervised learning. |
This paper presents a maximum entropy-based named entity recognizer (NER). | 0 | This group of features attempts to capture such information. |
Their work is closely related to recent approaches that incorporate the sparsity constraint into the POS induction process. | 0 | These clusters are computed using an SVD variant without relying on transitional structure. |
In order to realize the full potential of dependency-based syntactic parsing, it is desirable to allow non-projective dependency structures. | 0 | In the present study, we limit ourselves to an algorithmic approach, using a deterministic breadthfirst search. |
Most IE researchers have been creating paraphrase knowledge by hand and specific tasks. | 0 | Step 4. |
The bias of automatic methods in favour of statistical systems seemed to be less pronounced on out-of-domain test data. | 0 | We confirm the finding by Callison-Burch et al. (2006) that the rule-based system of Systran is not adequately appreciated by BLEU. |
The authors in this paper describe a search procedure for statistical machine translation (MT) based on dynamic programming (DP). | 0 | Can we do . QmS: Yes, wonderful. |
We chose one of four labels for each example: location, person, organization, or noise where the noise category was used for items that were outside the three categories. | 0 | Using the virtual distribution Di (i) and pseudo-labels"y.,„ values for Wo, W± and W_ can be calculated for each possible weak hypothesis (i.e., for each feature x E Xi); the weak hypothesis with minimal value for Wo + 2/WW _ can be chosen as before; and the weight for this weak hypothesis at = ln ww+411:) can be calculated. |
While many systems had similar performance, the results offered interesting insights, especially, about the relative performance of statistical and rule-based systems. | 0 | Compared to last year’s shared task, the participants represent more long-term research efforts. |
The manual evaluation of scoring translation on a graded scale from 1–5 seemed to be very hard to perform. | 0 | A few annotators suggested to break up long sentences into clauses and evaluate these separately. |
the "Potsdam Commentary Corpus" or PCC consists of 170 commentaries from Ma¨rkische Allgemeine Zeitung, a German regional daily. | 0 | They are also labelled for their topicality (yes / no), and this annotation is accompanied by a confidence value assigned by the annotator (since it is a more subjective matter). |
They showed the efficacy of graph-based label propagation for projecting part-of-speech information across languages. | 0 | We formulate the update as follows: where ∀ui ∈ Vf \ Vfl, γi(y) and κi are defined as: We ran this procedure for 10 iterations. |
In this paper, Ben and Riloff present a coreference resolver called BABAR that focuses on the use of contextual-role knowledge for coreference resolution. | 0 | This approach is similar to BABAR in that they both acquire knowledge from earlier resolutions. |
Human judges also pointed out difficulties with the evaluation of long sentences. | 0 | Given a set of n sentences, we can compute the sample mean x� and sample variance s2 of the individual sentence judgements xi: The extend of the confidence interval [x−d, x+df can be computed by d = 1.96 ·�n (6) Pairwise Comparison: As for the automatic evaluation metric, we want to be able to rank different systems against each other, for which we need assessments of statistical significance on the differences between a pair of systems. |
Due to many similarly performing systems, they are not able to draw strong conclusions on the question of correlation of manual and automatic evaluation metrics. | 0 | See Figure 3 for a screenshot of the evaluation tool. |
Evaluation was done automatically using the BLEU score and manually on fluency and adequacy. | 0 | Confidence Interval: To estimate confidence intervals for the average mean scores for the systems, we use standard significance testing. |
Human judges also pointed out difficulties with the evaluation of long sentences. | 0 | It was also proposed to allow annotators to skip sentences that they are unable to judge. |
The authors use linguistic and annotation insights to develop a manually annotated grammar and evaluate it and finally provide a realistic evaluation in which segmentation is performed in a pipeline jointly with parsing. | 0 | NN � .e NP NNP NP DTNNP NN � .e NP NP NNP NP Table 5: Evaluation of 100 randomly sampled variation nuclei types. |
The manual evaluation of scoring translation on a graded scale from 1â5 seems to be very hard to perform. | 0 | We are currently working on a complete open source implementation of a training and decoding system, which should become available over the summer. pus, from which also the in-domain test set is taken. |
The AdaBoost algorithm was developed for supervised learning. | 0 | The first modification — cautiousness — is a relatively minor change. |
The manual evaluation of scoring translation on a graded scale from 1–5 seemed to be very hard to perform. | 0 | (b) does the translation have the same meaning, including connotations? |
The authors believe automatic paraphrase discovery is an important component for building a fully automatic information extraction system. | 0 | This limits the number of NE category pairs to 2,000 and the number of NE pair instances to 0.63 million. |
It also incorporates the Good-Turing methodin estimating the likelihoods of previously unseen constructions, including morphological derivatives and personal names. | 0 | We have provided methods for handling certain classes of unknown words, and models for other classes could be provided, as we have noted. |
However, using the top-level semantic classes of WordNet proved to be problematic as the class distinctions are too coarse. | 0 | This suggests that different types of anaphora may warrant different treatment: definite NP resolution may depend more on lexical semantics, while pronoun resolution may depend more on contextual semantics. |
They used graph-based label propagation for cross-lingual knowledge transfer and used the projected labels as features in an unsupervised model. | 0 | The feature-based model replaces the emission distribution with a log-linear model, such that: on the word identity x, features checking whether x contains digits or hyphens, whether the first letter of x is upper case, and suffix features up to length 3. |
This paper offers a broad insight into of Arabic constituency parsing by analyzing the interplay of linguistic phenomena, annotation choices, and model design. | 0 | Parent Head Modif er Dir # gold F1 Label # gold F1 NP NP TAG R 946 0.54 ADJP 1216 59.45 S S S R 708 0.57 SBAR 2918 69.81 NP NP ADJ P R 803 0.64 FRAG 254 72.87 NP NP N P R 2907 0.66 VP 5507 78.83 NP NP SBA R R 1035 0.67 S 6579 78.91 NP NP P P R 2713 0.67 PP 7516 80.93 VP TAG P P R 3230 0.80 NP 34025 84.95 NP NP TAG L 805 0.85 ADVP 1093 90.64 VP TAG SBA R R 772 0.86 WHN P 787 96.00 S VP N P L 961 0.87 (a) Major phrasal categories (b) Major POS categories (c) Ten lowest scoring (Collins, 2003)-style dependencies occurring more than 700 times Table 8: Per category performance of the Berkeley parser on sentence lengths ⤠70 (dev set, gold segmentation). |
For the perplexity and translation tasks, we used SRILM to build a 5-gram English language model on 834 million tokens from Europarl v6 (Koehn, 2005) and the 2011 Workshop on Machine Translation News Crawl corpus with duplicate lines removed. | 0 | We implement two data structures: PROBING, designed for speed, and TRIE, optimized for memory. |
The evaluation compares the performance of the system with that of several human judges and inter-human agreement on a single correct way to segment a text. | 0 | However, as we have noted, nothing inherent in the approach precludes incorporating higher-order constraints, provided they can be effectively modeled within a finite-state framework. |
Each out-of-domain phrase pair was characterized by a set of simple features intended to reflect how useful it would be. | 0 | The 8 similarity-to-IN features are based on word frequencies and scores from various models trained on the IN corpus: To avoid numerical problems, each feature was normalized by subtracting its mean and dividing by its standard deviation. |
Their work is closely related to recent approaches that incorporate the sparsity constraint into the POS induction process. | 0 | 5 67.3 55. |
The PROBING data structure uses linear probing hash tables and is designed for speed. | 0 | Then we ran binary search to determine the least amount of memory with which it would run. |
It also incorporates the Good-Turing methodin estimating the likelihoods of previously unseen constructions, including morphological derivatives and personal names. | 0 | We have not to date explored these various options. |
We chose one of four labels for each example: location, person, organization, or noise where the noise category was used for items that were outside the three categories. | 0 | At first glance, the problem seems quite complex: a large number of rules is needed to cover the domain, suggesting that a large number of labeled examples is required to train an accurate classifier. |
The manual evaluation of scoring translation on a graded scale from 1–5 seemed to be very hard to perform. | 0 | In-domain Systran scores on this metric are lower than all statistical systems, even the ones that have much worse human scores. |
Nevertheless, only a part of this corpus (10 texts), which the authors name "core corpus", is annotated with all this information. | 0 | âested in correlations between prosody and dis course structure. |
Bean and Riloff also used bootstrapping to extend their semantic compatibility model, proposed using caseframe network for anaphora resolution, information extraction patterns to identify contextual clues for determining compatibility between NPs. | 0 | The belief value that would have been assigned to the intersection of these sets is .60*.70=.42, but this belief has nowhere to go because the null set is not permissible in the model.7 So this probability mass (.42) has to be redistributed. |
They showed that it was useful to abstract away from the details of the formalism, and examine the nature of their derivation process as reflected by properties their trees, find that several of the formalisms considered can be seen as being closely related since they have derivation tree sets with the same structure as those produced by Context-Free Grammars. | 0 | In this section for the purposes of showing that polynomial time recognition is possible, we make the additional restriction that the contribution of a derived structure to the input string can be specified by a bounded sequence of substrings of the input. |
This paper discusses the Potsdam Commentary Corpus, a corpus of german assembeled by potsdam university. | 0 | Then, moving from connective to connective, ConAno sometimes offers suggestions for its scope (using heuristics like âfor sub- junctor, mark all words up to the next comma as the first segmentâ), which the annotator can accept with a mouseclick or overwrite, marking instead the correct scope with the mouse. |
Bean and Riloff also used bootstrapping to extend their semantic compatibility model, proposed using caseframe network for anaphora resolution, information extraction patterns to identify contextual clues for determining compatibility between NPs. | 0 | We suspect that the higher precision in the disasters domain may be due to its substantially larger training corpus. |
Combining multiple highly-accurate independent parsers yields promising results. | 0 | Three state-of-the-art statistical parsers are combined to produce more accurate parses, as well as new bounds on achievable Treebank parsing accuracy. |
An extended lexicon model is defined, and its likelihood is compared to a baseline lexicon model, which takes only single-word dependencies into account. | 0 | kann 7.nicht 8. |
In this paper, the authors proposed an approach for instance-weighting phrase pairs in an out-of-domain corpus in order to improve in-domain performance. | 0 | Dropping the conditioning on 0 for brevity, and letting ¯cλ(s, t) = cλ(s, t) + yu(s|t), and ¯cλ(t) = 4Note that the probabilities in (7) need only be evaluated over the support of ˜p(s, t), which is quite small when this distribution is derived from a dev set. |
Evaluation was done automatically using the BLEU score and manually on fluency and adequacy. | 0 | Surprisingly, this effect is much less obvious for out-of-domain test data. |
In this paper, the authors are of the opinion that the sequence models-based approaches usually treat token-level tag assignment as the primary latent variable. | 0 | Our work is closely related to recent approaches that incorporate the sparsity constraint into the POS induction process. |
They incorporated instance-weighting into a mixture-model framework, and found that it yielded consistent improvements over a wide range of baselines. | 0 | For simplicity, we assume that OUT is homogeneous. |
The authors cluster NE instance pairs based on the words in the context using bag-of-words methods. | 0 | Find keywords for each NE pair The keywords are found for each NE category pair. |
It outperformed strong unsupervised baselines as well as approaches that relied on direct projections, and bridged the gap between purely supervised and unsupervised POS tagging models. | 0 | Because we are interested in applying our techniques to languages for which no labeled resources are available, we paid particular attention to minimize the number of free parameters and used the same hyperparameters for all language pairs. |
Their results suggested that it was possible to learn accurate POS taggers for languages which did not have any annotated data, but have translations into a resource-rich language. | 0 | The parallel data came from the Europarl corpus (Koehn, 2005) and the ODS United Nations dataset (UN, 2006). |
The approach assumes that the word reordering is restricted to a few positions in the source sentence. | 0 | Input: Ja , wunderbar . Konnen wir machen . MonS: Yes, wonderful. |
Finally, several coreference systems have successfully incorporated anaphoricity determination modules. | 0 | The anaphor and antecedent appear in boldface. |
However, using the top-level semantic classes of WordNet proved to be problematic as the class distinctions are too coarse. | 0 | In contrast, even though context can be helpful for resolving definite NPs, context can be trumped by the semantics of the nouns themselves. |
Vijay-Shankar et all considered the structural descriptions produced by various grammatical formalisms in terms of the complexity of the paths and the relationship between paths in the sets of structural descriptions that each system can generate. | 0 | He also argues that paired English complementizers may also require structural descriptions whose path sets have nested dependencies. |
The texts were annotated with the RSTtool. | 0 | Text generation, or at least the two phases of text planning and sentence planning, is a process driven partly by well-motivated choices (e.g., use this lexeme X rather than that more colloquial near-synonym Y ) and partly by con tation like that of PCC can be exploited to look for correlations in particular between syntactic structure, choice of referring expressions, and sentence-internal information structure. |
The authors in this paper describe a search procedure for statistical machine translation (MT) based on dynamic programming (DP). | 0 | Covering the first uncovered position in the source sentence, we use the language model probability p(ej$; $). |
There are clustering approaches that assign a single POS tag to each word type. | 0 | Even without features, but still using the tag prior, our median result is 52.0%, still significantly outperforming Grac¸a et al. |
The second algorithm builds on a boosting algorithm called AdaBoost. | 0 | ). context=x The context for the entity. |
Bean and Riloff also used bootstrapping to extend their semantic compatibility model, proposed using caseframe network for anaphora resolution, information extraction patterns to identify contextual clues for determining compatibility between NPs. | 0 | (Kehler, 1997) also used a DempsterShafer model to merge evidence from different sources for template-level coreference. |
Explanations for this phenomenon are relative informativeness of lexicalization, insensitivity to morphology and the effect of variable word order and these factors lead to syntactic disambiguation. | 0 | We also add an annotation for one-level iDafa (oneLevelIdafa) constructs since they make up more than 75% of the iDafa NPs in the ATB (Gabbard and Kulick, 2008). |
It is annotated with several data: morphology, syntax, rhetorical structure, connectors, correference and informative structure. | 0 | Then, moving from connective to connective, ConAno sometimes offers suggestions for its scope (using heuristics like âfor sub- junctor, mark all words up to the next comma as the first segmentâ), which the annotator can accept with a mouseclick or overwrite, marking instead the correct scope with the mouse. |
The TRIE model uses less memory than the smallest lossless alternative and is still faster than SRILM. | 0 | Most similar is scrolling queries, wherein left-to-right queries that add one word at a time are optimized. |
In this paper the authors present a stochastic finite-state model for segmenting Chinese text into words. | 0 | An examination of the subjects' bracketings confirmed that these instructions were satisfactory in yielding plausible word-sized units. |
Nevertheless, only a part of this corpus (10 texts), which the authors name "core corpus", is annotated with all this information. | 0 | The commentaries in PCC are all of roughly the same length, ranging from 8 to 10 sentences. |
In this paper the authors present a stochastic finite-state model for segmenting Chinese text into words. | 0 | Some approaches depend upon some form of con straint satisfaction based on syntactic or semantic features (e.g., Yeh and Lee [1991], which uses a unification-based approach). |
Replacing this with a ranked evaluation seems to be more suitable. | 0 | In-domain Systran scores on this metric are lower than all statistical systems, even the ones that have much worse human scores. |
The code is open source, has minimal dependencies, and offers both C++ and Java interfaces for integration. | 0 | Moses keeps language models and many other resources in static variables, so these are still resident in memory. |
The departure from the traditional token-based tagging approach allow them to explicitly capture type-level distributional properties of valid POS tag assignments as part of the model. | 0 | 5 68.1 34. |
Bean and Riloff also used bootstrapping to extend their semantic compatibility model, proposed using caseframe network for anaphora resolution, information extraction patterns to identify contextual clues for determining compatibility between NPs. | 0 | During coreference resolution, the caseframe network provides evidence that an anaphor and prior noun phrase might be coreferent. |
Vijay-Shankar et all considered the structural descriptions produced by various grammatical formalisms in terms of the complexity of the paths and the relationship between paths in the sets of structural descriptions that each system can generate. | 0 | The tree t2 must be on one of the two branches. |
The authors cluster NE instance pairs based on the words in the context using bag-of-words methods. | 0 | Step 2. |
This paper discusses the Potsdam Commentary Corpus, a corpus of german assembeled by potsdam university. | 0 | The state in future has not enough work for its many teachers. |
the "Potsdam Commentary Corpus" or PCC consists of 170 commentaries from Ma¨rkische Allgemeine Zeitung, a German regional daily. | 0 | 2.4 Underspecified rhetorical structure. |
The overall parsing accuracy obtained with the pseudo-projective approach is still lower than for the best projective parsers. | 0 | However, the overall percentage of non-projective arcs is less than 2% in PDT and less than 1% in DDT. |
It outperformed strong unsupervised baselines as well as approaches that relied on direct projections, and bridged the gap between purely supervised and unsupervised POS tagging models. | 0 | This vector tx is constructed for every word in the foreign vocabulary and will be used to provide features for the unsupervised foreign language POS tagger. |
This paper talks about Pseudo-Projective Dependency Parsing. | 0 | However, the accuracy is considerably higher than previously reported results for robust non-projective parsing of Czech, with a best performance of 73% UAS (Holan, 2004). |
Evaluation was done automatically using the BLEU score and manually on fluency and adequacy. | 0 | Annotators argued for the importance of having correct and even multiple references. |
This paper offers a broad insight into of Arabic constituency parsing by analyzing the interplay of linguistic phenomena, annotation choices, and model design. | 0 | The Berkeley parser gives state-of-the-art performance for all metrics. |
Evaluation was done automatically using the BLEU score and manually on fluency and adequacy. | 0 | A few annotators suggested to break up long sentences into clauses and evaluate these separately. |
The AdaBoost algorithm was developed for supervised learning. | 0 | We excluded these from the evaluation as they can be easily identified with a list of days/months. |
The authors use linguistic and annotation insights to develop a manually annotated grammar and evaluate it and finally provide a realistic evaluation in which segmentation is performed in a pipeline jointly with parsing. | 0 | The Bikel GoldPOS configuration only supplies the gold POS tags; it does not force the parser to use them. |
On the basis of that observation, they described a class of formalisms which they called Linear Context- Free Rewriting Systems (LCFRs), and showed they were recognizable in polynomial time and generated only semilinear languages. | 0 | He also argues that paired English complementizers may also require structural descriptions whose path sets have nested dependencies. |
They have made use of local and global features to deal with the instances of same token in a document. | 0 | If they are found in a list, then a feature for that list will be set to 1. |
they showed that the average agreement among the human judges is .76, and the average agreement between ST(system) and the humans is .75, or about 99% of the interhuman agreement. | 0 | ni2ya3 and @5:2 xilya3, respectively. |
Here we present two algorithms. | 0 | In many cases, inspection of either the spelling or context alone is sufficient to classify an example. |
This paper presents a maximum entropy-based named entity recognizer (NER). | 0 | Since MUC6, BBN' s Hidden Markov Model (HMM) based IdentiFinder (Bikel et al., 1997) has achieved remarkably good performance. |
BABAR's performance in both domains of terrorism and natural disaster, and the contextual-role knowledge in pronouns have shown successful results. | 0 | 3.1 General Knowledge Sources. |
they evaluate various specific aspects of the segmentation, as well as the overall segmentation performance. | 0 | Other good classes include JADE and GOLD; other bad classes are DEATH and RAT. |
An extended lexicon model is defined, and its likelihood is compared to a baseline lexicon model, which takes only single-word dependencies into account. | 0 | The translation scores for the hypotheses generated with different threshold values t0 are compared to the translation scores obtained with a conservatively large threshold t0 = 10:0 . For each test series, we count the number of sentences whose score is worse than the corresponding score of the test series with the conservatively large threshold t0 = 10:0, and this number is reported as the number of search errors. |
From a DP-based solution to the traveling salesman problem, they present a novel technique to restrict the possible word reordering between source and target language in order to achieve an eÃcient search algorithm. | 0 | Decreasing the threshold results in higher mWER due to additional search errors. |
In this paper the authors present a stochastic finite-state model for segmenting Chinese text into words. | 0 | Furthermore, by inverting the transducer so that it maps from phonemic transcriptions to hanzi sequences, one can apply the segmenter to other problems, such as speech recognition (Pereira, Riley, and Sproat 1994). |
Each out-of-domain phrase pair was characterized by a set of simple features intended to reflect how useful it would be. | 0 | A final alternate approach would be to combine weighted joint frequencies rather than conditional estimates, ie: cI(s, t) + w,\(s, t)co(, s, t), suitably normalized.5 Such an approach could be simulated by a MAP-style combination in which separate 0(t) values were maintained for each t. This would make the model more powerful, but at the cost of having to learn to downweight OUT separately for each t, which we suspect would require more training data for reliable performance. |
The overall performance of their joint framework demonstrated that a probability distribution obtained over mere syntactic contexts using a Treebank grammar and a data-driven lexicon outperformed upper bounds proposed by previous joint disambiguation systems and achieved segmentation and parsing results on a par with state-of-the-art standalone applications results. | 0 | Tsarfaty (2006) used a morphological analyzer (Segal, 2000), a PoS tagger (Bar-Haim et al., 2005), and a general purpose parser (Schmid, 2000) in an integrated framework in which morphological and syntactic components interact to share information, leading to improved performance on the joint task. |
Their method did not assume any knowledge about the target language, making it applicable to a wide array of resource-poor languages. | 0 | To define a similarity function between the English and the foreign vertices, we rely on high-confidence word alignments. |
Most IE researchers have been creating paraphrase knowledge by hand and specific tasks. | 0 | In figure 4, reverse relations are indicated by `*â next to the frequency. |
The contextual rules are restricted and may not be applicable to every example, but the spelling rules are generally applicable and should have good coverage. | 0 | At first glance, the problem seems quite complex: a large number of rules is needed to cover the domain, suggesting that a large number of labeled examples is required to train an accurate classifier. |
There are clustering approaches that assign a single POS tag to each word type. | 0 | For other languages, we use the CoNLL-X multilingual dependency parsing shared task corpora (Buchholz and Marsi, 2006) which include gold POS tags (used for evaluation). |
The main result is that the combined system can recover non-projective dependencies with a precision sufficient to give a significant improvement in overall parsing accuracy, especially with respect to the exact match criterion, leading to the best reported performance for robust non-projective parsing of Czech. | 0 | The Danish Dependency Treebank (DDT) comprises about 100K words of text selected from the Danish PAROLE corpus, with annotation of primary and secondary dependencies (Kromann, 2003). |
Evaluation was done automatically using the BLEU score and manually on fluency and adequacy. | 0 | For instance: if 10 systems participate, and one system does better than 3 others, worse then 2, and is not significant different from the remaining 4, its rank is in the interval 3–7. |
The authors use linguistic and annotation insights to develop a manually annotated grammar and evaluate it and finally provide a realistic evaluation in which segmentation is performed in a pipeline jointly with parsing. | 0 | Tokens tagged as PUNC are not discarded unless they consist entirely of punctuation. |
This paper discusses the Potsdam Commentary Corpus, a corpus of german assembeled by potsdam university. | 0 | One conclusion drawn from this annotation effort was that for humans and machines alike, 2 www.sfs.nphil.unituebingen.de/Elwis/stts/ stts.html 3 www.coli.unisb.de/sfb378/negra-corpus/annotate. |
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