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Eddie Adams (photographer) | 1000456-1 | Adams won the 1969 Pulitzer Prize for Spot News Photography and a World Press Photo award for the photograph. Writer and critic David D. Perlmutter points out that "no film footage did as much damage as AP photographer Eddie Adams's 35mm shot taken on a Saigon street ... When people talk or write about [the Tet Offensive] at least a sentence is devoted (often with an illustration) to the Eddie Adams picture".
Anticipating the impact of Adams's photograph, an attempt at balance was sought by editors at The New York Times. In his memoirs, John G. Morris recalls that assistant managing editor Theodore M. Bernstein "determined that the brutality manifested by America's ally be put into perspective, agreed to run the Adams picture large, but offset with a picture of a child slain by Vietcong, which conveniently came through from AP at about the same time." Adams' picture, however, retained a more lasting infamy. Max Hastings, writing in 2018, accused Lém of murdering Colonel Nguyen Tuân, his wife, six children, and 80-year old mother; he also wrote that American historian Ed Moise "is convinced that the entire story of Lém murdering the Tuân family is a post-war invention" and that "The truth will never be known." | [
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Eddie Adams (photographer) | 1000456-2 | In Regarding the Pain of Others (2003), Susan Sontag was disturbed by what she saw as Loan's staging of the execution in the street for journalists' photographs. She wrote that "he would not have carried out the summary execution there had they [journalists] not been available to witness it" and positioned himself in profile view with the prisoner facing the cameras. However, Donald Winslow of The New York Times quoted Adams as having described the image as a "reflex picture" and "wasn't certain of what he'd photographed until the film was developed". Furthermore, Winslow noted that Adams "wanted me to understand that 'Saigon Execution' was not his most important picture and that he did not want his obituary to begin, 'Eddie Adams, the photographer best known for his iconic Vietnam photograph "Saigon Execution.
Adams would later lament the impact of the photo. On Loan and his photograph, Adams wrote in Time in 1998:
Loan moved to the United States, and in 1978, there was an unsuccessful attempt to rescind his permanent residence status (green card). Adams advocated for Loan when the U.S. government sought to deport him based on the photograph, and apologized in person to Loan and his family for the irreparable damage it did to his honor while he was alive. When Loan died, Adams praised him as a "hero" of a "just cause". On the television show War Stories with Oliver North Adams referred to Loan as "a goddamned hero!" | [
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Eddie Adams (photographer) | 1000456-3 | He once said, "I would have rather been known more for the series of photographs I shot of 48 Vietnamese refugees who managed to sail to Thailand in a 30-foot boat, only to be towed back to the open seas by Thai marines." The photographs, and accompanying reports, helped persuade then President Jimmy Carter to grant asylum to the nearly 200,000 Vietnamese boat people. He won the Robert Capa Gold Medal from the Overseas Press Club in 1977 for this series of photographs in his photo-essay, "Boat of No Smiles" (published by AP). Adams remarked, "It did some good and nobody got hurt."
On October 22, 2009, Swann Galleries auctioned a print of Adams' photo of Loan and Lém. Printed in the 1980s, it had been a gift to Adams's son. It sold for $43,200.
The sole survivor of Lém's alleged killing of Tuan's family was Huan Nguyen; aged nine at the time, he was shot twice during the attack that killed his family and stayed with his mother for two hours as she bled to death. In 2019, he became the highest ranking Vietnamese American officer in the U.S. military when he was promoted to the rank of rear admiral in the United States Navy. | [
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Eddie Adams (photographer) | 1000456-4 | Later Adams started a photojournalism workshop, The Eddie Adams Workshop (also known as the Barnstorm) in 1988. It reached its thirtieth year in 2017.
Awards
Along with the Pulitzer, Adams received over 500 awards, including the George Polk Award for News Photography in 1968, 1977 and 1978, World Press Photo awards on 14 occasions, and numerous awards from the National Press Photographers Association, Sigma Delta Chi, Overseas Press Club, and many other organizations.
Personal life
Adams was first married to Ann Fedorchak, with whom he had one son and two daughters. After the couple divorced, he married Alyssa Adkins in 1989; they had one son.
On September 19, 2004, Adams died in New York City at age 71 from complications of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).
In 2009, his widow donated his photographic archive to the University of Texas at Austin.
Publications
Eddie Adams: Vietnam. New York City: Umbrage, 2008. Written and edited by Alyssa Adams. .
Eddie Adams: Bigger than the Frame. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2017. By Eddie Adams. . With a foreword by Don Carleton, a preface by Alyssa Adams, and an essay by Anne Wilkes Tucker.
Film about Adams
An Unlikely Weapon (2009) – documentary feature directed by Susan Morgan Cooper and tarik Burnett and narrated by Kiefer Sutherland. | [
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Great Mass in C minor, K. 427 | 1000449-0 | Great Mass in C minor (), K. 427/417a, is the common name of the musical setting of the mass by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, which is considered one of his greatest works. He composed it in Vienna in 1782 and 1783, after his marriage, when he moved to Vienna from Salzburg. The large-scale work, a missa solemnis, is scored for two soprano soloists, a tenor and a bass, double chorus and large orchestra. It remained unfinished, missing large portions of the Credo and the complete Agnus Dei.
Composition and first performance
The work was composed during 1782–83. In a letter to his father Leopold dated 4 January 1783, Mozart mentioned a vow he had made to write a mass when he would bring his then fiancée Constanze as his wife to Salzburg. Constanze then sang the "Et incarnatus est" at its premiere.
The first performance took place in Salzburg on Sunday 26 October 1783 (the twentieth Sunday after Pentecost). Mozart had moved to Vienna in 1781, but was paying a visit to his home town in the company of Constanze, who had not yet met his father or his sister (Nannerl).
The performance consisted of just the Kyrie, Gloria, Sanctus and Benedictus, as surviving parts and a score copy from ca. 1800 show. It took place in the Church of St. Peter's Abbey in the context of a Roman Catholic mass. Mozart's sister's diary mentions that the performers were the entire , that is the musicians employed at the court of Salzburg's ruler, Prince-Archbishop Count Hieronymus von Colloredo and thus Mozart's former colleagues. There was a rehearsal in the nearby Kapellhaus on 23 October 1783. | [
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Great Mass in C minor, K. 427 | 1000449-1 | Fragmentary status The work is incomplete, missing the Credo movements following the aria Et incarnatus est (the orchestration of the only two surviving Credo movements being incomplete) and all of the Agnus Dei. The Sanctus and the Benedictus are partially lost and require editorial reconstructions. There is a good deal of speculation concerning why the work was left unfinished. For purposes of modern performances, the editions and completions available are as follows:
(1901, Breitkopf & Härtel)
H. C. Robbins Landon (1956, Eulenburg),
Helmut Eder (1985, Bärenreiter)
Franz Beyer (1989, Amadeus/Edition Peters)
Richard Maunder (1990, Oxford University Press/Carus-Verlag),
Philip Wilby (2004, Novello)
Robert Levin (2005, Carus-Verlag)
Clemens Kemme (2018, Breitkopf & Härtel)
Ulrich Leisinger (2019, Bärenreiter).
The editions by Landon, Eder, Beyer, Maunder and Kemme aim to simply fill out the missing orchestrations and choral parts in the Credo and Sanctus, whereas the editions by Schmitt, Wilby and Levin aim to complete the work by either using movements from other masses or composing new music for the Credo and Agnus Dei through the use of parody or elaboration of period sketches by Mozart. Benjamin-Gunnar Cohrs (Musikproduktion Höflich) just offers a complete Credo and an Agnus Dei. For the Credo this means a completions of the 'Credo in unum Deum' and the 'Et incarnatus est' and additional music for the rest of the Credo. This edition, therefore, is intended to be used in combination with any other version of the Mass. Robert Xavier Rodriguez has also completed the Agnus Dei. | [
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Great Mass in C minor, K. 427 | 1000449-2 | Mozart later reused the music from the Kyrie and Gloria, almost without changes except for the text, in the cantata Davide penitente, K. 469. For the canatata Mozart added two new arias and a cadenza for the fugue concluding the work.
Structure
The orchestra consists of 1 flute (only used in the Et incarnatus est), 2 oboes, 2 bassoons, 2 horns, 2 trumpets, 3 trombones, timpani, organ, and strings.
Influence
The work embodies pomp and solemnity associated with the Salzburg traditions of the time, but it also anticipates the symphonic masses of Joseph Haydn in its solo-choral sharing. The mass shows the influence of Bach and Handel, whose music Mozart was studying at this time (see Gottfried van Swieten).
On 20 August 2016 the version reconstructed by Helmut Eder was performed at the Royal Albert Hall, for the first time as part of The Proms series, by the BBC Scottish Symphony Orchestra and BBC Symphony Chorus, with Ilan Volkov conducting and featuring Louise Alder, Carolyn Sampson, Benjamin Hulett and Matthew Rose.
Discography
Ferenc Fricsay, Berlin Radio Symphony Orchestra, Chor der St.-Hedwigs-Kathedrale Berlin, Maria Stader, Hertha Töpper, Ernst Haefliger, Ivan Sardi. Label: Deutsche Grammophon, 1959
Sir Colin Davis, London Symphony Orchestra, London Symphony Chorus, Helen Donath, Heather Harper, Ryland Davies, Stafford Dean. Label: Philips Classics, February 1971
Raymond Leppard, New Philharmonia Orchestra, John Alldis Choir, Ileana Cotrubaș, Kiri Te Kanawa, Werner Krenn, Hans Sotin. Label: EMI, 1974 | [
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Great Mass in C minor, K. 427 | 1000449-3 | Herbert von Karajan, Berliner Philharmoniker, Wiener Singverein, Barbara Hendricks, Janet Perry, Peter Schreier, Benjamin Luxon. Label: Deutsche Grammophon, 1981
John Eliot Gardiner, English Baroque Soloists, Monteverdi Choir, Sylvia McNair, Diana Montague, Anthony Rolfe Johnson, Cornelius Hauptmann. Label: Archiv, November 1986
Robert Shaw, Atlanta Symphony Orchestra & Chorus, Edith Wiens, Delores Ziegler, John Aler, William Stone. Label: Telarc, 1988
, Collegium Cartusianum Orchestra, Cologne Chamber Choir, Barbara Schlick, Monika Frimmer, Christoph Prégardien, Klaus Mertens. Label: EMI Electrola, November 19–22, 1989
Claudio Abbado, Berlin Philharmonic, Berlin Radio Choir, Barbara Bonney, Arleen Auger, Hans Peter Blochwitz, Robert Holl. Label: Sony, 1991
Claudio Abbado, Vienna Philharmonic, Jerry Hadley, Karita Mattila, Jorge Pita. Label: Deutsche Grammophon, 2016
Leonard Bernstein, Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra and Choir, Arleen Augér, Frederica von Stade, Frank Lopardo, Cornelius Hauptmann. Label: Deutsche Grammophon 431 791–2, 1991
Version of Richard Maunder: Christopher Hogwood, Academy of Ancient Music, Westminster College Quiristers, Winchester Cathedral Choir, Arleen Augér, Lynne Dawson, John-Mark Ainsley, David Thomas. Label: L'Oiseau-Lyre, 1990
James Levine, Wiener Philharmoniker, chorus, Kathleen Battle, Martin Haselböck, others. Label: Deutsche Grammophon, 1998
Masaaki Suzuki, Bach Collegium Japan instrumental and vocal ensembles, Christian Immler, Makoto Sakurada, Carolyn Sampson, . Label: BIS Records, 2016
Videography
Leonard Bernstein, Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra and Chorus, Arleen Auger, Frederica von Stade, Frank Lopardo, Cornelius Hauptmann. Label: Deutsche Grammophon, 2006 | [
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En no Gyōja | 1000579-0 | (b. 634, in Katsuragi (modern Nara Prefecture); d. c. 700–707) was a Japanese ascetic and mystic, traditionally held to be the founder of Shugendō, the path of ascetic training practiced by the gyōja or yamabushi.
He was banished by the Imperial Court to Izu Ōshima on June 26, 699, but folk tales at least as old as the Nihon Ryōiki (c. 800) recount his supernatural powers and exploits.
He is also referred to by the name , , or also under the full name En no Kimi Ozunu, where is his kabane or titular name.
Historical references
Even historical accounts of his life are intermixed with legends and folklore. According to the chronicle Shoku Nihongi (797 AD), En no Ozunu was banished to the island of Izu Ōshima on June 26, 699: | [
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En no Gyōja | 1000579-1 | On hinoto-ushi (sexagenary "fire ox") day [24th day of the 5th month, Mommu 3 (June 26, 699 AD)], En no Kimi Ozunu was banished to Izu no Shima. Ozunu had first lived in Mount Katsuragi and been acclaimed for his sorcery and was the teacher of Outer Junior 5th Rank Lower Grade . Later, [a person (or Hirotari?)] envied his power and accused him of trickery with his weird magic. [The Imperial Court] banished him far [from the Capital]. Rumor says, "Ozunu was able to manipulate demonic spirits, making them draw water and gather firewood. When they disobeyed, he bound them using sorcery."
In spite of this incident, it seems that the Court continued to highly evaluate the herbal knowledge of Ozunu's school, since Vol. 11 of the book also tells that on October 5, Tenpyō 4 (October 28, 732 AD), his student Karakuni no Hirotari was elected as the , the highest position in .
In the religion Shugendō
In folk religion, En no Ozunu is traditionally held to be the founder of Shugendō, a syncretic religion incorporating aspects of Taoism, Shinto, esoteric Buddhism (especially Shingon Mikkyō and the Tendai sect) and traditional Japanese shamanism.
En no Gyōja was conferred the posthumous title Jinben Daibosatsu (Great Bodhisattva Jinben, 神変大菩薩) at a ceremony held in 1799 to commemorate the one-thousandth year of his passing. Authorship of the non-canonical Sutra on the Unlimited Life of the Threefold Body is attributed to En no Gyōja. Due to his mythical status as a mountain saint, he was believed to possess many supernatural powers. | [
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En no Gyōja | 1000579-2 | In popular culture In Kyoto's Gion Festival, one of the yamaboko floats (En no Gyoja Yama) is dedicated to En no Gyoja. It is an annual pilgrimage destination for yamabushi (practitioners of Shugendo), who perform various rituals on site.
In the 19th century novel Nansou Satomi Hakkenden, the spirit of En no Gyoja gifts the Satomi family a magical japamala as a ward against their curse, which is later divided to become the personal talismans of the eponymous Eight Dog Warriors.
In the historical fantasy novel Teito Monogatari by Hiroshi Aramata the protagonist Yasunori Kato claims to be a descendant of En no Gyōja.
In the manga OZN by Shiro Ohno the protagonist is a superheroic version of En no Ozunu.
In the SNES game Shin Megami Tensei, an NPC named En-no-ozuno resides in Kongokai.
In the PS1 game Oni Zero: Fukkatsu, the main antagonist is En no Gyōja.
In Koji Suzuki's novel Ring, Sadako's mother drags a statuette of En no Ozunu from the sea.
In the movie "Ninja Assassin," the antagonist is 'Master Ozunu;' who heads the, "9 Clan".
In the anime Zenki, a posthumous character named Enno Ozunu was the master of Zenki, who would centuries later be summoned again by his descendant, Chiaki Enno.
The manga Touge Oni tells the tale of En no Ozuno and his two disciples, Zenki and Miyo (later Goki), traveling the land of Wa meeting various Kami. | [
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Clarence Nash | 100039-0 | Clarence Charles "Ducky" Nash (December 7, 1904 – February 20, 1985) was an American voice actor and impressionist. He is best remembered as the original voice of the Disney cartoon character Donald Duck. He was born in the rural community of Watonga, Oklahoma, and a street in that town is named in his honor. In 1993, he was posthumously made a Disney Legend for his contributions to Walt Disney films.
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Clarence Nash | 100039-1 | Radio career Nash made a name for himself in the late 1920s as an impressionist for KHJ, a Los Angeles radio station, on their show, The Merrymakers. He later was employed by the Adohr Milk Company for publicity purposes. Dubbed "Whistling Clarence, the Adohr Bird Man", Nash rode the streets with a team of miniature horses and gave treats to the children. In 1932, Nash happened by the Disney Studio with his team of horses, and decided to leave a copy of his Adohr publicity sheet with the receptionist. As it turns out, his name was recognized from a reprise appearance on The Merrymakers a few days previous, and Walt Disney had been impressed by Nash's vocal skills. He was asked to make an informal audition.
Donald Duck
One source indicates Nash auditioned before a casting director for Walt Disney Studios and did a voice impression of a billy goat that Nash had started doing as a child in Watonga. The director then reached for the intercom and told Walt Disney, "I think we have found our duck." Another version indicates Nash went through several of his voices, and Walt Disney happened by when Nash gave his impersonation of a family of ducks. Disney declared Nash perfect for the role of a talking duck in their upcoming animated short, The Wise Little Hen. The duck was Donald Duck, who Nash went on to voice for 51 years, in over 120 shorts and films. The last film to feature Nash's famous voice was 1983's Mickey's Christmas Carol, although he continued to provide Donald's voice for commercials, promos, and other miscellaneous material until his death. | [
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Clarence Nash | 100039-2 | As early as 1938, promoters from lecture circuits were approaching him on his unique voice of Donald. Disney reportedly didn't like the engagements at first, feeling that a human doing the voice would be spoiling the illusion, but then long after he had second thoughts. In early 1941, Nash was traveling on personal appearance tours sponsored by Disney. During World War II, Nash, with his ventriloquist puppet of Donald, which was built by Disney's character modeling department, became a regular performer at USO bond rallies and other events to support the war effort. In the mid-1940s, Roy and Walt approved the Donald puppet and they decided to harness it for the 1944 re-release of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. RKO and Disney were unsure how the film would do the second time around at the box office after its initial blockbuster run, so they did a promotional campaign with Disney characters including Nash performing with the Donald puppet. During the promotional period of Fun and Fancy Free, he did multiple radio appearances from May to September 1947, with one of those appearances starring Disney himself. He voiced Donald for 1950s TV commercials.
Nash's Donald Duck voice was achieved by what is called buccal speech: an alaryngeal form of vocalization which uses the inner cheek to produce sound rather than the larynx. He first discovered it while trying to mimic his pet goat Mary. In his days before Disney, Nash performed in vaudeville shows where he often spoke in a "nervous baby goat" voice.
Donald Duck became one of the world's most famous cartoon characters, in great part due to Nash's voice. The voice is distinctive both for its ducklike quality and the fact that it is often very difficult for anybody to understand, especially when Donald flew into a rage (which happened fairly often). To keep Donald's voice consistent throughout the world, Nash voiced the character in all foreign languages the Disney shorts were translated to (with the aid of the phonetic alphabet), meaning Donald retained his same level of incoherency all across the globe. | [
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Clarence Nash | 100039-3 | Other characters In addition to Donald's voice, Clarence Nash also voiced Donald's nephews Huey, Dewey and Louie and his girlfriend Daisy. He provided the meows and yowls of Figaro the kitten in Pinocchio and in a handful of shorts. In Pinocchio, he also provided the Popeye-esque voice for the Rough House statue. He also voiced a bullfrog croaking "Watch out!" in Bambi and also did some dog sounds in One Hundred and One Dalmatians, and also voiced Jiminy Cricket for a brief period of time after Cliff Edwards's death in 1971.
Nash's iconic Donald Duck voice would be impersonated elsewhere in animation, most notably in the Tom and Jerry cartoons directed by William Hanna and Joseph Barbera with the characters Little Quacker (voiced by Red Coffey) and Yakky Doodle (voiced by Jimmy Weldon), additionally he also provided the vocal cords for Tom in the early shorts whenever he hisses. As with most Hanna-Barbera productions, these characters used celebrity impersonations, in these cases an impersonation of Clarence Nash's Donald Duck voice. Because both were much similar to Nash's voice they were often mistakenly attributed to Nash. Likewise, contrary to popular belief, he didn't perform the duck voice for Rick Dees' "Disco Duck", it was one of Dees' acquaintances. Nash would also use his duck voice on The Burns & Allen Show during the 1940s, playing Gracie's pet duck. | [
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Clarence Nash | 100039-4 | Nash appeared as himself in the 1941 film The Reluctant Dragon, which shows how Disney films were produced, and was a contestant on a 1954 episode of What's My Line and a 1964 episode of To Tell the Truth. Nash also appeared as himself in a 1956 episode of Disneyland entitled "A Day in the Life of Donald Duck", in which he interacts with an animated Donald who blames him for his speech problems: the two end up arguing mainly due to Donald's short temper. He was also a guest on a 1976 episode of The Mike Douglas Show. The 1984 special Donald Duck's 50th Birthday included several clips from Disney films and Disneyland episodes.
Later years
When Disney shut down their shorts department in 1962, Nash continued to voice Donald in various projects over the next two decades.
In the late 1970s, Nash was known for often taking walks in the neighborhood around Fremont Elementary School in Glendale, California, entertaining children with his Donald Duck voice. As he passed the age of 70, he found the harsh voice increasingly straining on his throat and so limited public performances to groups of children. During recording sessions, he would take frequent breaks and drink plenty of water to avoid overexerting himself.
One of Nash's final performances was in Mickey's Christmas Carol (1983), which made Donald the only character in the film to be voiced by his original actor. His career at Disney was the subject of the premiere episode of Disney Family Album, a 1984 series of documentaries about behind-the-scenes personalities at the studio. | [
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Clarence Nash | 100039-5 | Personal life Nash married Margaret Seamans in 1930, and they were married for over 50 years; they had two daughters, Kay and Peggy.
Death
Nash died on February 20, 1985, of leukemia in the Providence Saint Joseph Medical Center in Burbank, California, at the age of 80 and was interred in the San Fernando Mission Cemetery in Mission Hills, Los Angeles, California. The tombstone of the grave he now shares with his wife Margaret Nash depicts a carving of Donald and Daisy Duck holding hands.
Successor and upcoming biography
After Nash's death, Donald's voice has been taken up by Disney animator Tony Anselmo, who was trained under Nash personally. Anselmo is also among the many voiceover artists to have voiced Huey, Dewey and Louie over the years. Later characters whose voices owe considerable credit to Nash's duck voice have been voiced by actors such as Jimmy Weldon, Frank Welker, Luba Goy and Red Coffey. The most prominent of these is Weldon's Yakky Doodle for Hanna-Barbera.
It was announced in 2020 that Disney historian J.B. Kaufman was working with Margaret Barnes, Nash's granddaughter, on a biography of Nash.
Filmography
Radio
Shorts
Film
Television
Discography
Mickey and the Beanstalk (Capitol, 1947) as Donald Duck
Donald Duck's Singing Lesson/Pluto, The Pup (Golden, 1949) as Donald Duck
Cinderella (RCA, 1949) as Lucifer, Bruno, Major, Additional Animal Voices | [
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Clarence Nash | 100039-6 | Mickey's New Car/Donald Duck at the Opera (Golden, 1950) as Donald Duck
Donald Duck, Babysitter/Mickey Mouse and Farmer Rush Rush (Golden, 1950) as Donald Duck
Donald Duck Cowboy (Golden, 1950) as Donald Duck
Trick or Treat (RCA Victor, 1952) as Donald Duck
Mr. Television (RCA Victor, 1952) as Donald Duck
Mr. Animated Cartoon (RCA Victor, 1952) as Donald Duck
Donald Duck, Fire Chief (Golden, 1953) as Donald Duck
Mickey Mouse's Birthday Party (Capitol, 1954) as Donald Duck
School Days (Golden, 1954) as Donald Duck
Mickey Mouse's Christmas Party (Golden, 1954) as Donald Duck
Happy Birthday to Mickey Mouse/Donald Duck's Unbirthday (Golden, 1955) as Donald Duck
Walt Disney's Song Parade from Disneyland (Golden, 1956) as Donald Duck
Goofy's Dance Party (Disneyland, 1959) as Donald Duck
Donald Duck and His Friends (Disneyland, 1960) as Donald Duck
Chipmunk Fun (Disneyland, 1963) as Donald Duck
Mickey and the Beanstalk (Disneyland, 1963) as Donald Duck
Dickens' Christmas Carol Presented by the Walt Disney Players (Disneyland, 1975) as Donald Duck
Yankee Doodle Mickey (Disneyland, 1980) as Donald Duck
Goin' Quackers (Disneyland, 1980) as Donald Duck
Pardners (Disneyland, 1980) as Donald Duck
Merry Christmas Carols (Disneyland, 1980) as Donald Duck
Mousercise (Disneyland, 1982) as Donald Duck
Mickey Mouse Splashdance (Disneyland, 1983) as Donald Duck | [
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Genkan | 1000657-0 | are traditional Japanese entryway areas for a house, apartment, or building, a combination of a porch and a doormat. It is usually located inside the building directly in front of the door. The primary function of is for the removal of shoes before entering the main part of the house or building.
A secondary function is a place for brief visits without being invited across the step into the house proper. For example, where a pizza delivery driver in an English-speaking country would normally stand on the porch and conduct business through the open front door, in Japan a food delivery would traditionally have taken place across the step. | [
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Genkan | 1000657-1 | After removing shoes, one must avoid stepping on the tiled or concrete in socks or with bare feet, to avoid bringing dirt into the house. Once inside, generally one will change into : slippers or shoes intended for indoor wear.
are also occasionally found in other buildings in Japan, especially in old-fashioned businesses.
Design
are normally recessed into the floor, to contain any dirt that is tracked in from the outside (as in a mud room). The height of the step varies from very low () to shin-level or knee-level. in apartments are usually much smaller than those in houses, and may have no difference in elevation with the rest of the floor; it may simply have a different type of flooring material than the rest of the floor to distinguish it as the .
Schools and have large with compartments for each person's outdoor shoes. In private residences, may be absent, and shoes are usually turned to face the door so they can be slipped on easily when leaving.
History
The custom of removing one's shoes before entering the house is believed to go back over one thousand years to the pre-historical era of elevated-floor structures. It has continued to the present, even after the Westernization of the Japanese home, which began in the Meiji period (1868–1912). | [
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Sample mean and covariance | 10005756-0 | The sample mean (sample average) or empirical mean (empirical average), and the sample covariance or empirical covariance are statistics computed from a sample of data on one or more random variables.
The sample mean is the average value (or mean value) of a sample of numbers taken from a larger population of numbers, where "population" indicates not number of people but the entirety of relevant data, whether collected or not. A sample of 40 companies' sales from the Fortune 500 might be used for convenience instead of looking at the population, all 500 companies' sales. The sample mean is used as an estimator for the population mean, the average value in the entire population, where the estimate is more likely to be close to the population mean if the sample is large and representative. The reliability of the sample mean is estimated using the standard error, which in turn is calculated using the variance of the sample. If the sample is random, the standard error falls with the size of the sample and the sample mean's distribution approaches the normal distribution as the sample size increases. | [
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Sample mean and covariance | 10005756-1 | The term "sample mean" can also be used to refer to a vector of average values when the statistician is looking at the values of several variables in the sample, e.g. the sales, profits, and employees of a sample of Fortune 500 companies. In this case, there is not just a sample variance for each variable but a sample variance-covariance matrix (or simply covariance matrix) showing also the relationship between each pair of variables. This would be a 3×3 matrix when 3 variables are being considered. The sample covariance is useful in judging the reliability of the sample means as estimators and is also useful as an estimate of the population covariance matrix.
Due to their ease of calculation and other desirable characteristics, the sample mean and sample covariance are widely used in statistics to represent the location and dispersion of the distribution of values in the sample, and to estimate the values for the population.
Definition of the sample mean
The sample mean is the average of the values of a variable in a sample, which is the sum of those values divided by the number of values. Using mathematical notation, if a sample of N observations on variable X is taken from the population, the sample mean is:
Under this definition, if the sample (1, 4, 1) is taken from the population (1,1,3,4,0,2,1,0), then the sample mean is , as compared to the population mean of . Even if a sample is random, it is rarely perfectly representative, and other samples would have other sample means even if the samples were all from the same population. The sample (2, 1, 0), for example, would have a sample mean of 1. | [
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Sample mean and covariance | 10005756-2 | If the statistician is interested in K variables rather than one, each observation having a value for each of those K variables, the overall sample mean consists of K sample means for individual variables. Let be the ith independently drawn observation (i=1,...,N) on the jth random variable (j=1,...,K). These observations can be arranged into N
column vectors, each with K entries, with the K×1 column vector giving the i-th observations of all variables being denoted (i=1,...,N).
The sample mean vector is a column vector whose j-th element is the average value of the N observations of the jth variable:
Thus, the sample mean vector contains the average of the observations for each variable, and is written
Definition of sample covariance
The sample covariance matrix is a K-by-K matrix with entries
where is an estimate of the covariance between the th
variable and the th variable of the population underlying the data.
In terms of the observation vectors, the sample covariance is
Alternatively, arranging the observation vectors as the columns of a matrix, so that
,
which is a matrix of K rows and N columns.
Here, the sample covariance matrix can be computed as
,
where is an N by vector of ones.
If the observations are arranged as rows instead of columns, so is now a 1×K row vector and is an N×K matrix whose column j is the vector of N observations on variable j, then applying transposes
in the appropriate places yields | [
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Sample mean and covariance | 10005756-3 | Like covariance matrices for random vector, sample covariance matrices are positive semi-definite. To prove it, note that for any matrix the matrix is positive semi-definite. Furthermore, a covariance matrix is positive definite if and only if the rank of the vectors is K.
Unbiasedness
The sample mean and the sample covariance matrix are unbiased estimates of the mean and the covariance matrix of the random vector , a row vector whose jth element (j = 1, ..., K) is one of the random variables. The sample covariance matrix has in the denominator rather than due to a variant of Bessel's correction: In short, the sample covariance relies on the difference between each observation and the sample mean, but the sample mean is slightly correlated with each observation since it is defined in terms of all observations. If the population mean is known, the analogous unbiased estimate
using the population mean, has in the denominator. This is an example of why in probability and statistics it is essential to distinguish between random variables (upper case letters) and realizations of the random variables (lower case letters).
The maximum likelihood estimate of the covariance
for the Gaussian distribution case has N in the denominator as well. The ratio of 1/N to 1/(N − 1) approaches 1 for large N, so the maximum likelihood estimate approximately equals the unbiased estimate when the sample is large.
Distribution of the sample mean | [
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Sample mean and covariance | 10005756-4 | For each random variable, the sample mean is a good estimator of the population mean, where a "good" estimator is defined as being efficient and unbiased. Of course the estimator will likely not be the true value of the population mean since different samples drawn from the same distribution will give different sample means and hence different estimates of the true mean. Thus the sample mean is a random variable, not a constant, and consequently has its own distribution. For a random sample of N observations on the jth random variable, the sample mean's distribution itself has mean equal to the population mean and variance equal to , where is the population variance.
The arithmetic mean of a population, or population mean, is often denoted μ. The sample mean (the arithmetic mean of a sample of values drawn from the population) makes a good estimator of the population mean, as its expected value is equal to the population mean (that is, it is an unbiased estimator). The sample mean is a random variable, not a constant, since its calculated value will randomly differ depending on which members of the population are sampled, and consequently it will have its own distribution. For a random sample of n independent observations, the expected value of the sample mean is
and the variance of the sample mean is | [
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Sample mean and covariance | 10005756-5 | If the samples are not independent, but correlated, then special care has to be taken in order to avoid the problem of pseudoreplication.
If the population is normally distributed, then the sample mean is normally distributed as follows:
If the population is not normally distributed, the sample mean is nonetheless approximately normally distributed if n is large and σ2/n < +∞. This is a consequence of the central limit theorem.
Weighted samples
In a weighted sample, each vector (each set of single observations on each of the K random variables) is assigned a weight . Without loss of generality, assume that the weights are normalized:
(If they are not, divide the weights by their sum).
Then the weighted mean vector is given by
and the elements of the weighted covariance matrix are
If all weights are the same, , the weighted mean and covariance reduce to the (biased) sample mean and covariance mentioned above.
Criticism
The sample mean and sample covariance are not robust statistics, meaning that they are sensitive to outliers. As robustness is often a desired trait, particularly in real-world applications, robust alternatives may prove desirable, notably quantile-based statistics such as the sample median for location, and interquartile range (IQR) for dispersion. Other alternatives include trimming and Winsorising, as in the trimmed mean and the Winsorized mean. | [
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Paranal Observatory | 1000626-0 | Paranal Observatory is an astronomical observatory operated by the European Southern Observatory (ESO). It is located in the Atacama Desert of Northern Chile on Cerro Paranal at altitude, south of Antofagasta. By total light-collecting area, it is the largest optical-infrared observatory in the Southern Hemisphere; worldwide, it is second to the Mauna Kea Observatory on Hawaii.
The Very Large Telescope (VLT), the largest telescope on Paranal, is composed of four separate telescopes. In addition, the four main telescopes can be used simultaneously for extra light gathering capacity, and for interferometry. Four auxiliary telescopes of each are also part of the VLTI to make it available when the main telescopes are being used for other projects. The site also houses two survey telescopes with wide fields of view, the VISTA and the VLT Survey Telescope for surveying large areas of the sky; and two arrays of small telescopes called NGTS and SPECULOOS which are dedicated to searching for exoplanets.
Two major new facilities are under construction nearby: the southern part of the Cherenkov Telescope Array gamma-ray telescope (not owned by ESO) will be sited in the grounds 10 km south-east of Paranal; while ESO's future E-ELT will be on the nearby peak of Cerro Armazones 20 km east of Paranal, and will share some of the base facilities.
Telescopes | [
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Paranal Observatory | 1000626-1 | Aerial view From an aerial view of the Paranal Observatory, the four large units of the VLT with their four small, dome-shaped auxiliary telescopes can be clearly seen. The Survey Telescope, VST, is immediately adjacent to the VLT and seen in between two of its units, while VISTA is located on a secondary peak, some 1,500 m away in the background (see image).
Very Large Telescope
The Very Large Telescope (VLT) consists of four 8.2-metre telescopes operating in the visible and infrared. These telescopes, along with four smaller auxiliary telescopes, are also combined to operate as an optical interferometer on certain nights of the year. All of the 8.2-metre telescopes have adaptive optics and a full suite of instruments. The primary mirrors of the main telescopes are 8.2 meters in diameter but, in practice, the pupil of the telescopes is defined by the secondary mirrors, effectively limiting the usable diameter to 8.0 meters.
VISTA Survey Telescope
VISTA is the Visible & Infrared Survey Telescope for Astronomy, a 4.0-metre telescope with a wide field of view, focusing on infrared surveys of the sky. It was built close to ESO's VLT by a consortium of 18 universities from the United Kingdom, led by Queen Mary University of London. VISTA was handed over to the European Southern Observatory in December 2009.
VLT Survey Telescope (VST)
The VLT Survey Telescope or VST is a 2.6-metre telescope with a wide field imager intended to aid the four Very Large Telescope (VLTs) in their scientific aims. | [
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Paranal Observatory | 1000626-2 | Next-Generation Transit Survey (NGTS) The Next-Generation Transit Survey (NGTS) is an exoplanet-survey facility located a few kilometers from the main peak. It consists of an array of twelve 0.2-meter robotic telescopes with a very large field of view of 96 square degrees or several hundred times the area of the full moon. The survey aims to discover numerous super-Earths and Neptune-sized planets around nearby stars, using transit photometry to detect them. NGTS is managed by a partnership of seven academic institutions from Chile, Germany, Switzerland and the United Kingdom and its design is based on the SuperWASP project. Science operations began in early 2015.
SPECULOOS Southern Observatory (SSO)
The SPECULOOS Southern Observatory (SSO) consists out of four telescopes, called Europa, Io, Callisto, and Ganymede. ESO hosts the 1-meter telescopes and the project is led by the University of Liège. The project aims to find exoplanets around ultracool dwarf stars and brown dwarfs. The project builds on the success of the TRAPPIST telescope. The telescopes are located next to the NGTS.
Other buildings
As well as the telescopes, control buildings and maintenance facilities, Paranal has a Residencia which provides accommodation for staff and visitors. This is located 200 m lower and 3 km from the telescopes. It is built half into the mountain with the concrete coloured to blend into the landscape. It has gym facilities, a swimming pool, a restaurant and two gardens. The construction was decorated by the Chilean architect Paula Gutiérrez Erlandsen, Marchioness of la Pica. | [
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David Bromstad | 10006850-0 | David Reed Bromstad (born August 17, 1973) is an American designer and television personality. In 2006, he became the winner of the debut season of HGTV Design Star. He has hosted a number of HGTV shows, including Color Splash, Beach Flip and My Lottery Dream Home.
Early life and education
Bromstad was born the youngest of four children to Diane Marlys Bromstad (née Krueger) and Richard Harold David Bromstad in Cokato, Minnesota. His mother is of Swedish and German descent, and his father is of Norwegian descent. He has three older siblings, Dean Richard Bromstad, Dynelle Renee Bromstad, and Dyonne Rachael Bromstad. He was always interested in art and design, and while attending Wayzata High School made a decision to pursue a career as a Disney animator. He attended the Ringling College of Art and Design in Sarasota, Florida, a school known as a starting point for careers with Disney. After graduating, he worked as a Disney illustrator. | [
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David Bromstad | 10006850-1 | Career After being placed on leave as a Disney illustrator, he started his own company, Bromstad Studio. At the urging of a friend, Bromstad moved to Miami Beach and tried out for HGTV's Design Star, a reality show competition to pick a host for a new show on the HGTV cable network. On Design Star, Bromstad competed against nine other potential designers, winning the grand prize – a car, and the chance to host his own show on HGTV. He hosted Color Splash on HGTV from 2007 to 2012.
Bromstad was a guest on the second season of HGTV Design Star, appearing as a guest judge in the first episode and as moral support to the finalists in "Challenge 7: Island Dreams". He was a mentor from Season6, and host from Season7.
In 2012, he hosted Design Star All-Stars. He appeared on HGTV's Design at Your Door and was a competitor in the second season of Rock the Block, partnered with designer Tiffany Brooks. He has also appeared on HGTV'd, HGTV Showdown, and Bang for Your Buck.
In 2015, Bromstad began hosting My Lottery Dream Home.
Personal life
Bromstad is gay.
He owns a home in Orlando, Florida, which was featured on My Lottery Dream Home: David's Dream Home.
He has a "tattoo addiction" and favors designs that speak to his love of family, color, gay pride and Disney.
He was the first HGTV personality to be named to Out magazine's Out100 list of prominent LGBTQ people.
Filmography
Brother vs. Brother (2011–2017) – Celebrity judge during Seasons 3 and 4
Extreme Makeover: Home Edition (2020) - Guest on Season 1, Episode 3 | [
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GAU-19 | 10006876-0 | The GAU-19/A (GECAL 50) is an electrically driven, three-barrel rotary heavy machine gun that fires the .50 BMG (12.7×99mm NATO) cartridge.
Technical specifications
The GAU-19/A is designed to accept standard NATO .50 caliber M9-linked ammunition. The rate of fire is selectable to be either 1,000 or 2,000 rounds per minute. The Humvee armament kit version fires at 1,300 rounds per minute. The average recoil force when firing is 382 lb/ft, 495 lb/ft or 629 lb/ft depending on firing rate. In January 2012, General Dynamics announced they would be delivering a new version designated GAU-19/B. It provides the same firepower in a lighter platform, weighing and optimized for a firing rate of 1,300 rounds per minute and an average recoil force of 562 lb/ft. Both variants can be configured for an ammunition capacity of 500–1,200 rounds. Both variants are reliable to 40,000 mean rounds between failure. | [
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GAU-19 | 10006876-1 | History The GECAL 50 was first manufactured by General Electric, then by Lockheed Martin, and now by General Dynamics. Design work began in 1982. Early prototypes had six barrels, but a three-barreled configuration is now standard. The GAU-19/A was originally designed as a larger, more potent version of the M134 Minigun. Due to the loss of nine helicopters in Grenada, GE started building prototypes of the weapon in both a three-barreled and a six-barreled configuration. The six-barreled version was designed to fire 4,000 rounds per minute, and could be adapted to fire up to 8,000 rounds per minute. The GAU-19 takes 0.4 seconds to reach maximum firing rate. Soon it was recommended as a potential armament for the V-22 Osprey. The magazine would be located underneath the cabin floor and could be reloaded in-flight. However, plans to mount the gun were later dropped. In December 1992 the US Navy issued a letter of qualification for GAU-19/A integration and use on naval aircraft. In 2005, the GAU-19/A was approved to be mounted on the OH-58D Kiowa helicopter. It also could have been used on the Army's now cancelled ARH-70.
In 1999, the United States sent 28 GAU-19s to Colombia. Oman is known to use the GAU-19/A mounted on their HMMWVs. The Mexican Navy uses MDH MD-902 series helicopters with the GAU-19/A system mounted for anti-narcotics operations. | [
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GAU-19 | 10006876-2 | In October 2010 General Dynamics began developing the lighter weight GAU-19/B in response to an urgent needs statement issued by the Armed Scout Helicopter Program Office. By April 2011 flight testing had begun and by January 2012, the U.S. Army ordered 30 GAU-19/B versions for use on helicopters. All were delivered by the next month. In August 2012 the GAU-19/B received a safety confirmation from the US Army Evaluation Center for use on the OH-58D Kiowa Warrior.
Both GAU-19 variants have been integrated on naval vessels (tripod and remote weapons station), vehicles (turret and remotely operated), and on both rotary and fixed wing aircraft (externally mounted under wing fixed forward and man fired from the aircraft door or cargo ramp). Most recently a self-contained gun pod was developed by Fulcrum Concepts LLC
Users
: Used by Drug Enforcement troops, and the Colombian National Police, AH-60L ARPIA III/IV COIN attack helicopter, AC-47T CAS gunship
: 12 GAU-19B
: Used by Japan Coast Guard, on PC Kagayuki class
: Used by the Mexican Air Force and the Mexican Navy on Humvees, UH-60 Black Hawks, and the MD Explorer
: Used on Army HMMWV.
: Used on AH6i
: 4 GAU-19/B for use on AH6i
: Used on S70M Blackhawks, Bell 407 and naval vessels and HMMWVs. | [
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Pat Green | 1000684-0 | Patrick Craven Green (born April 5, 1972) is an American Texas Country artist. Active since 1995, he has recorded a total of seven studio albums, including three for Republic Records and two for BNA. Fifteen of his singles have charted on Billboard Hot Country Songs, of which the highest-peaking is "Wave on Wave" (No. 3) from his gold-certified album of the same name. | [
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Pat Green | 1000684-1 | Music career Green started his music career as an 18-year-old at Texas Tech University playing small gigs at bars and clubs around Lubbock. In 1995, Green independently recorded and released a series of albums produced by Lloyd Maines using money borrowed from his parents. Green did not commit fully to his music career until 1997 when his stepfather fired him from his job as a fuel wholesaler. Green had been counting his money from a weekend of singing and his stepfather knew he would need motivation to fully pursue music as a career.
After committing to music, Green drew the attention of Willie Nelson and joined a tour featuring Nelson and several other famous country musicians. Green's appearance at the 1998 Willie Nelson July 4 Picnic was his first step towards nationwide recognition, and he was soon playing sold out shows in Texas. Green was sponsored by Miller Lite and sold more than 250,000 albums, even without signing a major label recording contract.
Green's first major-label recorded album, Three Days, repackaged his best pre-major songs and new tracks with modern sound engineering. The album was released to acclaim in 2001. The adventurous, Beatles-influenced "Wave on Wave", was released in 2003, with the title track reaching number 3 on the charts by the end of the year. The album featured pop flourishes and sound engineering that was incrementally more compressed than that of "Three Days" but dramatically more so than that of his independent releases. The Christian-tinged title track remains Green's top career hit. | [
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Pat Green | 1000684-2 | Green's mid-2000s period aimed to capitalize on his Wave on Wave commercial achievement, written by Billy Joe Parton. He achieved some critical and popular success but was unable to match his prior success and earned a "sellout" label. In late 2004, "Lucky Ones" was Green's 3rd and final CD release on the Universal/Republic label. Despite weak label support, the album peaked at number 6 on the U.S. Country charts. Green joined popular country music artists including Keith Urban, Gretchen Wilson, Dave Matthews Band, and Kenny Chesney on major tours. Green released his album Cannonball in 2006. CMT questioned the album as reaching for the "uninspired pop sound of today’s Nashville," with songs "starting to sound too much alike" and "crossing the line into Nashville pop" and perhaps not "honest and natural." Green acknowledged that he needed hits to sustain the career that he wanted. In 2008, Green released "Let Me", as the first single from what would become his final label-released album, What I'm For. The single reached 12 on the country charts, giving Green his first Top 20 single since "Feels Just Like It Should" reached No. 13 in 2006. Initially, "Country Star" was released as the second single, but it was withdrawn shortly after the title track ("What I'm For") began receiving airplay. "Country Star" peaked at 32, and "What I'm For" peaked at 28 on the country charts in July 2009. Green parted ways with BNA shortly afterward.
Washed out in 2011, Green announced his return to Texas and independent music. On September 2, 2014, Taste of Country premiered the official lyric video for a new song, "Girls from Texas", featuring Lyle Lovett. On September 16, 2014, "Girls from Texas" was made available on iTunes. On May 18, 2015, Green released a new single, "While I Was Away". The video, a tribute to long-distance parents, premiered on People.com on May 22. "While I Was Away" was inducted into Taste of Country's Showdown Hall of Fame after winning five consecutive fan-voted rounds against artists including Blake Shelton, Dierks Bentley, Cassadee Pope, and David Nail. | [
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Pat Green | 1000684-3 | Green's self-released Home debuted on digital media on August 14, 2015, and entered on the Top Country Albums chart at No. 5. The album includes appearances from Lyle Lovett, Sheryl Crow, and more. The twelfth single from the album, "Day One" was released to Texas radio on May 2, 2016. Green self-released the single "Drinkin' Days" on May 26, 2017. On Green's 46th birthday, April 5, 2018, Dancehall Dreamin': A Tribute to Pat Green was released. The album features covers of ten Pat Green hits along with commentary about each song. On July 20, 2018, he released the single "Friday's Comin'" worldwide.
On September 2, 2022, Green released his first album in seven years, "Miles and Miles of You", produced by Dwight A. Baker.
Personal life
Green was born in San Antonio to Craven Earl Green and Patricia Burgess. He was raised in Waco, Texas, where he attended Vanguard College Preparatory School for grades 7–12. Green's father was a former Air Force officer and stage actor who influenced his son's love of music. His parents divorced when he was seven. His mother later remarried.
After high school, Green attended Texas Tech University where he was a member of FarmHouse fraternity.
Green is an ardent fan of Major League Baseball's Texas Rangers. "I Like Texas", a song from his 1995 self-released album, Dancehall Dreamer, has been adopted as the Rangers' victory song.
Discography
Studio albums
Three Days (2001)
Wave on Wave (2003)
Lucky Ones (2004)
Cannonball (2006)
What I'm For (2009)
Home (2015)
Miles and Miles of You (2022) | [
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New Orleans English | 1000637-0 | New Orleans English is American English native to the city of New Orleans and its metropolitan area. Native English speakers of the region actually speak a number of varieties, including the variety most recently brought in and spreading since the 20th century among white communities of the Southern United States in general (Southern U.S. English); the variety primarily spoken by black residents (African-American Vernacular English); the variety spoken by Cajuns in southern Louisiana (Cajun English); the variety traditionally spoken by affluent white residents of the city's Uptown and Garden District; and the variety traditionally spoken by lower middle- and working-class white residents of Eastern New Orleans, particularly the Ninth Ward (sometimes known, since at least the 1980s, as Yat). However, only the last two varieties are unique to New Orleans and are typically those referred to in the academic research as "New Orleans English". These two varieties specific to New Orleans likely developed around the turn of the nineteenth century and most noticeably combine speech features commonly associated with both New York City English and, to a lesser extent, Southern U.S. English. The noticeably New York-like characteristics include the NYC-like short-a split (so that mad and map, for example, do not have the same vowel), non-rhoticity, th-stopping (so that, for example, "those" may sound like "doze"), and the recently disappearing coil–curl merger. Noticeably Southern characteristics include the fronting of and possible monophthongization of (just these features, plus non-rhoticity, often characterize the Uptown accent). | [
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New Orleans English | 1000637-1 | Often, the term "Yat" refers particularly to the New Orleans accents that are "strongest" or most especially reminiscent of a working-class New York City accent, though others use the term as a regional marker, to define the speech heard in certain parts of the city and its inner suburbs. Used in these narrower senses, Yat is simply one of many sub-dialects of New Orleans. The word comes from the common use of the local greeting, "Where y'at?" or "Where are you at (i.e. in life)?", which is a way of asking, "How are you?"
History
A unique New Orleans accent, or "Yat" accent, is considered an identity marker of white metropolitan people who have been raised in the greater New Orleans area. English professor Allan A. Metcalf discusses that "Yats" mostly live near the Irish Channel in blue-collar neighborhoods. The dialect's connotation with the working-class white population therefore encodes the speaker's identities.
The striking similarity between the New Orleans Yat accent and the accent of the New York metropolitan area has been the subject of much speculation. Plausible origins of the accent are described in A. J. Liebling's book The Earl of Louisiana, in a passage that was used as a foreword to A Confederacy of Dunces, John Kennedy Toole's well-known posthumously published novel about New Orleans: | [
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New Orleans English | 1000637-2 | In the decades following the 1803 Louisiana Purchase, when New Orleans changed from being a French colonial possession to an American city, Irish, German, and eventually Italian (largely Sicilian) immigrants indeed began populating the city. However, rather than believing the New York and New Orleans dialects evolved similarly merely due to a similar mixture of European immigrant populations, modern linguists believe that the dialect histories of New Orleans and New York City actually have a direct relationship: significant commercial and demographic interactions between the two cities. Although exact linguistic theories vary, the broad consensus is that key New York accent features probably diffused to New Orleans by the late 19th century. Large-scale movements (permanent or seasonal) of working-class, lower middle-class, and merchant-class Northeastern Americans of European immigrant families to New Orleans may have brought along their native Northeastern (namely, New York City) accent features. Even during the antebellum era, Northerners made up over a quarter of all free, white, non-immigrant residents of New Orleans. Linguist William Labov specifically argues that Jewish American bankers and cotton merchants strongly affiliated with New York City were the biggest influence on upper-class accents (and presumably, the eventual accents of all classes) in New Orleans. He cites examples of Sephardic and German Jewish connections to influential mercantile firms in 19th-century New Orleans.
Phonology
Many of the features bear a direct relation to Southern American English or New York City English, when not common across the United States more broadly. Of the "Yat" dialect features, the most distinct ones are:
no cot–caught merger, as in regional American accents. there is a father–bother merger, but the merged becomes or in rhotic environments.
stressed and becoming or (i.e., 'God,' 'on,' 'talk', become , , and , respectively).
non-rhoticity; 'heart' and 'fire' become and , respectively. | [
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New Orleans English | 1000637-3 | the coil–curl merger: phonemes and , creating the diphthong , before a consonant. the feature has receded, but not as much as in New York City. Sometimes, the exact opposite occurs, the full rhotacization of a syllable-internal (i.e. 'toilet,' becomes ); this is more typical in men than in women.
th-stopping, pronouncing the "th" sounds like 't' or 'd'.
a variable horse–hoarse merger
or used for unstressed and final . this makes 'running' sound like 'runnin'.
splitting the historic 'short a' vowel into tense and lax versions. New Orleans' system most closely resembles New York City's, but also applies to voiced fricatives and function words.
-monophthongization, resulting in . this is common to many Southeastern United States accents.
however, the Canadian raising of both /aɪ/ and /aʊ/ can also be heard among younger speakers
shifting the stress of some words, such as "insurance", to the first syllable. this also occurs in the broader Southeastern United States, and many forms of AAVE.
There are some words with phonemic peculiarities, but according to no particular pattern; including 'sink' , 'room' , 'mayonnaise' , 'museum' , 'ask' .
New Orleans is locally pronounced or , with the "New" destressed. The slurred, stereotypical "N'awlins" and the General American are not often heard from natives. Louisiana can be pronounced as the standard or a slightly reduced in the 'Yat' dialect.
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New Orleans English | 1000637-4 | Local variance The Yat accent is the most pronounced version of the New Orleans accent, and is perceptually similar to a New York accent. As with all dialects, there is variance in the accent to geographic and social factors like one's exact locational or financial background.
Speakers of this dialect originated in the Ninth Ward, as well as the Irish Channel and Mid-City. Lighter features of the dialect can be heard in some parts of the city, such as Lakeview, the Marigny, the Garden District, and some parts of Gentilly, but mainly in the suburbs. The dialect is present to some degree in all seven parishes that make up the New Orleans metropolitan area, from St. Tammany to Plaquemines. As with many sociolinguistic artifacts in the 21st century, the dialect is usually more distinct among older members of the population. The New Orleans suburban area of Chalmette shows the strongest Yat accent.
In popular culture
The distinct New Orleans dialect has been depicted in many ways throughout the city and the U.S.
The main character of the cartoon strip Krazy Kat spoke in a slightly exaggerated phonetically-rendered version of early-20th century Yat; friends of the New Orleans-born cartoonist George Herriman recalled that he spoke with many of the same distinctive pronunciations. | [
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New Orleans English | 1000637-5 | Actual New Orleans accents were seldom heard nationally. New Orleanians who attained national prominence in the media often made an effort to tone down or eliminate the most distinctive local pronunciations. Dan Baum's Nine Lives shares the feelings of Ronald Lewis, a native of the Ninth Ward who is embarrassed by his local dialect when speaking in front of a group of white northerners. After the displacement of Greater New Orleans area residents because of Hurricane Katrina, the United States was introduced to some of the New Orleans Yat accents by constant news coverage. Steven Seagal's show Lawman exposed some Yat accents and dialects to the nation.
Ronnie Virgets, a New Orleans writer, commentator, and journalist, employs New Orleans dialects and accents in his written and spoken works, including the locally produced public radio program, Crescent City. WWNO, the local public radio station, broadcasts the program and provides access to past Crescent City programs on its website.
The name of the official mascot for the 1984 Louisiana World Exposition, held in New Orleans, was derived from the truncated pronunciation of "See More of the Fair," which results in the pseudo yat speak "Seymore D. Fair."
A Midwest Cajun restaurant chain based in Indianapolis, Indiana carries the name Yats.
Cellphone company Boost Mobile used the phrase "Where Y'At?" in early advertising campaigns. | [
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New Orleans English | 1000637-6 | Who Dat? is a chant commonly tied to the Yat dialect and used in support of the New Orleans Saints football team. The entire chant is "Who dat? Who dat? Who dat say dey gonna beat dem Saints?" Saints fans are collectively called the "Who Dat Nation."
The Yat dialect is seldom heard when New Orleans is depicted in movies and television shows. Traditionally, characters portrayed from New Orleans are heard using a southern or Cajun accent. An example of this is 1986's The Big Easy, in which Dennis Quaid speaks an exaggerated Cajun/southern derivation. This trend has been challenged, though, in light of post-Katrina New Orleans representation, like HBO's Treme and Werner Herzog's Bad Lieutenant: Port of Call New Orleans, both of which feature actual New Orleans locals either speaking in Yat or one of its variations.
Other local dialects and misconceptions
Historically, the city of New Orleans has been home to people of French, Spanish, and African heritages, which led to the creation of the Louisiana Creole language, before this city came under U.S. rule in the Louisiana Purchase. Over the course of the 19th century, the city transitioned from speaking French to becoming a non-rhotic English-speaking society. Similarly, much of the South has historically spoken non-rhotic English. | [
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New Orleans English | 1000637-7 | A misconception in other parts of the U.S. is that the local dialect of New Orleans is the same as Cajun English (spoken in several other areas of South Louisiana), but the city's cultural and linguistic traditions are distinct from that of the predominantly rural Acadiana, an area spanning across South Louisiana. While there has been an influx of Cajuns into the city since the oil boom of the later 20th century and while there are some similarities due to shared roots, Cajun culture has had relatively little influence upon Creole culture and thus Yat culture. The confusion of Cajun culture with the Creole culture is largely due to the confusion of these French cultures by the tourism and entertainment industries; sometimes this was done deliberately, as "Cajun" was often discovered to be a potentially lucrative marketing term. Speakers with a New Orleans accent are typically proud of their accent as it organically stems from the historical mixing of language and culture. This distinctive accent has been dying out generationally in the city due to white flight of the city, but remains very strong in the suburbs. However, the Yat dialect does survive in the city in several areas, notably Mid-city, Lakeview, parts of Gentilly and Uptown. | [
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English prepositions | 10002917-0 | English prepositions are words – such as of, in, on, at, from, etc. – that function as the head of a prepositional phrase, and most characteristically license a noun phrase object (e.g., in the water). Semantically, they most typically denote relations in space and time. Morphologically, they are usually simple and do not inflect. They form a closed lexical category.
Many of the most common of these are grammaticalized and correspond to case markings in languages such as Latin. For example, of typically corresponds to the genitive.
History of the concept in English | [
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English prepositions | 10002917-1 | The history of the idea of prepositions inEnglish grammar writing can be seen as one of relative stagnation, only exceptionally interrupted by certain more influential authors... It was only in the second half of the twentieth century that the situation radically changed and since then, grammarians have introduced scientifically precise definitions and developed detailed and elaborate frameworks for their description.The word preposition is from "Latin praepositionem (nominative praepositio) 'a putting before, a prefixing,' noun of action from past-participle stem of praeponere 'put before'," the basic idea being that it is a word that comes before a noun. Its first known use in English is by John Drury, writing in Middle English on Latin grammar c1434.
The meaning was essentially the same as the general idea today: a simple word preceding a noun expressing a relation between it and another word.
William Bullokar wrote the earliest grammar of English, published in 1586. It includes a chapter on prepositions. His definition follows:A part of speech properly used prepositively, that is governing an accusative case set next after it (except sometime in verse it is set after his casual word) as, I go to the church: and is sometime postpositively used, that is, when it governeth the relative, that, or which, coming before a verb, whose governing preposition is set after such verb: as, this is the man whom we spoke of, or of whom we spoke; and is some time used in composition after a verb, but being severed from the verb by the adverb, not, or by an accusative case, may be said to be set in apposition adverbially. (p. 320; orthography has been modernized) | [
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English prepositions | 10002917-2 | Similarly, an adjective phrase may consist of an adjective alone or with a complement (e.g., I'm happy; I'm happy to be here).Jespersen also noted that many words, such as before in I came before, which were categorized as adverbs, were very similar in meaning and syntax to prepositions (e.g., I came before you.). And the same held for many words categorized as subordinating conjunctions (e.g., I came before you did.). He therefore proposed that all these words are prepositions, and that the requirement that they be followed by a noun phrase be dropped. This is the position taken in many modern grammars, such as The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. On the other hand, dictionaries and ESL grammars have not adopted these ideas. For example, Merriam-Webster's Dictionary has before as an adverb, preposition, and conjunction. Preposition vs other lexical categories
Prepositions vs verbs
Both prepositions and verbs license NP objects, but in most cases, the distinction is clear because verbs conjugate, and prepositions do not. There are, however, a number of prepositions derived from participial verb forms (e.g., come or barring), which could be confused with verbs. | [
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English prepositions | 10002917-3 | Similarly, an adjective phrase may consist of an adjective alone or with a complement (e.g., I'm happy; I'm happy to be here).Jespersen also noted that many words, such as before in I came before, which were categorized as adverbs, were very similar in meaning and syntax to prepositions (e.g., I came before you.). And the same held for many words categorized as subordinating conjunctions (e.g., I came before you did.). He therefore proposed that all these words are prepositions, and that the requirement that they be followed by a noun phrase be dropped. This is the position taken in many modern grammars, such as The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. On the other hand, dictionaries and ESL grammars have not adopted these ideas. For example, Merriam-Webster's Dictionary has before as an adverb, preposition, and conjunction. Preposition vs other lexical categories
Prepositions vs verbs
Both prepositions and verbs license NP objects, but in most cases, the distinction is clear because verbs conjugate, and prepositions do not. There are, however, a number of prepositions derived from participial verb forms (e.g., come or barring), which could be confused with verbs. | [
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English prepositions | 10002917-4 | Prepositions vs complementizers "Complementizer" is a term which has its origins in generative grammar. It refers to a restricted subset of what are classified as subordinating conjunctions in traditional grammar. There are only a very few complementizers: that, whether, and if are the main examples.
Traditional grammar includes words like because, while, and unless in the class of subordinating conjunctions. But since at least Jespersen (see ) most modern grammarians distinguish these two categories based on whether they add meaning to the sentence or are purely functional. The distinction can be shown with if, since there is a complementizer if and a preposition if. The preposition introduces a conditional meaning (e.g., if it works, that's great). Complementizers, though, have no meaning. They just mark a clause as subordinate; there is no difference in meaning between I know that you were there and I know you were there. Similarly, in She asked if we were there the complementizer if merely marks the following clause as a closed interrogative content clause, without adding any conditional meaning.
The syntax of prepositions and PPs
Internal structure
PPs are usually quite simple in their internal structure. The following syntax tree shows a PP with an adverb phrase as modifier and a head PP. The head PP has a head preposition in and an object NP the rain. | [
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English prepositions | 10002917-5 | When the preposition governs an argument of a larger phrase, such as a noun phrase, the object of the preposition is sometimes called a prepositional or oblique argument. For example, convert the energy of ocean waves into electricity becomes the conversion [of the energy of ocean waves] into electricity, where the underlined NP – which is the object in the PP headed by of – is the oblique argument of conversion.
Postpositions
A very small number of prepositions (see ) may occur after their object, for example, notwithstanding, which can appear either before the object (e.g., notwithstanding the fact) or after (e.g., the contrary notwithstanding).
Complements of prepositions
Traditional grammars of English characterize prepositions as words that take objects in the form of noun phrases. Though the prototypical prepositional phrase consists of a noun phrase complement following a preposition, prepositions can take a wider variety of complements than just noun phrases. English prepositions can also take clauses, adjective phrases, adverb phrases, and other prepositional phrases as complements, though they occur less frequently than noun phrase complements.
Noun phrase complements
Prepositions typically take noun phrases as complements. For example, the prepositional phrase on the table consists of the head on and the complement the table, and the prepositional phrase in the area consists of the head in and the complement the area. By analogy with noun phrase complements of verbs, noun phrase complements of prepositions are occasionally called objects in grammars of English. | [
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English prepositions | 10002917-6 | Like objects of verbs, objects of preposition typically carry accusative case. Thus, we expect to see prepositional phrases like near me and at her rather than near I and at she because me and her are accusative case pronouns while I and she are nominative case pronouns. Indeed, some grammars treat the inability of prepositions to have nominative case pronouns as a defining characteristic of prepositions. An exception to this rule about case seems to occur when the preposition takes a coordinated pair of objects, such as someone and I. In these cases, usage varies, and the pronoun can carry either nominative or accusative case. For example, users of English might say "between you and I" or "between you and me". Some commentators have called the former "illiterate" and a sign that the English language is deteriorating, according to Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage, nominative case pronouns as part of a coordinated pair of prepositional objects have occurred in respected works of literature and are actually more characteristic of educated varieties of English than of less educated varieties.
In some cases, the object NP in the PP is atypical in that it lacks a determiner. For example, I'm at school is grammatical, even though an NP headed by the singular noun school usually requires a determiner; *They're building new school is not grammatical because it is lacking a determiner. Other examples are in hospital and to bed. Typically the meaning here implies a purpose. For example, going to the bed does not suggest sleeping in the way that going to bed does.
Clause complements
Prepositions that take a clause as a complement are called conjunctive prepositions or subordinating prepositions. Conjunctive prepositions can take a variety of kinds of clauses as complements. Most often, they take finite clauses as complements. These finite clause complements can be declarative (this happened after Stacy left) or interrogative (they ignored the question of whether it was ethical). They can also be subjunctive clauses (lest there be any doubt). | [
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English prepositions | 10002917-7 | Less commonly, conjunctive prepositions take non-finite clauses as complements. These non-finite clause complements include infinitive clauses (we can't agree on how much to charge) and present participle clauses (you can't just put it on without them knowing). These clauses may occur with or without subjects, and subjects that do occur can be in accusative case (without them knowing) or genitive case (without their knowing). Though various usage commentators have called both cases incorrect in such clauses, many writers use both constructions, and the choice of case often depends on the context. For example, the accusative case is more likely when the subject is emphasized, a phrase intervenes between the subject and the verb, or the subject is plural.
Other complements of prepositions
In more limited cases, prepositions can take other kinds of complements. The preposition as can take an adjective phrase complement to form a prepositional phrase that functions as an object complement (you described them as jealous). Prepositions also take adjective phrase complements in certain fixed phrases, such as at last and in brief.
As with adjective phrase complements, prepositions can take adverb phase complements in fixed phrases, such as by far and since when. Further, certain prepositions (namely, before/ere, for, and till/until) can take temporal adverbs (such as later, long, one, and recently) as complements, forming prepositional phrases such as for later, until recently, for once, and before long. | [
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English prepositions | 10002917-8 | Prepositions can also take prepositional phrases as complements. These prepositional phrase complements can be specified by the preposition or not. In the prepositional phrase apart from Jill, for example, the preposition apart requires that the complement include the preposition from. In the prepositional phrase since before the war, however, the preposition since does not require the preposition before and could have instead been something else, such as since after the war.
Modifiers of prepositions
Prepositions may optionally be modified by other phrasal categories. Adverb phrases, noun phrases, and prepositional phrases can function as pre-head modifiers of prepositions (that is, modify prepositions that follow them), and prepositional phases can also function as post-head modifiers (that is, modify prepositions that precede them).
Pre-head modifiers
Adverb phrases can function as pre-head modifiers in prepositional phrases. For example, the prepositional phrase after midnight can be modified by adverb phrases such as shortly (shortly after midnight) or quite obviously (quite obviously after midnight). A subset of adverb phrase modifiers of prepositions express degree and occur within prepositional phrases but not other phrasal categories. These degree adverbs include clear, flat, plumb, right, smack, and straight. Examples of prepositional phrases modified in this way include clear up the tree, straight out the door, and right out of the park.
Noun phrases indicating spatial or temporal extent can occur before a preposition that expresses spatial or temporal meaning in order to modify it. For example, the prepositional phrase beyond the post office can be modified by the noun phrase two miles (two miles beyond the post office) or a few minutes' walk (a few minutes' walk beyond the post office). | [
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English prepositions | 10002917-9 | Certain prepositions with directional meanings can function as pre-head modifiers in prepositional phrases. The prepositions down, out, over, and up frequently occur in this role. For example, the preposition down can modify the prepositional phrases by the beach (down by the beach) and by the sea (down by the sea). We can tell that these directional prepositions are modifying other proportional phrases rather than taking prepositional phrases as complements because the other preposition determines whether the whole phrase is grammatical. Thus, "I placed it up on the shelf" is grammatical because "I placed it on the shelf" is also grammatical, but "I placed it up to the attic" is not grammatical because "I placed it to the attic" is not grammatical.
Post-head modifiers
Prepositional phrases can also modify prepositions that precede them. In the clause they go out in the cold, for example, the preposition out is modified by the prepositional phrase in the cold. Though it may appear that in the cold could be modifying the verb go rather than the preposition out, movement of the elements to different parts of the clause suggests that in the cold is actually linked with the preposition out: the prepositional phrase in the cold cannot move to the start of the clause by itself (*in the cold they go out) but it can move to the start of the clause as part of the larger prepositional phrase out in the cold (out in the cold they go).
Functions
PPs typically function as adjuncts in clauses, verb phrases, NPs, and AdjPs. They also function as complements in VPs, PPs, AdjPs, and NPs.
Particle
Prepositions may function as particles, a kind of dependent in a VP that may, unusually, come between a verb and an object. An example is up in pick up the children or pick the children up. | [
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English prepositions | 10002917-10 | Subject In rare cases, a PP can function as the subject of a clause, such as the underlined PP in the following conversation:
A: What time can we meet?
B: Before noon doesn't work.
Types of prepositions
Subcategorization
In linguistics, subcategorization is the "assignment of a lexical item to a subclass of its part of speech, especially with respect to the syntactic elements with which it can combine.". Prepositions can be subcategorized based on complement type. The list of English prepositions is categorized this way.
Though the prototypical preposition is a single word that precedes a noun phrase complement and expresses spatial relations, the category of preposition includes more than this limited notion (see ). Prepositions can be categorized according to whether the preposition takes a complement, what kind of complement the preposition takes, on what side of the preposition the complement occurs, and whether the preposition consists of one word or multiple words.
A preposition that takes a noun-phrase complement is called a transitive preposition (e.g., She went up the hill), and one that does not take any complements is called an intransitive preposition (e.g., She went up). Prepositions can also take the following complements: clauses (e.g., after you arrived), adjective phrases (e.g., accepted as valid), and other prepositional phrases (e.g., because of the problem). | [
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English prepositions | 10002917-11 | A preposition whose complement precedes it (e.g., the constitution notwithstanding) may be called a postposition to distinguish it from more prototypical prepositions, whose complements follow them. Some grammars classify prepositions and postpositions as different kinds of adpositions while other grammars categorize both under the heading of the more common variety in the language. Thus, in the latter categorization method, postpositions may be considered a variety of preposition in English.
Complex prepositions
A complex preposition is a multi-word preposition. The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language (CGEL) says of complex prepositions, In the first place, there is a good deal of inconsistency in the traditional account, as reflected in the practice of dictionaries, as to which combinations are analysed as complex prepositions and which as sequences of adverb + preposition. For example, owing to and out of are listed as prepositions, but according to, because of, and instead of are treated as adverb + preposition. Modern descriptive grammars have tended to extend the category of complex prepositions, and there is accordingly some variation in dictionary practice, depending on how far they are influenced by such work. CGEL generally argues against a complex preposition analysis, and favours a "layered head analysis" for expressions like in front of the car. In this analysis, in front is a PP, which is head of a larger PP that has of the car as a complement.
Fronting and stranding
Preposition fronting (see ) and stranding can occur when the complement PP is an interrogative or relative pronoun, as in the following examples. | [
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English prepositions | 10002917-12 | Fronting Preposition fronting is a feature of very formal registers and rare in casual registers. Not just the interrogative phrase but the PP containing it is fronted. In the example above, the PP with whom is not in its usual position inside the VP after the head verb. Instead, it appear at the front of the clause. When the pronoun is who the accusative whom form is typically used.
Stranding
In preposition stranding, the relative or interrogative phrase appears at the front of the clause instead of in its usual position inside the P after the head preposition. The preposition is then "stranded", typically at the end of the clause. Merriam-Webster stated on Twitter in July 2020 and on Instagram in February 2024 that this was acceptable, after centuries of people saying this should not happen.
Semantics
Space and time
Prepositions most typically denote relations in space and time.
Location
Prepositions like in and at typically denote locations in space (e.g., I live in Toronto) and time (e.g., I arrived in January). These prepositions often locate something relative to the object (e.g., the speaker relative to Toronto).
Goal and source
Prepositions like to and from typically denote the beginning or end point of a path in space (e.g., I went from Ottawa to Toronto) and time (e.g., I lived there from 1992 to 2003).
Path
Prepositions like through and over typically denote the course of a path in space (e.g., I went over the hill) and time (e.g., I lived there through the 1990s). | [
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English prepositions | 10002917-13 | Other The semantic classification of prepositions has no principled limit. But a small sample of the variation can be presented. Because and since are connected to reasons. Concerning and regarding are related to topicality, with and without to having. The prepositions plus, minus, and times are related to mathematical operations. Than and as signify comparison. And so forth.
Morphology
Given that English prepositions hardly ever inflect, discussion of their morphology is generally limited to word formation. English prepositions are formed through both derivation and compounding, and some carry inflectional morphology associated with other parts of speech.
Derivational morphology
Most prepositions are simple bases consisting of a single morpheme, like in, from, and under. Historically, however, English prepositions have been formed from the prefixes a- and be-. This a- prefix originally contributed the meaning "on" or "onto" but is no longer productive; that is, it is no longer used to form new words. The preposition aboard, for example, can be paraphrased as "on board of". The be- prefix originally meant "about" but, in prepositions, came to mean something closer to "at" or "near". For example, one sense of the preposition before means "at or near the front". Though the be- prefix is still productive in forming words of certain parts of speech, it is no longer used to form new prepositions.
Some morphological bases of prepositions remain productive. For example, -wards, which occurs in prepositions such as afterwards and towards, can attach to other morphemes to form new prepositions such as sun in we looked sunwards. | [
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English prepositions | 10002917-14 | Inflectional morphology Despite lacking an inflectional system of their own, English prepositions occasionally carry inflectional morphemes associated with other parts of speech, namely verbs and adjectives. For example, some English prepositions derive from non-finite verb forms and still carry the associated inflectional affixes. The prepositions barring and concerning, for example, contain the -ing suffix of present participle verb forms. Similarly, the prepositions given and granted contain, respectively, the -en and -ed suffixes of past participle verb forms.
The prepositions near and far are unusual in that they seem to inflect for comparison, a feature typically limited to adjectives and adverbs in English.
Compound prepositions
A compound preposition is a single word composed of more than one base. Often, the bases of compound prepositions are both prepositions. Compound prepositions of this kind include into, onto, throughout, upon, within, and without. Compound prepositions have also been formed from prepositions and nouns. Compound prepositions of this kind include some transitive prepositions, such as alongside, inside, and outside, but they are typically intransitive, such as downhill, downstage, downstairs, and downstream.
Phonology
Harold Palmer noted in 1924, that when a preposition is the last element in a clause or intonation group, it is in its "strong form" or stressed and when it comes before, it is in its "weak form" or unstressed. For example, I'm from Toronto is unstressed as , while Where are you from is stressed as or . This observation is originally due to Henry M. Sweet. | [
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Grebe | 100005-0 | Grebes () are aquatic diving birds in the order Podicipediformes (). Grebes are widely distributed freshwater birds, with some species also found in marine habitats during migration and winter. Most grebes fly, although some flightless species exist, most notably in stable lakes. The order contains a single family, the Podicipedidae, which includes 22 species in six extant genera. | [
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Grebe | 100005-1 | Although, superficially, they resemble other diving birds such as loons and coots, they are most closely related to flamingos, as supported by morphological, molecular and paleontological data. Many species are monogamous and are known for their courtship displays, with the pair performing synchronized dances across the water's surface. The birds build floating vegetative nests where they lay several eggs. About a third of the world's grebes are listed at various levels of conservation concerns—the biggest threats including habitat loss, the introduction of invasive predatory fish and human poaching. As such, three species have gone extinct.
Etymology
The word "grebe" comes from the French , which is of unknown origin and dating to 1766. It is possibly from the Breton "krib" meaning 'comb', this referring to the crests of many of the European species. However, was used to refer to gulls. The appearance of "grebe" in the English language was introduced in 1768 by the Welsh naturalist Thomas Pennant when he adopted the word for the family. Some of the smaller species are often referred to as "dabchick", which originated in the mid 16th century English as they were said to be chick-like birds that dive. The clade names "Podicipediformes" and "Podicipedidae" is based on the genus Podiceps which is a combination of Latin of ("rear-end" or "anus") and ("foot"), a reference to the placement of a grebe's legs towards the rear of its body.
Field characteristics
Grebes are small to medium-large in size ranging from the least grebe (Tachybaptus dominicus), at and , to the great grebe (Podiceps major), at and . Despite these size differences grebes are a homogenous family of waterbirds with very few or slight differences among the genera. | [
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Grebe | 100005-2 | Anatomy and physiology On the surface of the water they swim low with just the head and neck exposed. All species have lobed toes, and are excellent swimmers and divers. The feet are always large, with broad lobes on the toes and small webs connecting the front three toes. The hind toe also has a small lobe as well. The claws are similar to nails and are flat. These lobate feet act as an oar, as when moving forward they provide minimum resistance and moving backwards they provide a coverage of maximum surface.
The leg bones (femur and tarsometatarsus) are equal in length, with the femur having a large head and the presence of long cnemial crests in the tarsometatarsus. The patella is separate and supports the tarsometatarsus posteriorly which greatly helps with the contraction in the muscles. They swim by simultaneously spreading out the feet and bringing them inward, with the webbing expanded to produce the forward thrust in much the same way as frogs. However, due to the anatomy of the legs, grebes are not as mobile on land as they are on the water. Although they can run for a short distance, they are prone to falling over, since they have their feet placed far back on the body. | [
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Grebe | 100005-3 | The wing shape varies depending on the species, ranging from moderately long to incredibly short and rounded in shape. The wing anatomy in grebes has a relatively short and thin carpometacarpus-phalanges component which supports their primary feathers, while the ulna is long and fairly weak, supporting secondary feathers. There are 11 primaries and 17 to 22 secondaries, with the inner secondaries being longer than the primaries. As such grebes are generally not strong or rapid fliers. Some species are reluctant to fly. Indeed, two South American species are completely flightless. Since grebes generally dive more than fly, the sternum can be as small or even smaller than the pelvic girdle. When they do fly, they often launch themselves off from the water and must run along the surface as they flap their wings to provide a lift.
Bills vary from short and thick to long and pointed depending on the diet, and are slightly larger in males than in females (though the sizes can overlap between younger males and females).
Feathers
Grebes have unusual plumage. On average grebes have 20,000 feathers, the highest among birds. The feathers are very dense and strongly curved. In the larger species feathers are more dense but shorter, while the opposite is true in smaller species where the feathers are longer but less dense. | [
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Grebe | 100005-4 | The density and length of feathers is correlated exponentially with heat-loss in cold water. For this reason grebes invest plumage maintenance the most in birds in terms of duration of time and energy. The uropygial glands secrete a high concentration of paraffin. The secretion provides a dual purpose of protecting the feathers from external parasites and fungi, as well as waterproofing them. When preening, grebes eat their own feathers and feed them to their young. The function of this behaviour is uncertain, but it is believed to assist with pellet formation, excreting out internal parasites and protecting their insides from sharp bone material during digestion. The ventral plumage is the most dense, described as very fur-like. By pressing their feathers against the body, grebes can adjust their buoyancy. In the nonbreeding season, grebes are plain-coloured in dark browns and whites. However, most have ornate and distinctive breeding plumages, often developing chestnut markings on the head area, and perform elaborate display rituals. The young, particularly those of the genus Podiceps, are often striped and retain some of their juvenile plumage even after reaching full size.
Systematics
The grebes are a radically distinct group of birds as regards their anatomy. Accordingly, they were at first believed to be related to the loons, which are also foot-propelled diving birds, and both families were once classified together under the order Colymbiformes. However, as early as the 1930s, this was determined to be an example of convergent evolution caused by the strong selective forces encountered by unrelated birds sharing the same lifestyle at different times and in different habitat. Grebes and loons are now separately classified orders of Podicipediformes and Gaviiformes, respectively.
Recent molecular studies have suggested a relation with flamingos while morphological evidence also strongly supports a relationship between flamingos and grebes. They hold at least eleven morphological traits in common, which are not found in other birds. Many of these characteristics have been previously identified in flamingos, but not in grebes. For the grebe-flamingo clade, the taxon Mirandornithes ("miraculous birds" due to their extreme divergence and apomorphies) has been proposed. Alternatively, they could be placed in one order, with Phoenocopteriformes taking priority. | [
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Grebe | 100005-5 | Fossil record The fossil record of grebes is incomplete as there are no transitional forms between more conventional birds and grebes known from fossils. The enigmatic waterbird genus Juncitarsus, however, may be close to a common ancestor of flamingos and grebes. The extinct stem-flamingo family Palaelodidae have been suggested to be the transitional linkage between the filter-feeding flamingos and the foot-propelled diving grebes. The evidence for this comes from the overall similarity between the foot and limb structure of grebes and palaeloids, suggesting the latter family of waterbirds were able to swim and dive better than flamingos. Some early grebes share similar characteristics to the coracoid and humerus seen in palaeloids.
True grebes suddenly appear in the fossil record in the Late Oligocene or Early Miocene, around 23–25 mya. There are a few prehistoric genera that are now completely extinct. Thiornis and Pliolymbus date from a time when most if not all extant genera were already present. Because grebes are evolutionarily isolated and they only started to appear in the Northern Hemisphere fossil record in the Early Miocene, they are likely to have originated in the Southern Hemisphere.
Genus Aechmophorus Coues, 1862
†Aechmophorus elasson Murray, 1967 (Piacenzian stage of western United States)
Genus †Miobaptus Švec, 1982
†Miobaptus huzhiricus Zelenkov, 2015 (Burdigalian to the Langhian ages of East Siberia)
†Miobaptus walteri Švec, 1982 [Podiceps walteri (Švec, 1984) Mlíkovský, 2000] (Aquitanian age of Europe)
Genus †Miodytes Dimitreijevich, Gál & Kessler, 2002
†Miodytes serbicus Dimitreijevich, Gál & Kessler, 2002 (Langhian age of Serbia)
Genus †Pliolymbus Murray, 1967 [Piliolymbus (sic)] | [
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Grebe | 100005-6 | †Pliolymbus baryosteus Murray, 1967 (Piacenzian to the Gelasian stages of western United States and Mexico)
Genus Podiceps Latham 1787
†Podiceps arndti Chandler, 1990 (Piacenzian stage of North America)
†Podiceps csarnotanus Kessler, 2009 (Piacenzian stage of Europe)
†Podiceps discors Murray, 1967 (Piacenzian stage of North America)
†Podiceps dixi Brodkorp, 1963 (Chibanian to the Tarantian stages of Florida, United States)
†Podiceps howardae Storer, 2001 (Zanclean age of North Carolina, United States)
†Podiceps miocenicus Kessler, 1984 (Tortonian age of Moldova)
†Podiceps oligoceanus (Shufeldt, 1915) (Aquitanian age of North America)
†Podiceps parvus (Shufeldt, 1913) (Gelasian to the Calabrian stages of North America)
†Podiceps pisanus (Portis, 1888) (Piacenzian stage of Italy)
†Podiceps solidus Kuročkin, 1985 (Zanclean age of Western Mongolia)
†Podiceps subparvus (Miller & Bowman, 1958)
Genus Podilymbus Lesson 1831
†Podilymbus majusculus Murray 1967 (Piacenzian stage of Idaho, United States)
†Podilymbus wetmorei Storer 1976 (Chibanian to the Tarantian stages of Florida, United States)
Genus †Thiornis Navás, 1922
†Thiornis sociata Navás, 1922 [Podiceps sociatus (Navás, 1922) Olson, 1995] (Tortonian age of Spain)
A few more recent grebe fossils could not be assigned to modern or prehistoric genera:
Podicipedidae gen. et sp. indet. (San Diego Late Pliocene of California) – formerly included in Podiceps parvus
Podicipedidae gen. et sp. indet. UMMP 49592, 52261, 51848, 52276, KUVP 4484 (Late Pliocene of WC USA) | [
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Grebe | 100005-7 | Podicipedidae gen. et sp. indet. (Glenns Ferry Late Pliocene/Early Pleistocene of Idaho, USA)
Phylogeny
To date there is no complete phylogeny of grebes based on molecular work. However, there are comprehensive morphological works from Bochenski (1994), Fjeldså (2004) and Ksepka et al. (2013) that have been done on the grebe genera.
Bochenski (1994)
Fjeldså (2004)
Ksepka et al. (2013)
Recent species listing
Natural history
Habitat, distribution and migration
Grebes are a nearly cosmopolitan clade of waterbirds, found on every continent except Antarctica. They are absent from the Arctic Circle and arid environments. They have successfully colonized islands such as Madagascar and New Zealand. Some species such as the eared grebe (Podiceps nigricollis) and great crested grebe (P. cristatus) are found on multiple continents with regional subspecies or populations. A few species like the Junin grebe (P. taczanowskii) and the recently extinct Atitlán grebe (Podilymbus gigas) are lake endemics. During the warmer or breeding seasons, many species of grebes in the northern hemisphere reside in a variety of freshwater habitats like lakes and marshes. Once winter arrives many will migrate to marine environments along the coastlines. Grebes are most prevalent in the New World with almost half of the world's species native there. | [
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Grebe | 100005-8 | Feeding ecology The feeding ecology of grebes is diverse. Larger species such as those in the genus Aechmophorus have spear-like bills to catch mid-depth fish while smaller species such as those in the genera Tachybaptus and Podilymbus tend to be short and stout with a preference for catching small aquatic invertebrates. The majority of grebes predate on aquatic invertebrates, with only a handful of large-bodied piscivores. The aforementioned Aechmophorus is the most piscivorous of the grebes. Closely related species that overlap in their range often avoid interspecific competition by having prey preferences and adaptations for it. In areas where there is just as a single species, they tend to have more generalized bills with more openness to different prey sources.
Breeding and reproduction
Grebes are perhaps best known for their elaborate courtship displays. Most species perform a duet together and many have their own synchronized rituals. Some, like those species in the genus Podiceps do a "penguin dance" where the male and female stand upright, breast posturing out and run along the water's surface. A similar ritual in other species is the "weed dance" in which both partners hold pieces of aquatic vegetation in their bills and are positioned upright towards each other. There is also the "weed rush" in which partners swim towards each other, necks stretched out with weeds in their bill, and just before colliding position themselves upright and then swim in parallel. | [
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Grebe | 100005-9 | In the smaller and basal genera like Tachybaptus and Podilymbus, there is incorporation of aquatic vegetation in their courtship, but it is not as elaborate as the more derived and larger species. It has been hypothesized that such courtship displays between mates originated from intraspecific aggression that evolved in a way that strengthened pair bonds. Once these courtship rituals are completed, both partners solicit copulation towards each other and mount on floating platforms of vegetation. Females lay two to seven eggs and incubation can last nearly a month. Chicks of the nest hatch asynchronously. Once the whole nest has hatched, the chicks begin to climb on one of their parent's backs. Both parents take care of rearing their young, and the duration of care is longer than those of other waterfowl. This enables a greater survival rate for the chicks. One parent dives for food, while the other watches the young on the surface.
Parasitology
249 species of parasitic worms have been known to parasitize the intestinal region of grebes. The amabiliids are a family of cyclophyllid cestodes that are almost all grebe specialists. The life cycle of these tapeworms begins when eggs are passed through the feces, where they are picked by intermediate hosts, which include corixid bugs and the nymphs of Odonata. These aquatic insects are eventually be consumed by grebes, where the lifecycle begins again. Another grebe specialist family of internal parasites are the Dioecocestidae. Other families such as Echinostomatidae and Hymenolepididae also contain several cestode species that are grebe specialists. | [
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Grebe | 100005-10 | The prominent external parasites of grebes are the lice of the clade Ischnocera. One genus of these lice, Aquanirmus, is the only one that is a grebe specialist. Another major group of parasites are the two mites of the families Rhinonyssidae and Ereynetidae; these infect the nasal passages of grebes. The rhinonyssids move slowly in the mucus membranes, drinking blood, while the ereynetids live on the surface. Various lineages of feather mites of the clade Analgoidea have evolved to occupy different sections of the feather. Theromyzon ("duck leeches") tend to feed in the nasal cavities of waterbirds in general, including grebes.
Conservation
Thirty percent of the total extant species are considered to be threatened species by the IUCN. The handful of critically endangered and extinct species of grebe are lake endemics and nearly all of them are or were flightless. The three recently extinct species consist of the Alaotra grebe, the Atitlán grebe, and the Colombian grebe. These species went extinct due to anthropogenic changes, such as habitat loss, the introduction of invasive predatory fishes, and the use of fishing nets that tangled birds in the lakes they once existed in. Similar issues are befalling the Colombian grebe's closest relatives, the Junin grebe and hooded grebe, along with climate change. | [
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Progressive education | 10005-0 | Progressive education, or educational progressivism, is a pedagogical movement that began in the late 19th century and has persisted in various forms to the present. In Europe, progressive education took the form of the New Education Movement. The term progressive was engaged to distinguish this education from the traditional curricula of the 19th century, which was rooted in classical preparation for the early-industrial university and strongly differentiated by social class. By contrast, progressive education finds its roots in modern, post-industrial experience. Most progressive education programs have these qualities in common:
Emphasis on learning by doing – hands-on projects, expeditionary learning, experiential learning
Integrated curriculum focused on thematic units
Strong emphasis on problem solving and critical thinking
Group work and development of social skills
Understanding and action as the goals of learning as opposed to rote knowledge
Collaborative and cooperative learning projects
Education for social responsibility and democracy
Integration of community service and service learning projects into the daily curriculum
Selection of subject content by looking forward to ask what skills will be needed in future society
De-emphasis on textbooks in favor of varied learning resources
Emphasis on lifelong learning and social skills
Assessment by evaluation of child's projects and productions | [
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Progressive education | 10005-1 | History Progressive education can be traced back to the works of John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, both of whom are known as forerunners of ideas that would be developed by theorists such as John Dewey. Considered one of the first of the British empiricists, Locke believed that "truth and knowledge… arise out of observation and experience rather than manipulation of accepted or given ideas". He further discussed the need for children to have concrete experiences in order to learn. Rousseau deepened this line of thinking in Emile, or On Education, where he argued that subordination of students to teachers and memorization of facts would not lead to an education.
Johann Bernhard Basedow
In Germany, Johann Bernhard Basedow (1724–1790) established the Philanthropinum at Dessau in 1774. He developed new teaching methods based on conversation and play with the child, and a program of physical development. Such was his success that he wrote a treatise on his methods, "On the best and hitherto unknown method of teaching children of noblemen".
Christian Gotthilf Salzmann
Christian Gotthilf Salzmann (1744–1811) was the founder of the Schnepfenthal institution, a school dedicated to new modes of education (derived heavily from the ideas of Jean-Jacques Rousseau). He wrote Elements of Morality, for the Use of Children, one of the first books translated into English by Mary Wollstonecraft. | [
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Progressive education | 10005-2 | Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746–1827) was a Swiss pedagogue and educational reformer who exemplified Romanticism in his approach. He founded several educational institutions both in German- and French-speaking regions of Switzerland and wrote many works explaining his revolutionary modern principles of education. His motto was "Learning by head, hand and heart". His research and theories closely resemble those outlined by Rousseau in Emile. He is further considered by many to be the "father of modern educational science" His psychological theories pertain to education as they focus on the development of object teaching, that is, he felt that individuals best learned through experiences and through a direct manipulation and experience of objects. He further speculated that children learn through their own internal motivation rather than through compulsion. (See Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic motivation). A teacher's task will be to help guide their students as individuals through their learning and allow it to unfold naturally.
Friedrich Fröbel
Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel (1782–1852) was a student of Pestalozzi who laid the foundation for modern education based on the recognition that children have unique needs and capabilities. He believed in "self-activity" and play as essential factors in child education. The teacher's role was not to indoctrinate but to encourage self-expression through play, both individually and in group activities. He created the concept of kindergarten. | [
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Progressive education | 10005-3 | Johann Friedrich Herbart Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776–1841) emphasized the connection between individual development and the resulting societal contribution. The five key ideas which composed his concept of individual maturation were Inner Freedom, Perfection, Benevolence, Justice, and Equity or Recompense. According to Herbart, abilities were not innate but could be instilled, so a thorough education could provide the framework for moral and intellectual development. In order to develop a child to lead to a consciousness of social responsibility, Herbart advocated that teachers utilize a methodology with five formal steps: "Using this structure a teacher prepared a topic of interest to the children, presented that topic, and questioned them inductively, so that they reached new knowledge based on what they had already known, looked back, and deductively summed up the lesson's achievements, then related them to moral precepts for daily living".
John Melchior Bosco
John Melchior Bosco (1815–1888) was concerned about the education of street children who had left their villages to find work in the rapidly industrialized city of Turin, Italy. Exploited as cheap labor or imprisoned for unruly behavior, Bosco saw the need for creating a space where they would feel at home. He called it an 'Oratory' where they could play, learn, share friendships, express themselves, develop their creative talents and pick up skills for gainful self-employment. With those who had found work, he set up a mutual-fund society (an early version of the Grameen Bank) to teach them the benefits of saving and self-reliance. The principles underlying his educational method that won over the hearts and minds of thousands of youth who flocked to his oratory were: 'be reasonable', 'be kind', 'believe' and 'be generous in service'. Today his method of education is practiced in nearly 3000 institutions set up around the world by the members of the Salesian Society he founded in 1873. | [
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Progressive education | 10005-4 | Cecil Reddie While studying for his doctorate in Göttingen in 1882–1883, Cecil Reddie was greatly impressed by the progressive educational theories being applied there. Reddie founded Abbotsholme School in Derbyshire, England, in 1889. Its curriculum enacted the ideas of progressive education. Reddie rejected rote learning, classical languages and corporal punishment. He combined studies in modern languages and the sciences and arts with a program of physical exercise, manual labour, recreation, crafts and arts. Schools modeling themselves after Abbotsholme were established throughout Europe, and the model was particularly influential in Germany. Reddie often engaged foreign teachers, who learned its practices, before returning home to start their own schools. Hermann Lietz an Abbotsholme teacher founded five schools (Landerziehungsheime für Jungen) on Abbotsholme's principles. Other people he influenced included Kurt Hahn, Adolphe Ferrière and Edmond Demolins. His ideas also reached Japan, where it turned into "Taisho-era Free Education Movement" (Taisho Jiyu Kyoiku Undo)
John Dewey
Education according to John Dewey is the "participation of the individual in the social consciousness of the race" (Dewey, 1897, para. 1). As such, education should take into account that the student is a social being. The process begins at birth with the child unconsciously gaining knowledge and gradually developing their knowledge to share and partake in society.
For Dewey, education, which regulates "the process of coming to share in the social consciousness," is the "only sure" method of ensuring social progress and reform (Dewey, 1897, para. 60). In this respect, Dewey foreshadows Social Reconstructionism, whereby schools are a means to reconstruct society. As schools become a means for social reconstruction, they must be given the proper equipment to perform this task and guide their students. | [
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Progressive education | 10005-5 | Helen Parkhurst The American teacher Helen Parkhurst (1886–1973) developed the Dalton Plan at the beginning of the twentieth century with the goal of reforming the then current pedagogy and classroom management. She wanted to break the teacher-centered lockstep teaching. During her first experiment, which she implemented in a small elementary school as a young teacher in 1904, she noticed that when students are given freedom for self-direction and self-pacing and to help one another, their motivation increases considerably and they learn more. In a later experiment in 1911 and 1912, Parkhurst re-organized the education in a large school for nine- to fourteen-year-olds. Instead of each grade, each subject was appointed its own teacher and its own classroom. The subject teachers made assignments: they converted the subject matter for each grade into learning assignments. In this way, learning became the students' own work; they could carry out their work independently, work at their own pace and plan their work themselves. The classroom turned into a laboratory, a place where students are working, furnished and equipped as work spaces, tailored to meet the requirements of specific subjects. Useful and attractive learning materials, instruments and reference books were put within the students' reach. The benches were replaced by large tables to facilitate co-operation and group instruction. This second experiment formed the basis for the next experiments, those in Dalton and New York, from 1919 onwards. The only addition was the use of graphs, charts enabling students to keep track of their own progress in each subject. | [
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Progressive education | 10005-6 | In the nineteen-twenties and nineteen-thirties, Dalton education spread throughout the world. There is no certainty regarding the exact numbers of Dalton schools, but there was Dalton education in America, Australia, England, Germany, the Netherlands, the Soviet Union, India, China and Japan.
Rudolf Steiner
Rudolf Steiner (1861–1925) first described the principles of what was to become Waldorf education in 1907. He established a series of schools based on these principles beginning in 1919. The focus of the education is on creating a developmentally appropriate curriculum that holistically integrates practical, artistic, social, and academic experiences. There are more than a thousand schools and many more early childhood centers worldwide; it has also become a popular form of homeschooling.
Maria Montessori
Maria Montessori (1870–1952) began to develop her philosophy and methods in 1897. She based her work on her observations of children and experimentation with the environment, materials, and lessons available to them. She frequently referred to her work as "scientific pedagogy", arguing for the need to go beyond observation and measurement of students, to developing new methods to transform them. Although Montessori education spread to the United States in 1911 there were conflicts with the American educational establishment and was opposed by William Heard Kilpatrick. However Montessori education returned to the United States in 1960 and has since spread to thousands of schools there. | [
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Progressive education | 10005-7 | In 1914 the Montessori Society in England organised its first conference. Hosted by Rev Bertram Hawker, who had set up, in partnership with his local elementary school in the Norfolk coastal village of East Runton, the first Montessori School in England. Pictures of this school, and its children, illustrated the 'Montessori's Own Handbook' (1914). Hawker had been impressed by his visit to Montessori's Casa dei Bambini in Rome, he gave numerous talks on Montessori's work after 1912, assisting in generating a national interest in her work. He organised the Montessori Conference 1914 in partnership with Edmond Holmes, ex-Chief Inspector of Schools, who had written a government report on Montessori. The conference decided that its remit was to promote the 'liberation of the child in the school', and though inspired by Montessori, would encourage, support and network teachers and educationalists who sought, through their schools and methods, that aim. They changed their name the following year to New Ideals in Education. Each subsequent conference was opened with reference to its history and origin as a Montessori Conference recognising her inspiration, reports italicized the members of the Montessori Society in the delegate lists, and numerous further events included Montessori methods and case studies. Montessori, through New Ideals in Education, its committee and members, events and publications, greatly influenced progressive state education in England. (references to be added).
Robert Baden-Powell
In July 1906, Ernest Thompson Seton sent Robert Baden-Powell a copy of his book The Birchbark Roll of the Woodcraft Indians. Seton was a British-born Canadian-American living in the United States. They shared ideas about youth training programs. In 1907 Baden-Powell wrote a draft called Boy Patrols. In the same year, to test his ideas, he gathered 21 boys of mixed social backgrounds and held a week-long camp in August on Brownsea Island in England. His organizational method, now known as the Patrol System and a key part of Scouting training, allowed the boys to organize themselves into small groups with an elected patrol leader. Baden Powell then wrote Scouting for Boys (London, 1908). The Brownsea camp and the publication of Scouting for Boys are generally regarded as the start of the Scout movement which spread throughout the world. Baden-Powell and his sister Agnes Baden-Powell introduced the Girl Guides in 1910. | [
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Progressive education | 10005-8 | Comparison with traditional education Traditional education uses extrinsic motivation, such as grades and prizes. Progressive education is more likely to use intrinsic motivation, basing activities on the interests of the child. Praise may be discouraged as a motivator. Progressive education is a response to traditional methods of teaching. It is defined as an educational movement which gives more value to experience than formal learning. It is based more on experiential learning that concentrate on the development of a child's talents.
21st century skills
21st century skills are a series of higher-order skills, abilities, and learning dispositions that have been identified as being required for success in the rapidly changing, digital society and workplaces. Many of these skills are also defining qualities of progressive education as well as being associated with deeper learning, which is based on mastering skills such as analytic reasoning, complex problem solving, and teamwork. These skills differ from traditional academic skills in that they are not primarily content knowledge-based.
In the West
Germany
Hermann Lietz founded three Landerziehungsheime (country boarding schools) in 1904 based on Reddie's model for boys of different ages. Lietz eventually succeeded in establishing five more Landerziehungsheime. Edith and Paul Geheeb founded Odenwaldschule in Heppenheim in the Odenwald in 1910 using their concept of progressive education, which integrated the work of the head and hand.
Poland
Janusz Korczak was one notable follower and developer of Pestalozzi's ideas. He wrote | [
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Progressive education | 10005-9 | The names of Pestalozzi, Froebel and Spencer shine with no less brilliance than the names of the greatest inventors of the twentieth century. For they discovered more than the unknown forces of nature; they discovered the unknown half of humanity: children. His Orphan's Home in Warsaw became a model institution and exerted influence on the educational process in other orphanages of the same type.
Ireland
The Quaker school run in Ballitore, Co Kildare in the 18th century had students from as far away as Bordeaux (where there was a substantial Irish émigré population), the Caribbean and Norway. Notable pupils included Edmund Burke and Napper Tandy.
Sgoil Éanna, or in English St Enda's was founded in 1908 by Pádraig Pearse on Montessori principles. Its former assistant headmaster Thomas MacDonagh and other teachers including Pearse; games master Con Colbert; Pearse's brother, Willie, the art teacher, and Joseph Plunkett, and occasional lecturer in English, were executed by the British after the 1916 Rising. Pearse and MacDonagh were two of the seven leaders who signed the Irish Declaration of Independence. Pearse's book The Murder Machine was a denunciation of the English school system of the time and a declaration of his own educational principles. | [
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Progressive education | 10005-10 | Sweden In Sweden, an early proponent of progressive education was Alva Myrdal, who with her husband Gunnar co-wrote Kris i befolkningsfrågan (1934), a most influential program for the social-democratic hegemony (1932–1976) popularly known as "Folkhemmet". School reforms went through government reports in the 1940s and trials in the 1950s, resulting in the introduction in 1962 of public comprehensive schools ("grundskola") instead of the previously separated parallel schools for theoretical and non-theoretical education.
United Kingdom
The ideas from Reddie's Abbotsholme spread to schools such as Bedales School (1893), King Alfred School, London (1898) and St Christopher School, Letchworth (1915), as well as all the Friends' schools, Steiner Waldorf schools and those belonging to the Round Square Conference. The King Alfred School was radical for its time in that it provided a secular education and that boys and girls were educated together. Alexander Sutherland Neill believed children should achieve self-determination and should be encouraged to think critically rather than blindly obeying. He implemented his ideas with the founding of Summerhill School in 1921. Neill believed that children learn better when they are not compelled to attend lessons. The school was also managed democratically, with regular meetings to determine school rules. Pupils had equal voting rights with school staff.
United States | [
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Progressive education | 10005-11 | Early practitioners Fröbel's student Margarethe Schurz founded the first kindergarten in the United States at Watertown, Wisconsin, in 1856, and she also inspired Elizabeth Peabody, who went on to found the first English-speaking kindergarten in the United States – the language at Schurz's kindergarten had been German, to serve an immigrant community – in Boston in 1860. This paved the way for the concept's spread in the USA. The German émigré Adolph Douai had also founded a kindergarten in Boston in 1859, but was obliged to close it after only a year. By 1866, however, he was founding others in New York City.
William Heard Kilpatrick (1871–1965) was a pupil of Dewey and one of the most effective practitioners of the concept as well as the more adept at proliferating the progressive education movement and spreading word of the works of Dewey. He is especially well known for his "project method of teaching". This developed the progressive education notion that students were to be engaged and taught so that their knowledge may be directed to society for a socially useful need. Like Dewey he also felt that students should be actively engaged in their learning rather than actively disengaged with the simple reading and regurgitation of material. | [
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Progressive education | 10005-12 | The most famous early practitioner of progressive education was Francis Parker; its best-known spokesperson was the philosopher John Dewey. In 1875 Francis Parker became superintendent of schools in Quincy, Massachusetts, after spending two years in Germany studying emerging educational trends on the continent. Parker was opposed to rote learning, believing that there was no value in knowledge without understanding. He argued instead schools should encourage and respect the child's creativity. Parker's Quincy System called for child-centered and experience-based learning. He replaced the traditional curriculum with integrated learning units based on core themes related to the knowledge of different disciplines. He replaced traditional readers, spellers and grammar books with children's own writing, literature, and teacher prepared materials. In 1883 Parker left Massachusetts to become Principal of the Cook County Normal School in Chicago, a school that also served to train teachers in Parker's methods. In 1894 Parker's Talks on Pedagogics, which drew heavily on the thinking of Fröbel, Pestalozzi and Herbart, became one of the first American writings on education to gain international fame.
That same year, philosopher John Dewey moved from the University of Michigan to the newly established University of Chicago where he became chair of the department of philosophy, psychology and education. He and his wife enrolled their children in Parker's school before founding their own school two years later. | [
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Progressive education | 10005-13 | Whereas Parker started with practice and then moved to theory, Dewey began with hypotheses and then devised methods and curricula to test them. By the time Dewey moved to Chicago at the age of thirty-five, he had already published two books on psychology and applied psychology. He had become dissatisfied with philosophy as pure speculation and was seeking ways to make philosophy directly relevant to practical issues. Moving away from an early interest in Hegel, Dewey proceeded to reject all forms of dualism and dichotomy in favor of a philosophy of experience as a series of unified wholes in which everything can be ultimately related.
In 1896, John Dewey opened what he called the laboratory school to test his theories and their sociological implications. With Dewey as the director and his wife as principal, the University of Chicago Laboratory school, was dedicated "to discover in administration, selection of subject-matter, methods of learning, teaching, and discipline, how a school could become a cooperative community while developing in individuals their own capacities and satisfy their own needs." (Cremin, 136) For Dewey the two key goals of developing a cooperative community and developing individuals' own capacities were not at odds; they were necessary to each other. This unity of purpose lies at the heart of the progressive education philosophy. In 1912, Dewey sent out students of his philosophy to found The Park School of Buffalo and The Park School of Baltimore to put it into practice. These schools operate to this day within a similar progressive approach. | [
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Progressive education | 10005-14 | At Columbia, Dewey worked with other educators such as Charles Eliot and Abraham Flexner to help bring progressivism into the mainstream of American education. In 1917 Columbia established the Lincoln School of Teachers College "as a laboratory for the working out of an elementary and secondary curriculum which shall eliminate obsolete material and endeavor to work up in usable form material adapted to the needs of modern living." (Cremin, 282) Based on Flexner's demand that the modern curriculum "include nothing for which an affirmative case can not be made out" (Cremin, 281) the new school organized its activities around four fundamental fields: science, industry, aesthetics and civics. The Lincoln School built its curriculum around "units of work" that reorganized traditional subject matter into forms embracing the development of children and the changing needs of adult life. The first and second grades carried on a study of community life in which they actually built a city. A third grade project growing out of the day-to-day life of the nearby Hudson River became one of the most celebrated units of the school, a unit on boats, which under the guidance of its legendary teacher Miss Curtis, became an entrée into history, geography, reading, writing, arithmetic, science, art and literature. Each of the units was broadly enough conceived so that different children could concentrate on different aspects depending on their own interests and needs. Each of the units called for widely diverse student activities, and each sought to deal in depth with some critical aspect of contemporary civilization. Finally each unit engaged children working together cooperatively and also provided opportunities for individual research and exploration.
In 1924, Agnes de Lima, the lead writer on education for The New Republic and The Nation, published a collection of her articles on progressive education as a book, titled Our Enemy the Child. | [
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Progressive education | 10005-15 | In 1918, the National Education Association, representing superintendents and administrators in smaller districts across the country, issued its report "Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education." It emphasized the education of students in terms of health, a command of fundamental processes, worthy home membership, vocation, citizenship, worthy use of leisure, and ethical character. They emphasized life adjustment and reflected the social efficiency model of progressive education.
From 1919 to 1955, the Progressive Education Association founded by Stanwood Cobb and others worked to promote a more student-centered approach to education. During the Great Depression the organization conducted the Eight-Year Study, evaluating the effects of progressive programs. More than 1500 students over four years were compared to an equal number of carefully matched students at conventional schools. When they reached college, the experimental students were found to equal or surpass traditionally educated students on all outcomes: grades, extracurricular participation, dropout rates, intellectual curiosity, and resourcefulness. Moreover, the study found that the more the school departed from the traditional college preparatory program, the better was the record of the graduates. (Kohn, Schools, 232)
By mid-century, many public school programs had also adopted elements of progressive curriculum. At mid-century Dewey believed that progressive education had "not really penetrated and permeated the foundations of the educational institution."(Kohn, Schools, 6,7) As the influence of progressive pedagogy grew broader and more diffuse, practitioners began to vary their application of progressive principles. As varying interpretations and practices made evaluation of progressive reforms more difficult to assess, critics began to propose alternative approaches. | [
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Progressive education | 10005-16 | The seeds of the debate over progressive education can be seen in the differences of Parker and Dewey. These have to do with how much and by whom curriculum should be worked out from grade to grade, how much the child's emerging interests should determine classroom activities, the importance of child-centered vs. societal–centered learning, the relationship of community building to individual growth, and especially the relationship between emotion, thought and experience.
In 1955, the publication of Rudolf Flesch's Why Johnny Can't Read leveled criticism of reading programs at the progressive emphasis on reading in context. The conservative McCarthy era raised questions about the liberal ideas at the roots of the progressive reforms. The launching of Sputnik in 1957 at the height of the Cold War gave rise to a number of intellectually competitive approaches to disciplinary knowledge, such as BSCS biology PSSC physics, led by university professors such as Jerome Bruner and Jerrold Zacharias.
Some Cold War reforms incorporated elements of progressivism. For example, the work of Zacharias and Bruner was based in the developmental psychology of Jean Piaget and incorporated many of Dewey's ideas of experiential education. Bruner's analysis of developmental psychology became the core of a pedagogical movement known as constructivism, which argues that the child is an active participant in making meaning and must be engaged in the progress of education for learning to be effective. This psychological approach has deep connections to the work of both Parker and Dewey and led to a resurgence of their ideas in second half of the century. | [
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Progressive education | 10005-17 | In 1965, President Johnson inaugurated the Great Society and the Elementary and Secondary Education Act suffused public school programs with funds for sweeping education reforms. At the same time the influx of federal funding also gave rise to demands for accountability and the behavioral objectives approach of Robert F. Mager and others foreshadowed the No Child Left Behind Act passed in 2002. Against these critics eloquent spokespersons stepped forward in defense of the progressive tradition. The Open Classroom movement, led by Herb Kohl and George Dennison, recalled many of Parker's child centered reforms.
The late 1960s and early 1970s saw a rise and decline in the number of progressive schools. There were several reasons for the decline:
Demographics: As the baby boom passed, traditional classrooms were no longer as over-enrolled, reducing demand for alternatives.
The economy: The oil crisis and recession made shoestring schools less viable.
Times changed: With the ending of the Vietnam War, social activism waned.
Co-optation: Many schools were co-opted by people who didn't believe in the original mission.
Centralization: The ongoing centralization of school districts
Non-implementation: Schools failed to implement a model of shared governance
Interpersonal dynamics: Disagreement over school goals, poor group process skills, lack of critical dialogue, and fear of assertive leadership | [
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Progressive education | 10005-18 | Progressive education has been viewed as an alternative to the test-oriented instruction legislated by the No Child Left Behind educational funding act. Alfie Kohn has been an outspoken critic of the No Child Left Behind Act and a passionate defender of the progressive tradition.
In the East
India
Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941) was one of the most effective practitioners of the concept of progressive education. He expanded Santiniketan, which is a small town near Bolpur in the Birbhum district of West Bengal, India, approximately 160 km north of Kolkata. He de-emphasized textbook learning in favor of varied learning resources from nature. The emphasis here was on self-motivation rather than on discipline, and on fostering intellectual curiosity rather than competitive excellence. There were courses on a great variety of cultures, and study programs devoted to China, Japan, and the Middle East. He was of the view that education should be a "joyous exercise of our inventive and constructive energies that help us to build up character."
Japan
Seikatsu Tsuzurikata is a grassroots movement in Japan that has many parallels to the progressive education movement, but it developed completely independently, beginning in
the late 1920s. The Japanese progressive educational movement was one of the stepping stones to the modernization of Japan and it has resonated down to the present. | [
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George Gallup | 100077-0 | George Horace Gallup (November 18, 1901 – July 26, 1984) was an American pioneer of survey sampling techniques and inventor of the Gallup poll, a successful statistical method of survey sampling for measuring public opinion. | [
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George Gallup | 100077-1 | Life and career Gallup was born in Jefferson, Iowa, the son of Nettie Quella (Davenport) and George Henry Gallup, a dairy farmer. As a teen, George Jr., known then as "Ted", would deliver milk and used his salary to start a newspaper at the high school, where he also played football. His higher education took place at the University of Iowa, where he was a football player, a member of the Iowa Beta chapter of the Sigma Alpha Epsilon fraternity, and editor of The Daily Iowan, an independent newspaper which serves the university campus. He earned his B.A. in 1923, his M.A. in 1925 and his Ph.D. in 1928.
He then moved to Des Moines, Iowa, where he served as head of the Department of Journalism at Drake University until 1931. That year, he moved to Evanston, Illinois, as a professor of journalism and advertising at Northwestern University. The next year, he moved to New York City to join the advertising agency of Young and Rubicam as director of research (later serving as vice president from 1937 to 1947). He was also a professor of journalism at Columbia University, but he had to give up this position shortly after he formed his own polling company, the American Institute of Public Opinion (Gallup Poll), in 1935.
Gallup is often credited as the developer of public polling. In 1932, Gallup did some polling for his mother-in-law, Ola Babcock Miller, a candidate who was a long shot from winning a position as Iowa Secretary of State. With the Democratic landslide of that year, she won a stunning victory, furthering Gallup's interest in politics. | [
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George Gallup | 100077-2 | In 1936, his new organization achieved national recognition by correctly predicting, from the replies of only 50,000 respondents, that Franklin Roosevelt would defeat Alf Landon in the U.S. Presidential election. This was in direct contradiction to the widely-respected Literary Digest magazine whose poll based on over two million returned questionnaires predicted that Landon would be the winner. Not only did Gallup get the election right, he correctly predicted the results of the Literary Digest poll, as well as using a random sample smaller than theirs but chosen to match it.
Twelve years later, his organization had its moment of greatest ignominy, when it predicted that Thomas Dewey would defeat Harry S. Truman in the 1948 election, by between 5% and 15%; Truman won the election by 4.5%. Gallup believed the error was mostly due to his decision to end polling three weeks before Election Day, thus failing to account for Truman's comeback.
In 1947, he launched the Gallup International Association, an international association of polling organizations. With friends-cum-rivals Elmo Roper and Archibald Crossley, he was instrumental in the establishment of the Market Research Council, the National Council on Public Polls, and the American Association for Public Opinion Research. In 1948, with Claude E. Robinson, he founded Gallup & Robinson, an advertising research company.
In 1958, Gallup grouped all of his polling operations under what became The Gallup Organization.
Gallup died in 1984 of a heart attack at his summer home in Tschingel ob Gunten, a village in the Bernese Oberland of Switzerland. He was buried in Princeton Cemetery. His wife died in 1988, and their son, writer and pollster George Gallup Jr., died in 2011. | [
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Diana Damrau | 10002116-0 | Diana Damrau (; born 31 May 1971) is a German soprano who achieved international fame for her performances, primarily in opera, but also in concert and lieder. She has been successful in coloratura soprano roles since her early career, and gradually proceeded into heavier roles of the 19th-century Italian bel canto repertoire. Her signature roles include the Queen of the Night in The Magic Flute, Zerbinetta in Ariadne auf Naxos, Lucia in Lucia di Lammermoor, and Violetta in La traviata. | [
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Diana Damrau | 10002116-1 | Educated at the Hochschule für Musik Würzburg, she had been engaged at the opera companies in Würzburg, Mannheim, and Frankfurt. Since beginning her freelance career in 2002, she has been performing on leading stages frequently, such as the Bavarian State Opera, Vienna State Opera, and Metropolitan Opera, where she appeared in 12 consecutive seasons since her debut in 2005/06. She also leads concert performances with French bass-baritone Nicolas Testé, whom she married in 2010.
Damrau has recorded dozens of opera and lieder recital albums since signing to EMI/Virgin Classics (absorbed into Warner/Erato Records in 2013). She was invested as Bavarian Kammersängerin and has been awarded the Bavarian Maximilian Order for Science and Art and the Bavarian Order of Merit.
Early life
Damrau was born in Günzburg, Bavaria on 31 May 1971. She was inspired to become an opera singer after watching Zeffirelli's 1983 film of La traviata, which featured Plácido Domingo and Teresa Stratas. She began her operatic studies with at the Hochschule für Musik Würzburg. During her studies, she developed an edema on a vocal cord.
After consulting with several doctors, she decided to undergo an alternative therapy without surgery. The treatment lasted about one and a half years. After graduating from music conservatory she worked in Salzburg with Hanna Ludwig. | [
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Diana Damrau | 10002116-2 | Career Early career, debuts, coloratura soprano roles
Damrau made her operatic debut in 1995 as Barbarina in The Marriage of Figaro at the Mainfranken Theater Würzburg. In the next two years, she was engaged at the same theatre, featuring as Eliza Doolittle in My Fair Lady, and then as the Queen of the Night in Mozart's The Magic Flute, her debut in that role, and in the world premiere of Salieri's Cublai, gran kan de' Tartari (1998). Next, she performed with the Mannheim National Theatre and Oper Frankfurt for two years each. She made her Bavarian State Opera debut in 1999 with Zerbinetta in Ariadne auf Naxos, and her Vienna State Opera debut with the Queen of the Night in 2000. In 2001, she made her Salzburg Festival debut, portraying the Naiad alongside Natalie Dessay's Zerbinetta; she became a regular in Salzburg and returned in the subsequent six editions.
Since 2002, she embarked a freelance career, and had frequent engagements with the Bavarian State Opera in roles such as Adele in Die Fledermaus, Marzelline in Fidelio, and the Queen of the Night. She took part in the world premiere of Cehra's Der Riese vom Steinfeld in the role of Small Woman in Vienna. | [
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Diana Damrau | 10002116-3 | Her engagements in Salzburg consist exclusively of roles in Mozart operas: The Magic Flute (Queen of the Night, 2002), Die Entführung aus dem Serail (Blonde, 2003; Konstanze, 2004), The Marriage of Figaro (Susanna, 2007). In the 2006 edition, which celebrated Mozart's 200th anniversary, she played the Queen of the Night in the premiere of Pierre Audi's production of The Magic Flute, and Fauno in Ascanio in Alba.
Damrau made her Royal Opera, London debut in January 2003, in David McVicar's new production of The Magic Flute, and then appeared in Arabella (Fiakermilli), Ariadne auf Naxos (Zerbinetta), and the world premiere of Maazel's 1984 in two consecutive seasons. At the Opera Frankfurt, she sang her first Konstanze in Die Entführung, a role she then repeated in Munich and Salzburg.
In March 2004, she sang the role of Zdenka in Arabella for the first time in Munich. In December 2004, she was invited to sing the title role in Salieri's Europa riconosciuta, conducted by Riccardo Muti, for the reopening of La Scala in Milan.
In 2005, she portrayed Gilda in the premiere of Doris Dörrie's controversial production of Rigoletto in Munich, and later in the year, made her Metropolitan Opera debut in New York City in the role of Zerbinetta.
Transition, more lyric soprano and bel canto roles | [
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Diana Damrau | 10002116-4 | Damrau sang her first Susanna in The Marriage of Figaro in February 2006 at La Scala, and subsequently in Vienna. Apart from Konstanze in a new production co-produced with the Burgtheater, she had been featured at the Vienna State Opera in three consecutive seasons with several other roles. Since her debut in the 2005/06 season, she appeared in consecutive seasons at the Met, where she starred in new productions of The Barber of Seville (Rosina, 2006), Die ägyptische Helena (Aithra, 2007), and Rossini's comic opera Le comte Ory (Countess Adèle, 2011), besides revivals of Die Enführung aus dem Serail, Lucia di Lammermoor (role debut as Lucia), La fille du régiment, Rigoletto, and L'elisir d'amore.
She made Metropolitan Opera history in the 2007/08 season by appearing as both Pamina and the Queen of the Night in different performances of The Magic Flute in the same run, after which she retired from playing the Queen, a role that she had sung in more than 15 productions.
She made guest appearances at the Teatro Real (Zerbinetta), Semperoper in Dresden (Gilda), Theater an der Wien (Pamina), Festspielhaus Baden-Baden (Sophie in Der Rosenkavalier). She continued to be associated with the Bavarian State Opera, with performances including a new production of Ariadne auf Naxos in 2008. In the 2008/09 season she returned to Royal Opera, London for Gretel in Hänsel und Gretel and Adina in L'elisir d'amore. The 2009/10 season saw her Rosina and role debut in the title role in Manon (Vienna State Opera), role debuts of Marie in La fille du régiment (San Francisco Opera) and Donna Anna in Don Giovanni (Grand Théâtre de Genève), and her last Konstanze at the Liceu, in the 2003 Christof Loy production she premiered. | [
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Diana Damrau | 10002116-5 | Damrau has furthered her exploration of the bel canto repertoire with highlights including role debut in Elvira in I puritani in Geneva in January 2011, and the title role in Donizetti's Linda di Chamounix at the Liceu. She has since brought her portrayal in Donizetti's Lucia di Lammermoor to Berlin and Vienna. She premiered in a new production of Strauss' Die schweigsame Frau at the 2010 Munich Opera Festival, and portrayed all four heroines in Offenbach's The Tales of Hoffmann in a new production at the Bavarian State Opera premiered in October 2011. In May 2012, she returned to Geneva for Philine in Ambroise Thomas' Mignon. Following the birth of her second child in autumn 2012, Damrau returned to the stage with a new production of Verdi's Rigoletto at the Metropolitan Opera in February 2013; this was followed by her role debut in the title role of Verdi's La traviata in the same house. In October 2013, she sang in the world premiere of Iain Bell's A Harlot's Progress at the Theater an der Wien. In March 2014 she sang in La sonnambula at the Metropolitan Opera.
She debuted in the role of Countess d'Almaviva in the new production of The Marriage of Figaro at La Scala, which premiered on 26 October 2016.
She took up the title role in Maria Stuarda at the Zürich Opera House in April 2018. In 2019 she debuted as Ophélie in Hamlet in concert performances at the Liceu and later at the Deutsche Oper Berlin. | [
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