text
stringlengths 1
17k
|
|---|
The Great Lakes are an important source of fishing Early European settlers were astounded by both the variety and quantity of fish there were 150 different species in the Great Lakes Throughout history fish populations were the early indicator of the condition of the Lakes and have remained one of the key indicators even in the current era of sophisticated analyses and measuring instruments According to the binational US and Canadian resource book The Great Lakes An Environmental Atlas and Resource Book The largest Great Lakes fish harvests were recorded in 1889 and 1899 at some 67000 tonnes 66000 long tons 74000 short tons 147 million pounds |
By 1801 the New York Legislature found it necessary to pass regulations curtailing obstructions to the natural migrations of Atlantic salmon from Lake Erie into their spawning channels In the early 19th century the government of Upper Canada found it necessary to introduce similar legislation prohibiting the use of weirs and nets at the mouths of Lake Ontario s tributaries Other protective legislation was passed as well but enforcement remained difficult |
On both sides of the Canada United States border the proliferation of dams and impoundments have multiplied necessitating more regulatory efforts Concerns by the mid19th century included obstructions in the rivers which prevented salmon and lake sturgeon from reaching their spawning grounds The Wisconsin Fisheries Commission noted a reduction of roughly 25 in general fish harvests by 1875 The states have removed dams from rivers where necessary |
Overfishing has been cited as a possible reason for a decrease in population of various whitefish important because of their culinary desirability and hence economic consequence Moreover between 1879 and 1899 reported whitefish harvests declined from some 243 million pounds 11 million kg to just over 9 million pounds 4 million kg By 1900 commercial fishermen on Lake Michigan were hauling in an average of 41 million pounds of fish annually By 1938 Wisconsin s commercial fishing operations were motorized and mechanized generating jobs for more than 2000 workers and hauling 14 million pounds per year The population of giant freshwater mussels was eliminated as the mussels were harvested for use as buttons by early Great Lakes entrepreneurs Since 2000 the invasive quagga mussel has smothered the bottom of Lake Michigan almost from shore to shore and their numbers are estimated at 900 trillion |
The influx of parasitic lamprey populations after the development of the Erie Canal and the much later Welland Canal led to the two federal governments of the US and Canada working on joint proposals to control it By the mid1950s the lake trout populations of Lakes Michigan and Huron were reduced with the lamprey deemed largely to blame This led to the launch of the binational Great Lakes Fishery Commission |
The Great Lakes An Environmental Atlas and Resource Book 1972 noted Only pockets remain of the once large commercial fishery But water quality improvements realized during the 1970s and 1980s combined with successful salmonid stocking programs have enabled the growth of a large recreational fishery The last commercial fisherman left Milwaukee in 2011 because of overfishing and anthropogenic changes to the biosphere |
Since the 19th century an estimated 160 new species have found their way into the Great Lakes ecosystem many have become invasive the overseas ship ballast and ship hull parasitism are causing severe economic and ecological impacts According to the Inland Seas Education Association on average a new species enters the Great Lakes every eight months |
Introductions into the Great Lakes include the zebra mussel which was first discovered in 1988 and quagga mussel in 1989 The mollusks are efficient filter feeders competing with native mussels and reducing available food and spawning grounds for fish In addition the mussels may be a nuisance to industries by clogging pipes The US Fish and Wildlife Service estimates that the economic impact of the zebra mussel could be about 5 billion over the next decade |
The alewife first entered the system west of Lake Ontario via 19th century canals By the 1960s the small silver fish had become a familiar nuisance to beach goers across Lakes Michigan Huron and Erie Periodic mass dieoffs result in vast numbers of the fish washing up on shore estimates by various governments have placed the percentage of Lake Michigan s biomass which was made up of alewives in the early 1960s as high as 90 In the late 1960s the various state and federal governments began stocking several species of salmonids including the native lake trout as well as nonnative chinook and coho salmon by the 1980s alewife populations had dropped drastically The ruffe a small percid fish from Eurasia became the most abundant fish species in Lake Superior s Saint Louis River within five years of its detection in 1986 Its range which has expanded to Lake Huron poses a significant threat to the lower lake fishery Five years after first being observed in the St Clair River the round goby can now be found in all of the Great Lakes The goby is considered undesirable for several reasons it preys upon bottom feeding fish overruns optimal habitat spawns multiple times a season and can survive poor water quality conditions |
Several species of exotic water fleas have accidentally been introduced into the Great Lakes such as the spiny waterflea Bythotrephes longimanus and the fishhook waterflea Cercopagis pengoi potentially having an effect on the zooplankton population Several species of crayfish have also been introduced that may contend with native crayfish populations More recently an electric fence has been set up across the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal in order to keep several species of invasive Asian carp out of the area These fast growing planktivorous fish have heavily colonized the Mississippi and Illinois river systems The sea lamprey which has been particularly damaging to the native lake trout population is another example of a marine invasive species in the Great Lakes Invasive species particularly zebra and quagga mussels may be at least partially responsible for the collapse of the deepwater demersal fish community in Lake Huron as well as drastic unprecedented changes in the zooplankton community of the lake |
Native habitats and ecoregions in the Great Lakes region include |
Plant lists include |
Logging |
Logging of the extensive forests in the Great Lakes region removed riparian and adjacent tree cover over rivers and streams which provide shade moderating water temperatures in fish spawning grounds Removal of trees also destabilized the soil with greater volumes washed into stream beds causing siltation of gravel beds and more frequent flooding |
Running cut logs down the tributary rivers into the Great Lakes also dislocated sediments In 1884 the New York Fish Commission determined that the dumping of sawmill waste chips and sawdust had impacted fish populations |
The first US Clean Water Act passed by a Congressional override after being vetoed by US President Richard Nixon in 1972 was a key piece of legislation along with the binational Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement signed by Canada and the US A variety of steps taken to process industrial and municipal pollution discharges into the system greatly improved water quality by the 1980s and Lake Erie in particular is significantly cleaner Discharge of toxic substances has been sharply reduced Federal and state regulations control substances like PCBs The first of 43 Great Lakes Areas of Concern to be formally delisted due to successful cleanup was Ontario s Collingwood Harbour in 1994 Ontario s Severn Sound followed in 2003 Presque Isle Bay in Pennsylvania is formally listed as in recovery as is Ontario s Spanish Harbour Dozens of other Areas of Concern have received partial cleanups such as the Rouge River Michigan and Waukegan Harbor Illinois |
Until 1970 mercury was not listed as a harmful chemical according to the United States Federal Water Quality Administration Within the past ten years mercury has become more apparent in water tests Mercury compounds have been used in paper mills to prevent slime from forming during their production and chemical companies have used mercury to separate chlorine from brine solutions Studies conducted by the Environmental Protection Agency have shown that when the mercury comes in contact with many of the bacteria and compounds in the fresh water it forms the compound methyl mercury which has a much greater impact on human health than elemental mercury due to a higher propensity for absorption This form of mercury is not detrimental to a majority of fish types but is very detrimental to people and other wildlife animals who consume the fish Mercury has been known for health related problems such as birth defects in humans and animals and the near extinction of eagles in the Great Lakes region |
The amount of raw sewage dumped into the waters was the primary focus of both the first Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement and federal laws passed in both countries during the 1970s Implementation of secondary treatment of municipal sewage by major cities greatly reduced the routine discharge of untreated sewage during the 1970s and 1980s The International Joint Commission in 2009 summarized the change Since the early 1970s the level of treatment to reduce pollution from waste water discharges to the Great Lakes has improved considerably This is a result of significant expenditures to date on both infrastructure and technology and robust regulatory systems that have proven to be on the whole quite effective The commission reported that all urban sewage treatment systems on the US side of the lakes had implemented secondary treatment as had all on the Canadian side except for five small systems |
However contrary to federal laws in both countries those treatment system upgrades have not yet eliminated Combined sewer Overflow events This describes when older sewerage systems which combine storm water with sewage into single sewers heading to the treatment plant are temporarily overwhelmed by heavy rainstorms Local sewage treatment authorities then must release untreated effluent a mix of rainwater and sewage into local water bodies While enormous public investments such as the Deep Tunnel projects in Chicago and Milwaukee have greatly reduced the frequency and volume of these events they have not been eliminated The number of such overflow events in Ontario for example is flat according to the International Joint Commission Reports about this issue on the US side highlight five large municipal systems those of Detroit Cleveland Buffalo Milwaukee and Gary as being the largest current periodic sources of untreated discharges into the Great Lakes |
Phosphate detergents were historically a major source of nutrient to the Great Lakes algae blooms in particular in the warmer and shallower portions of the system such as Lake Erie Saginaw Bay Green Bay and the southernmost portion of Lake Michigan By the mid1980s most jurisdictions bordering the Great Lakes had controlled phosphate detergents resulting in sharp reductions in the frequency and extent of the blooms |
In 2013 news of a garbage patch of plastic pollution in the lakes was reported |
Several Native American tribes inhabited the region since at least 1000 BC after the end of the Wisconsin glaciation The peoples of the Great Lakes traded with the Hopewell culture from around 1000 AD as copper nuggets have been extracted from the region and fashioned into ornaments and weapons in the mounds of Southern Ohio The brigantine Le Griffon which was commissioned by Ren Robert Cavelier Sieur de La Salle was built at Cayuga Creek near the southern end of the Niagara River and became the first known sailing ship to travel the upper Great Lakes on August 7 1679 |
The Rush Bagot Treaty signed in 1818 after the War of 1812 and the later Treaty of Washington eventually led to a complete disarmament of naval vessels in the Great Lakes Nonetheless both nations maintain coast guard vessels in the Great Lakes |
During settlement the Great Lakes and its rivers were the only practical means of moving people and freight Barges from middle North America were able to reach the Atlantic Ocean from the Great Lakes when the Welland canal opened in 1824 and the later Erie Canal opened in 1825 By 1848 with the opening of the Illinois and Michigan Canal at Chicago direct access to the Mississippi River was possible from the lakes With these two canals an all inland water route was provided between New York City and New Orleans |
The main business of many of the passenger lines in the 19th century was transporting immigrants Many of the larger cities owe their existence to their position on the lakes as a freight destination as well as for being a magnet for immigrants After railroads and surface roads developed the freight and passenger businesses dwindled and except for ferries and a few foreign cruise ships has now vanished The immigration routes still have an effect today Immigrants often formed their own communities and some areas have a pronounced ethnicity such as Dutch German Polish Finnish and many others Since many immigrants settled for a time in New England before moving westward many areas on the US side of the Great Lakes also have a New England feel especially in home styles and accent |
Since general freight these days is transported by railroads and trucks domestic ships mostly move bulk cargoes such as iron ore coal and limestone for the steel industry The domestic bulk freight developed because of the nearby mines It was more economical to transport the ingredients for steel to centralized plants rather than try to make steel on the spot Grain exports are also a major cargo on the lakes |
In the 19th century and early 20th centuries iron and other ores such as copper were shipped south on downbound ships and supplies food and coal were shipped north upbound Because of the location of the coal fields in Pennsylvania and West Virginia and the general northeast track of the Appalachian Mountains railroads naturally developed shipping routes that went due north to ports such as Erie Pennsylvania and Ashtabula Ohio |
Because the lake maritime community largely developed independently it has some distinctive vocabulary Ships no matter the size are called boats When the sailing ships gave way to steamships they were called steamboats the same term used on the Mississippi The ships also have a distinctive design see Lake freighter Ships that primarily trade on the lakes are known as lakers Foreign boats are known as salties One of the more common sights on the lakes has been since about 1950 the 1000 by 105 foot 305 by 32 meter 78850 long ton 80120 metric ton self unloader This is a laker with a conveyor belt system that can unload itself by swinging a crane over the side Today the Great Lakes fleet is much smaller in numbers than it once was because of the increased use of overland freight and a few larger ships replacing many small ones |
During World War II the risk of submarine attacks against coastal training facilities motivated the United States Navy to operate two aircraft carriers on the Great Lakes USS Sable IX 81 and USS Wolverine IX 64 Both served as training ships to qualify naval aviators in carrier landing and takeoff Lake Champlain briefly became the sixth Great Lake of the United States on March 6 1998 when President Clinton signed Senate Bill 927 This bill which reauthorized the National Sea Grant Program contained a line declaring Lake Champlain to be a Great Lake Not coincidentally this status allows neighboring states to apply for additional federal research and education funds allocated to these national resources Following a small uproar the Senate voted to revoke the designation on March 24 although New York and Vermont universities would continue to receive funds to monitor and study the lake |
In the early years of the 21st century water levels in the Great Lakes were a concern Researchers at the Mowat Centre said that low levels could cost 19 bn by 2050 |
Except when the water is frozen during winter more than 100 lake freighters operate continuously on the Great Lakes which remain a major water transport corridor for bulk goods The Great Lakes Waterway connects all the lakes the smaller Saint Lawrence Seaway connects the lakes to the Atlantic oceans Some lake freighters are too large to use the Seaway and only operate on the Waterway and lakes |
In 2002 162 million net tons of dry bulk cargo were moved on the Lakes This was in order of volume iron ore grain and potash The iron ore and much of the stone and coal are used in the steel industry There is also some shipping of liquid and containerized cargo but most container ships can not pass the locks on the Saint Lawrence Seaway because the ships are too wide |
Only four bridges are on the Great Lakes other than Lake Ontario because of the cost of building structures high enough for ships to pass under The Blue Water Bridge is for example more than 150 feet high and more than a mile long |
The Great Lakes are used to supply drinking water to tens of millions of people in bordering areas This valuable resource is collectively administered by the state and provincial governments adjacent to the lakes who have agreed to the Great Lakes Compact to regulate water supply and use |
Tourism and recreation are major industries on the Great Lakes A few small cruise ships operate on the Great Lakes including a couple of sailing ships Sport fishing commercial fishing and Native American fishing represent a US 4 billion a year industry with salmon whitefish smelt lake trout bass and walleye being major catches Many other water sports are practiced on the lakes such as yachting sea kayaking diving kitesurfing powerboating and lake surfing |
The Great Lakes Circle Tour is a designated scenic road system connecting all of the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River |
From 1844 through 1857 palace steamers carried passengers and cargo around the Great Lakes In the first half of the 20th century large luxurious passenger steamers sailed the lakes in opulence The Detroit and Cleveland Navigation Company had several vessels at the time and hired workers from all walks of life to help operate these vessels Several ferries currently operate on the Great Lakes to carry passengers to various islands including Isle Royale Drummond Island Pelee Island Mackinac Island Beaver Island Bois Blanc Island Ontario Bois Blanc Island Michigan Kelleys Island South Bass Island North Manitou Island South Manitou Island Harsens Island Manitoulin Island and the Toronto Islands As of 2007 four car ferry services cross the Great Lakes two on Lake Michigan a steamer from Ludington Michigan to Manitowoc Wisconsin and a high speed catamaran from Milwaukee to Muskegon Michigan one on Lake Erie a boat from Kingsville Ontario or Leamington Ontario to Pelee Island Ontario then onto Sandusky Ohio and one on Lake Huron the MS Chi Cheemaun runs between Tobermory and South Baymouth Manitoulin Island operated by the Owen Sound Transportation Company An international ferry across Lake Ontario Rochester New York to Toronto ran during 2004 and 2005 but is no longer in operation |
The large size of the Great Lakes increases the risk of water travel storms and reefs are common threats The lakes are prone to sudden and severe storms in particular in the autumn from late October until early December Hundreds of ships have met their end on the lakes The greatest concentration of shipwrecks lies near Thunder Bay Michigan beneath Lake Huron near the point where eastbound and westbound shipping lanes converge |
The Lake Superior shipwreck coast from Grand Marais Michigan to Whitefish Point became known as the Graveyard of the Great Lakes More vessels have been lost in the Whitefish Point area than any other part of Lake Superior The Whitefish Point Underwater Preserve serves as an underwater museum to protect the many shipwrecks in this area |
The first ship to sink in Lake Michigan was Le Griffon also the first ship to sail the Great Lakes Caught in a 1679 storm while trading furs between Green Bay and Michilimacinac she was lost with all hands aboard Its wreck may have been found in 2004 but a wreck subsequently discovered in a different location was also claimed in 2014 to be Le Griffon |
The largest and last major freighter wrecked on the lakes was the SS Edmund Fitzgerald which sank on November 10 1975 just over 17 miles 30 km offshore from Whitefish Point on Lake Superior The largest loss of life in a shipwreck out on the lakes may have been that of Lady Elgin wrecked in 1860 with the loss of around 400 lives on Lake Michigan In an incident at a Chicago dock in 1915 the SS Eastland rolled over while loading passengers killing 841 |
In August 2007 the Great Lakes Shipwreck Historical Society announced that it had found the wreckage of Cyprus a 420 foot 130 m long century old ore carrier Cyprus sank during a Lake Superior storm on October 11 1907 during its second voyage while hauling iron ore from Superior Wisconsin to Buffalo New York The entire crew of 23 drowned except one Charles Pitz who floated on a life raft for almost seven hours |
In June 2008 deep sea divers in Lake Ontario found the wreck of the 1780 Royal Navy warship HMS Ontario in what has been described as an archaeological miracle There are no plans to raise her as the site is being treated as a war grave |
In June 2010 LR Doty was found in Lake Michigan by an exploration diving team led by dive boat Captain Jitka Hanakova from her boat the Molly V The ship sank in October 1898 probably attempting to rescue a small schooner Olive Jeanette during a terrible storm |
Still missing are the two last warships to sink in the Great Lakes the French minesweepers Inkerman and Cerisoles which vanished in Lake Superior during a blizzard in 1918 78 lives were lost making it the largest loss of life in Lake Superior and the greatest unexplained loss of life in the Great Lakes |
Related articles |
In 1872 a treaty gave access to the St Lawrence River to the United States and access to Lake Michigan to the Dominion of Canada The International Joint Commission was established in 1909 to help prevent and resolve disputes relating to the use and quality of boundary waters and to advise Canada and the United States on questions related to water resources Concerns over diversion of Lake water are of concern to both Americans and Canadians Some water is diverted through the Chicago River to operate the Illinois Waterway but the flow is limited by treaty Possible schemes for bottled water plants and diversion to dry regions of the continent raise concerns Under the US Water Resources Development Act diversion of water from the Great Lakes Basin requires the approval of all eight Great Lakes governors through the Great Lakes Commission which rarely occurs International treaties regulate large diversions |
In 1998 the Canadian company Nova Group won approval from the Province of Ontario to withdraw 158000000 US gallons 600000 m of Lake Superior water annually to ship by tanker to Asian countries Public outcry forced the company to abandon the plan before it began Since that time the eight Great Lakes Governors and the Premiers of Ontario and Quebec have negotiated the Great Lakes Saint Lawrence River Basin Sustainable Water Resources Agreement and the Great Lakes St Lawrence River Basin Water Resources Compact that would prevent most future diversion proposals and all long distance ones The agreements strengthen protection against abusive water withdrawal practices within the Great Lakes basin On December 13 2005 the Governors and Premiers signed these two agreements the first of which is between all ten jurisdictions It is somewhat more detailed and protective though its legal strength has not yet been tested in court The second the Great Lakes Compact has been approved by the state legislatures of all eight states that border the Great Lakes as well as the US Congress and was signed into law by President George W Bush on October 3 2008 |
The Great Lakes Restoration Initiative described as the largest investment in the Great Lakes in two decades was funded at 475 million in the US federal government s Fiscal Year 2011 budget and 300 million in the Fiscal Year 2012 budget Through the program a coalition of federal agencies is making grants to local and state entities for toxics cleanups wetlands and coastline restoration projects and invasive species related projects |
In 2006 the United States Coast Guard USCG proposed a plan to designate 34 areas in the Great Lakes at least 5 mi 8 km offshore as permanent safety zones for live fire machine gun practice In August 2006 the plan was published in the Federal Register The USCG reserved the right to hold target practice whenever the weather allowed with a two hour notice These firing ranges would be open to the public when not in use In response to requests from the public the Coast Guard held a series of public meetings in nine US cities to solicit comment During these meetings many people voiced concerns about the plan and its impact on the environment On December 18 2006 the Coast Guard announced its decision to withdraw the entire proposal Officials said they would look into alternative ammunition modifying the proposed zones and have more public dialogue before proposing a new plan |
Dynamically updated data |
Coordinates 45 45 N 84 0 W 45750 N 84000 W 45750 84000 |
The light independent reactions or dark reactions of photosynthesis are chemical reactions that convert carbon dioxide and other compounds into glucose These reactions occur in the stroma the fluid filled area of a chloroplast outside the thylakoid membranes These reactions take the products ATP and NADPH of light dependent reactions and perform further chemical processes on them There are three phases to the light independent reactions collectively called the Calvin cycle carbon fixation reduction reactions and ribulose 1 5 bisphosphate RuBP regeneration |
This process occurs without light availability Plants do not carry out the Calvin cycle during nighttime They instead release sucrose into the phloem from their starch reserves This process happens when light is available independent of the kind of photosynthesis C3 carbon fixation C4 carbon fixation and Crassulacean acid metabolism CAM plants store malic acid in their vacuoles every night and release it by day to make this process work They are also known as dark reactions |
These reactions are closely coupled to the thylakoid electron transport chain as reducing power provided by NADPH produced in the photosystem I is actively needed The process of photorespiration also known as C2 cycle is also coupled to the dark reactions as it results from an alternative reaction of the RuBisCO enzyme and its final byproduct is also another glyceraldehyde 3 P |
The Calvin cycle Calvin Benson Bassham CBB cycle reductive pentose phosphate cycle or C3 cycle is a series of biochemical redox reactions that take place in the stroma of chloroplast in photosynthetic organisms |
The cycle was discovered by Melvin Calvin James Bassham and Andrew Benson at the University of California Berkeley by using the radioactive isotope carbon 14 |
Photosynthesis occurs in two stages in a cell In the first stage light dependent reactions capture the energy of light and use it to make the energy storage and transport molecules ATP and NADPH The Calvin cycle uses the energy from short lived electronically excited carriers to convert carbon dioxide and water into organic compounds that can be used by the organism and by animals that feed on it This set of reactions is also called carbon fixation The key enzyme of the cycle is called RuBisCO In the following biochemical equations the chemical species phosphates and carboxylic acids exist in equilibria among their various ionized states as governed by the pH |
The enzymes in the Calvin cycle are functionally equivalent to most enzymes used in other metabolic pathways such as gluconeogenesis and the pentose phosphate pathway but they are found in the chloroplast stroma instead of the cell cytosol separating the reactions They are activated in the light which is why the name dark reaction is misleading and also by products of the light dependent reaction These regulatory functions prevent the Calvin cycle from being respired to carbon dioxide Energy in the form of ATP would be wasted in carrying out these reactions that have no net productivity |
The sum of reactions in the Calvin cycle is the following |
Hexose six carbon sugars are not a product of the Calvin cycle Although many texts list a product of photosynthesis as C O this is mainly a convenience to counter the equation of respiration where six carbon sugars are oxidized in mitochondria The carbohydrate products of the Calvin cycle are three carbon sugar phosphate molecules or triose phosphates namely glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate G3P |
In the first stage of the Calvin cycle a CO molecule is incorporated into one of two three carbon molecules glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate or G3P where it uses up two molecules of ATP and two molecules of NADPH which had been produced in the light dependent stage The three steps involved are |
The next stage in the Calvin cycle is to regenerate RuBP Five G3P molecules produce three RuBP molecules using up three molecules of ATP Since each CO molecule produces two G3P molecules three CO molecules produce six G3P molecules of which five are used to regenerate RuBP leaving a net gain of one G3P molecule per three CO molecules as would be expected from the number of carbon atoms involved |
The regeneration stage can be broken down into steps |
Thus of six G3P produced five are used to make three RuBP 5C molecules totaling 15 carbons with only one G3P available for subsequent conversion to hexose This requires nine ATP molecules and six NADPH molecules per three CO molecules The equation of the overall Calvin cycle is shown diagrammatically below |
RuBisCO also reacts competitively with O instead of CO in photorespiration The rate of photorespiration is higher at high temperatures Photorespiration turns RuBP into 3 PGA and 2 phosphoglycolate a 2 carbon molecule that can be converted via glycolate and glyoxalate to glycine Via the glycine cleavage system and tetrahydrofolate two glycines are converted into serine CO Serine can be converted back to 3 phosphoglycerate Thus only 3 of 4 carbons from two phosphoglycolates can be converted back to 3 PGA It can be seen that photorespiration has very negative consequences for the plant because rather than fixing CO this process leads to loss of CO C4 carbon fixation evolved to circumvent photorespiration but can occur only in certain plants native to very warm or tropical climates corn for example |
The immediate products of one turn of the Calvin cycle are 2 glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate G3P molecules 3 ADP and 2 NADP ADP and NADP are not really products They are regenerated and later used again in the Light dependent reactions Each G3P molecule is composed of 3 carbons For the Calvin cycle to continue RuBP ribulose 1 5 bisphosphate must be regenerated So 5 out of 6 carbons from the 2 G3P molecules are used for this purpose Therefore there is only 1 net carbon produced to play with for each turn To create 1 surplus G3P requires 3 carbons and therefore 3 turns of the Calvin cycle To make one glucose molecule which can be created from 2 G3P molecules would require 6 turns of the Calvin cycle Surplus G3P can also be used to form other carbohydrates such as starch sucrose and cellulose depending on what the plant needs |
These reactions do not occur in the dark or at night There is a light dependent regulation of the cycle enzymes as the third step requires reduced NADP |
There are two regulation systems at work when the cycle must be turned on or off the thioredoxin ferredoxin activation system which activates some of the cycle enzymes and the RuBisCo enzyme activation active in the Calvin cycle which involves its own activase |
The thioredoxin ferredoxin system activates the enzymes glyceraldehyde 3 P dehydrogenase glyceraldehyde 3 P phosphatase fructose 1 6 bisphosphatase sedoheptulose 1 7 bisphosphatase and ribulose 5 phosphatase kinase which are key points of the process This happens when light is available as the ferredoxin protein is reduced in the photosystem I complex of the thylakoid electron chain when electrons are circulating through it Ferredoxin then binds to and reduces the thioredoxin protein which activates the cycle enzymes by severing a cystine bond found in all these enzymes This is a dynamic process as the same bond is formed again by other proteins that deactivate the enzymes The implications of this process are that the enzymes remain mostly activated by day and are deactivated in the dark when there is no more reduced ferredoxin available |
The enzyme RuBisCo has its own more complex activation process It requires that a specific lysine amino acid be carbamylated to activate the enzyme This lysine binds to RuBP and leads to a nonfunctional state if left uncarbamylated A specific activase enzyme called RuBisCo activase helps this carbamylation process by removing one proton from the lysine and making the binding of the carbon dioxide molecule possible Even then the RuBisCo enzyme is not yet functional as it needs a magnesium ion bound to the lysine to function This magnesium ion is released from the thylakoid lumen when the inner pH drops due to the active pumping of protons from the electron flow RuBisCo activase itself is activated by increased concentrations of ATP in the stroma caused by its phosphorylation |
Badrinath Ki Dulhania English The Bride of Badrinath is a 2017 Indian romantic comedy film directed by Shashank Khaitan and produced by Karan Johar under the Dharma Productions banner Starring Varun Dhawan and Alia Bhatt in the lead the film marks the second installment of a franchise that began with Humpty Sharma Ki Dulhania 2014 Principal photography for the film began in May 2016 and the film was released on 10 March 2017 on the Holi weekend The film received mixed to positive reviews from critics and was a box office success It was the ninth highest grossing Bollywood film of 2017 At the 63rd Filmfare Awards it received eight nominations including Best Film Best Director for Khaitan Best Actor for Dhawan and Best Actress for Bhatt |
Badrinath Badri Bansal Varun Dhawan is the younger son of a wealthy family in Jhansi In a flashback it is shown that Badri s elder brother Aloknath Alok Bansal Yash Sinha was in love with a girl and was going to leave the family for her because their father disapproved but decided against it after their father Ambarnath Ambar Bansal s Rituraj Singh first heart attack Now Alok is married to Urmila Shukla Swetha Basu Prasad through an arranged marriage and she is not allowed to work despite being very intelligent and professionally trained more than Alok himself Alok is also depressed at having to leave his love and be forced into a marriage so he spends a lot of time drinking Badri fears the same fate for himself so when he sees Vaidehi Trivedi Alia Bhatt at a wedding supposedly being looked after by her father Mayank Swanand Kirkire he becomes obsessed with her and makes it his mission to marry her with Ambar s approval |
Vaidehi is also clearly more intelligent than Badri She has a full education and is secretly training to become a flight attendant while Badri only passed the tenth grade She s initially uninterested in getting married and is even offended by his marriage proposal But when Badri helps Vaidehi s elder sister Kritika Sukhmani Lamba find a husband in Bhushan Mishra Aparshakti Khurana and even resolves a dowry crisis with Bhushan s father Jitendra Mishra Rajendra Sethi Vaidehi agrees to marry him On their wedding day however Vaidehi does not show up Badri is heartbroken and Ambar is furious He commands Badri to find Vaidehi and bring her back so that they can hang her from the ceiling Despite being afraid of Ambar s words Badri goes to Mumbai to find Vaidehi where he discovers that she s already moved to Singapore for a flight attendant training program |
Badri shows up on Vaidehi s doorstep in Singapore and kidnaps her On the way he pulls over and lets her out of the car trunk and they have an argument Badri is furious at her for leaving him at the altar and she apologizes trying to assure him that the reason she left was not because of him Badri grabs her by the throat when a police car pulls up and takes them to the police station At the police station Vaidehi covers for Badri despite him having kidnapped her and attempted to choke her Over the next few days Badri stalks Vaidehi Alok calls and tells him that Ambar has started looking for other brides This terrifies Badri and he attempts entry into Vaidehi s workplace She stops him and tells him she ll marry him only if he can convince Ambar to let her work and live in Singapore Badri gets drunk that night and causes a scene outside Vaidehi s residential building and they have to go to the police again where this time Vaidehi has to pay 1500 to bail him out |
Badri moves into Vaidehi s apartment where she cares for him by cooking for him before leaving for work every day which humbles him They spend time together with friends and tour Singapore together Over time Badri begins to respect Vaidehi s independence and is impressed by her job and intelligence He also remembers Urmila and feels sorry that she does nt get to work Badri and Vaidehi begin to spend more time together which causes them to grow closer When Ambar calls Badri lies and tells him that he did nt find Vaidehi When Badri receives his passport back and leaves for India Vaidehi starts to miss him and becomes depressed by his absence |
Back in Jhansi Urmila is pregnant and Ambar holds a megapooja to ensure a boy is born Badri feels sorry for her and misses Vaidehi at the same time finally understanding why she ran away Before the pooja he gets heavily drunk and berates Ambar for being disrespectful to women He blames Ambar for being the reason that he ca nt have Vaidehi when suddenly he sees Vaidehi from the corner of his eye She tells him that she loves him and wants to marry him Together they stand up to Ambar and tell him that they will get married and Vaidehi will work as she pleases regardless of whether he agrees or not |
In the epilogue it is shown that Badri and Vaidehi maintain a long distance relationship while she finishes her training program in Singapore before moving back to India and starting her own flight attendant training center Urmila gives birth to twins one boy and girl and it is shown that so far Ambar has been treating both of them equally She also starts working in the family s car showroom with Alok and even gets her own cabin Badri and Vaidehi promise not to collect any dowry for any of their children |
Badrinath Ki Dulhania marks the second installment of a franchise that began with the romantic comedy Humpty Sharma Ki Dulhania 2014 which was also directed by Shashank Khaitan produced by Karan Johar for Dharma Productions and starred Varun Dhawan and Alia Bhatt in the lead roles The film was first announced on 3 May 2016 with the release of an online motion poster featuring Dhawan and Bhatt at a local village fair Principal photography also began on the same day Some of the scenes were also shot at the Ghatotkach Circle Kishore Sagar Lake and Seven Wonders Park in Kota Rajasthan |
The music for the film has been composed by Amaal Mallik Tanishk Bagchi Akhil Sachdeva and Bappi Lahiri while the lyrics have been written by Kumaar Shabbir Ahmed Akhil Sachdeva and Badshah and Indeevar The Tamma Tamma song which was originally composed by Bappi Lahiri from the 1990 film Thanedaar has been recreated by Tanishk Bagchi for this film The soundtrack was released on 14 February 2017 by T Series |
On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes the film has a rating of 78 based on 9 reviews with an average rating of 65 10 |
Nihit Bhave from Times of India rated the film 35 5 and stated Badrinath Ki Dulhania is a rucksack full of radioactive social issues handled cautiously He also praised Varun Dhawan and Alia Bhat s chemistry saying Together Varun Dhawan and Alia Bhatt are the best thing that could have happened to our screens Rohit Rats from Hindustan Times gave film 25 5 and noted that Varun Dhawan by portraying a Jhansi boy reminds of Govinda Shubhra Gupta from The Indian Express gave film 3 5 saying Alia Bhatt is pitch perfect as dulhania with a mind of her own Varun Dhawan impresses as a boy struggling to bea man Together they offer us a flavourful romance which takes down patriarchy Tushar Joshi from DNA India described the film as light entertaining and likeable He writes Varun Dhawan and Alia Bhatt prove that on screen chemistry can be enough sometimes to keep you engaged in an average plot with a predictable narrative |
The film collected 19025 million in the first week of release becoming fourth highest Indian first week collecting film of 2017 The film was third highest domestic opener for Bhatt and fourth highest domestic opener for Dhawan |
Doctor Strange is a 2016 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures It is the fourteenth film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe MCU The film was directed by Scott Derrickson who wrote it with Jon Spaihts and C Robert Cargill and stars Benedict Cumberbatch as the titular character along with Chiwetel Ejiofor Rachel McAdams Benedict Wong Michael Stuhlbarg Benjamin Bratt Scott Adkins Mads Mikkelsen and Tilda Swinton In Doctor Strange surgeon Strange learns the mystic arts after a career ending car accident |
Various incarnations of a Doctor Strange film had been in development since the mid1980s until Paramount Pictures acquired the film rights in April 2005 on behalf of Marvel Studios Thomas Dean Donnelly and Joshua Oppenheimer were brought on board in June 2010 to write a screenplay In June 2014 Derrickson was hired to direct and rewrite the film with Spaihts Cumberbatch was chosen for the eponymous role in December 2014 necessitating a schedule change to work around his other commitments This gave Derrickson time to work on the script himself for which he brought Cargill on to help The film began principal photography in November 2015 in Nepal before moving to the United Kingdom Hong Kong and concluding in New York City in April 2016 |
Doctor Strange had its world premiere in Hong Kong on October 13 2016 and was released in the United States on November 4 2016 in 3D and IMAX 3D The film grossed over 677 million worldwide and was met with praise for its visuals and cast but also received criticism for the title character s origin story These positive elements also received awards intention including an Academy Award nomination for Best Visual Effects |
In Kathmandu the sorcerer Kaecilius and his zealots enter the secret compound Kamar Taj and behead its librarian They steal a few pages from an ancient mystical text belonging to the Ancient One a long lived sorcerer who has taught every student at Kamar Taj including Kaecilius in the mystic arts The Ancient One pursues the traitors but Kaecilius and his followers escape |
In New York City Stephen Strange a wealthy acclaimed and arrogant neurosurgeon severely injures his hands in a car accident leaving him unable to operate Fellow surgeon and former lover Christine Palmer tries to help him move on but Strange vainly pursues experimental surgeries to heal his hands nearly bankrupting himself Strange learns about Jonathan Pangborn a paraplegic who mysteriously regained use of his legs Pangborn directs Strange to Kamar Taj where he is taken in by Mordo a sorcerer under the Ancient One The Ancient One demonstrates her power to Strange revealing the astral plane and other dimensions such as the Mirror Dimension She reluctantly agrees to train Strange whose arrogance and ambition remind her of Kaecilius |
Strange studies under the Ancient One and Mordo and from ancient books in the library that is now guarded by Master Wong Strange learns that Earth is protected from threats from other dimensions by a shield generated from three buildings called Sanctums in New York City London and Hong Kong which are all connected and accessible from Kamar Taj The sorcerers task is to protect the Sanctums though Pangborn instead chose to channel mystical energy only into walking again Strange progresses quickly and secretly reads the text from which Kaecilius stole pages learning to bend time with the mystical Eye of Agamotto Mordo and Wong warn Strange against breaking the laws of nature drawing a comparison to Kaecilius desire for eternal life |
Kaecilius uses the stolen pages to contact Dormammu of the Dark Dimension where time is nonexistent Kaecilius destroys the London Sanctum to weaken Earth s protection The zealots then attack the New York Sanctum killing its guardian but Strange holds them off with the help of the Cloak of Levitation until Mordo and the Ancient One arrive Strange and Mordo become disillusioned with the Ancient One after Kaecilius reveals that the Ancient One s long life is due to her drawing power from the Dark Dimension After a fight in the Mirror Dimension of New York Kaecilius mortally wounds the Ancient One and escapes to Hong Kong Before dying she tells Strange that he too will have to bend the rules to complement Mordo s steadfast nature in order to defeat Kaecilius Strange and Mordo arrive in Hong Kong to find Wong dead the Sanctum destroyed and the Dark Dimension engulfing Earth Strange uses the Eye to reverse time and save Wong then enters the Dark Dimension and creates a time loop around himself and Dormammu After repeatedly killing Strange to no avail Dormammu finally gives in to Strange s demand that he leave Earth and take Kaecilius and his zealots with him in return for Strange breaking the loop |
Disillusioned by Strange and the Ancient One defying nature s laws Mordo departs Strange returns the Eye to Kamar Taj and takes up residence in the New York Sanctum to continue his studies In a midcredits scene Strange decides to help Thor who has brought his brother Loki to Earth to search for their father Odin In a postcredits scene Mordo confronts Pangborn and steals the mystical energy that he uses to walk declaring that Earth has too many sorcerers |
Cumberbatch also portrays uncredited the villainous entity Dormammu The actor suggested he take on the role to Derrickson feeling that having the character be a horrific reflection of Strange would work better than just being a big ghoulish monster The director agreed elaborating that the casting implies that Dormammu does not have a normal physical form in his own dimension and so is simply imitating Strange for their confrontation To create the character Cumberbatch provided motion capture reference for the visual effects team and his voice was blended with that of another uncredited British actor whom Derrickson described as having a very deep voice The producers also had Tony Todd record voice over for Dormammu as an alternative to Cumberbatch but ultimately decided on using Cumberbatch for the voice |
Chris Hemsworth reprises his role of Thor from previous MCU films in the film s midcredits scene Additionally Linda Louise Duan appears unnamed as Tina Minoru Mark Anthony Brighton portrays Daniel Drumm and Topo Wresniwiro portrays Hamir all Masters of the Mystic Arts under the Ancient One The latter is based on Hamir the Hermit Wong s father in the comics who was the Ancient One s personal manservant The character is neither a manservant nor Wong s father in the film Zara Phythian Alaa Safi and Katrina Durden portray zealots under Kaecilius and Pat Kiernan appears as himself Doctor Strange cocreator Stan Lee makes a cameo appearance as a bus rider reading Aldous Huxley s The Doors of Perception Amy Landecker was cast as anesthesiologist Bruner but the majority of her role was cut from the finished film |
A film based on the Marvel Comics character Doctor Strange was initially listed as being in development at New World Pictures with a script dated January 21 1986 by Bob Gale For unknown reasons Gale s film never went further into production By 1989 Alex Cox had cowritten a script with Doctor Strange cocreator Stan Lee The script had the character traveling to the Fourth Dimension before facing the villain Dormammu on Easter Island Chile A film using this script was almost made by Regency but the company s films were distributed by Warner Bros at the time which was in a dispute with Marvel over merchandising By December 1992 Wes Craven had signed to write and direct Doctor Strange for release in either 1994 or 1995 with Savoy Pictures distributing In 1995 David S Goyer had completed a script for the film By April 1997 Columbia Pictures had purchased the film rights and Jeff Welch was working on a new screenplay with Bernie Brillstein and Brad Grey producing |
By April 2000 Columbia dropped Doctor Strange which then had Michael France attached to write a script and interest from Chuck Russell and Stephen Norrington to direct By June 2001 Dimension Films acquired the film rights with Goyer back on board as writer and director Goyer hinted scheduling conflicts might ensue with a film adaptation of Murder Mysteries and promised not to be highly dependent on computer generated imagery However by August 2001 Miramax acquired the film rights from Dimension and by March 2002 Goyer had dropped out of the project A 2005 release date was announced the next March while in June 2004 a script still had yet to be written Marvel Studios CEO Avi Arad stated We are nowhere with that That s a tough one to write but we are working on it We are trying to find the real Jerry Garcia of the writing community In April 2005 Paramount Pictures acquired Doctor Strange from Miramax as part of Marvel Studios attempt to independently produce their own films At the time the film was projected to have a budget of no more than 165 million |
In March 2009 Marvel hired writers to help come up with creative ways to launch its lesser known properties including Doctor Strange In June 2010 Marvel Studios hired Thomas Dean Donnelly and Joshua Oppenheimer to write Doctor Strange While promoting Transformers Dark of the Moon in April 2011 actor Patrick Dempsey indicated he was lobbying to play the title character In January 2013 Marvel Studios president Kevin Feige confirmed that Doctor Strange would appear in some capacity as part of Phase Three of the Marvel Cinematic Universe Feige then reiterated that a Doctor Strange feature film was in development at Marvel Studios that May and again in November In February 2014 The Hollywood Reporter wrote that Marvel was considering Mark Andrews Jonathan Levine Nikolaj Arcel and Dean Israelite to direct the film and was considering Jonathan Aibel and Glenn Berger to rewrite the film s script Feige denied this report but confirmed that Marvel was considering prospective candidates By March Marvel was considering Andrews Levine and Scott Derrickson to direct the film |
Scott Derrickson director of Doctor Strange |
Subsets and Splits