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Due to many similarly performing systems, the author was not able to draw strong conclusions on the question of correlation of manual and automatic evaluation metrics. | 0 | We aligned the texts at a sentence level across all four languages, resulting in 1064 sentence per language. |
Throughout this paper we compare with several packages: SRILM 1.5.12 (Stolcke, 2002) is a popular toolkit based on tries used in several decoders. | 0 | Though we do not directly compare state implementations, performance metrics in Table 1 indicate our overall method is faster. |
The first method builds on results from (Yarowsky 95) and (Blum and Mitchell 98). | 0 | We excluded these from the evaluation as they can be easily identified with a list of days/months. |
Their empirical results demonstrate that the type-based tagger rivals state-of-the-art tag-level taggers which employ more sophisticated learning mechanisms to exploit similar constraints. | 0 | P St = n. β T VARIABLES Ï Y W : Word types (W1 ,. |
However, using the top-level semantic classes of WordNet proved to be problematic as the class distinctions are too coarse. | 0 | The focus of our work is on the use of contextual role knowledge for coreference resolution. |
The authors use linguistic and annotation insights to develop a manually annotated grammar and evaluate it and finally provide a realistic evaluation in which segmentation is performed in a pipeline jointly with parsing. | 0 | segmentation (Table 2). |
Bean and Riloff also used bootstrapping to extend their semantic compatibility model, proposed using caseframe network for anaphora resolution, information extraction patterns to identify contextual clues for determining compatibility between NPs. | 0 | An important aspect of the DempsterShafer model is that it operates on sets of hypotheses. |
The authors use linguistic and annotation insights to develop a manually annotated grammar and evaluate it and finally provide a realistic evaluation in which segmentation is performed in a pipeline jointly with parsing. | 0 | In Figure 4 we show an example of variation between the parsing models. |
This paper discusses the Potsdam Commentary Corpus, a corpus of german assembeled by potsdam university. | 0 | Instead, the designs of the various annotation layers and the actual annotation work are results of a series of diploma theses, of studentsâ work in course projects, and to some extent of paid assistentships. |
This architecture provides a uniform framework in which it is easy to incorporate not only listed dictionary entries but also morphological derivatives, and models for personal names and foreign names in transliteration. | 0 | Note that Chang, Chen, and Chen (1991), in addition to word-frequency information, include a constraint-satisfication model, so their method is really a hybrid approach. |
The main result is that the combined system can recover non-projective dependencies with a precision sufficient to give a significant improvement in overall parsing accuracy, especially with respect to the exact match criterion, leading to the best reported performance for robust non-projective parsing of Czech. | 0 | As shown in Table 3, the proportion of sentences containing some non-projective dependency ranges from about 15% in DDT to almost 25% in PDT. |
The departure from the traditional token-based tagging approach allow them to explicitly capture type-level distributional properties of valid POS tag assignments as part of the model. | 0 | 36. |
A large number of rules are needed for coverage of the domain, suggesting that a fairly large number of labeled examples should be required to train a classifier. | 0 | Yarowsky-cautious does not separate the spelling and contextual features, but does have a limit on the number of rules added at each stage. |
Their results suggested that it was possible to learn accurate POS taggers for languages which did not have any annotated data, but have translations into a resource-rich language. | 0 | More recently, Subramanya et al. (2010) defined a graph over the cliques in an underlying structured prediction model. |
The problem of coreference resolution has received considerable attention, including theoretical discourse models and supervised machine learning systems. | 0 | For example, even if the contexts surrounding an anaphor and candidate match exactly, they are not coreferent if they have substantially different meanings 9 We would be happy to make our manually annotated test data available to others who also want to evaluate their coreference resolver on the MUC4 or Reuters collections. |
In this paper the authors present a stochastic finite-state model for segmenting Chinese text into words. | 0 | We evaluate the system's performance by comparing its segmentation 'Tudgments" with the judgments of a pool of human segmenters, and the system is shown to perform quite well. |
The model incorporates various recent techniques for incorporating and manipulating linguistic knowledge using finite-state transducers. | 0 | na me =>1 ha nzi fa mi ly 2 ha nzi gi ve n 3. |
We chose one of four labels for each example: location, person, organization, or noise where the noise category was used for items that were outside the three categories. | 0 | Given parameter estimates, the label for a test example x is defined as We should note that the model in equation 9 is deficient, in that it assigns greater than zero probability to some feature combinations that are impossible. |
The code is open source, has minimal dependencies, and offers both C++ and Java interfaces for integration. | 0 | As noted in Section 4.4, disk cache state is controlled by reading the entire binary file before each test begins. |
Das and Petrov, in this paper, approached inducing unsupervised part-of-speech taggers for languages that had no labeled training data, but had translated text in a resource-rich language. | 0 | This can be seen as a rough approximation of Yarowsky and Ngai (2001). |
The resulting model is compact, efficiently learnable and linguistically expressive. | 0 | 5 68.1 34. |
Evaluation was done automatically using the BLEU score and manually on fluency and adequacy. | 0 | While many systems had similar performance, the results offer interesting insights, especially about the relative performance of statistical and rule-based systems. |
This paper presents methods to query N-gram language models, minimizing time and space costs. | 0 | Only IRSTLM does not support threading. |
In this paper, the authors are of the opinion that the sequence models-based approaches usually treat token-level tag assignment as the primary latent variable. | 0 | 5 60.6 Table 3: Multilingual Results: We report token-level one-to-one and many-to-one accuracy on a variety of languages under several experimental settings (Section 5). |
All the texts were annotated by two people. | 0 | After the first step towards breadth had been taken with the PoS-tagging, RST annotation, and URML conversion of the entire corpus of 170 texts12 , emphasis shifted towards depth. |
In order to handle the necessary word reordering as an optimization problem within the dynamic programming approach, they describe a solution to the traveling salesman problem (TSP) which is based on dynamic programming. | 0 | We can do that . Input: Das ist zu knapp , weil ich ab dem dritten in Kaiserslautern bin . Genaugenommen nur am dritten . Wie ware es denn am ahm Samstag , dem zehnten Februar ? MonS: That is too tight , because I from the third in Kaiserslautern . In fact only on the third . How about ahm Saturday , the tenth of February ? QmS: That is too tight , because I am from the third in Kaiserslautern . In fact only on the third . Ahm how about Saturday , February the tenth ? IbmS: That is too tight , from the third because I will be in Kaiserslautern . In fact only on the third . Ahm how about Saturday , February the tenth ? Input: Wenn Sie dann noch den siebzehnten konnten , ware das toll , ja . MonS: If you then also the seventeenth could , would be the great , yes . QmS: If you could then also the seventeenth , that would be great , yes . IbmS: Then if you could even take seventeenth , that would be great , yes . Input: Ja , das kommt mir sehr gelegen . Machen wir es dann am besten so . MonS: Yes , that suits me perfectly . Do we should best like that . QmS: Yes , that suits me fine . We do it like that then best . IbmS: Yes , that suits me fine . We should best do it like that . |
The code is open source, has minimal dependencies, and offers both C++ and Java interfaces for integration. | 0 | Our TRIE implements the popular reverse trie, in which the last word of an n-gram is looked up first, as do SRILM, IRSTLM’s inverted variant, and BerkeleyLM except for the scrolling variant. |
This paper offers a broad insight into of Arabic constituency parsing by analyzing the interplay of linguistic phenomena, annotation choices, and model design. | 0 | This annotation choice weakens splitIN. |
BABAR's performance in both domains of terrorism and natural disaster, and the contextual-role knowledge in pronouns have shown successful results. | 0 | Given a document to process, BABAR uses four modules to perform coreference resolution. |
In this paper, Ben and Riloff present a coreference resolver called BABAR that focuses on the use of contextual-role knowledge for coreference resolution. | 0 | The learned information was recycled back into the resolver to improve its performance. |
The authors believe automatic paraphrase discovery is an important component for building a fully automatic information extraction system. | 0 | Other errors include NE tagging errors and errors due to a phrase which includes other NEs. |
Using less training data than other systems, their NER can perform as well as other state-of-the-art NERs. | 0 | Otherwise, it is set to 0. |
Bean and Riloff also used bootstrapping to extend their semantic compatibility model, proposed using caseframe network for anaphora resolution, information extraction patterns to identify contextual clues for determining compatibility between NPs. | 0 | In the terrorism domain, 1600 texts were used for training and the 40 test docu X â©Y =â
All sets of hypotheses (and their corresponding belief values) in the current model are crossed with the sets of hypotheses (and belief values) provided by the new evidence. |
The authors cluster NE instance pairs based on the words in the context using bag-of-words methods. | 0 | In order to create an IE system for a new domain, one has to spend a long time to create the knowledge. |
Other kinds of productive word classes, such as company names, abbreviations,and place names can easily be handled given appropriate models. | 0 | This flexibility, along with the simplicity of implementation and expansion, makes this framework an attractive base for continued research. |
They employed a PCFG-based generative framework to make both syntactic and morphological disambiguation decisions which were not only theoretically clean and linguistically justified but also probabilistically appropriate and empirically sound. | 0 | The first 3770 trees of the resulting set then were used for training, and the last 418 are used testing. |
In order to create good-sized vectors for similarity calculation, they had to set a high frequency threshold. | 0 | In this paper, we will propose an unsupervised method to discover paraphrases from a large untagged corpus. |
An extended lexicon model is defined, and its likelihood is compared to a baseline lexicon model, which takes only single-word dependencies into account. | 0 | The search starts in the hypothesis (I; f;g; 0). |
The overall performance of their joint framework demonstrated that a probability distribution obtained over mere syntactic contexts using a Treebank grammar and a data-driven lexicon outperformed upper bounds proposed by previous joint disambiguation systems and achieved segmentation and parsing results on a par with state-of-the-art standalone applications results. | 0 | These words are in turn highly ambiguous, breaking the assumption underlying most parsers that the yield of a tree for a given sentence is known in advance. |
While many systems had similar performance, the results offered interesting insights, especially, about the relative performance of statistical and rule-based systems. | 0 | Given the limited number of judgements we received, we did not try to evaluate this. |
Using a treebank grammar, the data-driven lexicon, and a linguistically motivated unknown-tokens handling technique their model outperformed previous pipelined, integrated or factorized systems for Hebrew morphological and syntactic processing, yielding an error reduction of 12% over the best published results so far. | 0 | Oracle results). |
In this paper the authors present a stochastic finite-state model for segmenting Chinese text into words. | 0 | Of course, we. |
They extended previous work on discriminative weighting by using a finer granularity, focusing on the properties of instances rather than corpus components, and used simpler training procedure. | 0 | Somewhat surprisingly, there do not appear to be large systematic differences between linear and MAP combinations. |
They proposed a single joint model for performing both morphological segmentation and syntactic disambiguation which bypasses the associated circularity. | 0 | On the surface, our model may seem as a special case of Cohen and Smith in which α = 0. |
The approach assumes that the word reordering is restricted to a few positions in the source sentence. | 0 | 3.2 Reordering with IBM Style. |
An extended lexicon model is defined, and its likelihood is compared to a baseline lexicon model, which takes only single-word dependencies into account. | 0 | However there is no global pruning. |
The authors use linguistic and annotation insights to develop a manually annotated grammar and evaluate it and finally provide a realistic evaluation in which segmentation is performed in a pipeline jointly with parsing. | 0 | None of the models attach the attributive adjectives correctly. |
The departure from the traditional token-based tagging approach allow them to explicitly capture type-level distributional properties of valid POS tag assignments as part of the model. | 0 | The terms on the right-hand-side denote the type-level and token-level probability terms respectively. |
It also incorporates the Good-Turing methodin estimating the likelihoods of previously unseen constructions, including morphological derivatives and personal names. | 0 | We thank United Informatics for providing us with our corpus of Chinese text, and BDC for the 'Behavior ChineseEnglish Electronic Dictionary.' |
The second algorithm builds on a boosting algorithm called AdaBoost. | 0 | (Blum and Mitchell 98) describe learning in the following situation: X = X1 X X2 where X1 and X2 correspond to two different "views" of an example. |
This paper conducted research in the area of automatic paraphrase discovery. | 0 | If a phrase does not contain any keywords, the phrase is discarded. |
This paper offers a broad insight into of Arabic constituency parsing by analyzing the interplay of linguistic phenomena, annotation choices, and model design. | 0 | Coverage indicates the fraction of hypotheses in which the character yield exactly matched the reference. |
Their method did not assume any knowledge about the target language, making it applicable to a wide array of resource-poor languages. | 0 | We tried two versions of our graph-based approach: feature after the first stage of label propagation (Eq. |
Explanations for this phenomenon are relative informativeness of lexicalization, insensitivity to morphology and the effect of variable word order and these factors lead to syntactic disambiguation. | 0 | We have described grammar state splits that significantly improve parsing performance, catalogued parsing errors, and quantified the effect of segmentation errors. |
They showed that it was useful to abstract away from the details of the formalism, and examine the nature of their derivation process as reflected by properties their trees, find that several of the formalisms considered can be seen as being closely related since they have derivation tree sets with the same structure as those produced by Context-Free Grammars. | 0 | Each spawned process must check if xi , , xn, and , yn, can be derived from B and C, respectively. |
Here both parametric and non-parametric models are explored. | 0 | This is the parse that is closest to the centroid of the observed parses under the similarity metric. |
The resulting model is compact, efficiently learnable and linguistically expressive. | 0 | We can only compare with Grac¸a et al. |
The authors believe automatic paraphrase discovery is an important component for building a fully automatic information extraction system. | 0 | We are not claiming that this method is almighty. |
The authors believe automatic paraphrase discovery is an important component for building a fully automatic information extraction system. | 0 | One of the difficulties in Natural Language Processing is the fact that there are many ways to express the same thing or event. |
One can trivially create situations in which strictly binary-branching trees are combined to create a tree with only the root node and the terminal nodes, a completely flat structure. | 0 | The set of candidate constituents comes from the union of all the constituents suggested by the member parsers. |
Human judges also pointed out difficulties with the evaluation of long sentences. | 0 | At the very least, we are creating a data resource (the manual annotations) that may the basis of future research in evaluation metrics. |
The model incorporates various recent techniques for incorporating and manipulating linguistic knowledge using finite-state transducers. | 0 | (a) 1 § . ;m t 7 leO z h e 4 pil m a 3 lu 4 sh an g4 bi ng 4 t h i s CL (assi fier) horse w ay on sic k A SP (ec t) 'This horse got sick on the way' (b) 1§: . til y zhe4 tiao2 ma3lu4 hen3 shao3 this CL road very few 'Very few cars pass by this road' :$ chel jinglguo4 car pass by 2. |
The code is open source, has minimal dependencies, and offers both C++ and Java interfaces for integration. | 0 | The hash variant is a reverse trie with hash tables, a more memory-efficient version of SRILM’s default. |
This paper talks about Pseudo-Projective Dependency Parsing. | 0 | In the second scheme, Head+Path, we in addition modify the label of every arc along the lifting path from the syntactic to the linear head so that if the original label is p the new label is p↓. |
Their method did not assume any knowledge about the target language, making it applicable to a wide array of resource-poor languages. | 0 | Unsupervised Part-of-Speech Tagging with Bilingual Graph-Based Projections |
These clusters are computed using an SVD variant without relying on transitional structure. | 0 | Our model outperforms theirs on four out of five languages on the best hyperparameter setting and three out of five on the median setting, yielding an average absolute difference across languages of 12.9% and 3.9% for best and median settings respectively compared to their best EM or LBFGS performance. |
It also incorporates the Good-Turing methodin estimating the likelihoods of previously unseen constructions, including morphological derivatives and personal names. | 0 | na me =>2 ha nzi fa mi ly 2 ha nzi gi ve n 5. |
They focused on phrases which two Named Entities, and proceed in two stages. | 0 | Overview of the method 2.2 Step by Step Algorithm. |
Nevertheless, only a part of this corpus (10 texts), which the authors name "core corpus", is annotated with all this information. | 0 | The web-based Annis imports data in a variety of XML formats and tagsets and displays it in a tier-orientedway (optionally, trees can be drawn more ele gantly in a separate window). |
They believe that global context is useful in most languages, as it is a natural tendency for authors to use abbreviations on entities already mentioned previously. | 0 | In this section, we try to compare our results with those obtained by IdentiFinder ' 97 (Bikel et al., 1997), IdentiFinder ' 99 (Bikel et al., 1999), and MENE (Borthwick, 1999). |
The AdaBoost algorithm was developed for supervised learning. | 0 | Now assume we have n pairs (xi,, x2,i) drawn from X1 X X2, where the first m pairs have labels whereas for i = m+ 1...n the pairs are unlabeled. |
The overall performance of their joint framework demonstrated that a probability distribution obtained over mere syntactic contexts using a Treebank grammar and a data-driven lexicon outperformed upper bounds proposed by previous joint disambiguation systems and achieved segmentation and parsing results on a par with state-of-the-art standalone applications results. | 0 | There is no relation between these two interpretations other then the fact that their surface forms coincide, and we argue that the only reason to prefer one analysis over the other is compositional. |
Other kinds of productive word classes, such as company names, abbreviations,and place names can easily be handled given appropriate models. | 0 | Whether a language even has orthographic words is largely dependent on the writing system used to represent the language (rather than the language itself); the notion "orthographic word" is not universal. |
This topic has been getting more attention, driven by the needs of various NLP applications. | 0 | This limitation is the obstacle to making the technology âopen domainâ. |
They employed a PCFG-based generative framework to make both syntactic and morphological disambiguation decisions which were not only theoretically clean and linguistically justified but also probabilistically appropriate and empirically sound. | 0 | An interesting observation is that while vertical markovization benefits all our models, its effect is less evident in Cohen and Smith. |
Vijay-Shankar et all considered the structural descriptions produced by various grammatical formalisms in terms of the complexity of the paths and the relationship between paths in the sets of structural descriptions that each system can generate. | 0 | Trees derived by IG's exhibit a property that is not exhibited by the trees sets derived by TAG's or CFG's. |
The three parsers were trained and tuned by their creators on various sections of the WSJ portion of the Penn Treebank. | 0 | The development set contained 44088 constituents in 2416 sentences and the test set contained 30691 constituents in 1699 sentences. |
Their work is closely related to recent approaches that incorporate the sparsity constraint into the POS induction process. | 0 | These methods demonstrated the benefits of incorporating linguistic features using a log-linear parameterization, but requires elaborate machinery for training. |
Explanations for this phenomenon are relative informativeness of lexicalization, insensitivity to morphology and the effect of variable word order and these factors lead to syntactic disambiguation. | 0 | It was developed in response to the non-terminal/terminal bias of Evalb, but Clegg and Shepherd (2005) showed that it is also a valuable diagnostic tool for trees with complex deep structures such as those found in the ATB. |
They proposed an unsupervised method to discover paraphrases from a large untagged corpus. | 0 | This approach needs a phrase as an initial seed and thus the possible relationships to be extracted are naturally limited. |
The authors cluster NE instance pairs based on the words in the context using bag-of-words methods. | 0 | It is natural that the larger the data in the domain, the more keywords are found. |
The evaluation compares the performance of the system with that of several human judges and inter-human agreement on a single correct way to segment a text. | 0 | In such cases we assign all of the estimated probability mass to the form with the most likely pronunciation (determined by inspection), and assign a very small probability (a very high cost, arbitrarily chosen to be 40) to all other variants. |
The evaluation compares the performance of the system with that of several human judges and inter-human agreement on a single correct way to segment a text. | 0 | On the other hand, in a translation system one probably wants to treat this string as a single dictionary word since it has a conventional and somewhat unpredictable translation into English. |
The first method builds on results from (Yarowsky 95) and (Blum and Mitchell 98). | 0 | At first glance, the problem seems quite complex: a large number of rules is needed to cover the domain, suggesting that a large number of labeled examples is required to train an accurate classifier. |
The authors in this paper describe a search procedure for statistical machine translation (MT) based on dynamic programming (DP). | 0 | Using the concept of inverted alignments, we explicitly take care of the coverage constraint by introducing a coverage set C of source sentence positions that have been already processed. |
They proposed a single joint model for performing both morphological segmentation and syntactic disambiguation which bypasses the associated circularity. | 0 | At this stage the lattice path corresponds to segments only, with no PoS assigned to them. |
The code is open source, has minimal dependencies, and offers both C++ and Java interfaces for integration. | 0 | This task measures how well each package performs in machine translation. |
Through parser combination we have reduced the precision error rate by 30% and the recall error rate by 6% compared to the best previously published result. | 0 | The first shows how constituent features and context do not help in deciding which parser to trust. |
The TRIE model uses less memory than the smallest lossless alternative and is still faster than SRILM. | 0 | As noted for the perplexity task, we do not expect cache to grow substantially with model size, so RandLM remains a low-memory option. |
However, using the top-level semantic classes of WordNet proved to be problematic as the class distinctions are too coarse. | 0 | One knowledge source, called WordSemCFSem, is analogous to CFLex: it checks whether the anaphor and candidate antecedent are substitutable for one another, but based on their semantic classes instead of the words themselves. |
The manual evaluation of scoring translation on a graded scale from 1â5 seems to be very hard to perform. | 0 | The statistical systems seem to still lag behind the commercial rule-based competition when translating into morphological rich languages, as demonstrated by the results for English-German and English-French. |
Bean and Riloff also used bootstrapping to extend their semantic compatibility model, proposed using caseframe network for anaphora resolution, information extraction patterns to identify contextual clues for determining compatibility between NPs. | 0 | 8 Volume 1, English language, 19961997, Format version 1, correction level 0 An ap ho r T e r r o r i s m R e c Pr F D i s a s t e r s R e c Pr F De f. NP s Pro no uns .43 .79 .55 .50 .72 .59 .42 .91 .58 .42 .82 .56 Tot al .46 .76 .57 .42 .87 .57 Table 2: General Knowledge Sources Table 4: Individual Performance of KSs for Terrorism Table 3: General + Contextual Role Knowledge Sources larger MUC4 and Reuters corpora.9 4.2 Experiments. |
In this paper the author evaluates machine translation performance for six European language pairs that participated in a shared task: translating French, German, Spanish texts to English and back. | 0 | On the other hand, when all systems produce muddled output, but one is better, and one is worse, but not completely wrong, a judge is inclined to hand out judgements of 4, 3, and 2. |
This paper conducted research in the area of automatic paraphrase discovery. | 0 | This result suggests the benefit of using the automatic discovery method. |
These clusters are computed using an SVD variant without relying on transitional structure. | 0 | A novel element of our model is the ability to capture type-level tag frequencies. |
The overall performance of their joint framework demonstrated that a probability distribution obtained over mere syntactic contexts using a Treebank grammar and a data-driven lexicon outperformed upper bounds proposed by previous joint disambiguation systems and achieved segmentation and parsing results on a par with state-of-the-art standalone applications results. | 0 | Every token is independent of the others, and the sentence lattice is in fact a concatenation of smaller lattices, one for each token. |
The problem of coreference resolution has received considerable attention, including theoretical discourse models and supervised machine learning systems. | 0 | The SynRole KS computes the relative frequency with which the candidatesâ syntactic role (subject, direct object, PP object) appeared in resolutions in the training set. |
We chose one of four labels for each example: location, person, organization, or noise where the noise category was used for items that were outside the three categories. | 0 | The following algorithm was then used to induce new rules: Let Count' (x) be the number of times feature x is seen with some known label in the training data. |
The model incorporates various recent techniques for incorporating and manipulating linguistic knowledge using finite-state transducers. | 0 | Our system does not currently make use of titles, but it would be straightforward to do so within the finite-state framework that we propose. |
It is well-known that English constituency parsing models do not generalize to other languages and treebanks. | 0 | 68 95. |
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