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which enzyme seals okazaki fragments on the lagging strand | that at which DNA polymerase synthesizes DNA on the leading strand. DNA polymerase on the lagging strand also has to be continually recycled to construct Okazaki fragments following RNA primers. This makes the speed of lagging strand synthesis much lower than that of the leading strand. To solve this, primase acts as a temporary stop signal, briefly halting the progression of the replication fork during DNA replication. This molecular process prevents the leading strand from overtaking the lagging strand. DNA polymerase is such a critical part of this because new DNA is made during this phase by enzymes which synthesize | a similar pattern, called semi-conservative replication, in which individual strands of DNA are produced in different directions, which makes a leading and lagging strand. These lagging strands are synthesized by the production of Okazaki fragments that are soon joined together. Both of these organisms begin new DNA strands which also include small strands of RNA. Although cells undergo multiple steps in order to ensure there are no mutations in the genetic sequence, sometimes specific deletions and other genetic changes during Okazaki fragment maturation go unnoticed. Because Okazaki fragments are the set of nucleotides for the lagging strand, any alteration including | eng_Latn | 3,109,953 |
what gene or chromosome is affected by edwards syndrome | Edwards syndrome Edwards syndrome, also known as trisomy 18, is a genetic disorder caused by a third copy of all or part of chromosome 18. Many parts of the body are affected. Babies are often born small and have heart defects. Other features include a small head, small jaw, clenched fists with overlapping fingers, and severe intellectual disability. Most cases of Edwards syndrome occur due to problems during the formation of the reproductive cells or during early development. The rate of disease increases with the mother's age. Rarely cases may be inherited from a person's parents. Occasionally not all cells | healthy egg and/or sperm cell contains individual chromosomes, each of which contributes to the 23 pairs of chromosomes needed to form a normal cell with a typical human karyotype of 46 chromosomes. Numerical errors can arise at either of the two meiotic divisions and cause the failure of a chromosome to segregate into the daughter cells (nondisjunction). This results in an extra chromosome, making the haploid number 24 rather than 23. Fertilization of eggs or insemination by sperm that contain an extra chromosome results in trisomy, or three copies of a chromosome rather than two. Trisomy 18 (47,XX,+18) is caused | eng_Latn | 3,109,954 |
where are telomeres located in a normal chromosome | Telomere A telomere ( or ) is a region of repetitive nucleotide sequences at each end of a chromosome, which protects the end of the chromosome from deterioration or from fusion with neighboring chromosomes. Its name is derived from the Greek nouns telos ("τέλος") "end" and merοs ("μέρος", root: "μερ-") "part". For vertebrates, the sequence of nucleotides in telomeres is AGGGTT, with the complementary DNA strand being TCCCAA, with a single-stranded TTAGGG overhang. This sequence of TTAGGG is repeated approximately 2,500 times in humans. In humans, average telomere length declines from about 11 kilobases at birth to less than 4 | Subtelomere Subtelomeres are segments of DNA between telomeric caps and chromatin. Telomeres are specialized protein–DNA constructs present at the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes, which prevent them from degradation and end-to-end chromosomal fusion. Introductory biology courses often describe telomeres as a type of chromosomal aglet. Most vertebrate telomeric DNA consists of long (TTAGGG)n repeats of variable length, often around 3-20kb. "Subtelomeres" are segments of DNA between telomeric caps and chromatin. Each chromosome has two subtelomeres immediately adjacent to the long (TTAGGG)n repeats. Subtelomeres are considered to be the most distal (farthest from the centromere) region of unique DNA on a chromosome | eng_Latn | 3,109,955 |
which class of the enzymes can be used to join two fragments of dna | DNA ligase DNA ligase is a specific type of enzyme, a ligase, () that facilitates the joining of DNA strands together by catalyzing the formation of a phosphodiester bond. It plays a role in repairing single-strand breaks in duplex DNA in living organisms, but some forms (such as DNA ligase IV) may specifically repair double-strand breaks (i.e. a break in both complementary strands of DNA). Single-strand breaks are repaired by DNA ligase using the complementary strand of the double helix as a template, with DNA ligase creating the final phosphodiester bond to fully repair the DNA. DNA ligase is used | Ligase In biochemistry, a ligase is an enzyme that can catalyze the joining of two large molecules by forming a new chemical bond, usually with accompanying hydrolysis of a small pendant chemical group on one of the larger molecules or the enzyme catalyzing the linking together of two compounds, e.g., enzymes that catalyze joining of C-O, C-S, C-N, etc. In general, a ligase catalyzes the following reaction: or sometimes where the lowercase letters can signify the small, dependent groups. Ligase can join two complementary fragments of nucleic acid and repair single stranded breaks that arise in double stranded DNA during | eng_Latn | 3,109,956 |
what do the letters str stand for as used in forensic science | STR multiplex system An STR multiplex system is used to identify specific short tandem repeats (STRs). STR polymorphisms are genetic markers that may be used to identify a DNA sequence. The FBI analyses 13 specific STR loci for their database. These may be used in many areas of genetics in addition to their forensic uses. One can think of a STR multiplex system as a collection of specific STRs which are positionally conserved on a target genome. Hence these can be used as markers. A number of different STRs along with their loci in a particular genome can be used | Y-STR A Y-STR is a short tandem repeat (STR) on the Y-chromosome. Y-STRs are often used in forensics, paternity, and genealogical DNA testing. Y-STRs are taken specifically from the male Y chromosome. These Y-STRs provide a weaker analysis than autosomal STRs because the Y chromosome is only found in males, which are only passed down by the father, making the Y chromosome in any paternal line practically identical. This causes a significantly smaller amount of distinction between Y-STR samples. Autosomal STRs provide a much stronger analytical power because of the random matching that occurs between pairs of chromosomes during the | eng_Latn | 3,109,957 |
how many babies did dolly the sheep have | attention because she was the first cloned from an adult cell. Dolly lived her entire life at the Roslin Institute in Midlothian. There she was bred with a Welsh Mountain ram and produced six lambs in total. Her first lamb, named Bonnie, was born in April 1998. The next year Dolly produced twin lambs Sally and Rosie, and she gave birth to triplets Lucy, Darcy and Cotton in 2000. In late 2001, at the age of four, Dolly developed arthritis and began to walk stiffly. This was treated with anti-inflammatory drugs. On 14 February 2003, Dolly was euthanised because she | had a progressive lung disease and severe arthritis. A Finn Dorset such as Dolly has a life expectancy of around 11 to 12 years, but Dolly lived 6.5 years. A post-mortem examination showed she had a form of lung cancer called ovine pulmonary adenocarcinoma, also known as Jaagsiekte, which is a fairly common disease of sheep and is caused by the retrovirus JSRV. Roslin scientists stated that they did not think there was a connection with Dolly being a clone, and that other sheep in the same flock had died of the same disease. Such lung diseases are a particular | eng_Latn | 3,109,958 |
what is the meaning of rdw in medical terms | Red blood cell distribution width Red blood cell distribution width (RDW or RDW-CV or RCDW and RDW-SD) is a measure of the range of variation of red blood cell (RBC) volume that is reported as part of a standard complete blood count. Usually red blood cells are a standard size of about 6-8 μm in diameter. Certain disorders, however, cause a significant variation in cell size. Higher RDW values indicate greater variation in size. Normal reference range of RDW-CV in human red blood cells is 11.5-14.5%. If anemia is observed, RDW test results are often used together with mean corpuscular | Rh disease Rh disease (also known as rhesus isoimmunisation, Rh (D) disease, rhesus incompatibility, rhesus disease, RhD hemolytic disease of the newborn, rhesus D hemolytic disease of the newborn or RhD HDN) is a type of hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN). The disease ranges from mild to severe, and typically occurs only in some second or subsequent pregnancies of Rh negative women where the fetus's father is Rh positive, leading to a Rh+ pregnancy. During birth, the mother may be exposed to the infant's blood, and this causes the development of antibodies, which may affect the health of subsequent | eng_Latn | 3,109,959 |
who discovered that adenine always matches with thymine | Chargaff's rules Chargaff's rules state that DNA from any cell of any organisms should have a 1:1 ratio (base Pair Rule) of pyrimidine and purine bases and, more specifically, that the amount of guanine should be equal to cytosine and the amount of adenine should be equal to thymine. This pattern is found in both strands of the DNA. They were discovered by Austrian born chemist Erwin Chargaff, in the late 1940s. The first rule holds that a double-stranded DNA molecule "globally" has percentage base pair equality: %A = %T and %G = %C. The rigorous validation of the rule | Thymine Thymine (T, Thy) is one of the four nucleobases in the nucleic acid of DNA that are represented by the letters G–C–A–T. The others are adenine, guanine, and cytosine. Thymine is also known as 5-methyluracil, a pyrimidine nucleobase. In RNA, thymine is replaced by the nucleobase uracil. Thymine was first isolated in 1893 by Albrecht Kossel and Albert Neumann from calves' thymus glands, hence its name. As its alternate name (5-methyluracil) suggests, thymine may be derived by methylation of uracil at the 5th carbon. In RNA, thymine is replaced with uracil in most cases. In DNA, thymine (T) binds | eng_Latn | 3,109,960 |
the process of dna profiling has recently been dubbed | establish the right of succession to British titles. Cases: DNA profiling DNA profiling (also called DNA fingerprinting) is the process of determining an individual's DNA characteristics, which are as unique as fingerprints. DNA analysis intended to identify a species, rather than an individual, is called DNA barcoding. DNA profiling is a forensic technique in criminal investigations, comparing criminal suspects' profiles to DNA evidence so as to assess the likelihood of their involvement in the crime. It is also used in parentage testing, to establish immigration eligibility, and in genealogical and medical research. DNA profiling has also been used in the | of zoology, botany, and agriculture. The process of DNA profiling was developed in the United Kingdom in 1984 by geneticist Sir Alec Jeffreys while working in the Department of Genetics at the University of Leicester. The process, developed by Jeffreys in conjunction with Peter Gill and Dave Werrett of the Forensic Science Service (FSS), was first used forensically in the solving of the murder of two teenagers, Lynda Mann and Dawn Ashworth, who had been raped and murdered in Narborough, Leicestershire, in 1983 and 1986 respectively. In the subsequent murder inquiry, led by Detective David Baker, the DNA contained within | eng_Latn | 3,109,961 |
where is the anticodon site on a trna molecule | sequence of an mRNA specifies which amino acids are incorporated into the protein product of the gene from which the mRNA is transcribed, the role of tRNA is to specify which sequence from the genetic code corresponds to which amino acid. The mRNA encodes a protein as a series of contiguous codons, each of which is recognized by a particular tRNA. One end of the tRNA matches the genetic code in a three-nucleotide sequence called the anticodon. The anticodon forms three complementary base pairs with a codon in mRNA during protein biosynthesis. On the other end of the tRNA is | anticodon is a unit made up of three nucleotides that correspond to the three bases of the codon on the mRNA. Each tRNA contains a distinct anticodon triplet sequence that can form 3 complementary base pairs to one or more codons for an amino acid. Some anticodons can pair with more than one codon due to a phenomenon known as wobble base pairing. Frequently, the first nucleotide of the anticodon is one not found on mRNA: inosine, which can hydrogen bond to more than one base in the corresponding codon position. In the genetic code, it is common for a | eng_Latn | 3,109,962 |
how many hydrogen bonds form between g and c | G (guanine) and C (cytosine) undergo a specific hydrogen bonding, whereas A (adenine) bonds specifically with T (thymine, in DNA) or U (uracil, in RNA). Quantitativelty, the GC pair is bound by three hydrogen bonds, while AT and AU pairs are bound by two hydrogen bonds. To emphasize this difference in the number of hydrogen bonds, the base pairings can be represented as respectively G≡C versus A=T and A=U. DNA with low GC-content is less stable than DNA with high GC-content; however, the hydrogen bonds themselves do not have a particularly significant impact on stabilization, the stabilization is due mainly | distributed among 2 homologous groups of 23 heterologous chromosomes each, while the base pairs of the XY male zygote are distributed among 2 homologous groups of 22 heterologous chromosomes each plus 2 heterologous chromosomes. Although each zygote has 46 chromosomes, 23 chromosomes of the XX female zygote are heterologous while 24 chromosomes of the XY male zygote are heterologous. As a result, the C-value for the XX female zygote is 3.099361 while the C-value for the XY male zygote is 3.157877. The human genome's GC content is about 41%. Accounting for the autosomal, X, and Y chromosomes, human haploid GC | eng_Latn | 3,109,963 |
when do genetic changes to a population due to mutations become more common | genes and thereby produce genetic diversity. Nonlethal mutations accumulate within the gene pool and increase the amount of genetic variation. The abundance of some genetic changes within the gene pool can be reduced by natural selection, while other "more favorable" mutations may accumulate and result in adaptive changes. For example, a butterfly may produce offspring with new mutations. The majority of these mutations will have no effect; but one might change the color of one of the butterfly's offspring, making it harder (or easier) for predators to see. If this color change is advantageous, the chances of this butterfly's surviving | Selective sweep In genetics, a selective sweep is the reduction or elimination of variation among the nucleotides near a mutation in DNA. It results from a beneficial allele's having recently reached fixation due to strong positive natural selection. A selective sweep can occur when a rare or previously non-existing allele that increases the fitness of the carrier (relative to other members of the population) increases rapidly in frequency due to natural selection. As the prevalence of such a beneficial allele increases, genetic variants that happen to be present on the genomic background (the DNA neighborhood) of the beneficial allele will | eng_Latn | 3,109,964 |
distractors in multiple choice questions are also called | as a problem to be solved, a question asked of the respondent, or an incomplete statement to be completed, as well as any other relevant information. The options are the possible answers that the examinee can choose from, with the correct answer called the "key" and the incorrect answers called "distractors". Only one answer can be keyed as correct. This contrasts with multiple response items in which more than one answer may be keyed as correct. Usually, a correct answer earns a set number of points toward the total mark, and an incorrect answer earns nothing. However, tests may also | be more painful and memorable (Von Restorff effect), but it is probably a good idea to change an answer after additional reflection indicates that a better choice could be made. In fact, a person's initial attraction to a particular answer choice could well derive from the surface plausibility that the test writer has intentionally built into a distractor (or incorrect answer choice). Test item writers are instructed to make their distractors plausible yet clearly incorrect. A test taker's first-instinct attraction to a distractor is thus often a reaction that probably should be revised in light of a careful consideration of | eng_Latn | 3,109,965 |
rdw in blood test what does it mean | Red blood cell distribution width Red blood cell distribution width (RDW or RDW-CV or RCDW and RDW-SD) is a measure of the range of variation of red blood cell (RBC) volume that is reported as part of a standard complete blood count. Usually red blood cells are a standard size of about 6-8 μm in diameter. Certain disorders, however, cause a significant variation in cell size. Higher RDW values indicate greater variation in size. Normal reference range of RDW-CV in human red blood cells is 11.5-14.5%. If anemia is observed, RDW test results are often used together with mean corpuscular | not directly the diameter. However, "width" refers to the width of the volume curve (distribution width, here presented as the Coefficient of Variation, or CV), not the width of the cells. Thus, it is a reasonably accurate term. Mathematically, the RDW-CV is calculated with the following formula: Anemia in the presence of a normal RDW may suggest thalassemia. A low Mentzer Index, calculated from CBC data [MCV/RBC < 13], may suggest this disorder but a hemoglobin electrophoresis would be diagnostic. Iron-deficiency anemia usually presents with high RDW and low MCV. Folate- and vitamin B12-deficiency anemia usually present with high RDW | eng_Latn | 3,109,966 |
cancer is a disease that usually results when | Cancer Cancer is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body. These contrast with benign tumors, which do not spread to other parts of the body. Possible signs and symptoms include a lump, abnormal bleeding, prolonged cough, unexplained weight loss and a change in bowel movements. While these symptoms may indicate cancer, they may have other causes. Over 100 types of cancers affect humans. Tobacco use is the cause of about 22% of cancer deaths. Another 10% are due to obesity, poor diet, lack of physical activity | or colon can have about 60 to 70 protein-altering mutations, of which about three or four may be "driver" mutations and the remaining ones may be "passenger" mutations. Metastasis is the spread of cancer to other locations in the body. The dispersed tumors are called metastatic tumors, while the original is called the primary tumor. Almost all cancers can metastasize. Most cancer deaths are due to cancer that has metastasized. Metastasis is common in the late stages of cancer and it can occur via the blood or the lymphatic system or both. The typical steps in metastasis are local invasion, | eng_Latn | 3,109,967 |
what does ncd stand for in medical terms | Non-communicable disease A non-communicable disease (NCD) is a disease that is not transmissible directly from one person to another. NCDs include Parkinson's disease, autoimmune diseases, strokes, most heart diseases, most cancers, diabetes, chronic kidney disease, osteoarthritis, osteoporosis, Alzheimer's disease, cataracts, and others. NCDs may be chronic or acute. Most are non-infectious, although there are some non-communicable infectious diseases, such as parasitic diseases in which the parasite's life cycle does not include direct host-to-host transmission. NCDs are the leading cause of death globally. In 2012, they caused 68% of all deaths (38 million) up from 60% in 2000. About half were | diagnosis. Nancy McWilliams identifies five reasons that determine the necessity for diagnosis: Sub-types of diagnoses include: Medical diagnosis Medical diagnosis (abbreviated Dx or D) is the process of determining which disease or condition explains a person's symptoms and signs. It is most often referred to as diagnosis with the medical context being implicit. The information required for diagnosis is typically collected from a history and physical examination of the person seeking medical care. Often, one or more diagnostic procedures, such as diagnostic tests, are also done during the process. Sometimes posthumous diagnosis is considered a kind of medical diagnosis. Diagnosis | eng_Latn | 3,109,968 |
when was dna first used in a criminal case | of DNA profiles was used by Jefferys in a double murder mystery in the small English town of Narborough, Leicestershire in 1985. A 15-year-old school girl by the name of Lynda Mann was raped and murdered in Carlton Hayes psychiatric hospital. The police did not find a suspect but were able to obtain a semen sample. In 1986, Dawn Ashworth, 15 years old, was also raped and strangled in a nearby village of Enderby. Forensic evidence showed that both killers had the same blood type. Richard Buckland became the suspect because he worked at Carlton Hayes psychiatric hospital, had been | Paul Uhlenhuth in 1901 and could distinguish human blood from animal blood, based on the discovery that the blood of different species had one or more characteristic proteins. The test represented a major breakthrough and came to have tremendous importance in forensic science. The test was further refined for forensic use by the Swiss chemist Maurice Müller in the 1960s. Forensic DNA analysis was first used in 1984. It was developed by Sir Alec Jeffreys, who realized that variation in the genetic code could be used to identify individuals and to tell individuals apart from one another. The first application | eng_Latn | 3,109,969 |
when might it be important to know if one is a carrier | Genetic carrier A hereditary carrier (or just carrier), is a person or other organism that has inherited a recessive allele for a genetic trait or mutation but usually does not display that trait or show symptoms of the disease. Carriers are, however, able to pass the allele onto their offspring, who may then express the genetic if they inherit the recessive allele from both parents. The chance of two carriers having a child with the disease is 25%. This phenomenon is a direct result of the recessive nature of many genes. Queen Victoria, and her daughters Princesses Alice and Beatrix, | Carrier testing Carrier testing is a type of genetic testing that is used to determine if a person is a carrier for a specific autosomal recessive diseases. This kind of testing is used most often by couples who are considering becoming pregnant to determine the risks of their child inheriting one of these genetic disorders. Genes come in pairs; one from the mother and one from the father. A carrier is a person who inherited one abnormal gene from one of their parents. Carriers often show no symptoms of the genetic disorder that they carry an abnormal gene for. Usually | eng_Latn | 3,109,970 |
when did we start using dna to solve crimes | Paul Uhlenhuth in 1901 and could distinguish human blood from animal blood, based on the discovery that the blood of different species had one or more characteristic proteins. The test represented a major breakthrough and came to have tremendous importance in forensic science. The test was further refined for forensic use by the Swiss chemist Maurice Müller in the 1960s. Forensic DNA analysis was first used in 1984. It was developed by Sir Alec Jeffreys, who realized that variation in the genetic code could be used to identify individuals and to tell individuals apart from one another. The first application | the fingerprints of individuals on file. In 1892, after studying Galton's pattern types, Vucetich set up the world's first fingerprint bureau. In that same year, Francisca Rojas of Necochea was found in a house with neck injuries whilst her two sons were found dead with their throats cut. Rojas accused a neighbour, but despite brutal interrogation, this neighbour would not confess to the crimes. Inspector Alvarez, a colleague of Vucetich, went to the scene and found a bloody thumb mark on a door. When it was compared with Rojas' prints, it was found to be identical with her right thumb. | eng_Latn | 3,109,971 |
when is hcg detected in blood after implantation | Pregnancy test A pregnancy test attempts to determine whether or not a woman is pregnant. Indicative markers are found in blood and urine, and pregnancy tests require sampling one of these substances. The first of these markers to be discovered, human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), was discovered in 1930 to be produced by the syncytiotrophoblast cells of the fertilised ova (eggs). While hCG is a reliable marker of pregnancy, it cannot be detected until after implantation; this results in false negatives if the test is performed during the very early stages of pregnancy. HCG can be detected via blood 8 days | HCG pregnancy strip test Detection of human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) in urine or serum is an easy first method of diagnosis of pregnancy. hCG can be detected as early as the sixth day after conception. hCG is also an important tumor marker because it is produced by some kinds of tumor, such as: seminoma, choriocarcinoma, germ cell tumors, hydatidiform mole formation, teratoma with elements of choriocarcinoma, and islet cell tumor Pregnancy detection kits containing a strip or card impregnated with anti-hCG globulin are readily available. The test is executed by immersing the proper end of the strip in urine or | eng_Latn | 3,109,972 |
where do you find dna in the body | often not as demanding to be considered admissible in court. Forensic DNA analysis can be a useful tool in aiding forensic identification because DNA is found in almost all cells of our bodies except red blood cells. Deoxyribonucleic acid is located in two different places of the cell, the nucleus; which is inherited from both parents, and the mitochondria; inherited maternally. Similar to fingerprints, an individual’s DNA profile and characteristics are unique. Forensic identification using DNA can be useful in different cases such as determining suspects in violent crimes, solving paternity/maternity, and identifying human remains of victims from mass disasters | DNA database A DNA database or DNA databank is a database of DNA profiles which can be used in the analysis of genetic diseases, genetic fingerprinting for criminology, or genetic genealogy. DNA databases may be public or private, the largest ones being national DNA databases. When a match is made from a national DNA database to link a crime scene to a person whose DNA profile is stored on a database, that link is often referred to as a "cold hit". A cold hit is of particular value in linking a specific person to a crime scene, but is of | eng_Latn | 3,109,973 |
what is the scientific name of vitamin b3 | Vitamin B3 Vitamin B is a vitamin that includes three forms: nicotinamide (niacinamide), niacin (nicotinic acid), and nicotinamide riboside. All three forms of vitamin B are converted within the body to nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD). NAD is required for human life and people are unable to make it within their bodies without one of the vitamin B or tryptophan. Nicotinamide riboside was identified as a form of vitamin B in 2004. The group is also occasionally referred to as vitamin B complex. NAD, along with its phosphorylated variant nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP), are utilized in transfer reactions within DNA | Vitamin B12 Vitamin B, also called cobalamin, is a water-soluble vitamin that is involved in the metabolism of every cell of the human body: it is a cofactor in DNA synthesis, and in both fatty acid and amino acid metabolism. It is particularly important in the normal functioning of the nervous system via its role in the synthesis of myelin, and in the maturation of developing red blood cells in the bone marrow. Vitamin B is one of eight B vitamins; it is the largest and most structurally complicated vitamin. It consists of a class of chemically related compounds (vitamers), | eng_Latn | 3,109,974 |
kinship traced through the mother 's family is called what kind of descent | Matrilineality Matrilineality is the tracing of Kinship through the female line. It may also correlate with a social system in which each person is identified with their matriline – their mother's lineage – and which can involve the inheritance of property and/or titles. A matriline is a line of descent from a female ancestor to a descendant (of either sex) in which the individuals in all intervening generations are mothersin other words, a "mother line". In a matrilineal descent system, an individual is considered to belong to the same descent group as their mother. This matrilineal descent pattern is in | from molecular clock and genetic marker studies. Before this discovery, estimates of the date when Y-chromosomal Adam lived were much more recent, estimated to be tens of thousands of years. Patrilineality Patrilineality, also known as the male line, the spear side or agnatic kinship, is a common kinship system in which an individual's family membership derives from and is recorded through his or her father's lineage. It generally involves the inheritance of property, rights, names or titles by persons related through male kin. A patriline ("father line") is a person's father, and additional ancestors, as traced only through males. In | eng_Latn | 3,109,975 |
the medical term for persistent high arterial blood pressure is | Hypertension Hypertension (HTN or HT), also known as high blood pressure (HBP), is a long-term medical condition in which the blood pressure in the arteries is persistently elevated. High blood pressure typically does not cause symptoms. Long-term high blood pressure, however, is a major risk factor for coronary artery disease, stroke, heart failure, atrial fibrillation, peripheral vascular disease, vision loss, chronic kidney disease, and dementia. High blood pressure is classified as either primary (essential) high blood pressure or secondary high blood pressure. About 90–95% of cases are primary, defined as high blood pressure due to nonspecific lifestyle and genetic factors. | Lifestyle factors that increase the risk include excess salt in the diet, excess body weight, smoking, and alcohol use. The remaining 5–10% of cases are categorized as secondary high blood pressure, defined as high blood pressure due to an identifiable cause, such as chronic kidney disease, narrowing of the kidney arteries, an endocrine disorder, or the use of birth control pills. Blood pressure is expressed by two measurements, the systolic and diastolic pressures, which are the maximum and minimum pressures, respectively. For most adults, normal blood pressure at rest is within the range of 100–130 millimeters mercury (mmHg) systolic and | eng_Latn | 3,109,976 |
which types of mutations are least likely to be subjected to natural selection | Neutral mutation Neutral mutations are changes in DNA sequence that are neither beneficial nor detrimental to the ability of an organism to survive and reproduce. In population genetics, mutations in which natural selection does not affect the spread of the mutation in a species are termed neutral mutations. Neutral mutations that are inheritable and not linked to any .genes under selection will either be lost or will replace all other alleles of the gene. This loss or fixation of the gene proceeds based on random sampling known as genetic drift. A neutral mutation that is in linkage disequilibrium with other | and average fitness effects of mutations are dependent on the organism, a majority of mutations in humans are slightly deleterious. Some mutations occur in "toolkit" or regulatory genes. Changes in these often have large effects on the phenotype of the individual because they regulate the function of many other genes. Most, but not all, mutations in regulatory genes result in non-viable embryos. Some nonlethal regulatory mutations occur in HOX genes in humans, which can result in a cervical rib or polydactyly, an increase in the number of fingers or toes. When such mutations result in a higher fitness, natural selection | eng_Latn | 3,109,977 |
alkylating agents such as ethyl methanesulfonate ( ems ) function as mutagens to | (a transition mutation). This changes the genetic information, is often harmful to cells, and can result in disease. EMS is often used in genetics as a mutagen. Mutations induced by EMS can then be studied in genetic screens or other assays. Ethyl methanesulfonate Ethyl methanesulfonate (EMS) is a mutagenic, teratogenic, and possibly carcinogenic organic compound with formula CHSO. It produces random mutations in genetic material by nucleotide substitution; particularly by guanine alkylation. This typically produces only point mutations. It can induce mutations at a rate of 5x10 to 5x10 per gene without substantial killing. The ethyl group of EMS reacts | Ethyl methanesulfonate Ethyl methanesulfonate (EMS) is a mutagenic, teratogenic, and possibly carcinogenic organic compound with formula CHSO. It produces random mutations in genetic material by nucleotide substitution; particularly by guanine alkylation. This typically produces only point mutations. It can induce mutations at a rate of 5x10 to 5x10 per gene without substantial killing. The ethyl group of EMS reacts with guanine in DNA, forming the abnormal base "O"-ethylguanine. During DNA replication, DNA polymerases that catalyze the process frequently place thymine, instead of cytosine, opposite "O"-ethylguanine. Following subsequent rounds of replication, the original G:C base pair can become an A:T pair | eng_Latn | 3,109,978 |
pap smear test is used in diagnosis of | Pap test The Papanicolaou test (abbreviated as Pap test, also known as Pap smear, cervical smear, cervical screening or smear test) is a method of cervical screening used to detect potentially pre-cancerous and cancerous processes in the cervix (opening of the uterus or womb). Abnormal findings are often followed up by more sensitive diagnostic procedures, and, if warranted, interventions that aim to prevent progression to cervical cancer. The test was invented by, and named for, doctor Aurel Babeș and doctor Georgios Papanikolaou. A Pap smear is performed by opening the vaginal canal with a speculum, then collecting cells at the | Cells of Undetermined Significance (AGC-NOS). As liquid based preparations (LBPs) become a common medium for testing, atypical result rates have increased. The median rate for all preparations with low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions using LBPs was 2.9% compared with a 2003 median rate of 2.1%. Rates for high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (median, 0.5%) and atypical squamous cells have changed little. Abnormal results are reported according to the Bethesda system. They include: Endocervical and endometrial abnormalities can also be detected, as can a number of infectious processes, including yeast, herpes simplex virus and trichomoniasis. However it is not very sensitive at detecting | eng_Latn | 3,109,979 |
what is the complete loss of an allele called | Fixation (population genetics) In population genetics, fixation is the change in a gene pool from a situation where there exists at least two variants of a particular gene (allele) in a given population to a situation where only one of the alleles remains. In the absence of mutation or heterozygote advantage, any allele must eventually be lost completely from the population or fixed (permanently established at 100% frequency in the population). Whether a gene will ultimately be lost or fixed is dependent on selection coefficients and chance fluctuations in allelic proportions. Fixation can refer to a gene in general or | Loss of heterozygosity Loss of heterozygosity (LOH) is a cross chromosomal event that results in loss of the entire gene and the surrounding chromosomal region. All diploid cells, for example most human somatic cells, contain two copies of the genome, one from each parent (chromosome pair); each human copy contains approximately 3 billion bases (adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) or thymine (T)). For the majority of positions in the genome the base present is consistent between individuals, however a small percentage may contain different bases (usually one of two; for instance, ‘A’ or ‘G’) and these positions are called | eng_Latn | 3,109,980 |
what are three end products encoded by dna that are not proteins | in which DNA is stored on the histones, as well as chemical modifications of the histone itself, regulate whether a particular region of DNA is accessible for gene expression. In addition to genes, eukaryotic chromosomes contain sequences involved in ensuring that the DNA is copied without degradation of end regions and sorted into daughter cells during cell division: replication origins, telomeres and the centromere. Replication origins are the sequence regions where DNA replication is initiated to make two copies of the chromosome. Telomeres are long stretches of repetitive sequence that cap the ends of the linear chromosomes and prevent degradation | total number of possible codons is 64; hence, there is some redundancy in the genetic code, with some amino acids specified by more than one codon. Genes encoded in DNA are first transcribed into pre-messenger RNA (mRNA) by proteins such as RNA polymerase. Most organisms then process the pre-mRNA (also known as a "primary transcript") using various forms of Post-transcriptional modification to form the mature mRNA, which is then used as a template for protein synthesis by the ribosome. In prokaryotes the mRNA may either be used as soon as it is produced, or be bound by a ribosome after | eng_Latn | 3,109,981 |
where did the name huntington disease come from | in about 9% of cases. Death typically occurs fifteen to twenty years from when the disease was first detected. The first likely description of the disease was in 1841 by Charles Oscar Waters. The condition was described in further detail in 1872 by the physician George Huntington, after whom it is named. The genetic basis was discovered in 1993 by an international collaborative effort led by the Hereditary Disease Foundation. Research and support organizations began forming in the late 1960s to increase public awareness, to provide support for individuals and their families, and to promote research. Current research directions include | ethical concerns related to prenatal genetic testing or preimplantation genetic diagnosis to ensure a child is not born with a given disease. For example, prenatal testing raises the issue of selective abortion, a choice considered unacceptable by some. As it is a dominant disease, there are difficulties in situations in which a parent does not want to know his or her own diagnosis. This would require parts of the process to be kept secret from the parent. In 1968, after experiencing HD in his wife's family, Dr. Milton Wexler was inspired to start the Hereditary Disease Foundation (HDF), with the | eng_Latn | 3,109,982 |
the best test of the mutagenic potential of a substance would be | Ames test The Ames test is a widely employed method that uses bacteria to test whether a given chemical can cause mutations in the DNA of the test organism. More formally, it is a biological assay to assess the mutagenic potential of chemical compounds. A positive test indicates that the chemical is mutagenic and therefore may act as a carcinogen, because cancer is often linked to mutation. The test serves as a quick and convenient assay to estimate the carcinogenic potential of a compound because standard carcinogen assays on mice and rats are time-consuming (taking two to three years to | mutagens. Animals are first treated with suspected mutagen, the mouse DNA is then isolated and the phage segment recovered and used to infect "E. coli". Using similar method as the blue-white screen, the plaque formed with DNA containing mutation are white, while those without are blue. Many mutagens are highly toxic to proliferating cells, and they are often used to destroy cancer cells. Alkylating agents such as cyclophosphamide and cisplatin, as well as intercalating agent such as daunorubicin and doxorubicin may be used in chemotherapy. However, due to their effect on other cells which are also rapidly dividing, they may | eng_Latn | 3,109,983 |
what type of genetic disorder is tay sachs | often misdiagnosed as another neurological disorder, such as Friedreich's ataxia. Tay–Sachs disease is an autosomal recessive genetic disorder, meaning that when both parents are carriers, there is a 25% risk of giving birth to an affected child with each pregnancy. The affected child would have received a mutated copy of the gene from each parent. Tay–Sachs results from mutations in the "HEXA" gene on chromosome 15, which encodes the alpha-subunit of beta-N-acetylhexosaminidase A, a lysosomal enzyme. By 2000, more than 100 different mutations had been identified in the human "HEXA" gene. These mutations have included single base insertions and deletions, | 12 volumes between 1901 and 1906, described what was then known about the disease: It is a curious fact that amaurotic family idiocy, a rare and fatal disease of children, occurs mostly among Jews. The largest number of cases has been observed in the United States—over thirty in number. It was at first thought that this was an exclusively Jewish disease because most of the cases at first reported were between Russian and Polish Jews; but recently there have been reported cases occurring in non-Jewish children. The chief characteristics of the disease are progressive mental and physical enfeeblement; weakness and | eng_Latn | 3,109,984 |
where does dna synthesis begin on a chromosome | strand is synthesized in the 5′ to 3′ direction—this is often confused). Four distinct mechanisms for DNA synthesis are recognized: The first is the best known of these mechanisms and is used by the cellular organisms. In this mechanism, once the two strands are separated, primase adds RNA primers to the template strands. The leading strand receives one RNA primer while the lagging strand receives several. The leading strand is continuously extended from the primer by a DNA polymerase with high processivity, while the lagging strand is extended discontinuously from each primer forming Okazaki fragments. RNase removes the primer RNA | the new helix will be composed of an original DNA strand as well as a newly synthesized strand. Cellular proofreading and error-checking mechanisms ensure near perfect fidelity for DNA replication. In a cell, DNA replication begins at specific locations, or origins of replication, in the genome. Unwinding of DNA at the origin and synthesis of new strands, accommodated by an enzyme known as helicase, results in replication forks growing bi-directionally from the origin. A number of proteins are associated with the replication fork to help in the initiation and continuation of DNA synthesis. Most prominently, DNA polymerase synthesizes the new | eng_Latn | 3,109,985 |
what do you call a set of 9 babies | in Carlisle, Iowa. Multiple births of as many as eight babies have been born alive, the first set on record to the Chukwu family in Texas in 1998; one died and seven survived. In 2009, a second set, the Suleman octuplets, were born in Bellflower, California. As of 2014, all were still alive shortly before their fifth birthday. There have been a few sets of nonuplets (9) in which a few babies were born alive, though none lived longer than a few days. There have been cases of human pregnancies that started out with ten, eleven, twelve or fifteen fetuses, | often in Indian culture and mythology. Some instances are enumerated below. A human pregnancy normally lasts nine months, the basis of Naegele's rule. 9 9 (nine) is the natural number following and preceding . 9 is a composite number, its proper divisors being and . It is 3 times 3 and hence the third square number. Nine is a Motzkin number. It is the first composite lucky number, along with the first composite odd number and only single-digit composite odd number. 9 is the only positive perfect power that is one more than another positive perfect power, by Mihăilescu's Theorem. | eng_Latn | 3,109,986 |
what is the function of the major histocompatibility complex | Major histocompatibility complex The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is a set of cell surface proteins essential for the acquired immune system to recognize foreign molecules in vertebrates, which in turn determines histocompatibility. The main function of MHC molecules is to bind to antigens derived from pathogens and display them on the cell surface for recognition by the appropriate T-cells. MHC molecules mediate interactions of leukocytes, also called white blood cells (WBCs), which are immune cells, with other leukocytes or with body cells. The MHC determines compatibility of donors for organ transplant, as well as one's susceptibility to an autoimmune disease | to that of nonmammals, and MHC class I genes of marsupials have amplified within the class II region, yielding a unique class I/II region. Class III functions very differently from class I and class II, but its locus occurs between the other two classes, on chromosome 6 in humans, and are frequently discussed together. MHC proteins have immunoglobulin-like structure. MHC I occurs as an α chain composed of three domains—α1, α2, and α3. The α1 rests upon a unit of the non-MHC molecule β2 microglobulin (encoded on human chromosome 15). The α3 domain is transmembrane, anchoring the MHC class I | eng_Latn | 3,109,987 |
the combination of alleles of an organism is referred to as the organism 's | one's genomic sequence, because it refers to how an individual "differs" or is specialized within a group of individuals or a species. So, typically, one refers to an individual's genotype with regard to a particular gene of interest and the combination of alleles the individual carries (see homozygous, heterozygous). Genotypes are often denoted with letters, for example "Bb", where "B" stands for one allele and "b" for another. Somatic mutations which are acquired rather than inherited, such as those in cancers, are not part of the individual's genotype. Hence, scientists and physicians sometimes talk about the genotype of a particular | having a chromosome from each set, as homologous chromosomes. If both alleles at a gene (or locus) on the homologous chromosomes are the same, they and the organism are homozygous with respect to that gene (or locus). If the alleles are different, they and the organism are heterozygous with respect to that gene. The word "allele" is a short form of allelomorph ("other form", a word coined by British geneticists William Bateson and Edith Rebecca Saunders), which was used in the early days of genetics to describe variant forms of a gene detected as different phenotypes. It derives from the | eng_Latn | 3,109,988 |
who do you get your mitochondrial dna from | most species, including humans, mtDNA is inherited solely from the mother. Since animal mtDNA evolves faster than nuclear genetic markers, it represents a mainstay of phylogenetics and evolutionary biology. It also permits an examination of the relatedness of populations, and so has become important in anthropology and biogeography. Nuclear and mitochondrial DNA are thought to be of separate evolutionary origin, with the mtDNA being derived from the circular genomes of the bacteria that were engulfed by the early ancestors of today's eukaryotic cells. This theory is called the endosymbiotic theory. Each mitochondrion is estimated to contain 2–10 mtDNA copies. In | donor female's mtDNA. The composite egg is then fertilized with the male's sperm. The procedure is used when a woman with genetically defective mitochondria wishes to procreate and produce offspring with healthy mitochondria. The first known child to be born as a result of mitochondrial donation was a boy born to a Jordanian couple in Mexico on 6 April 2016. In most multicellular organisms, the mtDNA – or mitogenome – is organized as a circular, covalently closed, double-stranded DNA. But in many unicellular (e.g. the ciliate "Tetrahymena" or the green alga "Chlamydomonas reinhardtii") and in rare cases also in multicellular | eng_Latn | 3,109,989 |
what is the name of the generation before gen x | Generation X Generation X or Gen X is the demographic cohort following the baby boomers and preceding the Millennials. There are no precise dates for when Generation X starts or ends. Demographers and researchers typically use birth years ranging from the early-to-mid 1960s to the early 1980s. Generation Xers were children during a time of shifting societal values and as children were sometimes called the "latchkey generation", due to reduced adult supervision as children compared to previous generations, a result of increasing divorce rates and increased maternal participation in the workforce, prior to widespread availability of childcare options outside the | Postgenomic era In genomics, the postgenomic era (or post-genomic era) refers to the time period from after the completion of the Human Genome Project to the present day. The name refers to the fact that the genetic epistemology of contemporary science has progressed beyond the gene-centered view of the earlier genomic era. It is defined by the widespread availability of both the human genome sequence and of the complete genomes of many reference organisms. The postgenomic era is characterized by a paradigm shift in which new genetic research has upended many dogmas about the way in which genes influence phenotypes, | eng_Latn | 3,109,990 |
in human beings multiple genes are involved in the inheritance of | effect. Examples of human polygenic inheritance are height, skin color, eye color and weight. Polygenes exist in other organisms, as well. "Drosophila", for instance, display polygeny with traits such as wing morphology, bristle count (20170808 dead link) and many others. The frequency of the phenotypes of these traits generally follows a normal continuous variation distribution pattern. This results from the many possible allelic combinations. When the values are plotted, a bell-shaped curve is obtained. The mode of the distribution represents the optimal, or fittest, phenotype. The more genes are involved, the smoother the estimated curve. However, in this model all | "p" + 2"pq", and the fraction with the recessive phenotype is "q". With three alleles: In the case of multiple alleles at a diploid locus, the number of possible genotypes (G) with a number of alleles (a) is given by the expression: A number of genetic disorders are caused when an individual inherits two recessive alleles for a single-gene trait. Recessive genetic disorders include albinism, cystic fibrosis, galactosemia, phenylketonuria (PKU), and Tay–Sachs disease. Other disorders are also due to recessive alleles, but because the gene locus is located on the X chromosome, so that males have only one copy (that | eng_Latn | 3,109,991 |
name the type of enzyme used to produce the cdna | Complementary DNA In genetics, complementary DNA (cDNA) is DNA synthesized from a single-stranded RNA (e.g., messenger RNA (mRNA) or microRNA) template in a reaction catalyzed by the enzyme reverse transcriptase. cDNA is often used to clone eukaryotic genes in prokaryotes. When scientists want to express a specific protein in a cell that does not normally express that protein (i.e., heterologous expression), they will transfer the cDNA that codes for the protein to the recipient cell. cDNA is also produced naturally by retroviruses (such as HIV-1, HIV-2, simian immunodeficiency virus, etc.) and then integrated into the host's genome, where it creates | DnaG DnaG is a bacterial DNA primase and is encoded by the "dnaG" gene. The enzyme DnaG, and any other DNA primase, synthesizes short strands of RNA known as oligonucleotides during DNA replication. These oligonucleotides are known as primers because they act as a starting point for DNA synthesis. DnaG catalyzes the synthesis of oligonucleotides that are 10 to 60 nucleotides (the fundamental unit of DNA and RNA) long, however most of the oligonucleotides synthesized are 11 nucleotides. These RNA oligonucleotides serve as primers, or starting points, for DNA synthesis by bacterial DNA polymerase III (Pol III). DnaG is important | eng_Latn | 3,109,992 |
what are produced by bacteria and cut dna at specific points | by Hamilton O. Smith isolated "Hin"DII, the first of the class of enzymes now known as restriction enzymes, while Daniel Nathans showed that it can be used for restriction mapping. When these enzymes were isolated in the laboratory they could be used for controlled manipulation of DNA, thus providing the foundation for the development of genetic engineering. Werner Arber, Daniel Nathans, and Hamilton Smith were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1978 for their work on restriction-modification. There are four categories of restriction modification systems: type I, type II, type III and type IV, all with restriction | enzyme activity and a methylase activity (except for type IV that has no methylase activity). They were named in the order of discovery, although the type II system is the most common. Type I systems are the most complex, consisting of three polypeptides: R (restriction), M (modification), and S (specificity). The resulting complex can both cleave and methylate DNA. Both reactions require ATP, and cleavage often occurs a considerable distance from the recognition site. The S subunit determines the specificity of both restriction and methylation. Cleavage occurs at variable distances from the recognition sequence, so discrete bands are not easily | eng_Latn | 3,109,993 |
what does a mutation in p53 lead to | with CML. Most p53 mutations are detected by DNA sequencing. However, it is known that single missense mutations can have a large spectrum from rather mild to very severe functional affects. The large spectrum of cancer phenotypes due to mutations in the "TP53" gene is also supported by the fact that different isoforms of p53 proteins have different cellular mechanisms for prevention against cancer. Mutations in "TP53" can give rise to different isoforms, preventing their overall functionality in different cellular mechanisms and thereby extending the cancer phenotype from mild to severe. Recents studies show that p53 isoforms are differentially expressed | in early adulthood, a disorder known as Li-Fraumeni syndrome. The "TP53" gene can also be modified by mutagens (chemicals, radiation, or viruses), increasing the likelihood for uncontrolled cell division. More than 50 percent of human tumors contain a mutation or deletion of the "TP53" gene. Loss of p53 creates genomic instability that most often results in an aneuploidy phenotype. Increasing the amount of p53 may seem a solution for treatment of tumors or prevention of their spreading. This, however, is not a usable method of treatment, since it can cause premature aging. Restoring endogenous normal p53 function holds some promise. | eng_Latn | 3,109,994 |
what is the most common transfused component of blood | to RBC), platelet storage lesion and resulting efficacy loss is also a concern. Globally around 85 million units of red blood cells are transfused in a given year. In the United States, blood transfusions were performed nearly 3 million times during hospitalizations in 2011, making it the most common procedure performed. The rate of hospitalizations with a blood transfusion nearly doubled from 1997, from a rate of 40 stays to 95 stays per 10,000 population. It was the most common procedure performed for patients 45 years of age and older in 2011, and among the top five most common for | warrants an antibody panel/investigation to determine if it is clinically significant. An antibody panel consists of commercially prepared group O red cell suspensions from donors that have been phenotyped for antigens that correspond to commonly encountered and clinically significant alloantibodies. Donor cells may have homozygous (e.g. K+k+), heterozygous (K+k-) expression or no expression of various antigens (K−k−). The phenotypes of all the donor cells being tested are shown in a chart. The patient's serum is tested against the various donor cells. Based on the reactions of the patient's serum against the donor cells, a pattern will emerge to confirm the | eng_Latn | 3,109,995 |
what does rdw stand for in blood test results | Red blood cell distribution width Red blood cell distribution width (RDW or RDW-CV or RCDW and RDW-SD) is a measure of the range of variation of red blood cell (RBC) volume that is reported as part of a standard complete blood count. Usually red blood cells are a standard size of about 6-8 μm in diameter. Certain disorders, however, cause a significant variation in cell size. Higher RDW values indicate greater variation in size. Normal reference range of RDW-CV in human red blood cells is 11.5-14.5%. If anemia is observed, RDW test results are often used together with mean corpuscular | with Type 1 toxin-antitoxin systems. LdrD-RdlD toxin-antitoxin system RdlD RNA (regulator detected in LDR-D) is a family of small non-coding RNAs which repress the protein LdrD in a type I toxin-antitoxin system. It was discovered in "Escherichia coli" strain K-12 in a long direct repeat (LDR) named LDR-D. This locus encodes two products: a 35 amino acid peptide toxin (ldrD) and a 60 nucleotide RNA antitoxin. The 374nt toxin mRNA has a half-life of around 30 minutes while rdlD RNA has a half-life of only 2 minutes. This is in keeping with other type I toxin-antitoxin systems. Northern blots showed | eng_Latn | 3,109,996 |
what is the function of von willebrand factor | multimers are functional. Some cleavage products that result from VWF production are also secreted but probably serve no function. Von Willebrand Factor's primary function is binding to other proteins, in particular factor VIII, and it is important in platelet adhesion to wound sites. It is not an enzyme and, thus, has no catalytic activity. VWF binds to a number of cells and molecules. The most important ones are: VWF plays a major role in blood coagulation. Therefore, VWF deficiency or dysfunction (von Willebrand disease) leads to a bleeding tendency, which is most apparent in tissues having high blood flow shear | Von Willebrand factor von Willebrand Factor (VWF) () is a blood glycoprotein involved in hemostasis. It is deficient or defective in von Willebrand disease and is involved in a large number of other diseases, including thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura, Heyde's syndrome, and possibly hemolytic-uremic syndrome. Increased plasma levels in a large number of cardiovascular, neoplastic, and connective tissue diseases are presumed to arise from adverse changes to the endothelium, and may contribute to an increased risk of thrombosis. VWF is a large multimeric glycoprotein present in blood plasma and produced constitutively as ultra-large VWF in endothelium (in the Weibel-Palade bodies), megakaryocytes | eng_Latn | 3,109,997 |
which disease name is an example of an eponym | such as single nucleotide polymorphisms. It is therefore more applicable to more heritable disorders, such as bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. Since then, the concept has expanded to many other fields, such as the study of ADHD, addiction, Alzheimer's disease, obesity and cystic fibrosis. Some other terms which have a similar meaning but do not stress the genetic connection as highly are "intermediate phenotype", "biological marker", "subclinical trait", "vulnerability marker", and "cognitive marker". The strength of an endophenotype is its ability to differentiate between potential diagnoses that present with similar symptoms. In psychiatry research, the accepted criteria which a biomarker must | Endotype An endotype is a subtype of a condition, which is defined by a distinct functional or pathobiological mechanism. This is distinct from a phenotype, which is any observable characteristic or trait of a disease, such as morphology, development, biochemical or physiological properties, or behavior, without any implication of a mechanism. It is envisaged that patients with a specific endotype present themselves within phenotypic clusters of diseases. One example is asthma, which is considered to be a syndrome, consisting of a series of endotypes. This is related to the concept of disease entity. The main concept in nosology is the | eng_Latn | 3,109,998 |
what is the normal range for rdw-sd blood test | Red blood cell distribution width Red blood cell distribution width (RDW or RDW-CV or RCDW and RDW-SD) is a measure of the range of variation of red blood cell (RBC) volume that is reported as part of a standard complete blood count. Usually red blood cells are a standard size of about 6-8 μm in diameter. Certain disorders, however, cause a significant variation in cell size. Higher RDW values indicate greater variation in size. Normal reference range of RDW-CV in human red blood cells is 11.5-14.5%. If anemia is observed, RDW test results are often used together with mean corpuscular | and high MCV. Mixed-deficiency (iron + B12 or folate) anemia usually presents with high RDW and variable MCV. Recent hemorrhages typically present with high RDW and normal MCV. A false high RDW reading can occur if EDTA anticoagulated blood is used instead of citrated blood. See Pseudothrombocytopenia. 7. http://rdwbloodtest.com Red Blood Cell Distribution Width Red blood cell distribution width Red blood cell distribution width (RDW or RDW-CV or RCDW and RDW-SD) is a measure of the range of variation of red blood cell (RBC) volume that is reported as part of a standard complete blood count. Usually red blood cells | eng_Latn | 3,109,999 |
the section of dna being used to make the strand of rna is known as | codons of a gene are copied into messenger RNA by RNA polymerase. This RNA copy is then decoded by a ribosome that reads the RNA sequence by base-pairing the messenger RNA to transfer RNA, which carries amino acids. Since there are 4 bases in 3-letter combinations, there are 64 possible codons (4 combinations). These encode the twenty standard amino acids, giving most amino acids more than one possible codon. There are also three 'stop' or 'nonsense' codons signifying the end of the coding region; these are the TAA, TGA, and TAG codons. Cell division is essential for an organism to | Primer (molecular biology) A primer is a short single strand of RNA or DNA (generally about 18-22 bases) that serves as a starting point for DNA synthesis. It is required for DNA replication because the enzymes that catalyze this process, DNA polymerases, can only add new nucleotides to an existing strand of DNA. The polymerase starts replication at the 3′-end of the primer, and copies the opposite strand. In vivo DNA replication utilizes short strands of RNA called RNA primers to initiate DNA synthesis on both the leading and lagging strands – DNA primers are not seen in vivo in | eng_Latn | 3,110,000 |
who wrote the book inborn errors of metabolism | a British physician, Archibald Garrod (1857–1936), in 1908. He is known for work that prefigured the "one gene-one enzyme" hypothesis, based on his studies on the nature and inheritance of alkaptonuria. His seminal text, "Inborn Errors of Metabolism" was published in 1923. Traditionally the inherited metabolic diseases were classified as disorders of carbohydrate metabolism, amino acid metabolism, organic acid metabolism, or lysosomal storage diseases. In recent decades, hundreds of new inherited disorders of metabolism have been discovered and the categories have proliferated. Following are some of the major classes of congenital metabolic diseases, with prominent examples of each class. Many | of metabolism. He died at the Cambridge home of his daughter after a brief illness in 1936, and is buried in Highgate Cemetery, London. Archibald Garrod Sir Archibald Edward Garrod (25 November 1857 – 28 March 1936) was an English physician who pioneered the field of inborn errors of metabolism. He also discovered alkaptonuria, understanding its inheritance. He served as Regius Professor of Medicine at the University of Oxford from 1920 to 1927. Brilliancy ran in Garrod’s family. Archibald was the fourth son of Sir Alfred Baring Garrod, a renowned physician who received his medical degree at the age of | eng_Latn | 3,110,001 |
the risk factors for rheumatic fever include age and infection with | fever may occur following an infection of the throat by the bacterium "Streptococcus pyogenes". If the infection is untreated rheumatic fever can occur in up to three percent of people. The underlying mechanism is believed to involve the production of antibodies against a person's own tissues. Due to their genetics, some people are more likely to get the disease when exposed to the bacteria than others. Other risk factors include malnutrition and poverty. Diagnosis of RF is often based on the presence of signs and symptoms in combination with evidence of a recent streptococcal infection. Treating people who have strep | children each year and about 33.4 million people currently have rheumatic heart disease. Those who develop RF are most often between the ages of 5 and 14, with 20% of first-time attacks occurring in adults. The disease is most common in the developing world and among indigenous peoples in the developed world. In 2015 it resulted in 319,400 deaths down from 374,000 deaths in 1990. Most deaths occur in the developing world where as many as 12.5% of people affected may die each year. Descriptions of the condition are believed to date back to at least the 5th century BCE | eng_Latn | 3,110,002 |
what type of inheritance is associated with sickle cell anemia | Sickle cell disease Sickle cell disease (SCD) is a group of blood disorders typically inherited from a person's parents. The most common type is known as sickle cell anaemia (SCA). It results in an abnormality in the oxygen-carrying protein haemoglobin found in red blood cells. This leads to a rigid, sickle-like shape under certain circumstances. Problems in sickle cell disease typically begin around 5 to 6 months of age. A number of health problems may develop, such as attacks of pain ("sickle cell crisis"), anemia, swelling in the hands and feet, bacterial infections and stroke. Long-term pain may develop as | haemoglobin. Sickle cell conditions have an autosomal recessive pattern of inheritance from parents. The types of haemoglobin a person makes in the red blood cells depend on what haemoglobin genes are inherited from her or his parents. If one parent has sickle cell anaemia and the other has sickle cell trait, then the child has a 50% chance of having sickle cell disease and a 50% chance of having sickle cell trait. When both parents have sickle cell trait, a child has a 25% chance of sickle cell disease, 25% do not carry any sickle cell alleles, and 50% have | eng_Latn | 3,110,003 |
when is messenger rna made using dna as the pattern | Transcription (biology) Transcription is the first step of gene expression, in which a particular segment of DNA is copied into RNA (especially mRNA) by the enzyme RNA polymerase. Both DNA and RNA are nucleic acids, which use base pairs of nucleotides as a complementary language. During transcription, a DNA sequence is read by an RNA polymerase, which produces a complementary, antiparallel RNA strand called a primary transcript. Transcription proceeds in the following general steps: The stretch of DNA transcribed into an RNA molecule is called a "transcription unit" and encodes at least one gene. If the gene encodes a protein, | Primer (molecular biology) A primer is a short single strand of RNA or DNA (generally about 18-22 bases) that serves as a starting point for DNA synthesis. It is required for DNA replication because the enzymes that catalyze this process, DNA polymerases, can only add new nucleotides to an existing strand of DNA. The polymerase starts replication at the 3′-end of the primer, and copies the opposite strand. In vivo DNA replication utilizes short strands of RNA called RNA primers to initiate DNA synthesis on both the leading and lagging strands – DNA primers are not seen in vivo in | eng_Latn | 3,110,004 |
the foxp2 sequences of mice were most different from those of | is highly conserved in mammals. The human gene differs from that in non-human primates by the substitution of two amino acids, a threonine to asparagine substitution at position 303 (T303N) and an asparagine to serine substitution at position 325 (N325S). In mice it differs from that of humans by three substitutions, and in zebra finch by seven amino acids. One of the two amino acid differences between human and chimps also arose independently in carnivores and bats. Similar "FOXP2" proteins can be found in songbirds, fish, and reptiles such as alligators. DNA sampling from "Homo neanderthalensis" bones indicates that their | fashion. This is one of the few known examples of Mendelian (monogenic) inheritance for a disorder affecting speech and language skills, which typically have a complex basis involving multiple genetic risk factors. In 1998, Oxford University geneticists Simon Fisher, Anthony Monaco, Cecilia S. L. Lai, Jane A. Hurst, and Faraneh Vargha-Khadem identified an autosomal dominant monogenic inheritance that is localized on a small region of chromosome 7 from DNA samples taken from the affected and unaffected members. The chromosomal region (locus) contained 70 genes. The locus was given the official name "SPCH1" (for speech-and-language-disorder-1) by the Human Genome Nomenclature committee. | eng_Latn | 3,110,005 |
how many chromosomes are in the human genome | Human genome <section begin=lead />The human genome is the complete set of nucleic acid sequences for humans, encoded as DNA within the 23 chromosome pairs in cell nuclei and in a small DNA molecule found within individual mitochondria. These are usually treated separately as the nuclear genome, and the mitochondrial genome. Human genomes include both protein-coding DNA genes and noncoding DNA. Haploid human genomes, which are contained in germ cells (the egg and sperm gamete cells created in the meiosis phase of sexual reproduction before fertilization creates a zygote) consist of three billion DNA base pairs, while diploid genomes (found | for only a very small fraction of the genome (approximately 1.5%), and the rest is associated with non-coding RNA molecules, regulatory DNA sequences, LINEs, SINEs, introns, and sequences for which as yet no function has been determined. In June 2016, scientists formally announced HGP-Write, a plan to synthesize the human genome. The total length of the human genome is over 3 billion base pairs. The genome is organized into 22 paired chromosomes, plus the X chromosome (one in males, two in females) and, in males only, one Y chromosome. These are all large linear DNA molecules contained within the cell | eng_Latn | 3,110,006 |
where does dna replication begin on a chromosome | Origin of replication The origin of replication (also called the replication origin) is a particular sequence in a genome at which replication is initiated. This can either involve the replication of DNA in living organisms such as prokaryotes and eukaryotes, or that of DNA or RNA in viruses, such as double-stranded RNA viruses. DNA replication may proceed from this point bidirectionally or unidirectionally. The specific structure of the origin of replication varies somewhat from species to species, but all share some common characteristics such as high AT content (repeats of adenine and thymine are easier to separate because their base | the new helix will be composed of an original DNA strand as well as a newly synthesized strand. Cellular proofreading and error-checking mechanisms ensure near perfect fidelity for DNA replication. In a cell, DNA replication begins at specific locations, or origins of replication, in the genome. Unwinding of DNA at the origin and synthesis of new strands, accommodated by an enzyme known as helicase, results in replication forks growing bi-directionally from the origin. A number of proteins are associated with the replication fork to help in the initiation and continuation of DNA synthesis. Most prominently, DNA polymerase synthesizes the new | eng_Latn | 3,110,007 |
what is the blood type of a universal recipient | such donor plasma issued from a blood bank would be suitable for a recipient who may be D positive or D negative, as long as blood plasma and the recipient are ABO compatible. In transfusions of packed red blood cells, individuals with type O Rh D negative blood are often called universal donors. Those with type AB Rh D positive blood are called universal recipients. However, these terms are only generally true with respect to possible reactions of the recipient's anti-A and anti-B antibodies to transfused red blood cells, and also possible sensitization to Rh D antigens. One exception is | of a single ancestry. 6,331 genes common to all living animals have been identified; these may have arisen from a single common ancestor that lived 650 million years ago in the Precambrian. The genetic code (the "translation table" according to which DNA information is translated into amino acids, and hence proteins) is nearly identical for all known lifeforms, from bacteria and archaea to animals and plants. The universality of this code is generally regarded by biologists as definitive evidence in favor of universal common descent. The way that codons (DNA triplets) are mapped to amino acids seems to be strongly | eng_Latn | 3,110,008 |
when was dna testing first used in court | of zoology, botany, and agriculture. The process of DNA profiling was developed in the United Kingdom in 1984 by geneticist Sir Alec Jeffreys while working in the Department of Genetics at the University of Leicester. The process, developed by Jeffreys in conjunction with Peter Gill and Dave Werrett of the Forensic Science Service (FSS), was first used forensically in the solving of the murder of two teenagers, Lynda Mann and Dawn Ashworth, who had been raped and murdered in Narborough, Leicestershire, in 1983 and 1986 respectively. In the subsequent murder inquiry, led by Detective David Baker, the DNA contained within | with a 40% exclusion rate. In the 1960s, highly accurate genetic paternity testing became a possibility when HLA typing was developed, which compares the genetic fingerprints on white blood cells between the child and alleged parent. HLA tests could be done with 80% accuracy, but could not distinguish between close relatives. Genetic parental testing technology advanced further with the isolation of the first restriction enzyme in 1970. Highly accurate DNA parental testing became available in the 1980s with the development of RFLP. In the 1990s, PCR, developed in 1983, became the standard method for DNA parental testing. A simpler, faster, | eng_Latn | 3,110,009 |
what specific type of acquired immunity vaccines provide | adaptive because the body's immune system prepares itself for future challenges. Active immunity often involves both the cell-mediated and humoral aspects of immunity as well as input from the innate immune system. Naturally acquired active immunity occurs when a person is exposed to a live pathogen and develops a primary immune response, which leads to immunological memory. This type of immunity is "natural" because deliberate exposure does not induce it. Many disorders of immune system function can affect the formation of active immunity such as immunodeficiency (both acquired and congenital forms) and immunosuppression. Artificially acquired active immunity can be induced | This type of transfer differs from a bone marrow transplant, in which (undifferentiated) hematopoietic stem cells are transferred. When B cells and T cells are activated by a pathogen, memory B-cells and T- cells develop, and the primary immune response results. Throughout the lifetime of an animal, these memory cells will "remember" each specific pathogen encountered, and can mount a strong secondary response if the pathogen is detected again. The primary and secondary responses were first described in 1921 by English immunologist Alexander Glenny although the mechanism involved was not discovered until later.This type of immunity is both active and | eng_Latn | 3,110,010 |
which type of hepatitis is responsible for 50 to 76 of all patients with liver cancer | followed. Primary liver cancer is globally the sixth most frequent cancer (6%) and the second leading cause of death from cancer (9%). In 2012 it occurred in 782,000 people and in 2015 resulted in 810,500 deaths. In 2015, 263,000 deaths from liver cancer were due to hepatitis B, 167,000 to hepatitis C, and 245,000 to alcohol. Higher rates of liver cancer occur where hepatitis B and C are common, including Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. Males are more often affected with HCC than females. Diagnosis is most frequent among those 55 to 65 years old. Five-year survival rates are 18% in | world today, accounting for 80% of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The viruses cause HCC because massive inflammation, fibrosis and eventual cirrhosis occurs within the liver. HCC usually arises after cirrhosis, with an annual incidence of 1.7% in cirrhotic HCV-infected individuals. Around 5-10% of individuals that become infected with HBV become chronic carriers, and around 30% of these acquire chronic liver disease, which can lead to HCC. HBV infection is also linked to cholangiocarcinoma. The role of viruses other than HCV or HBV in liver cancer is much less clear, although there is some evidence that co-infection of HBV and hepatitis D | eng_Latn | 3,110,011 |
what chemical changes in histone proteins are responsible for changes in gene expression | collectively, can direct specific cellular functions. Chemical modifications of histone proteins often occur on particular amino acids. This specific addition of single or multiple modifications on histone cores can be interpreted by transcription factors and complexes which leads to functional implications. This process is facilitated by enzymes such as HATs and HDACs that add or remove modifications on histones, and transcription factors that process and "read" the modification codes. The outcome can be activation of transcription or repression of a gene. For example, the combination of acetylation and phosphorylation have synergistic effects on the chromosomes overall structural condensation level and, | within chromatin. Studies have shown that one modification has the tendency to influence whether another modification will take place. Modifications of histones can not only cause secondary structural changes at their specific points, but can cause many structural changes in distant locations which inevitably affects function. As the chromosome is replicated, the modifications that exist on the parental chromosomes are handed down to daughter chromosomes. The modifications, as part of their function, can recruit enzymes for their particular function and can contribute to the continuation of modifications and their effects after replication has taken place. It has been shown that, | eng_Latn | 3,110,012 |
what is the name of the new generation | to choose the name of the next generation after the Millennials. The name "Generation Z" was suggested, although journalist Bruce Horovitz thought that some might find the term "off-putting". Some other names that were proposed included: "iGeneration", "Gen Tech", "Gen Wii", "Net Gen", "Digital Natives", and "Plurals". "Post-Millennial" is a name given by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and Pew Research in statistics published in 2016 showing the relative sizes and dates of the generations. The same sources showed that , the Millennial generation surpassed the population of Baby Boomers in the USA (77 million "vs". 76 | marks the continual rise of life sciences, making mankind's long-held dreams, such as curing cancer, more realistic. By the 2010s, gene therapy, first performed somatically in late 1990 and heritably in 1996, showed promise but remains an experimental and emerging technology. Assistive reproductive technology developed in the 1980s, such as polar body biopsy and preimplantation genetic diagnosis, has allowed for the selection of genetic traits, and, along with the advent of ultrasound, has increased the number of boys and decreased the number of girls in many countries, most notably in China and India but also in other Asian and eastern | eng_Latn | 3,110,013 |
based on the large number of hiv replicates produced it is common to find | a complementary DNA (cDNA) molecule. The process of reverse transcription is extremely error-prone, and the resulting mutations may cause drug resistance or allow the virus to evade the body's immune system. The reverse transcriptase also has ribonuclease activity that degrades the viral RNA during the synthesis of cDNA, as well as DNA-dependent DNA polymerase activity that creates a sense DNA from the "antisense" cDNA. Together, the cDNA and its complement form a double-stranded viral DNA that is then transported into the cell nucleus. The integration of the viral DNA into the host cell's genome is carried out by another viral | variability. This diversity is a result of its fast replication cycle, with the generation of about 10 virions every day, coupled with a high mutation rate of approximately 3 x 10 per nucleotide base per cycle of replication and recombinogenic properties of reverse transcriptase. This complex scenario leads to the generation of many variants of HIV in a single infected patient in the course of one day. This variability is compounded when a single cell is simultaneously infected by two or more different strains of HIV. When simultaneous infection occurs, the genome of progeny virions may be composed of RNA | eng_Latn | 3,110,014 |
how many members does a nuclear family have | Nuclear family A nuclear family, elementary family or conjugal family is a family group consisting of two parents and their children (one or more). It is in contrast to a single-parent family, to the larger extended family, and to a family with more than two parents. Nuclear families typically center on a married couple; the nuclear family may have any number of children. There are differences in definition among observers; some definitions allow only biological children that are full-blood siblings, but others allow for a stepparent and any mix of dependent children including stepchildren and adopted children. Family structures of | the women living in rural areas with larger families were more likely to want more children, compared to women that lived in urban areas in Japan. Merriam-Webster dates the term back to 1947, while the "Oxford English Dictionary" has a reference to the term from 1925; thus it is relatively new. In its most common usage, the term "nuclear family" refers to a household consisting of a father, a mother and their children all in one household dwelling. George Murdock, an observer of families, offered an early description: Many individuals are part of two nuclear families in their lives: the | eng_Latn | 3,110,015 |
when did the human genome project start and finish | Human Genome Project The Human Genome Project (HGP) was an international scientific research project with the goal of determining the sequence of nucleotide base pairs that make up human DNA, and of identifying and mapping all of the genes of the human genome from both a physical and a functional standpoint. It remains the world's largest collaborative biological project. After the idea was picked up in 1984 by the US government when the planning started, the project formally launched in 1990 and was declared complete on April 14, 2003. Funding came from the US government through the National Institutes of | 15 years. In addition to the United States, the international consortium comprised geneticists in the United Kingdom, France, Australia, China and myriad other spontaneous relationships. Considering the inflation, the project roughly costed $5 billion. Due to widespread international cooperation and advances in the field of genomics (especially in sequence analysis), as well as major advances in computing technology, a 'rough draft' of the genome was finished in 2000 (announced jointly by U.S. President Bill Clinton and the British Prime Minister Tony Blair on June 26, 2000). This first available rough draft assembly of the genome was completed by the Genome | eng_Latn | 3,110,016 |
how long is the bio sat subject test | SAT Subject Test in Biology E/M The SAT Subject Test in Biology is the name of a one-hour multiple choice test given on biology by The College Board. A student chooses whether to take the test depending upon college entrance requirements for the schools in which the student is planning to apply. Until 1994, the SAT Subject Tests were known as Achievement Tests; and from 1995 until January 2005, they were known as SAT IIs. Of all SAT subject tests, the Biology E/M test is the only SAT II that allows the test taker a choice between the ecological or | molecular tests. A set of 60 questions is taken by all test takers for Biology and a choice of 20 questions is allowed between either the E or M tests. This test is graded on a scale between 200 and 800. The average for Molecular is 630 while Ecological is 591. This test has 80 multiple-choice questions that are to be answered in one hour. All questions have five answer choices. Students receive one point for each correct answer, lose ¼ of a point for each incorrect answer, and receive 0 points for questions left blank. The student's score is | eng_Latn | 3,110,017 |
when was the last e type jag made | Jaguar E-Type The Jaguar E-Type, or the Jaguar XK-E for the North American market, is a British sports car that was manufactured by Jaguar Cars Ltd between 1961 and 1975. Its combination of beauty, high performance, and competitive pricing established the model as an icon of the motoring world. The E-Type's 150 mph (241 km/h) top speed, sub-7-second 0 to 60 mph (97 km/h) acceleration, monocoque construction, disc brakes, rack-and-pinion steering, and independent front and rear suspension distinguished the car and spurred industry-wide changes. The E-Type was based on Jaguar's D-Type racing car, which had won the 24 Hours of | to Jaguar in England to be used as a test vehicle. Ownership of E2A passed to Roger Woodley (Jaguar's customer competition car manager) who took possession on the basis the car not be used for racing. E2A had been scheduled to be scrapped. Roger's wife owned E2A until 2008 when it was offered for sale at Bonham's Quail Auction, where it sold for US$4,957,000. Jaguar unveiled a modern revival of the 1968 E-Type series 1.5 roadster with an all-electric, zero-emission powertrain in September 2017. The vehicle has a 40kWH battery-powered electric motor and can accelerate to 60mph in 5.5 seconds. | eng_Latn | 3,110,018 |
who makes the fastest car in the world | any such claims. Examples of the difficulties faced were shown up in the dispute between Bugatti and Hennessey over which car was the world's fastest. On 4 July 2010 the Bugatti Veyron Super Sport reached two-way average. Bugatti built 30 Super Sports (5 of them named World Record Edition). At the time the record was set it was known that the customer cars were electronically limited to . Guinness Book of Records (which had listed speeds by British cars with modified rev limiter as production car records in the 1990s) listed the unlimited as production car speed record. Yet, 3 | in it. Speed draws many people to motorcycling because the power-to-weight ratio of even a low-power motorcycle is in league with that of an expensive sports car. The power-to-weight ratio of many modestly priced sport bikes is well beyond any mass-market automobile and rivals that of supercars for a fraction of the price. The fastest accelerating production cars, capable of in under 3.5 seconds, or in under 12 seconds is a relatively select club of exotic names like Porsche and Lamborghini, with a few extreme sub-models of popular sports cars, like the Shelby Mustang, and mostly made since the 1990s. | eng_Latn | 3,110,019 |
what are common additives for jet a fuel | biocides, static reducers, icing inhibitors, corrosion inhibitors, and impurities. Principal components include n-heptane and isooctane. Like other fuels, aviation fuel for spark-ignited piston engines are described by their octane rating. Alcohol, alcohol mixtures, and other alternative fuels may be used experimentally, but alcohol is not permitted in any certified aviation fuel specification. In Brazil, the Embraer Ipanema EMB-202A is a version of the Ipanema agricultural aircraft with a modified Lycoming IO-540-K1J5 engine so as to be able to run on ethanol. Other aircraft engines that were modified to run on 100% ethanol were several other types of Lycoming engines (including | Jet fuel Jet fuel, aviation turbine fuel (ATF), or avtur, is a type of aviation fuel designed for use in aircraft powered by gas-turbine engines. It is colorless to straw-colored in appearance. The most commonly used fuels for commercial aviation are Jet A and Jet A-1, which are produced to a standardized international specification. The only other jet fuel commonly used in civilian turbine-engine powered aviation is Jet B, which is used for its enhanced cold-weather performance. Jet fuel is a mixture of a large number of different hydrocarbons. The range of their sizes (molecular weights or carbon numbers) is | eng_Latn | 3,110,020 |
which was the first airline to fly the jumbo jet | received FAA certification on August 1, 1979, and was delivered the next day. Nine -100Bs were built, one for Iran Air and eight for Saudi Arabian Airlines. Unlike the original -100, the -100B was offered with Pratt & Whitney JT9D-7A, General Electric CF6-50, or Rolls-Royce RB211-524 engines. However, only RB211-524 (Saudia) and JT9D-7A (Iran Air) engines were ordered. The last 747-100B, EP-IAM was retired by Iran Air in 2014, the last commercial operator of the 747-100 and -100B. The development of the 747SP stemmed from a joint request between Pan American World Airways and Iran Air, who were looking for | Havilland and became, in 1949, the world's first jet airliner, the Comet. It featured an aerodynamically clean design with four de Havilland Ghost turbojet engines buried in the wings, a pressurised fuselage, and large, square windows. For the era, it offered a relatively quiet, comfortable passenger cabin and showed signs of being a commercial success at its 1952 debut. However, a year after entering commercial service, the Comets began suffering problems, with three of them breaking up during mid-flight in well-publicised accidents. This was later found to be due to catastrophic metal fatigue, not well understood at the time, in | eng_Latn | 3,110,021 |
when was the boeing 747 first used for commercial service | Boeing 747 The Boeing 747 is an American wide-body commercial jet airliner and cargo aircraft, often referred to by its original nickname, "Jumbo Jet". Its distinctive hump upper deck along the forward part of the aircraft has made it one of the most recognizable aircraft, and it was the first wide-body airplane produced. Manufactured by Boeing's Commercial Airplane unit in the United States, the 747 was originally envisioned to have 150 percent greater capacity than the Boeing 707, a common large commercial aircraft of the 1960s. First flown commercially in 1970, the 747 held the passenger capacity record for 37 | accumulated from a greater number of takeoffs and landings. Extra structural support was built into the wings, fuselage, and the landing gear along with a 20 percent reduction in fuel capacity. The initial order for the -100SR – four aircraft for Japan Air Lines (JAL, later Japan Airlines) – was announced on October 30, 1972; rollout occurred on August 3, 1973, and the first flight took place on August 31, 1973. The type was certified by the FAA on September 26, 1973, with the first delivery on the same day. The -100SR entered service with JAL, the type's sole customer, | eng_Latn | 3,110,022 |
when was the boeing 747 first used for commerical service | Boeing 747 The Boeing 747 is an American wide-body commercial jet airliner and cargo aircraft, often referred to by its original nickname, "Jumbo Jet". Its distinctive hump upper deck along the forward part of the aircraft has made it one of the most recognizable aircraft, and it was the first wide-body airplane produced. Manufactured by Boeing's Commercial Airplane unit in the United States, the 747 was originally envisioned to have 150 percent greater capacity than the Boeing 707, a common large commercial aircraft of the 1960s. First flown commercially in 1970, the 747 held the passenger capacity record for 37 | flight card was only updated when the customer actually bought a seat. The major advantage of this system over the older pegboard was that the signals could be operated remotely. This eliminated the need to have one very large room for bookings, and allowed the terminals to be installed remotely. The flight status could also easily be copied from machine to machine by installing a remote display at another booking office and then having operators copy the settings from one machine to the other. The Reservisor was installed in American's Boston reservation office in February 1946. After a one-year trial, | eng_Latn | 3,110,023 |
who built the first v twin motorcycle engine | V-twin engine A V-twin engine, also called a V2 engine, is a two-cylinder internal combustion engine where the cylinders are arranged in a V configuration. Although widely associated with motorcycles, V-twin engines are also produced for the power equipment industry and are often found in riding lawnmowers, small tractors and electric generators. Gottlieb Daimler built a V-twin engine in 1889. It was used as a stationary powerplant and to power boats. It was also used in Daimler's second automobile, the 1889 "Stahlradwagen" ("steel-wheeled car"). The engine was also manufactured under licence in France by Panhard et Levassor. In November 1902 | V engine A V engine, or Vee engine is a common configuration for an internal combustion engine. The cylinders and pistons are aligned, in two separate planes or 'banks', so that they appear to be in a "V" when viewed along the axis of the crankshaft. The Vee configuration generally reduces the overall engine length, height and weight compared with an equivalent inline configuration. The first V-type engine, a 2-cylinder vee twin, was built in 1889 by Daimler, to a design by Wilhelm Maybach. By 1903 V8 engines were being produced for motor boat racing by the Société Antoinette to | eng_Latn | 3,110,024 |
first airline to put the boeing 747 into u.s. domestic service | received FAA certification on August 1, 1979, and was delivered the next day. Nine -100Bs were built, one for Iran Air and eight for Saudi Arabian Airlines. Unlike the original -100, the -100B was offered with Pratt & Whitney JT9D-7A, General Electric CF6-50, or Rolls-Royce RB211-524 engines. However, only RB211-524 (Saudia) and JT9D-7A (Iran Air) engines were ordered. The last 747-100B, EP-IAM was retired by Iran Air in 2014, the last commercial operator of the 747-100 and -100B. The development of the 747SP stemmed from a joint request between Pan American World Airways and Iran Air, who were looking for | Boeing 747 The Boeing 747 is an American wide-body commercial jet airliner and cargo aircraft, often referred to by its original nickname, "Jumbo Jet". Its distinctive hump upper deck along the forward part of the aircraft has made it one of the most recognizable aircraft, and it was the first wide-body airplane produced. Manufactured by Boeing's Commercial Airplane unit in the United States, the 747 was originally envisioned to have 150 percent greater capacity than the Boeing 707, a common large commercial aircraft of the 1960s. First flown commercially in 1970, the 747 held the passenger capacity record for 37 | eng_Latn | 3,110,025 |
when did the yamaha xt250 get fuel injection | was reintroduced in 2008 due to increased popularity of the 250 cc class. The XT250 is branded the SEROW 250 in Japan. In 2013, the USA XT250 received a fuel-injected engine. Yamaha XT250 The Yamaha XT250 is a motorcycle made by Yamaha Motor Company. Released in 1980, this dual-sport motorcycle has been a staple of back roads and farms. One was ridden by Rambo in the 1982 movie "First Blood". It also featured in Season 4 of Knight Rider, as Reginald Cornelius III/RC3's bike. Starting in 1984, this model had its top-end output reduced to 17 hp @ 7,500 rpm | Yamaha XT250 The Yamaha XT250 is a motorcycle made by Yamaha Motor Company. Released in 1980, this dual-sport motorcycle has been a staple of back roads and farms. One was ridden by Rambo in the 1982 movie "First Blood". It also featured in Season 4 of Knight Rider, as Reginald Cornelius III/RC3's bike. Starting in 1984, this model had its top-end output reduced to 17 hp @ 7,500 rpm due to emissions control considerations. In addition, this model featured redesigned plastics and a more compact gasoline tank. Having been discontinued in 1991 in favor of the Yamaha XT350, this model | eng_Latn | 3,110,026 |
what was the last year of the evo motor | Harley-Davidson Evolution engine The Evolution engine (popularly known as Evo) is an air-cooled, 45-degree, V-twin engine manufactured from 1984 by Harley-Davidson for the company's motorcycles. It was made in the displacement for Harley-Davidson Big V-twins bikes, replacing the Shovelhead engine until 2000 when the last EVO was placed in a production factory custom FXR4 (FXR2 and FXR3 were the first CVOs). In 1999, it was replaced by the Harley-Davidson Twin Cam 88 in the Touring and Dyna model and in 2000 in the Softail models. Also available in the Sportster model beginning in 1986, it was made in the displacement | "Best Performance Car under $50K" by Canadian TV show "Motoring 2009", and won the Automobile Journalists Association of Canada's 2009 "Best New Technology" award. It was also nominated as one of the top 10 "World Performance Car of the Year", won the Automotive Excellence Awards' 2008 "Fun to Drive" category, and took Dave TV's "Sports Car of the Year" award in 2008. Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution The Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution, also known as 'Evo', is a sports sedan based on the Lancer that was manufactured by Japanese manufacturer Mitsubishi Motors from 1992 until 2016. There have been ten official versions to | eng_Latn | 3,110,027 |
how many gears does a 2003 yz450f have | to mid-RPMs. 2008-2009 furthered pushed the powerband to mid-RPMs. September 8, 2009, Yamaha introduced its all-new YZ450F with fuel injection. The engine cylinder is rearward slanted, the crank rod angle has been changed to provide a more complete combustion, the 5-valve head is now a 4-valve head, the gas tank is located under the seat, the exhaust pipe exits the rear of the cylinder, and the air intake is now in the front of the bike. They have a new bi-lateral frame which allows for new improved steering and the new engine components. The entire package comes together to create | rev limit. Yamaha XF50X The Yamaha XF50 (marketed as the C3 in North America, Vox in Japan, and Giggle in Europe) is a liquid cooled 49cc four-stroke motor scooter made by Yamaha Motor Company. It is notable for the 9-gallon capacity of the under-seat storage compartment, and a distinctively "box"-like rear section and seat which accommodates it. The United States Environmental Protection Agency mileage estimates for the C3 are up to 115 miles per gallon (2L per 100 km), depending upon how it is ridden, maintenance, road conditions, cargo, and driver/passenger weight. In North America, the C3's top speed is | eng_Latn | 3,110,028 |
who makes the diesel engine in the jeep liberty | cylinders. The after-cooled, electronic-combustion, "Turbotronic" engine was unveiled in 1990. It was supplied to Alfa Romeo, Chrysler, Ford, General Motors, and Rover. In 1995, when OEM automotive sales accounted for 75% of income, a major deal with Chrysler saw agreements to supply engines for their Jeep Grand Cherokee and Voyager (2.5-litre) models. VM Motori's 2.8-litre common rail turbodiesel engine was chosen for the Jeep Liberty CRD(Cherokee in Europe). The 2005 and later Chrysler Grand Voyager and 2012 model year Chevrolet Colorado That sale in Thailand is also fitted with the VM 2.8-litre (R428) engine. In the late 1990s, a new | Ford Power Stroke engine Power Stroke is a name used by a family of diesel engines for trucks produced by Ford Motor Company since 1994. Along with its use in the Ford F-Series (including the Ford Super Duty trucks), applications include the Ford E-Series, Ford Excursion, and Ford LCF commercial truck; the name was also used for a diesel engine used in South American production of the Ford Ranger. From 1994, the Power Stroke engine family existed as a re-branding of engines produced by Navistar International, sharing engines with its medium-duty truck lines. Since the 2010 introduction of the 6.7L | eng_Latn | 3,110,029 |
where is the harley davidson street 750 made | Harley-Davidson Street The Harley-Davidson Street motorcycle series was announced by Harley-Davidson at the 2013 EICMA show in Milan for 2014 introduction. It will comprise Harley's first all-new models in 13 years, and Harley's first lightweight motorcycle since the 1974 Sprint. The 750 is powered by a 749 cc displacement version of Harley's 60° SOHC V-twin, water-cooled Revolution engine dubbed the Revolution X. The Street 500 has a 494 cc narrower-bore but otherwise identical engine. Production for sale in the United States and Canada is done at Harley's Kansas City facility; production for the rest of the world, including engines, is | uses an all-new, liquid-cooled, 60° V-twin engine called the Revolution X. In the Street 750, the engine displaces and produces 65 Nm at 4,000 rpm. A six speed transmission is used. The Street 750 and the smaller-displacement Street 500 has been available since late 2014. Street series motorcycles for the North American market will be built in Harley-Davidson's Kansas City, Missouri plant, while those for other markets around the world will be built completely in their plant in Bawal, India. Custom Vehicle Operations (CVO) is a team within Harley-Davidson that produces limited-edition customizations of Harley's stock models. Every year since | eng_Latn | 3,110,030 |
when did harley davidson buy back from amf | almost went bankrupt. The "Harley-Davidson" name was mocked as "Hardly Ableson", "Hardly Driveable," and "Hogly Ferguson", and the nickname "Hog" became pejorative. In 1977, following the successful manufacture of the Liberty Edition to commemorate America's bicentennial in 1976, Harley-Davidson produced what has become one of its most controversial models, the Harley-Davidson Confederate Edition. The bike was essentially a stock Harley with Confederate-specific paint and details. In 1981, AMF sold the company to a group of 13 investors led by Vaughn Beals and Willie G. Davidson for $80 million. Inventory was strictly controlled using the just-in-time system. In the early eighties, | license to the company Rikuo (Rikuo Internal Combustion Company) under the name of Harley-Davidson and using the company's tooling, and later under the name Rikuo. Production continued until 1958. In 1952, following their application to the U.S. Tariff Commission for a 40 percent tax on imported motorcycles, Harley-Davidson was charged with restrictive practices. In 1969, American Machine and Foundry (AMF) bought the company, streamlined production, and slashed the workforce. This tactic resulted in a labor strike and lower-quality bikes. The bikes were expensive and inferior in performance, handling, and quality to Japanese motorcycles. Sales and quality declined, and the company | eng_Latn | 3,110,031 |
when did yamaha start fuel injection on dirt bikes | to mid-RPMs. 2008-2009 furthered pushed the powerband to mid-RPMs. September 8, 2009, Yamaha introduced its all-new YZ450F with fuel injection. The engine cylinder is rearward slanted, the crank rod angle has been changed to provide a more complete combustion, the 5-valve head is now a 4-valve head, the gas tank is located under the seat, the exhaust pipe exits the rear of the cylinder, and the air intake is now in the front of the bike. They have a new bi-lateral frame which allows for new improved steering and the new engine components. The entire package comes together to create | in 1997. It was "the first modern production four-stroke motocrosser that was directly competitive against two-strokes." Initially, Yamaha targeted a dry weight of 233 pounds (106 kg) (on par with the 250 two-strokes of the time), but by production, the bike weighed 250 pounds. The bike had an 11,600 rpm redline power and torque close to its 250 cc two-stroke rivals. It benefited from engine compression braking, which allowed the engine to slow the bike down during deceleration, giving the brakes a rest. The 1998 YZ400F was the first bike to come stock with a Keihin FCR carburetor. In 1998, | eng_Latn | 3,110,032 |
how many cylinders does a bugatti veyron super sport have | race driver who, with co-driver Jean-Pierre Wimille, won the 1939 24 Hours of Le Mans while driving a Bugatti. The "EB" refers to Bugatti founder Ettore Bugatti and the "16.4" refers to the engine's 16 cylinders and 4 turbochargers. The Veyron features an 8.0-litre, quad-turbocharged, W16 cylinder engine, equivalent to two narrow-angle V8 engines bolted together. Each cylinder has four valves for a total of 64, but the configuration of each bank allows two overhead camshafts to drive two banks of cylinders so only four camshafts are needed. The engine is fed by four turbochargers and displaces , with a | Ducati Superquadro engine The Ducati Superquadro engine is a 90° V-twin four-stroke motorcycle engine made by Ducati since 2011. It has Ducati's signature desmodromic valve system, with four valves per cylinder and gear/chain driven double overhead camshafts. It has been made in four displacements ranging from , with power as high as in the largest version. The Superquadro engine was first used in the 1199 Panigale of 2011, with a bore and stroke of . This was followed in 2013 by a smaller , version, used in the 899 Panigale. The successor models, the 1299 Panigale of 2015 and the | eng_Latn | 3,110,033 |
when did the lancer evo come to the us | around 1998. Mitsubishi decided to export the eighth generation Evolution to the United States in 2003 after witnessing the success Subaru had in that market with their long-time direct rival, the Subaru Impreza WRX STi. Japanese-spec cars were limited by a gentlemen's agreement to advertise no more than , a mark already reached by Evolution IV. Therefore, each subsequent version has unofficially evolved above the advertised power figures, with the Japanese-spec Evolution IX reaching an alleged output of around . Various versions available in other markets, particularly the UK, have official power outputs up to . The tenth and final | Mitsubishi Lancer The Mitsubishi Lancer is a compact car produced by the Japanese manufacturer Mitsubishi since 1973. The Lancer has been marketed as the Colt Lancer, Dodge/Plymouth Colt, Chrysler Valiant Lancer, Chrysler Lancer, Eagle Summit, Hindustan Lancer, Soueast Lioncel, and Mitsubishi Mirage in various countries at different times, and has been sold as the Mitsubishi Galant Fortis in Japan since 2007. It has also been sold as Mitsubishi Lancer Fortis in Taiwan with a different facelift than the Galant Fortis. In Japan, it was sold at a specific retail chain called Car Plaza. Between its introduction in 1973 and 2008, | eng_Latn | 3,110,034 |
how much hp does a nitro funny car have | preset before each run according to various conditions, in particular track surface. Wheelbases are between . The car must maintain a ground clearance. Horsepower claims vary widely—from 6,978 to 8,897—but are probably around 8,000 HP. Supercharged, nitromethane-fueled motors of this type also have a very high torque, which is estimated at about . They routinely achieve a 6G acceleration from a standing start. Many safety rules are in place to protect the driver and fans. The more visible safety devices are the twin parachutes to help stabilize and decelerate the car after crossing the finish line. Less visible precautions include | (called a "5/8 stroker"). The 3/4 stroker is the most common combination used today and equals 496 CID (8.1 L). Crankshafts are CNC machine carved from steel billet then nitrided in an oven to increase surface hardness. Intake valves are titanium and of diameter, while exhaust valves are diameter, made from Inconel. Every Funny Car has ballistic blankets covering the supercharger because this part of the engine is prone to explosion. Funny Car fuel systems are key to their immense power. During a single run (starting, burnout, backing up, staging, 1/4 mile) cars can burn as much as of fuel. | eng_Latn | 3,110,035 |
when did harley davidson introduced the evo motor | Harley-Davidson Evolution engine The Evolution engine (popularly known as Evo) is an air-cooled, 45-degree, V-twin engine manufactured from 1984 by Harley-Davidson for the company's motorcycles. It was made in the displacement for Harley-Davidson Big V-twins bikes, replacing the Shovelhead engine until 2000 when the last EVO was placed in a production factory custom FXR4 (FXR2 and FXR3 were the first CVOs). In 1999, it was replaced by the Harley-Davidson Twin Cam 88 in the Touring and Dyna model and in 2000 in the Softail models. Also available in the Sportster model beginning in 1986, it was made in the displacement | the same time as the Twin Cam 96A model, for the 2007 model year, and was equipped on all Softail models until it was replaced by the 103 ci version. It is possible, however, to mount a regular Twin Cam motor to a pre-2000 Softail (or any chassis that accepts an Evolution engine) through third-party adapters. The engine design differed considerably from its predecessor the "Evo" although it shared some design elements with the Sportster line. The "88" represents the displacement in cubic inches of the standard engine. The bore is and the stroke is , meaning the displacement is | eng_Latn | 3,110,036 |
what is the full form of rtr in apache | TVS Apache The TVS Apache is a brand of motorcycle made by TVS Motors since 2006. In 2008 the company claimed that more than 2.5 million Apaches were on the road.Currently the company sells five variants of the TVS Apache. The differences between each variant being the engine displacement, the options on offer and performance characteristics. The abbreviation 'RTR' in the names of the motorcycles refer to 'Racing Throttle Response'. TVS which partnered with Suzuki for 19 years had brought out several two-stroke motorcycles in India. When the emission norms in the country changed, a need for more fuel efficient | Request Tracker Request Tracker, commonly abbreviated to RT, is a ticket-tracking system written in Perl used to coordinate tasks and manage requests among a community of users. RT's first release in 1996 was written by Jesse Vincent, who later formed Best Practical Solutions LLC to distribute, develop, and support the package. RT is open source (FOSS) and distributed under the GNU General Public License. Request Tracker for Incident Response (RTIR) is a special distribution of RT to fulfill the specific needs of CERT teams. It was initially developed in cooperation with JANET-CERT, and in 2006 was upgraded and expanded with | eng_Latn | 3,110,037 |
how many turbos does a bugatti veyron ss have | race driver who, with co-driver Jean-Pierre Wimille, won the 1939 24 Hours of Le Mans while driving a Bugatti. The "EB" refers to Bugatti founder Ettore Bugatti and the "16.4" refers to the engine's 16 cylinders and 4 turbochargers. The Veyron features an 8.0-litre, quad-turbocharged, W16 cylinder engine, equivalent to two narrow-angle V8 engines bolted together. Each cylinder has four valves for a total of 64, but the configuration of each bank allows two overhead camshafts to drive two banks of cylinders so only four camshafts are needed. The engine is fed by four turbochargers and displaces , with a | square bore and stroke. The transmission is a dual-clutch direct-shift computer-controlled automatic transmission with seven gear ratios, with magnesium paddles behind the steering wheel and a shift time of less than 150 milliseconds, built by Ricardo of England rather than Borg-Warner, who designed the six speed DSG used in the mainstream Volkswagen Group marques. The Veyron can be driven in either semi-automatic or fully automatic mode. A replacement transmission for the Veyron costs just over . It also has permanent all-wheel drive using the Haldex Traction system. It uses special Michelin PAX run-flat tyres, designed specifically to accommodate the Veyron's | eng_Latn | 3,110,038 |
who manufactures the engines for the airbus a380 | accident investigation agency BEA, which is conducting the investigation into the incident, released photos of the first engine fan and cowling parts being recovered in Greenland. Engine Alliance GP7000 The Engine Alliance GP7000 is a turbofan jet engine manufactured by Engine Alliance, a joint venture between General Electric and Pratt & Whitney. It is one of the powerplant options available for the Airbus A380, along with the Rolls-Royce Trent 900. Originally intended to power Boeing Commercial Airplanes' cancelled 747-500X/-600X, the engine has since been pushed for Airbus' A380-800 superjumbo. It is built around an 0.72 scale of the GE90-110B/115B core | Safran Aircraft Engines Safran Aircraft Engines (previously Snecma) is a French aerospace engine manufacturer headquartered in Courcouronnes, France. It designs, makes and maintains engines for commercial and military aircraft as well as rocket engines for launch vehicles and satellites. Some of its notable past developments, alone or in partnership, include the M88 for the Rafale, Olympus 593 for the Concorde, CFM56/CFM-LEAP for single-aisle airliners, and the Vulcain engines for the Ariane 5. It has 15,700 employees working at 35 production sites, offices, and MRO facilities worldwide. It files an average of nearly 500 patents each year. Safran Aircraft Engines is | eng_Latn | 3,110,039 |
what size engine does a 2006 chevy equinox have | the Vue, riding on a wheelbase, longer than the Vue. Front-wheel drive is standard, with optional all-wheel drive. They are not designed for serious off-roading like the truck-based Chevrolet Tahoe and Chevrolet TrailBlazer. For the 2006 model year, GM updated the Equinox for the first time, as GM badges were added on the front doors. The first generation Equinox and Torrent were produced exclusively at the CAMI Automotive GM/Suzuki joint venture plant in Ingersoll, Ontario, Canada. The 3.4 L "LNJ" V6 engine is made in China (by Shanghai GM), while the Aisin AF33 transmission is made in Japan. Starting with | Equinox Fuel Cell is about heavier than the original Equinox and has one inch less ground clearance. To reduce weight, it has aluminum doors and a carbon fiber hood. It uses headlights from the Pontiac Torrent. A dashboard mounted screen calculates the fuel savings to that of a gasoline-powered Equinox. It also includes a kilowatt meter and a fuel cell energy display. The fuel cell has four vapor outlets that replace the exhaust pipe. Three carbon-fiber fuel tanks store up to a maximum of 9.25 pounds (4.2 kg) of gaseous hydrogen at 10,000 psi (70 MPa), and give the Equinox | eng_Latn | 3,110,040 |
what does dyna stand for in harley davidson | Harley-Davidson Super Glide The Harley-Davidson Super Glide was a motorcycle model made by the Harley-Davidson Motor Company. Reputed to be the first factory custom motorcycle, it originated Harley's FX series of motorcycles by mating Sportster components, most notably the front end, with the chassis of their larger big twin motorcycles. Super Glide models from 1991 to 2017 were based on the Dyna Glide chassis which offers a wider variety of front ends and trim levels, and for a time filled the intermediate niche between the smallest and largest Harley models; the Dyna platform has since been discontinued for the 2018 | break the tradition of having an FX model designation with floorboards, detachable painted hard saddlebags, touring windshield, headlight nacelle and a wide front tire with full fender. The new front end resembled the big-twin FL models from 1968-1971. The Dyna family used the 88-cubic-inch (1,440 cm³) twin cam from 1999 to 2006. In 2007, the displacement was increased to 96 cubic inches (1,570 cm³) as the factory increased the stroke to . For the 2012 model year, the manufacturer began to offer Dyna models with the 103-cubic-inch (1,690 cm³) upgrade. All Dyna models use a rubber-mounted engine to isolate engine | eng_Latn | 3,110,041 |
what was the first year harley davidson has fuel injection | used various ignition systems throughout its history – be it the early points and condenser system, (Big Twin up to 1978 and Sportsters up to 1978), magneto ignition system used on some 1958 to 1969 Sportsters, early electronic with centrifugal mechanical advance weights, (all models 1978 and a half to 1979), or the late electronic with transistorized ignition control module, more familiarly known as the black box or the brain, (all models 1980 to present). Starting in 1995, the company introduced Electronic Fuel Injection (EFI) as an option for the 30th anniversary edition Electra Glide. EFI became standard on all | . The Twin Cam 96 displaces . The company released for 2010 Electra Glide Ultra Limited models, and later for 2012 Softail models and for Screamin' Eagle/CVO Models. Development of the Twin Cam started in the early 1990s, as Harley sought to address problems affecting the previous Evolution engine, particularly structural weaknesses within the crankcase, oil circulation and leakages. While aftermarket firms such as S&S Cycle previously responded with stronger crankcase components for high-performance Evolutions, Harley went for a completely new design, while keeping the engine fundamentally and aesthetically similar to the traditional 45-degree, air-cooled overhead valve V-twin. The Twin | eng_Latn | 3,110,042 |
what engine does call of duty run on | IW engine The IW engine is a game engine developed by Infinity Ward, Treyarch, and Sledgehammer Games for the "Call of Duty" series. The engine was originally based on id Tech 3 as its core, since the engine itself is proprietary with inclusion of GtkRadiant by id Software. It has been used by Infinity Ward, Treyarch, Raven Software and Sledgehammer Games. The engine has been distinct from the id Tech 3 engine on which it is based since "Call of Duty 2" in 2005. The engine's name was not publicized until IGN was told at the E3 2009 by the | in its Cleveland Engine Plant #2 in Brook Park, Ohio. The Super Duty engine is 90-degree overhead-valve V8 with angled piston decks. The cylinder heads are flat and the pistons are crowned to create a wedge-shaped combustion chamber within the cylinder bore; the compression ratio is 7.5:1 for all models. They are typically governed to 3400 rpm. Three displacements were available during production: 401, 477, and 534 cubic inches; the 534 is the largest-displacement gasoline engine ever mass-produced by Ford Motor Company. The 401 has a cylinder bore of and a stroke of . The 477 shares the 401's stroke | eng_Latn | 3,110,043 |
when was the first harley davidson bike built | to future motorcycle designs. The boys also received help with their bigger engine from outboard motor pioneer Ole Evinrude, who was then building gas engines of his own design for automotive use on Milwaukee's Lake Street. The prototype of the new loop-frame Harley-Davidson was assembled in a shed in the Davidson family backyard. Most of the major parts, however, were made elsewhere, including some probably fabricated at the West Milwaukee railshops where oldest brother William A. Davidson was then toolroom foreman. This prototype machine was functional by September 8, 1904, when it competed in a Milwaukee motorcycle race held at | and scale figures of its motorcycles, and video games based on its motorcycle line and the community. In 1901, -year-old William S. Harley drew up plans for a small engine with a displacement of 7.07 cubic inches (116 cc) and four-inch (102 mm) flywheels. The engine was designed for use in a regular pedal-bicycle frame. Over the next two years, Harley and his childhood friend Arthur Davidson worked on their motor-bicycle using the northside Milwaukee machine shop at the home of their friend, Henry Melk. It was finished in 1903 with the help of Arthur's brother, Walter Davidson. Upon testing | eng_Latn | 3,110,044 |
when did bmw motorrad make their ever motorcycle the r 32 | therefore the rider can still brake into the corner extremely late yet directionally stable. History of BMW motorcycles BMW's motorcycle history began in 1921 when the company commenced manufacturing engines for other companies. Motorcycle manufacturing now operates under the BMW Motorrad brand. BMW "(Bayerische Motoren Werke AG)" introduced the first motorcycle under its name, the R32, in 1923 to 1925. BMW began in 1916 as a reorganization of Rapp Motorenwerke, an aircraft engine manufacturer that began production before World War I. With the Armistice, the Treaty of Versailles banned the German air force and the manufacture of aircraft in Germany, | to make it more saleable and a long-term solution of an all new motorcycle design. This new design was designated the BMW R32 and began production in 1923, becoming the first motorcycle to be badged as a BMW. The M2B33 engine in the R32 had a displacement of 494 cc and had a cast-iron sidevalve cylinder/head unit. The engine produced , which propelled the R32 to a top speed of . The engine and gear box formed a single unit. The new engine featured a recirculating wet sump oiling system at a time when most motorcycle manufacturers used a total-loss | eng_Latn | 3,110,045 |
when was the first honda car sold in america | ratio. The car was thus faster than the achieved by rival magazine Autocar in an N360 in May 1968, and more than ten seconds quicker to which the N360 achieved in 29.3 seconds. Consistent with its slower performance, the N360 squeezed 3 extra miles out of a (UK) gallon of fuel, managing an overall . The N600 was introduced to the United States in 1969 as a 1970 model, and was the first Honda automobile to be officially imported to the United States. It was technologically advanced for its time, with an all alloy engine that could achieve 9000 rpm. | in the Los Angeles metropolitan area. The Honda headquarters have of space. American Honda Motor Co., Inc., Honda's first overseas subsidiary, opened in Los Angeles on June 11, 1959 with capital investment of $250,000 and three employees. The creation of a subsidiary was unusual for the time, as other foreign auto companies typically relied on independent distributors. In 1960, the first full year of operations, American Honda sold fewer than 2,000 motorcycles through three product lines: the Dream, Benly and Honda 50 (Super Cub). The following year, Honda established 500 motorcycle dealers and spent $150,000 on advertising in regions where | eng_Latn | 3,110,046 |
how many litres is a formula 1 engine | Formula One engines Since its inception in 1947, Formula One has used a variety of engine regulations. "Formulas" limiting engine capacity had been used in Grand Prix racing on a regular basis since after World War I. The engine formulae are divided according to era. Formula One currently uses 1.6 litre four-stroke turbocharged 90 degree V6 reciprocating engines. The power a Formula One engine produces is generated by operating at a very high rotational speed, up to 15,000 revolutions per minute (rpm). This contrasts with road car engines of a similar size which typically operate at less than 6,000 rpm. | to 19,000 rpm. In 2009 the limit was reduced to 18,000 rpm with each driver allowed to use a maximum of 8 engines over the season. Any driver needing an additional engine is penalised 10 places on the starting grid for the first race the engine is used. This increases the importance of reliability, although the effect is only seen towards the end of the season. Certain design changes intended to improve engine reliability may be carried out with permission from the FIA. This has led to some engine manufacturers, notably Ferrari and Mercedes, exploiting this ability by making design | eng_Latn | 3,110,047 |
is the honda pilot a v6 or v8 | at the North American International Auto Show. Assembled at Honda Manufacturing of Alabama in Lincoln, Alabama, it was offered in five trims; LX, EX, EX-L, Touring, and SE (2015 only). All second generation Pilots used a new J35Z4 3.5-liter V6 iVTEC engine producing SAE net at 5700 rpm and of torque at 4800 rpm. EPA fuel economy is rated at 17 mpg city /23 mpg highway with front-wheel-drive and 16 mpg city / 22 mpg highway for all-wheel-drive. Both drivetrains were equipped with five-speed automatics. The second generation's wheelbase is 109.2 in, with a length of 190.9 in, a width | in FWD configuration and 19/26/22 mpg in AWD. Overall dimensions are larger, while weight is down approximately 300 pounds with noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH) reduced. Both 2 WD and AWD share the same platform. Structurally 21.3% of the Pilot's body is composed of 980, 1300 and 1,500 MPa ultra-high-strength steels, 5% is from aluminum or magnesium, an additional 34.5% is 270 MPa mild strength steel used in areas to minimize repair costs. For the 2019 model year, Honda has refreshed the Pilot inside and out. The powertrain for the Pilot has remained unchanged, but Honda did revise the nine | eng_Latn | 3,110,048 |
what does the v stand for in v8 | F1 stock cars, tend to use Rover V8 engines of approximately 3.5 litre capacity, which in turn originally were based on the American 215 Buick V8 engine. V8 engine A V8 engine is an eight-cylinder V configuration engine with the cylinders mounted on the crankcase in two sets (or banks) of four, with all eight pistons driving a common crankshaft. Most banks are set at a right angle (90°) to each other, some at a narrower angle, with 45°, 60°, and 72° most common. In its simplest form, the V8 is basically two parallel inline-four engines sharing a common crankshaft. | gas pressure in large 2-stroke diesel engines, such as the Detroit Diesel. There is also a Ford Boss Top Fuel/Funny car engine. The Australian V8 is typically an American-manufactured unit from either Ford, Chrysler or General Motors. The Holden small-block V8 was an all Australian designed and manufactured cast-iron 90° pushrod OHV engine, manufactured in the capacities of 4.2 L (253 CID), 5.0 L (308 CID, later destroked to 304 CID), and 5.7 L (355 CID — Produced by Holden Special Vehicles, never actually built as a 'production' motor). First introduced in 1969, ceasing production in 1999, it powered a | eng_Latn | 3,110,049 |
when did honda start making fuel injected motorcycles | frames, front disc brake and plastic cover sets in various displacement options: "100 cc", "110 cc" and "125 cc". Though not Cubs, these bikes sold consistently well particularly in European countries, where the production of Honda Cub models had been previously discontinued. However, the production of Honda Cubs in Asia, Africa and South America still continues today, even though the newer Honda Wave Series and other designs have been introduced alongside the Cub. In 2007, Honda began installing their PGM-FI fuel injection system for the Honda Cubs in the Japanese market for lower smog-forming emission. In 2017, the Super Cub | family man or woman, and the Japanese were able to produce modern designs more quickly, more cheaply, and of better quality than their competitors. Their motorbikes were more stylish and more reliable, so the British manufacturers fell behind as mass-market producers. Honda, which was officially founded in Japan on September 24, 1948, introduced their SOHC inline-four engine CB750 in 1969, which was inexpensive and immediately successful. It established the across-the-frame-four engine configuration as a design with huge potential for power and performance. Shortly after the introduction of the SOHC, Kawasaki demonstrated the potential of the four-stroke four-cylinder engine with the | eng_Latn | 3,110,050 |
when did harley come out with the 103 | . The Twin Cam 96 displaces . The company released for 2010 Electra Glide Ultra Limited models, and later for 2012 Softail models and for Screamin' Eagle/CVO Models. Development of the Twin Cam started in the early 1990s, as Harley sought to address problems affecting the previous Evolution engine, particularly structural weaknesses within the crankcase, oil circulation and leakages. While aftermarket firms such as S&S Cycle previously responded with stronger crankcase components for high-performance Evolutions, Harley went for a completely new design, while keeping the engine fundamentally and aesthetically similar to the traditional 45-degree, air-cooled overhead valve V-twin. The Twin | rods. These are sandwiched between a pair of flywheels. The Twin Cam 88 was released for the 1999 model year in September 1998. The Twin Cam 96 was released for the 2007 model year. The Twin Cam initially was not used in the Softail model family before the year 2000. This was due to the chassis design and vibration transfer to the Softail frame as a result of the direct (hard) mounting of the engine. Dyna models are "rubber mounted", damping the majority of vibration transfer to the frame and rider. Another reason was that the engine and transmission on | eng_Latn | 3,110,051 |
when did the 24 valve cummins come out | extra-strong connecting rods. A Holset turbocharger is used. The original B Series was updated with 24 valves and an electronic engine management system to become the ISB in 1998. The 3.9L/4BT Cummins is an engine in the same family as the Cummins turbodiesels. The 3.9L/4B is an inline four-cylinder turbodiesel that was popular for many step van applications, including bread vans and other commercial vehicles. It has also gained popularity as an engine swap into smaller trucks. The lowest powered 4B produces . The 6BT, also known as the Cummins "12-valve" was the first member of the "B" engine family | to be used in a light truck vehicle. The 6BT used Robert Bosch GmbH fuel systems, injector, and VE rotary pump and P7100 inline injection pumps. Some early 6BTs were supplied with CAV rotary pumps instead, before the Bosch system became the sole standard. This engine started life in 1984 designed as an agricultural engine, for use in Case agricultural equipment. After 1989, the 6BT engine was used in light duty, medium duty and select heavy duty trucks and buses. The 6bt engine has recently become very popular for use in repowering various vehicles, in the uk they have proven | eng_Latn | 3,110,052 |
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